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THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
nnsT
cdhioo,
puUithcd In thraa ndomei.
1768-X771.
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1777-1784.
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1788— 1797.
FOURTH
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twenty •five fi
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TENTH
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ninth edition and devcn
1902—1903.
ELEVENTH
»»
pob1iifa«l
in twenty-nine Tolumet,
19x0—1911.
THE
ENCYCLOPiEDIA BRITANNICA
A
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS. SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XXVI
SUBMARINE MINES to TOM-TOM
NEW YORK
THE ENCYCLOPiEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY
1911
» ' >.
I ^
1 T ' J '
'I
Copyriglit. in the United Sutes of Americn. 1911,
by
TlkeEiitytlc»p«|ia QAaanin C^ptny. .'
••4 Z. .A
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXVI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS,! WITH THE HEADINGS OP THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A.a
.A.A<.A«!U«,, {n«««,d;F»«K*.
Joint-author of Lift and Letters oj /. D, Fdrheu
AucnsTE BooDiKBON, D.D., D.C.L. f
Profes^r ttfCftnon lAw_at the CatlioKc Univeraity of Vkm, Honorary Ctnon of \ Wtlbm.
ftB> BtAoUnr GouGB, M.A., Pb.D. f^ ^.
Sometime Casberd Scholar of St John's CoUege, Otford. English Lector in the { Swabilll lMg|M.
Uwiwwhy of Kiel, 1896-1905. I
Paris. Editor of the CanonisU conlemporam,
A. B. Gflu ALntB> BtAoUv G01
Casbeni
r of Kiel, 1896-1905.
A. Cm, Axtm/k CAvtEY, LL.D., P:R.S. /sntteM Gn Part).
See the biographical article :CAYLST,AKTllUt. I v^ «—
{
? A
See the biographical article: Caylst, AKTHUt.
Ch. Altkep Chafvam, M.IVST.C.E. J Sugars Sugar Uam^aciurt (t»
Cteaigaer «nd Condfiietor of Sugar-Machinery.
GL CL Albest Cusns Class, M.A.
Fdlow and Tutor o'f Queen's College. Oxford, and University Reader hi latin.
part).
Editor of Qcero'a Spucket (Clare^Jon Press).
A. CL CL ' AtBEST CSAKLXS LEWIS GOTTBOr CUVNTHEE, M.A., M.D., Pb.D^ F.R.S.
Keeper of th^ StologksADepMtment, BrftMi Museom, It75-i895. Gold MecWtiiK, 1 -.^^-.w
Royal Sociefy . 1 878. Author of Catalomts of Colubrine Snakes, Bairaekia, Saiientia, | SwOnuUk
and Fishes M <Ac BriHsk Msueumi Ac.
i Lewis GorrBar Cuvnthee, m.A., M.D., Pb.D^ F.R.S. f
StologksADepMtment, BrftMi Museom, It75-i895. Gold Medailbt, J ,
r. 1 878. Author of Catalopus of Colubrine Snakes, Bairaekia, Saiientia, | '
Ike British Mnseum; Ac. I
Rsv. Arthub Cumdian M^irreET/M.A., Ps.D., D.D. (
Professor of Church History. Union Theological Seminary, New York. Authqf «f J i*««- ^:-«-— «. gaj. ^ ^ ^j\
.. .. Hi^fM Christianity i^ Aa ApaU^UAv, i&c. ^tor o^the Hutarta JUSesia\ ""OaoWf (M ^iffj.
ofEusebiuB. I
A. Dl O. AiTBXD Dun Codlet, M.A. f ,
Fellow an9 Tutor of Magdalen College. Oxford, and Public OntocnithBUmvenity, \ Tkdtua Um. tart)
AtttkartrSacrates and Athenian Society; ac. Editor of editions of Tacitus. •*' | wanB |^i» fan;.
A. r. P. Albeet Fbedeeick Pollasd, M.A., F.R.Hxst.S. ^ r
ProfasaoiMftf Cni^t^ History In m University of London, Fellow of AH Souls I fgaUa BowhUld*
JI .^ .A
v.-)
College. Oxford. Assistant-editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, i893--{ l^^i^* '
IQOI. Lothian Prinman, OxfMd. ttelj Amolci Priatman, 1898. Author of I ^*HN*
Aiffaiid under Ika ProteOor Somersati uenry VIUa Lijeof Thomas Oonmer; Ac. I
Maioe AE-nTtTE Ceo&qs Pr£o£sick G&miTBS (d* igq^. f ,
H.M. Inspector of Prisons. 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of /fnsgiK^: { TtelntFOl^Mn.
Secrets 0$ the Prison House; Ac l
Aooty Hai^nack, D.Ph. J
See the biographical article: Haemack, AOOLP. |
RR BBETEV* f
Formeriy Musical Critic to the Uomtng Post and to Vanity Pair. Author of Masters < t immw. ChArlat.
€!f French Music; French Music in the Nineteenth Century, [ *««^ vuwn».
Sa A. Homv-Sommm, C.LR •,.._._. (!!■***
A. Bk Amm Bbetev.
Geaesml ia the Persbn Army. Autnor of Eufrm Pcrstra /r«Jk. i1\ifeMML
; A]ipiff4U> Heney Saycs, D.D., LL.D., LmJ)
'See the biographical article: Saycb, AftCHiBAtD U.
A.H.JL lUv^Aiipi^MU) HsN^Y Saycs, D.D., U.Dm Lnr^ /susi.
•1 i;
A. J. €L Rx¥. Alexanpbs James Gsieve, M.A., B.D. X *ju
iMMdrOf New Testament and Church History. Vorfcshire UnUod Independent J Swedcnborr. BnailMl;
College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of | Tithes {Religiotsi.
Mysore Educational Service. I ti
A.L Andrew Lang, LL.1>. /lUtu
^ the biographical article: Lang. Anohbi^. ' \ ' 1
* Acomi^e list, showing ah individ uaI cootributon, appcan in the final votume.
VI
A.1LF.*
A.X.
I
A.P.H.
A.R.8.K.
A.8L
A.8p.
A.8.a
A. 8. P^P.
A.Wa.
A.W.B.*
A.W.&
ca
P.B.
ar.A.
CF.B.
as.w.
C.I.B.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
August MOllek, Pb.D. (X84S-1809).
Fbnneriy Profcaaor of Semitic Lajaguases in the Umverritv of Halle. Author of
Dtr Islam im Morgan- mmd Abendland. Editor of Orieulaliseke BibUographit.
AxiHUR MosTYN FxELo, F.R.S.. F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.Mzt.S.
Vice-Admiral R.N. Admiralty Representative on Port of London Authority.
Acting Conaervator of River Meney. Hydrographer of the Royal Navy, 1904-
1909. Aathoi til Hydroffrapkkal Swnyimg; Sac,
AmzD Nb^ton, F.R.S.
See the biographical article: Nbwton. ALFlslk.
Author ol S4iUh AfiUu SnUia: Tte Qmrn^Hwdd; at. Served in K^ir >lhr,
187&-1870. Partner with Dr L. S. lameaon in medical practice in South Africa tOl
1896. Member of Reform Committee, Johavnesburf . and Plolitical Ptvaper wf
Pretoria. 1999-1896. M.P. for the Hhcfain dfvfaion of Helta, t^O,
Rbv. Abcbibald R. S. Kennedy, M.A., D.D.
Professor of Hebrew and Semitic Languages in the University of Edinburgh.
Flrofessor of Hebrew in the University of Aberdeen. 1887-1894. Editor of " Exodus *'
AsTHUK Shaowsxx, M.A.. M.D.. LL.D.
Member of the Council of Epidemiolocipal Society. Autlrar of 7%« London WaUr
Supply, Indnslrid E^licitncy; Drwk, Ttmperamu and UgJUatim,
AXCHIBALD SRAKP.
Consulting Engineer and Chartered Patent Agent.
Alan Summerly Cole, C.B.
Formerly Aaaisunt Secretary. Board of Education. South Kensington. Author of
Omameni in European Silks; Catalogue of Tapestry, Embroidery, Im «mI EgypHnn
TexMn in He Victoria and Albert Museum ; &c '
Andrew Seth PRXNCLE-PAmsoN. M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.
Profianor of Logic and MeUpnysics in the University of EdinburEh. Cifbrd
Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen. 191 1. Fellow uf the Britisk Aoadcmy^
Author of Man's Plau in the Cosmos; The Pkilosopkical Radicals; Ac.
(M#«rO.
Nantkd.
;8wtlt;1 _
TkpMOlo; Tnl; Tub;
(m parii.
Xm^ {*n part).
AsTMUt Waugb, M.A.
Managing Director of Chapman & Hall. Ltd., Publishers. Formerly literary adviser
to Kegan Paul & C6. Author of Alftod Sofd Tennyson; Leamds of tko Whe4i;
Robert Broumint in " Westminster BiographJea." Editor of JohnaM'a Imu of tkt
AsTHUx WxLUAic Holland.
Formerly Soholar of St John's College, Ostfofd. Bacon SchOl«r of Grty'tf Ina, xgM.
AjkEXANDBA Wood RCNtON. M.A., LL.B.
Puisne Jud^e of the Supreme Courr of Ceyfoa. Editor of Bncydopaodid of 9u Laws
of Eng^nd.
Charles B£momt, D.Litt.
Seethe biographical article: BftMONT, C
Charles Creichton, M.A., M.D.
King's College, Cambridge. Author of A Hisfory of Epidemics in Britain; Jonner
md Vaeomaium; Plague w India; &c.
Sqi Charles Norton Edgcuiibb Euot, K.CM.G.. LL^D., D.C.L.
Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Fonnerly Fellow of Trinity Cbllc|e.
Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in*Chief for the British East Afnca
Protectoratt: Agent and Consul-Genel&l at Zanslbar; Consiul-Oeneral for Cerman
East Africa, 1900-1904.
Charles Francis Atkinson.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College. Oxford. Captain, ist Qty of London (Roy$]
FianlierB). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Uarbor,
Cbableb Framcis Bastable, M.A., LL.D.
Regius Professor of Laws and Professor of Political- Economy in the University of
Dublin. Author of Public Finance; Commerce ^ Nations; Theory qf IniemaUonal
Trodo\ Ac
Carlton Huntley Hayes, A.M., Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University. New York Qty. Member of
-the AflBcdcan Historical Associatimk
Clarence Hill Keuey, A.M., LL.B.
Vice-I¥feaident and General Manager of the Bond and Morttage Guarantee Company.
New York City. Director of the Corn Exchange Bank; ftc.
Cbables THKO0ORE Hacbebo Wrigrt, LL.D.
Librarian and Secretary of the London Library.
Charles Jasfex Blunt.
Major, Royal Artillery. Ordnance Officer. Served through Chitral Campaign.
Chables Leth9ridge Kincsford, M.A., F.R.Hist.S., F.S.A. |
Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V, Editor ]
of Chronides of London, and StoVs Snroey of London, \
Tsxtile-Pdn^. Art
Afckaedoiy.
ThMlo^ {in part).
fl|]nQMids» JqIhi
[thepi.
Thntlov, Loii.
TUetfy:
tHoo, JMQoai.
Soiftqr: Biaory,
lUtnd'fi^^).
8iipi4f ABd Thunport
{MUitary);
^Thirty YtMt^ War.
TofeMHMwy*
Tnk OvamM OoBytidit.
Tolstoy* Uo,
{llfah Campaign,
Suffolk,
DokiaC.
ii la Pok
C.WL
aft;
aatk
ar.T.
aa
BIQ.H.
ftMi
LJLP.
I.ft«
&a
K.OL
DnriALS AND HEADINGS C^ ARTICLES
Onam Kaymomd BBAkuty, M.A., D.LrrT., F.R.G.S., F.R.H18T.S.
Vtam$9r ol Modam Hatory in the Uniiwnaty of BirtiiiB|>i«m. Far
Mertoa CoUece, Oxford, and Univenity Lecturer in tbe History oC
Lothiao fVuemui, Oxford. 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boitoo, 1908. Author*
He Ifmttt^ri The Daw 0J M»dcm GeopQphyi ^
Ckailes Scon Shsrsington, D.Sc., M.D., M.A., F.R.S., LL.D.
Pnilewor of Phynology, Univernty of UverpooL For«ni Meoibcf of Acadenuc*
of Rom e, Vienna, Bnneela, QAttingen, Ac Author of 7m fnteg^atm Attimt «/!*<
tfttwciu jvyfltouk
C WORELIC.
Author of Essays on BaOa amd SpadaeU.
Sn tnKnitB Brandxs. K.C.I.E., F.R.S. (i894*X907)«
lMpeetor<;eo(«al of Forvtiy to tha lodlaa Govetnaient, 1864^1883.
Riv. DuMCAit Ctoons Tovey, M.A.
Rector of WorpkMlon. Surrey. Editor of Ttt UUtn ai Tkowm Gray; Ac.
Dcmtan Fbamcb Tovct,
Author of £irsayr in Mnskti ^ao/ysti: comprirfng 71b Qassieal Concerto, T%e
Goldberg Vartaiious, and analyses of many other rlaiwr^l works.
8to D«yto Gxix, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., T.K^.S., D.Sc.
ti.M. Astronomer «t the Cape of Good Hope. 1879-1907.
Survey of Eg!fpt, and on the ocpedition to Ascension Island :
vu
Thoxfian XariNlU.
^irmyftlMto
• ^TbMtra: Sgfdado,
(Ai^vf).
»by
Served on Geodetic
^ J to determine the Solar
.. lofMan^ Diraetfld the Geodetic Survey of Naul. Cape
Coleiiy Md Rhodesia. Author of Coodttic Survey of South Afrka\ Catalomo of
Stars Jor tk* Equinoxes, 1850, i860, tS8s» 2890, tffoo; ttc.
David Geoigb Hooarth, M.A.
Keqper ef the^hmoltan Museum, Oxford, und FeBowof Magdalen College. FeOcnr
of the Britiih Academy. Eascavated at ftphoa, fS88t NaucratSs, 18^ and 1903:
Ephesus, 19(^-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, Britidi School at Alliena,
i897-i90« Director. Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
David Hannat.
Formeriy BritiA Viee-Consul at Barcelona. Author ai Skori Bisttrj of . At Ruyui
Naoy;UferfEmilw€aglehnaau
DvKnmEiD Htifty Storr, M.A^ Pb.D.. LL.D., F.R.S.
rro f cs sor of Botany. Royal College of Sdeaee. London, 1889^1899. Pormeity
President of the Ri^l Microscopical Society and of the Linnean Society. Author'
oiStrmtnnl Botany; Stadias m FossU Botany; Ac
DANm. JsmmM. Tbomas. ^
t-Law, Uocoln't Inn. Stipendiary Magistrate at Pontypridd and<
Davd RAMDAiL-MAOvn, MX. D.Sc
Cufutor of Egyptian Dmrtmeat. Univeraity of Penotytvank. Formeity W orcester «
Reader in Egyptology* Vnivunity of Oxford. Asthor of JIMmuI Eioitsia; Ac
David Sbabv, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S.
Editor tn the Zoologkal fttcord, Formeriv Curator of the Museum of Zoology,,
Univernty of Cambndge, and President of the Entomotogica] Society of London,
r uir" Insecta " in the Guntrtfgff JVofiifa/ History : Ac
David Fizonics Scblois. M.A.
Formefiy Senior Investigator and StatlsticiMi hi the Labov DuptftnwBt of the
Boatd of Trade. Author of Methods of Indmstrial JtahmMiutio^Ac
Rxv. Ekkahah AmitAOS, M.A.
Trinity Colk«e. CamMdie. Ptafcsaor in YorkshirB United Indepemlent College,
B fW iBrt.
Edwabd Auciistos FtXEMAn, LL.D., D.CX.
See the biographical aztidet FymcAM, E. A.
EmNBST Baxkks, M.A.
FdlowaadUcturer la ModflraHisCory, St J<An*s College. Oxford. Formeity Fclov-
and Tutor of Merton CoUcfBi. Craven Stholar. 1895.
Ht. RkV. EdWAID CtTlHBBKT BiTtuft. M.A., O.S.B., LlTT.D.
Abbot of Downside Abbey. Bath. Author ' '
in Camhridgt TexU and Sindies.
ixyoo-l74gi.
Sulfe: Musk;
3y]BipllOlll«
Takiooi* (in pari^.
"MtML
Swohl^BatUtot
Arehaathgy (In /orl).
r of " The Lausiac History of Pslladiiis *
EDmuD GMsb, LL.D., D.CX.
See the biqi^phical article: GosSB, Edmomo^
Tumndi
TratoatoOrter.
twtdUK Uieraiure and
PUiasofitf\
Ekxle Gaxckc, M.I]f8T.E.E.
• -^- of the I
tngf;Ac
E. jn.iifVT.&.j:*.
Managing Director of the British Electric Traction Ca Ltd. Author of Uamtal of-
EteartufVndorlahinr '^'
EtKzsT AATHin Gabonci. M.A.
See the biographical artwle: Gauwsb, PBtcv.
TamqfiQB, AHM;
TnaBtma.
Teligimpli: CommtrM
AffeOs;
TUiiiioat: Commrndd
AsptOf,
..... iCroeca);
TkfM {in part).
Archmii^m
YUl
B.B.*
B.K.
Ed. a.
B.1LW.
B.0.8.
KWh.
F.&&
P. G. ■. B.
F. 0. P.
P. 0. P.*
P.H.H.
F.J.O.
P.J.H.
P.U.O.
P.P.
P.PO.
P.PIL
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF; jatriGLEa
AntlMrof StaiMtM
(mporO.
Tknrl;
ThiodBihT AmamU;
1tallbi|fMi«: if AMK
JoOmnt.
Suifny: Modem prqa$€ti
«, niMphnstQs.
Eknest HAKtnoM, M.A. .
Fellow and Lecturer ih Oauics, Trinity CoUegr, Camliridgff.
EoWAto Heawood. M.A.
Gonville and Ouub College, Cambridge. Ubfulan of the Royal Geographies
Society. London.
"Eius Hovnx Mtkks. M. A.
University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Libranaa
of Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formeriy Fellow of Pembroke CoUcfe.
EbMUNO Knscrt. Ph'.D.. F.I.C.
Professor of Technological Chemistry, Manchester University. Hf^d of Chemical
DeplMrtVunt. Municipal School of Techndo^, Maftdie«ter. ExAiAiner in Dyeing.
City and Guilds of Londdii Institute.- Author oT A MuMual cf DyHrngx Ac» Editor
of the Jownal of the Society ef Dyers and Colourists. . •
EouASD Mey£r, Ph.D., D.Lxtt.. LL.D. fTlgmMI;
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Aittbor of GeHkkkIt du I IMdalM; < I
AUtrihums; Geukichu des cUen Aeiypten*; DU Itndilm mtd ikn Natkbarsitmim. [
Rev. BbwABO Mewburn Walker, M.A,
Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's CoUegi, Oxfdrd.
Edmund Qwen. F.R.CS., LL.D., D.Sc.
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospiul, London, and Id the Children's Heapital.
Great Ormond Street. London. Chevalier of the Legioa of Hoaonr. Author of '^
A Manuai of Anatomy for Senior Students.
Edwin Otho Sachs, F.R.S. (Edin.), A.M.Inst.M.E. i ,
' Chairman of the British Fire Prevention Committee; Vke-Pvasidcot. Katiooal Fire . TbettMt Modem slagi
Brigades' Union. Vice-President, Interaattooal Fire Seivke CouAciL Anthor of meckonism,
ires and P^bUe ^ntertawments; &B.
EiocANUEL Wheeler, M.A.
Francts Craw? ord Burkitt, M.A., D.D.
Norrlsian Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge. P«lk>w of the
British Academy. Part -editor of The Fom Gospels in Svnag tmntcrHei Jpom ike ^
Sinaitic Palimpsut. Author of The Gospel Buiory and Us Transmissim; Marly
. 'Eastern Christtaniiyi &c.
Frederick George Meeson Beck, M.A.
Fellow and l^ecturer of Clare College, Cambridge.
Frederick Gyiier Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.Antbrop. Ins^.
Vice-President. Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Irelartd. Le<;turer on
. Anatomy at St Thonuis's Hosphal. London, and the London School of Medidne lor ^
Women. Formeriy Huntcrian Profeswr at the Royal College of Surgeons.
Frank George Pope.
Lecturar on Chemistry, East London College CUnivertlty of London).
Franklin Henry Hooper.
Assistant Editor of the Century Dictionary.
Mi^OH-OCKBRAL SiR FSBDERICK JOI« GotDSnOw
See the biographical article: Gcm.dsmid: Family.
FRANas ToHW Haverfield, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A.
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the Univenity of Oxford. Fellow of
Braaenose iCollege. Fellow of the Bntish Academy. Formerly Censor, Student,
Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, I90^I907«
Aatfaornf Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain, &c .
FRANas Llewellyn Gripfitb, M.A., Ph.D., F.S.A. I
Reader in Effyptolonr. Oxford University. Editor of the ArehMdloglcal Sorvey
and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. • FeUbm of Inpoial i
German Archaeological Institute. Author o| Stories of the High Priests qjf
Uemphit\ Bk. ' |
PtAmt PODMORE, M.A. (1856-1010).
Sometime Scholar of Pembroke College* Oxford. Author of Modem Spiritnalism;
Mesnteritnt and Christian Science; &c.
Sn Fkiosricx Pollock, Bart., LL.D., D.C.L. r - r
Sen the biographical article: Pollock: Family.
, FkiDERlCK Pqrser, M.A. (1840-1Q10).
Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. Professor of Natural Philosophy in
th« Univecuty of Dublin. Member of the Royal Irish Academy.
M (til pan).
TMrtooL
TMflk
Baeiy Histeaji
•f;
Tumtttty HtB.
TiMbflt {Egypdi
Tlioth.
Table-tiinillig.
SuifMa (m part).
Feamc R. Cana.
Author of Swik Africa from the Great Trek to the Unton,
• K^Vbubcitp Brooks.
MMRging Director of Meters Vincent Braoki, Dey ft Son. Ltd.. Lithographic
.Pri|il«i*.London.
Ctofjrapky and
Stalisiics,Arckaeology (fn
fart) and History;
Swaxilaod (in_pan)i
Tlmbokta;
Sun Copying.
F.W.T.
■.Jk
VtviumOi of Zoology in the Uni versitv of Birmingliam. Formeriy AMbttnt Dtoctor
I^aTIALS AND HEADINGS OP ARTICLES
tW.Qk. ' -VkiteBac ^ixuAM Gamble. D.Sc.. F.R.S.
PUdfuwOi of Zookfy in the UnivemtYof Pfe
of UkB ZodogicaT LafaOMtories and Ucturar In Zoology in the Uoivenity of
Manchcrter. Author of Amwul lAfe. Editor of Manhall and Hunt's Fraelkal
2ael0gy;&c
P. W. B.* PfttDnior Whiiaic RtTDLEft, I.S.O.. F.G.S.
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1909.'
Presideat of the Geologisu' Aiaociation, 1887-1889.
lUt.
FftAMS WanAM TAOsaio. -f TvilL
See the biographical article : Taussig, Fiahk William. i
6. A. B. Geobcb a. BouiEirpEX» D.Sc F.R.$. ' f
. Ketper Of the Collections of ReplUea and Fiahes, Department of Zoology. Britidi i
Muaeum. Vioe-Preaident of the Zoological Society of London. L
G.6.F.* Gkorcs Geenville Pbxlumore, M.A., B.C.L. f
Chdai Chorch, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Middle Temple. L
A. H. law Rev. Geosqb Hesbebt Box. M.A. f
Rector of Sutton Sandy. Beds, formerly Leetuter <n the Faculty of Theology, < TWB^Um {m part). •
University of Odord, I90fr«i909. Author of TraiuUuum pf $kg Book of Isaiahi &c. I
6. B. C. Gbobcb Hebbebt Cabtemteb. '
IVuf eBS ui of Zook)gy fa the Royal College of Scieooe, Dobltn.' Author of Insects: *
ikev Stnuiitro mud Ufo.
6. B.DL Sn Geobce Howabd Dabwxh. K.C.B., M.A., F.R.S., LL.D., D.S&
' Fdknr of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Plumian Professor of Astronomy and , fUg,
Experimental Philosophy in the University. President of the British Association,
1905. A>Mthor of Tlu Tides and Kindred Phenomena in Ike Solar System ; Ac
C J. A. Gmobce Jobmston Aumak, M.A., Lt.D.. TJLS., D.Sc. (1824-1900. f ^
PrafcsMor of Mathematica in Queen's College, Galway. and in Queen^ University of < Taikf ol
Iretand, 1853-1893. Author of Creek Geometry from TkaUs to£nclid; &c L
CL GeOBG LVNGE, Fn.D., D.lNa /e«i«v«-<-»-ta
6ee the biognphical article: Lunge, G. \8nJpl1uri0Aeid.
C Sk Geobce Saintsbxtby, LL.D.. D.C.L. /
See the biajgrapkical article: Saintsbubt, CeObgb Edwabo BXtbmak. I
haeologici
1. Autho
'[■
OBCE WAi^TEB Fbotbebo, M.A., Lttt.D,, LL.D. r
Editor of the Quarterly Review. Honorary Fellow, formerly FelloW of King's i _ ...
College. Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy, IVofessw- oC Histfliy in the I Temple, Sir
Uaiwusi^ of Edinburgh, 1894-1899. Author of Life and Tinus qf Simon ie Mont-
/&rf;&c Joint-editor of the CsMArtdfe Jfadrm Hutory. I
CW.T. Rev. GivmaES Wheeleb Thatcheb, M.A., B.D. fS?^^!!?!?* -.
Warden ^ Camden College. Sydney. N.S.W. Formeriy Tutor in Rebf«w and Old i TubIA; TW Alibl^
Testament History at Maosiield Cotlc^e, Oxford. I TinnldllL ^ ,
H. B. Wa. Hemby Beauchamp Waitebil M.A., F.5:A. f
Asibtaat to the Keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities, Bihiih MnsMun. Author i TuTMOttt (in Part).
<4 Tke Art ef tke Greeks; History of Ancient Pottery; &c I '^
B>Ck HUCB CsiSHOtM, M.A. "ninniint. ^ir R •
FocMlrScholar of Corpus ChristI Coflege. Oxford. Editor of the f ith edition of . iSSi- \rJ7JL ts^ a^\.
the Sncyclopaedia Britannica, Co-e<Btor of the loih edition. 2/ izf^ ^ ^^'*
\ Tnompsoiiv Fnuiels.
S.Bi. Rsv. HmoiYTE Delehave, S. J. fOymaon Mati^linstM;
Boduidist. jotot'«ditor of the Aeta Samiorum and tlie Anakcta BeOandiana. \ Syouariora; Thrftii, St
. loventor of the CwAr Photographic Lent. ha»oc tA A SytUm a! Applied Op^ri^^^"'^ ^^ ^*^'
B. r. T. Rev. Hekbt Fansrawe Tozeb, M.A., F.R.G.S. f
Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Tutor of Exeter College, Oslotd. Fellow of the I TlHBBlf;
British Academy. Corresponding Member of the Historical Society of Gieece. ] nmee
Author of Bislarj of Amitm Goo^apky; hectares am ikt Ceagrapky of Groeea; 8bc. I "*****
t ^ Obawt Sbowebmam. A.M., Pv.D. f __ ^,
Professor of Latin at the University of Wiaconsin. Member of the Archaeological J Syntntlim;
Institute of America. Member of the American Philological Association. Author 1 TBOroMIUlB.
of Witklka Professor; Tke Great Mother of the Gods; &c. I
CH Gojl VnTA.
Formeriy Chancellor of the Japanese Legation, London. Author of Woaltk afi Tohyow
Canada Cm Japanese). '
6. W. P. Geobce Wa<.teb Pbotbebo, M.A., Lrrr.D,, LL.D.
Author of Bistarj of AneietH Gea^apky; hectares am Ou Ceagrapky of Graeu; Ba^ I
B. ft Hembi Simon Htmans, Pb.D. f
Keeper of the Bibliothdque Royale de Belgique, Bnisseta. Author of Raihens: saX TeBtel8 (ttl Pari),
ait et son-en»re. [
B. R, L HxMBT Habvev LrrrLEjORir, M.A., F.R.C.S. (Edin.)., F.R.S. (Edin^). • f
Professor of Forensic Medicine and Dean of the Faculty of Medicine in the University { SulddB.
of Edialbiugh. M
Hemby Jacxbon. Litt.D;. LL.D., O.M. f
Repus Professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge. FeUow of Trinity J tm^ of MibtiB; PkSksMim.
^isge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of r««<i ta JOmstrale the History i *"" •* ■"•«• j-jwp-f^,
^ Greek Ptilasapky from Tholes la AtistaOe. L
ILLOL
H.B.K.
B.&J.
H.TL
ILW.B.
H.W.&D.
H.W.H.
LA.
LI.a
J.A.F.
JLA.&
l.A.8.
J. It
JLP.ML
JLQi.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES:
HvcH LoHcaouviB Cauxhdax, F.R.S., LLD.
" ' - ol Phxwa» Royml CoB^e «r S '
Phyacii
liOBOt^ Fonnfefiy iVolBW si
HiCTOR Mumto Chadwick^ M.A.
Fdkm and Libnriaa of
mriaa of Clare CoOne, Cambridfe. and Uaiwenity Ixctmcr
Author of Stadies m An^fm Sajnrn Jnhhiiioms.
fUBMT ROBEKT KeKPI:, M.I1IST.C.E.
Ekctxidaa to the General Ptat Ofioe. Loodoo.
Avthor of rk Emftwrn^i Kar
Hsmr Stuakt Johis, M^ r
Formerly Fdiow and Tutor of Triaity College, Oxford, aad Director of tbe British J
School at Rook. Member of the Gcman laperial Archaeobpcal Imiitate. 1
Author of n« iZMWi £a^: ftc^ ^^ I
HnST TtDDUNM. /
Loadoo Editor of the Siaam jmnrfiiMJiit Cmmal I
Sn Biuio WuuAM WitusLET BAaLow, Bart. /
Laciit.-CoL Royal ArtiDery. Sttpcriatcadail of the Royal Lafaontory. Woohn^ I
HxNftT WnxUM Cauxs Davis, M^
FcBov and Tutor of BaOM Collar. Okf«d. Fdbv of Al Seuli
1895-1902. Author of £affaad mdcr Ifcr ^anuauf ted Xafcvnu
HopB W. Hogg, M.A.
Praieaor of Seautic Laagoafet aad l itetaim eain the Puiwiaity of Maacheacer.
IssAZL AbbabaicM^
Reader in Tabnndic and Rabbinic Lkoature in the Uaiwrsty of CandirMlce.
Fonncfly Preadenr of the Jewish Historical Society of Eaglaad. Author '
Short msiofy tf Jtmidk - - . - . . -
t^.
Amat^ (<• ^.
iTodcm MiSlan (m
( Islcrolarr; Jtwisk Life is At Jjfiddk Ago: Judaism
Isaac Josum Cox, Ph.D.
Asristant Pirofenor of History in the Univenity of rinrinnati
Ohio VaBey Historial Aawration Author of Tht Jmmmjt tf U Salk
CoaMe.Orf«d.i
sis
tof the!
ondAuj
TaybftXiehsiy.
JOHH AasKOSB Fleming, MJi., D.Sc., F.R.S.,
I^ender IVofesaor of Electrical Eugiueerioc ia the Uaivenity of
of University CoOefe, London. Fonneriy Fellow of St John's Co
L'niversit^ CoOege, London. Fonneriy
and Unrveraty Lecturer on Applied Morhanittb
Johns Celkfe.
Anthor of if^Mls
L ondon. FcSow t
kfe.Chndiridge.<^
|Mls and £licarv |
JoBN Allen Howe.
Cnator aad libnrian of the Ma
ne Ciafcfj ^ Bmlimg Smtt.
I of PlEKtical Geobgy. London. Author of
John Adoincton Stmomds, LL.D.
See the biogiaphical article: Stiooicds. J. AdoVGTOH.
Rigst Hon. Jakes Bitce, D.CX., D.Litt.
See the b^qgraphical artade: Bktcs. Jamis.
JQBFH BlAtm, S.J.
of XMr kcaritKhs
Gnnndanc*db&
James BAKTLrrr.
Lecturer on Coostmctaon. Architecture. Sanitation. Q>i A U li li ei > f|t., at
College* London Mcnibes' of Sutirty of ARjulectSk. McadMr of laatiiute of
ES COSSAK EWAET, M.D.. FJLS f
Rcgins Plrafessor of Zoology in the Uaivenity of Edinbui^. Swuiey Lecturer on J
Geology at the British Mttaeom. 1907. Author ol TU MuttipU Ongim ^ H«nn \
mad Pmmcs; &c t
James Cossae Ewaxt, M.D., F.R.Sl
H DyXELKT PKDfCE, PbJ>. f
Ptofcssor of Semitic Languages in Colnmbia Uai>i«nitgr« New Yorh. Took ptit < Shmt amk
m the Kipedifinn to Southern Babylonia, 188S-1889. I
RST. Jamb Evesett Fkams, A.M.
E^waid r
I Theonigical ^nnnary.
I RoboBon Pnhmor of BStiOai Theology in Uai
New York. Author of PmrpoM tf Hew TtsMmtM TkmUfy.
James F^nMAcmz-KsLLT, harJ}., FJLHttT.S. r
Gthnoor Professor of Spanish Laagnage aad L it er ature^ Uvarpool Uoivenit}-. ) ftanro f 1
Nomaa McCba Lecturer. Cavfaridge UmvcrsitT. FeOcyw of the BriM Aca<femv. •{ «ZZ^ m^
Member of the Ro>-a] Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order <i |
AlphottsoXlL Author oT it fiiilir7^.^ani^nsltra|vr:ac «-
JOBB FkEDESICK StENXXXC, M-A. j,
, FeUow and Lecturer in Divinity and Hebrew. Wadham CbOege. Oxford. 1
tofht.
Jamis Gaiidnex, C3., tX.D.
See the biographical article: Gaixdhuu JAMB
Sks JoooA GisiiNC FncB, IL>Dl
See the btogrephkal article: Frcm. Su J. G.
(FMtfy) (in farO.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OP ARTICLES
I, & Ik Jmmmm Gboiob Fbasbs, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.. Litt.D. (
frnlfMor 9i %ocMl Anthrapolpsy, Uvtrpool Univmity. Fdlow of Trimty'Colkge. ] nasmdj^rla {in farO.
JL & K Joair Gbay McKxhduck, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.;F.R.S. (Edfn.).
Emeritus Prolotor of Phyidogy im the Unhcnity' of Gbmr. Pknlcnor of i Tttlt.
Ph|rfoloor,l87^l906. Authoro'" • '"^ "•' -"^^^- - '
ICfk Sb Iamxs Geohos Scott^ K.C.T.E.
1.1.6.
[.D., LL.D., F.R.S,, F.R.S. (Edla.). f
yMogrimthe Unhmityof Gbvw. Pknlcinr of -^ 1
iitborofX^«mJIMMi£ili»/HilMikote;&c. I
Tames Geohos Scott, ILC.T.E. (nt»u»mu
SuperiotoMfeat and Political Officer, Southern Shaa States. Author of Burma; i IP!™'
uSTatptr Burma GoMtUm. [Tlilbftw.
JoHH Henrt Midoletok, M.A., Lrrt.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). f -.. ^^ ^ . . /, _.v
Siade Profcsor of Fine Art in the Univernty of Cambridge. i886-i89<. Director Thntl Aneteni {in farO^
of the FkcwiUiam BAuaeum, CambridBB, iSto-aJaa. Ait Dinctor of the South i Modan {in part);
Kensington Muiettm, i893-i8«6. Authoc ot The Sntr^ted Gtrnt «f Clasikal \ nitni (im tart)
TSUailUmmiMted MaSscripUin Oasskal and MediaM Times. ^ I "^^ ^^ '^'
JL BL & Jonr H ftWAffir Round, M.A., LL.D. f
BaUiol CoBcse, Moni. ^ithorof ftn^Eetfani; StadmrnPsiraftawl Faenly'^ 1Ubo((FMidy) (m
History, Pteragt and Ptdiffta. L
2. HL & Jom HoLLAMU Ron, M^A.^ LiTr.D. f
duafa GoOege. Cambridge. Lecturer on Modem History to the Cambridge J Tt n_ , ..j
Uoii^enity Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of LiUof NapeUon /.; /iTaMwuu 1 "'■*'■■■•
Simiiu', tU Dmlopmenl of Uu European Nations; TU UJ* oj PiU; Ac l
IJk Jofizra Taoobs, 'Lax.D.
Proleasor 01 English Literature in the Jewish Theofemcal Seminary. New Voi_
Formerly President of the Jewish Hbtorical Society of England. Corresponding -{ IkberOMtel. Itell Ot
Member of the Royal Academy of History. Madrid. Author of J<»r of AnHr^
EmMffudiStudrnmBMiaaArtkaadbtytia,
XK.L TOBM KBXXS INCXAM, LL.I>. Im 4^ w
See the biosnphical article: biCBAM. John Kblls. -[ Sumptuaiy Uwi.
JL L L Sb John Knox Lavchton, MA, LntJD.
lYpffunr of Modem History. King's CoUege^ London. Secretary of the Navy
Records Society. Served in the Baltic. i854-i8«5: in China, 1856-1859. Mathe-
matical and Naval Instructor. Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, 1866-1873:
Greenwich, 1873-188$. President, Royal Meteorological Society. 1883-1884.'^
HMonry FdlMr of GonviUe and Cabs College. Cambridge. FeUow of lOngVi
CMlrae. Xoodon. Author of Pkysical Googmph •» its Rekttian to tko PraaOmi
Wkids and CnrrenCr; SIndiri tn iiaml OiUmyi Son Fi^amdAdftntum; &c
IL&ll JoBN Louis Eim, DsEYEs. f
JLI. Sb John Macoonsu, M.A«, C.B., LL»D,
Master of the Supreme Court. Formcffy Counsel to the Board of Trade and
the London Chamber of Commerce: Quain Professor of Comparative Law, Uni- ,
venity College, London. Editor of ^taU Trials; Cioa Judicial StatisUa; Ac.
Author of Surwy ofPoKHcal Economy; Tho Land Question; &c
'. jAitES MoFPAtT. M.A., D.D. f TlmoChy, First Qilitia to;
Minister of the Umted Free Church of Scotland. Jowett Lecturer. London, 1907. { Ttmothy, Saeond J^plftte to;
Author of Bistofieal Norn Testament; Ac. Itlttts, Bplstto to.
R«v. jAitES MoFPAtT, M.A., D J). f TtaiothF, First Qilitto to;
Timothy, Sm
Tlttts» Bplstto
JoBN McEwAN, FJLG.S., FJLMr.Soc^ /^^
John Mxllex Gkay (X850-X894). r
Aft Clitfc. Curator of the Scottish National Portrait Galfery, 1884-1894. Author i Tndeu JUMt.
id I>amdSeolt,R.SJi.; James and wmamTasfk. i ^^ ^rrt- ^ — -,
IE.!. JOBi Hamduc MncBsu. rTRnmin;
FmoMfimn Schdhr of Ooeen^ Collen. Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London \ Themlstoelei;
OXkf/t CUnivenlty oTLondoo). Jomt-odltor of Grote's flwtory of Creeu. [. Hmoydidts {in part),
1 h. John Puksex, M.A., LL.D. f
Fonmriy PMfcasor of Mathematics in Queen's College, Belfast. Member of the j SutMO (tn p<lrt).
I. F. K JcAM Paui Hdvolyte Emmanuel AnHiMAX Esvexn. r
Professor of Law In tho Uniwenity of Pari*. Ofioer of the Lerion of Honour, j ^m^m^.
Membs^ the InsdtMe of France. kaOiai dt Cours UheenUure ^Urtaiea du droit\^^^'^
franfais; Ac (.
J. f . f. Jonr Peioval Postoatx, M.A., Litt.D. r
Philsmor of Latin in the Univeraity of Liverpool. Fellow of Trinity College, J Tntoal (MtktaB;
Candxidge. FcUow of the British Academy. Editor of the Classital Quarterly. 1 TlbuBus, AJbloL
^ Editor-in-Cfaicf of the C#rp«i poitarum Latinamm; Ac {,
tf.H, John Punnett Petees, Pr.D., DJ). f
Canpn Residentiary of the Protestant Episcopal Cathedral of St John the Divine, 1
New York City. Formerty Professor of Hebrew in the Unrversity of Pennsylvania. 4 Tlgltk
In charge of the University Expedition to Babylonia, 1888-1895. Author of I
W p pm, Of SxptoraUons and Adeenturet on the Bnpkrotes, [
XB.F. John Smith Flbtt, D.Sc., F.G.S. fayeiilte;
Edinb«rib.BigsbyMedaUist of the Gtaiogicnoociety of London. ^IUHHlto.
ztl INITIAIJ3 AND HEADINaS OF ARTICLES]
J.8.Ga. James Sykes Gahble, M.A., C.I.E..F.ILS./F.L.S. f' '
ImHan Forest Service (retired). Formerly DnvcCor of tbe Imperial Foreit School i TMk (in'haki
at Dehra Don. Author o« A if ofiaoi c/ /stfjan Timbtn; Ac l^^* ^** '■^'
cs Smith Reid, M.A.. LL.D., Litt.D. r
Profeopr of Ancient Htcfeonr aod Fellow and Tutor of GoavHle aAd Galas College,
Cambridge. Honorary Fellow, lormerty Fellow and Lecttuer of Christ's CoUe|e.<
Browne's aod Chancellor's Medals. Editor of editiooa of Qoero's Acadmiia: Vc
J. 8. B. James Smith Reid, M.A.. LL.D., Litt.D.
Profes^of/ '"^'^ "^"
Cambridge.
Browne's and
L.A.W.
J. T. Ba. JOBM THOMAS Beautt.
Joint-author of StanfonTs Europe. Formexly Editor of tbe SeoIHA Ce^pnpkkal
Mofftam* Translator of Sven Hedin's Tkrougfi Asia, Central Asia aai Ti^; ftc.
J. T. C. Joseph Thomas Cunmingham, M.A., F.Z.S.
Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Westem Pd[ytechnic, Loodoa. Fomeriy Fellow J » ^
of Uniyenity College, Oxford. Assbtant Professor of Natural Histoiy in the! imao.
University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Attodation. \
4yr-Du|ft {Ri^m) (m part);
fiyr-Daija(Plr4rifK») impardi
TunhSf (in part);
Tmm; Tttii-Sluui;
Tlflii (Town) {in parti;
TDMik {Gatensmemi) {in part);
Tomsk (GmrMMMl) (in part).
J. W. James Wiluams, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.
All Souls Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln
TliMtce: Law rtkiimg lo
College. Author oif 17)^ and SiKcessian, &™' ' I Tfflwff Umb)
J. WaL James Walker. D.Sc.^ Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. r
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinbni^h. P ro fes sor of Chemistry, TfcjjiLLLiuiliiiiiiiriiB
University College, Dundee, 1894-1908. Author cl hUrodnttion to Physical' *"«nnowmn»wy.
Chemistry. ' i i ..
J. W. 0. John Walter Gregory, D.Sc., F.R.S. r
Professor of ecology in the University of Glasgow, Profe^r of Geology and J _ ' • •
Mineraloffy In the University of Melbourne, 1900-1904. Author of The Dead Start \ Taauuilst Ceelaiy.
of Ausiraltai Sue. \
J. W. Hs. James Wycufpe Heaolam, M.A. r
Staff Inspector of Scomdaiy Schools under the Board of Education. Londea. | >i^*fiu rjomt*
Formerly Fdlow of JCing's CoUege. Cambridge. ^ Professor of Greek and Ancient 4 IX^mS^^
History at Queen's Cx>ll^, London. Author of BiomoKk and the FomndaHen eflkel XBOII-ltflANimHk
German Empire', &c
J. W. L. Qk Jambs Writbreao Lee Giaishes, M.A^ D.Sc., P.R:S. f
Fellow of Trinit]^ College, Cambridge. Formerly President of the Cambridge J f^il^lf
Philosophical Society and the Royal Astronomical Society* Editor oO Messeug/er 1
of Mathematics and the Quarterly Journal qf Pure and Applied UatiUmatics. I
K. A.M* Kais a. Msakxn (Mss Bcpgstt Meaxim). | Tstoaa^Sqs.
K. L. Rev.- Kirsopp Lake, M. A. r '
Lincoln College, Oxford. Professor of Eariy Christian Literature and New TeeCn- J ^.^ ^. t •
meot Exegesis in the University of Leiden. Author lOl The Text of ike New Testa- 1 TlQlII,
menti The Historical Eoidencefor the Resurrection of Jesus Christ'. &c . .1
K.8. Kathleen Schusinger. . . _ . _.. .__... . -. . .fffyinplitBla;
BLEEN SCHLESINGER. f nw mrftow
Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra. Editor of The Pertfetie ef UnsieaiX S;z?!lt
Archaeology. j^TlmbreL
Laurence Austine Waddell, CB., CLE., LL.D. . f x%heA dm. a^tA
Lieut.-CoIonel l.M.S. (retired). Author of Lhasa and its Mysteries; &c. \ *^' ^*" ^*"^-
L. 1. 8. Leohasi> James Spencer, M.A. f MfMittf; Mrttt;
Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Moseunt. Fonnerly Scholar J ^
of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkoess Scholar. Editor of the 1 Pv?™** _
Mineralogical MagaaineT I Tstrihedrtto: llMrito.
■.B. MoiiTACu Browne. ^ f Ti^irutii,,.-.
Author of Practical Taxidermy; ColUatng Butterflus and Moths. \ JKOmfrm^*
U. Btu Tbz Hon. Maurice Barino. r 1 .
Sometime Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. War Correspondent for the
MomintPost in Mancboria, 1904 ; and Special Correspondettt in Ruf^, >905-i<M^ •{ TUBS.
and in Constantinople, 1909. Author of Landmarhs in Russian Literature; Wuh |
the Russians in Manchuria; A Year in Russia; &c I
■• B. 8. Uasjon H. Spielmann. F.S.A. f
Formerly Editor of tne Mataaite of Art. Member of the Fine Art Committee of the I
International Exhibitions oi Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome and the Franco- J ThoriiTeMh. Wmii
British Exhibition, London. Author of History of "Punch"; BriHsh Partnit-] *»"*»VM^»^ w.»«"
Painting to the Opening of the mneteentk Century; Worhs 0/ G. P, Watts, R.A.;\
British Sculpture and Sculptors of To-4ay; BenrieUe Ronner; Oc I
ILLdsO. BClCBAEL Jan DE GCEJE. . . ^ .. . f Tiu^nmmwJt^w^ ft ^l w«in«^
See the biographical article : Gobje, Michael Jan db. \ *«»«*»^« "■ ■!■■»
H.ILBI1. Sa Mancherjee Merwahiee Bmownacoreb, K.C.LE.^ ' . f^..^. ^
^'M^-' '/b^nibay University. M.P. for N.E. &cthna1 Green, 189^1906. Ai^thor < Tiklrtrintf
Constitntien(!f the East India Company; 9tc I
IMITIAtS/AND HEAD&raS OF AUTICLES
xUt
!.■.»
■.W.T.
O.H.D.
ai.s.B.
P,QL
p.ax.
P.lcOL
P.fL
I. A. I.
I. A. ft.
8.A.&B.
K.CI.
i.acL
■.if.
'llUnnmif Otto Bisvasck Caspaxi, M.A.
BC9*rfalAncinitHi«lorylALeiitfooUiii«mkiN UetafcriaGnskin BinDiiigham
Uaiveniiy. 1905-1908.
KOUIAH M'Lean, M.A.
Lecturer in AniBuc, Caml
Collese, Cambridfe. Joiat<
Umvsfsity. FflBovsnd Hebrew Ltetufcr.Cliriak's
of the laffer Cunbridge StptmagiML
Kcnx Malcolm. D.S.O.. F.R.G.S.
Major. Arsyll and Sutherland Highlanders. Served 'N.W. Frontier, ladia, itej-^
1898; South Africa. 1 899-1900; SomaliUnd, l90a~>9Q4: British' Mimofl t9 Fes,
190s. Editor of Tlu Sctenct of War.
NoKsvcoTB WmruocE Tbomas, M.A.
GowaiMfit Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the
Soci^ d*Anthropologie de Plana. Author of Though Transjerenu; Kitukip and
Uarriai9.i^Anslral%a\9x.
Okas HcNstv Dijiksatb, PecD.
fotmoAf Editor of foreign news in the Ifya Dotfigf ABekanda*
T)«B«T Jomt Radclipit Howarth, M. A.
ChrM Church. Oxford. Geographical Scholar, Oxford. 1901.
of tbi British AsBodatioB.
PiXMCI PETEK AjXfCCIVnCB KSOPOTOM.
See the biograpbacal article: ICeopotun. Prxncb PJL
TiCiii;n80iBiliisL-IH.r
TbenffleiiM;
L ThnsybiQiis.
Syrt>e UtaiBtnra;
Tboniis 9I Haiii.
Tibeo;
TitopAOiy.
.fi y s.
Assistant Seoetary.
Giuf. K.A., tX.D., Inr^D.
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College. Canibridge. and tJnhreraity
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo-
logkal SodRty. Author of ifa»M/ 0/ CoMporalne PikOofogy.
Paul Geokge Konody.
Alt Code of the Observer and the Diuiy MaU. PormeHy Editor of the Artist.
Author of Tht Art of Walter Crane: Ytiasquet, I4fe and Worh\ &c.
Pnup Lam. M.A., F.CS. •. . .
Lecturer in Regional Geography in the University of Cambridge. Formerly of the
Gaelociea] Survey of India. AJiithor of Monograph of British Cambrian Tritobitcs.
•TfelunsbKtqr and bditor of Kcyser's Comparati9e Ceohcf
$a Tmup Magnus.
M.P. for the Un l ve re l ty of London, Superintendent and S e cr etary of the City and
Guilds of London Institute. President of Council of College of Preceptors; Chatr- .
man of Secondary Schools Association. Member oi the Royal Con\miMiOn oa
Technical InaKnicttoo, 1881-1884. Aothor of Jkdsuffitt Mdimlimi *«.
History (in pert).
Geography and
Statistics;
Tibet {in part)
Qyr-Daiya: River (in Part);
Syr-Oaiyft: Birovince (t> pfr^\
Tunbov {in part);
Ditata <i» ^0;
TMHs: TVwn {in part);
f obohk: Gcnemment {in parth
T<»ad[: GatiemmaU (w foA.
(in paH).
Smdui: Gui^gy.
TMlurtcal BdneaUoD.
PiiMBOSE McConnell, F.G.S.
Mcabw 0f tha Royal Affocoltwal SoQMy.
Aothor of XMsry <f a ir«rMic f oraisr.
Paul Vxmocxazx)77, D.C.L., LL.D.
See the biographical article: Vimogeadofp. Paul.
Reynold Alleyne Nicholson, M.A., Lrrr.D.
I^orer in Persian in the University of Cambridge. Sometime Fellow of Trinity
College, Cambridge, and Professor of Persian at University College, London.
Anthor of Selected Poems from the Dioani Shams* Tabrit; A Luerarj ftnt^y of Ike
Ara&sidbc.
'1Ui»« AttEN SaHKOn, M.A., D.Sc.. F.R.S.
Astrononto' Royal for Scotland. Formerty ftofessor of Mathetnatics and
Astfoaoiay in the University of Durham, and Fellow of St John's College. Cambridge.
Author of TahUs of the Four Great SaleUiUs of Jupiter; Ac
ROMST AuxANOBK Stewaet Macalistee, M.A., F.S.A.
St John's College. Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the I^estine Ex*
pkvatioaFund.
Sn RiCBASD CiAV EEH O USi Jebb, LL.D^ D.CLk
See the biographical article: Jsaa. Sia Ricbaro CLAVERBOUti.
RXOTAED Gaenett. LL.D.
See tha biograiAical article: GaaaBTt* RicsAta
Sn Robert OiErEN, F.R.S.
See the biographical article: QrfSM, Sir Robert.
J XbcUblgg.
i; Smmltas {in part).
{
/tllDa|flld«8 {4n part).
jsmit, Jonathaii {in paH),
J > .T
Rev. Robert Henry Charles, M.A.. D.D., Litt.D. (Oxon).
Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford, and Fellow of Merton
C«ih«B. Pfllow of the British Academy. Forroeriy Senipr Modenattor of Trinity
College. Dublin. Author and Editor of Booh of Enoch-. Book of Jubilees ; Apoca-
lypu of Baruch; Assumption of Moses; Ascenswn pf Isaiah; Ac.
Recinalp Ivnes Pococx, FJ^.S.
Sapennteqdent of the Zoological Gardens. London.
/Taxatioiu
Testamanfi of fba Thiaa
PkMtftiBt <! ^
TWlaiMttti ot flM Tvtlva
Patilirckk Mi .^- 1
Tuantnla:
tTuditiada; Tkkik
{:
xiv
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
lOMttO JQBV MCNULL, M.A.
CkffMt Okwclu (Mord. ~
Gnrik (Uadon).
Buiteer«i<Law. F gfuli Bditv of the Jk Jama's J TUMT.
m.iLa
Kksabp Ltokckes. F.ltS., F.G.S, F.Z.S.
Member of tlw Sull «f the
€Vle/«C«* </ F0ssU iitmwmit,
^«ll £eii^: 71t Gmm Amenfr
Rbv. RoaciT Maccditosk. M.A.. D.D.
Ttftar ia Laaeeabve tadepewkflt CoHagt^ I
Rqwkt NlssKT Raw (d. looo).
AwMt m at Ubnriaa, British Mi
. F.C.&. F.Z.S f
the Gcolofieal Suniey of India, l87A-itt>. Anther of J
ee(s. RtpHbs mmi Bwii m tki Briluk Mumwrn; Tie Dmr 1
mimait ^ AJnca; Ac ^
(In Atff):
Tteitoff; Tifir (m A«^);
iMs-1909.. Aathor of Sumiimmm: tfv
j^iiMieil IKilen' #/ Araaerft. JirenM^jr oatf .S^eidra. 15^1-1900. Tit ^»tf XMeea«vf.
t^U «» ff^: 51 i iw i c £kre|ik.- !*• F^iHini BiaMtry $§ F^Umi ami Jbune ffm
ft^KS.
B.B.
•.A.C
S.M. Till I S&ONBuo.
LifecwiiA 4t th» I^MYtceky ot Copeahecift.
9I«.UR^ Sr Gv<««» Uxs F^^Ftrr. MJtAS;
.VAMv^ce «• Kifl«'» Cw>2lc(r. U>»JkNk. ThMMne ead Vfee^TtaiieMt «t 1^ Hunt
g he -f»f tei^vt Aal tht UttcmuMO*! Motral Kitrofmio CMepne.
SI ft.^ Sr Gv>?*«» Sivxv. >tA.
-^ ^ » C.»Jkc«k v>i»«i4. Uctenr M Cieeh «e the V^mesftsr ef
1L Fntf ^tSK. rS.A.. F.ia.BJL
F «w w t >y Master of the Archttectwel School, Itorel Andecer. Ijoadea.
INt ei ih i^ of Aichitectiaral Aswciktiock Assodete And FcBov c# Kinf *s Cole«e>.
U>«de»> CofTv«po«du^ Member ol tbe Institute of Fnoce. Eduorof Ftr^ftsstrn's
Htol«r7 V ArOUKte*. Author of Xn.AtJ»vtef».> fiej< mmi Waii Ac
KnxwMA ]tc«T. CI.E..LL.D> (t$i>-t$o6V
S<v-Tv«arY <Si the R^jyaI .\siitk Socktv. l$^«>lW^ Ubtviui ai the Iwfie Oflke.
U^oik>A. i;k>^t^^ EJttv^r of H. H. WV.^oo » £tss40FS «« bW JCcftfiMs <f :W J7ui&s;
StaxtrT AsTan Cook, ht A.
Faitce for the l^»]tt«tiae E.\].^^tK>« Fuad Lecturer m Hebrrv aad S%t«k. oml
K>rmerH FetWv. Ooa^ille A»i CattM Cott<c^ Cambn4(ew ^jxxmmtx ia Hcbce« Aad
A iam ii r . Lo»loa Vm\YrMt>\ I^W^-tOolL Author oi J>'.>4;sksr7 jtf .4"ttM«K /s-
A«tM«ir«»: r'W Urn* j*' 3i^j*s mJ OJir tf HA^nawMk; O^a.^ .V,Mss m OU
I
Kvviow. F«TV
^vre-^Y ^ : -Knoa FhAAfv ^ the rntwnkv ^ "Iriir^^ Vtkkt ^F'
Faai^aMOk. Ati ^hj cot .:^Mai*»*a«aft .IrniMjit^ ,;hc«
D St.. 11. IV
Sea the bw^rvharj; ettvit. Xlarow, Smbh.
X^9eft«$ %5«ix. M A trrt IK
5cV.%ar
ULIL
r.LH.
T.B.B.il
V.W.Ck
W.Af.
1LA.P.
W.F.C.
W.H.P.
v.ap.
W.I.B.
W.L*
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OP ARTICLES
{
t!f
Fiuimm of Greek in the Univeraity C60<g> of North WMw, B«agor.
Sn TBoMAft Laudes Brunton,
of Ibgan.
TBoMAft Laudes Brunton, Bart., M.D., ScD., LL.D.. F.R.S., F.R.C.P. f
Consultiiic Physidan to St Bartholomew's Hospital, Lonaon. Author of Uodimi Tllitaptntkl.
Tktrapeuncs; TheraptuHa cf the CircuUUiani Ac I
Sn THOMAS LuTUE Heath, K.C.B., Sc.I>.
^ to the Treasufy. London.
FoRDerly Fellow of Trinity CoUm, .
Ckmbifdn. Autoor of ApMomma qf Pcffo; Tftmtiu an Conic SedioM*; Tk$
Tkirttm Books rf Batdid^s BmuiOsi Ac
Rbv. Tbomab Mastim Lindsay, M.A., D.D.
Principal and P iro f essor of Cbuich Hittory^ United Fine Chnich College, dascow. <
AuthatotLi^tfldateriac.
Riv. Thomas Koscok Rede Stebbinc, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S.. P.Z.S.
Fellow of King's College. London, Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Tutor, of ,
Worcester CoUese, Oxford.' Zoological Secretary of the Cinnaean Society, igosr
1907. Author of il Mistory of Cnutaua; Tko NotttfoliU of Cmairac; &c
Tmns SiocoMBB, M JL
BalUol CoUefe, Oxford. Ledtumr in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges. .
University 01 London. Stanhooe Priaeman. Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of the
DicHoKory of NoHoual Biogropky, 1891-1901. Author of Tko ilft of Johnson; ftc.
Valxntims Walbsam Chapman.
WllJMD AlRt, M.INST.C.B.
Sometime Scholar of Trinity College, Cambrtdge. Technical adviser to the Standards '
Department of the Boa^d of Trade. Author of Lsvetfmg and Geoiuy; Ac
RXV. WnXXAM AUGirSTTO BXEVOORT COOUDCE, M.A., P.R.G.S., PB.D.
Fellow of Magdalen CoUm. OxfonL PtalesKn- of EagKBh History. St Dttvid's
Colleee. Lampeter. i88o~i8iSi. Author of Guide du Haui DaupMui', The Range of'
tko nm: Guide to GrindelwUd; Guide to SwUoertand: The Alps in Nature and in
History: &c Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1800-1881 ; dec
Thsodostafoimpolii.
, ThjTOftrMt*
{in part);
TfeUMiM daiauuit
' 9i9tfsn Sugar Manufactnre {it
JOE, M.A.. F.S.A., F.R.G.S. r
! of Printed Mush;, British Museum. Hon. Secretary of the!
ormerly Mo^cal Critic of the Westminster GaseUe, the Saturday 1
k. [
Walto Aubom Philups, M.A.
Ibrmeriy Exhibitioner of Nferton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College,
Oxford. Author of J/odrmfiifo^; &€.-
WxiziAM Burton, HA., F;C.S.
Chairman of the Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturen of Great Britain.
Author of BngUsk Stoneware and Sortkenwarei Ac
W. Bazsi Brown.
LieuLrColooel, Commanding Royal Engineers at Malta.
WtuiAM Barciay Squire, M.A.. F.S.A., F.R.G.S.
Assistant in charn of Prii *' * •*••••'
Purcell Society. Formerly
iCmenr and the (Sfete.
Rt. Rev. WnxxAM Edward Coexins, 1>.D.
Bishop of Gibraltar. Formerly Professor of Ecclenastical Hktory, lane's CoBege,
London. Lecturer at Selwyn and St John's CoHeget, Cambridge. Aathor of The
Stadj of EuletiatHral History; Beginnsng/i of Estghsn Ckristiamityi &c
WniiAM FtaDEN Craies, M.A.
Banriater-at-Law. Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King'a Cotege,
London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (33rd edition).
WnuAM George Freeman.
Joint-author of Nature Teaehine: The World: s Commercial Pradnds: Ac Joint-
editor of Science Propess in the Twentieth Century.
WnUAM HElfRY.
Founder and Chief Secretary to the Royal Life Saving Society. Associate of the
Order of St John of Jerusalem. Joint-author of Artaiiinsg (Badminton Library)
SwItittliBd: Ceogropky,
dmem men i, ftc. Briery
and iJleratme;
TMU Wllllm; Ibm iTovm);
Thuk Uka of; Tkufu;
TIeiiio {Canton);
Urol; Ttoggnibiiig; TlM.
Sorplfoe: Cknrch of Engfand;
Templan {in pari);
nttoi of Honoiir.
tanwotta (fo pari)-,
lOt,
TUt^AttlihUMf;
Spmiiiafy Jorisdletlon;
Summoiis; Snodsj {Law),
i
Sol Wiuiam Henry Flower, F.R.S.
See the biographical article : Flower. Sir W. H.
Walter Herries Pollock, M.A. I
Trinity College. Cambridge. Editor of the Saturday Reoiew, 1883-1894. Author -i
of Lednres on French Poets; Impressions cf Henry Irving; &c. |
Rsv. William Jackson Brodribb, M.A.
Formeriy FaUow of St John's CoUege* Cambridge, and Rector of Wootton-Rivtrs.
wnts.
fTMrtf {in pari);
ITlftr {in part).
TMlUtt {in pari).
Walter LermanKp M.D.
Directorial Assistant of the Royal Ethnographical Muaenm. Munich. Conducted ,
Exbkmng Expedition in Mexico and Ccnfal America. 1907-1909. Author of
publications on Me»can and Central American Archaeology.
Wiluam McDougall, M.A. ^ . ^ f
Wilde Reader in Mental Philosophy in the UmvcfMy of Oxford. Formetly Fellow <
of SC John's College. Cambridge I
TUlMi.
xn
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
L&S.
VLKJL
WkixztM Mxm%Ki Rv«smi.
Ski Vniror IIitcseu. Rjocsat, LmJX, DlCX.
Sec ttt tii^i|Aa. a agtack : IUmsat. Sn W. Mncam,
Vtiiioi Xtftsx ai*». M..V, LLD^ D.Sc^ F.ILSL
LVscrjT 4C tie M«tvT-S..v»-A: v>&<r. Rcaier a
{
«r V9«ecKtt.x»:x. Chm: ii$gc-««:^ Moo. F«*»«
CoCkv^ Com-
St. lLIxsr.CE^ FJLGuS. f
I Saoctr 90 Ct%A • ^
m^s.
m&K.
mXLS.
V'^x- i .-aitcjyi Smcu c* Tiafcti f^vt _ . , _
I
Sar ^r Wy iQM-fc «=.irj( Sft.r& V. RaKSXSQBL
PRIXCIPAL l^NSIONET^ ARTICLES
S5U*>J^
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XXVI
SUBMABIHB MIKES. A submarine mine is a weapon o{ war
ascd in the attack and defence of harbours and anchacage^
It may be defined as " A charge of explosives, moored at or
beneath the surface of the water, intended by its explosion to
pat out of action without delay a hostile vessel of the class it is
intended to act against.'* It differs from the torpedo {q.v.) in
beng incapable of movement (except in the special form of
drifting mines, which are not moored, but move with the tide or
auxent). But this subdivision into two distinct classes was
not naade till 1870. Pxior to that date the term " torpedo "
▼as used for an eiqdosive charges fired in the water.
Submarine mines may be divided into two main dasses, con-
tsoBable and uncontrollable, or, as they are often classified,
** electrical " or " mechanicaL" In the first class the method of
fixing is by dectricity, the source of the electric power whcthef
by battery or dynamo being contained in a firing station on
ihore and connected to the mines by insulated cables. By
simply ffritching oS the electricity in the firing station, such
■dziia are rendered inert and entirely harmlessL In the
secaod daJS, the means of firing are contained in the mine
ibeif, the source of powct being a small dectiic battery,
or being obtained from a ptstol, spring or suspended weig^.
In all mines of this class the impube which actuates the firing
gar is gtvcB by a ship or other floating object bumping against
the ttiae. When M e chani c al mines have onte been set for firing
tfa^ are thus dangerous to friend and foe alike. Safety anange-
Bcau axe employed to prevent the firing apparatus working
wfcfle the mine is beiag laid^ and dockwoik is sometimes added
to reader thymine inactive after a certain defim'te time or in
oae the miae breaks away from its mooring. Their prindpal
advaatageSk as compared mth the electrically controlled mines,
tre cbeapncM and rapidity of laying. " Controllable" mines are
tbaataXdy under the control of the operator on shore, their
CDoditioo is always aaanately known, and if any break adrift
•M only ia the fact at once known hut the mines theanselves are
kumlesa. Another advaatage is that when fired by "observa*
tioB ** as described bdow, they are placed, at depths which will
be wdl bdow the bottom of any vessels passing through the
BBac ficU. They can thns be used in channels which b«ve to
he kept open for trafik during hostilities^
Electrical mines take rathor bnger to prepare and lay out
than the other daas, as the ekctricai cables have to be laid and
JoBted, aad they leqinre rather more skill and training in
the operators employed to lay and fire the mines. Such miaes
K-piLSLBt the highest development of this form of warfare, and
the detaOa given bdow rder mainly to this daas of mine.
Bectrical mines are arranged on<two ^ratcms according to the
method if asccrtaiiitng the proper moment to apply the firing
cunent to the mine cables.' These methods are by " observa*
tioa " or by " circuit doser."
The " observation " system depends on two careful observa-
tions made by an operator on shore, one of the exact position
in which, the mines are laid, the other of the track of hostile
ships passing over the mine field. The position of the mines
when laid is marked on a special chart, on which the track of
ships crossing the mine field can also be plotted. When the track
is seen to be crossing the position of a mine, a switch is dosed on
shore and the mine is fired. To allow for errors in d!)servation
such mines are fitted with large charges of explosive and are
usually arranged in lines of two, three or four mines placed across
the channel, all the mines in a'line beipg fired together. Observa-
tion mines are placed either resting on the bottom or moored
at depths which are wdl bdow the bottom of any friendly
vessels and (except that anchpring in the mine fidd must be
forbidden forfear of injury to cables) such mines offer no obstruc-
tion to friendly traffic.
In the ** circuit closer " or " C.C." system, each mine contaixM
a small piece of apparatus which is set in action by the blow of a
vessd or other object against the mine. When set in action,
this apparatus con^pletes an dectrical drcuit in the mine,
through which the mine can be fired, if the main switch on
shore is dosed. If it is not wished to fire, the C.C. is restored
to. its ordinary condition either automatically by a spring in
the mine, or by an dectrical device Operated from the shore.
Such mines are necessarily placed near the surface, and are
to this extent an interference with friend^ traffic A vessd
passing by mistake through a mine fidd of this dass would
nm no risk of an explosion while the mines are inactive, but
might do some damage to the manes.
This daas of mine is used in tide channds which it is intended
to dose entirely, or to reduce the width oi navigable channels
where too wide to be defended by observation mines. Their
prindpal advantage is that if the firing switch is dosed they are
effective in fog or mist, when observation mines coyld not be
worked, and when the guns of the ddence would be equally out
of action. As they are fired only when dose against the tidt
of a ship, the charge can be comparatively small and the mines
themadves are handy and easy to lay.
Compared with obserration mines they use much less cable,
as the action of the €.€< is such that only the mine which is struck
can be fired. Several mines of this clsas can therdore share
one cable from the shore, though in practice details of mooring
and anrangement limit the number connected to one cable to
f ovn A set of mines on one cable is refetred t o as a " group.^'
The srrangements for firing the mines are contained in a firing
station 00 shore, in which is the bsttery or other source of
2a
SUBSIDY— SUCX^ESSION
A ctriol pom for firai^ ad tke ■umiy apptnt« far [ MflitMynf circliiriMj fctJMMa^n—deia the American
t»>tin< the ^iratti gf ■uncs^ wfcfch » ■imBy dpt daily. Tb ' QwaWwIilti^wfcMiienl nili biii mak-or damaged
fee t^ epcnMT in the ftnag sutioa kaov vIkb the CC of a by bIks or tarpedoe&. Fwam iks date oavaids moct Europeao
muie hu b««ft stnack afei the viae is itody tA iR» a sboI ' watiam miiiiMiliil with bbcs. aad they woe actually used
ckctncil appoimtts is proviied «a the ixiag stataaa for each . dariac the Faaca-Gcxaaa War of iS7o» the RaaBo-Toriush War
fcwtp ^ BUMS. IVs attufcneat strikes a bdl whca theCC ' off 1S7S aad the Sp aaiah A MCPcaa War of 1S98. Bnt the most
B «vcked aad aho duoes a break ia the iriac drcait. The iatcRstiac caaple «< aaae waffare was ia the attack and
gfvnCM <aa thea <k»» the naa sakch aad fre the adae* deieaa of Ttet Aitkar doiac the KMHKjapaaese War (f .*.) ol
4c i 4ict i^ oa :^ ccder to ""ire aS aaiaes that sisaal** he has i9or-o5 Both aate ased aechaakal aiBts oaly, and both
a:r«s«i>r v{ccil^* i^ sua saificb. the ^ jg Myn t appaiatas«. ia the l ai tKd heavy haars boa the aaae vaifaic Ifiaes aad tor-
act >k $trvuiC :be biciL coofifetes the aciocciicait A saaafar pedocs vac iat acradacBd ia&o the Easfish acrrice aboot 1863,
picw sH av'kv^^^s 8» cMacctcd t* each itianbn faWiofai^ drfesoeaoaa be«( pfacvd ia the chas^ of the Royal Eagincers,
t^* vVci|«<ciA.'a 4f the Gtrcttft olaagr iaeat the ohaernac statisa » abOe t a r p e diM aare i inl i n d by *e Bayal Niavy. Up to
LK11 f.«v& 4 a^Boi a the ictac ifiriaa aad the iciac cacait is 1904 these a«R Bsae deieaas at mam. off the British ports,
vva*»:.rv.'Ni bas ia that year the icspaasSaSty off aiaes was pboed on
ri< XT i« SMtxtt caa be oa a mml aaaRd Bav the viae ' the aavy, aad aiaae tha the aiae drfeaces ha»« been much
ac .:. ^c £ sNce xsully oa than, i^tte It caa be vade ahsa> fo daced. C^'. B. B.)
X...-^> aev-une s^Siitsc soy inca ot attack. Baft the o tm rt lii^ MIUM .tknach Fr. Imb Laft. aal■afin^ icaenre troops,
^A.v<» »«st Ve <ia;ihk»« to (r«T stahbl^to the oh otr^iac a»L aasiSEaaQe. boa safayvc ftesaly *" ta sit or icaialB behind
to»cr£ai»cav i^ ciaax he cbax^ pcvc««t«d as ihcy aast or m saMive ~', aa aad. adbvcadoa. asHtaace fiaated especially
biit< A sttoJ >?v«ojzc ^aaa$ the auK feewl bat caa he made « w^aeT. The aaed has a paRxafar aae ia eca aa aiic history
XYr« jivva>i.nv*4.v«t& .a»ipcactkc. la Eaifisb b aaaij k is the yen! tews for a tax
Cv «V'^>^^« *^:» heaved ^ s«^aBa::^ anis.. pea»r» kd gcaacedsothekaatVr^ifciasiii M^aaastiafaished from those
aie*^vLS^ xKi.2» a&ir ukea «» «s^>k the chuye. Va: the cspA»> ^^aes. sack s ^he 1 1 \t \m^ daesi. aback aeie raised by the ro>-al
»«« a^v^ a cKwat ao haadh aai is ia aoMt fcma! aw ti act ' isimw'n «f these sahafies thoe «ae HiHy varieties; sacfa
r-'s^^'iv^^a «- .> a sauI ^ Tctoair aad detvcuor t<^ jtait aas the sakei^ sa caecsa of the obbobb oa aaot leather, wine
^'vok TVe ^Mf.itaMcs !«r <iev*t7kal atiaes aR oa the ''^ kv or <k^ch eaye ruid or aiyaeoed by ahfow , fcner ritea d e d to other
X -^svnx * ^•^cvor. Aks: )Sw tra( is eftKted ^r tW h e ata^ ^ « ' oetachs aai to aactvr e^aroos aai i siyatas (see Toukags
sitnt.: *«n^-Y M «*r« caJed a "^ bca^* leaad aduch v rhK«d a ' ta» K<C3«ii£s' . thew aaa afae the t a lTi i f r ahkh M the 14th
?>' tt.^ ^ h!^ ynixa J^ Aafsftat a awal baifs ot saJB^aae oeaeaey ^eoji the pkaoe of the oM t ai l a ' hwaea. Apart from
« iKTvxrr . tkBsap^&acaaa the tesasLmaaadaB timesL is pankaMy applied
rw .^kur:$e s coac a> a t< hi a »mS wi^i rswi. ak^ has a» )o the pecaaiBrr aia'mri W maHS af bs a ai i ii *c^ graea by
** t.*va.n.'fi ** tx^sviw M> «taciJk the «fecteica£ aati nimioffi the ifeaae «» tedasaraC amfirakaigs 'aae Baaanr). Snb sid ies
a:^.' i« C O '•'>«a «m^ v^wi iir jba t e^ a oim saiMs at* f ca a s t d >y the soaoe «» atojue i . Aaamdc or other artistic
«&.- '» c^^f^c^vx. tx akd^a »)c mjai» >» M«e 4a tW WcMat «i:$c±xt3ia&. sacastaes^ Ac« aae paaaaly aqdei ' Hhocatioaa **
a>: i^K«^^. vr >aw«'uc wms^ TW a«^(^ 4ff chtt^ ii y Lat miaaoa*e. s»<oamaeAearfar>
aN-vt w^ ^ «n\t :Ve sae <K a >««r«:ue case wo tl^ <cha;3fe SWCBBM Lac mtrrrmt fsom aaasid^i^ to falov aflcr)
« ^ : >r v^tr xk^ it Aaaeatr C^w» ^ <iiacact «ii>«» aeo the wt off aaaoHidnc or it^am-wf, m off coaaew okjeoa, places
V "v'^'a.. »)v>tf .^; it ft Ajji««*9e uc cift Wac t<»9> 1^ 4< fia^ :ia a ser^Rw lkt« Vtt parta.'ate^ or kas. the tBasmasmaa or
^- •.•«. rv?" sp? w^*.'-* Jow7>^»^ i^w«a»c* * 7«w»'»,'teii s*c 9ia«da(«;«%e»voaa4aaa»aBac:aK.
'^^ rr ik^^rak-? fts«c« r)o ■»» ikio*>>-K cwe» a^t mMMd V a l» «<o»< <»-<go» « hw i i o i 1 aa kassabomadefara nadjuit -
>.. ' *r ^•. "c • < '<;-.■*' • -Hf ^,«c xvvM Nwi^ >« a *t\xt at« SNoe * <an^* or fa«M» .la :te aa'b off the hmaaa beings
••--« ir a j«^— ^-^ -BiiMS; .1*^ ,% ^.# {^** rw ^"^St? k ^aw^ »*»? 4««m ami oa *.-«•* :te^ ."TiBiiama aa r^glft may be
•. ' jTHi a»»»* a*. "^,xvK*vc «ri V a k,«« « «qocC mlna. Aa cvtt«v.t;ta«t taar ^o* 7»njic» ot «jaa. at saam omys Aay depead
«.^'* 'v**^.^ » c«v. * r 'W ^^N" ^^ .>tvn,& 49 tV TovstiaoiHv 4r :.Mia «te ma oaasmaad with them: if
•^ >r;'-..*Ts»«. « Ttur**. ct t» • .-v^Mce mme i^9«o»l «v «JS «v«i ^m a «er«:uc ^wi ac^vare a «^imi apmatt a certaia pessoa
aa «v er'tuna ,^0.-^-.^ « .-hr A«v>see ati.'cv'tc^ %hv^ «Si »>»« ^v«r c&ja wH auu oi j oa c ^m h* ^ai^ Bk p eia a n al
l««>l jtr^M J9 -IK- 4ijt VM iBv«vv*.4:xco <M ..K*- VK:A«i«tf- >» >» xs. vHfe^. aae c«aKn«imv miMKaamE aa dhe jmaasamcat off pn>>
n t— fr «M w x.-^ tt>*.su&^ ■«* x\"^<?r ra*wr» . TVf >jia jir*-* t a >tewa Xic-^oa^ mam^t ;te oaftar < nw*H ta be
4t ^.7H^ sr « A."^-^.^ s^ .V ac*. a9> a» 40wc».*« v 4e\ Ai» sOt^M. .>fcu 4«v« jiAtf«4*u Af -laoaar jia. aao: t±r arssal p^miur aiQ
f*. T^ wr a."^ -■v?vw» aew 1* -^^^T?^ -** af* ^^ v*> a '** Jt-^viK.'t ifvooc v a |r««c «vi«c ja Ae 'i
*^j- ?».=«' a»w ix»f ;r^^-J* *i«r»'!t.n«». a .*fr jv«»K?t /i *jf^ «v.m^ a ,W «»o«e * 3*e laceroa
>.-ir!>- w*? .-« :afc_>'«^'^ jc a^^rafcA. X' w mk.'S^ c*t Jo ,|^ ?««"•.'■ « 4 vftnw ^wawr ^ ft watf
< '• »*»; »• * .rr^-v^jt ' «r •*>« .".i"*«jir ^>e ••vr^c .2i.Nirtw >% a aa.T^i ^<a*^ :^(C!» ""mfcs ma^ 9e aa
* ^ac---..:;^ ' VT :x. r.- <«». :nvK<t9^ ia^ «.:n ou^r imw» jv cX*. j» ^• < o l.»m mt^mi^ TV* ^>bI la liana m 1
a- '•^ ♦ *9 aB<T*T»,-ca|: sae awMs^ %.*i:> * ,Nua^v<«'naiM». * *> •*v'n.>^ %i5«3^s^ JAas.'TrTma: lea
«« ^^-t av ar. ;& Ji lu;^. fv «cv^m. uptvst. as ^a m a S - ttiat. Xr«ir»«er |» «eiiv^ a «A .aoaiK ^ 4
>« w^s s av* lOae^^^ at .rsasAoik aai>«» aimM aK >» awt s^ «-tic«»MM a 3io :
a «^ aBT^-* -rauk-'^oa^ /i*^ t a. :>» ^
*.:>.v«» r* -^r^-s.jc at«q^.VTsiaai 41 ^wmrut^Smt Wtib£>« oioai «'«ocii.v>M. i
* -* m - *t ^ m aa<. r:*'* vMcsv *'».-rv-»a- v am •m* .a^ ca*x«K a» » «a*k
a(RLt&c «*»> aikt TOkii^a^ mk -^»,^.tKx*i » j«r»> » me ^x> ^^^^.Sb*. avtK j« •ofiwr:- ^'v^ :no maul «a«
jr.--:r> t.'-j^ w»« ama t^ mt *w*"v>aa». »> ^*"* aao a *'*T.'i ,-tw.-'^ 40 x ,'«
r-* *:-->« *v.*na ibw^'at^ «a -■•I'^.-j^^o ai*-^j« «mfct »ie «»>aa ><m<c ^'lawr
i."^ V a -'*?^ i» '^^. ne ^xMft«aA> 4S49II ao>>ai»fc.-m •^ W*a v«su*
»<<« XiaMiaalm a afrj-rv^n^ v ra. we la wi^a at oaJK te»^ > ^nac^ i^ aiv<vv^ w«^ ^ mwi^ a jaRr i
^Bc^a^ ^aa^ maim ^ :)r ^"" aiaii ^aor * mt. 4i^«^pc" ."««sv ^^ is. -^ «« «^ v ^«k^ •». j» t— a t m a» mtaaa
mt * <{.::>« tw'n^j^ >«.u. »r> m*«* v :
SUCCESSION
ft if HtifftfTJrtk tlist even in the strict law of paternal power
teamlatcd by tlie Romans an onemaadpatcd son was protected
k his righta in repaid to things aoqnirefi in the camp {pictdkm
eastemse) and later on this protection spread t9 other chattels
(/»■*■■■ qmsycttttnmse). The personal character of this kind
of pwni c ity has a dedstve Influence on the modes of succession
to it. This pan of the inheritance is widely considered in
csr^ law as stiU in the power of the dead even after demise.
We find that many savage tribes simply destroy the penonal
fccbogbiss of the dead: this is done by several Australian and
Negro tribes (Post, Gnmdriu d«r tikntioiuchm JwUprudun,
pp. 1 74-5) Sometimes this rule is modified in the sense that the
gDods remaining after deceased penons have to be taken away
by strangers, which leads to curious customs of looting the house
of the deceased ■ Such customs were prevalent, for example,
sw»g tbc North American Indians of the Delaware and Iro-
qoob tribes. Evidently the nearer relations -xlare not take
over such things on account of a ta^ rule, whik strangexs may
sppropriatc them, as it were, by right of conquest
The continuance of the relation of the deceased to his own
thii^ gives rise in most cases to provisions made for the dead
•at of fais penonal succession. The habit of putting arms,
victuals, clothes and omamenU in the grave seems almost
taircxsal, and there can be no doubt that the idea underlyfaig
such usages consists in the wish to provide the deceased with aU
asattcfs necessary to his existence after death. A very chai;-
scteristic illustration of this conception may be given from the
catems of the ancient Russians, as described about 921 by the
Arabian traveller Ibn FadUan. The whole of the personal
piupeuy was divided into three parts: one^third went to the
family, the second third was used for making clothes and other
woamenCs for the dead, while the third was spent in carousing
oa the day when the corpse was cremated. The ceremony itself
eoDsatcd in the following: the corpse was put into a boat
•ad was dressed up in the most gorgeous attire. Intoxicating
drinks, fruit, bread and meat were put by its side; a dog was cut
iato two parts, which were thrown into the boat. Then, all the
weapons of the dead man were brought in, as well as the flesh of
two hones, a cock and a chicken. The concubine of the de-
ce^ed was also sacrificed, and ultimately all these objecU were
boned in a huge pile, and a mound thrown up over the ashea^
T^ descrfptioD is the more interesting because it starts from
a <fiviaiott of the goods of the deceased, one part of them being
affected, as it were, to his peisonal usage. This rule continues
to be observed in Germanic law in later times and becaiae
the starting point of the doctrine of succession to personal
property In English law. According to GlanviDe (viL 5, .4)
the chattds of the deceased have to be divided into three
equal paru, of wUcfa one goes to his heir, one to his wife
an! one is imi ^ td to the deceased himself. The same reser*
vation of the third to the deceased himself is observed in
Uagna Cbarta (c. a6) and in Bracton's statement of Common
Law (foL 60), but in Christian surroundings the reservation
of * the dead man's part " was Uken to apply to the property
«Vch had to be spent for his soul and of which, accordingly,
the Chuicb had to take care. This lies at the root of the com-
mon law doctrine observed ontil the passing of the Court of
?kbbate Act 1857. On the strength of this doctrine the
b^bop WH the natursl administrator of this part of the
penonalty of the deceased.
Tbe saiceaiio n to real property, if we may use the English
legal expression, is not governed by such considerations or the
needs of the dead. Roughly speaking, three different views
Bay be taken as to the proper readjustment in such cases.
Taking tbe principal types in a logical sequence, which differs
from the hjstorical one, we may say that the aggregate of things
•ad daims relinquished by a deceased person may: (x) pass
to lelatives or otbier persons, who stood near him in a way deter-
aned by law. Should several persons of the kind stand
ei^oally near id the eye of the law the consequence would be a
divmm of the inheritance. The personal aspect of succession
r^es in socb fystens of inheritance. (>) The deceased may be
considered ps'ti' taboidlnate member of a higjher orgaidsai--*
a kindred, a village, a state, ftc. In such a case there can be no
succession proper as there has been no individual property to
begin with. The cases of succession will be a rehipse of certain
goods used by the member of a community to that community
and a consequf nt rearrangement of righu of usage. The law
of suocession^rill again be constructed on a personal basis,
but this basis will be supplied not by the sngle individual whose
death has had to be recorded but by some community or union
to which this individual belonged. (3) The aggregate of goods
and claims constituting what is commonly called an inheritance
may be considered as a unit having an existence and an objea
of its own. The drcumstanoe of the death of an individual
owner wHl, as in case a, be treated as an accidental fact. The
unity of the Inheritance and the social part played by it will con-
stitute the ruling considerations in the arrangement of succession.
The personal factor will be subordinated to the real one.
In practice pure fonns corresponding to these main ooncep*
tlons occur seldom, and the actual systems of succession mostly
appear as combinations of these various views. We shall try
to give briefly an account of the following arrangemenu: (1)
the ypMl family in so far as it bears on succession; (a)
tolmntary assoeiaU&HS among co-hdrs; (3) dmtian of inheri-
tance; (4) united succession in the shape of prim^iemtmri and
of junior rigid.
The large mass of Hindu juridical texts representing customs
and doctrines ranging over nearly 5000 years contains many
Indications as to the existenoe of a jMitf /aintfy which was
considered as the oorporate owner of prc^rty and therefore
did not admit in principle of the opening of succession through
the death of any of its members. The father or head of such
a Jomt family was in truth only tbe manager of its property
during lifetime, and though on his demise this power and right
of management had to be regulated anew, the property itself
could not be said to pass by succession: it remained as formerly
in the joint family itself. In stating this abstract doctrine
we have to add that our evidence shows us in practice only
characteristic e6kisequences and fragments of it, but that- we
have not the means of observmg it directly in a consistent
and complete shape during the comparatively recent epochs
which are reflected in the evidence. It is even a question
whether sudi a doctrine was ever absolutely enforced in regard
to chattels: even in the earliest period of Hindu bw articles
df personal apparel and objects acquired by personal will and
strength fell to a great extent under the conception of separate
property. Gains A science, art and ttaft are mentioned in early
itaatances as subject to special ownership and corresponding
rales of personal succession are framed in regard to them
OoOy, Tagore lectmts on PartUion, InkerHanu and Adoption^
94). But on the other hand there are certain categories of
movable goods which even in later law are considered as belong-
ing to the family community and incapable of partition, «.f.
water, prepared food, roads, vehicles, female slaves, property
destined for pious uses and sacrifices, books. When law became
rationalized these things had to be sold in order that the pro-
ceeds of the sale sbouM be divided, but originally they seem
to have been regarded as owned by the joint family though
used by its single members. And as to immovables^Iand and
houses'^they were demonstrably excluded in ancient customary
law from partition among co-hein.
In Greek law the most drastic expression of the joint family
system is to be found in the arrangements of Spartan households,
where brothers clustered round the eldest or ** keeper of the
hearth'*^ (^tfnavAfiier), and not only the management of
fihiity property but even marriages were dependent on the unity
of the shares and on the necessity of keeping down the offspring
of the younger brothers. With the Romans there arc hardly
any traces of a primitive family community exchiding succession,
but the Celtic tribal system was to a great extent based on this
fundamental conception (Seebohm, Tribal System in Walts),
* The trrm Ulustratei tbe Intimate connexion between inheritance
and hMnriiold religion in ancient Aryan cwttom.
snJccBssiati
•Ji4 STCftt-fmndUtktr bdd to(ct)wr in icgud to Und. The
cvoseqiMMce vas iIai. tUlMutk aepanie plots utd bowc* wctt
cvvamKaty luu t ij for tbe osn o( tl« siMlkr Umiliet included
vxiba tht hiter ink* ibc death of the priacipel bfooght ahoot
«o tS^aoIiatmi of sheics first p«t sHrpn and ukimatdy pu
^■iijHM oMil the 6m1 hctakmp of thecoamwBity mn it reacbod
the stac^ of the vreat-fiandMoa of the origiaal founder. Beit
the MOit ckhocote ejrstea of fanaly ovacnhip ii to be ohscrvcd
ia the Mcstory of the Utcat coMcn among the Aryan races—the
StAW In ibc backward Mountain Rciona wbkh they occmpied
w the EallLan PcnMasula aynd in the entdemess of the Coretts and
»c«9r» of Eastern Europe they devekped many chanctcastk
tr^&l instt^itaoos and. aaaonc theae« the joint famiiy, the
««.*-•(«. wACwsi^aaa. The hoft krnUy oomnvnities of the
tc^ihctm Suit's have been dcscnbed at kngth by nocnt obscrven,
«.-c xSen can be »» doubt that their loou c» bach to a distant
po^t sare Vitiji«K CoMHVKtrusK There b no toon in them
K< satcvcssNn proper: nhat hna to be provided for b the con^
t-r. ^ of bies^aciR aiiaitnnmi by ddcrs nnd the rcpaititioa of
r^^^ «f Vance and aaainietiaaDe, n r«patti;ioa lait^* depcn-
<k'rt on ^n^r^vs^ c«$■^a«ts and on the poi.cy cf the «b»v«-incn>
CKttcd <r»kf!k In Rttss^ the a»<aUcd Urgt jsmuy appeon as a
cro>:)t k» extenax^ appuoaxion of the aaaae idea. It extends
n^-\> '^xvr rvce ihta iLire ptneratiois^ b«t even as a d^festcr
« vKB^cfS pi:hcr^4 aixvutd n (randuthcr or a crcat^uacVc
K p.TsettO aa arr&a^aaeot mh>ch fe'jLinpcrft CK^tb pnvate cnict^
fcx aivi »f ax>e» \x1 ».Mxxs$^oa unu* the caocsc&i «bca th« ireat
hk>««hjMd bcc&is ip between the deaoendama of a c:eai><iand-
U t>rrvt*>: ^aw o» catch n |:J'»pe* «f n state of th';:;$s bi
%^c^ «Mf Tif*;:vTaB! virre nc4 ax^suued tc» sactetsNoi at all
TVr FrtyVt<* Vo.vt « OT.vtv v\ tw 5*t^ tt£» us that if soooe^
K^.^ ^■>i m «>v«j; >e«\\.%s s^r^ or o\cj\:tr!v > * beochcr m;»» to
««octed Sju a]»d aM< V-* ?»<»vti'iv>».?* \%^ r».-i;\ Pk5 Su to
(le ^fotfc-oed ai» a i»<vi.ivi»vN* <t :be <wv>rt ni)e nccorc rjt lo
%*-v^ ;W TT i:>Sn-t> saucvwNiM »>si nc; ibe WvvWf. Vriee
* Tv-;y)-Sv>*;r* »* c*»-x.>« «'Nrx'iN:*>,i n>c%>v p«v*^>c <vcwct«d
%•' V » T«'•>v^* k^ fevNv-r- X *•< w<; ^-r^rrA. ^«t wiK** ► -^ ki->w<-?
tf ;K-».r «s:i*' o^TMK-ix x** 7»f^c^^v^•^k TV t*rt tlut i»*.N3><x
•.N-n-np » *pc.orv-K >v*xT ,v«v>NVvr nM i^.vV ttcar «,*,n^^3 as
f4KV^r<sv,v ,*v ^^n* t*c Ai.^*.y..-r«. *v «.-,•>.-: .wv. .a a «<\ «V >->>
*"V-^ «:?r Tfc\'*:rins- A' a x«f> a.vS»'C ATiLr,<jr?r»rT>k i\i*.v. ^s? a
^Cnse .-ihfc c^^TiiT..*. i* K>;*\x*a iV rv.vNrrs^ x-^i a k>cr«\*
S«v*> » ,''ATi»i-K'M,/» c^ "w jt.xv'TK la »A,« K>f v>">;x»T«i ^*v .!<«•
u- •• '»>v li* <» ?v- .* a yw-N' VT »v *** K ? >^o,v^r
*s. v^ Q» 1 rN'>4ir *»N .*»■*. *N*^ Tvr a J ; .%» . ,Nt ).»> ■s.vsi csvvr
^ Kt itc - vn K-»< Tv.r; <»• ;K"' fv-ws^Tv^ «i*sxv >•*» a*v- >;
«t %v> -swiv ♦I ■•v.",\ ,K«: ;Kt^ a.-v >V<- »• vv* *-^nanx %*
jl*\"Of "*^ »t •«^** Ni»""« '-♦ x> 'A '-^ Nv^ Wv*^ *Kr "\tA> - •>s » ,v
,s,v^ C*w :K"-T o. ». K' -v' % - ». V • vv * n v»v, ^n^-»*
V. -^ •^^ V '--■-• - '• ^ .vv. jN.v ,»' -v K v),x
•TNf ••*. v^ .^ ;*v. V ■»%'^" ■ ^x V\ . • *^s .> ^> s s^. . >v
^ .^s >. WV•'.^V■ •» KV~ "•*" i.'*r».\V|^ K 4> A ,*^' ,\ »»,■>■ W
•^j^ jV-,. s.^S U V A-^v^V^^V^K xN '^vVr^s.vM tv N-,-««.-? ,N
„ , 1^ 1 - 4« ^"VMV s" »» »• o^ «»*f <* *^-> 'VN ^'^ •• ■'^
v« ■. ^fc-w^H.-* » .»•« ^»*v a* V *«»'»»■ *. ». . •»
a«*i^-(*iK. ^v***»a K \ w^riii V. > y* s> i-^-.. .. tv ^^ > ,v^
^ ^^\ H^l9r iht **«^«*««»i»* h»**>f ^<*^ ^ ,K Hk*^♦s»^^•x
. Mil r:inr>r^ira^^ ^4 t oaMK\v>M> W«. u ^«m»w««. .k^
iCMlte TUsdidnotptcdndethe
possibility of any one aaioac the sfaarehoUeffs daiming bin ova
portion, in ivhkh case put of the property had to be meted
out to hiaa noooiding to fair oonputation (nasioano). THere
waft no legal ronsifiini over the shareholders to remnin in
eoaamon: division could be bcou^ ahoat either by comoion
oaoKut or by daians of individuals, and yet the constant occur-
BDoe of these settlcaaents of co-hein shows that as n matter of
fact it was moiCLpmfitnfaie to keep toeether and not to break
up the unit of property by division. The customary union of
oo>heirs appears in tUs way as a oorrective of the strict legal
pcindple of equal righu bei««cn hein of the same degree. In
English practice the jomt management of oo*hcirs b not so fuUy
described but there can be no doubt that under the-older Saxon
rale ndmitting heim of the same degree to equal righu in 8uc>
ccssiott the interests of wnnnmir ettdency wcf« commonly pre-
served by the carrying on of fwmmon husbandry without any
reafaatian of the umunient dahns which would have broken
op the object of tm < >^v <m Thb nocounts for the fact that
notyjihuandtt^ the prcvalcnrp among the cady English of
the rule admitting aH the sons or heirs in the same position to
equal shares in the inheritance^ the organic units of hides,
yardlandSk &r. am kept up in the course of centuries. In
the manapement of scxaDrd psasEHad sncoession in Kent
partition was legally passible and came sometimes to be effected,
but there was the cnstoeaary reaction against it in the shape of
keeping up the " yokes ** and ** wiinngs " A trace of the same
kmd of a7.>Mi between oo^^esrs appears in the so<alled >«raft
rnaaaini liessooetcnmeaocax-l :n Deaotsday Book.
In all these cases the pnac4)ae of onioB and joint asanage-
tsent B kept np hy pcra y croaomic aaeans and considerations.
The kml prasib^ry ot part.: oa b adaxittcd by the side of iU
It b atercsusg to vatck i«o <i.Teigcni fines of farther develop-
lacnl St^rrr^r^e from tHs cce. j ea sonrve; on the one side we
are the tell rv-xjatic^ d iac«v ideal q^ resulting ia frequent
di%isKe»: OQ the «hcT &ie «e watch the rise of legal restraints
«n s%Si.\^r^ resw J=|: in the cstahfisheaent, jn respect of
otnam ca:(^>nes of ?cv-pesty, of rales e wind in g the piurality
«>« Sf3s fee the sake of TTsservmg the vniiy of the boosciiold.
TVr ant $Ttcn> i^ «' crczse. aost easly carried owt in oountdes
^ Vte issi ^-c.^us^v trres «f ^a binAj psevaiL la Europe
:t » rs5«ecM S rvr^-iirr: rr the soc.-^ wkh its tctcnse cultivation
«< ;S^ an^Jc xr^ -^ ^a.^k3 cc vine aad oKve growing. We
*>c- not w.'ccifr. tSspeaoct. that the cmcsirictcd sobdivisioa
*'%•«»? Sr-r* » ^rr^-Ttsrr^.-i most rmmU'.eiy by Roaaan law.
Ncc t«» S.-VJV cc :W urs Lhat aireaiy h: the XDL Tables the
^ "- '^ r->ir « c^.Sec»tanoe aas cccadered to be inheritance
^^ * . ^^ V n.ss x..e «>r-oessos csaae i£ as a snfaaidiary ex-
.>:v:,ti «c >«»v u" -vcc^ :^xs r^eee b an check on the dis-
rx-Tsvs* rf« r'wv- *• aaxv"^ Vcs oc the same depee. The only
<.>•»* y» » ncTK o .-^.. * oir^wtrjiy may be iMmd in the
'•>- '»«^' ^"* ^v" »WT ii—. , ,»if V.-? at the T ofvw) and ktreda
,.t .-•.■» „vN.w K' -s^ A >J« accsasee* The fcrsi entered by
;N-»* <^»- res. x'N.- r,vit ^.>»essi:tt «i prvpesty which had
^.v^^J^^t v -K-w w- > •, csrt dD^-r^ iWir ancestor's We-
.V u .t «-• :v-c ou n* •-.Tie tSew -rJLtaowship to the
.x\v*^* XTC ^ > cv ivx p i-t >»£» a d-^T hoid on the property
>* vvvN vwi ».x A-v .^^; he r^'l aw «f ancirnt Rome
«^V4 Nv CV1- .-M. . V. ^v>T :.T>.- hf siaw pr.ic- pie b represented
* ' : . •• X • VN ^.. V* r* - ,-- -rm K^oaaa law or strongly
»r •^v v.v *» < >*»-v- Tv-v *^ w .^« frtiK^ Cidt Cia£/, oen
.K- « >> v^ ,Kc A*iv- .-x ti'^^ ■ <^ .*» c.-Mjcsf <•' such succession
*> -w v-wxt .^T »tti,' t % u. Ai^- ,'j^ i25 A h» ciJ^iren of their
U .1,- o^• -«. %-!.> -Vs^ .y,,,^ ^- «coeasian fxscvailjig in
x%-.. ..>^/ o,M»*-v>^ «.« r.^c .he M-o«& r^o^ee^sg from
""*'** .V wvx *,x- >. '^>cH ^it'^vxr?'^ j« ^'•wdU;5c: ikvdopiog
.*s- ,.v^xi v.»».s J* t^-^Tc* AT *»i^*-iaaa. la Scandi-
^ ' »*« «* .>^ xf . X A *x» «. cvr'-rawi >? the Xorvegiaa
V ,x- -vnv. cs. ^ ft^ «. ^ht owsnl;>-. mhich,
K» K .,;:-! - -^ )a«ie de9or»<!«d thro;:gh
^ ^iK »^m^>. ^'*^- be ^i^csMd aad
K ••♦ v\
*.*1 ^««V*««.MU«
SU(CCBSSION DUTY
Miniated at pletsure. Th«y sre coM&kred as' fa'ghtly bcbag-
ing to the kindred with which a historical connexion has been
establisbcd. In order to keep these estates withinl the kindred
they &re to descend chiefly to men: women are edtnitled to
property in them only in exceptional cases. Originally it is
ofJy the daughter of a man who has left no sons and the sistei^
of one who has left no children and no brothers that are admitted
to take Odal at if they were men. Nieces aad hf8tH»nisins are
sdmftted in the sense that they have to pass tht property to
their nearest male heir. They may, in certain eventuaUties,
be bought oat by the nearest male relative. A second peculiarity
of Odal consists in the right of relations descending frbm one of
the common ancestors to prevent strangers from acquiriDg Odal
est ale. Any holder of sudi an estate wfaft wtnts td sell it in its
mtircty or in pcfftion has first to apply to his relatives and they
may acquire the estate at the price proposed by a stranger leu
one-fiftlu Even if no relative has taken advantage of this
privilege an Odal estate sold to a stranger may be bought back
into the family by compulsory redemption if the rekuives
SQbseqnestly find the means and have the wish to resort to
SQch redemption. Odal right does not curtail the claims of the
younger sons or of any heirs in a similar position. As a matter
of fact, however, customary succession in Norwegian peissant
(arailies sets great price on holding the property of the household
v«{l together. It is keenly felt that a gaard (farm) ought not
to be parcelled up into smaller holdings, and in the coaomon
case of several heirs succeeding to the form, they generally make
op among themselves who is to remain- in charge of the ancestral
hcTisehoid: the rest are compensated in money or helped to
start on some other estate or pcfhapsr in a cottage by tbeside
of the priDcipai house. In medieval: Englaad, France and Ger-
many the same coftsidsrations of economic ieffidtnoy are felt
15 regards the Iteeping up of united holdings^ aad it may be said
that the lower we get in the scale of property the stronger these
consideratioas become. If it is possible, though not pcfhaps
profitable, to divide the property of a large farm, it heooaaes
sitnost impossible to breakrup the smaller ttait&*-^«HtaUKl
▼srdlands and oigangs. Through being parcelled up'^ initio
small plots, lamf loses in value, and, as to cattte, it is impossible
to dfn^de one ok or one horse in spetU wtthout- selling them.
Ko w ow ler that we find practices and ccstoms of united suc^
cnsioa arising in direct oontfadiaion with the ancient nde thiit
afl heirs ol the same degree should be admitted to equal shares.
GliDviUe mentions expressly that the socagers of his time held
partly by undivided succession and partly by divided inherit*
ance. The relations of feudalism and serfdom contributed
sirongly towards creating such individual tenancies. It waS
cmainly in the interest of the lord that his men, whether holding
a militajy fief or an agricultural farm, should not weaken the
TaJ«e of their tenancies by dispersing the one or the other
an^ng heirs. But apart from these interests of over-lords
there was the evident self-interest ol the tenants themselves
a&d thereJbre the point of view of unification of holdings is by
BO means confined to servile tenements or to miliMuy fi(f&
The qioestton whether the successor should be the eldest
joa or the youngest son « a secondary one. The latter
pcftctice was very prevalent all through Europe and pro-
duced in England what b termed the Borough English
r^. The quaint name has been derived from the contrast
m point ot succession between the two parts of the borough
of Nottingham. The French burgesses transmitted their
tcDements by primogeniture, while in the case of the English
trrxnts the youngest sons succeeded. A usual explanation
of this passage of the holdings to the yotingest is found in the
fact that the youngest son remains longest in his father's house,
vhde the elder brothers have opportunities of going out into
the world at a time when the father is still alive and able to take
care of his land. This is ^clf in keeping with the view that
cast Aj p ft Of tmlted succession arise in conncxbn with compcnsa-
tr« provided for co-heirs waiving their claims in regard to
KtiJenent in the original household. The succession of (he
Tuuisest appears also very characteristic in so far as it iUastrttes
the bfcak up Into tnall teoaBcics, is the youngest b the family
is certaialy not a fit represenutive of hierarchy and authority
and could not have been meant to rule anything but his own
restricted household.
One more feature of the ancient Jaw of suocessioii has to be
noticed in conclusion, via. the exclusion of women from
inheritance in land. There can be no doubt that as regards
movable goods women held property and transmitted it on a par
with males right from the earliest time. According to Germanic
conception perM)nal ornaments and articles of household f umi>
ture are specially effected to their use and follow a distinct line
of succession from woman to woman (Gerade). Norse law puts
women and men on. the same footing as to all forms of property
eqluoted to ^* movable money " (Ldsdre); but as to land there is
a prevalent idea that men should be privileged. Women are
admitted to a certain extent, but alwa}^ placed behind men of
equal degree. Prankish and Lombard law originally excluded
women from inheritance in land, and this exclusion seems as
ancient as the patriarchial system itself, whatever we may think
about the position of affairs in prehistoric times when rules
of matriarchy were prevalent. A common-sense explanation
of one side of this doctrine is tendered by the law of the Thurin-
gians (Lex Anglorum ei Werinorum.ct), It is stated there thai^
inheritance in land goes with the duty of taking revenge for the
homidde of rehitiycs and with the power of bearing arms. One
of the most potent adversaries of this system of exclusion proved
to he the Church. It favoured all through the view that land
should 1>e transmitted in the same way as money or chattels.
A Frankhh fonnula (Marcutf) shows us a father who takes care
to endow his daughter with a piece of land according to natural
affcctKHi ia Spite of the stria law of his tribe. Such instnmients
Were strpn^yibocked by the Church, and the view that women
ihould be admitted to hold land on certain occasions had made
Ms way in England as early as Anglo-Saxon times.
AWTHOUffTiBs.— Mayne, Hindu Imp and Usage C1878): Julius
ifyi OtUimes ola HUUt^ QJ ike Hindu Law ef PaiiUion, Inheritance
fsd AdoUioH (Tagore law lectures) (Calcutta, 1884); B. W. Lcist,
(2nd ed., 1904); the same, Tribal Cui' ' ' ' "
(1902); Artx>isde Jubainville, La FamtUe
Institutionen dis d^utxhen PrkniruhtSt
Deutsche ReektsgeschichU (vol. i., 2nd.''ed.
SuchuHgen zur Erbenfolge (Innsbruck, il
Branch der SUd-Shveni bollock and M«
taw. M. (i895)-, Kenny, Law of Primegenii
The Cfnath of Ike Manor (I905): Brand
Mitshistorie KrisUania (1880); Boden. '
ZeitxhriU der Savignystiftung fur Rec
xxiii.): ri. Brunner, "Der Totenthctl ' ... ....« »...,. <<>,.N^n^. ...
(Gcr. Abth. xix); L. Mtttcis, R&nrisehes Prieatreehi (I908),
vol. i.; Fnstel de Coal^ges, La CiU antique (4th ed., 1872).
(P. Vi.)
. fiUCCBSSIOII: D9TY, in the English fiscal system, "a tax
pkiood on the gratuitous acquisition of property which passes
on the death of any person, by means of a trvisfer from one
person (called the predecessor) to another person (called the
successor)." In order properly to understand the present
state of the English law it is necessary to describe diortly the
state of affairs prior to the Finance Act 1894— an act which
eff^ted a considerable change in the duties payable and in the
mode of assessment of those duties.
The principal act which first Imposed a succession duty in
England wias the Succession Duty Act 1853. By that act a
duty varying fromi to 10 % according to the degree of con-
sanguinity between the predecessor and successor was imposed
upon every succession which was defined as "every past or
future disposition of property by reason whereof any person
has or shall become beneficially entitled to any property, or
the income thereof, upon the death of any person dying after
the time appointed for the commencement of this act, either
immediately or after any interval, either certainly or contin-
gently, and either originally or by way of substitutive limitation
and every devolution by law of any beneficial mterest in pro-
pertyi or the income thereof, upon the death of any person dying
after the lime appointed for the commencement of this act to
SUCCINIC ACID
•ny oihtr ptrton In poiMMioA or txpectancy.** The property
which U liable lo piiy the duty \t in realty or leaeehold estate
In the UnilfHl Kii^rdom and personalty— not subjea to legacy
duty which the beneficiary claims by virtue of En^iah,
^\^ttUh or Irish law. IVrtonahy In England bequeathed by a
pemvi domiciled abroad la i>ot subject to succession duty.
$u\i:e»iuv)ns ol a husband or a wife, successions where the princi-
(Vil \>alue is under £ioo» and individual successions under £3o»
are evemivt from duty. Leasehold property and personalty
directed to be convertc^l into real estate aie liable to sttcccssion»
not to legacy duty. Special provision Is made (or the collection
of vUitv in the cases of joint tenants and where the successor
» aKk> the |uevltce«»or. The duty is a first charge on property,
but it the pr(,H^rty be parted with before the duty is paid the
UaNIuv of the successor b transfened to the alienee It is,
th<rcK><x>^ usual in requisitions on title before conveyance, to
iWmMKi tvv the Y>n'4ection of the purchaser the production of
iVN^^^tii Kw sucvr«Mon duty, as such leceipts are an effectual
l^^<\tiv>A notvitth^tandtng any suppression or nusstateesent
iu the acvount on the footing of which the duty was assessed
04 anv \tviiui*wir«Ky of such asssenment. TKe duty is by thb
act a>iT\tc\l to be asw«9«vl as follow<»: on personal property, if
t V »\»v\^?sM>r tale« a limited estate, the duty is assessed on the
(v;*;^vi\naI vaKit of the annuity or \>Mri>' income estimated
♦v\v«i\»» »^ t\^ the i^rnvxl during which he is entitled to receive
tK^ v%.^t;uit\ or xvvktt> incwnr^ and the duty is payable in four
wt-N \'v<jiUiwtti* tire ttom intemtt. If the sucvtssor takes
a\>svc;c^ he vvn.x'* in a lu'^tp fum duty on tWe principal vahsn.
\N> rvMl iv\^v«t\ the vt\K:v k» |MkVAt>hr in e<|^ht kalT-Yearly insial*
«^v >• X % '^^v^*, \-*;<^vvi <« the cjk|Ht aI vAloe ol an annuity equal lo
l^^' A^ » .vkl X A>is< v^ I V jvv^vrt V, V*nott» minor cbangm ^ie»
» . ' . V 1^ t he v'\irfv<»\* aisl I nU«>d RexYnue Act t$$;i , permnal
rv I v^ v-^Srt , ^^^ % vre r\r-'*n'* <^*^ »>" t he tTustoms and Inland
K, «v«>«v^ \v« \:>c<^ atr AvV \ vVkjil \ \ w\a» <Wi^ on swcceaswna
*SvM,\ |Mc^v»^ »\ as** an asKviM«al i|% on s»KC«aMtts
jMx- ^^ •vce *>a* \ V »x the i.^a>iv>«» and Inland Revemse
V,, N^^* 4J) *<v \».swi i-o <e »*.^ viSicd eatai* duty w«s
V>4^ ^ <M^> ^x^ i:^va a»i i^fi«» edkvted W|» ckan^tn m
•sV ^^-x* i\^>*^J«' va *VA.V vK.>e «^*i see Us.r%r« IVn:
jrw.« wv'ii 4* ,K* <>^*.h' c*.v> ;Sxv^\ cwaXAi sX^J-ii ^rv^Aie ,
.•vk- itv*«* vt *S' >.-v vtto^ ,'^^».v* T*<ir«;>.Ni>i.>i aS.*\>rv V^a;<» |
4.'v ct , ..Vie , wc t .W otev 4< %%».»« y« v J^' *t Jk«v>MiS«t>i'
*^ \tt: A W .Hwvrv* •.*. .^t* «.>u«< X4jt«tw a** xWoi^ *,J:i.
^« sv >■ ii;>v . nvi -x n.otr< *i Ji** »^ ^'It-^pevkSiK W
^ . v»^i. ->^vv\>!>.cu ,»*iv V* x-v 51. U :^»'«JB>ie j» cwm» wWc*-
• X --v. 1.*^ j\. « * i>K , ij.-5«>j. S<i. sufc^ case* aw ^ skmm^
I *^ .♦• •» ,t..- ••I**, {'^t *>. A"!.-* ,-»! ,W ^W^ >.► J'^x v»» VK^
^'» 'Kwt .* » o •*-* V V . .V 3S t^ ' . v'.VW » ••*».>. J%»
j>^. -^ ^. . >: N NV ** -w. V-»«, 1^•'^ S'-V. .NV "♦,' ><X\,NV»
■.^-.^ .»..-►»• V * ' •'*• '^»*- "* *"*^v V«> Xx»» '*i,'%^N*v>r *»
.»■.!-».»»*. '» «.B *> *v '>.,«»«.*•* <» V*. X»*.»,« V* V- ■* -'C^ J->v'
«■ N-^ -.*..'-'>«<%■- .. '^^ > •-..>«. V '.Xr^ H^'^V -.. ^ W^VV .>»
.. • : - - -^^ *.>■>>.. -w* -v- 're* -x' V'*'**** «».V»^'«V
> "Nuv^ «*.■.♦—•««.■««■ *» wf^ -> 'V-iw V %.«:^-Mw ■^•■'nv**.' 1 *
•* -«^.« f %,*wH 'K W» *. -v- -*•• *'*- « V •• * J*>""»*i »».'^
» ^-..^ ^ V^ r<. .» *■:• ••'> >••• • ■• ■■*.« -^^vv-Nss*,-* ..>afK,
,K* ' ^tt < X' *''^'* *« ^ IW JWII P »^ * •^^^'K >v *>, . X -k. •»
U%. -WM ■ ^ lb' «««••■> I W I II^" . JNfr W ^taa^V i^ t« IX«*K*. •)«.
3a» w*^ * *ar aMHtt- «• ^i^ nvMn»^ 4* «K K>.<«i> .x v
fUOCnnC kCOK CACCOiHV two adds GorrespondiBg
to this empizkal formula are known— namdy ethylene suc-
cinic add, H(XC-CHi-CUa*COiH and ethyltdeoe succinic acid
CH»CH(COsH)».
Eikyltm sMuink add occurs in amber, in various resins and
lignites, in fhwiliird wood, in many members oC tbe n&tunl
orders of Papnveraceae and Compositae, in unripe grapes,
urine and blood. It b also found in the thymus gland of calves
and in the spleen of cattle. It may be prepared by the oxidation
of fats and of fatty acids by nitric add, and b abo a product of
the fermentation of malic and tartaric adds. It b usually
obtained by tbe dist illation of amber, or by tbe fermentation of
caldum malate or ammonium tartrate. Synthetically it may
be obtained by reducing malic or tartaric adds with hydriodic
add (R. Sdunitt, Amm^ iS6o^ 114, p> 106; V. Dessaigncs, ibid.,
iMo^ Its, p. ISO; by reducing fumaiic and makic adds with
sodium amalgam; by heating faromacetic add with silver to
ijo* C; in small quantity by tbe oiidation of acetic add wiLh
potaastumpersulphate (C Moriuand IL Wolifenslrin, Btr,, iSgg.
31. pw s$34); by tbe hydiolysb of socdnonitrile (Croen ethylene
dibromkie) CJIr^»IUBir-»OiI«(CN)s-»CsU«(CQai)s; by the
hydrolysb of ^<yanprapianic ester; and by the condensatioa
of sodiomalonic ester witk anonockloncetic ester and hydrolysb
0ftlKresaltingetbanetricaibnxyficcsfter(R0kC)aCHCH3C0>R;
thb SMthod b applirahk to the picpnntian of substituted
sttccamc acids^ It b nbo peodwced by the dcctrolysb of a
rinrinttHi il imhuifm nf pnlsiiinmilbjlmalnnitr
II ctyataUmes inpnssmnr pbtcs whkh mck at 1S5* C. and boil
at ^5* C witk partial i,imwiiiim imn the anhydride. It b
vsn^ aelubk in water. Aqueous wdntint of the add are
decomposed in lunMghl by ueaninm sahSk witb evolution of
cnibon dioiade and the fenmataon of pnpianac ncid. Potassium
liumsngpniii m acid T^Tirmu orirHar^ It to caiboo dioxide
asid watce. Tbe sodMoa sak on distiSainm with pbosi^nis
ttisal^>hicle gives thMphcwe. Ibe cstess «i the acid condense
readily wkh mocsatic aiiehydea and Ihmm.! to form 7-di-
lubttitwtid dtaconac ac»^ and i aftyirn pyimartaric adds
tH. Stn^be^ ^wn^ i&ww jiA p^ i:^- f-Osqacids are fonned
wiwn aldrhvdks aie bosfced wkh sedocm wnrrinnle aad sodium
acetate. Xtmsfraui sabs «d the acid aie known, the basic
^efnc sak btun^ wccnsasmaily used in gnmlimisi nnalysb f «
tbe aiMntion of iiun fitvm i^wmrMs
.5^vi^« ,LJrni^. 4^£iMd Vr
CO*-
vXV
NvV
Nxa^an
v.^> « vV ;^\ K .^frr^niM y« taK-jiif cW aoA «r «» sndlwm SAh with
«k>rt.v *»\«v:t>iir S> tW^KTutt jtasko*. cte«nit«w the baiima salt;
>% vi^ •uit)(. « ■n.'Carv 4« su-vunc a.^ «»£ suodoTi chiande. or by
Vm f^ »^co t".- , » t,%'cis ^'t \ uxif •:rryx& jxaSc arxL k ciyAal&zcs
"^ > xV«^ ^>i:«AS«^r >■ wac*!r wict 9he immmHi wl the acid. It
^v«n»^uttf«( vts^rt^N %>!. ) ^>«- iwces>giiiiwiiiO«mihi us f
i j:*'***. >j*. "»*.».•.«> %v%.> » ASM- -Vxi.-w^f <a,l _
V, It -aivx-u %^ "i ,'^'<i 'JB* It .^n^'urtrs iKsAe^m ■kiih inch
»: ^ >- » A^'' v' «ve ^ «t^N ^v«u>rwf a wipr ^hee manned viih
».*>j «n.> 4>v^^K^^. ^.nitnjuia «.' .^Af*' C- c -p^'Ts saKcaBSEiVSr. The
.ni io^ \..,,KviM v'.-m 5. ,-^->s.*Ni •T;'.w.va'i ix -necxSk. XXss="jtioo
% . > tn«v~ ,»•>£ {r^vk ?*•-»?» c • ?•• ::>* ur^vai ef Wceune ta
iB.'-v»i «c '^'v\> N>« t V o<fM<«"Tt»t lacv ^«Mai^e«^HaBic ndd.
C^- *'^'^Mt> V ..^.w. X VA. "-j.K )«p< j«n:«mM >« -^T ■— ^iM rt iwmrinii
^^^L' x\ ,^,- *. H.^,vNc it Kv w-' 5*,^ jf w .i; A. C-H,.CNS.
>. v>^^ - XX >« '^K* *.' v-N* j% •v-rG«sc<iTtt <«aRide «ei e thyl ene
■^>«o>w»jir j« >« ?V- «<>.—< >vacK .-« X -v^uaam. 4C pmnaBHSi c>mB-
^xv*^ V IK 4i* *a>^<f<x>>iis^ »,>.v ^-^ATfc ««it» «e $#-5^* O On
4A.^v^ sM % v% "Wt.. •« .1 Mv >>. V sAUUMft^ ai ^''■eiCk aetxaech\fene
SUCHER—SUCKLING
the byvlralyas ol ^-^vABlnityrki ftcid. It cfyit Bm iw
which nKK at 112* C. and are aolubte in water. It
aiifary<kide when heated. The toduim tak on heating with
pbonphoinis traulphide yidda methylthiophen.
EJ*jiHnu smuimc acid or uMMCoatc add^ CHa'CH(COiH)t.
M produted by the hydrolyais of •<yaitpTopionic add and by toe
actJoa of mcshyl iodide on KxUo-malonac ester. It cvyetallixes in
prisms whkli melt at lao* C. (T. Saber, Jown. pnk. Clum., 1898 bl.
^P^ 497)* *nd c&iolve in water. It does not yield an anhydride.
^beo heated loses caffcoo dioxide and leaves a residue 01
pro pi o n ic acid. It may be distin^ished from the isomeric
ethylene succinic acid by the fact that its sodium salt does not give
a precipitate with ferric chloride.
SUCHXR, ROSA (184^ ,), German opera singer, nie
Hassdbcck. was the wife of Josef Sucher tiS^-x^oS), a well-
kaowa condttctor and compoaer. They were manied in 1876,
wben slie had already bad various enga^meots as a singer and be
was canductor at the Leipzig ehy theatre. Frau Sucher soon
becane famovs for her performances in Wagner's operas, her
scasosM In London in 188a and 1892 proving her great capacity
both as singer and actress; in 1886 and 1888 she jang at
Bayreath. and in later years she was principally associated with
the opcia stage in Berlin, retiring in 1903. Her magnificent
Rsderjas^ the part of Isolde in Wagner's opera is espedaUy
fOCHET. LOUIS OABBIBU Due D'Albuteba da Vauncia
(i77»-i8a6), marshal of France, one of the most brilliant of
Nap^eoa's (eneials, was the son of a silk manufacturer at Lyons,
where be was bom on the and of March 1770. He originally
mceadcd tofi^w his father's business; but having in 179a
served as volunteer in the cavalry of the national guard at
hyoBA, be manifested roilitaiy abilities which secured his rapid
praakotioa. As tkef iU balaiUon he was present at the siege of
Toohxi ia 1795, vbere he took Geneial O'Hara prisoner. During
the Italian campaign of 1796 he was severdy wounded at Cerea
•a the I ith ci October. In October 1 797 he was appointed to the
eommaad of ademi-brigade, and his sendees, under Joubert in the
Tirai in that year, and in Switserland under Brune in 1 797-^f were
ieoa«niaed by his promotion to the rank ol general of brigade.
He took no part in the Egyptian campaign, but in August was
made chief of the staff to Brune, and restored the efficiency
azKl discifdine of the army in Italy. In July 1799 he was made
^aeral of division and chief of sUff to Joubert in It^y,^ and
was ia i8no named by Maas^na his second ia command. "His
deztaoos resistance to the superior fortes of the Austrians with
the left wing of Maas^na's army, when the right and centre were
Ant up in Genoa, not only prevented the invaaion of France
bma Una <yTection but contributed to the success of Napoleon's
q« al^ the Alps, which cttlminaled in the battle of Mareago
«B the i4tb of June. He took a prominent part in the Italian
campaign tHI the aimistioe of Treviao. In the campaigns of
180$ and 1806 he greatly increased his reputation at Austerlits,
SaaUeld, Jena, Pultusk and Ostrolenka. He obtained the title
«f count on the 19th of March x8o8, married Mile de Saint
Joseph, a niece of Joseph Bonaparte's wife, and soon afterwards
was ordered to Spain. Here, after taking part in the siege of
e»>«j.T»— . be was named commander of the army of Aragon and
gD^raof of the province, which, by wise and (unlUie that of most
•f the French generals) disinterested administratwn no less
than by bis briUiaat valour, he in two years brought into com*
pfete submission. He annihilated the army of Blake at Maria
•a the 141b d June 1809, and on the aand of April 1810 defeated
O'DooneB at Lerida. After l^tng made marshal of France
(July 8, 181 r) he in 161 a achieved the conquest of Valencia,
ier which he was rewarded with the title of due d'AIbufera da
Valenda (i8xa). Wben the tide let against the French Suchet
defended his conquesU step by step till compelled to retire into
France, after which he took part in Soult's defensive campaign.
By Louis XVIII. be was on the 4tb of June made a peer of
France, but. having during the Hundred Days commanded
*mt of Napoleon's armies on the Alpine frontier, he was deprived
if his peerage on the a4th of July 181 5. He died near Marseilles
•a the jrd of January x8a6. Suchet wrote Mimoirts doling
with the Peninsular War, which were left by the nunhal in an
unfinlsbed conditton, and tbe two volumeB and atlas appeared
in 1839-1834 under the editor&hip of his former chief staff
officer, Baron St Cyr-Nogu^
See C H. Barault-RouUon, U Uartchal SuekU (Paris, 1854):
Cbouman, ConsideraUcns mUUaires star Us mimaires du Uofichal
Suchet (Paris, 1840), a controversial work on the last events of the
Peninsular War, inspired, it is supposed, by Soult ; and Lieutenant-
General Lamarque's obituary nonoe in the SpeckOmr milUain
(i8a6). See abo bibUography ia article PsNiNSULAa Was.
8n-€H0W. There are in China three dtieft of this name
which deserve mention.
I. Su-chow-Fu, in the province of Kiang-su, formerly one
of the totgest cities in the wodd, and in 1907 credited still with
a population of 500,000, on the Grand Canal, 5$ m, W.N.W. of
Shanghai, with which it is connected by railway. The site is
practically a cluster of islands to the east of Lake Tai-hu. The
walls are about 10 m. in circumference and there are four large
suburbs. Its silk manufactures are represented by a greater
variety of goods than are produced anywhere else in the empire;
and the publication of cheap editions ol the Chinese classics is
carried to great perfection. There is a Chinese proverb to the
effect that to be perfectly happy a man ought to be bom in
Su-chow, live in (Janton and die in Lien-chow. The nine*
storeyed pagoda of the northern temple is one of the finest in
the country. In i860 Su-chow was captured by the Taip'ingSi
and when in 1863 it was recovered by Oncral Gordon the city
was almost a heap of ruins. It has since largely recovered its
prosperity, and besides 7000 silk looms has cotton mills and
an important trade in rice. Of the original splendour of the
place some idea may be gathered from the beautiful plan on a
slab of marble preserved since 1 247 in the temple of Confucius and
reproduced in Yule'a Marco Polot vol. i. Su-chow was founded
In 484 by Ho-lu-Wang, whose grave is covered by the artificial
" HUl of the Tiger " in the vidaity of the town. The literary
and poetic designation of Su-chow is Kn-su, from the great tower
of Ku-BU-tai, built by Ho-lu-Wang. Su-chow was opened to
foreign trade by the Japanese treaty of 1895. A Chinese and
European school was opened in 1900.
a. Su-chow, focmeriy Tsiu-tsuan-tsiua, a free city in the
province of Kan>suh, in 39" 48' N., just within the extreme
north-west angle of the Great Wall, near the gate of jade. It is
the great centre of the rhubarb trade. Completely destroyed
in the great Mahommedan or Dungan insurrection (1865-72),
it was recovered by the Chinese in 1873 and has been rebuUt.
3. Stt<how, a commercial town situated in the province of
Ssfr<h*uen at the junction of the Min River with the Yang-tse-
Kiang, in aS" 46' 50' N. Population (1907) about 50,000.
8UCKLI1I0. SIB JOHN (1609-1642), English poet, was bom
at Whitton, in the parish of Twickenham, Middlesex, and bap-
tized there on the xoth of February 1609. His father. Sir John
Suckling (1569-1627), had been knighted by James L and waa
auccessively master of requests, comptroller of the household
and secretary of sUta. He sat in the first and second parlia-
ments of Charles I.'s reign, and was made a privy coandUor.
During his career he amassfd a considerable fortune, of which
the poet became master at the age of eighteen. He was sent
to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1623, and was entered at Gray's
Inn in 1627. He waa intimate with Thomas Carew, Kichard
Lovdace, Thoaas Nabbcs and especially with John Hales
and Sir William Davcaaint, who furnished John Aubrey with
inforaution about his friend. In 1628 be left London to travd
in France and Italy, returning, however, before the autumn of
X630, when he was knii^ted. In 1631 he vobinteered for the
force raised by the marquess of Hamilton to serve under
GusUvus Adolphus in Germany. He was back at Whitehall in
May 163a; but during his shoit service be had been present at
the battle of Brdtenfeld and in many sieges. He was hand-
some, rich and generous; his happy gift in verse was only one
of many accomplishments, but it commended him especially
to Charles L and his queen. He says of bimsdf (" A Sessions
of the PoeU ") that he " ptired black eyes or a lucky bit at
bowls above all the trophies of wit." He was the best card-
player and the best bowler at court. Aubrey says that he
8
SUCRE--SUC2AWA
invented the game of cribbige, and relates that his tistert came
weeping to the bowling green at Piccadilly to dissuade him from
pUy, fearing that he would lose thdr portions. In i6$4 great
scandal was caused in his old drcle by a beating which he
received at the hands of Sir John Digby, a rival suitor for the
hand of the daughter of Sir John Willoughby; and it has
been suggested that this incidoit, which is narrated at length
in a letter (Nov. xo, 1634) from George Garrard ' to Strafford,
had something to do with his beginning to seek more serious
society. In 1635 he retired to his country estates in obedience
to the proclamation of the soth of June 1632 enforced hy
the Star Chamber* against absentee landlordism, and employed
his leisure in literary pursuits. In 1637 ** A Sessions of the
Poets " was circulated in MS., and about the same time he
wrote a tract on Socinianism entitled An AuomU of Reiigion
by Reason (pr. 1646).
As a dramatist Suckling is noteworthy as having applied to
regular drama the accessories already used in the production
of masques. His Aglaura (pr. 1638) was produced at his own
expense with ehiborate scenery. Even the lace on the actors'
coats was of real gold and silver. The play, in s(ute of its
felicity of diction, lades dramatic interest, and the criticism
of Richard Flecknoe {Short Discourse of the English Stage),*
that it seemed " full of flowers, but rather stuck in than growing
there," is not altogether unjustified. The Goblins (1658,
pr. 1646) has some reminiscences of The Tempest; Brennorait,
or the Discontented Colonel (1639, pr. 1646) is a satire on the
Scots, who are the Lithuanian rebels of the play; a fourth fday,
The Sad One, was left unfinbhed owing to the outbreak of the
Civil War. Suckling raised a troop of a hundred horse, at a
cost of £x2,ooo, and accompanied Charles on the Scottish expedi'
tion of 1639. He shared in the earl of Holland's retreat before
Duns, and was ridiculed in an amusing ballad (pr. 1656),
In Musarum deliciaOt "on Sir John Sucklinn's most war^
like preparations for the Scottish war."* He was elected as
member for Bramber for the opening session (1640) of the Long
Parliament; and in that winter he drew up a letter addressed
to Henry Jermyn, afterwards earl of St Albans, advising the
king to disconcert the oppodtion leaders by making more con-
cesAons than they asked for. In May of the following year be
was implicated in an attempt to rescue Strafford from the Tower
and to bring In French troops to the king's aid. The plot was
exposed by the evidence of Colonel George Goring> and Suckling
fled beyond the seas. The circumstances of his short exHe arc
obscure. He was certainly in Paris in the summer of 1641.
One pamphlet related a story of his elopement with a lady to
Spain, where he fell into the hands of the Inquisition. The
manner of his death is uncertain, but Aubrey's statement that
he put an end to bis life by poison in May or June 1642 in fear
of poverty is generally accepted.
Suckling's repnUtion as a poet depends on his minor pieces.
They have wit and fanqy, and at times exquisite felicity of
expression. " Easy, natural Suckling," Millamant's comment
in Congreve*B Way of the World (Act iv., sc. i.) is a just tribute
to their spontaneous quality. Among the best known of them
are the '* Ballade upon a Wedding," on the occasion of the
marriage of Roger Boyle, afterwards earl of Orrery, and Lady
Margaret Howard, "I prithee, send me back my heart,''
'-'Out upon it, I have loved three whole days together," and
" Why BO pale and wan, fond lover?" from Aglaura. " A
Sessions of the Fsets," describing a meeting of the con^
temporary verrtfters under the presidency of Apollo to decide
who should wear the laurel wreath, is the prototype of many
later satires.
A collection of SuckUng's poems was first published In T646 as
Fragmenta aurea. the so^alkd Selections (1836} published by the
» Strafford's Letters and Despatches (i739). '• 336-
» For an account ol the proceedings see Historical CoUecSicns, ed.
by Rushworth (i68o>r2nd pt., pp. 288*^93.
* Reprinted in £iif. Drama and Stae*. ed. W. C llazUtt. Rox-
burghe Library (1869). p- 277- . . , ^. , , . x *,
•Attributed by Aubrey to Sir John Menms (iS99"i670. See
also a song printed in the tract. ^' -V Misc. iU. 335). ,,
Rev^. AHffsd Inijn SoddiK, author of the JTulsry m< AnUfmtios e^
SuffoUt (i84&-i&«8) with Mewmrs based on origiiol authorities and
a portxait alter Van Dyck. is really a complete cditaoa of hu works,
of whkh W. C. HazUtt'a edition (1874; iwised ed., 1899) is little more
than a reprint with some additioas. The Poems and Songs of Sir
John SucUingt edited by John Gny and decoraced with woodcut
border and initials by Ctuules Rieketts, was aitistically printed at
the Ballantyne Press in 1896. In 1910 Suckling's works in prose
and vene were edited by A. Hamilton Thompson. For aoecdotei
of Suckling's life see John Anbcey's Bokf Lms (darendon Presfl
ed., li. 342).
SUCRE, or CaDQmSACA, a dty of Bolivia, capital of the
department of Chuqulsaca and nominal capital of the republic,
46 m. N.E. of Potosf in 19* a' 45* S., 65* 1/ W. Pop. (1900),
20,967; (1906, estimate), 33,416, «f whom many are Indians and
cholos. The dty is in an elevated valley opening southward
on the narrow ravine through which flows the Cacfaimayo, the
principal northern tributary of the PUcomayo. Its elevationj
8839 ft., gives it an exceptionally agreeabfe dimate. There are
fertUe vafleys in the vidnity which provide the dty's markets
with fruit and vegetables, while the ^rineyards of Camargo
(formerly known as Cinti), in the southern part of the depart^
ment, supply wine and spirits of excellent quality. The dty is
laid out regularly, with broad streets, a large central plaza and
a public garden, or promenade, called the prado. Among its
buildings are the cathedral, dating from 1553 and once noted
for its wealth; the president's palace and halls of congress,
which are no longer oectipied as such by the natiooal govern*
ment; the cabildo, or town-hall; a mint dating from 1573; the
courts of justice, and the university of San Xavier, founded
in 1624, with faculties of law, medicine and theology. Tberfl
is a pretty chapel called the " Rotunda," erected in x8s9 at
the lower end of the prado by President Belzii, on the spot where
an attempt had been'rtiade to assassinate him. Sucre is the
seat of the archbishop of La Plata and Charcas, the primate
of Bolivia. It is not a commerdal town, and its only note*
worthy manufacture is the *' day dumplings " which are eaten
with potatoes by the inhabitants of the Bolivian uplands.
Although' the capital of Bolivia, Sucre is one of its most isolated
towns because of the difficult character of the roads leading to
it. It is re&ched from the Padfic by way of Oiallapata, a
statbn on the AntofagAsta & Oruro railway.
The Spanish town, according to Velasco, was founded in XS38
by Captain Pedro Angules on the site of an Indian village called
Chuquisaca, or Chuquichaca (golden bridge), and was called
Charcas and Ciudad de la Ptata by the Spaniards, though the
natives clung to the original Indian name. It became the capital
of the province of Charcas, of the comacca of Chuquisaca, and oi
the bishopric of La Plata and Charcas, and in time it became
the favourite residence and health resort of the rich min&owners
of Potosf. The bishopric dates from 1552 and the archbishopric
from 1609. In the latter yeir was aeated the Real Audienda
de la Plata y Charcas, a royal court of justice having jurisdiction
over Upper Peru and the La Plata provinces of that time. Sucre
was the first city of Spanish South America to revolt against
Spanish rule— on the 25lh of May 1809. In 1840 the name
Sucre was adopted in honour of the patriot oommantder who won
the last decisive battle of the war, and then became the first
president of Bolivia. The city has sufifered much, from partisan
strife, and the removal of the government to La Paz greatly
diminished its Importance.
ftUCZAWA (Rumanian, Sueeav^, a town in Bukovina,
Austria, '$0 m. S. of Czemowits by rail. Pop. (1900), 10,955.
It is situated on the river Suczawa, which forms there the
boundary between Bukovina and Rumania. One of its two
churches, dating from the X4th century, contains the grave of
the patron saint of Bukovina. The prindpal industry is the
tanning and leather trade. Not far from Sucsawa lies the
monastery of. Dragomima, in Byaantine style, bailt at the
beginning of the x Hh century. Sncsawa Is a very old town and
was until X565 the capital of the prindpality of Moldavia. It
was many times besieged by Poles, Hungaiiaas, Tatars and
Turks. In 1675 it was besieged by Sobieski» and in 1679 it
was plundered by the Turks.
8Ud:an
tniMUl CATiS>fo BiM-a-SiUbH, cottBtry of tli^ blacks);
thii regioii of Africa which stretches, south of the Sahara and
Eopt, from Cape Verde on the Atlantic to Massawa on the
Red Sea. it is bounded S. (i) by the inaritime countries of the
vest cosst of Africa, (^) by the basin of the Congo, and (3) by
the equatorial lakes, and E. by the Abyssinian and Galla high-
Lads. The name is oCteb used in Great Britain in a restricted
sense to designate only the eastern part of this vast territory,
bst it is properiy applied to the whole area indicated, which
COTTcspond^ roughly to that portion orneg;ro Africa north of the
equator under Mahommcdan influence. The terms Nigritia
4ad Negroland, at one time current, referred to the same region.
The Sodan has an etfanok)gical rather than a physical unity,
xod politicaUj it b divided Into a large number of states, all
oov under the control of European powers. These countries
faeiag scpAraftdy described, brief notice only is required of the
Sudan as a whdk.
Within the limits ^asigntd it has a length of about 4000 m.,
exteadinc soothwards at some points 1000 m., with a total
vta of over 2,000,000 sq. m., and a population, approximately,
of 40,000,000. Between the arid and sandy northern wastes
aad the wcU-watered and arable Sudanese lands there is a
traittitionai zone of level grassy steppes (partly covered with
w^:my^^.fi^ and acacias) with a mean breadth of about 60 m.
The xonc Bcs between 17** and i8* N"., but towards the centre
T^^r j tr ^ as far south as 15" N. Excluding this transitional
zooe, the Sudan may be described as a moderately elevated
i^aon, with extensive open or rolling plains, level plateaus, and
abuulBg at its eastern and western ends on mountainous coimtry.
Cryvtafl&ic xocks, gn^tes, gneisses and schists, of the Central
African type, occupy the greater part of the eonntty. Ttmardi
the south-east, slates, quartziies And iron-bear}ng sdiists occur,
but their age is not known.. The Congo sandstones do not appear
to extend as far north. The Nubian sandstone borders the
Libyan desert oi) the- south and south-west^ but it ia doubtful
if this sandstone is of Cretaceous or earlier date.
The Sudan contains the basin of the Senegal and parts cl
three other hydrographic systems, namely: the Niger, draining
southwards to the Atlantic; the central depression of Lake Chad;
and the Nile, flowing northwards to the Mediterranean.: Lyh)g
within the tropics and with an aversge devalion of not mow
than xsoo to 2000 ft. above the sea, the. climate oi the Sudan'
is. hot and in the river valleys very uti-
healthy. Few parts arc suitable for the
resadimoe of Europcaas. Cut oS frotn
North Africa by the Sabiran desert, the
inhabitants, who belong in the nsin to
the negro famfly proper,, are thought to
have received their Mrlicst dviUaatien
I from the Easti Arab influence and the
' Moslem religiQo began to be felt inthe
western Sudan as early as the 9th c^tury
and had taken deep root by the end of
the nth. The existence of native Chri^
tian states in Nubia hindered for some
centuries the spread of Islani in the
eastern Sudan, and throughout i\m
country some tribes have remained
pagan. Jt was not until the last quattter
of the igith centuiy thai the European
nations became the ruling force,
g The terms western, central and eastern
Sudan are indicative of geographic^
position merely. The various states aft
politically divisible into four groups:
(i) those west of the Niger; (a) those
between the Niger and Lake Chad; (3)
those between Lake Chad and the basih
of the Nile; (4) thosq in the upper Nile
valley.
The first group includes the natiye
states of Bondu, Futa Jallon, Mosirai,
Mossi and all the tribes within the great
bend of the Niger. In the last quarter
of the 19th century they fell under the
control of France, the region being
styled ofiicially the French Sudan. In
x^oo this title was abandoned. The
greater part of what was the French
Sudan is now known as the Uppcbr
Senegal and Niger Colony (see SsmcGAi,
French West AniCA, &c.).
The second group! of Sudanese states
is almost entirely within the British
protectorate of Northern Nigeria. It includes the sultanate
of Sokoto and iu dependent emirates of Kano, Bida, Zaxia,
&c., and the ancient sultanate of Bomu, which, with Adamawa,
is partly within the German colony of Cameroon (see NigzuA
and Camekoon).
The thml or central group of Sudanese states is formed of
the sulUnatcs of Bagirmi {g.v.) with Kanem and Wadai (j.».).
Wadai was the last state of the Sudan to come under European
influence, its conquest ^••ing effected in 1909. This tlurd group
is indnded in French Coiigo.(9.v.).
The fourth group consists of the sUtes conquered during
the X9th century by the Egyptians and now under the jofait
control of Great Britain and Egypt. These countries arc knowp
collectively as the Anglo-Egyptiao Sudan <»ee below).
For the rvgions west^ Lake Chad the atandard hictorical wode
is the TroMls dt Dr Heinrich Baith (5 vols.. London. i8i»-f858).
Consult also P. C. Meyer, BrforschungsgeschuhU und StaaUnhfUdunM
tUs WesUudan (Gotha. 1807). an admirable aununary with bibfio-
graphy and maps; Karl Kumm, Tht Smdan (London, 1907): Lady
xo SUDAN
Lugwd. A Tropkai Dtpmitii^ (London, 1905): and the bibiio-
gruihiea given under the various, countries named. For sources
ana history see Timbuktu. For the central Sudan the most im-
portant work is that of Gustav Nachtisal, Sahara und Sudan (3 vols..
Berlin 1879-1889). See also Boyd Alexander, from the Nigfir to A*
NUe (2 vols., London. IQ07) ; Kan Kumin, From Hausaaiani to Egypt
(London, 1910). For the.eastem Sudan see the bibliographies under
the following section. A good general work is P. Paulitschke's
Du ^uddnldnder (Freibui^. 1885).
The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
The KgioQ which before the tevolt of the Arabized tribes
under the Mahdi Mahommed Ahmed in 1881^ was known
as the Egyptian Sudan has, since its recooquest by
'the Angh>-Egyptian expeditions of 1896-98, been
under the joint sovere^ty of Great Britain and
Egypr. The limits of this condominium differ slightly from
those of the Egyptian Sudan of the pre-Mahdi period. It is
bounded N. by Egypt (the sand paiaUel of N. lat. being the
dividing line), E. by the Red Sea, Eritiea and Abyssinia, S. by
the Uganda Protectorate and Belgian O>ngo, W. by French
Congo. North of Darfur is the Libyan Desert, in which the
.western and northern ftontieis meet. Here the boundary is
undefined.'
As thus constituted thet Anglo^-Egyptian SuHan forms a com-
pact territory which, being joined southwards by the Uganda
Protectorate, brings the whole of the Nile valley from the
equatorial lakes to the Mediterranean under the control of Great
Britain. The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan extends )[iorth to south
about X20O m. in a direct line, and west to east about zooo m.
also in a direct line. It covers 950,000 sq. m., being about one-
fourth the area of Europe. In what follows the term Sudan
is used to indicate the Anglo-Egyptian condominium only.
Physical FeatMres.^-TUfi Sudan presents many diversified features.
It may be' divided broadly into two zones. The northern portion,
from about 16* N., is practically the south-eastern continuation
of the Saharan desert; the southern region is fertile, abundantly
watered, and in places* densely forested. West ot the Nile there
is a distinctly marked intermediate zone of steppes. In the southern
district, between s* and lo* N., huge swamps extend on either side
of the Nile and along the Bahr-d-Ghaxal.
From south to north the Sudan is traversed by the Nile (^.t».),
and all the great tributaries of that river are either partly or entirely
withia its borders. . The most elevated district is a rangeof mountains
runmog parallel tq the Red Sea. These mountains, which to the
south jom.the Abysdnlan highlands, present their steepest face
eastwaid, attaining heights within the Sudan of 4000 to over 7000 ft.
Jebel Erba, 7480 it., and Jebel Soturfaa, 6889 ft. (both between ai*
an4 »* N.), the higdhest peaks^ face the Red Sea about 20 m.
inUnd. Westward the mountoins slope gradually to the Nile
valley, which occupies the greater part of the country and has a
geoeiaf level of from 600 to 1600 ft. In ^aces, as between Suakin
and Beiber and above Roseires on the Blue Nile, the mountains
approach dose to the river. Beyond the Nile westward extend
vastplaios, which in Kotdofan and Dar Nnba (between 10* and
15* N.) are broken by hills reaching 2000 ft. Farther west, in
iMrfur, the country is more devated, the Jdiel Marra range being
from 5000 to 6000 ft. high. In the south-west, beyond the valley
of the Bahr-d-Ghaial, the country gradually rises to a ridge of hills,
perhaps aooo ft. high, which running south-eastandnorth-westform
the water-parting between the Nile and the Congo.
Apart from the Nile system, fully descrified dsewhere,the Sudan
has two other rivers, (he Gash and the Barska. These are inter-
mtttenfc streams rising in the eastern chain of mountains in Eritrea
And flowing in a general northerly direction. The Gash enters
the Sudan near Kassala and north of that town turns west towards
the Atbara, but its waters are dissipated before that river is reached.
The Gash nevertheless fertilizes a considoable tract of country.
The Khor Baiaka lies east of the Gash. It flows towards the Red
Sea in the adghbourhood of Trinkitat (some «> m. south of Suakin),
but about 30 as. from the coast forms an inland delta. Except in
seasons of great rain its waters do not reach the sea.
The Coast Region.'^The coast extends along the Red Sea north
to south from aa" N. to 18* N.jjs distance folk>wiog the indentations
of the Aon of over mo m. These todentatlons axe numerous but
not deep, the generail trend of the coast bring S.S.E. The most
prominent headland is Ras Rawaya (21* NO which forms the
northern shore of Dokhana Bay. There are few good harbours. Port
* It was supposed to be indioated by the line whkh, acoordina to
the Turkish nirman of 1841, describes a semtcirde from the Siwa
Oasis to Wadai, appioacfaing the Nile between the Second and Third
Cataracts. This line isdisRgarded by the Sudan government.
Sudan and Suakin beii« the chief pacts. South ^ SusWa is the
shallow bay of Trinkitat. A large number of small islands lie off the
coast. A belt of sandy land covered with low scrub stretches inland
ten to twenty miles, and is travened bv khors (generally dry) with
ill-defined shifting channels. Beyond this plain rise the mouotaia
ranges already mentioned. Their seaward slqpes oftea bar a
considerable amount of vegetation.
The Desert Zone.— The greater part of the region between the coast
and the Nile is known as the Nubian Desert. It is a rugged, rocky,
barren waste, scored with khors or wadis, ahmg whosebeds then
is scanty ve^etatwn. The desert character of the country increases
as the river is neared, but along either bank of the Nile is a narrow
strip of cultivable land. West of the Nile there are a few oases^
those of Sdima, Zaghawa and El Kab~-but this district, rart of
the Lib/aa Desert, is even more desolate than the Nubian Dcsen.
Tke InUnudiaU Zona and the fettiU i7u<rtc/4.— East o( the Nile
the region of absolute desert ocases about the point of the Atbara
confluence. The country endoeed by the Nile, the Atbara and the
Blue Nile, the so-called Island of Meioe, consists of voy fertile
soil, and alone the eastern frontier, by the upper courses of the
rivers named, is a district of rich land alternating with prairies and
open forests. The fork between the White ami Blue Niks, the
Gecira. is also fertile land. South of the Geiira is Sennar, a well-
watered country of arable and grazing land.
West of the Nile the desert zone extends fanher south than ort
the east, and Kordofan, which comes between the desert and the
plains of the Bahr-d-Ghanl, is laigdy barren and steppe land.
South of 10* N. there is everywhere abundance ot water. Darfur
is mainly open, steppe-like countiy with extensive tracts of cultiv-
able land and .a central mountain massif, the J^d Marra (see
Sennar Kordofan, Darfur).
Gimate.—The country lies whdly within the tropics, and as the
greater part of it is far removed from the ocean and less than tyn ft.
above the sea it is extremely hot. The heat is greatest m the
central regions, least in the desert aone, where the difference between
summer and winter is marked. Even in winter, however, the day
temperatures are hkh. Of this region the Arabs say " the soil is
like fire and the wind like a flame.** Nevertheless, the dryness of the
air rendera the climate healthy. The steppe countries, Kordofan
and Darfur, are also healthy excqpt after the autumn rains. At
Khartum, centrally situated, the minimum temperature is about
40* F., the maximum 113*. the mean annual temperature bring 80*.
January is the coldest and Tune the hottest month. Violent sand-
storms are frequent from June to August. Four rain zones may
be distinguished. The northern (desert) region is one of little or
no rain. . There are perhaps a few rainy days in winter and an
occasional storm in the summer. In the central belt, where " the
rainy season" is from mid-June to September, there are some
10 in. of raia during the year. The number of days on which
rain falls rardy exceeds, however, fifteen. The rainfall increases
to about 70 in. per annum in the eastern and south*ca$tcra
regions.. In the swanip district and throughout the Bahr-el'Ghaza]
heavy rains (40 in. or more a year) are expeiienoed. The
season of heaviest rain is from April to Septcsnber. In the
maritime district there are occasional heavy rains between August
and January. In the sudd region thunoentorms are frequent.
Here the temperature averages about 85* F., the air is always
damp and fever is endemic
Flora.-^ln the deserts north of Khartum ve^retation is almost
confined to stunted mimosa and, in the less and districts* scanty
herbage. Between the desert 'and the cultivated Nile lands is an
open growth of samr, hashab (Aatcia verek) and other acacia treea.
Between Khartum and 12* N. forest brits line the banks of the
rivers and khors, in which the most noteworthy tree is the saiit or
sunt (Acacia arabica). Farther from the riven are open woods of
heglig (Balanile* aegyptiaea), hashab, Ae., and dense thicket* of
laot (Acacia nubica) and kittr (Acacia meilifera). These open woods
cover a considerable part of Kordofan, the hashab and tath trees
being the chid produccre of g^m arabic South of la* N. the forest
lands of the White Nile as far south as the sudd region are of rimilar
.character to that described. On the Blue Nile the forest trccj
alter, the most abundant being the babanus (Sudan ebony) and the
silag {Anogeissus leiocarpus), while ^gantic baobabs, called tebeldi
in the Sudan, and tarfa (SUrctUta cinerea) are numerous. In
southern Koraofan and in the higher parts of the Bahr-el-Ghaaal
the silag and ebony are also common, as writ as African mahogany
gioraraya, Khaya sentgfdensis) and other timber trees. In th«
hazal province also are many rubber-producing lianas, among
them the Landolphia owariensis. There are also forest regions in
the Bahr-el-Jebd, in the Mongalla mudlria and along the Abyssinian*
Eritrean frontier. East of the Bahr-eMebel and north ol the
Bahr-d-Ghaaal are vast prairies coverBd with tall coarse grass.
Cotton is indigenous in the valley of the Blue Nile, and in some
districts bamboos are plentiful. The castor-oil plant growi
.in almost every province. (See also { AgriadtMrtt and, for the
vegetation of the swamp region, Nile.)
Fdima.— Wild animals and birds are nomerous. Blephanta are
abundant in the Bahr-el-Ghasal and Bahr-d-Jebd fbresta, arwi
are found in. fewer numbers ia the upper valley of the Blue Nile
SUDAN
XI
Tflft ■BpCpOiMMlB ttld CXOBOCUt maOUOta in Utt SWUHp ttffoOMt
wkkh alao ■hdtcr oiany tdnd* ol watar-fowL The lion, leopard.
lisaAr luid various lands of antelope are found in the prairies and
m the open woods. In the forests are numerous brigiit-pluniaged
birds nad nany ■pecies o( monkeys, mostly ground monkeys—
the trees bdac too prickly for cUmbing. SoaJces are also plentiful,
naaypoisoaaus kinds being found. In the steppe re|j:ions ci Kordo*
Can. Uarfor, Ac, and in the Nubian Desert ostriches are fairly
pientifoL loaect Kie is very abundant, especially south of 13" N.,
the wwtlMni limit of the tsetse fly. The chief pests are roosqui-
teeiw tena i t aa and the senit. a brown flv about the size of a wasp,
with a sharp stab, which chiefly attacks cattle. Locusts are less
coauBoa. but, especially in the eastern districts, occasionally cause
great destnxtion. For domestic animals see | AgrkuUwt,
InkabUantf.—Tht popdation, "always spane in the desert
and fteppe regSons, was never dense even in the more fertile
s wiib c in districts. During the Mahdia the country soffered
severely- fcom war and disease. Excluding Darfur the p6pula-
tioa before the Mahdist rule was estimated at 8,500,000. In
1905 an estimate made by the Sudan government put the
population at 1,853,000 only, including x 1,000 foreigners, of
whom sSbo were Europeans. Since that year there has been
a considerable natural increase and in 19x0 the population was
oftdaBy estimated at 3400,000. There has also been a slight
immigration of Abyssinians, Egyptians, Syrians and Europeans
-Hbe last saxned chiefly Greeks.
The term ** BOad-es-Sudan " {'* country of the blacks '*) is
tot altogether applicable to the Anglo-Egyptian condominium,
the northern portion being occupi^ by Hamilic and Semitic
tribes, diiefly nomads, and classed as Arabs. In the Nile valley
Berth of Khartnm the inhabitants are of very mixed origin.
TUs appEes particularly to the so-called Nubians who inhabit
the Docgola mucfiria (see Nubia). Elsewhere the inhabitants
north of x a* N. are of mixed Arab destent. In the Nubian
Desert the chief tribes are the Ababda and Bisharin, the last
Bsmed grazing their camels in the mountainous districts towards
the Red Sea. In tb« region south of Berber and Suakin are
the HadexM^NL The JaaUn, Hassania and Shukria inhabit the
country between the Atbara and Blue Nile; the Hassania and
Hwsanaf are found chiefly in the Gezira. The Kabbabbh
occupy the desert country north of Kordofan, which is the home
of the Baggarm tribes. In Darfur the inhabitants are of mixed
Arab and negro blood.
Of negro KOotic tribes there are three or four main divisions.
The Shiliiks occupy the country along the west side of the Nile
northward from about Lake No. The country cast of the Nile
is ifivided between the Bari, Nuer and Dinka tribes. The
Diokas are also widely spread over the Bahr-el-Gharal province.
South of Kotdofan and west of the ShiUuk territory are the
Kubas, apparently the original stock of the Nubians. In the
touth-west of the Bahr-el-Ghazal are the Bongos and other
trfiMs, and along the Nile-Congo water-parting are the A-Zande
or Ntam-Niam, a comparatively light-coloured race. (All the
tribes mentioned are separately noticed.)
Sana/ Conditions.^ln contrast with the Egyptians, a most
bd^stxioas race, the Sudanese tribes, both Arab and negro,
are as a general rule indolent. Where wants are few and simple,
where houses need not be built nor clothes worn to keep out
the cold, there is little stimulus to exertion. Many Arabs " clothed
ia rags, with only a mat for a house, prefer to lead the life of the
free-bom sons <rf the desert, no matter how large their herds or
how n um ero m their foUowings" {Egypt, No. x (1904], p. 147).
Following the establishment of British control slave-raiding and
the slave trade were stopped, but domestic slavery continues.
A genuine desire for education is manifest among the Arabic-
speaking peoples and slow but distinct moral improvement is
▼oibie axnoDg them. Among the riverain " Arabs " some were
found to sapiply labour for public works, and with the money
thus obtained cattle were bought and farms started. The
Doogolese are the keenest traders in the country. The Arab
trdies are all Mahonmedans, credulous and singularly liable
to fits of rdigioos exdtement. Most of the negro tribes are
pagan, but some of them who live in the northern regions
have embraced Idam.
5
ndlways are owned and wovfced by the state.
In connexion with the Khartum-Haifa railway steamers ply on
the Nile between Haifa and Shellal (Assoan) where the rMhray
from Alexandria ends. The distance by rail and steamer b et w e e n
Khartum and Alexandria is about 1400 m. Steamers run 00 the
Nile between Kerroa and Kareima, and above Khartum the govern-
ment maintains a regukir service <^ steamers as far south as Gondo-
koro in the U^nda Protectorate. During flood teason there is
also a steamship service on the Bhie Nile. Powerful di e dge r s a^
sodd-cottins nwchines are used to loeq> .open communications m
the upper Nile and Bahr-el-Ghaial.
The ancient caravan routes Korosko-Abu Hamed and Berber-
Suakin have been superseded by the railways, but elsewhere wells
and rest-houses are maintained along thr ' ' ''^-
towns and the Nile. On tome of tncae
is maimained.
From Port Sudan and Suakin there b a regular steamship seryke
to Europe via the Sues Canal. There are also services to Alexandria,
the Red Sea ports of Arabia, Aden and India.
There is an extensive telegraphic system. Khartum ia oonnected
by land lines with Egypt and Uganda, thus affording direct tele*
graphic connexion between Alexandria and Mombasa U500 m-).
From Khartum other lines go to Kassala and the Red Sea ports.
In some places the telegraph wires are placed 16 ft. 6 in. above
the ground to protect them from damaiR by giraffes.
Atriailtut§ and other Industries.—fiarth of Khartum agrkul-
tunJ land is confined to a narrow strip on either side of the N^e
and to the few oases in the Libyan Desert. In the G^ra and m
the plains of Gedaref between the Blue Nile and the Atbara there
are wide areas of arable hind, as also in the neighbourhood of Kasnia
along the banks of the Gash. In Kordofan and Darfur cujtivatioa
b confined to the khors or valleys. The chief grain crop is durra,
the staple food of the Sudanese. Two crops are obtained yearly
in scN'eral districts. On hnds near the rivers the durra is sown after
the flood has gone down and alio at the beginning of the rainy
Considerable quantities of wheat and barley are also
the main routes be t we e n the
a motor car service
IS
srowiu ' Other foodrtuffs m$tA are leiAil4* beaut, cnuona And
melons'^ The date-palm ia jcultivated along tbe Nile vaUey below
Khartum, especially on the west bank in tbe Dongola mudiria and
ia the neighbourins oaaes, Date» are also a ftaple product in
Parfur and. Kordoian. Gn>uod>nuta and eesame are grova in Uxge
quantitiea for the oil they yield, aad cotton <rf quaUty equal to
triat grotrn in tbe Delta w produced. The Sudan was indeed the
original home of Egyptian cotton,
For wateKing tbe land by the river banks aakias (water*whecls)
are used, oxen being employed to turn than. There a<e also a few
irrigation oanaU. In 1910, apart from the date pbmtatiofiB, about
i,<|oo,ooo acres were under cultivation. In 1910 a system of basin
inigation was begun in Dongola mudiria.
Gnm and rubber are the chief forest productSL ' The gum is
obtained from eastern Kordofaa and in the forests in the upper
valley of tbe Blue Kile, the best gam coming from Kordofan. It
is of two kinds, hashab (white) and taih (red), the white being the
most valuable. Rubber is obtained from the Bahr*el-Chazal —
where there are Para and Ceara rubber plantations — and in the
Sobat district. The wood of the sunt tree is used largely for boat-
building and for fuel, and the mahiogaay tree yields excellent timber4
Fibre is made from several trees and plants. Elephants are hunted
for the sake of their ivory. . The wealth of the Arab tribes consists
largely in thdr herds of camels, horses and cattle. They also keep
ostrich farms, the feathers being of good quality. The Dongola
bnsed of horses is noted for its strength and hardness. The cameb
arc bred in the dcsett north of Berber, between the Nile and Red
Sea. in southena Dongola,. in the Hadendoa country and in northern
Kordofuu Tbe Sudanese camel is .lighter, -faster and better bred
than the camel of Egypt. The camel, horse and ostrich are not
found south of Kordotan and Sennar. The negro tribes living
south of those countries possess large herds of cattle, dieep and
goats. The cattle are generally small and the sheep yield little
wook The Arabs use the cattle as draught-animals as well as for
their milk and flesh ; the neg^o tribes as a rule do not eat their oxen.
Fowls are plentiful, but of poor quality. Donkeys are much used
in thC'Ccntnil regions; they make eacellent transput animals.
Mineral Wealth, — In ancient times Nubia» i.«. the reeion bet>K'Oen
the Red Sea and the Nile south of Egypt aad north of the Suakin-
BerixT' line, was worked for gold. Ruins of an extensive gold-
mine exist near Jebel Erba at a short distance from the sea. In
IQ09 gold mininc[ recommenced in Nubia, ttt the district of Um
Wabanli, Which; is in the desert, about midway between Wadi
Haifa and Abu Haraed. A light railway, 30 m. long, opened in
June 1905, connects Um Nabardi with the government railway
system. The producing stage was reached m looS, and between
Septcndxr 1^ and August 1909 the mines yielded 4500 oz. of gold.
Snail quantities of gold-dust arc obtained from Kordofan, and
fdd is found in the Beni-Shangul country south-west of SenAar,
but this region is within the • Abyssinian frontier (agreement of
the isth of May 1902). There is lignite in the Dongola mudiria
and .iroa>ot«i is wund in Darfur, southern Kordofa^ and in the
Bahr««l<<}tezaL In the last-named ratidiria iron is worked by the
nalavee. The district of Hofrat'el^Nahas (the copper mine) is
rich in copper, the mines having beoi worked intermittently from
remote times.
rr«fe.-^The chief products of the Sudan for export are gum,
ivory, ostrich • feathers, dates and rubber. Cotton, cotton-seed
and grain (durra, wheat, barley) sesame, livestock, hides and skins,
beeswax, mother-of-pearl, senna and gold are also exported. Before
the opening (1906) ot the ratlwav to the Red Sea the trade was chiefly
with Egypt via the Nile, and the ^reat cost of carriage hindered its
development. Sinee the completion of the railway named goods
can be put on the worid's markets at a much cheaper rate. Besides
the Egyptian and Red Sea routes there Is considerable trade between
the eastern madirias and Abyssinia' and Eritrea, and also aorae trade
south and west with Uganda and the Congo coimtries. The Red
Sea ports trade largely with Arabia and engage in peari -fishery.
The prindjxd imports are cotton goods, food-stuiTB (flour, rice,
sugar, provisions), timber, tobacco, spirits (in large quantities),
iron and machinery, candles, cement and perfumery. The value
of the trade, which during the Mahdist rule (1864-1898) was a few
thousands only, had increased in 190$ to over £1 ,500,000. < In
1908 the exports of Sudan produce were valued at ££515,000 ^ the
total imports at ££1,892^)00.
Cotemnunt.^-Thc administtation is based on the provisions
of a coaventioQ signed on the iQtb of January 1899 between
the British and Egyptian governments. The authority of the
sovereign powers is represented by a governor-genera) appointed
by Egypt on the recommendation of Great' Britain. In 19 10 a
council consisting of four ex officio members and .from two to
four non-oi&dal nominated memliers was created to advise the
governor-general in the exercise of hi» executive and legislative
functions. Subject to the power of veto ret ai ncd by the governor-
general all questions are decided by a majority of the counciL
• • '^' -wjnd Egyptian) is equal to £1, o». 6d. British currency.
SUDAN
EMh of the nradkiaalnto nrhifah the cnmtiy k divided it pra^ded
over by a mudir (governor) responsible to the central govern
ment at Khartum. The govemoi-genefal, the chiefs of the
various depaitments of state and the muiiirs are all BoiopeanSi
the maprity being British miliUiry officers. Tbe minor c^ciali
are nearly all Egyptians or Sudanese. Revenue is derived as
to about 60% from the customs and revenue-earning d^>art<
meats (».e. steameis, railways, posU and telegraphs), aad as
to the rest from taxes on land, date^trees and animals, frote
royalties on gum, ivory and ostrich feathers, from licences to
sell spirits, cany arms, &c., and from fees paid for the shooting
of game. Expenditure is largely on public works education,
justice and the army. Finandal afiairs aie managed from
Khartum, ,but control over expenditure is excised by the
Egyptian financial department. The revenue, which in xS^S
was ££35,000, for the first time exceeded a million in 1909^ when
the amount realized was ££i,o4o,2oa The expenditure in
1909 was ££1,153,000. Financially the government had been,
up to 191 o, largely dependent upon Egypt. In the years 1901-
1909 £E4,378i<xo was advanced from Cairo for public works
in the Sudan; in the same period a further sum of about
££2,750,000 had been found by Egypt to meet annual deficits
in the Sudan budgets (see Egypt, No. x [1910], pp. 5-6).
Justice. — The Sudan judicial codes, based ia part 00 those
of India and in part on the principles of English law and of
Egyptian commercial law, provide for the recognition of " cus-
tomary law " so far as applicable and " not repugnant to good
conscience.^' In each mudiria criminal justice is adminislened
by a court, consisting of the mudir(pr a. judge) and two xnagis-^
trates, which has general competence. The magistrates are
members of the administrative staff, who try minor cases without
the help of the mudir (or judge). Tbe governor-general possesses
revising powers in all cases, (^ivil cases of importance are hcarc^
by a judge (or where no judge is available by the mudir or, his
representative); minor civil cases are tried by magistrates.
From the decision of tbe judges an appeal lies to the kgal
secretary of the government, in his capacity of judicial com-
missioner. Jurisdiction in all legal matters as rc^arxis personalj
status of Mahommedans is administered by ,a,g£and cadi and a
staff of subordinate cadis. The police force of each mudiria is
independently organized under the control of the mudixs.
EducaHoih — Education is in charge of the department of
public instruction. Elementary education, the mcdiupi of
instruction being Arabic, is given in kuUabf or village schools.
There are primary schools in the chief towns where English,-
Arabic, mathematics, and in some cases land-measuring is
taught. There are also goverrunent industrial workshops, and
a few schools for girls. The Gordon College at Khartum trains
teachers and judges in the Mahommcdan courts and has annexed
to it a secondary school. The college also contains tbe Wellcome
laboratories for scientific research. Among the pagan negro
tribes Protestant and Roman Catholic missions are established.
These missions carry on educatio^al work, special attention
being given to industrial training.
Defence.— The defence of the country is entrusted to the
Egyptian army, of which several regiments are stationed in the
Sudan. The governor-general is sirdar (commander-in-chief)
of the army. A small force of British troops is also stationed
in the Sudan— chiefly at Khartum. They are under the com-
mand of the governor-general in virtue of an arrangement made
in 1905, having previously been part of the Egyptian command.
For topography. &c.. sec TkeAngh-Egyplian Sudan, a compendium
prepared by ofnccrs of the Sudan government and edited by Counx
Gleichen (2 vols., London. 1905); for administration, finance and
trade the annual Reports [by the British agent at Cairol on Egypt
and the Sudan, since 1898; and the special report (Blue Book Egypt,
No. ii., i88j) by Cobnel D. H. Stewart. Consult also j. Pethenck.
Traxtels tn Central Africa (2 vols., London, 1862); VV. Junker, Travel*
."5-7Wtf (3vols.,London. I" - -*• ^ - •- •
The Heart of Africa (2 vols., London,
in Afrtca, 1875-1886 (3 vols., London. 1890-1892) ; G. Schweinfurth
The Heart of Africa (2 vols., London, 18—* '^ *• ^" '^ *
afrika, iter SvAan und das Seengebiet (Gotha,
ErythfSa nnd der dgypfische Suddn (Berlin. 1904)
1890-1892); G
i. 1873): J-&'
»tha, 1890); E.
-„,,. , Berlin, 1904): — — ,
Report on the Forests of the Sudan (Cairo. 1901); H. F. VVitherby,
Btrd Hunting on the WhiU Nile (London. i.9oaX For ethnology.
mmgarlcn, Ost-
D. Schocftft-H.
C. F^ Muriel,
SUDAN
■5
Atfohgy of lie Et»plia» Sudan (pmdook
Jleiden-Neger des Sgypttschen Sudan (Berlin,
I medical tubjects are dealt with in the Reports
Ie.. M A.H.'KeaH
i<?4):H. Frobcnju^^
ii91) Sdcotific ant
«f ttc Wdkmte Rtsunh Lab^ntorits, GovdonXolleKc, Khartum.
Tie Sudtm Almimr i» • viwable offidal pnbiicmiop. <F. R.C.)
ilrdka««£ffy.— ArduMlogical study in the Sudan was retarded
for many yean by political ooodUtions. The wodc which bad
beta bcgu by Cailliaud, ChampoUioo, Lepuus and othea was
istcmipud by the tise ol the Mahdist power; and with the
kofiiien of Egypt itsetf menaced by dervishes, the country
south of Aswma (Assuan) was necessarily dosed to the student
of utiqttity. Even alter the dervishes had been overthrown
ti the battle ol Omdurman (1898) it was some time before
uchaeologists awoke to a sense of the historical importance of
Uk resiooa thus made accessible to them. Dx Wallis Budge
fisited several of the far southern sites knd made some tentative
ocavatiotts, bat no extensive explorations were undertaken
ufiiH aa unexpected event produced a saddm out bust ol activity.
This was the resolution adopted by the Egyptian govcnunent
tA extend the greal reservoir at the First Cataract by raising
ihe height of the Aswan dam. As a result of this measure alt
sit£s- bordering the river banks from Aswan to Abn Simbel
vCTc threatened with inundation and the scientific world took
ilarm. A lupt sum of money was assigned by ihegoverament,
paitJy for the pceservalion of the visible temples in the area
to be gabm<iyd» partly for an offidai expedition under the
ch*ige of Dr G. A. Reisner which was to search for all nmains
b( antiquity hidden beneath the ground. ' At the same time
U^e university of Pennsylvania despatched theEckley B. Coxe,
>in., espcditiott. which devoted its attention to the southern
hili ol I^ower Nubia from Haifa to Korosko^ while the govcm-
Bkeat excavators explored from Koroako to Aswan. Thus
•a the 6ve years 1907-1911 inclusive an immense mass of new
auieiiaJ was acquired whidi throws a flood of light on the
sfdueology at once of Egypt «nd the Sudan. For it must be
Cody appreciated that though all except the southern twenty
Bihes of Lower Nuhia has been attached for purposes of admini-
STiJoo ot Egypt ppdper, yet this political boundary b puiely
a.'UitdaL The natural 0Bogra(^cat and ethnical southern
livaticf of Egypt is the First Cataract; Egyptian, scribes of the
0.1 Empire recognized this truth no less dearly than Diodetian,
4£d Juvenal anticipates the verdict of every modem observer
•bfa be describes the " porta SyencB " as the gate of Africa,
li 15 the more necessary to emphasise this fact as the present
&rw.de must unavoidably be concerned principally with the
B*L$t northern regions of the country of the Bbcks— €or since
the days of Lepsius there has been little new investigation south
W UxUa. The hasty reconnaissances of Dr WalUs Budge,
Pnicssoc A. H. Sayce, Mr Somen Clarke and Professor J.
(crstang most be followed by more thorough and intensive
i .Oy L«fore it can be possible to write in more than very general
temi of anything but the well-known monuments left by
U-'i^tian kings whose history is already tolerably familiar from
9iiu.: goorus. The inscriptions of these kings and their o£Bcials
kv« been coUected by Professor J. H. Breasted and some
iz'-'mt of the temples and fortresses from Jialfa to Khartum
n. te found in the following section. Ancient Monuments
t^mifi ef Haifa, while the history of the early and medieval
Cfir..^uan kingdoms is outlined in the articles ExhiOpxa and
Dc.oCotA. The central and southern Sudan is therefore almost
a '^k'pn field for the archaeologist, but the exploration of Lower
Kibu has made it possible to write a tentative preface to the
sew chapters still unrevealed.
The Sudan was well named by the medieval Arab historians,
Ur^it primarily and above all the country of the black races,
cf those Nilotic negroes whose birthplace may be supposed to
Wtv been near the Great Lakes. But upon this aboriginal
cxk were paftcd in very early times fresh shoots of more
▼ifonus and intellecUial races ooming probably from the East
id Anso^: Elknohgy), Lower Nubia was one of the crucibles
in «hich several times was formed a nixed nation which defied
or acuidly donuoated Egypt. There is Bone ade&tific groond
XJtVl I*
for dsfing the earliest exampis of Midi a fuston to the exact
period of' the Egyptian Old Empii«. It is eertafn in ai^ case
that the process was drastatitly repeated at drfferent dat^
and in different parts of the country from Aswan to Axara, apd
to the stimuiation whidi resulted from it must be ascribed tbf
principal political and intellectual movements of the Sudanese
nations. Thus the ErMopJnns who asurped the cxoWn of the
Pharaohs frdm 740*^60 B.a wero of a n^ed stock akin to the
modem Bambca; the northern Ntibians who successfully defied
the Roman empeiots were under the lordship of thd BlemyeS
(Blemmyes), an East African tribe, and the empire of the
Candace dynasty, no less than the Christian kingdoms wMch
succeeded it, indnded many heterogeneous racial dements
(see also Ncbu). The veal history of the Sudan will therefore
be oonoerned with the evolution of what may be criled EmA
African or East Central Africafi dvilizations.
Up to the pvesent, however, this aspect has been obscured,
for until 1907 scholars had little opportunity of stndying-andeal
Ethiopia except as a colonial extensioti of Egypt. From the
purely Egyptotogical standpoint there is nmch of value to be
learned from the Sndan. The Egyptian penetracion of the
country began, according to the evidence of inscriptions, as early
as the Old Empire. Under the Xllth Dynasty colonies were
pUnted and fortresses established down to the Batn^-Hagairj
During the XVIIith Dynasty the political subjugation was com-
pleted and the new^ woa territories wens studded with dties and
temples as far south as the Fourth Cauract. Smne two hundred
years later the priests of Amen (Ammon), flying from Thebes,
founded a quasi-Egyptkn capital at Napata. But after this date
ESgypt played no part in the evolution of Ethiopia. PoUtically
moiribnndyitsuocuinbed tothe attacks of its virile southern neigh-
bours, who» having emeiged from foreign tutekge, developed
according to the natural laws of their own genius and environ"
ment. The history of Ethiopia therefore as en independent
civilisation may be said to date from the 8th century b.c, though
future researches may be able to cany its infant origins to a
remoter past.
Of the thousand years- or more of eflectiv« Egyptian oceopa*
don mslny monuments exist, but on a broad general view it must
be pronounced that they owe thdr fame more to the acddent'
of survival than to any spedal tntxinsic value. For excepting
Philae, which belongs as much to Egypt as to Ethiopia, Aba
Simbel is the only temple which can be ranked among first,
rate products of Egyptian genius. The other temples, attractive^
as they are, possess rather a local than a universal interestf
Similariy while the exploration of the Egyptian colonies south
of the First Cataract has added many details to our knowledge
of poBtical history, of local culls and provincial organisation,
yet with one exception it has not affected the known outlines
of the history of civilization. This exception is the discpvery
made by Dr G. A. Reisner that the archaic culture first detected,
at Nagada and Abydos and then at many points as fax* l^ortl)
as Gixa extended southwards into Nnbia at least as far as
Gerf Husein. Thift was wholly imexpected, and if, as seems
probable, the evidence stands the test of criticism, it is a neYv*
historical fact of ^eat importance. The government expedition
found traces between Aswan and Korosko of all the prindpal
periods from this eariy date down to the Christian era. The
specimetts*obtained are kept in a separate room of the Qaho
Museum, where they form a colIectioB of great value.
The work of the Pennsylvanian expedition, however^" wMtf
adding only a few details to the archaeology of the Egyptiftn
periocb, has opened a new chapter in the history of the African*
races. No records indeed were discovered of the founders of
the first great Ethiopian kingdom from Piankhi to Tirhakah,
nor has any fresh !ight been thrown upon the relations which
that remarkable king Ergamenes maintained with the Egyptiikn
Ptolemies. But the exploration of sites in the southern half
of Lower Nubia has revealed the eristence of a wholly unsu9>'
pected independent civilization which grew up during the fine
six -centuries after Christ. The history of the succeeding
periods, moitover, has been partially recovered and the study
J
SUDAN
ol architeaure enridied by the eicavation of numerout dmfches
dating from the lime of Justiniaiii when Nubia was fint Christian-
ized« down to the late medieval period when Christianity was
extirpated by Majwmmedanism.
The dvilixation -of the first six centuries aj>. may be called
** Romano-Nubian," a term which indicates its date and suggests
something of its character. It is the product of a people living
on the borders of the Roman Empire who inherited much of the
llellenistic tradition in minor arts but combined it with a
remarkable power of independent. origination. The sites on
which it has been, observed ^^S^ f'^^'^ Dakka to Haifa, that
b to say within the precise limits which late Latin and Greek
writers assign to the Bleroyes, and there is good reason to identify
the people that evolved it with this hitherto almost unknown
barbarian nation. Apart from this, however, the greatest
value of the new discoveries will consist in the fact that they
may lay the fpundatioos fo? a new documentary record of past
ages. For the graves yielded not only new types of sutues,
bronzes, ivory carvings and painted pottery— all of the highest
artistic ^^ue — but also a large number ol stone stelae inscribed
with funerary formulae in the Meroitic script.
In the course of sixty years the small collection of Meroitic
inscriptions made by Lepsius had not been enlarged aiul no
progress had been made towards dedpherment. But the
cemeteries of Shablul and Karanog alone yielded 170 inscriptions
on stone, besides some inscribed ostraka. This mass of material
brought the task of deciphermefit within the range of possibility,
and even without any bilingual record to assist him, Mr F. LI.
Griffith rapidly succeeded in the first stages of translation. As
further explorations bring more inscriptions to light the records
of Ethiopia will gradually be placed on a firm documentary
basis and the names and achievements of its greatest monarchs
will take their place on the roll of history.
BlBUOCRAPHY.-
tun (1849). Abh.
Nuhische Grammalx ;
Spmche (1887); F r
(1826); E. A. Wa
Reisner and C. M f
IftMai G. Elliott »
Human Remains" t
(1906-1007), A H I
(1906), AioHumenti r
and C. L. Woolley
via. voU i. AnVki , , , _.. „.
**The Romano-Nubian Cemetery," text, vol. iv. ibid., plates, 1910),
vol. vii. Behen; G. S. Milehara, Reports of the Eckley B. Coxc, jun.,
expedition, vol. ti. Churches in Lower Nnlna (roio); F. LI. Griffith,
Reports on the Eckley B. Coxe, jun., expedition, vol. vi. MeroUic
Inscriptions from Shabttd and Karanot, Meroitic Inscriptions, and
4 vols, on Tombs of EI Amamai and the " Archaeok>gical Survey "
of the Egypt Exploration Fund. (D. R.-M.)
AnciitU Monuments south of Hoi^a.— Ruins of pyramids,
temples, churches and other monuments are found along both
banks of the Nile ahnost as far south as the Fourth Cataract,
and again in the " Island of Mero&" In the following list the
ruins are named as met with on the journey south Jrom Wadi
Haifa. Opposite that town on the east bank are the remains
of Bohonj where was found the stele, now at Florence, com-
memorating the conquest of the region by Senwosri (Usertesen) I.
of Egypt (e. 3750 B.c). Forty-three miles farther south are
the ruins of the twin fortresses of Kiunma and Semna. Here
the Nile narrows and passes the Semna cataract, and graven
on the rocks are ancient records of " higjti Nile." At Amara,
some 80 m. above Semna, are the ruins of a temple with Meroitic
hieroglyphics. At Sal Island, 130 m. abovje Haifa, are remains
of a town and of a Christian church. Thirteen miles south of
Sai at Soleb are the ruins of a fine temple commemorating
Amenophis (Amenhotep) HI. (c. 14x4 b.c.) to whose queen Taia
was dedicated a temple at Scdeinga, a few miles to the north.
At Sesebi, 40 m. higher up the Nile, is a temple of the heretic king
Akhenaton re-worked by Seti I. (c. 1327 b.c). Opposite
Hannek at the Third Cataract on Tombos Island are extensive
ancient gtanite quarries, in one of which lies an unfinished
colossus. On the east side of the river near Kerma are the
remains of an Egyptian dty. Argo Island, a short distance
higher up, abounds in ruins, and those at Old Dongola, 320 m.
from Haifa, afford evidence of the town having t>een of consider-
able size during the time of the Christian kingdom of Dongola.
From Old Dongola to Merawi (a distance of too m. by the river)
are numerous ruins of monasteries, churches and fortresses of
the Christian era in Nubia-— notably at Jebel Deka and MagaL
In the immediate nei^bourbood of Jebel Barkal (the ** holy
mountain " of the ancient Egyptians), a flat-topped hill which
rises abruptly from the desert on the right bank of the Nile s
mile or two above the existmg village of Merawi (Merowe),
are many pyramids and six temples, the pyramids having a
height of from 35 to 60 ft. I^ramids are also found at Zuma
and Kurru on the right bank, and at Tangassi on the left bank
of the river, these places being about so m. below Merawi
That village is identified by some archaeologiBts with the ancient
Napata, which is known to have been situated near the " holy
mountain." On the left bank of the Nfle opposite Merawi are
the pyramids of Nuri, and a few miles diirtant in the Wadi
Ghazal are the ruins of a great Christian monastery, where were
found gravestones with inscriptions in Gretk and Coptic. Ruins
of various ages extend from Merawi to the Fourth Cataract.
Leaving the Nile at this point and striking direct across the
Bayixla Desert, the river is regained at a point above the Atbara
confluence. Thirty miles noith of the town of Shendi are the
pyramids of MeroS (or Assur) in three distinct groups. From one
of these pyramids was taken " the treasure of Qaetn Candace,"
now in the Berlin Museum. Many of the pyramids have a
small shrine on the eastern side inscribed with debased Egyptian
or Meroite hieroglyphics. These pyramids are on the right
bank of the NUp, that is in the " Island of MeroC." Portions (in-
cluding a harbour) of the site of the dty of MeroC, at Begerawia,
not far from the pyramids named, were excavated in 1909-T910
(see^EKOK). In this region, and distant from the river, are
the remains of several dries, notably Naga, where are ruins
of four temples, one in the Classic style. On the east bank
of the Blue Nile, about 13 m. above Rlnrtum at Soba, are ruins
of a Christian basilica. Farther south still, at Ctteina on the
White Nile (in 1904), and at Wad d-Hadad, some miks north
of Sennar, on the Blue Nile (in 1908), Christian remains have
been observed.
Between the Nik at Wadi Haifa and the Red Sea are the
remams of towns inhabited by the andent miners who worked
the district. The most striking of these towns is Derabcib
(Castk Beautiful), to named from the picturesque situation
of the castle, a large square building with pointed arches. The
walls of some 500 houses still stand.
For a popular account (with many illustrations) of these ruins
see J. Wpjrd, Our Sudan: Its Pyramids and Progfess (London, 1905).
CF. R. C.)
HiSTO&y
A. Prom the Earliest Time to the BgyptUn Conquest.— Thi
southern regions of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan are without
recorded history until the era of the Egyptian conquest in tb<
Z9th century. In the northern regions, known as Ethiopia
or Nubia, Egyptian Influence made itself felt as early as th<
Old Empire. In process of time powerful states grew up wit t
capitals at Napata and MeroC (see a$ite § Archaeology anc
Eiinopu and Egypt). The Nubiana-^that is the dweller
in the Nile valley between Egypt and Abyssinia-^id not cmbrao
Christianity until the 6th century, considerably later than theii
Abyssmian ndghbours. The Arab invasion of North Africa
in the 7th century, which turned Egypt into a Mahommedai
country, had not the same effect in Nubia, the Moslems, thougl
they frequently raided the country, bdng unable to bold It
On the ruins of the andent Ethiopian .states arose 4
the Christian kingdoms of Dongola and Aloa, with j
capitals at DongoU and Soba (corresponding roughly *
to Napata and MeroC). These kingdoms continued to exis
until the middle of the X4th century or later (see Dokcolx
Mudiria). Meanwhile Arabs of the Beni Omayya tribe, uxkIc
pressure from the Beni Abbas^ had begun to crosa the Red Se
SUDAN
ts
TheFmmi
H «Htr as the aih cnCttiT liid to «M9 ia Um dwtiiet ABOtuid
Soaar o» the Blua Nile» a region whkfa probably macked the
•Mthcnt liiiiita of the kia^dom of Aloa. Tbo Omai>ya, wbq
teas Ute fottoirinf ooituiifls wen cemfaroed by iuither
iBngnats Inxa Axabia, Intennanied with the. flcpoid races*
aaA padneHy Anb iBflneeoe became predominant and Islam
the aoBUMl faith of all the inhabitants o£ Sennar. Inthiaway
a faanierins cncted between the Christiana of Nubia and- those
af Ahya siui a- By the zsth centniy the Asabised negio ncea
«f the Blue Nile had frown into a powerful nation known aa
the Foal (f3.)# and daring that century they extended their
cppqnrtfe north to the borders of Egnit. The kingdom of
Doei^ had akcaify been redooed to a condition id anarchy
by Mfii tn ioYaBOos from the north. Cbristiaaity was stiU
p tufca a ed by sosne of the Nubians a^ late as the i6th centmy,
bai the whole Sudan north^of the lands of the pagan negroea
(fmif^ xz* N.) waa thea under Mosliem sway. At that time
the saltans of Darfur {q.v.) in the west and the eultaaaor kings
of Senaar (the Fnaj rulcn) in the east were the most powerful
ef the Mahnramrdan potmtatfs.
The first of the Fun) wonawhs acknowledged king of the
~ : of the allied tribtty of which the Hamcg were next in
importance to the Funl^ was Amara Dunkas, who
feigned c. i4S4*zs'r6.^ During the reign of Adlan,
c. I5g6-f605, the fame of Sennar attracted learned
iBen to his ooort from soeh distant places as Cairo and Bagdad.
Adian's grcat-giandson Badi Abv Daku attacked the Shflluk
K^mes and raided Koidofaa, This monarch built the great
Boiqne at Sennar, almost the only building in the town to survive
the ravages of the derrishes in the rpth century. In the early
part ef the s8th ocntory there was war between the Sennari
lad the Abynaintans, in which the last named wore defeated
•ith great slaughter. It is said that the cause of c|uarrel was
the adsnre by the Ung of Sennar of presents sent hy the king
«i Fimoee to the Negus. The victory over the ''infidel"
Abywdniane became oelebnited throughout the Bifahommedan
eoHd, and Sennar waa visited by many learned and olebrated
aa fiom Egyp<> Arabia and India. Towards the end of the
iStb century the Hameg wrested power from the FtanJ and the
bagdom fcO hito decay, many of the ^butmry princes refusing
to atki KWi te dige the king of Sennar. These disorders con*
tiaaed «p to the time of the conquest of the country by the
Eiyptmaa.
B. pFwmtksBiyfdanCotiqttaHotkeEiseoftktMakdu—ThB
feeqeeet of Nabia was imdertaken in iSio by order of Mehemet
^_ AK, the pasha of Egypt, and was accomplished In
^"H^^the two years following. Jn its consequences this
"•^ proved one of the most important events in the
katavy of Abka. Mehemet All never stated the reasons wbidi
hd kim to ofider the occupation of the country, but his leading
Borive was^ peobably, the desire to obtain possession of the
eiiiMs of gold and precious stones which he believed the Sudan
ooetsiaed. He also saw that the revenue of Egypt was falling
thraoib the diwrvon, smce about 1800, of the caravan routes
from the Nile to the Red Sea ports, snd may have wished to
icraptnre the trade, as well as to secure a country whence
fhocsaads of staves could be brought annually. Mehemet All
afao widied to crush the remnant of the Mamelukes who in 1812
ha.1 cstabOahed themselves at Dbngola, and at the same time
^^ fibd emptoymcnt for the numerous Albanians and Turks
■ h'^ army, of whose fidelity he was doubtfuL
Hcheaiet Ali gave the command of the army sent Co Nubia
te '^ son IvbomSI, who at the head of soom 4000 men left Wadi
fbJix in October 1S30. Following the NOe route he occupied
Dcngola without oppontion, the Mamelukes fleeing before blm.
I'S^me of them went to-Darfur and Wadai, others made their
v^y to (he Red Sea. This was the final dispersal of the Mame-
kka.) WHh. the nomad Shagia, who dominated the district,
* Variooi Eats aad dates of reign of the rulers of Sennar are
CT»9; rdfrenoe may be made in Stole vis*8 ManueJ d'histoire vol. i.
a^a. 18W). afld to rAe Auifo-Egyplittn Stdon, vat t. (London,
•9051
lamaD had two ahn^ encoaattn, one near Xorti, the other
higher up the river» and in both fights Ismail was succcssfuL
Thereafter the Shai^ furnished useful auxiliary cavalxy .to the
Egyptians. Ismail remained in the Doogola province till Feb-.
luaiy iSax, when he croascd the Bayuda Desert and received
theaubmimionof the meks (kings) of Berber* Shendi and Halfaya,
nominal vassals of the king of Sennar. Continuing his march
south Ismail reached the confluence of the White and Blue Nilea
aad esublished a camp at Raa KhartuuL (This camp devek>ped
into the city of Khartum.) At this time Badi, the king U
Sennar, from whom all real power had "been wrested by h^
leading oonndUors, determined to submit to the Egyptians,
and aa Ismail advanced up the Blue Nile he waa met at Wad
Medani by Badi who declared that he recogniaed Mehemet AU
as master of his kingdom. Ismail and Badi entered the town of
Sennar together on the xsth of June xSai, and In this peaceaUe
manner the Egyptians became rulers of the ancient empire o(
the Funj. In search of the gold-mines reported to exist farther
south Ismail penetrated into the mountainoia region of Fazokl*
where the negroes offered a stout resistance. In February x8sa
he set out on bis return to Sennar and Pongola, having received
rqporta of risings against Egyptian authority. The Egyptian
soldiery bad bdbaved throughout with the utmost barbarity,
and their passage op the Nile was marked by rapine, murder,
fflotibtion and fire. Of the rulers who had submitted to Ismaiiv
Nair Mimr, the mek of Shendi, had been conpeUed to follow in
the aaite of the Egyptians as a sost of hostaiBe, and this maa
entertained deep ha&ed of the pasha. On Ismail's return to
Shendi, October iSas, he demanded of the nitk xooo daves to
be supplied in two days. The mek, promising compliance.
Invited IsmaO and his chief officers to a feast in his houses around
which he had pikd heaps of straw. Whilst the Egjrptians were
feasting the mek set fire to the straw and Ismail and all hit
eompanions were burnt to death.
IsmaiTs death was speedily avenged. A second Egyptlaa
army, also about 4000 strong, had followed that of Ismail's
op the Nile, and striking south-wcst from Dchba had wrested,
after a sharp rsmpatgn, the province of Kordofaa (t8ax) ffoa
the saltan of Darfur. This army was commanded by Mahommed
Bey, the Defterdar, son-in-law of Mehemet Ali. Hearing of
Ismail's murder the Defterdar marched to Shendi, defeated the
forces of the mek, and took terrible revenge upon the inhabitants
of Metcmma aad Shendi, most of the inhabitants, induding
women and children, bciag burnt aUve. Nair Mimr escaped to
the Abyssinian frontier, where hie maintained his independence.
Having conquered Nubia, Sennar and Kordofan the Egyptians
set up a civil government, placing at the head of the administra-
tion a govemor-general with practically unlimited power.*
About this perkxl Mehemet Ali leased from the sultan of Turkey
the Red Sea ports of Suakin and Massawa, and by this meant
got into his handa all the trade routes of the eastern Sudani
The pasha of Egypt practically monopolised the trade of the
country except that in slaves, which became a vast ** industry,"
the lands inhabited by negro tribes on the borders of the con*
quered territories being raided annually for the purpose. From
the negro population the army waa so largely recruited that In
a few 3rear8 the only non-Sudanese in it were oiBcers. The
£g3rptian rule proved harmful to the oountry. The goveinor»>
general and the leading officials were neariy all Turks, Albanians
or Circassians, and, with rare exceptions, the welfare of the
people formed no part of their conception of government.*
Numerous efforts'wei^ made to extend the authority of Egypt.
In x840-;-i>revfcnis attempU having been unsuccessful— the
fertile district of Take, watered by the Atbara and Gash and
near the Abyaanian frontier, waa conquered and the town of
*For a list of the govemors^eaera] see The Antfo-Etyplia*
Sudan, L p. 280 (London* 1905).
• Khurahid Pa»ha. ijov'enior-gcnera! f6r 13 >-€«»» (1826-1830),
«'as one of these exceptions. He gained a great repuration both for
rectitude and visour. He led expeditions up the White Nile against
the Dinkas as far as Fashoda; defeated the Abj'ssinians on the
Sennar frontier, and taught the natives of Khaxttim to build booses
of brick.
J
Id
SUDAN
Kassak founded. Tn tSsj tbft pttha himfielf visited tlie Sudan,
going as far as Fazokl, where he inspected the goldfielda.
In 1849 Abd-el-Latif Pasha became governor-general and
attempted to remedy some of the evils which disfigured the
administration; He remained in office, however, little more
than a year, too short a period to effect reforms. The Sudan
was costing Egypt more money than its revenue yielded, though
it must not be forgotten that large stuns found their way illidtly
into th< hands of the pashas. The successors of Mehemet AK,
in an endeavour to make the country more profitable, eitended
their conquests to the south, and in 185^ and subsequent years
trading posts wero established on the Upper Nile, the pioneer
European merchant being John Petherick, British consular
agent at Khartum.' Petherick sought for ivory only,'but those
who followed him soon found that slave-raiding was more
profitable than elephant hunting. The viceroy Said, who made
a rapid tour through the Sudan in 1857, found it in a depbrable
Condition. The viceroy ordered many reforms, to be executed
and proclaimed the abolition of slavery. The refonns were
mainly inoperative and slavery continued. The project which
^id also conceived of linking the Sudan to Egypt by .railway
remained unfulfilled. The Sudan at this time {c, 1S62) is described
by Sir Samuel Baker as utterly ruined by Egyptian methods
of government and the retention of the country only to be
accounted for by the traffic in slaves. The European merchants
above Khartum had sold their posts to Arab agents, who
oppressed the natives in every conceivable fashion. Ismail
Pasha, who became viceroy of Egypt in 1863, gave orders for
the suppression of the slave trade^ and to check the operations
of the Arab traders a military force was stationed at Fashoda
(1865), this l)eing the most southerly point then held by the
Egyptians. Ismail's efforts to put an end to the slave trade,
if sincere, were ineffective, and, moreover, ioutli ol Kordofan
the authority of the government did not extend beyond the posts
oixttpled by their troops- Ismail, however, was ambitious to
extend his dominions and to develop the Sudan on the lines be
had conceived lor the development of EgypL He obtained
(1865) from the sultan of Turkey a firman assigning to him the
administration of Suakin and Massawa; the lease which Mehemet
Ali bad of these ports having lapsed after the death cf that
pasha. Ismail subsequently (1870-1875) extended bis sway
oVer the whole coast from Suez to Cape Guardafui and garrisoned
the towns of Berbera, Zaila, &c, while in 1874 the important
town of Harrar, the entrepot for southern Abyssinia, was seized
by Egyptian troops. The khedive had also seized Bogos, in
the hinterland of Massawa, a province claimed by Abysst;iia.
This action led to wars with Abyssinia, in which the Egyptians
were generally beaten. Egyptian authority was withdrawn
from the coast regions south of Suakin in 1884 (see below and
also Abyssinia; Eutrea and Souauland).
' At the samQ time that Ismail annexed the seaboaifd he was
extending his sway along the Nile valley to the equatorial lakes,
and conceived the idea of annexing all the country between
the Nik} and the Indian Qcean. An expedition was sent (1875)
to the Juba River with that object, but it was withdrawn at
the request of the British government, as it infringed the rights
of the sultan of Zanzibar.* The control of all territories south
of Gondokoro had been given (April i, 1869) to Sir Samuel
Baker, who, however, only left Khartum to take up his governor-
7>l^ ship in February 1870. Reaching Gondokoro on
Bvutorial the 96th of May following, he formally annexed
ntgiottti that station, which he named Ismailia, to the khedival
^"^"^nd. ^^'^^^^ Baker remained as governor of the Equa*
*****"* tonal Provinces until August 1873, and in March 1874
Colonel C. G. Gordon took up the same post. Both Baker and
. * The government monopoly in trade ceased after the death of
Mehemet Ali in 1849.
> The Juba was quite unsuitable as a means of commmiication
between the Indian Ocean ind the NMle. The proposal made to
Ismail by .Gordon was to send an expedition to Mombasa and thence
up the Tana River, but for some unexplained reason, or perhaps
by mistake, the expeditbn was ordered to the Juba (see Col. Gordon
in Central Africa, 4th cd., 1885, pp. 65, 66. 150 and 151, and Ceog.
'9um., Feb. 1. 1909, p. 150).
Gordon made stremious effbrta towtids oushhii^ the sbve tndfc,
but their endeavours were largely thwarted- by the inactk>& d
the authorities at Khartum. Under Gordon the Upper Nile
region as far as the borders of Uganda came eiectively under
Egyptian control, though the power of the go^enunent extended
on the cast little beyond the banks of the rivers. On the west
the Bahr^-Ghaaal had been overrun by Arab or semi-Arab
slave^deaJen. Nominally subjects of the khedj!«e, they acted
as free agents, reducing the oountxy>over iHiich they terrorized
to a state of abject misery. The most powerful of the slave
traders was Zobetr Pasha, who, .having defeated a force sent
from Khaittun to reduce him to obedience, invaded Daifur
(1874). The khedive, fearing the power of SSobeir, also sent
an expedition to Daxfur, and that country, after a stout resist-
ance, was conquered. Zobeir claimed to be made governor-
general of the new provhuoe; his request being refused, he went
to Cairo to urge his cJaim. At Cairo he ivas drained by the
Egyptian authorities.
Though spasmodic efforts wtte made to promote agriculture
and open up communications the Sudan continued to be a con-
stant drain on the £g3rptian exchequer. The kbedive Ismail
revived Said^ project of a railway, and a 8urvey,for a line from
Wadi Haifa to Khartum was made (187 r), vhUe a branch line
to Massawa was also contemplated. As with Said's project
these schemes came to naught.* In (Xtober 1876 Gordon
left the Equatorial Provinces and gave up his appointment
In February 1877, under pressure from the Britisli oenrral
and Egyptian governments, be went to Cairo» where flcmtat
he was given the governorship <rf the whole of the Ooirmn^t^
Eg3rptian territories outside Egypt; nattiely, the ****'^
Sudan provinces proper, the Equatorial Provinbcs, Darfar, and
the Red Sea and Soniali coasts. He replaced at Khartum Ismail
Pasha Eyoub, a Turk made governor-general in 1873, who had
thwarted as much as he dared all Gordon's efforts to reformj
Gordon remained in the Sudan until August 1879, During his
tenure of office he did much to give the Sudanese the benefit
of a just and considerate government. In 1877 Gordon
suppre^ed a revolt in Darfur and received the submission ol
Suliman Zobeir (a son of Zobetr Pasha)., who was at the bead
of a gang of slave-traders on the Bahr-el-Ghaaal frontier. In
1878 there was f tinker trouble in Darfur and also in Kordofan,
and Gordon visited both these provinces^ breaking up many
companies of slave-hunters. Meantime Suliman (acting on
the instructions of his father, who was still at Cftiro) had broken
out into open revolt against the Egyptians in the Bahr-el
Chazal. The crushing of Suliman was elutriated by Gordor
to Romolo Gessi (i83r->x88x), an Italian who had previotrsl)
served under Gordon on the Upper Nile. Gessi, after a mosi
arduous campaign (x878r-79), in which he displayed great militar}
skill, defeated and caipturod Suliman, whom, with other ring
leaders, he executed. The slave-raiders were completely brokei
up and over 10,000 captives released. A remnant of Zobeir*i
troops under a chief named Rabah succeeded in escaping vresx.
ward, (sec Rabah). Having conquered the province Gessi wa
made governor of the Bahr-ei-Ghanl and given the rank of pasha
When Gordon left the Sudan he was succeeded at Khartun
by Raouf Pasha, under whom all the old abuses of the Egyptiai
administration were revived. At this time the high Europeai
officials in the Sudan, besides Gessi, included Eroin Pasha {q.t.
— then a bey only — governor of the Equatorial Province sine
1878, and Slatin Pasha— then also a bey— governor of Darfui
Gessi, who had most successfully governed his province, foun
his position under Raouf intolerable, resigned his post in Sc^
tember 1880 and was succeeded by Prank Lupton, an English
man, and formerly captain of a Red Sea merchant stcamei
who was given the rank of bey. At this period (x 880-1 88:
schemes for the reorganization and better administration <
the Sudan were elaborated on paper, but the revolt in Egyp
under Arabi (see Egypt: History) and the appearance in th
Sudan of a Mahdi prevented these schemes from being put int
•* Up to 1877, when the work w» abanduned, some 50 m> i
rails had been Lud from Wadi Haifa at a cost of some £450,009.
SUDAN
«7
caeatiott (wwiiiHiig thtet tlie Egyp^"* intfaoiitfes nwe i&icetfc
b prapoiiBK fcfonns).
C Tk£ MUse cmd Power of M^kdiswL^Tht Mahdist mave*
■eat, wkidi was utUrly to ovcfthcow E^ptom nilci deiived iu
Rncagth rmB tfio dificrent cansn: the oppicssion uader which
the people sutfcved,^ and the measures taken to prevent the
Btaasm (cattlc^ownmg Arabs) from slave trading. VcnaUty.
ud the cxtoctkm of the tax^atherer flourished, anew after the
departoK of Gordon, while the feebleness of bis successon
Bjpared in the fianara a akntempt fot the authority which
prohibited them pumiing their most incrative trafficw When
M&iKxnmed Ahmed. (9.1.), a Doo^olese, pffoelaimed himself the
knx-kioked-Cor Mahdi (guide) of Islam, he found most of
ba urigiiial ioUowers among the grossly superstitious vflJagcn
•I KoffdoCan, to wlum he preadied univenal equality and a
GommiAity of goods^ while denouncing the Turks* as unworthy
Uoskmsoa whom God would execute judgment. The Baggara
perceived in this Mahdi one who could be osed to shake off
E^ypiian rale, and their adhesion to him ficst gave importinoe
to his ^'noissioa." Mahommed Ahmed became at once the
racier avl the agent oC the Baggara. He married the dau^ten
U thdr sheikhs sad found in Abdullah, a member of the Taaisha
Bdxm of the tribe, his chief supporter. The first armed conflict
^^ bfctweea the Egyptian troops and the JAahdi's
■■■in rf foUowecs occuncd in August 1B81. In June 1S&2
the Mahdi gained his first consklerajnle success.
The capture of £1 Obeid on the 17th of January
*'^'' 1883 and the aanihtlation in the November following
of an army of over lo^ooo snen commanded by Hicks Pasha
(CtiioacI William Hicks {9.9.] formerly of the Bombay army)
aide the Mafadi undisputed master of Kocdofan and Sennar.
The next month, December 1883, saw the surrender of Slatin
is Oaifar, whib^ in February 1884 Osmaa Digna, his amir in
tLe Red Sea regions, inflicted a crushing defeat on some 4000
£0pttans at £1 Teh near Suakin. In April following Lupton
Bey, govcsnor of Bahr-«l<Ghaaal, whose troops and officiab had
eabcaoed the Mahdtst cause, surrendered and was sent captive
to Omdurman, where he died on the 8lh of May x888.
Ob i**nM» g of the disaster to Hkks Pasha's army, the British
r^>cniffleiit (Great BriUin having been since 1882 in military
occupiiiioa of Egypt) insisted that the Egyptian government
ihonfcl evaciaaie such pacts of the Sudan as they still held, and
<0emaai Cordon was despatched, with Lietit.^olonel Donald
H. Stewart,* to Khartum to arrange the withdrawal of the
EfrptisD dvii and military population. Gordon's instructions,
teed tacgeiy on ids own suggestions, were not wholly consistent;
Uiey cmtonplBted vaguely the estaUisbmeat of some form of
■table govecnment oti the surrcndec of Egyptian
^T*** ** aothocily, and among the documents with which
be was furnished was a firman creating fairo governor-
ywti^ of tbe Sudan.* Gordon reached Khartum on the i8th
•f February 1884 and at first his mission, which had aroused
ireat enthusiasm in England, promised success. To sthooth
the «ay for the retreat of the ^yptian garrisons and civilians
kc anaed pfodamations announcing that the suppression of
the ilaTe trade was abandoned, that the Mahdi was sultan of
F-acdcfaa, and that the Sudan was independent of Egypt. He
oiiitd some thousands of refugees to make their escape to
* VMdax fnrni Daifur in AT>rfl i879 Gordon «aid : " The eo^em-
r^'a of the Efrypctans m these far-off countries is nothing dM but
*' oi brigaodatt of the very wont description, It .is so bad that
. V«e ofamcUorating it is hppdcss." ..-.,„ -..
* t5 Sodanoc spoke of all foreigners as ** Turks. This arose
'-.B the fact that most of the higher E^ypttan officials were of
T TtMh oaikMiality and that the army was oAcercd mainly by
T'^o. Alhanians, Cifcaaoans, Ac., and included in the ranks many
££s^-Bazak» (irregulars) of non-Sudanese origin. ^ ^
' Colonel Stewart had been sent to Khartum in 1882 on a mission
«( («3iTy. and he drew op a valuable report, Etypt. No. 11 (1883).
* it is unneecssafy here to enter upon a discusmon of the precue
wiue of Govdoo's inrtmctions or of the measure in which he earned
^'"ra cot. The material for forming a judgment will be found in
Cc-*m-« Jmnub fiWs). Moricy's Life •/ C/adjtoiie (iy>3). Fit*.
SicrKe's Uie M GretmOe (i905>. »td Cromer's Modem Egypt
1 19M). (See atao Gordon, Cbaslbs Gbobob.)
Asnttn xhd adktifed at Khartum tioops from some of the out-
lying sutions. By this thue the situation had altered for the
worse and Mdicfism was gaining strength among tribes in the
Nile vaUey at first hostile to its propaganda. As the only means
of pNserving authority at Khartum (and thus securing the
peaceftd withdrawal of the garrisoto) Gordon repeatedly tele*
graphed to Cairo asking that Zobeir Pasha might be sent (0
hito, hjs intention being to hand oyer to Zobeir the government
of tbe oauntry. Zobeir {q.t.)^ a Sudanese Arab, was pMbably the
•Dt man who coukl have withstood successfully the MahdF.
Owing to Zobeir's notoriety as a slave-raider Gordon's request
was refused. AH hope of a peaceful retreat of the Egjrptians
wss thus rendered impossible. The Mahdist movement now
swept northward and on the soth of May Berber wai
captured by the dervishes and Khartum isolated. From this
time the energies of Gordon were devoted to the -defence of
that town. After months of delay due to the vacillation of Ih^
British goverameat a refief expedition was sent up the Nile
niKtor the command of Lord Wolseley. It .started too late to
achieve its object, and on the asth of January 188$ Khartum
was captured by the Mahdi and Clordon killed. Cotonel Stewart^
Frank Power (British consul at Khartum) and M. Herhin (Frendi
consul), who (aeoompanied by nineteen Greeks) had been sent
doi^ the Nile by Gordon in the previous September to give
news to tiie relief force, had been clecoyed ashore and murdered
(Sept. 18, 1884). The fall of Khartum was followed by the
withdrawal of the British espedition, Dongola being evacuated
in June 1885. In the same month Kassala capitulated, but
just as the Mahdi had pfactitially completed the destruction
of the Egyptian power* he died, hi this same month of June
1885. He was at once succeeded by the khalifa Abdullah,
whose rule continued until the 2nd of September 1898,* when
his army was completely overthrown by an Angto-Egyptian
foKe under Sir H. (afterwards Lord) Kitchener. The military
operations are described elsewhere (sec Egypt: Military Opera;'
tioHi), and here it is only necessary to consider the internal
situation and the character of the khalifa's govern^ rbo
ment. The Mahdi had been regarded by his adhe- KbeB^e
rents as the only true commander of the faithful-, *^
endued with divine power to conquer the whole world. He
had at first styled his followers dervialies (1.0. religious mendi*
cants) and given them ihtjUtba as their characteristic garment
or uniform. Later on he commanded the faithful to call iJiem*
selves ansar (helpersy, a reference to the part they were to play
in his career of conquest, and at the time of his death he was
planning an invasion of Egypt. He had liberated the Sudanese
from the extortions of the E^tians, but the people soon found
that the Mahdi's rule was even more oppressive than had been
that of their former masters, and after the Mahdi's death the
situation of the peasantry in particuhir grew rapidly worse,
neither life nor property being safe. Abdullah set himself
steadily to crush all opposition to his own power. Mahommed
Ahmed had, in accordance with the traditions which required
the Mahdi to have four khalifas (Ueutenants), nominated, besides
Abdullah, All wad Hclu, a sheikh of the Degheim and KenanA
Arabs, and Mahommed esh Sherif, his son-in-law, as khalifas.
(The other khalifaship was vacant having been declined by the
sheikh es Senussi [9.9.1). Wad Helu and Sherif were stripped
of their power and gradually all chiefs and amirs not of the
Baggara tribe were got rid of except Osman Digna, whose sphere
Of operations was on the Red Sea coast. Abdullah's rule was
a pure military despotism which brought the country to a state
of almost complete agricultural and commercial ruin. He was
also almost constantly in conflict cither with the Shilluks, Nucis
and other negro tribes of the south; with the peoples of Darfur,
where at one time an anti-Mahdi gained a great following; with
the Abyssinians; with the Kabbabish and other Arab tribes who
* Sennar town heM out nntii the 19th of August, while the Red
Sea pons of Suakin and Masaawa never fell into the hands of the
Mahdista. The garriaoos of some other towns were rescued by the
Aby&siniana. , «- . ..
* This perivd in the history of the Sudan is known aa the hfahdia.
i8
SUDAN
had never embraced Mahdtsm, or with the ItaHuis» EgypCiaiis
And Eritish. NQtwithstanding all this oppositioa the khalifa
lound in bis own tribesmen and in his bladi troops devoted
adherents and successfully maintained his position. The
attempt to conquer Egypt ended in the total defeat of the
dervish army at Toski (Aug.- 3, xSSg). The attempts to subdue
the Equatorial Provinces were but partly succ^ul. £min
Pasha, to whose relief H. M. Stanley had gone, evacxiated
Wa(feku ia April 1889. The greater part oi the region and also
most of the Bahr-el-Ghazal relapsed into a state of complete
savagery.
In the country under his dominion the khalifa's government
was carried on after the manner of other Mahommedan states,
but pilgrimages to the Mahdi's tomb at Omdurman were substi-
tuted for pilgrimages to Mecca. The arsenal and dockyard and
the printing-press at Khartum were kept busy (the workmen
being Egyptians who had escaped massacre). Otherwise Khartum
was deserted, the khalifa making Omdurman his capital and
compelling disaffected tribes to dwell in it so as to be under
better control. While Omdurman grew to a huge size the
populatioa of the country geoemlly dwindled enormously from
constant warfare and the ravages of disease, small-pox being
endemic. The Europeans in the country were kept prisoners at
Omdurman. Besides ex-officials like ^tln and Lupton, they
included several Roman Catholic priests and sisters, and numbers
oi Greek merchants established at Khartum. Although several
were closely imprisoned, loaded with chains and repeatedly
flogged, it is a noteworthy fact that none was put to death.
From time to time a prisoner made his escape, and from the
accounts of these ex-prisoners knowledge of the character of
Dervish rule is derived in large measure. The fanaticism with
which the Alahdi had inspired, his followers remained almost
unbroken to the end. The khalifa after the fatal day of Omdur-
man fled to Kordofan where he was killed in battle in November
1899. In January 1900 Osman Digna, a wandering fugitive
for months, was captured. In 190a the last surviving dervish
amir of importance surrendered to the sultan of Darfur.
Ilahdism as a vital force in the old Egyptian Sudan ceased,
however, with the Anglo-£g3^tian victory at Omdurman.*
D. The Angh-Egyptian Condominium, — Of the causes which
led to the reconquest oi the Sudan— the natural desire of the
pgyptia^i government to recover k>8t territory^ the equally
natural desire in Great Britain to "avenge " the death of Cordon
were among them — the most weighty was the necessity of
securing for Egypt the control of the Upper Nile, Egypt being
wholly dependent on the waters of the river for its prosperity.
That control would have been lost had a European power other
than Great Britain obtained possession of any part of the Nile
valley; and at the time the Sudan was reconquered (1896-98)
France was endeavouring to establish her authority on the river
between Khartum and Gondokoro, as the Marcband expedition
from the Congo to Fashoda demonstrated. The Nile constitutes,
in the words of Lord Cromer, the true justification of the
policy of re-occupation, and makes the Sudan h priceles»
possession for Egypt.'
The Sudan having been reconquered by " the joint mih'tary
and financial efforts" of Great Britain and S^^Pt, the British
government claimed "by right of conquest" to share in the
settlement of the administration and legation of the country.
To meet these claims an agreement (which l^s been aptly
called the constitutional charter of the Sudan) between Great
-BriUtn and Egypt, was si^pied on the X9th of January 1899,
establishing the joint sovereignty of the two sUtes throuj^ut
* In the autumn of 1903 Mahommed-el-Amin, a native of Tunis,
proclaimed himself the Mahdi and got together a following in Kor-
dofan. He was captuted by the governor of Kordofan and publicly
executed at El Obeid. In Apni 1908 Abd-d-Kader. a Halowin
Arab and cy-dervish, rebelled in the Blue Nile province, claiming to
be the prophet Isoa Gesus). On the 29th of that month he murdered
Mr C. C. Soott-Moncrieff. deputy inspector of the province, and the
EjSyptian mamur. The rising was promptly suppresaed, Abd-el-
Kadcr was captured and was hanged on the 17th of May.
• "^ypi. No. I (1905). p. 119.
the Sndaa.' Ike teorgudsatSoii M the country had already
begun, supreme power being centred in one official termed the
*' goveroor^genenil of the Sudan/* To this post wu appointed
Lord Kitchener, the sirdar (commander-in-chief > of the Egyptian
army, under whom the Sudan had been reoonquend. On Lord
Kitchener going to South Africa at the dose of 1899 he was
succeeded aa airdar and governor-general by Majov-Gcneral Sir
F. R. Wingate, who had served with the Egyptian army since
rSaj. Under a Just and firm admmistrstion, which from the
first was eaaentiaUy dvil, though the pcncipal officials were
oflkers of the British anny, the Sudan reooveied m a surprising
mainncr from the woes it auOeied during the Mahdia. At the
head of every ntmiina (pnovince) was placed a British official,
though many of the subordinate poeu were filled by Egyptians.
An excqitioB-wu made in the case of Darfur, which before the
battle of Omdurman had thrown off the khalifa'a rule and was
again under a native sovereign. This potentate, the sultan* Ali
Dinar> was reeogniaed by the Sudan government,, on conditioD
of the payment of an anninal tribute.
The first duty of the new adminiatration, the restoration oC
public order, met with comparatively feeble opposition, xhough
tribes such as the Nuba mountaineers, accustomed Arnm time
immemorial to raid their weaket neighbours, gave some trouble]
In r9o6, in 1908, and again in i9ro expeditions h^ to be sent
against the Nubas. In the Bahr^el-Gfaaaal the Niam-Niams at first
deputed the authority of the government, but Sultan Yambio, the
recaldtrant chief, was mortally wounded in a fighl in February
1905 and no further disturbance occurred. The delimitation
. (1905-1904) of the frontier between the Sudan and Abyssinia
enabled order 'to be restored in a particularly lawless region,
sihd slave-raiding on a large scale ended in that quarter with
the capture and execution of a notorious offender in 1904. In
Kordofan, .Darfur and the Bahr-el-Ghazal ^ the slave trade
continued however for some years later.
With good axfaninistration and public security the population
increased steadily. The history of the country became one ol
peaceful progress marked by the growing content- j^j^
mentof the people. The Sudan government devoted gnetmtm
much attention to the revival of agriculture and wt±oi
commerce, to the creation of an educated dass of J^j
natives, and to the estahlishment of an adequate '*
judicial system. Thdr tadc, though one of imnmise difficulty,
was however (in virtue of the agreement of the xgth of January
1899) free from all the international fetters that bound ih<
administration of Egypt.. It was moreover rendered easier bj
the decision to govern, as far as possible, in accordance witi
native law and custom, no attend bdng made to Egyptiani»
or Anglicize the Sudanese. The results were eminently satis
factory. The Arab-«peaking and Mahommedan populaLioi
found their religion and language respected, and from the firs
showed a marked desire to profit by the new order. To ihi
negroes of the southern Sudan, who were exceedhigly suspidou!
of all strangerar~wfaom hitherto they had known almos
exclusivdy as slave-raiders— the very elements of dvilizatioi
had, in most cases, to be taught. In these pagan regions tb
Sudan government encouraged the work of missionary societies
both Protestant and Roman Catholic, while discouraginj
propaganda work among the Moslems.
In their general policy the Sudan government adopted ;
system of very light taxation; low taxation bdng in count ric
such as Egypt and the Sudan the keystone of the political arcli
This policy was amply justified by results. In 1899 the revcnu
derived from the country was ££ia6,ooo, in 1909 it had risen t>
££1,040,000, despite slight reductions in taxation, a proof o
the growing prosperity of the land. This prosperity was brougti
about largdy by improving the water-supply, and thus bringin
more land under cultivation, by the creation of new industries
and by the improvement of means of communication. A 5hort€
route to the sea than that through Egypt bdng essential for t fa
'At Sxwt Suakin was excepted from some of the provisior
of this agreement, but these exceptions were done away with b
a supplementary agreement of the loth of July 1899.
SUDATORIUM—SDDBURY
'9
t of tht eonf rjr, • rtlhviijr froyii Uk Nflt
Mr BcrtMT to the Red Sw i«et built (t9O4-t906). Tliit line
itorTfUfrt dbe <liMattee fibiii Khertum to the Merest aeeport by
mrijr looo m., and by reducing the cost of curiege of mer-
ckeedfae *■*"■** Sudui produce tb find e profitsble outkt fai
eke TiairVT** ol the wnrM. At the Bame time liver oommuni-
e fanptoved end the Bumbera of wells <m carsven RMUit
Steps were furthennose taken by meens of irrigation
ewks to rapilate th« Nile floodi, and thoee of the river Gash.
To the pt wn o ei o n of educatien and nnitation, .and in the
■faiBBtratioii of Justice, the government devoted much energy
eith satiifactory rendts. Indeed the regenerative yMk of
Gicst Britain in the Sudan has been fuUy as successful and even
ane fensrfcable than that of Great Britain in Egypt. A hirge
put of this wotk has been kccomplished by officers of the British
wny. Some of the most valuable suggestions about such matters
m had settlement, agricultural loans, &c., emanated from bfiicets
vbe a siKifft time before were performing purely military .duties.
Nevtrtbelcsa dvil servants gradually replaced military officers
■ the work of administration, army officers being liable to be
floddenly removed for war or other service, often at times when
the pteaeiiTf of officiab possessed of local experience was most
JBpartaat. la effidency and devotion to duty the Egyptian
efideb vnder the new r^me also earned high praise. ,
Tbt relations of the Sudan government with its Italian,
AbjannaA and French neighbouiB was marked by cordiality,
ifcfc^af but with the Congo Free State difficulties arose over
oitejtf «■# ciaims made by that state to the Bahr-d-Ghazal
A'^ (see AmcA, f 5). Congo State troops were in 1904
ttatMoed in Sndanese territory. The difficulty was adjusted
a 1906 ^IfceB the Congo State abandoned all daims to the Ghatol
nroviBce (whence lU troops were withdrawn during 1907), and
a «a agreed to transfer the Lado endave iq.v.) to the Sudan'
n mootho after the death of the king of the Belgians. Under
the terms of thh agreement the Lado enclave was incorporated
la the Sudan m 1910. As to the genersl state of the country Sir
EUoo Gofit after a tour of inspection declared in his report for
igo9. " I do not suppose that there is any part of the worid in
vtKh the mass of the population have fewer unsatisfied wants."
AcraoafTiBS.— Sommariet of andent and medieval histovy
«£ be foood m E A. Wallb Budn. Tkt Egyptian Sudan (a vols.,
i^i mad »e Antfa-EtypHan Sudan (1095). edited by Count
CWben. The stocy of the Egyptian conquest and eveat^ up to
t*y> are scimfliariaed in H. Delwrain's Lg Saudan igyptien sotu
Mekrma AH (Paris, 1008). For .the middle jperiod of Egyjptian nile
«« Sv SoBod Baker's Jtmaaia (1874); Cd. Gordon in Control Afriea,
fiAtri by C. Birkbeck Hill (4th cd., 1885). being extracts from
G..rioa'» diary. 1874-1880; Seoen Yean in tho Soudan, by Romolo
G^»4 Pasha (1891): and Per Sudan unter agyptiuhtr Herrschafl, by R.
B.(dbu (Ldpng. 1888). Tbe rise of Mabdism and events down to
low asr set fordi in (Sir) F. R. Winyste's MakdOsm and the Egyptian
Smitm (1891). This book contains transbtaons of letters and
pmciaaMtioaa of the Mahdi and Khalifa. For this period the
J^vmaU ef Major General Cordon at Khartoum (1885); F. Power's
LtOtn from Kiartamm during the Siege (1885). and the following
(oLT boolawntten by prisooera of the dervishes are spedally valuable :
S.U1 Pasha, Fire and Sword in the Sudan. (1896): Father J.
Ciln^alder (from the MSS. of. by F. R. Wingate), Ten Years* Captieily
M rW MaUCs Camp {1882-1892) (1893): Father Paolo Rosignoli. /
■MS doitci ammi di prigjumia in mono at dervice del Sudan (Mondovi,
tttfuy, C. Ncnflddt. A Priooner of the Khaleefa (1899). See also
C. Dttfarrv. L'tiat makditU dm Soadojs^Pans, tool). For the
Gocdoti Rdicf " campaign, Ac., see the British omcial History of
tMf 5Wa« Campaign (1890): for the campatKns of 1896-98. H. S. L.
K^ni6 ami W. D. Sword, The Egyptian Soudan, iU Loss and Recovery
la^l; G. W. Scccvcns, WUh Kikhener to Khartum (Edinburdi,
I ft|lr;Witt«ooS.ChnxtBhiIl.rkiencrIi^ar (revised ed., 1903). The
■ jry d the Fashoda incident is told maiply in British and French
^ i»i despatches: consult also for this period G. Hanotaux, Fachoda
Tirv. i9to): A. Ld>on, La PolUifue de la Frona 1896-1898 (Paris,
»qt>tU and R. de Calx, Faehoia, la Franco et rAngleterre (Paris.
1 ^A Loni Cromer's Modem Eupt (1908) covers Sudanese history
i^ t^ yearv 188 1 -1907. Coosuft also the authorities dtcd under'
L'Z.in) : Madam History, and H. Pensa. L'EgypU et le Soudan igyptien
'Paris. 189s). Unless otherwise suted the place of publication is
Lo«»oii.^ *(F.R.C)
tODAlUHlUH. tbe term in architecture for the vaulted
evnting-foom {sndor, sweat) of the Roman thermae, referred
to ia Vitravhis (v. 2), and there called the coneameraia tudatio.
la mder to elrtahi the gieatlieat reqtdred, the whole #all was
lined with vertical terra-cotta flue pipes of rectanguhr sectkm,
placed side by side, through which the hot air and the smoke
from thosuspensura passed to an exit in the roof.
SUDBUHYr SfHON OF (d.' 1381), archbishop of Canterbury,
waa bom at Sudbury In Suffolk, stucfied at the university of
Paris, and became one of the chaplains of Pope Innocent VI.«
who sent Urn, In 1356, on a mission to Edward HI. of En^nd.
In October 1361 the pope appointed fahn bishop pf London, and
he was soon serdng the king as an ambassador and hi other ways.
In 1375 he'succeeded William Wittksey as aidibishop of Canter*
bury, and during the rest of his Kfe was a partisan of John of
Gaunt. In July 1^377 he crowned Richard II., and hi 1378 John
Wydiffe appeued before him at Lambeth, but he only took
proceedings against the reformer under great pressure. In
January 1380 Sudbury became chancellor of Enghmd, and the
revolting peasants regarded hfan as one of the prindpal authors
of thdr woea. Having released John B&U from, his prison at
hfaidsbooe, the Kentish bsurgents attacked and' damaged the
archbishop's property at Canterbury and Lambeth; then,
rushhig into the Tower of London, they seised the archbishop
himself. Sudbury was dragged to Tower Itill and. on the r4th
of June 1381, was beheaded. His body was afterwards buried
hi Canterbury Cathedral. Sudbury rebuilt part of the church of
St Gregory at Sudbury, and with his brother, John of Chertsey,
he founded a college in this town; he also did some building at
Canterbury. His father was Nigel Thcpbald, and he is somo-
times called Simon Theobald or TybahL
See W.'F. Hook, Lioa of Oo AfMishopt of Cmaerhwj.
BUDBVRT, a post town and outport- of Nipissing district,
Ontario, Canada, on the Canadian Padfic railway, 443 m. W. of
'Montreal. Pop. (1901), '3027. It has mantifactures of explosives,
lumber and pfatning mills, and is the largest nickel mhiing centre
in the worid. Gold, copper and other minerals are also raised.
PsactKally all the ore is shipped to the United States.
SUDBURT, a market town and munidpal boroi:!^ of England,
chiefly in the Sudbury parliamentary divisiMi (^ Suffolk, but
partly in the Saffron WaMen division of Essex. Pop. (1901),
7109. It lies on the river Stour (which is luivigablc up to the
town), 59 m^ N.E. from London by the Great Eastern railway.
All Saints' parish churdi, consisting of chancel, nave, aisles and
tower, is chiefly Perpendicular— the chancel being Decorated.
It possesses a fine oaken pulpit of 1490. The diurch was restored
in 1882. St Peter's is Perpendicular, with a finely carved nave
roof. St Gregory's, once collegiate, is Perpendicular. It has a rich
spire-shaped font-cover of wood, gflt and painted. The grammar
school was founded by William Wood in 1491. There are some
old half-timbered houses, indudiiigone very fine example. The
principal modem buildings are the town-hall, Victoria had
and St Leonard's hospital. Coco-iiut matting is an important
manufacture; sUk rnanufactures were transferred from London
during the X9th century, and horsehair weaving was establi^ed
at the tame time. There are also fknir-milb, malt-kilns, lime-
works, and brick and tile yards. The town is governed by a
mayor, 4 aldermen and Z3 coundllors. The borough lies wholly
in the administrative county of West Suffolk. Area, 1925 acres.
The ancient Saxon borough of Sudbury (Sudbyrig, Sudberii
Suthberia) was tbe centre of tbe sontbem portion of the East
Anglian kingdom. Before the Conquest it was a borough owned
by the mother of Earl Morcar, from whom it was tiiken by
VViUiam I., who held it in xo86. It was alienated from the
Crown to an ancestor o( Gilbert de Clare, 9th earl of Gloucester.
In X 27 1 the earl gave tbe burgesses their first charter confirming
to them all thdr andent liboties and customs. The eail A
March granted a charter to tbe mayor and bailiffs of Sudbury in
1397. In 1440 and again in 1445 the men and terumtsof Sudbury
obtained a royal confirmation of their privileges. They were
incorporated in 1553 xmder the name of the mayor, aldermen and
burgesses of Sudbury, and charters were granted to the town by
Eliaabeth, Charles II. and James 11. Its constitution was re-
formed by the act of 1835. It was represented in parliament
by two burgesses from 1558 till its disfranchisement in
20
8UDD~^UEBI
1844. The lord of the borougli had s mariut and lair in the 15th
century, ahd three fairs in March, July and December were held
in 1792. Markets still exist on Thursdays and SatuKdayi*
Weavers were introduced by Edward III., and the town became
the chief ceptre of the Suffolk doth industry after the Restomtion.
8UD0» or Sadd (an Arabic word meaning "to dam"), the
name given to the vegetable obstruction which has at various
dates dosed the waters of the Upper. Nile to navigation. It is
composed of masses of papyrus and umsiifi Vossia prceera) and
the earth adhering to the roots of those reeds. Mingled with the
papyrus and um suj (Arabic for " mother-of -wool " ) are small
swimming plants and the light brittle ambach. The papyrus
and um suj grow abundantly along the Nile banks and the con-
nected lagoons between 7** N. and 13° N. Loosened by storms
these reeds drift until they lodce on somo obstrxiction and form a
dam across the channel, converted by fresh arrivals into blocks
that are sometimes 25 m. in length, and extend 15 to 20 ft.
^low the surface. These masses of decayed vegcUtion and
earth, resembling peat in consistency, are so much compressed
by the force of the current that men can walk over them every-
where. In parts dephants could cross them without danger.
The pressure of the water at length causes the formation of a side
channel or the bursting of the sudd. (For sudd cutting see Nile.)
In the Bahr-el-Ghazal the sudd, being chiefly composed of
small swimming plants, is of less Xormidable nat\ue than that
of the main stream.
Consult, O. Deuerling, DU PJJanzenborren der afrikaniscken
FlUsu (Munich, 1900), a valuable monograph ; and the bibliography
under Nile, especially Captain H. G. Lyons, The Physiography of
IheNUeandiis Basin (Cairo. 1906). ^ t r ^ j
8UDERHAIIN. HERMANN (1857" ), German dramatist
and. novelist, was born on the 30th of September 1857 at Matri-
ken in East Prussia, dose to the Russian frontier, of a Mennonite
family long settled near Elbing. His father owned a small
brewery in the village of Heydeknig, and Sudermann received
his early education at the Realschule in Elbing, but, his parents
having been reduced in drcumstances, he was apprenticed to a
jchemist at the age of fourteen. He was, however, enabled to
enter the Realgymnasium in Tilsit, and to study philosophy and
history at Kdnigsberg University. In order to comi^cte his
studies Sudermann went to Berlin, where he was tutor in several
families. He next became a journalist, was from 1881-1882
editor of the Deuischts ReichshlaU, and then devoted himself to
novel- writing. The novels and romances Im Zvidichl (1886),
iPrau Sorie{i^7), Gesckwiskf (r888) and Der KaHensteg (1890)
failed to bring the young author as much recognition as his first
drama Die Ekre (1889), which inaugurated a new period in the
history of the German stage. Of his other dramas the most
successful were Sodoms Ende (1891), ^«iiwi (1893). DieSckmetUr-
Hngsschlacht (1894), DasCliUk im Winhd (1895), MorituH (1896),
Johannes (1898), Die drei Rcikerjcdern (1899), Johannesfcuer
(1900), Es lebe das Lebent (1902), Der SturmgeseUe Sokrates
(1903) and Sicin unler SUinen (1905). Sudermann is also the
author of a powerful social novel, Es war (1904), which, like Frau
Sorge and Der Katzensteg^ hss been translated into English.
See W. Kawcrau, Hermann Sudermann (1897); H. Landsberg,
Hermann Sudermann (1902): 11. Jung, Hermann Sudermann (1902):
H. Schoen, Hermann Sudermann, potte dramatique et romancier
(1905): and I. Axelrod. Hermann Sudermann (1907).
WOE, EUG^B [Joseph Marte) (1804-1857), French novelist,
was bom in Paris on the lolh of January 1804. He was the son
of a distinguished surgeon tn Napoleon's army, and is said to have
had the empress Josephine for godmother. Sue himself acted
as surgeon both in the Spanish campaign undertaken by France
fct 1823 and at the battleof Navarino (1828). In 1829 his father's
death put him in possession of a considerable fortune, and he
settled in Paris. His naval experiences supplied much of the
materials of his first novels, Kernock le pirate (1830), Atar-GuU
(1831), La Salamandre (2 vols., 1832), La Couearatcha (4 vols.,
1832-1834), and others, which were composed al the height of the
komantic movement of 1830. In the quasi-historical style he
wrote Jean Cavalier, ou Les Fanatiques des Cevennes (4 vols., 1840)
*9umont (2 vols., 1837). He was strongly affected by the
Sodaliit Mens io( tho day, mmI tbeie pnonpted Us mcot i
works: les Mystirt»4s Paris (so .vols., 1843-1843) and Le Jt^
erf ami (le vols., 1844-1845), which were among the atost popular
spedmens of tbo rvmam^ftuUktan^ HefoUowcd thew up with some
singuloi and not ve^r edifying books: lei Scpl pMiU €cpilous
(16 volsn i84r7*i849)> which contained slorico to illustrate tuh
sin, Les MysUras dn peupU (1849-1856), which was suppressed
by the censor in 1857, nnd several othen, all on a very laijge scale,
though the number of volumes gives an exaggerated idea of their
length. Some of his books, among them the Juif erranl and the
Mystiret de PariSt were dramatised by himself, usually in collab-
oration with others. His period of greatest success and popu-
larity cxnndded with that of Alexandre Dumas, with wfacm some
writers have put him on an eqnahty. Sue has neither Dumas's
wide range of subject* nor, above all, bis faculty of conducting
the story by means of livdy dialogue; he has, however, a com-
mand of terror which Dumas addom or never attained. From
the literary point of view his sty^ is bad, and his construction
prolix. After the revolution of 1848 he sat for Paris (the Seine)
in the Assembly from April 1&50, and was exUed in consequence
of his protest against the coup d'iiai of the and of Deccmba
185K. This exile stimuUted his literary production, but the
works of his last days are on the whole touch inferior- to those
of his middle period. Sue died at Annocy. (Savoy) on the
3rd of Augittt 1857.
SUBBI, or SuEvi, a coUectiveterm applied to a number of
peoples in central Germany, the chief of whom appear to have
been the Marcomanni, Quadii Hernpunduii, Semnones and
Langobardi. From the earliest times these tribes inhabited the
basin of the Elbe. The Lcngobardic territories seem to have
lain about the lower reaches of the river, while the Semnones lay
south. The Marcomanni occupied the basin of the Saale, but
under their king, Maroboduus, they moved into Bohemia during
the early part of Augustus's reign, while the Qiudi, who are first
mentioned in the time of Tiberius, ky farther cast towards the
sources of the ^be. The former home of the Marcomanni wa^
occupied by the Hermunduri a few years before the Christian
era. Some kind of political union seems to have existed among
all thcse^ tribes. The Semnones and Langobardi were &t on<
time subject to the dominion of the Marcomaanic king Marobo-
duus, and at a much later period we hear of Langobardic troopi
taking part against the Romans in the Maieomamiic War. Tb<
Semnones daimed to be the chief of the Suebic peoples, an^
Tacitus describes a great reUgious festival held an their triba]
sanctuary, at which legations were present from all the othei
tribes.
Tadtus uses the name Suebi in a far wider sense than thai
defined above. With him it indudes not only the tribes of thi
basin of the Elbe, but also all the tribes north and east of tha
river, induding even the Swedes (Suiones). This usage, which »
not found in other ancient writers, is probably due to a conf u^oi
of the Suebi with the agglomeration of peoples under thci
supremacy, which as we know from Strabo extended to som<
at least of the eastern tribes.
In early Latin writers the term Suebi is occasionally applied V
any of the above tribes. From the 2nd to the 4th century
however, it is seldom used except with reference to events in th
neighbourhood of the Pannonian frontier, and here probabl;
means the Quadi. From ihe middle of the 4th centnry omrari
it appears most frequently in the regions south of the Main, an
soon the names Alamanni and Suabi are used synonymously
The Alamanni (^.t.) seem to have been, in part at least, th
descendants of the andent Hermunduri, but it is hlccly thn
they had been joined by one or more other Suebic peoples, froi
the Danubian region, or more probably from the middle Eltw
the land of the andent Semnones. It is probably ftom th
Alamannic region that those Suebi cam* who joined tY
Vandals in thdr invasion of Caul, and eventually founded
kingdom in north-west Spain. After the ist century the ten
Suebi seems never to be kppUed Co the Langobardi and seldoi
to the Baiouarii (Bavarians), the descendants of the ancici
Marcomanni. But besides the Alamannic Suebi we bcj
SUECA-^UETONIUS TRANQUILLUS
«
d» of » peopfo caOiii Suebi. who Aoufy alter tbe ikiiddk of
the 6th couuiy seltkd north oC the Unstnit. There is
cndeace also for a people caJled Suebi ia the district above
t^ nwoUft ol the ScbeklL It is likdy that both these stfUle-
■eats were ooloaies from the Suebi oi wfaoia we bear m the
A^gb^aaoB poem Widsitk as oeighboun of the AagU, and
■boaenaiBe may poanbly be preserved in Schwabatndt on the
Trecne. The question has recently been raised whether these
Saehi ihotdd be identified with the people whom the Romans
afied Ucrufi. After the 7lh ccntucy the name Suebi is practically
ooiy applied to the Alamannk Suebi (SchwaJbenK with whom it
•* a tcniUKiai dcsignatian in Wttrttemberg and Bavaria
ati the pccaent day.
Ser C^csr. Dm bdlo^
fjaUieo, i. 37, 51 eqq.
Tacit
p ^ .,. - • ■ «»•. vi. 9 8oq-:
acitus, Ctrmania, 38 sqq.; K. Z^u^ Die
Stxjbo, p. 290 9e^.;
tundd'
riss (2nd «d.). ni. 91 5-950; H. M. OiAdwick, Onp»
£M EMi^uk AoAM. 216 sqq. (Cambridge. 1907). (F. C. M. B.)
I die Nackbarslamme, pp. 55 joq.. 315 sqq. ; C. Bremer
ta {^"sGrviirffTU (2nded.). Hi. 9I5;950: H.M.C^dwick,0^{[lfro/
SOKA* a town of eastern Spain, fai the province of Valencia;
ttar the left bank of the river J Acer, and on the Silla-CuOeni
mi'vay. Pop. (igoo), 14,435. Sneca is separated from the
lledxtcsratscan Sea (7 m. east) by the Sierra de Cullera. It is a
modem town, allhoagb many of the houses have the flat roofs,
rKw>turreta (msradwes) and honeshoe arches characteristic ef
Moorisfa architeanre. There are a few handsome pubDc
beidinss* snch as the hospital, town-hall and thteue. Sueca
bs a thriving trade in grain and fniit from the J6car valley,
v^liich b trr^ted by waterways created by the Moon.
Sm, B0OARD (1831- ' ), Atistrian geologist, 4ras bom
in Loodoo on the 9o(b of August 1831. his father, a native of
Sainoy, having settled there as a German merchant. Three
ytan later the family removed to Prague, and in 1845 to Vienna.
Edoard Suesa was educated for commerdal fife, but early dis-
ftytd a bent for geology. Ai the age of nineteen he published
s tboft sketch of the geology of Carlsbad and iis mineral waters;
ar^d m i8s> he was appointed an assistant in the Imperial
omeoffl of Vienna. There he studied the fossil Brachiopoda , and
■omfatcd sach ability that in 1857 he was appointed professor
«l geology at the university. In 1862 he relinquished his museum
tctks, aad gave his whole time to special research and teaching,
maming hia profcssoiship untfl igot. Questions of ancient
phyikaJ feography, such as the former connexion between
vnhcra Africa and Eorope, occupied his atteniion; and in 1862
he pttbiiahed an essay 00 the soils and water-supply of Vienna.
He was elected a member of the town council, and in 1869 to a
lot ia the Diet of Lower Austria, which he retained until r8o6.
Mfawhde he oontinncd bis geological and palaeontological
•erk dealing with the Tertiary strau of the Vienna Basin, also
ttsna^ hja attention to the problems connected with the evolu-
teJD of the earth's surface-features, on which he wrote a monu-
Bcstal treatise. This, the great task of his life, embodied the
Toelts ef ponoaal reseanth aad of a comprehensive study of the
•ork of the leading geologists of all countries; it is entitled
A^ib der Brde, of which the first volume was published in 1883,
tic second in 1888. aad pi. i. of the third volume m 1^1. The
work h» becsi tramlated into French, and (in pari) into En||lish.
SuesB was elected a corresponding member of the Institute of
France in 1880, and a foreign member of the Royal Society in
i8g4. In 1896 the Geological Sodety of London awarded to him
the WoUaston medal.
lioBMir (with poniaitK by Sir A. Gcilde. Natmn (May 4, 1905).
SVBBOLA. an andent town of Campania, Italy, in the plain
i\ UL W. of the modem Ctncelio, o m. S.E. of the ancient Capua.
Its earficr Uttofy is obscure. In 338 B.C. it obtained Latin
f^K^ from Rome. In the Samniie and Hannibolk wan it was
tfrxiegicaly important as commanding the entranSce to the
Caadinepasa Sulla secsns to have founded a colony here. It is
frequently Darned as an episcopal see up till the loib century a.d.,
■ad waa for a time the chief town of a small Lombard principality.
It oaa sewtal times plundered by the Saracens, and at laA
I by the inhabitants in consequence of the malaria. The
\ of the town lie within the Bocco d'Aoerra, a ptcturesque
Tbey iMse more tooipteiMua ia Jbe i8ih oentury than
•thqr now are, but traces of the theatre' may still be amb, and
dfbris of other buildings. Oscan tombs were excavated there
between 1878 and iS86, and important finds of vases, bxonaea,
&c., have been made. The dead were generally buried within
slaha of tufa onaoged to form a kind of sarcopbagua (see F. von
Duhn in Rimiukg iiiOtilimgem, 1887, p. 23 s ^Vi-)' Sueasula lay
on the line of the Via Popiilia, which waa here intersected by a
mad which ran from Neapolis through Acerrae, and on to the Via
Appia, which it reached just west of the Caodtne pass. On
the hills above Cancello to the east of SuessiUa was' aitnated
the fortihcd camp of M^ Caudiua Marcdlus,. which covered
Nola and served as a post of observation against HaiAihal in
Capua. (T.Ai.)
SUET (M. Eng. jeiMf, a dimmutive of O. Fr. rca, smis, mod.
suif, lard, from Lat. uAum^ or seaitm, taUow, grease, probably
allied to sapp, soap), the hard flaked a^te fat lying round the
kidn^s of the sheep or ox; that of the pig forma lanL Beei>
suet is especially used in cookery.
8UBTONIU8 TRANQUILLUS^ OAIOS, Roman hiatariaa,
lived during the end of the xst and the first half ef the and
oenSnry aj». Ue was the contemporary of Tadtiis and the
youager Pliny, and his literary work seems to have beea
chiefl^ done in the reigns of Trajan and Hadriaa (a^. ^138).
Hia father was military tribune in the Xlllth legion, and he
himself began life as a teacher of rhetoric and an advocate.
To us he is known aa the biognpher of the twelve Caesars
(induding Julius) down to Domitian. The b'ves are valuable
as covering a good deal of groitod where we are without the
guklanGe of Tadtiss^ As Suetoidus was the emperor Ha<hian't
private secretary (wugislir e^loianmU he must have had
access to many important documents in the Imperial archiveik
r.f. the dteees and transactions of the senate. In addition
to ^written aad official documenu, he picked up in sodety a
mass of information and anecdotes, which, though of doubtful
aothentidty, need not be regarded as mere inventions of
his own. They give a very good idea of the kind of court
gottip prevalent in Rome at the time. He was a friend and cor>
respo n dent of the younger Pliny, who when appointed governor
of Bilhynia took Suetoaias with him. Pliny aho recommended
him to the favourable notice of the emperor Trajan, " as a most
upright, l&>notn-ahle, and learned man, whom persons often
remember in thdr wills, because of his merits,"* and he begs that
he may be made legally capable of inheriting these bequests, for
which under a special enactment Suetonius was, aa a childless
married man, disqualified. Hadrian's biographer, Aelius
Spartianua, tells us that Suetonius was deprived of his
private secretaryship because he had not been sufiidently
observant of court eiiqueiu towards the emperor's wife
during Hadrian's absence in Britain.
The Lnes of the Caesars has alwayt been a popular work. It
is rather a chronicle than a history. U Rives no picture of the
society of the time, no hints as to the general character and tenden-
cies of the period. It is the emperor who is always before us. and
yet the portrait » drawn without any rval historical ^udgmem or
insight. It is the personal anecdotes, several ol which are very
amusing, that give the lives their chief interest; but the author
panders rather too much to a taste for scandal and gossip. None the
less he throws considera(>le light on an important periud. and next to
Tacitus and Dio Cassius is the chief (sometimes the only) authority.
The language is clear and simple. The work was continued by
Marius Maximufi (3rd century), who wrote a history of the emperors
from Nerva to Elagabalus (now lost). Suetonius was a voluminous
writer. Of his De mris iUustnhus, the livps of Terence and Horace,
fngmcncs of those of Lucan and the elder Pliny and the greater
Srf of the chapter on grammarians ami rhetoricians, are extant.
her works by him (now lost) were: Praia (- X»M*«wf ■ patch-
work), in ten books, a kind of enc>Tlopaedia ; the Roman Year, ttomon
InstUuttoHS and Cnstoms, Children's Games among the Creeks, Reman
FuUk Spuiachs, On ike Aing i. On Cuero's Republic.
Editio princepc 1470; editions by great scholars: Erasmus.
Isaac Casaubon. J. G. Craevius. P. Burmann; the best complete
annotated edition is still that of C. G. Baumf^arten-Crusius (1816);
rercni editions by H. T. Perk (New York, 18*9): Leo Preud'homme
(1906): M. Ihm (1907). £ditk>ns of separate lives: AuijttUmi, by
E. S. Shuckburgh (with useful introduction, 1&16); CJaMdiui, by HV
Smilda (iBq6), with notcsand paralUI pass.tgesfrom other authorities.
The b<st editions of the text are by C. L. Roth (i8W»). and A. Reiflfc^
achekf (not inciodtng the Lnrs. 1B60). On the DemntiUu»iHlm§, see
22
Q. KOrtn in Disterl.fkilol^g. kattfuts (1900), vol. itiv. ; and, aboveall.
A. Mace. EMai sur SuiUme (1900), with an exhaustive bibltOjKraf^y.
There are English translations by Philemon Holland (reprinted in
the Ttidor TranUations, 1900). and by Thomson and Forester (in
Bohn's Qassicai Library).
SUEZ, a port of Egypt on the Red Sea and souihern terminus
of the Sues Canal (9.V.). situated at the head of the Gulf of Sues
in a9*sS'37* N.,3a'3i' rS'E. It is 80 m. E. by S. of Cairo in a
direct line but 148 m. by rail, and is built on the north-west
point of the gulf. Pop. (1907). 18^;. From the heights to the
north, where there is a khedival chalet, there is a superb view to
the south with the Jebel Auka on the right, Mt Sinai on the
kft and the waters of the gulf between. Suez is supplied with
water by the fresh-water canal, which starts from the Nile at
Caifo and is terminated at Sues by a lock which, north of the
town, joins it to the gulf. Before the opening of this canal in
1863 water had to be brought from " the Wells of Moses," a
small oasis 3 m. distant on the east side of the gulf. About
3 ra. south of the town are the harbours and quays constructed
OB the western side of the Sues Canal at the point where the
canal enters the gulf. The harbours are connected with the
town by an embankment and railway built across a shallow,
dry at low water save for a narrow channel. On one of the
quays is a statue to Thomas Waghom, the organizer of the
" overland route " to India. The grotuid on which the port is
bttUt has all been reclaimed from the sea. Tlie accommodation
provided includes a dry dock 4x0 ft. k>ng, 100 ft. broad and
nearly 36 ft. deep. There are separate basins for warships
and merchant ships, and in the roadstead at the mouth of the
canal is ample room for shipping. Suez is a quarantine
station for pilgrims from Mecca; otherwise its importance is
due almost entirely to the ships using the canaL
In the 7th century a town called Kolzum stood, on a. site
adjacent to that of Suez, at the southern end of the canal which
then joined the Red Sea to the Nile. Kolzum retained some of
the trade of Egypt with Arabia and countries farther east long
after the canal was dosed, but by the 13th century it was in
ruins and Suez itself, which had supplanted it, was also, according
to an Arab historian, in decay. On the Ottoman conquest of
Egypt in the x6th century Suez became a naval as well as a trad-
ing station, and here fleets were equipped which for a time di»>
puted the mastery of the Indian Ocean with the Portuguese.
According to Niebuhr, in the x8th century a fleet of nearly
twenty vessels sailed yearly from Suez to Jidda, the port of Mecca
and the place of correspondence with India. When the French
occupied Suez in 1798 it was a place of little importance, and the
conflicts which followed its occupation in 1800 by an English
fleet laid the greater part in ruins. The overland mail route from
England to India by way of Suez was opened ini 83 7 . The regular
Peninsular & Oriental steamer service began a few years later,
and in 1857 a railway was opened from Cairo through the desert.
This line is now abandoned in favour of the railway which follows
the canal from Suez to Ismailia, and then ascends the Wadi
Tumilat to Zagazig, whence branches diverge to Cairo and
Alexandria.
SUEZ CANAL. Before the construction of the Suez Canal
there was no direct water communication between the Mediter-
ranean and the Red Sea, but at various eras such communication
existed by way of the Nile. Trade between Egypt and countries
to the east was originally overiand to ports south of the Gulf of
Suez; the proximity of the roadstead at the head of that gulf to
Memphis and the Delta nevertheless marked it as the natural
outlet for the Red Sea commerce of Lower Egypt. The fertile
Wadi Tumilat extending east of the Nile valley almost to the
head of the gulf (which in ancient time; reached north to the
Bitter Lakes) afforded an easy road between the Nile and the
Red Sea, while the digging of a navigable canal connecting the
river and the gulf gave the northern route advantages not
possess e d by the desert routes farther south, e,g. that between
Coptos and Kosseir. Aristotle, Strabo and Pliny attribute to
the legendary Sesostris {q.v.) the distinction of being the first
of the pharaohs to build a canal joining the Nile and the Red Sea.
** ' »n inKription on the temple at Eamak it would appear
SUEZ— SUEZ CANAL
that socfa A canal odMed m the time of Seti I. dsto 9JC). This
canal diverged from the Nile near Bubastis and was carried along
the Wadi Tumilat to Heroapolis, near Pithom, a port at the head
of the Hcroopolite Gulf (the Bitter lakes of to-day). The channel
of this canal is still traoeabfe in paiu of the Wadi Tumilat, and
its direction was fr^uently followed by the engineers of the fresh-
water canal. Seti's canal appears to have fallen into decay or
to have been too small for later requirements, for Pharaoh Necho
(609 BX:.) began to build another canal; possibly his chief object
was to deepen the channel between the Heroopollte Gulf and
the Red Sea, then probably silting up. Neeho's canal was not
completed-'according to Herodotus iso,ooo men perished in the
underuking. Darius (520 b.c.) continued the work of Necho,
rendering navigable the channel of the Heroopolite Gulf, whidi
had become blocked. Up to this time there appears to have been
no connexion between the waters of the Red Sea and those of (he
Bubastis-Heroopolis canal ; vessels coming from theMediterranean
ascended the Pelusiac arm of the Nile to Bubastis and then sailed
along the canal to Ueroopolis, where their merchandise had tc be
transferred to the Red Sea ships. Ptolemy Phlladelpbvs (285 bo)
connected the canal with the waters of the sea, and at the
spot where the junction was effected he built the town of Arsinoe.
The dwindling of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile rendered this
means of communication impossible by the time of Cleopatra
(31 B.C.). Trajan (a.o. 98) is said to have repaired the canal, and,
as the Pelusiac branch was no longer available for navigation,
to have built a new canal between Bubastis and Babylon (Old
Cairo), this new canal being known traditionally as Amnia
Trajanus or Amnis Augustus. According to H. R. Hall, however,
" It is veiy doubtful if any work of thb kind, beyond repairs, wa^
undertaken in the times of the Romans^and it is more probabk
that the new canal was the work of * Amr " (the Arab conqueror
of Egypt in the 7th century). The canal was certainly in use in
the early years of the Moslem rule in Egypt; it is said to have been
closed c. AJ». 770 by order ol AbO Ja*far (Mansur), the secomj
Abbasid caliph and founder of Bagdad, who wished to prevent
supplies from reaching his enemies in Arabia by this means,
'Amr's canal (of which the Khalig which passed through Cairc
and was dosed in 1897 is said to have formed part) had its ter-
minus on the Red Sea south of the Heroopolite Gulf near the
present town of Suez. In this neighbourhood was the ancient
city of Clysma, to which in *Amr's time succeeded Kolzum
perhaps an Arabic corruption of Clysma. The exact situatior
of Clysma is unknown, but Kolzum occupied the site of Suez
the hills north of which are still called Kolzum. Alter the doaini
of the canal in the 8th century it does not appear for certain tha
it was ever restored, although it is asserted that in the year xooi
Sultan Hakim rendered it navigable. If so it must speedily hav*
become choked up again. Parts of the canal continued to l>
filled during the Nile inundations until Meheroet Ali (a.d. 181 1
ordered it to be closed; the closing, however, was not completely
effected, for in x86i the old canal from Bubastis still flowed a
far as Kassassin. This part of the canal, after over 9500 year
of service, was utilized by the French engineers in building th
fresh-water canal from Cairo to Suez in i86x-i8<!(3. This cans
follows the lines of that of *Amr (or Trajan).
Maritime Canal PrcjecU, — Apart from water communicatio
between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea by way of the NiU
the project of direct communication by a canal piercing th
isthmus of Suez was entertained as early as the 8th century a.d. b
HlrOn al-RashId, who is said to have abandoned the scbemf
being persuaded that it wouM be dangerous to lay open the coau
of Arabia to the Byzantine navy. After the discovery of the Cap
route to India at the cUmc of the isth century, the Venetian
who had for centuries held the greater part of the trade of \\
East with Europe via Egypt and the Red Sea, began negotiatior
with the Egyptians for a canal across the isthmus, but the coi
quest of Egypt by the Turks put an end to these designs. I
1671 I^bnitz in his proposals to LouisXIV.of France rcgardir
an expedition to Egypt recommended the making of a maritin
canal, and the Sheikh al-Balad Ali Bey (c. 1770) wished to can
out the projeol, Bonaptrte when in Egypt in 179& oidered U
SU£Z CANAL
as
MmiB to be futcyed as a pRliiDlnaiy to the digg^ of A caaal
aoMi ii. tad the engiiwer be employed, J. M. Lepdre, came to the
oBdoioa thtt there wu a difference in level of 19 ft. between
fc Kcd Sa and the Mediterranean. This view was combated
a tk time bjr Laplace and Fourier on general grounds, and was
ialifiisptwtA in 1846-1847 as the result of surveys made at
ikiastaoct of the SoqH€ d'&udes pour le Canal de Suez. This
Kxtf was ofganised in 1846 by Prosper Enfantin, the Saint
ineuA, who thirteen years before had visited Egypt in con-
KxioQ with a scheme for making a canal across the isthmus
i Soex, which, like the canal across the isthmus of Panama, was
psi of the Saint Simontst programme for the regeneration of
de world The expert commission appointed by this society
R?orted by a majority in favour of Paulin Taiabot's plan,
Ktordiag to which the canal would have run from Suez to
AkoBdria by way of Cairo.
injure Britiab ttaritime ttipremac/, and that the propoial wai
merely a device for French interference in the East.
Althou^ tile sultan's confirmation of the concession was not
actually granted till 1866, de Lesaeps in X858 opened the sub-,
scriptlon Hsts for his company, the capital of which was 206
million francs in 400,000 shares of 500 francs each. In less than
a month 3x4494 shares were applfed for; of these over 200,000
were subscribed in France and over 96,000 were taken by the
Ottoman EmiMre. From other countries the subscriptions were
trifling, and England, Austria and Russia, as weO as the United
States of America, hdd entirdy aloof. The residue of 85,506
shares* was taken over by the viceroy. On the a 5th of April
1850 the work of construction was formally begun, the first
spadeful of sand being turned near the site of Port Said, but
progress was not very rapid. By the beginning of x 863 the fresh-
water canal had reached Lake Timsa, and towards the end.of the
"«^P>r Mir ln> I//i*w II A C^Ml * fw. IV G. Ckul»KottS, tv prnwMioQ ol McKB HmA^
f^some years after this report no progress was made; indeed,
^ society was in a state of suspended animation when in 1854
FaiBiod de Lesscps came to the front as the chief exponent of
'^ i^ He had been associated with the Saint Simonists and
•■X 2aj>y years had been keenly interested in the question. His
^^^jnunity came in x8S4 when, on the death of Abbas Pasha,
f"^ friend Said Pasha became viceroy of Egypt. From Said on
^ <«i of November 1854 he obtained a concession authorizing
JJ3 to constitute the Compagnie Univeiscllc du Canal Maritime
« .:«t, wiiich should construct a ship canal through the isthmus,
^i soon afterwards in concert with two French engineers,
1^1 Bey and Mougel Bey, he decided that the canal should
'^ !s a direct line from Suez to the Gulf of Pelusium, passing
^'v-gt the depressions that are now Lake Timsa and the Bitter
^^i. and skirting the eastern edge of Lake Menzala. In the
: V »:cg ye^y ^jj international commission appointed by the
^ "try approved this plan with slight modifications, the chief
^"« that the channel was taken through Lake Mcnzala instead
« :;%j 4is edge, and the northern termination of the canal
^i' isomc 17I m. westward where deep water was f6und closer
'^" -^ shore. This pbn, according to which there were to be
- ^ii, was the one ultimately carried out, and it was embodied
,.!*^**"^ and amplified concession, dated the 5th of January
") »hich laid on the company the obligation of constructing,
*-ii!ion to the maritime canal, a fresh-water canal from the
■'^/•^if Cairo to Lake Timsa, with branches running parallel
^'^ maritime tanal. one to Suez and the other to Pelusium.
« 'occc5sion was to last for 99 years from the dale of the opcn-
■^ c( the canal between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean,
^^•'^ »hich, in default of other arrangements, the canal passes
ihe hands of the Egyptian government. The confirmation
'■* wltan of Turkey being required, de Lesscps went to Con-
''^"•^vjpic 10 secure it, but found himself baffled by British
;• aocvi and later in London he was informed by Lord
^*l2w«0Q that io the opinion of the British government the
<^<^ was a physical impossibility, that if it were made it would
same year a narrow channel had been formed between that lake
and the Mediterranean. In 1863 the fresh-water canal was
continued to Suez.
So far the work had been performed by native hibour; the
concession of 1856 contained a provision that at least four-fifths
of the labourers should be Egyptians, and later in the same year
Said Pasha undertook to supply labourers as required by the
engineers of thfe canal company, which was to house and feed
them and pay them at stipulated rates. Although the wages
and the terms of service were better than the men obtained
normally, this system of forced labour was strongly disapproved
of in England, and the khedive Ismail who succeeded Said on the
latter's death in 1863 also considered it as being contrary to the
interests of his country. Hence in July the Egyptian foreign
minister, Nubar Pasha, was sent to Constantinople with the pro-
posal that the mmiber of labourers furnished to the company
should be reduced, and that it should be made to hand back to
the Egyptian government the lands that had been granted it by
Said in 1856. These propositions were approved by the sultan,
and the company was informed that if they were not accepted
the works would be stopped by force. Naturally the company
objected, and in the end the various matters in dispute were
referred to the arbitration of the emperor Napoleon III. By hb
award, made in July 1864, the company was allowed 38 million
francs as an indemnity for the abolition of the conie^ x6 million
francs in respect of its retrocessions of that portion of the fresh-
water canal that lay between Wadi, Lake Timsa and Suez (the
remainder had already been handed back by agreement), and 30
million francs in respect of the lands which had been granted it by
Said. The company was allowed to retain a certain amount of
land along the canals, which was necessary for purposes of con*
St met ion, erection of workshops, &c., and it was put under the
obligation of finishing the fresh-water canal between Wadi and
'These formed part of the 176.602 shares which were boughi.lf^
the sum of (j.976^82 from the khedive by England in 1875 atf
instance ci Lord Beaconsfield (q.9.). "'^
I
24
SUEZ CANAL
Sues to sitch dimensioiis that the depth of watec in, it would be
^1 metres at high Nile and at least i metre at low Nile. The
supply of Port Said with water it was allowed to manage by
any means it chose; in the first instance it laid a double line of
iron piping from Timsa, and it was not till XS85 that the original
plan of supplying the town by a branch of the fresh-water
canal was carried out. The indenmity, amounting to a total of
84 million francs, was to be paid in instalments spread over
15 years.
The abolition of forced labour was probably the salvation of
the enterprise, for it meant the introduction of mechanical Appk-
ances and of modem engineering methods. The work was divided
into four contracts. The first was for the supply of 250,000 cubic
metres of concrete blocks for the jetties of Port Said; the second,
for the first 60 kilometres of the channel from Port Said, involved
the removalof 23 million cubic metres of sand or mud; the third
was for the next length of 13 kilometres, which included the
cutting through the high ground at £1 Gisr; and the fourth and
largest was for the portion between Lake Timsa and the Red Sea.
The contractors for this last section were Paul Borel and Alex-
andre Levalley, who ultimately became responsible also for the
second or 60 kilometres contract. For the most part the material-
was soft and therefore readily removed. At some points, how-
ever, as at Shaluf and Serapeum, rock was encountered. Much
of the channel was formed by means of dredgers. Througih
Lake Menzala, for instance, native workmen made & shallow
Channel by scooping out the soil with their hands and throwing it
out on each side to form the banks; dredgers were then floated
in and completed the excavation to the required depth, the
soil being delivered on the other side of the banks through long
spouts. At Serapeum, a preliminary shallow channel having been
dug out, water was admitted from the fresh-water canal, the level
of which is higher than that oi the ship canal, and the work was
completed by dredgers from a level of about 20 ft. above the sea.
At £1 Gisr, where the soil, composed largely of loose sand, rises
60 ft. above the sea, the contractor, Alphonse Couvreux, employed
an excavator of his own design, which was practically a bucket-
dredger working in the dry. A long arm projecting downwards
at an angle from an engine on the bank carried a number of
buckets, mounted on a continuous chain, which scooped up
the stuff at the bottom and discharged it. into wagons at the
top.
In 1865 de LesBeps, to show the progress that had been made,
entertained over xoo delegates from chambers of commerce in
different parts of the world, and conducted them over the works.
In the following year the company, being in need of money,
realized 10 million francs by selling to the Egyptian government
the estate of £1 Wadi, which it had purchased from Said, and it
also succeeded in arranging that the money due to it under the
av/ard of 1864 should be paid off by 1869 instead of 1879. Us
financial resources still being insufficient, it obtained in 1867
permission to invite a loan of 100 million francs; but though the
issue was offered at a heavy discount it was only fully taken up
after the attractions of a lottery scheme had been added to it.
Two years later the company got 30 million francs from the
Egyptian government in consideration of abandoning certain
special rights and privileges that still belonged to it and of hand-
ing over various hospitals, workshops, buildings, &c., which it
had established on the isthmus. The government liquidated this
debt, not by a money payment, but by agreeing to forego for
85 years the interest on the 1 76,602 shares it held in the company,
which was thus enabled to raise a loan to* the amount of the debt.
Altogether, up to the end of the year (1869) in which the canal
was sufficiently advanced to be opened for traffic, the accounts
of the company showed a total expenditure of 432,807,882 francs,
though the International Technical Commission in 1856 had
estimated the cost at only 200 millions for a canal of larger
dimensions.
The formal opening of the canal was celebrated in November
1869. On the j6lh there was an inaugural ceremony at Port
Said, and next day 68 vessels of various nationalities, headed
" "^ '"ffle " with the empress Eugenia oq houLtd, began the
pftisage, sesdiiiig IwuflU (LaJto Timia) tb« vwm day. Oa the
igUh they continued their journey to the Bitter Lakes, and on the
30th they arrived at Sues. Immediately af tepxrardsregular traffic
began. In 1870 the canal was. used by nearly 500 vessels, but
the receipts for the first two years of working were nrwttiderKbly
less than the.expense& The company attempted to issue a loan of
20 million francs in 1871, but the response was small, and it was
only saved from bankruptcy by a rapid increase in iu revenues.
The total length of (Le navigation from Port Said to Sues
is 100 m. The canal was originally constructed to have a
depth of 8 metres with a bottom width of 22 metres, but it soon
became evident that its dimensions must be enlarged. Certain
improvements in the channel w^e started in 1876, but a more
extensive plan was adopted in x 88$ as the result of the inquiries
of an international commission which recommended that the depth
should be increased first to 8) metres and finally to 9 metres,
and that the width should be made on the straight parts a
minimum of 65 metres between Port Said and the Bitter Lakes,
and of 75 metres between the Bitter Lakes and Sues, increasing
on curves to 80 metres. To pay for these works a Joan of xoo
million francs was issued. These widenings greatly improved
the facilities for ships travelling in opposite directions to pass
each other. In the early days of the canal, except in the Bitter
Lakes, vessels could pass each other only at a few crossing
places or gares, which had a collective length of less than a mile;
but owing to the widenings that have been carried out, passing
is now possible at any point over the greater part of the canal,
one vessel stopping while the other proceeds on her way. From
March 1887 navigation by night was permitted to ships which
were provided with electric search-lights, and now the great
majority avail themselves of this facility. By these measureaj
the average time of transit, which was about 36 hours in tSS6;
has been reduced by half. The maximum speed permitted in
the canal itself is 10 kilometres an hour.
The dues which the canal company was authorised to charge
by its concession of 1856. were xo franct a ton. In the first
instance they were levied on the tonnage as shown by the
papers on board each vessel, but from March 1872 they were
charged on the gross register tonnage, computed according to
the method of the British Merchant Shipping Act 1854. The
result was that the shipowners had to pay more, and, objections
being raised^ the. whole question of the method of charge was
submitted to an international conference which met at Con-
stantinople in 1873. It fixed the dues at xo francs per net
register ton (English reckoning) with a surtax of 4 francs per
ton, which, however, was to be reduced to 3 francs in the case
of ships having on board papers showing their net tonnage
calc\ilated in the required manner. It also decided that the
surtax should be gradually diminished as the traffic increased,
until in the year after the net tonnage passing through the canal
reached 2,600,000 tons it should be abolished. De Lesseps
protested against this arrangement, but on the sultan threaten-
iog to enforce it, if necessary by armed intervention, he gave
in and brought the new tariff into operation in April 1874.
By an arrangement with the canal company, signe4. in 1876,
the British government, which in 1875 by the purchase of the
khedive's shares, had become a large shareholder, undertook
negotiations to secure that the successive reductions of the tanff
should take effect on fixed dates, the sixth and last instalment
of 50 centimes being removed in January 1884, after which the
maximum rate was to be 10 francs per official net ton. But
before this happened British shipowners had started a vigorous
agitation against the rates, which they alleged to be excessive,
and had even threatened to construct a second canal. In
consequence a meeting was arranged between them and repre-
sentatives of the canal company in London in November 1883,
and it was agreed that in January 1885 the dues should be
reduced to 9I francs a ton, that subsequently they should be
lowered on a sliding scale as the dividend increased, and that
after the dividend reached 25% all the surplus profits should be
applied in reducing the rates until they were lowered to 5 francs
a ton. .Under thisi arrangement they were fixed at 7} francs
SUFFOLK, EARLS AND DUKES OF~-SUFFOLK, ist DUKE OF 25
ymtamt die hcginning of &906. Foe iliip» in hftUaat n^uood
Btts are ia force. For paasengiera tbe dues remain at 10 Iraocs
t bead* the ficuze at whidi ihey were originally fixed.
fiy like concesfiions of 1854 ^nd 1856 tbe dues were to be the
aiae for all rr*'"*'^ preferential treatment of any kind being
farlMlrlai, and the canal and its ports were to be open " commc
poMges neatres ** to every merchant ship without distinction
d nationality. The question of its formal neutralization by
(BteraatSoaal agreement waa eused in an acute form during
the Egypclaa crisis of t88x-8s, and in August of the latter year
a few vcHcs befoce the battle of Tel-«1-Kebir, navigation upon it
«s suspended for four days at the instance of Sir Garnet
Wdadey, «bo was in command of the British forces. At the
iatenatfoaal conference which was then sitting at Constantl-
aeplc vanotis proposab were pat forward to ensure the use of the
canai to all nations, and ultimately at Constantinople on the
29th of October 1888 Great Britain, Germany, Austria, Spain,
Fnace, It^, the Netherlands, Russia and Turkey signed the
Svs Caaal Convention, the purpose of which was to ensure
that the canal should "always be free and open, in time of
w as in tlW of peace, to every vessel of commerce or of war,
withoot <listmctioa <if flag. *' Great Britain, however, in signing,
formnlatcd a leservation that the provisions of the convention
ihovld only apply so Car as they were compatible with the
actoal sitiiatioa, namely the "present transitory and exccp-
ijooal condition of Egypt, " and so far as they would not fetter
the Cbcrty of action of the British go v ern m ent during its occupa-
ttta of that ooantiy. But by the Anglo-French agreement
of the 8th of April 1904 Great Britain declared her adherence
to the stipulations of the convention, and agreed to their being
put A force, except as regards a provision by which the agents
ia Egypt «f the signaUwy Powets of the eodvention were to meet
«aee a year to takt note of the due execution of the treaty.
It was by Tirtoe of this new agreement that the Russian -war-
lAjps proceeding to the East in 1904-1905 were enabled to
Bse the canal, although passage was prohibited to Spanish war-
Aipa in 1898 during the war between Spain and the United
Vlstkme a U Canal dt Stux, histerique, itat actud, by J. Charles-
Rabx (7 «els.. Paris 1901), contains reprints of various official
*M. « M encs idaling to the canal, with plates, maps- and a bibUo-
fsphy cxtBediog to 1499 entries.
SOrrOLK, EARU AMD DUKES OF. These English titles
vac home in turn by tbe families of Ufford, Pole, Brandon,
Gtey and UowanL A certain hdder of land in Suffolk, named
joha de Feyton, had a younger son Robert, who acquired the
lofdihip of Ufiotd in that county and was known as Robert
de UfionL He held an important place in the government
of Iidand under Edward I. and died in 1198; hb son Robert
(1*79-131^ was created Baron Ufford by a writ of summons
to parliament in 1309, and increased his possessions by marriage
with Cicely, daughter and heiress of Robert de Valoin^ This
Riotert had several sons, one of whom was Sir Ralph de Ufford
(d. 1346), Jostidar of Irehmd, who married Maud, widow of
Iblflam de Btngh, eari of Ulster, and daughter of Henry
Plantigrnet, carl of Lancaster. Robert's eldest snrviving son,
aaoiher Robert {€. 1298-1369)1 was an asaociate of the young
bag Edwani III., and was one of the nobles who arrested Roger
Morusser fin 1330. Ia 1337 he was created earl of Suffolk.
The eari was employed by Edward III. on high military and
dbplomatic duties and waa present at the battles of Ciecy and
Ptuicfa. His son William, the 2nd eari (c. 133^1382). held
■ipastaDt appointments nadtr Edward IIL and Rkbard U.
He played a leading part in the suppression of the Peasants'
fievob ia 1381, bnt in the same year be supported the popular
inrty in pariiaflKat in the attack on tbe misgoveramcnt of
I Rkhxrd H. Although twice married he left no sons, and his
earUom became extinct, his extensive estates reverting to the
CfQvn.
I la 138s the earldom of Suffolk and the lands of the Uffords
woe granied by Richard IL to his friend Michael Pole (c. 1330-
i^Bg},. a son of Sir WSUam atie Pole, a baron of the exchequer
and a nnnchant (see Pqle Paiin.Y)« After an active puhlk
life as the trusted adviser of Richard II. Pole was H^cmi«pyi
from his oQuce of chancellor, was impeached and seatcncfd ix>
death< but escaped to France, where he died. His titles and
estates were forfeited, but in 1399 the earldom of Saffolk and
most of the esutes were restored to his son Michael (c, i36(-
1415)* Michael, the 3rd earl (1394-1415)* waa killed at the battle
of. AgiBQOuxt,and theearkiom passed to lUs brother WiUtam (1396-
1450), who was created earl of Pembroke in i443« mar^ueis
of SuCblk in 1444, and duke of Suffolk in 1448 (see SunouE,
WzLUAM OS LA PoiE, Duxft ov). The duke's soi^ John,
and duke of Suffolk (x44»«i49i), manied Elisabeth, <bttgbter
of Richard, duke of York, and sister of King Edwaid IV.,
by whom he had six sons. The eldest, John (c^ 1464-1487),
waa created earl of Lincoln, and was named heir to the throne
by Richard UI. He was killed fighting against Hienry , VII. ^
the battle of Stoke, and w«s attainted. His brother Edmund
(«. i47^i5U) should have socceedod his father in the duke-
dom in i49>i but he surrendered this to Heniy VU. m return
for some of the esutes forfeited by tbe carl of Lincob, and
was known simply as eail of Suffolk. Having incurred the
displeasure of the king, he left his own country in 1501 and
sought help for an invasion of England. Consequently he was
attainted in 1504 and was handed over in 1506 to Henry. He
was kept in prison uniU 15x3, when he was beheaded by
Henry VIH. His brother Richard now called himself duke of
Suffolk, and put forward a claim to the English crown. Known
as tbe *' white rose," he lived abroad until ts^5i when he was
kUled at the battle of Pavia.
In 15x4 the title of duke of Suffolk wts granted by Heniy
VIII. to hs friend, Charies Brandon (see Suivolx^ ri^fntjy
Ba&MDON, Puke of) and it was borne successively by his two
sons, Henry and Charles becoming extinct when Charles died
in July i55i« lu the saone year it was revived in favour of
Henry Grey, marquess of Dorset, who had manied Frances, a
daughter of the first Brandon duke. Grey, who became mas-
qucss of Dorset in 1530, was a prominent member of the reform-
ing party during the reign of Edward VI. He took part in the
attempt to make his daughter, Jane, queen of England in 1553,
but as he quickly made his peace with Maiy he was not seriously
punished. In SS54» however, he took part in the rising beaded
by Sir Thomas Wyat; be was captured, tried for treason and
beheaded in February x5S4f. when the dukedom again became
extinct. In 1603 Thomas Howard, Lord Howard de Walden,
son of Thomas Howard, 4th duke of Norfolk, was created earl
of Suffolk, and the earldom has been held by bis descendanU
to the present day (see Sutfolk, Thomas Howaso, ist earl of).
SUFFOLK. CHARLES BRANDON. iST Duke of (c. 1484-
i545)» vi^ the son ol William Brandon, standard-bearer of
Henry VII., who was slain by Richard III. in person on Bos-
worth Field. Charles Brandon was brought up at the court
of Henry VII. He is described by Dugdale as " a person comely
of stature, high of courage and conformity of disposition to
King Henry VIII.," with whom he became a great favourite.
He held a succession of offices in the royal household, becoming
master of the horse In ^5x3, and received many valuable grants
of land. On the 15th of May 15x3 he was created Viscount
Lisle, having entered into a marriage contract with his ward,
Elizabeth Grey, Viscountess Lisle in her own right, who, how-
ever, refused to marry him when she came of age. He dis-
tinguished himself at the sieges of Teroucnne and Touznai in
the French campaign of 1313. One of the ag<aits of Margaret
of Savoy, governor of the Netherlands, writing from before
Teroueime, reminds her that Lord Lisle b a aeoopd king and
advises her to write him a kind letter. At this time Henry VHI.
was secretly urging Margaret to numry Brandon* whom be
created duke of Suffolk, though he was careful to disclaim
(March 4, X5X4) any oomplidty in the project to her father, the
emperor Majdoiillian L The regent herself left a curious accouiit
of the proceedings (LeOars and Papers of Benry Vltl. voL i.
4^50-4851). Brandon took part In the jousts which celebrated
tbe marriage of Mary Tudor, Hcnxy*s sister, with Louis XXL
4
26
SUFFOLK, 1ST EARL OF
of France. He was accredited to negotiate variout matters
with Louis, and on his death waa sent to congratulate the new
king Frauds I. An affection between Suffolk and the dowager
queen Mary had aubsbted before her marriage, and Francis
roundly charged him with an intention to marry her. Francis,
perhaps in the hope of Queen Claude's death, had himself been
one of her suitors in the first week of her widowhood, and
Mary asserted that she had given him her confidence, to avoid
his importonitiea. Francis and Henry both professed a friendly
attitude towards the marriage of the lovers, but Suffolk had
many political enemies, and Mary feared that she might again
be sacrificed to political considerations. The truth was that
Henry was anxious to obtain from Francis the gold plate and
jewels which had been given or promised to the queen by Louis
in addition to the reimbursement of the expenses of her marriage
with the king; and he practically made his acquiescence in
Suffolk's suit dependent on his obtaining them. The pair cut
short the difficulties by a private marriage, which Suffolk an-
nounced to Wolsey, who had been their fast friend, on the 5th
of March. Suffolk was only saved from Henry's anger by
Wolsey, and the pair eventually agreed to pay to Henry £24,000
in yearly instalments of £1000, and the whok of Mary's dowry
from Louis of £200,000, together with her plate and jewels.
They were openly married at Greenwich on the xjth of May.
The duke had been twice married already, to Margaret Mortimer
and to Anne Browne, to whom he had been betrothed before
his marriage with Margaret Mortimer. Anne Browne died in
151 1, but Margaret Mortimer, from whom he had obtained a
divorce on the ground of consanguinity, was still living. He
secured In 1538 a bull from Pope Clement IT. assuring the
legitimacy of his marriage with Mary Tudor, and of the daughters
of Anne Browne, one of whom, Anne, was sent to the court of
Margaret of Savoy. After his marriage with Mary, Suffolk
lived for some years in retirement, but he waa present at the
Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520, and in 1593 he was sent to
Calais to command the English troops . there. He invaded
France in company with Count de Buren, who was at the head
of the Flemish troops, and laid waste the north of France, but
disbanded his troops at the approach of winter. Suffolk was
entirely in favour of Henry's divorce from Catherine of Aragon,
and in spite of hb obligations to Wolsey be did not scruple to
attack him when his fall was imminent. The cardinal, who
was acquainted with Suffolk's private history, reminded him of
his ingratitude: " If I, sim]^ cardinal, had not been, you should
have had at this present no head upon your shoulders wherein
you should have had a tongue to make any such report in despite
of us. " After Wolsey's disgrace Suffolk's influence increased
daily. He was sent with the duke of Norfolk to demand the
great seal from Wolsey; the same noblemen conveyed the news
of Anne Boleyn's marriage to Queen Catherine, and Suffolk
acted as high steward at the new queen's coronation. He was one
of the commissioners appointed by Henry to dismiss Catherine's
household, a task which he found distasteful. He supported
Henry's ecclesiastical policy, receiving a large share of the
plunder after the suppression of the monasteries. In 1544 he
was for the second time in command of an English army for
the invasion of France. He died at Gidldford on the 34th of
August in the following year.
After the death of Mary Tudor on the 34th of June 1533 he
had married in 1534 his ward Catherine (1520*1580), Baroness
Willoughby de Eresby in her own right, then a giri of fifteen.
His daughters by his marriage with Anne Browne were Anne,
who married firstly Edward Grey, Lord Powys, and, after the
dissolution of this union, Randal Harworth; and Mary (b. 1510),
who married Thomas Stanley, Lord Monteagle. By Mary
Tudor he had Henry earl of Lincoln* (1516-1634); Frances, who
married Henry Grey, marquess of Dorset, and became the
mother of Lady Jane Grey; and Eleanor, who married Henry
Clifford, second eari of Cumberland. By Kathcrine Willoughby
he had two sons who showed great promise, Henry (1535-1551)
' "• fc. 1537-1551)1 dukes of Suffolk. They died of the
ss withLi an hour ot one another. Their tutor.
Sir Thomas Wilson, compiled a memoir of them, Vila et dH$ta
duorum Jralrum Sufdcensium ( 1 5 5 1 ).■
There ts abundant material for the history of Suffolk's career In
the Letlers and Papers of Henry VI If. (ed. Bmwer in the Rolls
Series). See also Dugdale, Banomam 0/ Bnglaud (voL iL 1676):
and G. E. C, . OmpUla Peera^, An account of hia matrimooial
adventures is in the hiMorical appendix to a novel by £. S. Holt
entitled 7%« Harvest of Yesterday.
SUFFOLK. THOMAS HOWARD^ isx Eaxl or (xs6K>i6a6),
second son of Thomas Howard, 4th duke of Norfolk, was bora
on the 24th of August 1561. He behaved vesy gaUanlly during
the attack on the Spanish armada and afterwards took pact in
other naval eapeditions, becoming an admiral in 1599. Created
Baron Howard de Walden in 1597 ard eari of Suffolk in July
1603, he was lord chamberlain of the ipyal household from 1603
to 1614 and lord high treasurer from 1^14 to x6x8, when he was
deprived of his office on a charge of misappropiiatiag money.
He was tried in the Star-chamber and was soiienced to pay a
heavy fine. Suffolk's second wife waa Catherine (d. 1633),
widow of the Hon. Richard Rich, a woman whose avarice was
partly responsible for her husband's dowofalL She shared his
trial and waa certainly guilty of taking bribes from Spain. One
of his three daughters was the notorious Frances Howard,
whoi, after obtaining a divorce from her first husband, Robert
Deveroux, earl of Essex, married Robert Carr.earlof Somerset,
and instigated the poisoning of Sir Thomas Overbury. The carl
died on the a8th of May i6a6. He built a magnificaii residence
at Audley End, Essex, which is said to have cost £2oq,ooow One
of Suffolk's seven sons was Sir Robert Howard (x 585-1653), who
inherited Clun Castle, Shropshire, on the death of hia brother,
Sir Charles Howard, in 1623. He was twice impiisoDed on
account of bis illicit relations with FxanceSv Viscountess Purbcck
(d. X645), a daughter of Sir Edward Coke, and after sitting in
six parliaments waa expelled from the House of Commons for
executing the king's commission of array in 1642. He died on
the a and of April 1653. Another of Suffolk's sons, Edward
(d. 167 5), was created baron Howard of Escrick in 1628. He waa
one of the twelve peers who signed the petition on grievances,
which he presented to Charles L at York in 1640, and after the
abolition of the House of Lords in 1649 be sat in the House of
Commons as member for Carlisle, being also a member of the
council of state. In 1651 he was expelled from parilament far
taking bribes and he died on the a4th of April r6f 5. Hii second
son, William, 3rd lord Howard of Escrick («. 1 626-1694), was
a ntember of the republican party during the Common weaAih;
later he associated himself with the opponents of the arbitrary
rule of Charles II., but turning informer he was partly reapoa-
sible for the conviction of Lord William Russell and of Algernon
Sydney in 1683. On the death of William's son, Charles, the
4th lord, in X7X5 the barony of Howsjrd of Esctkk became
extinct.
Suffolk's eldest son, Theophilus, and earl of Suffolk (1584-
1640), was captain of the band of gentlemen pensioners under
James I. and Charles I., and succeeded to the earldom in May
1626, obtaining about the same time some of the numerous
offices which had been held by his father, including the lord-
lieutenancy of the counties of Suffolk, Cambridge and Dorset.
He died on the 3rd of June 1640, when his eldest son James
(16x9-1689) became 3rd earL This nobleman, who acted as
earl marshal of England at the coronation of Charles U.. died
in January 1689 when his barony of Howard de Walden fell
into abeyance between his two daughters.^ His earldom,
however, passed to his brother George (c. x6a5-x69i), who
' Having thus fallen into abeyance In 1689 the barony of Howard
de Walden was revived in 1784 in favour of John Griffin Griffin,
afterward! Locd Braybrooke, 00 whose death in May 1797 it foil
again Into abeyance In xtqo the bUiop of I>erTy, FrcdericI
Aueustus Hervey, 4th eari 01 Bristol, a descendant of the 3rd ea^r
of Suffolk, became the sole heir to the barony. On Bristol^ dcatl
in July 1803 it passed to Charies Aueustus Ellis (l799-i't68), 1
nandaon of the bishop's elder son, John Augnatus. Lord HcrW<
(1757-1796), who had predeceased his father. It was thva aepanaact
from the marqu^saate of Bristol, which paaaed to the bishop's onl^
surviving son. and it haa aince been held by the fanily of T *
yorEllia.
SUFFOLK, DUKE OF
8?
ktame 4Ch cad of SafoOt. GMiRe% M^bew, Btary, the 6di
osl ^. 1670-171 if), who was ftresident of the board of tnde
boa X715 to 17x8, left an caly son, Charles WUUain (1695-
172 j), who iras succeeded in turn by his two uncles, the younger
•I thcoi, Cbvles (1675-1733) becoming 9th earl on the death
«f his brother Edward in June 1731. This earl was the husband
cf Henrietta countess of Suffolk (1;. 1681-1767), the mistress of
G»i|e II., who was a daughter of Sir Henry Hobart, bart.,
d "S^K-c Noffolk. When still the Hon. Charles Howard,
he aad lus wife made the acquaintance of the future king in
Baaovcr; after the accession of George I. to the English throte
n 17L4 both husband and wile obtained posts in the household
of the poBoe o£ Wales, whot when he became king as George II.,
pabSdy nchnowlcd g ed Mis Howard as his mistress. She was
formally separalRl . from her husband before 1731 when she
becuae coontesfc of Suffolk. The earl died on the aSth of Sep-
iBirixr X73J9 hot the countess, having retired from court and
Hfiied the Hod. George Berkeley (d. 1746), Hved until the
36th of July 1767. Among Lady Suffolk's friends were the
poeu Pope and Gay and Charles Mordaunt (earl of Peterborough).
\ oDihciioa of Ldlers to oiuf frpm Hmridia Comnku ef St^oUt,
t^ hv Smnmi Mmabamdt At Hmt. George Berkdey, was edited by
j. W. Craher (ia24)-
The 9th eaxi*s only son Henry, the xoth earl (1706-1745),
dcd vithsat sons in April 17451 when his estate at Audley End
pnscd to the descendants of the 3rd earl, being inherited in
1762 by John Griffin Griffin (1719-1797), afterwards Lord
Bovard de Walden and Lord Braybrooke. As owners of this
estate the carls of Suffolk of the Howard line had hitherto been
hoedhary viaiton of Magdalene College, Cambridge, but this
dbce BOW passed away from them. The earldom of Suffolk
vas aabexited by Henry Bowes Howard, 4th earl of Berkshire
(i696-i757)» who was the great-grandson of Thomas Howard
{< 1 990-1669), the second son of the ist eari of Suffolk,
Tfaooas having been created earl of Berkshire in 1626. Since
1745 the two earldoms have been united, Henry Molyneuz
^»px Howaid Ox 1877)^ succeeding his father, Henry Charles
(283^if9ft)» aa S9th earl of Suffolk and lath earl of Berkshire
B189S.
SVPfOU:. WILLIAM DB LA POLB, DuxE OF (1396-1450),
anodsiNi of Michael dela Pole, second earl of Suffolk, was bom
ea the i6ih of October 1396. His hither died at the siege of
Haiieor, and his elder bcother was killed at Agincourt on the
ijlh of October 1415. Suffolk served in all the later French
i^m,^i^M of the reign of Henry V., and in spite of his youth held
fe^ oommaAd on the marches of Normandy in i42i~3a. In
1413 he jainad the earl of Salisbury m Cham|Migne, and shared
ba vktocy at Cr^vant. He fought under John, duke of Bedford,
«t Vemcuil on the 17th of August 1434, and throughout the
Bot four years was Salisbury's chief lieutenant in the diiectk>n
of the war. When SaUsbury was killed before Orleans on the
jnl «f Novoabcr 1428, Suffolk succeeded to the command.
Alter the siecB was mised, Suffolk was defeated and taken
pcimoer by Jeanne d*Arc at Jai^geau on the 12th of June 1439.
He was soon ransomed, and during the next two years was again
J *««— >»«»^ on the Norman frontier. He returned to England
b ^JowcnihfT i43i> After over fourteen years' continuous service
btheheld.
SaHolk had already been employed on diplomatic missions
hf John of Bedford, and from this time forward he had an
wportaat shaiv In the woik of administration. He attached
binsdl nataraBy to Cardinal Beaufort, and even thus early
irras U> have been striving for a general peace. But public
epuwm in England was not yet ripe, and the unsuccessful oon-
fcfcnoe at Anas, whh the oDnatquent defection of Burgundy,
■iTBgihened the war party. Nevertheless the cardinal's
i«boriiy remained supreme in the council, and Suffolk, as his
chief suppostcr, gained lafTeawng influence. The queslibn of
Hany VL'a manlage brought him to the front. Humphrey
of Gtouceflteff favoured an Armagnac alliance. Suffolk brought
about the natch with Margaret of Anjou. Report already
nprtscBied Suffolk aa too friendly with French leaders like
Charks of Orleans, and h was with rriaetanoe that henndcfteok
the responsibility of an embassy to France. However, when he
returned to England in June i444> after negotiating the marriage
and a two years' truce, he received a triumphant reception. He
was made a marquess^ and in the autumn sent again to Fiance
to bring Margaret home. The French contrived to find occasion
for extorting a promise to surrender all the English possessions
m Anjou and Maine, a concession that was to prove fatal to
Suffolk and his policy. Still for the time his success was com-
plete, aiui his position as the personal friend of the young king
and queen seemed secure. Htunphrey of Gloucester died in
February 1447, within a few days of his arrest, and six weeks
kter Cardinal Beaufort died also. Suffolk was left without an
obvious rival, but his difficulties were great. Rumour, though
without su6kient reason, made him responuble for Humphrey's
death, while the peace and its consequent concessions rendered
him unpopular. So also did the supersession <tf Richard of York
by Edmund Beaufort, duke of Somerset, in the French com-
mand. Suffolk's promotion to a dukedom in July 1448, marked
the height of his power. The difficulties of his position may have
led him to give some countenance to a treacherous attack on
Fougiies during the time of truce (March 1449). 'Ric renewal
of the war and the loss of all Normandy were its dirart conse-
quences. When parliament met in November 1449, the oppo*
sjtion showed iU strength by forcing the treasuxer, Adam
Molyneux, to resign. Molyneuz was murdered by the sailors
at Portsmouth on the 9th of Januaiy 1450. Suffolk, realising
that an attack on himself was ineviuble, boldly chalknged
his enemies in parliament, appealing to the long aad honourable
record of his public services. On the 7th of Februaiy and again
on the 9th of March the O>nunons presented articles of accusa-
tion dealing chiefly with sDeged maladministration and the ill
success of the French policy; there was a charge of aiming at the
throne by the betrothal of his son to the little Margaret Beaufort,
but no suggestion of guilt concerning the death of C^ucester.
The articles were in great part baseless, if not absurd. Suffolk,
in his defence on the 13th of March, denied them as false, untrue
and too horrible to speak more of. Ultimately, as a sort of
compromise, the king sentenced him to banishment for five
years. Suffolk left England on the 1st of May. He was inter-
cepted in the Channel by the ship " Nichobs of the Tower, "
and next morning was beheaded in a little boat alongside.
The " Nicholas " was a royal ship, and Suffolk's murder was
probably instigated by his political opponents.
Popular opinion at the time judged Suffolk as a traitor. This
view was accepted by Yorkist chroniclers and Tudor historians,
who had no reason to speak well of a Pole. Later legend made
him the paramour of Biaxgaret of Anjou. Though utterly
baseless, the stoiy gained currency in the Minow Jof Magu-
trates, and was adopted in Shakespeare's t Henry VI.
(act in. sc. iL). Suffolk's best defence is contained in the touching
letter of farewell to his son, written on the eve of his departure
{Paston Letters, f. 142), and in his noble speeches before pariia-
ment {RoUs of Parliament, v. 176, i8a). Of the former Lingard
said well that it is " difficult to believe that the writer could
have been either a false subject or a bad man. " The policy of
peace which Suffolk pursued was just and wise; he foresaw from
the first the personal risk to which its advocacy exposed him.
This alone should acquit him of any base motive; his oonduct
was " throa^ut open and straij^tforward " (Stubbs). What-
ever his defects as a statesman, he was a gallant soldier, a man of
culture and a loyal servant.
Suffolk's wife, Alice, was widow of Thomas, eail of Salisbury,
and granddaughter of Geoffrey Chauctt'. By her he had aa
only son John, second duke of Suffolk.
BiBUOCBA PHY.— Suffolk is neccaierily prominent in all contem-
potary authoritiea. The most important are J. Stevtoson's Wanei
the EnHith ta France, Thomas Beckington's Correspondem*, T.
Wrighfs PdUicai Poewu and Songs, li. W--2M (for the popular
view)— these three are in the Rolls Series; and the Paslon UUers,
Of French writers E. de Monstrelet and Jchan de Waurin are most
useful for hb mitiuiy eareer, T. Basin and Matthieu d'Escooclr
for hb fall (oU thoe are puUbhtd by the Soci«t« de I'Hbiebv*
n
28
SUFFOLK
Fnnee>' For inddeni accooiits ne especially W. Stubbs. Cmslt/u-
Umal Hwtorv (favourable). The PUitical UisUny oj England (1906),
vol. iv., by C. Oman (unfavourable), and C. du Fresne de Beau-
court's HtiUnrt de Charles VIL See also H. A. Napier's Historical
Notices ef Swineambe amd Bwelme (1858). (C. L. K.)
SUFFOLK, an eastern coonty of England, bounded N. by
Norfolk. E. by the North Sea. S. by Essex and W. by Cambridge-
shire. The area is X488'6 sq. m. The surface is as a whole
but slightly undulating. In the extreme north-west near
Mildenhall, a small area of the Fen district is included.
This is bordered by a low range of chalk hills extending from
Haverhill northwards along the western boundary, and thence
by Bury St Edmunds to Thetford. The coast-line has a
length of about 62 m., and is comparatively regular, the bays
being (^nerally shallow and the headlands rounded and
only slightly prominent. The estuaries of the Deben. Orwell
and Stour, however, are between 10 and xa m. in length.
The shore is generally low and marshy, with occasional clay
and sand cliffs. It includes, in the dedivity on which Old
Lowestoft sunds, the most easterly point of English land.
Like the Norfolk coast, this shore has suffered greatly from
Incursions of the sea, the demolition of the ancient port of Dun-
wicli iq.v.) forming the most noteworthy example. The prin-
cipal seaside resorts are Lowestoft, Souihwold, Aideburgh and
Felixstowe. The rivers flowing northward are the Lark, in
the north-west comer, which passes in a north-westerly direction
to the Great Ouse in Noriolk; the Little Ouse or Brandon,
tfso a tributary of the Great Ouse, flowing by Thetford and
Brandon and forming part of the northern boundary of the
county; and the Waveney, which rises in Norfolk and forms
the northern boundary of Suffolk from Palgrave till it falls
into the mouth of the Yare at Yarmouth. The Waveney
h navigable from Bungay, and by means of Oulton Broad
also communicates with the sea at Lowestoft. The rivers
flowing in a south-easterly direction to the North Sea are the
Blyth; the Aide or Ore, which has a course for neariy
10 m. parallel to the seashore; the Deben, from Debenham.
flowing past Woodbridge. up to which it is navigable; the
Orwell or Gipping, which becomes navigable at Stowmarkct,
whence it flows past Needham Market and Ipswich; and the
Stour, which forms nearly the whole southern boundary of
the county, receiving the Brett, which flows past Lavenham
and Hadleigh; it is navigable from Sudbury. At the union
of its estuary with that of the Orwell b the important port of
Harwich (in Essex). The county has no valuable minerals.
Flints are worked, as they have been from pre-historic times;
a considerable quantity of clay is raised and lime and whiting
ate obtained in various districts.
Ceohty-'-nM! principal geological formations arc the Chalk
and the lertiary deposits. The lormer occupies the surface, except
where covered by superficial drift, in the central and north-west
pordons €A the county, and it extends beneath the Tertiarics in the
south-east and east. In the extreme north-west round Mildenhall the
Chalk borders a tract of fen land in a range of low hills from Haverhill
by Newmarket and Bury St Edmunds to Thetford. The Chalk is
quarried near Ipswich, Bury St Edmunds, Mildenhall and elsewhere;
at Brandon the chalk flints for gun-kxks and building have been
exploited from early times. The Tertiary formations include
Thanet sand, seen near Sudbury: and Reading Beds and London
Clay whkh extend from Sudbury through Hadleigh, Ipswich. Wood-
bridge and thence beneath youn^ deposits to the extreme north-east
d( the county. Above the E^xene formations lie the Pliocene
*' Crags," which in the north overiap the Eocene boundary on to the
chalk. The oldest of the crag deposits is the Coralline Crag, pale
nndy and marly beds with many fossils; this is best exposed west
and north of Aideburgh and about Sudboume and Orfora. Resting
upon the CoralUne beds, or upon other formations in their absence,
ia the Red Cng, a familiar feature above the London Clay in the
cliffs at Felixstowe and Baudsey, where many foesils used to be
found; inland it appears at Beniiey. Stuiton and Chillesford, where
the " Scrabicularia Clay " and Chiliesford beds of Prestwkh appear
above ic The last-named beds probably correspond with the Norwich
Crag, the name given to the upper; paler portion of the Red Crag,
tMcther with certain htgher beds in the north pan of east Suffolk.
The Norwich Cra^ b visible at Dunwkh. Bavent, Easton and Wang-
JOidL In t»i» iwi^fc ••■• Cttnentr Foretl -beds, gravels with fresh- water
ns. may be seen on the coast at Gorton
op of the London Clay and the base of
the Ciags is the " Suffolk Bonr Bed *' with abondaat mammalii^
bones and phosphatic nodules. Glacial gravel, sand and chalki
boulder clay are scattered over much of the county, ^nerally formini
stiffcr soils in the west and lighter sandy soUs in tne east. Pebbli
gravels occur at Wntleton and Halesworth, and later gravels, will
palaeolithk: imriemems, at Hmme; while old rivcr-gnveb of ati
Uter date border the present river valleys. The chalk and gauli
have been penetrated by a boring at Stutton, revealing a liaR
palaeozok slaty rock at the depth of about 1000 ft.
Avicidtun. — Suffolk is one of the most fertile conntles in EngjUna
In the i8tb century it was famed for its dairy products. Thi
h^b prices of grain during the wan of the French Revolution Ice
to the extensive breaking up of its pastures, and it is now one ol
the principal grain-growing counties in England. There is con-
siderable variety ct soils, and consequently in modes of farminf
in different parts of the county. Along the sea'Coast a nady loan
or thin sandy soil prevails, covered in aome places with the heatli
on whkh large quantities of sheep are fed. intenpersed with tracta
more or less marshy, on whkh cattle are giaxed. The best land adjoini
the rivers, and consists of a rich sandy loam, with patches of lightei
and easier soil. In the aouth-west and the centre is much finei
grain-land haviag mostly a clay subsoil, but not so tenacious as the
clay in Essex. Ia climate Suffolk is one of the driest of the Englisl;
counties; thus» the mean annual rainfall at Bury St Edmunds i:
rather less than 24 in. Towards the north-west the soil is generally
poor, consisting partly of sand on chalk, and partly of peat and open
hcatn. Some four-fifths of the total area of the county is undei
cultivation. Bariey. oats and wheat are the most important d
the grain crops. The breed of horses known as Suffolk punches
is one of the most valued for agricultural purposes in England
The breed of cattle native to the county is a polled variety, on thi
improvement of whkh great paina have been bestowed. The *Ai
Suffolk cows, famous for their great milking qualities, were of various
colours, yellow predominating. The improved are all red. Mucli
mil k is sent to London, Yarmouth, &c Many cattle, mostly imported
from Ireland, are graaed in the winter. The sheep are neatly al
of the blackfaced improved Suffolk breed, a cross between the okj
Norfolk homed sheep and Southdowns. The breed of pigs mosi
common is small and black.
Mant^Qctures and Tro^.— The county b essentially agricultural,
and the most imporunt manufactures relate to this Dranch oi
industry. They include that of agricultural implement^ eiqxcialt)
at Ipswkrh, Bury St Edmunds and Stowmarket, and that of artificial
manures at Ipswkh and Stowmarket, for which coprolites are dug
Malting is extensively carried on throughout the county. There
are chemical and gun-cotton manufactories at Stowmarket and
gun flints are still nude at Brandon. At other towns small miscd<
laneous manufactures are carried on, including silk, cotton, linen,
woollen, and horeehair and coco-nut matting. The priacipal port:
are Lowestoft. South wold, Aideburgh, Woodbridge and Ipswich.
Lowestoft is the chief fishing town. Herrings and mackml an
the fish most abundant on the coasts.
CotnmamtcafMUf.— The main line of the Great Eaatem railway,
entering the county from the south, serves Ipswich and Stowmarkct,
continuing north into Norfdk. The east Suffolk branch from Ipsw id
serves Woodbridge, Saxmundham. Halcswonh, and Becclea, will
branches to Felixstowe, to Framlingham, to Aideburgh, and t<
Lowestoft; while the Southwold Light railway connecu with that
town from Halesworth. The other principal branches are those froo
Stowmarket to Bury St Edmunds and westward into Cambridge
shire, from Essex into Norfolk bv Long Melford, Bury St Edmundi
and Thetford, and from Long Melford to Haverhill, which b tlM
northern terminus of the Colne Valley railway.
Poptdotion and AdmtnistnUion.-^Tht area of the andcnt coanty t
953.710 acres, with a population in 1891 of 371,235 and in 1901 a
384,293. Suffolk comprises 31 hundreds, and for administrativ*
purposes is divided into the counties of East Suffolk (557.854 acres
and West Suffolk (390.914 acres). The following are municipa
boroughs and urban districts.
( 1 ) £ast Suffolk. M unicipal borought— Aideburgh (pop. 240s]
Beccles (6S98), Eye (2004), Ipswkh, a county borough and th
county town (66.630). Lowestoft (29,850), Southwold (aSoo]
Urban districts— Buneay (3314), Felixstowe and Walton C5815]
Halesworth (2246). Leiston<um*Siaewell (3259), Oulton Broa*
(4044), Saxmondham (1452). Stowmarket (4162), Woodbridge (4640]
(2) West Suffolk. Municipal boroughs— Bury St EdmuiMJ
(»6.255), Sudbury (7109). Urban districts— Glemsfoitl (1975
Hadleigh (t245). Hax-erhili (4862). Newmarket (10.688). whkh i
mainly in the ancient county of Cambridge.
Small market and other towns are numeroutt «udb ar
Brandon. Clare. Debenham. Framlingham, Lavenham, MikSenhal
Needham Market and Orford. For pariiamentary purposes th
county constitutes five Hixisions, each returning one member, vii
north or Lowestoft division, north-east or Eye, north-west or Sto«
market, south or Sudbury, and south-east or Woodbridge. Bur
St Edmunds returns one member and Ipswich two; pan of th
borough of Great Yarmouth falls within the county. There i
one court of ouarter sessions for the two administrative countie
which is usually hekl at Ipswich for east Suffolk, and then h
SUFFRAGAN
39
__, J t Btuy- St Edpiindi (or jfett Suffolk. EMt^Staffolk
jk divided into 1 1 and west Suffolk into 8 petty scssio^i divinoos,
Vx boroag:hs of Bnry St EdmundB, Ipswich, Sudbury, Eye,
Levcaufc and Southwoid hftve separate commissions of the peace,
aod tkt cbree fiiM-named haw also aepaiata 'courts of quarter
wmirma Tbe total number of civil parishea is 5(9' The ancient
cciuity coataina 46S ecclesiastical parishes and districts* wholly or
«s osrt: it is situated partly in the diocese of Ely and partly in that
of Nurwjda*
Si^ary.—Thtoamtj o£ Suffolk (Sudfole, Stithfok) was lonn^
iron Utt scmtli pait oC the fcisitdoin ol East Aoglia which
aeiiled by the Aostes in the latter haU of the 5th
Tbe most iniportaut Aogb-Saxoii settlements appear
le Imc bcca maik at Sodbttry and Ipswich, fiefotc the end
tf tlK MenDftn dynasty strongholds had arisen at Eye, Clate,
Wakfln aaMl Framlinejiam. FrobaUy the estebUahment of
: as » aepnratc shire was scstfcdy tompleted before the
J nnd aitliMigh it was reckoned as distinct from Nor*
folk 'm tbie Domesday Survey of 1086, the. fiscal administration
9i HotUOL and Svfiolk remained under one shenff until 1575.
The boundary of the ooonty^ has undergone very litUe changei
its area has been considetably afifected by coast
Farts of Godestoo and Thctford, which formerly
i to the andent oonnty of Snfioik, are now within the
i ootnty ei Norfolk, and. othec slight alterations
ol the a^kBimstiaiive botuadary hate been made. Utader the
Locsl Gowenment Act of 1888 Soffolk was divided into the
tooadamnistnttiveoonnties of east and west Suffolk.
At fint tlie whole shire lay witfa&Q tbo diocese of Dunwich
vhacfa was founded £. 631. In. 675 a near bishopric was estab'
hshed at Ehnkam to cnrnptise the whole of Norfolk which had
ianaerty beeo indudedin the see of Dunwich. The Utter came
10 an «mI witJh tbe fncucsion of the Danca* and on the revival
«f CktiaKanityin this district Suiidk was included in the diocese
of Cfanlinm* sufaaequeatly tetaoved fraai South Elmham to
Thetfoed and thenoe to Norwich. In xSjS'iSjd the archdeaconry
of Sodbory was transferred by the ocdeaiastical comnuBsioners
ts tke diocase of Ely. This archdeaconry .had been separated
faoea tfaeodgiDal aichdeaooniy.ol Suffolk in 1127. <In 1256 the
bticr tftftf>«***< thirteen deaiieriea which faavh since been snb<
£«ided. io tkat at pncsent it oontffias eighteen deaneries^ Sud-
haiy ascbdcAconiy which comprised eight deaneries in 1356
pew indixlcs eleven. There were also three districts under
pacaliar jurisdiction of Caatesbuiy and one Under that of
The afane-cottit was held at Ipswich. In 1831 the whole
eoaaty *"^»*t«*«* twenty-one hundreds, and three mumdpal
»><TP-g *^ Most of these hundreds were Identical with those
«i the Domesday Survey, but m xo86 Babexgh was rated as
two buadxeds, Cosford, Ipcwicfa and Faxfaam as hall hundeeds
tad Samfonlas a fanndicdand a half. Hone hundred was
foKBKdy known as Bishop's humbed and' the viBs which were
iadaded fatter in Thrediiag hundred were within Qaydoii
kaadied in 1086. Two large ecclesiastical liberties extended
ewr more than hall of the county; that of St Edmund inchidcd
the hundreds ol Risbxidge, Thedwastry, Thin^De, Cosford,
Lackfoid and Blackboum in which the kCng'swrit did not ran«
sad St Aethelreda of Ely daimed a similar privilege in the
kaadreds of Cariefocd, .Cobeis, Plumeagate, Loes, Wilford and
Thredfittg. Aoong others who hid large Unds in the county
vith co-estensive jurisdiction were the. lords of the hono^ of
Cfaie, carls el Gloucester and Hereford and the ferds of the
kooor o< Eye, held successively by the Bigods, the Uffords and
the De U Fdea, eails of Suffolk. The WiogBelds, Bacons and
Herveys hnvc been dosdy connected with the county.
SollDlk auilered severe^ from Danish incursions, and after
the Treaty oi Wedmocc became a part ol the Dandagh. In 1x73
the cad ti Lricfstfy landed at Walton with an army of Flemings
tad ws joined fay Hugh Bigod against Henry 11. In X317 and
the anooeediog years a great part of the county was in arms for
Thomas id Lancaster. Queen Isabella and Mortimer having
landed at Walton found all the district in their favour. In
i^jo the county was niied to suppxeas the supportczs of the
carl of Kent; and agam &t X38X there was a serloui rUhg of the
peasmxtry chiefly in the neighbourhood of Bury St Edmunds.
Altheugh the county was for the moat part Yorkist it took little
part in the Waxs of the Roses. In 7525 the artisans of the
south suongly resisted Henry Vin.'s forced loan. It was froa^
Suffolk that Mary drew the army whidi supported her claim to
the throne. In the Civil Wars the county was for the most
part padiamentaxian, and joined the Assodationof the Eastern
Counties lor defence against the Papists.
The county was constantly represented in parliament by two
knights from 1290, until the Reform Bill of 1832 gave fpur
members to Suffolk, at the same time disfranchising the boroughs
ol Dunwich, Orford and Aldeburgb. Suffolk was early among
the most popuknis of English counties, doubtless owing to its
proximity to the continent. Fishing fleets have left its ports
to bring back cod and ling fxom Iceland and herrin^and madberd
from the North Sea. From the X4th to the 17th century it
was among the chief maoufactuxing counties of En^andowang
to its doth-weaving industry, which was at the height of its
prospoity duxing the x^th century. In the 17th and 18th
centuries its agricultural resources were utilised to provixk
the rapidly-growing metropiolis with food. In the fdlowing
century variotts textile indtistries, such as the manufacture of
sail-doth, cocoa-nut fibre, horse-hair and dothing were estab-
Ushed; silk- weavers migrated to Suffolk from Spitalficlda, and
early in the 19th century an important china factory flourished
at Lowcstof L
Antiquities. — Of ffionastic remains the most important are those
of the great Benedictine abbey of Bury St Edmunds, noticed under
that town; the college of Claxe, or^nally a cdl to the abbey
o( Bcc in Normandy and afterwaids to St Peter's Westmiosteri
converted into a college of secular caaons in the reign of Henry Vl.,
still retaining much of its ancient architecture, and now used as a
boarding-school; the Decorated gateway of the Augusttnian priory
of Butlcy : and the remains of the Grey Friars monastery at Dunwich.
A peculiarity ol the church archicecture is the use of flint for purpose
of ornamentation, often of a very elaborate kind, especially on the
porches and parapets of the towers. Another characteristic is tfit
round towers, which are confined to East AngTia, out are'considerably
more numerous in Norfdk than in Suffolkt the prindpat bdng those
of Uttle Saxham and HerrineAeet, both good examples of Norman,
It is^ questiopable whether there are any remains of pre-Norm^a
architecture m the county. The Decorateo is well represented, bu^
by far the greater proportion of the church^ are Perpendicular,
fine examples of Which are so aumerous that it is hard to sdect ex*
ample*. But the church of Bljrthburth in the east and the exqufsite
ornate building at Lavcnham in the west may be noted as typu:aU
while the church of Long Melford, another fine examp1e,.sbouid be
mentioned on account of its remarkable lady chapel- Special
Ceatures are the open roofs and woodwork (as at Sc Mary's, Bury
St Edmunds, Eari Stonham and Stonham AspaO. Unord and
Blythburgh), and the fine fonts.
The remains of old castled are comparatively
principal being the entrenchments and part of the walls of Bungay,
remains of old castled are comparatively unimportant, the
piinvipai LF«rtu|{ lire !;■>■'• viiwiiiiiciius aiiu ^Jam \n iiic waiis ut i^uiijjajr,
the ancient stronghold of the Bigods; the picturesque ruins of
Mettingham. built by John dc Norwich in the reign of Edward III4
Wing^i^, surrounded by a deep moat, with the turret walls and the
drawDridge still existing; the splendid ruin of Franilingham, with
high and massive walls, originally founded in the 6th century, but
restored In the tith ; the-outiines of the extensive fortress of Clam
Castle, asciendy the baronial residence of the earls of Clare: and
the fine Norman keep of Orford Castle, on an emtaencc overlooking
(he sea. Among the many fine residences within the county there
are several interesting examples of domestic architecture of the
reigns of Henry VI If and Eliabeth. Hengrave Hall (c 1530).
4 m. north-west from Bury St Edmunds, is a noteworthy example
— an exceedingly picturesque building of brick and stone, enclosmg
a court-yard. .Another is Helmingham Hatl, a Tudor mansion ol
brick, surrounded by a moat crossed by a drawbridge. West
Tudor: its gatehouse is fine, but the n
Stow Manor is also
has been adapted into a farmhouse^
See A. Sucklii^, Th« Hiftory and Antiquitits of Suffolk U8.
184^): William White, History, jauUeer and direclcrj of Sujfoth
(»855)5" John Kirby, Tht Sufoli TraveUer (iJZS); A. Page. Supi
nteni to dn St^ffolk Tranetter O843) ; Vittoria County ai$t0ry, "-^
SUFFRAGAN (Med. Ltft. suJfraeAntus tuffragalor, one wh9
assists, from suffratflri, to vote in favour of, to stipport)
in the Christian Church, (i) a diocesan bishop in his relation
to the meUopoUtanr (a) an asastant bishop. (See the ariidi
BXSBQP.) ., :«4^
30
SUFFRAGE—SUFFREN SAINT TROPEZ
lUFnUGB (Lat si^rcgfmmh the Hght or tha andtt of ths
light of voting is political affairs; in a more gencval setue, aa
exprosion of opinion, assent or. approval; in eodesiaatical use,
the short interooaory prayers in litaniea spoken oc song by the
people as distinguished from those of the priest or minister.
(See RipaisKMTATZON; Voen and Votxmo» and Reobtbation:.
and, for the Women's Suffrage Movement, Womsn: | FoiUic^
lUgjkis.) The etymology of the Latin word suffragktm has ben
much discussed. It b usually referred to sub" and the root of
/rtsiifefe, to break, and its ori^md meaning must Una hive been
a' piece of broken tile or a potsherd on which the names or
initials of the candidates were mscribed and used as ja ^wting
tablet or tabdia. There is, however, no direct evidence that
this was ever the practice in the case of voting apOn legislation
in the assembly (see .W* Corssen, Ueber Ausspraeke, &c.r der
LaUimsdun S^aeke, i. 397, and Mbmmstti, Rdmische GeseUekU,
iiL 4r2 n. i.)-
SUFFREH BAIMT TROPBZ, HBHRE AMDRi DR(x799-X7S8),
French admiral, was the third son of th^ maiqula de Saint
Tkopea, head of afamOy of nobles of Provence which daimed to
have emigrated from Lucca in the X4th century. He was bom
in the Chateau de Samt Canat in the present department of Aii
on the xTth of July 1739. -Th6 French navy and the Order of
lialu offered the usual careers for the younger sonsof noble
families of the south of France who did not elect to go into the
Church. The connexion between the Order and the old French
royal navy was dose. Pierre Andr£ de Sdffren was destined by
his parents to belonis to both. He entered the dose and aristo-
cratic corps of French naval officers.as a " garde de la marine "-r
cadet or midshipman, in October '174:5, In the " Solidet " 'one
of the line of battleships which^ook part in the confused engage-
ment off Toulon in 1744. He was then in the " Pauline " in
the squadron of M. Macnfinara on a cruise in the West Indies.
In X746 he went through the due D'Anville's disastrous expedi-
tion to retake Cape Breton, whidi was ruined by shipwreck and
plague. Next year (1747) he was taken prisoner by Hawke
in the action with the French convoy in the Bay of Biscay.
His biographer OuuX assures oa that he found British arro-
gance offensive. When peace was made in X74S he went to
Malta to perform the cruises with the .galleys of the Order
technically cslled " caravans," a reminiscence of the days when
the knights protiKted the pilgrims going from Saint John d'Acre
to Jerusalem. In Suffren's tinye this service rardy went beyond
•a peaceful tour among the Greek ^idands. During the Seven
Years' War he had the unwonted good fortune to be' present
aa lieutenant in the '* Orph£e " in the action with Admiral Byng
(^.f.), which, if not propoly speaking a victory, was at least not
a defeat for the French, and was followed by the sunender of
the English garrison of Minorca. But in 2757 he was again
taken prisoner, when his ship the ** Oc^ " was captured by
Boscawcn off Lagos. On the return of peace in x 763 he ii>tended
again to do the service in the caravans which was required to
qualify him to hold the high and lucrative posts of the Order.
He was, however, luuned to th^ command of the " Camfl£on« "
a zebcc—a vessd of mixed square and lateen rig peculiar to the
Mediterranean— in which he cruised against the pirates of the
Barbary coasL Between 1767 and 1771 he performed his
caravans, and was promoted from knight to commander of the
Order. From that time till the beginning of the War of American
Independence he commanded vessels in the squadron of evolution
which the French government had esublishcd for the purpose
of giving practice to its officers. His nerve and skill in handling
his ship were highly commended by his chids. In 1778 and 1770
he formed part of the squadron of -D'Estaing iq.v.) throughout
iu operations on the coast of North America and in the West
Indies. He led the line in the action with Admirsl John Byron
off Grenada, and his ship, the " Fantasque " (64), k)8t 6a men.
His letters to hia admiral show that he strongly disapproved of
D'Estalnjt's half-hearted methods. In 1780 he waa captain of
" (74) » in the combined French and Spanish fleets
i a great English convoy in the Atlantic His
la his chief had done *>*«» no harm in the
opinion of D;Estaing. ft U said to have be^ largdy by the
advice of this admiral that Suffren was chosen to cofflmand a
squadron of five ships of the line seat out to hdp the Dutch
who had joined Ftance and Spain to defend the Cape against
an expected English, attack, and then to go on to the East
Indies. He sail^ from Brest on the 22nd of March on the
cruise which has given him a unique |dace amon^ French
admirals, and puts him in the front rank of sea commanders.
He waa by nature even more vehement than able. The dis-
asters which had befallen the navy of his country during the
Iast*two wars, and which, as he knew, were due to bad adminia*
tration and timid leadership, had filled him with a bnnung
desire to retrieve its honour. He waa by experience as well as
Jiy temperament impatient with the formal manoeuvring of
his ooileagues, which aimed at preserving their own ships rather
than at taking the English, and though hb did not dream of
restoring the French power hi India, he dM hope to gain some
flich siicoess'as would enable his country to make an honourable
peace. On the x6th of April 1781 he found the English expedi-
tion on its way. to the Cape under the command of Commodore,
commonly called (jovemor, George Johnstone (x730*i787), at
anchor in Porto Praya, Cape de Verd Islands. Remembering
how little respect Boacawen had shown for the neutrality of
Portugal at Cagos, he attacked at onoa .Thongih he waa in*
differently supported, he inflicted as mudi injury as ha tuffered,
and proved to the English that in him they had to deal with
an admiral of quite a different type from the Frenduncn
they had been accustomed to as yet. He pushed on to the
Cape, iriiich he saved from capturo by Johnstone, and then
made his way to the Isle de France (Mauritius), then held by the
French. M« D'Onrea, his superior officer, di«l aa the united
squadrons," now deven sail of the line, wercT on their way to the
Bay of Bengal The campaign, which Suffren now conducted
against the English admiral Sir Edward Hughes (1790^x794),
is famous for. the number and severity of the encounters between
'them. Four actwns took place In 1782: on the x 7th of February
X783, south of Madras; on the xsth of April near Trinoomalee; on
the 6th of July off Cuddalore, after which Suffren sdzed upon
the anchorage of Trinoomalee compelling the amall . British
garrison to surrender; and again near that port on the 3rd of
September. No ship waa h»t by Sir Edward Hughes in any of
these actions, but none were taktn by him. Suffren attacked
with unprecedented vigour on every occadon, and if he had not
been ill-supported by some of his captains he would undoubtedly
have gained a distinct victory; as it was, he maintained his
squadron with^ the hdp of a port to refit, and provided him-
sdf with an anchorage at Trinoomalee. His activity encouraged
Hyder Ali, who waa then at war with the Company. He rdusod
to return to the islands for the purpose of escorting the troops
coming out under command of Bossy, maintaining that hia
proper purpose was to cripple thesquadronof Sir Edward Hugihes.
During the north-east nxmaoon he would not go to the islands
but refitted in the Malay ports m Sumatra, and returned with tho
south-west monsoon in 1783. Hyder Ali was dead, but Tippoo
Sultan, his son, was still at war with the Ompany. Buasy
arrivod and landed. The operations on shore were slackly con*
ducted by him, and Suffren was mudi hampered, but when he
fought his last battle against Hughes (April so^ 1783), with
fourteen ships to eighteen he forced the English admiral to retire
to Madras, leaving the army then besieging Cuddabre in a very
dangerous position. The arrival of the news that peace had beets
made in Europe put a stop to hostilities, and Suffren returned
to France. While refitting at the Cape on his way homc^ several
of the vesseb also returning put in, and the captains waited on
him. Suffren said hi one of his letters that their praise gave
hun more pleasu|e than any other compliment paid him. In
France he waa reodved with enthusiasm, and an additional
office of vioe-admixal of France waa created for bins. 'He bad
been promoted bailli in the Order of Malta during his nbacnce.
His death occurred very suddenly on the 8th of December T788,
when he was about to take command of a fleet collected in Brest.
The official vcoion of the csom of dastfa waa apoplexy, a«l as
suni^i
3«
feiM t iftxf coipiilBit maa it tppeafed pttislble. Bvt many
yon sftcnrvds his body servant told M. Jalj the bistorio-
ppbo of the French navy, that he had been kflledin a duel
I17 lit prises de Mkepoiz. The cause of the caa>untcr» aooord-
iEf to the senrant, was that Suffren had refused ia very atTOnc
iiapttfe to use his inflnenoe to secure the restoration to the
livy d tin of the prince's relations who had been dismissed for
Safin «aa crippled to a large extent by the want of loyal
■ad cspthle cooperation on the part of his captains, and the
vtkmence of hii own temperament sometimes led him to
<:angard pradencc, yet he had an indefati^ble energy, a wealth
cf naovrce, and a thorough nndentandfaig of the fact— «o
ystcs&y disregarded by FVench naval officers— that success
I! ia is won by defeating an enemy and not by merely out-
amamriBig him; and this made him a most lormidable enemy.
Ik portnits of Suffrtn usually reproduced are worthlesa, but
tbse is a good engraving by Mme de Cemd after an original
fcyGinnL
TVe tundaid authority for the life of Suffren b the Bistaire
k BaSi d* S^frem by Ch. Cunat (1852). The Journal de Bord du
^SHeSmffrtu dans VInde. edited by M. Morest was published in
liftl There is an appieciative atudy in Captain Mahan's Sea
f'ser in Huttry. (D. H.)
iOfIuii {tat awmuf) , a term used by Moslems to denote
ttrraziety of mystidam, is formed from the Arabic word ^itfi,
viedi ns applied, in the and century of Islam, to men or women
tb idopted an ascetic or quietistic way of life. There can be
Bodoobt that i^fi/H is derived from fa/ (wooO in reference to the
wika garments often, though not invariably, worn by sudi
Wbk the phrase laHso*s-^ (" he clad himself in wool ")
BeoBDiaQly used m this sense, and the Persian word pashmlnO'
f^ vhich means literaUy " dotbed in a woollen garment, "
_ with $4^ Other etymologies, such as $afA
(P«riiy)-<i deiivatiMi widdy accepted m the East— and vo^,
» open to object km on linguittic grounds.
Is order to trace the origin and history of mysticism in Islam
•e oast go back to Mahmnet. On one side of his nature the
^^pbd was an ascetic and in some degree a mystic. Not-
^^stjuidiog his condemnation of Christian monkety {rak-
^k). i.e. of celibacy and the solitary life, the example of the
Btti^mthaome of whom he was acquainted, and the Christian
^BBiu made a deep impression on his nund and led him to
P^ the efficacy of ascetic exercises, sudi as prayer^ vigils
■fid Acting. Again, whfle AOah is described in the Koran as
tk Ose God working his arbitrary will in unapproachable
^Vmicy^ other passages lay stress on his all-pervading pres-
ace ud mtimate relation to his creatures, eg. *' Wherever ye
taa, there a the face of Allah "(ii. 109), " We (God) are nearer
to kim (Man) than his neck-vein " G- xs)* '^^ germs of mys-
^^ Utent in Islam from the first were rapidly devdoped by
« political, sodal and intellectual conditions which prevailed
« Uie tvo ccntuiics following the Prophet's death. Devasut-
H dvO wan^ a ruthless militaiy despotism caring only for
V tkingsof this work!, Measiank hopes and presages, the luxury
«< ti>e upper dasses, the hard mechanical piety of the orthodox
ooi, the spread of rationalism and-freethought, all this induced
* imh towards asceticism, cpiietisro, spiritual feeling and
^^^^oomI faith. Thousands, wearied and disgusted with worldly
'^s^ devoted themsdves to Cod. The terrors of hdl,
tovhidly dqiocted in the Koran, awakened ih them an intense
^"^v^ouaoos of sin, which drove them to seek salvation in
'^^ pracdocs. §af1ism was original^ a practical rdigion,
f** 9ecnlative system; it arose, as Junayd of Bagdad says,
frWB bvngrr and taking leave of the world and breaking
2*^ ties and renouncing what men deem good, not from.
JW^twu." The eaify §<ifIS were closely atUched to the
fJ*^«naedaB chudL It is said that Aba H&him of KQfa
i^Jwe kJD. too) founded a monastery for $Qfls at Ramleb
* Fteine, but soch fkatcnitics seem to liave been exceptional.
*f7**Gaie»of this period used to wander from place to place,
^|«r^]onc or in small parties, sometimes living by alms and
i.liy their own labour. They took up and emphasised
certain Xoranfc terms< Tint dUir (pnSa^ of God) cooairtiBg
of redtation of 'the Koran, repetition of the Divine names,
Ac., was regarded as superior to the five canonical prayers
inctunbent on every Moslem, and lawakkul (tnist in God) waa
defined as renunciation of all personal initiative and voUtioa,
leaving one's self entirdy in God's hands, so that some fanatics
deemed it a breadi of " trust " to se^ any means of livelihood,
engage in trade, or even take medidne. Quietism soon passed
mto mystidsm. The attainment ol salvation ceased to be the
first obg'ect, and eveiy aspiration wascentred in the hiwaid life
of dying to sdf and Uving m God. " O God I " saM Ibrlhlm ibn
Adham, "Thou knowest that the dght Paradises are little
beside the honour which Thou hast done unto me^ and bedde
Thy love, and Thy giving me bithnacy with the praise of Thy
name, and beside the peace of mind which Thou hast given me
when r meditate on Thy. majesty." Towards the end of the
2nd century we find the doctrine of mystical love set forth in the
sayings of a female ascetic, Ribi*a of Basra, the first of a long
line of saintly women who have played ai» important r61e in
the history of SOflism. Henceforward the use of symbolical
expressions, borrowed from the vOcabulaiy of hiveoid wine,
becomes increasiAgly frequent as a means of indicating holy
mysteries which must not be divulged. This was not an unneces-
sary precaution, for in the course of the 3rd century, $QiBsm
assumed a new character. Side by side with the quietistic and
devotional mysticisim of the early period there now tprvag up
a speculative and pantheistic movement which was essentially
aati-IsUunic and rapidly came into conflict with the orthodox
vlemd. It ia significant that the oMest rq>reseaUtive of this
tendency^*^a*rfil of Bagdad— wafe the son of Christian parents
and a Pttsiaa by raee. He defined ^QfOsm as a theoeophy;
his aun waa " to apprehend the Divine realities.*' A little later
Aba Sulaimin al-Dbtnl m Syria and Dhu'l-NOn hi Egypt
developed the doctrhie of gnosis Ona'tifat) through iflumination
and ecstasy. The step to panthdsm was first dedsivdy taken
by the great Persian $afl. Aba Yazld (B&yezld) of BistAm (d.
A.D. 874), who introduced the doctrine of annfliilatioa (A>ff4),
f .e. the passhig away of indtvidoal conackMisoess in the will of
God.
It is, no doubt, ooncdvable tbas^ the evolutku of ^fiflism
up to this point might not have been veiy different even although
it had remained wholly unaffected by influences outside of
Islam. But, as a matter of fact, such influences made Uiem-
sdves powerfully fdt. Of these, Christianity, Buddhism snd
Neoplatonism are the chief. Christian influence had its source,
not in the Church, but in the hermits and unorthodox sects,
especially perhaps in the Syrian Euchites, who magnified the
duty of constant prayer, abandoned thdr all and wandered as
poor brethren, ^tflism owed much to the ideal of unworldliness
which they presented. Conversations between Moslem devotees
and Christian ascetics are often rdated in the andent $afl
biographiea, and many Biblical texts appear in the form of
sayings attributed to eminent ^Qfls of eariy times, while sayings
ascriM to Jesus as well as Christian and Jewish legends
occtir in abiindance. More than one §QfI doctrine — that of
iaufakkul may be mentioned in particular—show traces of Chris-
tian, teaching. The monastic strain which insinuated itself
into §aflism in spite of. Mahomet's prohibition was derived,
partially at any rate, from Christianity. Here, however,
Buddhistic influence may also have been at work. Buddhism
flourished in Balkh, Transoxiana and Turkestan before the
Mahommedan conquest, and in later times Buddhist monks
carried their religious practices and philosophy among the
Moslems who had settled in these countries. It looks as thou^
the legend of IbriLhhn ibn Adhaiti, a prince of Balkh who one
day suddenly cast off his rojral robes and became a wandering
$Gfl, were based on the story of Buddha. The use of rosaries,
the doctrine of /and, which is probably a form of Nirvana, and
the system of " statk>ns" {maqdrndt) on the road thereto, would
seem to be Buddhistic in their origin. The third great fbrdgn
influence on ^Qflism is' the Keoplatonic philosophy. Betn
A.D. 800 and 860 the tide of Greek learning, then at iu f '
BetwM
52
SUGAR
«tteimed Usto Islam Iram tlie CSuiittiaii monasteries of Syria,
from the Persian Academy of Jund&hApQr in Khflmtan,,
and from the §ibiaDS of liLarrfin in Mesopotamia. The so-called
" Theology of Aristotle," which was ttanslated into Arabic about
A. D: 840, is full of Neoplatooic theories, and the mystical writings
of the pseudo-Dionysius wem widely known throughooi western
Asia. IC is not mere coincidence that the doctrine of Gnosis
was first worked out in detail by the Egyptian §Qfi, Dhu 1<NQn
(d. AJD..859), who is described as an alchemist and theurgist.
$fillism on its Lhcosophical side was largely a product of AJes-
ahdrian speculation.
By the end of the 3rd oentuiy the main lines of the $&h
mysticism were already fixed. It was now fast beooming an
organized system, a school for saints, with rules of discipline and
devotion which the novice was bound to learn from his spiritual
•director, to whose guidance he submitted himself absolutely.
These tikectors regarded themselves as being in the most intimate.'
communion witb God, who bestowed on them miraculous gifts'
(kafSmdt). At their head stood a mysterioa^ personage called
>the Qufb (Axis): on the hierarchy oC saints over which he pro-
sided Uw whole order of the universe was believed to depend.
During the next two hundred years (a.d. qoo-iioo), various
manuals of theory and practice were compiled: the Kiidb
al LumtC by Aba Na$r al-Sarr&j, the Qat al-Qul^ by Aba T^lib
al'Makkl, the Risah of Quahairl, the Persian Kaskf al-Ma^itb
by 'AU ibn 'Uthmin al-HuiwM, and the famous Iby& by GhazftiL
Inasmuch as all these works are founded on the same matetiab,
viz., the Koran, the Traditions of the Prophet and the sayings
of well-known $uf! teachers, they necessarily have much in
common, although the subject is treaited by each writer from his
own standpoint. They all expatiate on the discipline of the soul
and describe the process of purgation which it must undergo
before entering on the oontempilative life. The traveller
journeying towards God passes through a series of ascending
" sutions " imaqamSt): in the oldest extant treatise these are
(1) xepentance, (2) abstinence, (3) renunciation, (4) poverty,
(s) patience, (6) trust in God, (7) acquiescence in the will of
God. After the " stations " cOma a parallel scale of '* states "
of spiritual feeling {ahwal), such as fear, hope, love, &c., leading
up to contemphition {mushUhadat) and intuition (yaqin). It
only remained to provide $ufiism with a metaphysial basis,
and to reconcile it with orthodox Islam. The double tzsk. was
finally accomplished by Ghaz&li {qv.). He made Islamic
theology mystical, and since his time the revelation ikashf)
of the mystic has taken its place beside tradition {naqf)- and
reason (^o^Q as a source and fundamental principle of the faith.
Protests have been and are still raised by theologians, but Moslem
sentiment will usually tolerate whAever is written in sufficiently
absUuse philosophical language or. spoken in manifest ecstasy.
The §flfTs do not form a sect with definite dogfmas. Like the
monastic oiders of Christendom, they comprise many shades of
opinion, many bcHooIs of thought, many divergent tendencies— ^rom
asceticism and quietism to the wildest extravagances of ntatbeiim.
European students of $ufiism arc apt to identify it with the panthe-
istic type which prevails in Persia. This, although mote interesting
and attractive than anjr other, throws the transcendental and vision-
ary aspects of SafUsm into undue' relief. Nevertheless some account
;must be giveil here of the Persian theosophy which has fascinated
the noblest minds of that subtle race and has inspired the most
beautiful religious poetry in the w^orld. Some of its characteristic
features occur in the sayings attributed to Bayerid (d. •a.d. 874),
whom Buddhistic ideas unquestionably influenced. He said, for
example, '* I am the winedrinker and toe wine and the cup-bearer,"
and again, " 1 went from God to God, until they cried from me in
me, 'O Thou I.'"^ The peculiar imagery which distinguishes the
poetry of the Persian ^(ts was more fully developed by a narive
of Kiiorasan. Aba Sa'id ibn Abi'l-Khair (d. A.D. 1049) in his mystical
quatrains which express the relation between God and the soul
by glowing and fantastic altegories of earthly bvc, beauty and
intoxication. Henceforward, the great poets of Persia, with few
exceptions, adopt this symbolic 'language either seriously or as a
<eOn venient mask. The majority are §ufts by profession or convkrtton.
' -4 thdr poetry," saya A. von Kremer^ *' is a loftily
system, which recognizes in punty of heart,
ation and b/'dUng of the passions the neces-
tcrnal happiness. Attached to this we find a
ibt emanatioa of all thmgc from God and their
Mltiniate feunibd with htm. Akhongb on iitb sorfsoe Islam is ook
directly assailed, it austains many indirect attacks, and frequently
the thought flashes out, that all religions and revelations are only
the rays of a single etenud sun ; that all prophets have only deliverer
and prodaimed in diHevent tongues the same principles of eternal
goodness and eteroal truth which flow Iram the divine soul of the
world." The whole doctrine of Fcrsian ^Qfiisra is expounded
in the celebrated JUathnawi of JaUIuddlh ROmi iQ-v.), but in such
a discursive and unscientific manner that its leading principles are
not easily grasped. They may be stated briefly as f(Mlow8>—
' God is the sole reality (al-Uaqi)) 'and b above all names and
definitions. He is not aaiy absolute Being, but alao abaolute Good,
and therefore absolute Beauty. It is the nature of beauty to desire
manifestation ; the phenomenal universe is the result of Uils desire,
according to the famous Tkadition in which. God says, " I was a
hidden treasare, and I desiied to be known, so I created thecRatuics
in order that 1 might be known." Hence the §ufis, influenced by
Nebplatonic theones of emanation, postulate a number of inter>
mediate worlds or descending planes df existence, from theprimal
Intelligent and the primal Soul, through which " the Truth "
(,at-^ttqq) diffuses itself. Aa thinfes can be koown oahr throui^
their pppofites* Being can only oe knowq through Not-beii^
wherein as in a mirror Being is reflected; and this reflection le
the phenomenal universe, which accordingly has no more reality
than a Shadow cast by the sun. Its central point is Man,
the microcosm, who reflects in himself all the Divine attributes.
Blackened on one side with the' darkness of Not>being, he
bears within him a spark of pure Being. The human soul
belong to the spiritual world and is ever seeking to be
re-umted to its source. Such union b hindered by. the bodily
senses, but though not permanently attaln^le untfl death, it caa
be enjoyed at times in the state called ecstasy ihdlj^ when the veil of
sensual perception is rent asunder and the soul is merged in God.
This cannot be achieved without destroying the illusion of self, and
self-annihilation is wrought by means of that diviile love, to which
human love b roerdiy a stepping-Stone. The true lover feels himadf
one with God, the only real bemg and agent in the uaiverse; he b
above all law, since whatever he does proceeds directly from God,
just as a flute produces harmonics or discords at the win of the
musician; he b indifferent to outward forms end rites, preferring
a sincere idobterto an orthodox hypocrite and deemin^thie wajrs to
God as many in number as the soub of men. Such in outline b
the $an thcosophy as it appears in Persian and Turkish poetiy. Its
perilous consequences are plain. It tends to abolish the distinction
between good and evil— the btter b nothing but an aspect
of Not-being and has no real existenoe-'^nd it leads to the deinca*
tton of the hierophant who can say^ like i:;Iufain b. Maasur al-IjlaUa j,
"I am the Truth." §&ff fratcrniues, living in a convent under the
direction of a sheikh, bcdame widely spread before A.D. 1 100 and ga\-e
rise to Dervish orders, most of which indulge in the practice of
exciting ecstasy by musk:, dancing, drugs and various kinds of
hypnotic suggestion (kk Deevish).
BiBUOC RA PHY. — ^Tholuck. SHfismus sive theosopkia Persarum pan^
tJteistica (Beriin, 182 1); BtiUkensammlung aus der mofgenlandischcm
Mystik (Beriin, 1825) ;E. H. Palmer, OrunkU MysUeUm (Cambridge,
1867); Von Kremer, CesckickU der herrsdgmden Idem des Islams
(Leipaig, x868) ; Goldriher, "Materialien sur Entwickelungsgeachichte
deaSunsmus " in W.Z.K,M. xiii. 35 sqq. '* Die Heiligenverehrung ins
Islam" in Muhammedanische Studwi.'li, 277 sqq. (Halle, X890)
** The Influence of Buddhism on Islam *' in JJcA .5. (1904), 125 sqq- «
and VerUsunttu iher den Islam, 130 eqq. (Heidelberr, 19x0):
E. H. Whiofidd, .the Guhhan^RO^ of Ma^mOd SbsbistaA
edited with 'translation and notes (London, 1880), and AMdg/ev
translation of the Masnavi (London, 1898); E. G. Browne, A
Year amongst the Persians (London, 1893); Merx, Ideen und Grund*
linien einer aUgemeineu Gesckiekte der Mystik (Heidclber^i
1893) : H. £th£, " Die mysriache und didaktisehe Poesie " in Geisei
and Kuhn's Grundriss der iranischen Philologies ii. 271 sqq. (Straa^
burg, 1896-1904): Cibb, History of Ottoman Poetry, especially i
33 Kjq. (London, 1900-1907); D. B. Macdonatd, " Emotional relieiof
in Islam," in J.R.A^. {1901-1902)1 Development of Muslim the^g^
( New York, 1903} and The religums atlitude andtife tn Isfam (ChicasP
1909): R- A. Nicholson. Sdected poems from the Dfvdm Shams
Tahrit (Cambridge, 1898^. " Enquiiy concerning the origin an<
development of SOffism^' in /./?j4.5. C1006), 303 sqq., and Tran^sUi
turn oftheKashfal-Mabjilb (London, 1910) ; Sheikh Nluharomad Iqb^
The Development of Metaphysics in Persia (London, r9o8>. (RA Jsf .)
SUGAR, in cheoustiy, the generic name for a certain seii«
of carbohydrates, t.e. sufa^tancesof the general formula Ch(HsO>«,
Fomerly the name waa given to compounds having a swee
taste, e.g. sugar of lead, but it b now restricted to certain ox>i
aldehydes and oxy-ketoaes, which occur in the vegetable an<
animal kingdoms eilher free or in combination as glucosdde
(q.v.) and to artificial prepaxations of simikir chemical structure
Cane sugar has been known for many centuries; milk sugar -wa
obtained by Fabririo Bartoletti in 16x5; and in the middle c
the x8th oentuzy Marggraf found that the sugaa yidded by xh
SUGAR
S3
ter cnot wtA Qthflf toots wnfe ftoBOticu wits
T^ «gan obtained from homy were Investigated by Lowita
ci PMst^and the latter decided on three spedes: (i) caae
K^, (a) pape aiigar, and (3) fruit sugar; tire first has the
knaU CoHriOii, the otheis QHuOb. This list has been con-
TieiiAj devdopod by the discovery of natural as well as of
liF^iaic sMgaa.
it ■ ooavcniear to divide the aag^n into two main grovps:
9mmodkuam» (formerly gbiepteft) and dwacchiroso (fomeily
I iliiuM). The fine terra indudei sirople siicart oontaiBing
a«t» aae atome of carbon, which are known teverally as biosa»
8«a, Kcma. pentoace, httoefi, Ac.; whUat those of the second
r*9 haw the formnbi CuH^)u and an charactenaed by VieUfaiK
lao Dmonccharoae niolirnihts on bydiolyna. In addition trT
fi^xnta aie known of the formula CuH^i: these on hydrolysis
int one BolecuJe of a monoaaccharoae and one cf a diaaocharoae.
- i^rtr of a ■oooaaocharaie. It ia fooed alao that some iaoiib>
MxwtMes behave as akiehydea whilst others contain a kcto fronp:
*-v bving the first character are called •oMomt, and the others
kMKL AB aagara arw^oolourlcaa solids or sympSk vrtiich diar on
^"•mt hema^; tfaer are sohiUe in water, foraiag sweet soluifioas
^ (fificskly aolufcile in aksohoL Their, aoknlons are* opticaUy
n.^ tc. they mtate the fdane of pohrirnd light; the amount cm
^ nuaom haoK depen d en t upon the co noen tm tion, tenpentuitSi
w. a tmtt cases, on the age of the aoltition (cf. Glocobb). The
r-fusa KTvaB for the esciaiation of sagar solutioaa (saccharimetry).
^ at iwatml to litnua and <io not combme with dilute actos
' '-tm: mntqg Usars, sach as lime and baryta, yield s e r c h ata t ea.
*U«. Mricr certain condidoaa, adda and acid aahydridea may
'»^ate& Samn are alao liable to fermoiUtion.^ Onr knowledge
• t> cfaemical atroctura of the moaoaaocharoaea may be rcgaided
a imag isom iBfta, when Zincke eiiapected some to be ketone
• "^oh. for it was known that akasoae and fructoae. for eaampfo.
"^xl pema-acctatea, and on reduction gave hcxahydric akohols.
• 'k «1mq reduced by hydriodic add. gave normal and secondary
"-v^ioijida. The facto aaneated that the six carbon atoms
'^*fi a duin« and that a hydroay grosp v«&a attached to five
'*»■. for it ia very rare for two hydmxy groupa to be attached
' '^v waie carbmi atom. The Semaining oxygen atom is aldehydic
" k^ioic. lor the augars oomhim* with hydrocyanic add^ hydroxy-
^ — » rnd oheaylhydraxine. The eorreetnem of this* view was
"vri by Kdiaai in tSSs. He prepared the cyanhydrina of glucose
' traolqse. hydrolyaed them to the torrcsponding oxy-acids,
- -> wfakh the hydroxy. groups were split Out by reduction; it
'0 I'juiid that jocose yielded normal heptylic' acta and fructose
""V vnvUoetic acid; hence glucose is an aldehyde alcohol,
' • ' H :(:HOH)rCHO. whilst fructose is a ketone alcohol
- 'H (CHOH)»'COC HiOH « Kiliani also showed that arabinose.
■^iOk a sugar found in cheny gum. was an aldopentose, and thus
• Jatfil an eateuaSon of the idea of a *' sugar."
^•ore prooeediag to the actoal synthesis of the sugars, it ts
— mbie to diacosB their decoropositkms and transformations.
I Cntkyirint. — ^The cyanhydrins on hydrolysb give mono-
^'^«\iie adds» which yield lactones; these compounds when
"^^•d by sodium amalgam in sulphuric acid solution yield a sugar
'*'Hif one more carbon atom. This permits the formation
* - ^ from a lower sugar (E. Fischer)
Oim CHsOH
CHOH CHOH
^^OH), -. (CHOH),
CKO tHOH
fetoe -• Cyanhydrin -♦
1 Gsta<s..-.The oximes permit the reverse change, t.c. the
^«Cc (ram a higher to a lower sugar. Wohl forms the oxime
t' ' aR%crts it tato an acetylated nitrile by means of acetic anhydride
-'1 Mfdium acetate; ammoniacai silver nitrate aolution removes
• V^TMBC add and the resulting acetate is hvdrolysed by actins
''k snaioeia to form an amide, which is finally decomposed with
*aneariA
CHiOH
CHsOH
ytH
Ch-oh
►_/(CH0H>.
^ (CHOH),
^ Choh
CtHOH
\Co
Cho
• Lactone
-* Heaose.
^HOH), ^.
tH-OH
OiO
CH/>H
<eH-OH).
tHOH
CH:N0H
Oxieae
CHiOH
(CHOH).
Choh
CN
Nitrile
CH/)H
-• (CHOH),
CHO
~* Pentose.
'k£ efecu the same change by oxidizing the sugar to the oxy-add.
Ser FtamsTTATNai; and for the rekstion of this property to
^rtut sre SrSRBOfSOMBUSII.
I^im fasmulae, however, reouire modification in aooocdanoe
*^ the vievs of Lowrr and E. F. Armstrong, which postulste a
^ '»Brie sncture (see Gtucosn). This, how«ycr. does not disturb
'AtaaarafthefoOowi^
and then frnther oaUlsing this with Fcnton*t rcagcflt. «>. hytena
peroxiite and a trsce of a lerraus salt:
C4H/)«(CHOH).CHO-.C4H/)4(CHOH)-CQrH-<:4H/).CHO
HesMK Add '^ Pentose.
3. FhsHi^ydfanne Pernoinerv— Fischer found that if one mole-
cule of phenylhydnuihe acted upon one molecule of an aldose or
ketose a hydrazone resulted which in most cases was very soluUe
in water, but if three molecules of the hydradne reacted (one <tf
which is reduced to ammonia and anilme) insoluble crystalline
substances resulted, termed ositvmes, which readily chaiacteriaea
the sugar from which it was obtained.
R
-* Ch-oh
CHrNNHPh.
-♦ Hydrazone
R
-• C:NNHPh. .-♦
Ch,oh
•• Hydraaoon
On warmhig the osaxone with hydrochloric add the phenylhydrs*
sine residues are removed and an os(me results, which 00 reduction
with zinc and acetic add gives a ketose.
R R R
C:N«NHPh. -♦CO -« CO
CHrNNHPh. CHO CH,0H
Osazone -• Osone -t Ketose.
A ketose may also be obtained by ledudng the osaame with dnc
and acetic to an oMniMM^ which with nitnus acki gives the kstose:
R R' R
CjJNHPh. -t Co -♦ Co '
CH:NNHPh* CHiNH, CHiOH.
R
CHOH
Cho
Aldose
R
CO
CHiOH
Keinee
R
C:N-NHPh
CHrNNHPh.
Osaaona;
R
CrNNHPh
CH:NNHPh.
These reactions permit the transformatbn of an aldose !nto a
ketose^ the reverse change can only be brought about by reducing
the ketose to an alcohol, and oxidizing this compound to an aldehyde.
It is seen that aldoses and ketoses which differ stereochcmically
in only the two final carbon atoms must yield the same oaazQne;
and since d-mannose, d-iduoase^ and d-fructoae do form the same
osaaoac (d^lucosasone) differenoes either structural orstereochemicel
must be plaioed in the two final carbon atoms.*
tt may here be noticed that In the sugars there are asymmetric
carbon atoms, and consequently optical isomers are to be expected.
Thus glucose, containing four such atoms, can exist in x6 fonns;
and the realisation of many of thcae isomers by E. Fischer may be
regarded as one of the most brilliant achievements in modem chem^
istiy. The general jprinciples of stereochemistry being diacuued
in Stereoisomerism (9.9.), we proceed to the synthesis of ^ucose
and fructose and then to the derivation of their configurations.
_ _ » unfermentable syrup,
ittOb and. later, by using magnesia i
which he named lormose,
instead of lime, he obtained
- - showed that methose wjs
identical with the a-acrose Obtained by himsetf and Tafd hi 1887
188^ a
C«Htt(\ and. later, by using ma^ni
the fermentable methose. Fischer showed that
by decompodng acrolein dibromide with baryta, and subsequently
prepared by ondizing glycerin with bromine in alkaline sohition,
ana treating the product with dilute alkali at o*. Glycerin appeaes
to yieU, on mild oxklation. an aMehyde. CHtOHCH(OH)CHO.
and a kef "" "
ketone, CH/>HCOCH,QH. and these <
in the equation:
CH/)HCHCOH).CHO-fCH/)HCOCH,OH-
CH,OHCH(OH)CHCOH)CHCOH)CO.CH,OH-|-HA
The oeaaone prepared from oracrose resembled most dosdy the
glucosazone yielded by glucose, mannose, and fractose, but it was
optkaUy inactive; also the ketose which it gave after treatment
with hydrochloric add and reduction of the osone was like oidinary
fractose except that it was inactiva. It waa surmiasd that •4U30ae
waa a mixture of dextro and laevo fructoae. n aupposition
which was proved correct by an indirect method. The starting
point waa ordinary (d)maniute (mannitoI).CJIuCVa naturally oecur-
ring hexakydric alcohol, which only differed from aHicritol| the
afcohoi obtained by reducing a-acrose, with regard to oprical activity.
Mannite on oxidation yields an aldose, mannose, (I,HnOi, which
* To distinguish the isomeridcs of opposite optical activity, it w
usual to prefix the letters d* and f-. but these are used only to indicate
the genetic relationship, and not toe character of the optical activity:
ordinary fructose, for example, being represented aa d^fructosc—
although it exercises a laevoroUtory power— because it is derived
fromi
34
SUGAR
oo further oxidatloa glvet t mannonfe add. CtH«(OH)i'COhH ; this
acid readily yields a lactone. Also KUiani found that the lactone
derived from the cyanhydrin of natural arabinoee (laevo) waa
identical with ^ previoua lactone except that its rotation was
eaual and opposite. On mixing the csla ct o n es and reducing
(a + /)-ninanitol was obtained, identical with ••acritol. A separation
of a-acrose was made by acting with beer j^cast. which destroyed
the ordinary fructose and left Mructose which was isolated as its
osaxone.. Also (d+/) mannonic acid can be split into the dand /
acids by fractional crystallization of the strychnine or brudne salts.
The aad yields, on appropriate treatment, d-maiuiose and d-mannite.
Similarly the / acid yields the laevo derivatives.
The next step was to prepare glucose. This was effected in-
directlv. The identity of the formulae and osazones of ^mannose
and 4M[lucoBe showed that the stereochemicad differences were
situated at the carbon atom adjacent to the aldehyde group.
Fischer applied a method indicated by Pasteur in converting dextro
into laevo-tartaric acid; he found that both d-nunnooic and
d-glucdnic adds (the latter b yielded by glucose on oxidation) were
mutually convertible by heating with quinoline under pressure at
140*. It was then found that on reduang the lactone of the add
obtained from d-mannonic add, ordinary fpucose resulted.
Fiadier'si a-acroae therefore led to the syntheds of the dextro
and laevo forms of mannose, elucose and fructose; and these
substances have been connected synthetically with many other
sugars by means of his cyanhydrin process, leading to higher
sugars, and AVohl and Run's proc es s es , leading to lower sugars.
Certain of these relations are here summarixed (the starting si^tance
u in italics):—
^Glucose 4— \-arabinose — > ^mannose *-> ^mannoheptose:
glucononose <— a-gluco-octo«e <f— o-glucoheptose <r- d-f/tteoM — >
^-glucoheptose —^ /^gluoo-octose;
d-fMiifiM«-^d-mannohept08e'-^mannoK)ctose'~>inannofioiKMe ;
d-glucose — > d-arabinose — > d-erythroae.
l-pucosc-^ 6-aiabinose -> /-erythrose.
Thdr number is further increased by spatial inveraon of the dicarb*
oxylic adds formed on oxidation, followed by reduction; for
examples d- and /-glncose yield d^nd ^gulose ; and also by Lo^ry de
Bruyn and Van Ekenstdn's discovery that hexoses are transforaied
bto mixtures of their isomers when treated with alkadis, allodine
earths, lead oxide. &c.
MoHosaccharoses.
Bmml— The only possible biose is glycoUic aldehyde. CHO*CH/)H,
obtained impure by Fischer from bromacetaldehyde and baryta
water, and crystalline by Fenton by heating dihydroxymaldc
of
afa
CI
ac
CO
Tl
b>
to
dil
water:
-"^ the action
mentioned
: aldehyde,
n oxidizing
Although
m resolvra.
u obtained
le. redudng
le oxime at
Eth bromine
3HCHO + CH,NQi -> (CH/)H),C.NO, -» (CH,OH),C.NH OH
-> (CH,OH),C: NOH-»«:HiOH),CO.
The ketone !s also obtained irhen Bertrand's sorbose baderium acts
on glycerol; this medium also acts on other alcohols to yield ketoses;
for exami^: erythrite gives erythruloee. aralnte arabinuloee,
mannitol tructose. Sec
retroses.-^Fow active tetroeea are possible, and three have been
obuined by Ruff and Wohl from the pentoses. Thus Wohl pre-
pared l-threose from l-xylose and Aerythrose from ^arabinose, and
Ruff obtained d- and l-erythrose from d- and l-acabonic adds, the
oxidation products of d- and Aarabinoses. Impure inactive forms
result on the polymerization of glycollic aldehyde and also on the
oaddation of erythrite. a tetrahydnc alcohol found in some lichens.
d-Erythruloee is a ketose of thb series.
PoHloses. — Eight stereoisomeric pentaldoses are poesible. and six
are known: d- and /-arabinose. d- and l-xylose, (-ribose, and
d-lyaoie. Schdbler discovered ^^uabinoee in 1869. and resarded it
as a glucose: in 1887 Kiliani proved it to be a pentose. d-Arabinose
is obtained from d-glucose by Wohl's method. /-Xylose was dis-
covered by Koch in 1886; its enantiomorph is prepared from
d-gukise by Wohl's method. ARibose and d-lyxose are prepared by
inversion from /-arabinoee and /-xykne; the latter has also been
obtained from d-gaUctoae. We may notice that the pentoses differ
from other sugars by yiekling f urf urol when boiled with hydrochloric
add. Rhamnose or isodnlote. a component of certain glucosides,
* , '— nid combined in seaweeds and chinovose. present as its
" "novite, in varieties of ouina-bark. are methyl pentoses.
4)Uined from arabite and Bertrands sorbium
'ose.
hexoses may be regarded as the most important
tl
ff
ol
n
b
m
n
d-
it
ol
w
d
•I
n
The reader is refored tx
: of these substances. Thi
ilannoae, first prepared h]
and manna-ash (Fraxinu
ns on hydrolysing cellukw
eUulooe), found in csertaii
iannose is obtained fron
ind i-gulose. prepared fron
c ados, whicn are obtaine<
1 inversion; d- and A-idose
- and l-gulonic adds, anc
' and /-galactose, the fini
igar with dilate sulphutii
active jpiiactose (from th<
»nic acid) with yeast; am
lalactonic adds by pyrldin
. (X the ketoses, we notio
intain-ash, and d-tacatoae
instein on treating gauctosi
bdng formed at the sanv
ial notice.
ilane projection of molecuU
b discussed under Stereo
lay that, nnce the termina
ferent and four asymmctri
caitxm atoms are present, socteen faexaldoses are possible; and fo
the faexahydric alcohols which they yicU on reduction, and th
tetrahydric dicarfooxylic adds which diey give on oxidation, onl]
ten forms are possible. Empbyin^ the notation in which th*
molecule is. represented vertically with the aldehyde group at tb
bottom, and calling a carbon atom-f-or— according as the hydrogri
atom is to the left or right, the possible configurations are abovn ii
the dianam. The grouping ol the forms 5 to 10 With 11 to 16 i
designed to show that the pairs 5, 11 for example become identica
when the terminal groups are the same.
II
13
13
U
15
16
+
+
+
+
+
-
+
+
+
-
-
-h
+
-
-
+
-
-
-
+
-
-
-
-
+
+
-
-
-
+
-
-
-
-
+
-
+
-
+
-•
-
+
-
-
• +
-
+
-
+
+
+
-
-
+
+
+
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
-
I
2
3
4
S
6
7
8
9
10
We can now proceed to the derivation of the structure of gtucoM
Since both d-glucose and d-gulose yield the same active (d) sacchan'
add on oxidation, the configuration of this and the corrcspondin
/-add must be sought from among those numbered S'lo in the abov
table. Nos. 7 and 8 can be at once ruled out, however, aia ad<j
so constituted would be optically inactive and the saccharic add
are active. If the coi^guration of d-saccharic add were given b
dther 6 or 10, bearing in mind the relation of mannose to i^luco*
it would thea'be necessary to represent d-mannosaochanc ad
by dther 7 or 8 — as the forips 6 and 10 pass into 7 and 8 on changini
the sign of a terminal group; but this cannot be done as mannossii
charic add b optically active. Nos. 6 and 10 must, in consequcno
also be ruled out. No. 5, therefore, represents the configuratie
of one of the saccharic acids, and No. 9 that of the isomeride i
equal opposite rotatory power. As there is no means of distingiusl
ing bctiireen the configuration of a dextro- and lacvo-modificatio^
an arbitrary assumption must be made. No. 5 may therefore 1
assigned to the d- and Na o to the /-add. It then follows tlu
d-mannose b represented by No. i, and ^mannoee by No. 4, as mat
noee is produced by reverung the sjgn of the asymmetric systci
adjoining the terminal COH group.
It remains to distinguish between 5 and II. 9 and 15 as representii
glucose and gulose. To settle thb point it is necessary to consad
the eonfiguration of the isomeric pentose*— arabinose and xylose*
from which they may be prepared. Arabinose bdng convcrtib
into /Hglucose and xylose into /-gulose, the alternative formulae to I
considered are —
CH.fOH) +COH
CH,(OH)4-++-COH.
^ The following account b mainly from H. E. Armstrong's art!
CHBinsTkY in the loth edition of this Encyclopaedia; the represent
tion differs from the projection of Meyer and Jacobsen.
SUGAR
H tbe avsrmmetric qFstem adjoMiic the CdH graop. wkick it thit
vfodaoBd in •yntbeaiaiiK th« hcxoae from the pentaw. be diiiiiafttcd,
i^ tomnhr ac diifXMal Tor the two pentose* are
CH,(OH) COH
CH,(OH)+--COH.
Wa sach oompoumb are converted into corresponding dibanc
*L^ CO»H4CH(OH)]«.COsH, the number of asymmetric carbon
r>3s beconet reduced from three to two. aa the central carbon
i • ^ is Am no loooer associated with four, but with only three
if rtst radicles. Hence it follows that the " optical " formulae
1 :be acids derived from two pentoses having the configuration
pvtB above w31 be
CO,H-0-CCVH
CO»H+0-CO«H,
tti that conaBOtteiitly only one of the adds wiO be optically active.
* • « matter of fact, only arabinose gives an active pnxhict on oxida-
: a; it is therefore to be supposed that arabinose is the
r rjyywmd. and consequently
CH,(OH) + COH - ^glllcow
CH,(OH)+ COH-l-gulose.
V^ xyloae 'r» combined with hydrocyanic acid and the cyanide
■ 'rdniiyKd. tog^lher with /-eulonic add. a second isomeric add*'
^'^MJc acad. is produced, whidi on reduction yields the hexaldose
MecsK. Iklaea i-culooic add is heated with pyridine, it is converted
cid. and vice versa; and ^-gulonic acid may in a
. be converted into ^idonic add, from which it is
p«Bblr CO prepare d-idose. It foBows from the manner in which
'^>»« H praduGed that itt confisuration is CH^OH) + +COH.
The renaiaiia^ aldohexoses tnacoveied by Fischer are derived
"".^ ^italacioae ffom milk-sugar. When oxidued this aldohexoso
■ ^-^ coavertcd iato the monobasic galsctonic add, and then into
c^ijc sacic acid: the latter is optically inactive, so that xits
^^tuacioo must be one of those given in the sixth and seventh
. u of the table. On reduction it yields an inactive mixture
> i^uaanic acids, some molecules being attacked at one end. as
r «Tre. and an equal number of others at the other. On redudiijt
"• aooee pfepared from the inactive acid an inactive galactose is
..'.izr^ from which /-galactose may be separated by fermentation.
I-i'S. when tf-si^lactontc add is heated with pyridine, it is con-
^ -rd into talooic add. which is reducible to talose. an isomeride
•-Tjtz to galactose the same relation that mannose bears to
i ^^ It can be shown that d-galactose is CHt(OH) + - + -COH,
^-1 heace d-talose is CH,(OH)+-+ + COH.
'tx con%w«tioRs of the penu-and tetra-aldoses have been
VfTniaed by similar arguments; and those of the ketoses can be
Ced.«jed from tbe aldoses.
The ilMMihiinsri have the formula CuHi^i and ate character-
■Jed by yieldiaff imder suitable conditions two molecules of a'hexoae :
HsOu-f-IW-CAHi^+CAHi^*. The hexoses so obtained
-*■ aot necessarily identical : thus cane sugar yields d-glucose and
.{-cctose (invert sogar); milk sunr and melibiose give d-glucose
whilst n--* -"-" •" -• /-w^r^ii..
ts-i ^^ifhrtnar.
Chemically
maltose yields only glucose,
'-fir) Appear to be ether anhjrdridea of the hexosesL the tmion bdng
-^rifd by the aldehyde or alcohol groups, and in oonsequenoe
"ir, are i^ated to the ethers of glucose and other hexoses, i^. to
'W iBcfi glacosidea. Cane sugar has no redudng power and does
M (ana an bvdrasone or osaaone; the other varieties, however,
tiaat FchUac's solution and fonn hvdrazoncs and osazoncs,
jftavtag as aUases, iA aa cx>ntainmg the grovo •CH(OH)-CHO.
T^ ftlatioe of the <fisaccharoses to the •• and /l-glucosides was
by E. F. Armstrong {Joum. Cktm. 5ac., IQ03, 85, 1305).
d chat cane sagar and maltose were a-glooosides. and
I •-clacoside of melibiose. These and other considera-
- have led co the propomi of ao aUcylen oxide formula for glucose,
ins fgr^wmd by Tollens; this view, which has been mainly developed
'■^ ArMstronf and Fischer, has attained general acceptance (see
CkccoK and Glucosivb). Fischer has proposed formulae for
^ iiuarcaxA disaccharoses, and in conjunctkm with Armstrong
tnrMDd a mrthoH for determfmng how the molecule was built up,
dp ionBing the osooe of the sogar and hydrolyttng. whereupon
tkr hi Houoif obtained indkates the aldose part of the moleoile.
Uetov is thas found to be glucosido-ga lactose and melibiose a
Piiaaamlo4pbicose.
Sevsal <fisaccharoses have been synthenzed. By acting with
^^nocidonc acid on glucose Fischer obtained isomaJtose, a dltoc-
otttnm vesy similar to maltose but differing in being amorphous
lad iiaftrimatablr by yeast. Also Mardilewski (in I899) syntht-
•■^ cane sogar from potassium fructosate and acetochloro.
t-^-Tmt', and after Fischer disco v ered that acetochlorohexoses
"'•dJy reaohed from the interaction of the hexose penta-acetatcs
>^ Kqaid hyditigca cfakiride, several others have been obtained.
Canr sofsr. aaocharose or saccharobiose. is the most important
v-earr. its am — fact u t e b treated below. When sbwly rryscallixcd
• 'orms targe moaocKnic prisms which are readily soluble in water
^tt (fiftcokly salable in alcohol. It mdts at t6o", and on cooling
■•■"ihn to a glassy mass, which on standing gradually beoomes
35
u When hcat€d to about mo* it yleMs a
Mtanoe, named caramel, used in colouring
-ated sulphuric add gives a black carbonp
itric add oxidizes it to d-saccharic, tartaric
when heated to 160* with acetic anhydride
produced. Like glucose it gives saccharates
trontia.
lactobiose, CuHbOu, found in the tpilk of
k)tic liquid 01 cows, and as a pathological
by evaporating whey and purifying the
by crystallization. It forms hard white
1H|0), which become anhydrous at 140*
positkm at 205*. It reduces ammoniacal
Did, and alkaline copper solutions on boiling.
s a faint sweet taste, and is dextro-rotatory,
olution being about twice that of an old one.
ted by yeast, but readily by the hictk acid
d by nitric add to d-saocharic and mude
[ride gives an ocu-acetate.
nialMbiose^ CuHflOa. is formed, together
iction of malt diastase on starch, and as an
ti the decomposition of starch by sulphuric
by ferments. It forms hard crystalline
le up of hard white needles,
sacaiaroses are: Trehalose or mycose,
in various fungi, €.9. Boletus edmlis, in the
1 ergot of lye; melibiose, CnHriOu, formed,
ysing the tnsaccharose melitose (or rafiinose),
occurs in Australian manna and in the
ufactnie; tooranose, CuHaOu, formed with
se on hydrotyang another trisaccharose*
H/D, which occurs in Pinms larix and in
igavose, CnHiAi. found in the sulks of
(X.)
UGAR MaNOTACTUBB
nber of the grass family, known botani*
Sctfiomm, the succulent stems of which
« sugar. It is a tall perennial grass-like
erous erect stems 6 to X2 ft. or more in
solid jointed root-stock. The stems aie
ith numerous shining, polished, yellow^
s, 3 in. or less in length, and about i| in.
>rBnched and bear in the upper portion
r grass-like leaves arranged in two rows;
a laige sheath and has a more or less
In length or longer, and 3 in. or more wide,
pikelets zit borne in pairs on the ullimatt
I branched feathery plume-Kke terminal
ft. or more long. Production of flowers
Itivation and seed is formed very rarely.
propagated by cuttings, a piece of the
its nodes will root rapidly when placed
ground. The sugar-cane is widely cul-
( and some sub-tropical countries, but is
plant. Its native country is unknown,
natcd in India or some parts of eastern
has been cultivated from great antiquity
vation spread westwards and eastwards.
{Origin oj Cultivated Plants, p. 158) points
f its introduction into different countries
hat its origin was in India, Cocbin-China
lago, and regards it as most probable that
extended from Bengal to Coch in-China,
introduced by the Arabs in the middle
ily and the south of Spain where it
bundance of sugar in the colonies caused
abandoned. Dom Enrique, Infante of
he Navigator (1394-1460) transported it
>rus and Sicily to Madeira, whence it was
\ in 1503, and thence to Brazil and Hayti
tury, whence it spread to Mexico, Cuba,
tinique, and later to Bourbon. It was
>adoes from Brazil in 1641, and was dis-
to other West Indian islands. Though
pical countries such as Natal and the
« Union, it is essentially trooical in its
seeds best in warm d «
3^
SUGAR
Cuba, Britfeh dvoKRA and HawaU, and in India and Java In
the Old World. The numerous cultivated varieties are dis-
tinguished mainly by the colour of the inuroodes, whether yellow,
led or purple, or striped, and by the be^t of the culm. Apart
from the sugar-cane and the beet, which are dealt with in detail
below, a brief reference need only be made here to maple sugar,
palm sugar and sorghum sugar!.
Maple Sugflf. — ^This is derived from the sap of the nxk or aogar
maple (Acer sauharinwn), a large tree growing in Canada and the
Unued Sutea.
The tap is collected in spring, just befoee the foliage develops,
and is procured by making a notch or boring a hoJe in the stem of
the tree about 3 ft. from the ground. A tree may yield 3 gallons
of iuice a day and continue flowing for six weeks; but on an average
only about 4 lb of sugar are obtained from each tree. 4 to 6 gallons
of sap giving 1 lb of sugar. The sap is purified and concenuated
in a simple manner, the whole work being carried on by farmers,
who themaelves use much of the product for domestic and culinary
purposes.
Pahn Sumr* — That which comes into the European market as
JH^y ^ T^y is obtained from the sap of several palms, the
wild date {Phoenix syhesiris), the palmyra {Borossus fiabeilifer),
the oooo-nut iCocos nucifera), the gomuti {Arenpi saaharijera)
and others. The principal source is Phoenix syhesiris^ which is
oultivated ia a portion of the Ganges valley to the north of> Calcutta^
The trees are ready to yield sap when five years old ; at dght years
tJbey are mature, and continue to give an annual supply CiU they
reach thirty years. The collection of the sap (toddy) begins about
the end of October and continues, during the axX season, till the
middle of February. The sap is drawn oil from the upper growing
portion of the stem, and altogether an average tree will run in a
season 350 lb of toddy, from which about 35 lb of raw sugar— 'jajifgery
— IS made by simple and rude processes. Jaggery production is
entirely in native hands, and the greater part oitnc amount made is
consumed locally ; it only occasionally reaches the European market.
Sorghum 5«|ar.— The stem of the Guinea corn or sorghum
{Sorghunt saccharatum) has long been known in China as a source
of sugar.^ The sorghum is haraier than the sugar-cane; it comes
to maturity in a season; and it retains its maximum sugar content
a.considerabIe time, giving opportunity for leisurely harvesting*
The sugar b obtained by the same method as cane sugar.
Cane Sugar Uanufaclure. — ^The value of sugar-canes at a
given plantation or central factory would at first sight appear
Commndal to vary directly as the amount of saccharine con-^
vmhite •/ tained in the - juice expressed from them varies,
SugMT-caacM, ^^^ if canes with juice indicating 9* Beauni6 be
made a basis of value, or worth, say at los. per ton, then canes
with juice indicating
ia degrees Beauro^ 10^ 9* 8* 7* 6"
»nd containing in
sugar. . . . 18-05% 1623% 1443% i2-6i% lo-8o%
Would be worth per
ton ... . ii/ii 10/- 8/10} 7^1 6/8
But this is not an accurate statement of the commercial value
of sugar-canes — that is, of their value for the production of
siigar to the planter or manufacturer — because a properly
equipped and balanced factory, capable of making 100 tons of
sugar per day, for 100 days' crop, from canes giving juice of
g" B., or say 10,000 tons of sugar, at an aggregate expenditure
for manufacture (».e. the annual cost of running the factory)
of £3 per ton, or £30,000 per annum, will not be able to make
as much sugar per day with canes giving juice of 8* B., and will
make still less if they yield juice of only 6* B. In practice,
the expenses of upkeep for the year and of manufacturing the
crop remain the same whether the canes are rich or poor and
whether the crop is good or bad, the power of the factory being
limited by its power of evaporation. For example, a factory
able to evaporate 622 tons of water in 34 hours could treat
1000 tons of canes yielding juice of 9** B., and make therefrom
100 tons of sugar in that time; but this same factory, if supplied
with canes giving juice of 6* B., could not treat more than 935
tons of canes in 24 hours, and would only make therefrom 62*3
tons of sugar.
The following table may be useful to planters and central factory
owners. It shows the comparative results of working with juice
^'^^recs of density mentioned above, under the conditions
or one day of 24 hours, and the real value, as raw material
lure, of cane giving iuice of 6" B. to 10* B.. with their
lue baaed solely oa the percentage of sugar in the juice.
The canes in eadi ease are assumed ^contain 88 % of jutoe and 1 a ^
of fibre, and the extraction by milting to be 75% of the weight <
canes — the evaporative power of the factory bung equal to 6a
tons per 24 hours. The facuwy eimenses a/e taken at £30.000 p4
of 10,000 tons (the sugar to co)
annum, or
A per ton on a crop t
all tokl at the factory)
100 working days of crop tinae.
£8 per ton all tokl at the factory)— equivalent to £300 per day fc
the 1 *-'— -* ' '■ —
Degrees Beaum6.
6-
7*
8*
9*
10«
Tons of cane
crushed per day
935-6
956a
977-4
[000
1023-8
Tons of juice ex-
Tons of * irater
701.7
717*
733-x
750
7679
evaponsted . .
632
6M
6»
633
633
Tons of 1st Mas-
secuite . . .
79-7
95»
iH'i
138
145-9
Tons sugar of all
classes recovered
6a-2
74-3
86-7
100
1 14-0
ToUl output of
sugar in 100
days. Tons
6^20
7430
8670
10.000
J MOO
Total value of all
sugars per day
at £8 per ton
Less factory ex-
penses per day .
£497. 6/-
£594. 4/-
£693. 6/-
£800
£912
£300
£300
£300
£300
£300
Leaves for canes
crushed . . .
£197. 6/-
£^94. 4/-
£393.6/-
£500
£613
Real value of
canes per ton
4l2l
6/a
8^
10/-
M/llJ
Apparent value
feie) '^':^"'"'
6/8
7/9l
8/10I
lo^
ll/ll
But it is obvious that it would not pay a planter to sell canes i
4s. 2fd. a ton instead of at los. a ton. any moie than it would pa
a factory to make only 62-2 tons of sugar in 24 hours, or 6220 tor
in the crop of 100 days, instead of 10.000 tons. Hence arises t)i
imperative necessity of good cultivation by the planter, and <
circumspection in the purchase and acceptance of canes on the pa]
of the manufacturer.
The details of manufacture of sugar from canes and of suga
from bectrootto differ, but there are five operations in the productio
of the sugar of commerce from either material which are commo
to both processes. These arc:—
1. The extraction of the iuice.
2. The purification or defecation of the juice.
3. The evaporation of the juice to.syrup point.
4. The concentration and crystallization of the syrup.
5. The curing or preparation of the.cxystaJs for the market b
separating the molasses from them.
Exlnelion rf Juice.-^Thtj uice » extracted from canes by squeezin
them between rollers. In- India at the present day there are thoc
sands of small milb worked by hand, through which - y^^.
the peasant cidtivators pan their canes two or three ^ pj; "
at a time, soueezing them a little, and extracting per- •/"***"'
haps a fourtn of tluur weight in juice, from which they make
substance resembling a dirty sweetmeat mther than sugar. 1
Barbadoes there are still many estates arakiog good Mascabatj
sugar; but as the juice is extracted from the canes by windicilt
and then concentrated in open kettles heated by direct fire, tl
financial results are disastrous, since nearly hiUf the vield obtainab!
from the canes is lost. In the best organized modem cane sugs
csutes as much as I3i % of the wdght of the canes treated is obtainc
in crystal sugar of high polarizing power, although in Louisiitni
where cultivation and manufacture are alike most carefully an
admirably carried out. the yield in sugar is orJy about 7 % of tl
weight of the canes, and sometimes, but seldom, as much as 9^
This is due to conditions of climate, which are much less favourab
for the formation of saccharine in the canes than In Cuba. Tl
protection afforded to the planters by their government, howcve
enables them to pursue the industry with considerable prod
notwithstanding the poor return for their labour an saleable produo
As an instance of the influence of climatic conditions combioi
with high cultivation the cane lands of the Sandwich Islands ma
be cited. Here the tropical heat Is tempeccd by constant tra(
winds, there is perfect immunity from hurricaneSk the soil is pecul
arly suited for cane-growing, and by the use of speciaUy>pcvpani
fertilizers and an ample supply of water at command for irri^atic
the land yields from 50 to 90 tons of canes per acre, from w hk
from 12 to 14% of sugar is produced. To secure this marvelkM
return, with an aonuiH rainfall of 36 in., as much as fawtojoi
gallons of water are pumped per 34 hours from artesian veeHs <
one estate akme. With an inexhaustible supply of irrigation ttati
obtainable, there is no reason why the lands in Upper Egypt,
scientifically cultivated and managed, should not yield aa abundant
as those, in the Sandwich Islands.
BUOAR
37
b Ae I^tfc EshHAiaa or 19M a <
roller* a* u. in diameter by 60
TuTei
loag. It is
^m by » powerful eaKine through triple gearing of 4a to 1,
wtedei CO kmwt a tufface velocity of mllecB of 15 ft 9 in. per
maa», Thi* mill is guaiaateeci to cnnh thoroughly and efficiently
ka 350 to joo toM of caiMO in 2a bouf^ In Louuiana tmo diiUa,
s ow bchJBd the other, «och with three BoUert 32 in. in tUametcr
bv 79 hn lomr, and driven by one engiite through gearing of 15
tt I. are ■p teoed to have a surface velodty of rollers of 15 ft. 6 in.
per nioute (or 60% more than that of tne French mill desc ri be d
isxml and they are efficiently cnuhiog 9OD to laoo ions of
am in 24 hoMrs. In Australia, Demecara, Cuba, Java and Peril
i -.Vr rrvsWg aisd nuueraUtm (first used on a oommercial scale in
C'-aenra by the lace Hon. William Rassdl) have been geMrally
a^?pted.- and in many places, especially ia the Hawaiian Islands,
*^ crmtkmg (sA pamng the canes through three oonsacittiv*
at* of raOna, ia order to extract evenrtfaiiw possible of extraction
br imswii) is employed. In the south of apain, in some favouied
«Qts vWre aignr-caises can be grown, they are eobmitted even to
fejr wooessive cnidiings.
It has been found in practice advantageous to prepare the canes
far cnakiof in tbe nulls, as above described, by passing tbera
tkrai^ a pair of preparing roUs which are grooved or indented
a mk manner aa to draw in and flatten down the canes, no
naaer ia wWch way thev are thrown or heaped upon the caae>
ctroer. and tlMia prepare them for feeding the first mill of the aeries;
tVa Ike work of crushing » carried oo unintemptecfly and without
cmcaat stoppages from the mills choldag, as b often the case when
ttetodb heavy and the canes are not pfepired.
Ahhorab it cannot be said that any one system of extraction is
tite bat watt placifi, yet the following oonsideiationa are of general
a Wbaeever pnasuie be brought to bear upon it, the v^etable
m woody fibre of crushed ougarcanes wiM hold and retain jm Uu
f^ Aaa moaMwl a quantity of moisture equal to its own weight,
rTv* ttsd in pracfirr 10% mom than ia own weight; or in
^* ' otims- words, 100 & of tbe best crashed meaass will
wBsiK fif 47-69 Vb of fiboe and 53-38 lb of nmisture->that is, water
•Hik Mpr M solutioa, or jr-^--
«L Caaes vooy very much in respect of the quality and also as
(0 the qoantity of the hiioe they contain. The quantity of the
r»x is tbe teat to which recourse must be had ia judging the effit-
rvrcy of- the extraction, while the quality is the main factor to
te ahea mto mococmt with regard to tbe rcsulu of subsequent
cisafxtoiB.
Fv the apolication of tbe foregoing considerations to practice,
the ■ih>Mwi| table has been poepared. It shows the greatest
ca-idrT of jnicc that may be CJ^M^s se d from canes, according to
'M (krff cRst peofnctiona of fibre they con ta in, but without employing
bn, to wfach pco cemcj reference is made
The percentages are percenti^ies of the original weight
dtbe
Per
Pfcr
Per
Per
Per
Per
Cent.
Cent,
Cent.
Cent.
Cent.
Cent.
Pm»age of fibre
tn cases ...
10
ir
u
13
14
»5
IWent^e of juice
IB canes . .. -
90
89
88
87
86
85
PiRcentase of juice
;«amca in me-
sus ....
10
11
ta
13
14
15
fncentageof maxi-
80
78
75
74
79
70
!V»reaeafe of best
«w. m practice.
79
7«-9
74-9
72.9
70-6
68.5
IV tallage of juice
Irftinmegass, In
pvactice . .
ir
rt-i
13-2
14-3
15-4
165
TV Britlsk Guiana Planters' Association appointed a 5ub<on>-
mrtee to report to the West India Comnussioa on the manufacture
d war« who itated the followine: —
Unh cancn containing 12% fibre tbe following percentages of
^v ace extracted from the canes in the form 6f juice.-^
Single crushing
Double crushing . . . . . . . , ,
DottUe crushing with 13^ dlluuon , . .
Triple crushing with 10% dilution . . . .
DiOusioawitb as %dilutioo
These rurfts are eqaivaleat to
Ce-U % extiactidn for single crushing.
74-io% .* n double cnisbtng.
77'44% •• „ double cnishing with 13 *^dihitt6n;
79-«>% „ „ triple „ „ 10% „
•»-7»% - „ dSffusioowith 2S% ^,
94%
To ptfeveftt tbe aefiout km of juloe lift in tbe 1
tbe bmt double and triple crushing^ maoeratii
introduced. The mcgam coming from the
^it equal •"
tobetw9ett20%and30%andupt0 40%af theoriginal ^T
Consequently, after
/jBfTove"
and water, in weight equal
^ ^«%anduDt0 40*" * '
weight of Che unennl
thelast ceushing the mixtme retained by' the midual megam ami
not juice, aa was the case when enishing was employed %rithoat
macemtian, but juice nriuBd with .«mte«; and it was found that the
lorn ia juice waa reduced by one-hall A further saving of iuiee
waa sometimes possible if the market prioei of sugir were sucm a»
to compensate for the ooct of evaporatiag an l is wa a wl qoantity
of added water, but a limit wm nnposed by the fact that water
might be used in excess. Hence in the latest dcsigna for lame
factoriea it baa been proposed that as much nonaal iube as can be
extsaeted by double enishing only shall be treated bv Ittdf, and that
the m^aas ahall then beaouaed with twice as mucn water as there
is juice remaining in it; after which, on being subjected to a third
ciushina, it will yield a degraded juice, trbieb wonld also be treated
byitsdi. It is found that m reducing the juioe of these two qualitica
CO syrup, fit to pam to the vacuum pans for coolda^ to ciyotal^
the total amount of evaporation from the degraded juice ■ aboot
half that leqidred from the normal juioe prodoeed by double
eroshing.
Great improvements have been made-la the means of feeding the
mills witfc canes by dofaig away with hand labour and aubstitutiqf
mechanical feoden or rakes, which by means of a
simple steam-driven mechanism will rake tilt canes
from the cane wanons on to tbe cane<arricta By
tbe adoption of this system in one large plantation -—
In the west Indies, eruahing upwatxlaof 1200 tons of canci pesday*
the labour of slxty^fiocir buida was diepensed with, aad was taus
made available for employment in Che fielcls. In Louisiana tbe
use of mechanical feeden h almost univenaL
With a view of safsguardiag themselves from breakdowns caused,
by the inequality of feeding, or by the action of malicious petsooa
introducing foreign substances, such a» crowbars, bolts, Ac., among
Hw canes, and so into the mills, many f4anters have adopted so*
called hydraulic attachments, applied either to the megam roO
or the top roll bearings. These attachments, first invented by
leremiah Howard, and described in the United States Patetii Joumai
m 1858, are simply hydraulic rams fitted into tbe side or top caps
of the mill, andf pree«ng asainst the aide or top brasses in such
a manner ab to allow the side or top toll to move away from the
other rolls, while an accumulator, weighted to any dedred extent;
keeps a constant pressure on each of the rams. An objection to
the top cap arrangement is, that if the volume or feed is large enough
to lift the top nSl from the cane roll, it will simultaneously lift it
from the megass roll, so that the m^^am will not be as wdl pressed
as it ought to be; and an objection to the ride cap arrangement
on the megam roll as well aa to the top cap arrangement is, that la
case more canes are fed ia at one end of the rolls than at the other,
the roll will be pushed out farther at one end than at the other;
and though It may thus avoid a breakdown of the rolls, it b apt,
in so doing, to break the ends off the teeth of the crown wheels
by putting them out of line with one another. The toggle^ioint
attachment, which b an extremely Ingenious way of attaming
the same end as the hydraulic attachments, is open to the same
objectiona.
Extractwn of cane juke by diffusion (a process more fully d^
scribed under the head of beetroot sugar manufacture) ui adopted
in a few plantatfons in Java and Cuba, in Louisiana .
and the Hawaiian Islands, and in one or two factories.^
Egypt; but hitherto* except under exceptional'
conditions (as at Aska, in the Madras Presidency, where the
lor sugar is three or four times tbe London price), it
local erioc 1
would not soem to offer any substantial advantaee aw oouble or
triple crushing. With the latter system practkraliy as much sugar
is obtained from the canes as by diffusion, and the resulting m^am
furnishes, in a well-appointed factory, sufficient fuel for toe crop.
With diffusion, however, in addition to the strict scientific control
necessary to secure the benefits of the process, foel~that is, cool or
wood has to be provided for the working off of the crop, since the
spent chips or slices from the diffueen are useless for tUs purpose;
although it b true that in some plantations the spent chips aava
to a certain extent been utiliaed as fuel by mixing them with a
portion of the mdassrs, which otherwise would have been sold or
converted into rum. The best results from extraction by diffusion
have been obtained In Java^ where there is an abundance of deaf,
good water: but in the Hawaiian Islands, and in Cuba and Demerara,
diffuskm has been abandoned on several well mounted estates and
replaced by double and triple crushing: and ft b not likely to be
resorted to again, as the extra cost 01 working b not compenmted
by the slight increase of sugar produced. Tn Louisiana diffusion
is successfully worked on two or three larn estates; but tbe general
body of planters are shy of using it, although there is no mck of
water, the Mississippi bang near at hand.
PttriJicaHon.— The second operation b the coagtdatlon of tbe
albqmcn. and the separjitioa <x It with other impuxilies from tbe
3«
8D0AR
juice wfuch holds them in mpenuon or taAntion. The nomeat
the juioe it expcUed from the oeUs of the canes chemical inveraaoa
oommencea, and the sooner it b stopped the better. This is effected
by the addition of lime to neutxatise the free add. As cold joioe
has a i^ter affinity for lime than hot jiiice, it is best to treat the
iuice with lime when cokL This b easily done in liming or measuring
tanks of known capacity, into which the juice b run from the milL
The requbite amount ol milk of lime set up at lo* Beaum4 b then
added. Cream of lime of 17* Beaum6 b sometimes used, but the
weaker sdutkm b preferable, since the proper proportion b more
cadly adjusted. In Demerara and other places the jukx b then
heated under pressure up to 220* F. to 250^ F. for a few moments,
on its wav to a steam and juice separator, where the steam due to
the superheated juice flashes off, and b either utilised for aiding
the steam supplied to the multiple effect evaporators,
or for heating cold juice on its way to the main heater,
or it b allowed to escape into the atmoophoe. The
boiling juice b run down into subittding tanks, where it cools, and
at the same time the albumen, which has been suddenly coagulated
bv moinentary exposure to high temperature, faUs to the bottom
01 the tank, carrying with it the vegets^le and other matten which
were in suspension in the juice. After repottng some time« the
dear juice b carefully decant«i by means of a pipe fixed by a swivd
joint to an outlet in the bottom of the tank, the upper end of the
fMpe bdngafways kept at the surface of the liquor by a float attached
to it. Thus dear liquor alone b run off, and the mud and cloudy
liquor at the bottom of the tank are Idt undisturbed, and discharged
separately as required.
In Australia a continuous juice separator b generally used, and
preferred to ordinary subsiding or bltering tanks. It b a c>'Un<-
drical vessd about 6 ft. deep, fitted with a conical
bottom of about the same depth. Such a vessel is
conveniently made of a diameter which will give the
cylindrical portion sufficient capacity to hokl the juice
expressed from the cane-mill in one hour. The hot liquor b con-
ducts downwards in a continuous steady stream by a central pipe
to eight horizontal branches, from which it issues into the separator
at the levd of the junction of the cylindrical and CDnical portions
_* ^u. 1 c. — .L '.a _•.- _* Ij^j liquor b leas than
avity of the scum and
of the vessel. Since the spedfic gravity of hot liquor b leas than
that of cold liquor and since the raedfic gravity of the scum and
particles of solid matter in suspension vanes so slightly with the
temperature that practkally it remains constant, the hot Uquor
rises to the top of the vessel, and the scums and partides of solid
nutter in suspension separate themsdves from it and fall to the
bottom. By the mode of admission the hot liquor at its entry b
distributed over a large area relatively to its volume, and while
thb b necessarily effected with but little disturbance to the contents
of the vessd, a very dow vdodty b ensured for the current of
ascending jukse. In a condnuous separator of which the cylindrical.
IMrtioh measures 13 ft. in dUmeter and 6. ft. deep (a suitable
size for treating a juice supply of 4000 to 4500 gallons per hour),
the upward current will have a velocity of about x inch per minute,
and It b found that all the impurities have thus ample droe to
separate themsdves. The clear jukre when it j^rives at the top
ai the separator flows slowly over the level edges of a cross cand
and passes in a contiiuious stream to the service tanks of the evapo*
ratore or vacuum pan. The sloping sides of the conical bottom
can be freed from the coating of scum which forms upon them evory
two / or three hours by two rotatory scrapen, formed of L-irons*
which can l>e dowly turned bv an attendant by means of a central
Bhaft provided with a suitable handle. The scums then settle
down to the bottom of the cone, whence they are run off to the
scum tank. Every twenty-four hours or so the flow of juice may
be conveniently stopped, and, after all the impurities have subsided.
the superincumbent clear Ikjuor may be decanted by a cock pbced
at the dde of the cone (or the puipoae, and the vessel may be washed
out. These separators are caietully protected by non-conducting
cement and wood lauing, and are closed at the top to prevent k>as
of heat : and they will run for many houra without requiring to be
changed, the duration of the run depending on the auality of the
liquor treated and amount of impurities therein. Smaller separaton
oTthe same construction are used for the treatment of ^nip»
In Cuba, Martinique, Peru and elsewhere the old-fashioned
double-bottomed defecator b used, into which the juke b run
direct, and there limed and heated. Thb ddecator b
made with a hemispherical copper bottom, placed in
an outer cast-iron casing, whkh forms a steam jacket,
and U fitted with a cylindrical curb or breast above
the bottom. If double-bottomed ddecatora are used in suffident
number to dlow an hour and a half to two hours for making each
defecation, and if they are of a dze which permits any one of them
to be filled up by the cane-mill with juioe in ten to twdve minutes,
they will make as perfect a defecatk>n as b obtainable by any known
^jTstem; but their employment involves the expenditure of much
mgh-preanire steam (as exhaust steam will not heat the juKe quickly
enough through the small surface of the hemispherical inner bottom).
and also the use of filter presses for treating the scums. A great
deal of skilled superintendence is also required, and first cost b
comparatively large. When a sufficient number arc not available
■for a two hr»«««' ^^-/'•♦«-^n, h b the praaice in some factories to
aMm off the acuffls tint ffae to the top, and then boil up the fvke
for a few minutes and sidm a|{ain. and, after repeating the operation
once or twice, to run off the juice to se|iaratore or substders of any
of 'the kinds previoudy described. In Java and Mauritius, where
very dean canes are grown, doubie^bot^med defecators are generally
used, and to them, perhaps as much as to the quality of the canes,
may be attributed the very strong, fine sugars made in tlioae islands.
They are also employed in Egypt, being remnants of the plant
used in the days when the juice passed through bone-bbck before
going to the evaporators.
A modification of the system of double-bottom defecators has
latdy been introduced with condderable success fai San Domingo
and m Cuba, by which a continuous and steady discharge ^. , ._
of dear ddecated juke b obtained on the one hand, and ^f?ff?y
on the other a comparatively hard dry cake of scum or "•■"""*•"
cachasa. and without the use of filter presses. These results
are brought about by adding to the cold juice as it comes
from the mill the proper proportion of milk ol lime set
up at 8* B., and then delivering the limed juioe in a constant
steady stream as near the bottom of the defecator as posdbic; it
b thus brought into immediate contact with the heating surface
and heated once for all bdore it ascends, with the result of avoid*
ins the disturitence caused in the oidinary defecator by pouring
cold juice from above on to the surface of the heated juke, and so
establishing down-currems of ooM juice and up<urrrmsof hot juice
In the cxntre of the ddecator an open-jopped cylmdrical %*caael ii
placed, with its bottom about 6 in. above the bottom of the
defecator and its top about 13 in. below the top of the defecators
In this vessel b placed the short leg of a draw-off dphon, reaching
to neariv the bottom. The action of the moderate heat. 210* F.,
on the Umed juice causes the albumen in it to coagulate; thb risitt|
to the surface collects the cachasas, which form and float thereon
The clear juke in the meantime flows over the edge of the cylindri<
cal vessd without disturbance and finds its way out by the short
leg of the siphon, and so passes to the canal for oollecting tbc
defecated juice. The admission of steam must be regulated with
the greatest nicety, so as to maintain an eouable temperaturr,
ao8" to 310* F., hot enough to act upon the albumen ana yet noi
enough to cause ebullition or disturbance in the juice, and so preveni
a proper separation of the cachaxas. This b attained by the aid
of a copper pipe, 4 in. in dbmeter, which foHows the curve of tfa<
hemispnericau bottom, and b fitted from one dde to the other o|
the defecator; one end is entirely closed, and the other b connected
by a small pipe to a shalbw chcuiar vessd outdde the defecatory
covered with an' india-rubber diaphragm, to the centre of whici]
b attached a light rod actuating a steam throttle-valve, and capable
of being adjusted as to length. &c. The copper pipe and ciiculai
vessel are filled with cold water, whkh on becoming heated by the sar-i
rounding juiot expands, and so forces up the uidia<nibber diaphragni
and shuts off the steam. By adjusdng the length of the connectuig
rod and the amount of water in the vessel, the araouht «f stearS
admined can be regulated to a nicety. To make thb apparatoa
more perfectly automatic, an arrangement for continually adding
to and mixing with the juice the proper proportion of milk of lirac
has been adapted to it; and although it may be objected that onoc
the pfpportion has been determined no allowance b made for tha
varbtion in the quality of the juice coming from the mill owins
to the variations that may occur in the canes fed into the mllU,
it b obviously as easy to vary the proportion with the automat k
arrani^ment from time to time as it b to vary in each separate
direction, if the man in charge will take the trouble to do so, whidi
he very seldom does with the ordinary defecators, satbf ying himscli
with testing the juice once or twice in a watch. The scums f<Mrniini
on the top of the continuous defecator beoome so hard and drj
that they have to be removed from timcL to time with a spediill)
oonstmcted. instrument like a flat spade with three flat prongs is
front. These scums are not worth pasdng through, the filter pre«sc«
and are sent to the fields direct as manure.
The scums separated from the juice by ordinaiy defecatkii
entai^le and carry away with them A certam amount of the julci
with Its contained saccharine. In some factories they .^ ^^
are collected in suitable tanks, and steam b bk>wn into 2II1"'*
them,, which further coagulates the albuminous par- •'^'■^
tides. These in their upward passage to the top,
where they float, free themsdves from the |uice, ,which they l^v^
below them comparatively clear. The juioe is then drawn ol
and pumped up to one^ of the double-Dottomed ' defecators an<
redefecatcd, or, vdiere juice-heaters have been used instead a
defecators, the scums from the separators or subsiders are beaten
and forced through filter presses, the juice expressed going to tb
evaporators and the scum cakes (atja^ in the filter presses to tin
fields as manure.
^ In diffusion plants the milk of lime b added, in proper pirspoe
tion, in the cells of the diffusion battery, and the chips or afi^
themsdves act as a mechanical filter for the juke; while in th
Sandwich Islands corat-sand filters have been employed for som
ycars,^ in additk>n to the chips, to free the juice from tmpuriti«
held in mechanical suspension. In Germany very similar <et
have also been used, pcarl-ouartz sravel taking tlw place of cors
sand, which it dosely resembles. Ip' Mexico filters mled with dr
SUGAR
pofvilcMd wtfUB kft w boM IcmHl ftffy cnwiSBt for Nuiovnc tM
bfe quaatky of imfNtritiei oontaiiMd in the inke expPMrtd Icom
the very viforaiM but RMik oanea giowa in thAt wondof uUy ferdle
csuotry, but unleit oonatant care u tmken in mawiyiig ttem, and
la ckxttsiflC them at the proper tiio^ tbene ia siwt n>k of iaveerioa
tkkiac piao<^ ^^itb oonaequent loss of tugar.
After the joioe baa been defecated or purified by any of the
neaaa above mentioned it ia aent to the evaporatinf af
temnafter <ieacnbed, wheie it is concentrated to 36* or a8*
xrd la then oooducted in a oontinuous atieam either into tli
TMiks ti the ▼acuttm pan, if daric augan are i«equiied« or, if a
ik-tter colour in wanted, into daiifien. The latter are dreidar
<r rectanyilar veiaelw. holding from 500 to 1500 gajlona each, accord^'
I'X to tbe capadty of the tactocy, and fitted with ateam coila at
vat bottom and aintnming trougha at the top. In them the ayrup
n qrnckly bffXJBgIn Up to the boil and skimnied for about five nunutea,
vtm it ia ran off to the aervioe tanki of the vacuum pana. The
^cat at which the aynip bpila in the clarifiera, »o* F., haa the
praperty of aepnatiiig -a great deal of the gum acill remalaina in
- aeid thwa deanaing the aolution of augar and water for oryatalfiaa*
ina m the vacuum pana; and if after alamming the avnip la nm into
vparaaon or aobaidera of any description, and allowed to aettle
&^wa and cool befon being drawn into the vacuum pan for cryatalU*
arkm. tfaia r't—-i'*C prooeaa will be more thorough and the quality
d Uk final product will be improved. Whether the improvement
«dl be pnofittble or ndt to the pfamter or manufacturer depends on
eV mtflMt for the augar, and on the conditioaa of fordgn tarilla,
•akik are not infrequently hostile.
if Am Juiu to Syrup.—'Tht tUrd operation Is the
ftbe approximately pure, but thin and watery, Juice
» «>Tup point, by dnving off a portion of the water in vapour
(tr-^ some aystem of heating and evaporation. Since on an
a^cT^ge 70% by measurement ot the normal defecated cane jtiice
iu 10 be cvapofTBted in order to reduce it to syrup ready for final
ud-entratioo and crystallization in the vacuum pan, and since to
truji. the same end as much aa 90 to 9$ % of the volume of mfaced
.uit> has to be evaporated ^ben maoetation or imbibition b
c-;^>ynd. it is dear that some more economical mode of evapora-
tiA b ouy.sa ary in large estates than the open-fire batteries still
car - noo in 'Baftiados and some of the West Indian islands, and in
t-=&3 hacaenrias in Central America and Brazfl, but seldom seen
c'jK^Sens. With open-fire batteries (or making the syrup, which
•as afterwards finUhed in the vacuum pan, very good sugar was
prvLiced. but at a cost that would be ruinous in to-day*s markets.
Ia the best days of the so-called Jamaica Thdns in Demerara.
An j cHtUa rtera of a ton of coal in addition to the roegass was burned
yc ton of sag^ made, and with this for many years planters were
rj =:cst. because they pointed to the fact that in the central factories,
!hn worhing in Martinique and Guadeloupe, with charcoal filters and
V ,,^-diect evapocatjon, 750 Idlos of coal in addition to the megass
vw oonsiuaed to make 1000 Idloa of sugar. All this has now been
^ItagaL St is unquestionably better and easier to evaporate
tt xfw7 thaa Hf an open pan, and with a better system of firing,
k TfTv Gbccal proviston of steam generators, and multiple-effect
".i^-tsnton of impRTved construction, a far larger yield ot sugar is
-^A-aed frma the juice than was possible of attainment .in thoae
•- V and the menas often auffices as fuel for the crop.
The multiple-eBect evaporator, originally invented aiul con-
CRixaed by florberto Rilleux in New Orieans in 1840, has under-
^ _ . t/oae many changes in design, and constniction since
*"5^ that year. The growing demand for this system of
f** evaporation for application in many other mdustrics
^"t"^'^' bendes that of sugar has brought to the front a large
•vAa di inventors. Foreetful or iniorant of the great prin-
,« annou faced and cstabBshed by Rilleux, they have mostly
r ,'H their energies and in|;enuity to contriving all sorts of
-.piaaRcd amngemenU to give the juice the demity lequtred,
■% ',.ciaii^ and repassing it over the heating surface of the apparatus,
of a few equare feet of which would seem to have been
In some instances the result haa been
lobfect.
. -ul and unnecessary
'» veS-kavwa fact— ^ tl
anaddi"
. ]uie of h^-pressure steam, and ia all
highest impoitanor in thb coancxio»—
1 in it, and
disregar d ed, that the shorter the time the
„ _ _, t the MSB tnversbn will take place "
vMqre the leas will be the hiss of sugar. But thia cc .
; tsvemon. whatever the incentive, haa not been without
because to-day, by means of very aimple improvements
'h as the addition of ctiailatoni and inoeased ana
. . what may be Uken to be the staMdanl type of
'>T»>e<flcct evaporator (that is to say, vertical vacuum pana
t^*i with veftical hearine tubes, through which passes the lic|Uor
^ troted. and outside of which th? steam or vapour circu«
-Vi; evaporates nearly double the quantity of water per aoaare
'i« 4f taring soriace per hoar which waa evaporated by
-•^qenas to use so recently as 1885— aad thia Without any
--«aje ia the steam pressure. That evaporation m sacstf. in a
%>*'^p^^«4feet evaporator, is advantageous by reason of the
and amount of sugar obtained from a given quantity of
.i««. aad by nmoa of eoooomy of fueU there ia no doubt, but
39
^^ ^ MttiM be of doidilef tiiptai qnadruple
or quintuple effect will depend very much oa the amount of juice
to be treated per day, and the cost of fuel. Thas, auppoaiag that
1000 lb of ooal were required to work a nngle vacuum pan, evapoiat*
lag, say, 6000 lb of water ia a given tiaae, then 900 lb of oosl would
be Ksquixed for a double-effect appantua to do the aamc work.
333 l> for a triple effect, 390- for a quadruple effect* and aoo lb
tor a quintaple effect. In aome p|»cea where coal costs 6es. a ton.
and where ateam ia laiaed by ooal, aa in a beetniOt factory, it might
pay to adopt a quintuple^ffect apparatus, but on a cane sugar
eatate, whem the steam neoesaary tor the evaporator ia laiaed by
bumhis the magam aafuel, and ia first used in the engines worktna
the mills, the exhaust alone paasinr to the evaporator, there would
be very little, if any. advantage m employing a quadruple effect
inateaa of a triple »ect, aad pnctlcal^ none at all in naving a
quinta p l e a ff e ct appaaataa, lor the iateitst aad sinldng fund oa tha
extm cost woald more than conntcfbalanoe the aaviag m '"*
With th»juioe of some canes eonatdemUe difficulty is e
ia keeping the heatinK auifaoea of the evaporatora dean aad free
from incrustations, «nd cleaning b^ the use of add haa to be r
to. In plaoea wfatra woric ia earned on day and night thnra
the weak, the standard tvpe of evaporator lenda itaelf more readily
entiona tnan any other. It ia obviously easier to
out and dean veitical tubes open at both ends, and about
6 ft. loagi oa which the scale haa already been looaened by the aid
of boiling with dilute muiiatic add or a weak aofaitkm of caasdc
soda in water, thaa it ia to clean either the inside or the outside of
horiaontal tubes more than double the length. Thb considentiaa
should be carefully remembered in the future by the planter who may
require an evaporator and by the engineer who may be called upon
to design or uius uu c t it, aad more espedallv by a <
witliout practical ezpecieaoe of the working of his oonstn
Conesnhvliais ond GryilatttsBMea.-~The defecated cane juice,
havTng lost about 70% of its bulk by evaporation in the mult^fde-
effect evaporator, is now syrup, and ready to enter the ^
vacuum pan for further concentration and crystalliaa' d^ST*
tion. In a patent (No. 3607, iSia} granted to E. C llj"'
Howard it b atated, among other things, that '* water '***
disaolvea the most uncrysUUizable in preference to that which b
, most crystallixable sugar,'* and the patentee speaks of '* a discovery
I have made that no aolution, unless highly concentrated, of sumr
in water can withopt material injury to its colouring and crystalUa>
ing power, or to both, be exposed to its boiling temperature during
the period reqtured to evaporate such solution to the ciystallixing
point." He stated that " he had made a magma of sugar and water
at atmospheric temperature, and heated the same to 190* or 900* F.
in a water or ateam bath, and then added more sugar or a thinner
nu^ma, and the whole betnff then in a state of imperfect fluidity,
but so as to close readily benind the stirrer, was filled into moulds
and purged '* (drained). *' I do further declare," he added, ^ that
although in the application of heat to the refiiung of sugar in my
mid invention or orocess I have atated and mentioned the tempera-
ture of about 300* F. acale as the heat most proper to be used and
applied in order' to secure and preserve the colour and crystallia-
ability of the sogara, and most easily to be obtained with precision
and uniformity l^ meana of the water bath and steam bath, yet when
drcumstanoes or choice may render the same derirable I do make
use of higher temperatures, although less beneficial." Howard
at any rate saw clearly what waa one of the indispenmble requisites
for the economical manufaiicture of fine crystal sugar of good colour
— the treatment of saccharine aolutions at temperatures very con-
siderably lower than a 13* F., which b the temperature of water boil-
ing at normal atmospheric pressure. Nor was he long in providing
means for securing these lower temperatures. His patent (No.
37SI of 1813) describes the. dosed vacuum pan and the air pump
with condenser for steam by injection, the use of a thermometer
immersed in the solution in the pan, and a method of ascertaining
the density of the sotutbn with a proof stick, and by observationa
of the temperature at which, while fluid and not containing grain,
it could be Ve^ boiline under different presaures shown by a vacuum
gauge. A table b abo given of boiling points from 115* F. to
175 F., corresponding to decimal parts oi an inch of mercury of
the vacuum gauge, since Howaid published hb invention the
vacuum pan has been greatly improved and akeied in shape an^
power, and especially oireocnt years, and the advanragesof concen-
trating sn same having been acknowledged, the system haa been
adopted In many other industriea, and crowds of inventon havw
turned their attention to the principle. In endeavouring to malm
a pan of lew power do as much and as goiod work as one of grmter
poawr. they have imagiaed many ingenious marhaniral oantrivaaocs,
such as currents produced mcch^ically to promote evmratioo
and crystallisation, feeding the pan from many pmnts m order
to sprnd the feed einially throoKhout the mam of sagsr being
cooloed, and ao on. All mdr endmvoun have ubta hi ed at best
but a doubtful success, for they have.ovcrkiokcd the fact that to
evapo rat e a given weight of water from the synp in a vacuum
pan at least an equal weight (or in practice' about 15% more) of
steam mnat be co n den sed , and the lint ooat of mechankial agitacioraw
together isith the expeadkurt they 'wntm for motiv* pmmr mad
¥>
SUGAR
onintftiMncc. aim be put agBinat the dkA« wving in the faeeibnc
surface effected by their einployment. On the other hand, the
advocatct of admitting the feed into a vacuum pan in many minute
■treamt appeal rather to the ignomnt and incompetent sugar-
boiler than to a man who, knowing his business thonxiffhly, wiU
bqtl 150 tons of hot nw sugar in a pan in a few hours, feeding it
thnH^h a stogie ^i^ and >^ve 10 in. in diameter. NeveitheiesL
it has been found tn pmctice, when syniptt with lour quotient
itient of imp
r of different
pHrity and high quotient tA impurity are being treated, injecting
the leed at a number of different points in the pan docs reduce the
time required t6 bofl the pan. though of no practical advaatsge
with syrups of high quotient or purity and frse from the viscosity
which impedes circulation and therefore quick boiling. Watt» when
he invented the steam engine, laid down the principles 00 which it
ie based, and they hold good to the present day. So also the prin>
dples Uud down by Howard with respect to the vacuum pan bold
good to-day: larger pans have been made and their heating surface
has been increased, but it has been found by practke now. as it was
found then, that an ontinaiy wonn or cod 4 in. in diameter and
90 ft. long wai be far more efficient per square foot of surface than
a similar coil 100 ft. long. Thus the most efficient vacuum pans
of the present day are thooe which have their coils so arranged that
BO portion of them eaceeds 50 or 60 ft. in length; with such coils,
and a sufficient annular space in the pan free irom obstruction, in
Older to allow a natural dosnxurrent of the cooking mass, while an
ttp<ttrTent all round b also natilvaUy produced bv the action of
the heated worms or coO^ rapid evaporation and crystallisation
can be obtained, withont any mechanical adjuncts to require
attention or afford excuse for negligence^
The choice of the siae of the crystals to be produced in a given
paa depends upon the market for which they are intended. It is
of course presupposed that the jnace has bens properly defecated,
because without this no amount of skill and knowledge in cooking
in the pan will a\'ail: the sugar nssaUing must be bad, cither in
colour or grjiia, or both, and certainly in polaruiog power. If a
very lar^ Itrm grain like sugarcandv is required the syrup when
first brc»u«ht into the put must be ol tow density, say x>* to 21*
BcAum4. but if a smaller grain be wanted it can easily be obtained
from s^rup of 27* to 28* Bcaum4 On some plantations nuking
sugar lor particular markets and use in refineries it is the custom
to make onl^- one class of sugar, by boiliiv the roc4a«aes produced
by the purging of oae strike with the uigu in the next strike.
On other e»CAtes the second sugars, or sugars produced from bo3-
ing m^>Us9es dione, are not pureed to dryness, but when sufikiently
se|)Arai<xi from their mo(her-4iquor are mixed with the defecated
juice, thcnrby increasiRg its saccharine richness, and after being
eca^erted into $>rup in the usao* m.anner are treated in the vacuum
paa as fir»t $u*;jrs. which in fjct thv>- really are.
In ccftoio ulstncts. notably in the Straits Settlements, syrup b
wefvired as de^^ribed abow for cr>'S5atti;jtton in a vacuum pan.
but ta«i«>^ of being cooked tn socav it is sJowly boiled up in open
do^btotvctom paa&. These puts are sorieiic;« heated by boiling
oH. W(;b the k.v<A that uivJcr stxh condttioxts thcsu^or tkhxb Is
kept stirred oil the time as k thickens cannot be burnt or coraznel-
kRvl: but the uise o^icct con be attained more ecor)anuk:a''y
with sreara of a gi\en prvssure by ut Hiring tt» latent beat. The
sailor thu« {>rv«iuced. b> constant sfirrinj; and eva^vrattoo a!m\3se
Co «lx%9rss. to4nis a sp«vle9 of srnall-«:rai-:ed coocrece. It is called
** bosket sui;ar." and lucets «itl> a tv:^ sa!e. at rersuoer^icive
pricev anJvv^^ the C%- x'se ox4Ior>: and as the st;gar as soon as
Cvv»«*.v i» r»K\v\J rejviv Jor nur*.v;» wv;*So«t loair*: any wc^Ht by
draia >v> *^»* -'-i '^h of sujcar- :tak. '* is a no*t lLcrai:\e one wheie-
e%«r loere i* *;-Tvjcr?: Wxal cc-r-JinX Vcr> sir.-.'-ir ti xis of stiiar
are also pr.xJ-_veu '.^r Kxal cc.->;>:"-.^<k''a ia Ccrtrol .Krierira oak! it
>te&kx\ w kVc the oatie* of " Pax-^'a " a"i " Chacc*:a." but in
^M«e coc itf'oj tbe »u<aj t* ge^vrx/x K-JcJ in puas pjaced o^yt
Ip^viol ars.^-i^'AX'Tj. a-xi :lv tac:-'f;cs -.--iv :^ it are on acorsaoratixclv
SBoail scale. »be*vj.> ^-s the SctaI:* SfUv-::*:?:* ;Se '* tuA^t su$jr **
factories, ore o: v-o.^>nierabte i'sportocx'e, ooki ore ikted wivh the Bb:4£
Carit* (jr F'-titausum ^ CrrsS^ f«r lAe Jlfarla< — The crrstaJ-
fiwd sicgar t:vr> ;Se ^Areum par bj^'itow to be scfurmted t-v«n '.l^f
mclosms or r.-ocVr- .n;«Kir sunv».*Kf »^ the cr**«x:s. Is ».in<
||irts of McTuiv* a.*j vTencrJ A •>fT*:a I'^w sevviritva & soli edecced
mr cmn'm; the s;<«car into <v«vai n^o^x^sw a»i piAri-^ on tbe top
a Isyer o< ■w«»c cmv or carta wVc'^ hiM been ir'eaoeni in a b>.- «
aM» a aoA poate Ihe osotat-jre irvra checUv, p*.*nA.v*;;ig tbivt.^h
the BHSB «i sngnr wav^es amay tV Wbetirg s>vtaisx^ oao Va\e«
tft» cey8Ca.'s coanpsrarixe^v tree onv* chtur. It om^ ^e noced tbat ,
mtm tite wtl we pnrge e«sii;% s/io '*«««% wkNcLiy *W: woe pttcge |
ensaly asid ire«\\ m ceornijyajs. ikti tor a:l pt^ctvoi ,>T'-»ee« 1
iW ttf^atn q£ csivisc sin^sr &» a e^ ni( .( ihe pa:<t. and tkc Sa'c et
the awv nt enmiaar.f. m mam pureed m c«B:r*/ig-aIs. a» i^^deeo
k hasheta Ssr mmm yiasi. The rewson b c^^iuhs. The cUyu^ ,
MMm ^^Rm^l e < ^k eBpunsr «« lofye csruw Wwaari aW the em- I
piqpannt «f maagr hamfik sad .«ctv ddors at leaA were i(v:iarTd .or ■
an^kmai^ the epenscisa aatt rraikum thr mgar (»e ier the r-ttr^brt,.
Wtaws witk miMBifiiM^* SMgar iwofani tentu^ csa ^ tw i>ariKt
makiag clayed
found advan-
WhcaCiibamthccliiera
sugars It was the custom (followed in refineries and I
tageous In general practice) to dischar]^ the strike of crystallized
sugar from the vacuum pan into a receiver heated bdow by steam.
and to stir the mass for a certain time, and then distribute it into
the moulds in which it was afterwards clayed. When centrifugals
were adopted for putging the whole crop (they had long been used
for curing the second or third sugars), the system then obtaining
of cuantng the su^r into wagons or coolers, which as necessary
for the second and third sugars cooked only to string point, was
continued, but latterly " crystallixatioo in movement, a develop-
ment of the system which forty years ago or more existed in refinenes
and in Cuba, has come into general use, and with great advantage,
especially where proprietors have been able to erect appropriate
buildings and machinery for carrying out the system efficiently.
The vacuum pan b erected at a height which commands the crystal-
Kaers. each of which wilt, as in days gone by in Cuba, hold the con-
temsof the pan, and these in their turn are set high enough to allow
the charge to fall into the feeding-trough of the centrifugals, thus
obvbting the neoeisity of any labour to remove the raw su^ from
tbe time it leaves thit vacuum pan to the time it faUs into the
centrifugals. For tlib reason alonc^ and without taking into
consideration any increase ia the ybhi of su^ brought about by
** crystallisation w movement*" the ^rstem is worthy of %4optkm
in aU sugar factories making cnstal sugar.
The crystaUiaers are lo^g, borlaontal. cyGndrkal or semJ-cylin-
dracal vessels, fitted with a strong horiaontal shaft, mnnii^ troca
end to end, which b kept slowly icvolving. The shaft g^mgjj^
carries arms and blades fised m such a manner chat mZ!m^
the mass of sugar b quietly twt thoroughly moved, *■"'"*•
while at the same time a gentle but sustained evaporation U pro-
duced by the continuous exposure of succesave portions of the mass
to the action of the atmosphere. Thus also the crystals already
formed come in contact with fresh mother-tkiuor. and^so go on
addli^ to their size. Some crystallisers are made entirely cylin-
drical, and are connected to the condenser of the vacuum pan ; in
order to maintain a partial vacuum in them, some are fitted witfa
cold-water pipes to cool them and with steam pipes tp heat them,
and some are left open to the atmospbeke at the top. But the
efficiency of aD depends on the process of almost iarperccptiblc
yet continuous evaporatioa and the methodical addition of syrup,
aj¥l not on the idiosyocraaes of the experts who manage tnem;
and there b no doubt that in large coomercial processes of manu<
focture the simpker the apparatus used for ootaining a dcstre<i
result, and the more casSy it b understood, the better rt will bt
for the manufacturer. The sngar made from the first syrups doe
not require a cry^olluer in mo\-ement to prepare it for purging it
the centrifugals, but it b convenient to run the strike into tin
crystallber and so empty the pan at once and leave it ready tn
commence another strike, while the aeoood sugars will be bettc
for twenty-four hours* sturing and the third sugars for fony-e-tghl
hours' stirring before going to the cectrtfugab. To drive thcs)
machines electricity has been applied, with iocCfferent success, bu
they have been very efficiently driven, each independently of tht
others in the set. by meam of a m>v!ifirarinn Ola Peltoo wheel
suppLvd with water under pressure from a pumping engine, i
cotT^WJat»-e{y small stream strikes the wheel whh a pressur
equi\alettt to a great head, say joo (t^ and as tbe quantity c
water and numbn- of jets strlkins the wlwei can be regulated witl
the greatest ease and nxety.eaca HMrhTf can Without danger b
quxL'y broc^ht up to its fuu speed when porpcg high-ctass sugan
c«^ ark>«cd to run slowly when pargtng lo«-oass sugars, until tb
hea\>. sun^a-v o^-^Liaaes hat^ been expelVid; and it cam t hen fa
brought up :^^ its ftJI »f«ed for ficaJSy dr^i^g the sugar ia the baskel
a boon vHtch ofi practical si^^r-aciakers will appreciate. Th
water forced by the torce-pcoep o^^alnst the Piriton wheels return
by a wo^te-plpe to the tank, from which the foice-painp tak<
it o^oia.
Jtxfmi F^tprss^'^'Tht asanoiactasw of caae in|Bi has larsd
increased la «v>!u«>e siace the year lOM-i^OdL laiSk apart frcM
thr effect of the aU.Htcioa of the sugar boastx^ has been malrJy tl
resclt oi the increttwd e«ip{o\nca( ol imprawed praccme% carriij
o« if UBpn^^'vd apfurates. uaw^r skxcsed saperviskMS. and with <!<
cejGsrd to the im^Torraace of the chetaioal aspects «f the work.
^ttfaefous cent -at focrories have bee* erected ia several coumtrit
witi^ vix'Ti ti< (arye cap»c-:>, and asaay ef thcss wcrk dsy aad aiig]
'oe si% «ia>^ in the *«««.. T^efe wriw 173 «f these
'oceorirs wvekt ^ w Ctobki ia tgo d t qoo^ among which
the "Choporr^'' ia the ptv^iMe of Owwfie. tasned
««t wpworvb of e^Ok?o u*ns ef sugar la the crap of aiboi
JO w«i^ and the " Boi*toa " had ^m oacpwt af ahaat 6i.ooo to)
ta the saase ti^*& C^ the t^S coctonei. at work ia Java ia 190I
e«Mk. aearfk sll had vast e^fic^Tt puat icr crmtiog the cac "
CJu*rt frcwtt ia t>*t 'a-kswrev? Ksa'xi. iSee JjtKriatk 1
caceUd
J. H it K^^^ - ....
te, osae>frv«v4g. i'-^m :br
■nu^ oo««u4tsiy c^niux
the agrscwbHsal
SUGAR
+>
» fliBBm for all tlie work tequired to be d
adcitts crystak,- under
OK ol die wstec-tttbc type.
> <rft« called " — — ''i-
'to nuae
»ne in a iweU'^quipped
skilful maaageiBcnt*
^^ onnn* of the bagaise alone proceediog Irom the
. -. ** cams nound, without the aid of other fuel.. ThebagatM
^*^ eo ved b now oomoionly taken straight from the cane
mtU to fmmu ee specially designed lor burning it. in its moist
lase aod without psevi^ drang, and deltvenag the hot gases
I h to ■tS»*M«» boilers, such as those of the moltitubular type
The vahie of fnah bagasse, or as it
_ gasse* as fuel varies with the kind of
<aaes fnun which it conies, with their, tieatmcnt in the mQl, and
vitb the skill used in firing; but it may be stated broadly that
I b of fresh **<^ip**» will produce from i4 lb to aj Jb of steam,
aocordiaB *Q. t^ oonditioas.
Tbe one of picparing rolte with oomigations, to crush and equalits
the Ceed ol cases to the miU. or to the first oi a series of diills, has
tme generaL The Krajowski crusher has two such
] rolU, with Vrshaped corrugatkms eictending lor^gi*
tudioally acioas them. These rolls run at a speed
sboet 30% greater than the speed of the first mill, to which they
<feit%cr the canes well crushed and flattcaed» forming a dose mat or
pisQes of caac 5 lo 6 in. long, so that the subsequent grindmg can
be carried 00 without the stoppages occawoned by the mill choking
vnh a heavy and irra^lar feed. The crusher b preferably driven
br aa todepeadent m*ne. but with suitable gearing it can te driven
by the ro3l ennne. The Krajewski crusher was invented some years
•CO by a Po«i en^nea* resident in Cuba, who tcx^k out a patent
iur k and gave it his name. The patent has- expired. The increase
18 the ovtpot far a given time obtained by the use of the Krajewski
crjiker hatf been estimated at ao to 35% and varies with the quality
of tbe cai3£s: wfafle the yield of juice or o^traction is increased by
I or 1%.
TV oracess 6t continuous defecation which was introduced into
Caba Utmm Santo Domingo about 1900 had by 1910 borne the
^ _ test of some ten years' use with notable success. The
^TT ^*' Hatton defecator, which is empbycd for working it,
*^ las been already described, but it may be mentioned
tbat the icffulatioa of the admission of steam is «ow simplified
jad SBc aif e e by a patent thermostat — a self-acting apparatus
la wUeb tlR woeqiial expansion of different metals by heat actuates.
thraugh eocBpvesMd air, a diaphragm ithich controls the steam
siap>valve— nad by this means a constant temperature of 310* F.
t^l-A' C) ia maintained in the juice within tne defecator during
dhewbole time it is at work.
Earthf matter and other matter pnsdpitated and fallen on the
copper doable bottom mav be dblodged bv a slowly revolving
gaa p er ■ s a y every twelve hoar*— and ejected through the bottom
<kLhii» ge oock; and thus the heating surface of the copper bottom
vfil be kept in full efficiency. With ordinary care on the part of
tbm mem m charge Hatton defecators will work continuously
far wvcral days and nights, and the number required Ito deal with
a {Tvea voiume of juice b naif the number of ordinary defecatofs
«l eqml capaoty whkh wouM do the sarhe work; for it must be
favna in mod that an ordinary dooble*bottomed defecator takes
tw hoars ID deliver Hs charge and be in readiness to receive a
b*sh charge. £^. to minutes for filling and washing out after cmpty-
mf, €0 ■liniifn for heating tip and subsicfin^:; and 40 minutes
far d r aw i n g off the defecated luice, without agitathig it. Apart
bnm M Lieased yield in sugar or good quality, we may sirni up the
sih HIT ■■ I II pracaraUe from the use of Hatton defecators as follows:
««id famg; heatf ttg gently to the temperature required to coagulate
fSw J b oBieii and not beyond it, whereby disturbance wonM ensue;
vke coatiMsoan sepentioa of the scums; the gradual drying of the
tcmmt K> an to vwtae them ready for the fields, without carrying
away jaioe or feqoiring treatment in filter presses; and tbe con*
r-*t9qa» supply of hot defecated Juice to the evaporators, without
> of aubstding tanks or eliminatota; and, finally , the saving
I plant, siidi as filter presses, &c., and wages.
Bietmi Smior Mttmufachtfe.'^Tbie tMt beet Is a ctdtivatcd
vsriety of Beta ntarUima {nat. ord. Chenopodiaccac), other
\WK*Jt% oi which, undcx the oaiae of mangold or maagsl-wurzel,
«* 9o«n as fcediBs n)ots for cattle.
Abam. xt6o the Berlin apothecaxy Marggraff obtained in hb
bbccatoTf, by means of alcohol, 6*3% of sugar from a white
Torirty i beet and 4*5% ^rom a red variety. At the present
iajr, thanks to the cafelul sttidy of many yeaxs^ the iibprovo*
mesa «f cnkivatlon, -the careful' seltetion of seed and miltable
sKaaring, c^Kdally wfth nitrate of soda, the average beet
«z«tcd tip contains 7% of fibre and 93% of juice, and yields
^ Omay \2'i9% t^ >& France 11*6% of its weight in sugar,
la Graa Bfitaia In 1910 the culdvation of beet for sugar wm
heh^ leriodsly undertaken in Essex, as the result of careftd
•u'jE^idcratioa during several years. The pioneer cxpcri-
a»c«ts oa Land Dcobicb'a estates at Kewabam Paddox, ia
Warwickshire, fn toOb, had pmduced excellent results, both in
respect of the weight of the beets per acre and of the saccharine
value and purity of the juice. The average weight per acre
was over 25I tons, and the mean percentage of pure sugar in the
juice exceeded 15^ The roots were grown under exactly the
sar*e cultivation and conditions as a crop of mangcl-wurzd^
that is to say, they had the ordinary cultivation and nuAuring
ol the usual root oops. The weight per acre, the saccharino
contents of tbe juice, and the quotient of purity compared
favourably with the best results obtained in Germany or France,
and with those achieved by tbe Sufiolk farmers, who between
tS6S and 1872. siq>pUed Mr Duncan's beetroot sugar factory at
Lavenham; for tbe weight of their rooU rarely reached 15 tons
per acre, and the percentage of sugar In the juice appears to have
varied between xo and 12. On the bcst-equippod and most
skilfully managed cane sugar esUtes, whete the climate is
favouxaUe for nmtuxing the cane, a similar return is obtained.
Therefore, roughly speaking, one ton of beetroot may be con-
sidered to-day as of the same value as one ton of canes; the
value of the refuse chips in one case, as food for caUle, being
put against the value of the refuse begasse, as fuel, in the other.
Before beetroot had been brought to its present sUte of per-
fection, and while the factories for its manipulation were worked
with hydraulic presses for squeezing the juice out of the pulp
produced in the raperies, the cane sugar planter in the West
Indies could easily hold his own, notwithstanding the artificial
competition created and maintained by sugar bounties. Biit
the degree of perfection attained in the cultivation of the roots
and their subseqtieat manipaiation entirely altered this ritua^
tion and brought about the crisis in the sugar trade refetred
to in connexion with the bounties (see History bdow) and
dealt with in tbe Brussels convention of 1903.
tn beetroot sugar sianufacture the operations are washing,
slicing, diffusing, saturating, sulphuring, evaporation, conoentratioa
and curing.
Slicing. — ^Thc roots are brought from the fields by carts, canals
and raU ways. They are ^-eighcd and then dumped mto a washing
machine, consisting of a large horizontal cage, Bubmereed in water,
in which revolves a horizontal shaft carrying arms. The arms art
set ia a sfpiral form, so that in revolviag they not only stir the
roots, causinjf them to rub against each other, hut also force them
forward from the receiving end of the case to the other end. Here
they are discharged^ (washed and freed from any adharent soil)
into an elevator, which carries them up to the t<^ of the building
and delivers them into a hopper feeding the. slicen Slicers used
to be constructed with iron ^\a about 33 to 40 in. diameter^
which were fitted with knives and made 14a to 150 revolutions
per minute, under the hopper which received tbe roots. This
hopper was divided Into two parts by vertical division plates,
against the bottom edge of which tbe knives in the disk forced
the roots and sliced and pulped them. Such machines were good
enough when the juice was expelled from the small and, so to
speak, chopped slices and pulp by means of hydraulic presses.
But hydraulic presses have now been abandoned, for the juice if
universally obtained by diflfusioa, and the small slicers have gone
out of use, because the large amount of pulp they produced in
proportion to slices is not suitable for the diffusion process, in
which evenly cut slices are required, which present a much neater
surface with far less resistance to the diffusion water. Instead
of the^small slicers. machines nude on the same princi^. but
with disks 7 ft. and upwards in diameter, are used. Knives are
arranged around their circumference in such a way that the, hopper
feeding them presents an annular opening to the disk^ say 7 ft.
outside diameter and 5 ft. inside, with the necessary division plates
for the^ knives to cut against, and instead of making 140 to 150
revolutions the disks revolve only 60 to 70 times per minute.
Such a sficer is capable of efficiently slicing 300,000 kilos of root*
in twenty-four hours, the knives belne changed four times in that
period, or oFtener if required, for It is necessary to change them
the moment the slices diow by their rough appearance that the
knives are losing jthclr cutting edges.
Diffusion. — ^The diffusion cells are ck»ed, vertical, cylindricat
vessels, holding generally 60 hectolitres, or 1320 gallons, and are
arranged in batteries of 12 to 14. Sometimes the c«lls are erected
in a circle, so that the spout below the slicing machine revolving
above theiti with a corresponding radius can dischar^ the slices
into the centre of any «rf the cells. In other factories the ceHs
are arranged ia lines and are charged from the rficer Inr suitable
telescopic pipes or other convenient means. A circular dispositiea
of Che eeNs facilitates chafving by the use of a pipe rotating abe«e
cbemj but k i«iidcn (ha dispoisl Of the hot apent el)'
+2
SUGAR
diflicult and inconvenient The eractioa of the cdl* la stiaight
lines may cause some little complication in chazsin^. but it allows
the hot spent slices to be discharged upon a travellmg band which
takes them to an elevator, an arran||ement simpler than any which
is practicable when the. cdls are di^Maed in a circle. Recent!}^,
however, a well-known sugar maker in Germany has altered his
battery in such manner that instead oC having to open a large door
below the cells in order to discharge them promptly, he opens a
comparativdy small valve and, applying compressed air at the top
of the cell, blows the whole contents of spent slices up a pipe to
the drying apparatus, thus saving not only a great deal ol time
but eAaa a great deal of labour of a kind which is both arduous
and painful, especially during cold weather. The slices so blown
up, or elevated, are passed through a mill whk:h expris the surplus
water, and are then prttsed into cakes and dried until they, hold
about 12% of water and 88% of beet fibre. These cakes, sold
as food for cattle, fetch as much as £4 per ton in Rumania, where
four or five beetroot factories are jiow at work. A cell when filled
with fredi slices becomes the head of the battery, and where skilled
scientific control can be relied upon to regulate the process, the best
and most economKal way of beating the siicca^ prevk>us to admitting
the hot liquor from the next cell, is by direct steam; but as the
slightest inattention or carelessness in the admission of direct steam
might have the effect of inverting sugar and thereby causing the
kMS of some portion of saccharine in the slkes, water heaters are
generally used, through which water is passed and heated up
previous to admission to the freshly-filled cell. When once a cell
IS filled up and the slices are warmed through, the liquor from the
adjoining cdl, which hitherto has been running out of it to the
aaturators, is turned into the new cell, and beginning to displace
the juice from the fresh slices, runs thence to the saturators. When
the new cell comes into operation and becomes the head of the
battery, the first or tail cell is thrown out, and number two be-
comes the tail cell, and so the rounds are repeated; one cell is always
being emptied and one filled or chaired with slkes and heated
up, the latter becoming the head oCthe battery as sooa'as it is
ready.
Saturation.— 'The juice, previously treated with lime in the
diffusion battery, flows thence into a saturator. This is a closed
vessel, into which carbonic acid gas (produced as described here-
after) is forced, and combininjs with the lime in the juice forms
carbonate of lime. The whole is then passed through filter presses,
the clear juke being run off for further treatment. whHe the carbon-
ate of lime is obtained in cakes whkh are taken to the fields as
manure. The principal improvement made of recent ^^ears in this
portion of the process has been the construction of pipes through
whkh the carbonk acid gas is injected into the juice in such a manner
that they can be easily withdrawn and a clean set substituted. The
filter presses remain substantially unchanged, although many
inecnious but slight alterations have been made in thetr details.
The juke, whkh has now become comparatively dear, is again
treated with lime, and again passed through* a saturator and niter
presses, and comes out still clearer than before. It is then treated
with sulphurous acid gas, for the purpose of decolorization, asaiit
limed to neutralixe the acid, and then passed through a tnicd
saturator wherein all traces of lime and sulphur are removed.
A process for purifying and decolorizing the ji}ke expressed
from Dcctroots by the addition of a small (juantity of maneanate
of lime (30 to 30 grammes per hectolitre of juice), under the influence
of an dectrk current, was worked with considerable success in
a sugar factory in the department of Seine-et-Mame in the year
1000-1901. A saving of 40% is stated to be effected in lime.
Tne use of sulphurous acid gas is entirely abandoned, and instead
of three carbonatations with correspondmg labour and plant only
One is required. The coefficknt cl purity is increased and the
viscosity of the juke diminished. The total saving effected is
stated to be equivalent to 3 francs per ton of beetroot worked ap.
This system is also being tried on a small scale with sugar<ane
juke in the West Indies. If b)r this process a more perfect defeca-
tion and purification of the juice is obtained, it wiu no doubt be
highly benefic&d to the cane planter, though no great economy in
lime can be effected, because but very little is used in a cane factory
in comparison with the amount used m a beet factory*
Evaporation and CrysUiUi2atiou.—Tht clear, juice thus obtained
is evaporated in a multiple-effect evaporator and crystallized in
a vacuum pan, and the sugar is purged in centrifugals. From the
centrifugal the sugar is either turned out without washine as raw
sugar, only fit for the refinery, or else it is well washed with a
spray of water and air until white and dnr, and it is then offered
in the market as refined sugar, although it has neVfcr passed through
animal chanxnl (bone-black). The processes of evaporation and
concentration are carried on as they are in a cane sugar factory,
but with thb advantage, that the bc«t solutk>ns are freer from gum
and glucose than those obtained from sugar-canes, and are therefore
to cook.
C«rf«i^.— There ace various systems of purging refined, or so-
called refined, sugar in centrifugals, all designed with a view of
ingenuity and large fums of money have been spent In peffccting
these different systems, with more or less happy results But the
iat achievement of recent manufacture is the production, without
i use of animal charcoal, of a cheaper, but good and wholesome
great
the ui
artkle, in appearance egual to refined sugar for all interns ud
purposes, except for making preserves of fruits in the old-fashioned
way. liie wholesale iam manufacturers of the present day use
this sugar; they boil the jam in vacuo and secure a product that
will last a long time without deteriorating, but it lacks the delkacy
and distinctive flavour of fruit preserved by a careful housekeeper,
who boils it in an c^sen pan with cane sugar to a less density, though
exposed for a diort time to a ^preater beat.
Carbonatttiion.'^Tht carbonic acid gas injected into the highly
limed juice in the saturators is made by the calcination of limestone
in a kiln provided with three cleaning dooiv, so arranged as to
allow the lime to be removed simuluneouslv from them every six
hours. The gaa generated in the kiln b taken off at the top by
a pipe to a ipw-washer. In this it passes through four sheets of
w:ater, by which it is not only freed from any dust and dirt that
may have come over with it from the kiln, but is also cuoled to
a temperature whkh permits an air-pump to withdraw the gas
from the kiln, through the gas>washer, and force it into the saturators.
without overheating. In some factories for refining sugar made
from beet or canes this system of carbonatatkm is used, and en-
ables the refiner to work with synips distinctly alkaline and to
economiae a notable amount of animal charcoaL
Refining.— Briery, sugar-refining consists of mdling raw or
unrefined sugar with water into a syrup of 17** to aS" Beauro^,
or 1230 spedfic gravity, passing it through filtering cloth to
remove the sand and other matters in mechanical suspension,
and then through animal charcoal to remove all traces of colour-
ing matter and lime, thus prodndng a peifeclly dear white
syrup, which, cooked in the vacuum pan and crystallized,
becomes the refined sugar of commerce.
Udling Pa»f.— The melting pans are generally drcular vessels>
fitted with a perforated false bottom, on whkh the sugar to be
melted is dumped. The pans are provided with steam worms to
keep the mass hot as required, and with mechanical stirrers to
keep it in movement and thoroughly mixed with tiie water arad
sweet water .whkh are added to the sugar to obtain a solution
of the specific gravity desired. Any sand or heavy matter in
suspension is allowed to fall to the bottom of the pan into the
" sandbox " before the melted sugar is run off to the doth fiUcrs.
In a process employed with great success in some' refineries the
raw sugars are washed before being melted, and thus a purer
artkle is obtained for subsequent treatmenL In this process thei
raw sugar is mixed with a small amount of syrup so as to form a
suitable magma, and is then run into a continuous centrifugal,
where it is suflkiently washed, and from whkh it runs out, com-
paratively clean, into the melting pans described above.
Filters.— TayioT bag filters are generally used for clearing the
melted Uquor of iu mechankal impurities. They were introduced
years ago by the man whose name they still retain, but they are
very different in construction tOKlay from what they were wbea
first employed. They consist of tanks or cisterns fitted with
" heads from whkh a number of bags of specially woven doth
are suspended in a suitable mannen and into which the mdtcd
sugar or liquor to be filtered flows from the melting pans. The
bags, though 60 in. or more in drcumference, are folded up in
such a way that a sheath about 15 in. in circumference can b«
passed over them. Thus a maximum of filtering suciace with a
minimum of liquor in each bag is obtained. %oa a far greatei
number of bags are got into a given area that wouM otherwise
be possible, while the danger of bursting the ba^ hv Jeavine then
unsupported is avoided. As the liquor goes on filtering thrxMigl
the bags they gradually get filled up with slime and sludge, nn<
the clear liquor ceases to run. Steam is then turned on to th<
outskk of the bags and sheaths, and hot water is run throuEl
them to vash out all the sweets they contain. Large doors a:
the side of. the dstem are then opened, and as soon as the bag
are coqfienough they are removed at the expense of very cxactini
labour and consklerable time, and fresh bags and sheaths sure 6x»
in their places ready for fikering fresh Uquor. The dirty bogs aiv
sheaths are then washed, mangled and dried, and made vt;adi
for use asain. In a refinery in Nova Scotia a system has beet
introduced by whkh a travelling crane above the bag Otcrv lift
up any head bodily with all its bass attached, and runs it to th
mud and washing tanks at the eno of the battery, while aootftK
similar crane drops another head, fitted with fresn bags, into th
place of the one just removed. The whole operation of thu
changing a filter occupies about ten minutes, and there is no nee
for anyone to enter the hot dstem to detach the bags, which ai
removed in the open air above the mud tank. By this artaiwemcr
the work of a refinery can be carried on with about one-half tli
cisterns otherwise required, because, although it does not reduc
SUGAR
43
fecA bs^it iattwn of ony oncft tt bcfctoiOf& Is mmm refineries
eke travcliiaic cranes are now run fay electxidty, which still further
bciEcAtcs tike work. Another method of enabling more work to
be done ta a pvea time in a given dstem is the use of a bag twice
Che onHMary iesgth« open at both ends. This, being folded and
placed is its sheath, is attached by both ends to the head, so that
the Belted liquor runs into both openings at the same time. The
anad collects at the bottom of the y, and alk>ws the upper part of
the faoLg to filter for a kioger time than would be the case if the
boctoai cad were ckxed andu the bag hung straight like the letter |.
The dear, bright'syrup oonitng from the bag fAten passes to
(he < hM»nil cisiems or fltcrs. tncae are large cyUndrical vessels
tRMD ao to 50 ft. high, and of such diameter as to hold a given
quantity of animal charcoal, (also called " bone-black " and " char ")
ia ptop u i t iu M to the contemplated output of the refinery. A very
snal aiae of dstem forming a convenient unit is one that wiU
soAd JO tons of diar. Each cistern is fitted with a fKrforated
iahe bottom, on which a blanket or specially woven cloth is placed,
:a r e c e i ve the char which is po«ired in from the top, and packed as
fvtaily as pooeible until the cistern is filled. The char is then
* Kttled " by water being slowly run on to it. In order to p reve nt
Che syrup making channels for itself and not permeating the
■rittfe anas evenfy. The cistern beine thus packed and scttkd
» closed, and the syrup from the bag filters, heated up to nearly
bufaag point, is admitted at the top until the cistern is quite fulf.
A unaB pipe enterirtg below the false bottom allows the air in the
astern to escape as it is displaced bv the water or ^rup. In some
nsfiaeriea this pipe, whkh is carriea up to a hKher le\^ than the
tap of the dstjcrtu is fitted with a whistle which sounds as long as
the air escapes. When the sound ceases the cistem is known to
be (mB, and the entrance of further water or syru cd.
The aynip in the dstem is allowed to remain for Ive
hoars, by whsc^ time the char will have absorbed all ng
issftrr m k, as well as ^the lime. A cistem well pa 20
toos of char will bold, in addition, about 10 tons < nd
afttr aettfiag. this can be pressed out by allowing a ity
■vrap, abo heated to nearly boiling point, to entc. . . . jm
itpwty ffom the top, or it may be p r ss wd out by boiling water.
B> carefully watching the flow from the discharge cock of the
caters the change from the first liquor to the next is easily de-
tected, aad the discharge is diverted from the canal for the first
k|sar to the canal for the second liquor, and, when required, to
the cauls for the third and fourth liquors. Finally, boUmg water
a admitted and forces out all the last liquor, and then continues
*o ran and wash out the sweets until only a trace remains. This
weak softotioa, called " sweet water," is sometimes used for melt-
mf. che raw oMar. or it is evaporated in a multiple-effect apparatus
•o Z7* Bcainae density, passed throogh the char filter, and cooked
B ibe vacitum pan like the, other liquors. After the sweets have
ccsBc away, cxm water u passed (hrou^ the char imtil no trace
3< fine or sulphate of lime is found in it; then a large manhole
it ci)c boMosa of the dsterh is opened, and the wasbedi and spent
dbar is rensoved. la roost modem refineries the cisterns are so
t— Ti^nl that the spent char falls oa to a travelliog band and is
anlacted to an devator which carries it up to the drying floor of
(^ charcoal kfln.
Bamtsftr Hekmrtdng CMf.— The Ulnt are made wfth eMier fixed
sr iiwi^Miair srtofta. The foriswr perhaps praduce a little better
dBr. bat dw latter, working almost automatically, require leas
hbwjiikd attention for an equal amount of work, and 00 the whole
have proved very satisfactory. From the drying floor on which
t^ ipeat char is heaped up it falls by gravitatbn into the retorts.
ThoK asc sat ia a fcahi or ovea, and are kept at as even a tempera-
umt as piisaiMr. correspoMhng to a dull cherry-red. Below each
ttuxu aad attached to it, is a cooler formed of thin sheet-iron,
•^xh receives the hot char as it passes from the retort, and at the
Boetom of the cooler is an arrangement of valves which permits
s ocrtaia ansovac of char to drop oat and no more. With the
toed retorts these valves are worked from time to time by the
anrndazst. hot srith revolving retorts they are worked continuously
aad aatoatatically and allow from uxtccn to tMrcnty-four ounces
^ ffcgr to csaapc per minute from each cooler, and so make room
m the resort above for a corresponding quantity to enter from the
' mt and cooled char is collected and sent
Vaamm^ Pom and J2Mifeeri."-TW filtered liqu
, The reburat
mLk to the char cistems. In the best-appointed refineries the
m'ifieoi the work in conneuon with the chacis performed mcchani-
-aBy. with the exception of packing the filter cistems ^th fresh
'^ar aad sswifjrint the spent and washed char on to the carrying
iasda. bi former days, when refining sugar or ** sugar baking
K» sBppored to be a mystery only understood by a few of the
B- tsifed« there was a place m the refinery called the " secret
Tx/r^.** aad this name is still used in some refineries, where, how-
fi'TT, it app&es oc< to any room, but to a small copper cistem.
■■■iiiM^if srith five or six or more divisions or small canals.
a«o which all the charcoal cistems discharge thdr liquors by
P190 fed up from them to the top of the cistem. Each pipe is
4j-d with a cock and swIveU in such a manner that the liauor
V-wm the cisccrv can be turned bito the proper divison according
vaaum rams ana KKmen.^n^ filtered liquon. beii« ooliected
in the various rervice tanks accordinff to their qualities, are drawn
up into the vacuum pans and boiled to crystafs. There are then
dMcharged into large receivers, which are generally fitted with
stirrers, and from the reoeiven the cooked mass passes to the
centrifugal machines. As in the beetroot factories* tnere machines
work on different systems, but nearly all are arranged to turn out
sugar in lumps or tablets presenting an appearance simiku- to that
of k>af sugar made in moulds, as this kmd of sugar meets with
the jsiaatest demand. Graaulated sugar, so called, is made by
passing the crystels, after leaving the centrifugals, through a large
and sUkhtly incUnnd revolvij^ cylinder with a smaller one inside
heated Dy steam. The sorar fed into the upper end of the cylinder
gradually works its way down to the lower, showering itwtt upon
the heated central cytinder. A fan btest enten the lower end, and,
passing out at the upper end, carries off the vapour produced by
the dryu^ of the sugar, and at the same time assbts the evapora-
tion. The dry sugar then passes into a rotating screen fitted with
two meshes, so that three grades of sugar are obtained, the coarsest
being that which falls out at the knrer end of the revolving screea.
JiecftU (mprevtnwits. — ^Systematic feediqg for the vacuum pan
and systematic washi^ of the roaswcuite have been recently
introduced not only mto refineries, but also into sugar houses
or factories on plantations of both cane and beetroot, and great
advaittages have resulted from their employment. The first-
mentioned process consists of charging and feeding the vacuum
pan with thie richest syrup, and then as the crysuls form and this
syrup becomes thereby less rich the pan b fed with syrup of lower
richness, but still of a richness equal to that of the motner-hquor
to which it is added, and so on until but little mother-liquor is
left, and that of the poorest quality. The systematk washing of
the massecuite is the reverre of this process. When the massecuite,
well pugged and prepared for purging, is in the centrifugals, it
is first washed with syrap of low density, to assist the reparation
of mother-liquor of similar quality, this washiiig being suppls-
liiented by the injection of pore syrup of high density, or '^clairce.**
when very white sugar is required. The manufacturers who have
adopted this system asrert that, as compared with other methods,
not only do they obtain an increaised yiela of sugar of better quality,
but that they do so at a less cost for mnaing their machines sikI
with a reduced expenditure in sugar and " clairoe." " Cburce " b
the French term for ^mp of 27* to 30* Beaumi specially prepared
from the purest sugar.
Apart from mocufications In the details of sugar refininr which
have come into ure Ih kite years, it should be mendoned that loaf
sngar made in oonkal moulds, and sisars aiade otherwire, to re*
remble kiaf sugar, have practically duappesred from the trade,
having been replaced by cube sugar, which is found to be more
economical as subject to less waste t>y grocers and hourekeepers,
and also less troublesome to buy and mm. Its manufacture was
introduced into England many yeare ago by Messra Henry Tate ft
Sons, and they subsequently adopted and ure now the improved
process and apparatus patented in March 1890 by M Custave
Adant, a foreman sugar refiner of Brasrels.
The following is a brief description of the process and apparatus^
as communicated by the courtesy of Messrs Henry Tate ft Soitt, Ltd.:
Group* of cells or moulds are built within and agaiiist a cylindrical
iron casing, by means of vertical plates inserted in grooves and
ret radially to the axis of the casing. Each cell is of suitable dimen-
sions to tum out a sbb of sugar about 1^ in. lonr — this being
about the height of the ceU—and about 8 in. wide and about
ft in. to ( in. tnick. By means of a travelling crane the casina^is
placed within an iron di^ini, to which it is secured, and is then
broueht under an ovcHiead vacuum pan, from which the cells are
fillea with massecuite. After coofing, the casng is lifted out of
the dhim by a crane, asristcd by compressed air, and is then con-
veyed by a travelling crane to a vertical centrifugal, inside of which
it is made fast. Suitable provision is made for the egress of symp
from the massecuite in the cells when undergoing purging in the
centrifugal; and the washing of the crystals can be aided by the
iniection of refined syrap and completed by that of "clairce."
When this is done, the casing is hoisted out of the centrifugal and
the vertical plates and the. slabs of sugar are extracted. The slabs
are rent by a conveyor to a drying stove, whence they issue to pass
throuch a cutting machine, provided with knives so arranged
that the cutting tsSee» place both dcmnwards and upwards, and here
the slabsare cut into cubes. The cubes fall from the cutting machine
on to • riddling machine, whkh separates thore which are defective
in sire from Uie rest. These latter pass to automatic weighing
machines, which drop them, in quantities of i cwt., into wooden
boxes of uniform measurement, made to conuin that weight:
and the boxes are then conveyed to the storehoure. ready for sale
Hislary and Statistics. —Sinho xv. I ao, has an inaccuntte
notice from Nearchus of the Indian honey-bearing reed, and
various classical writers of the first century of our era notice
the sweet sap of the Indian reed or even the granulated salt-
like produa which was imported fiom India, or fima Arabia
4*
SUGAR
ind OpoM (these bein^ entrepots of Iii<Kan trade),' imder the
Q&mc of sacchanim or v^opt (from Skr. ^ori^tifa, gravel,
AUgar), and used in modicioe. The art of boiling sugar
was known in Gangetk India, from whick it was carried to
China in the first h^ of the 7th century; but sugar refining
cannot haN'e then t>cen known, for the Chinese learned the use
of ashes for this purpose only in the Mongol period, from
Egyptian visitors.* The cultivation of the cane in the West
sprtod from RhQiistin in I>Enia. At GundC-ShipOr in this region
** sugar was prepared with art ** about the time of the Arab
conquest,' and manufacture on a Urge scale was carried 00 at
Shttster, SOs and Askai^Mokram throughout the middle a^ees.*
It has been plausibly conjectured that the art of sugar reftmng,
mhkh the farther East learned from the Arabs, was develop^
by the famous ph>*sicians of this region, in whose ph A rm accyocia
sugar had an iropoitant places Under the Arabs the growth
tnd manufacture of the rane spread far and wide, from India
to SOs in Mocooco (Edifd. ed. Xkay, p, 62), and were abo
klioduced into Sici^> and Andalusia.
In the age of distoxxiy the Portuguese and Spaniards
became the great disseminators of the cultivation of sugar;
the cane was pUnted in Madeira in 14^; it was carried
to San Domingo in 14^; and it spread o>*ef the occupied
portions of the West Indks and South America cnr^ in
the i6th c«fitttr>\ Within the fint twenty years of the
I^^h ccntun- the sugar trade of San Domingo expanded with
great rapidity, and it was from the dues levied on the
imi^cifts boKKght thence to Spain that Ckirkti Y. obtained
fun.is Kv hts (vdacr-tKiiMnif at Madrid and Toledo^ In the
nu :iJe ases Vcr.ioc was ttu* jreAt Emvpean centre of the sugar
ti«vU\ and tovkAids the end of the i^lh century a Vccdiia
ctiLTcn lei-vivvd a lewaid «>f ico>«ooouowi» ior the invcntioQ oc
the art 01 r.*ji'Ki:)jr Kv&t sugnu^. One oi the cartkst rrierences to
S*M^xr in vinrat Br.:s'n ts i>jH cC loc^coe lb of sa?ir beirrj s>">ped
tv» Lon.'.x^a in i^;;^ i>y IVniANSo LcK\ijiao, ^K^.^-l::l ot Ve^icv,
to be e w Hxa^vi ix« wvx^ la : be aJinxc > var there apftxrs ia the
•cviM«\;s of the chambtriain or x\xLiad a patyrocat at the rate
«< is^ old. per lb foe s;::^3ur. 'n"v^<??x»ul E.rv^pe it o-.liaeed
to be a c\^V luji.,:nf xiid article ot cac\iici::e ccly. till ibe
isx^M^cag ua« c< tra aad vv<r<« ia the &i;.h ccaiuo' bi\>ugb: |
il »ai* tW brf «,is pr:'Nr-:>vil tvvd sta-ves* The increase ift u* j
cv>r^i.T?t^;v« ^ ^\c^;^ %>.i by ib«e lic; thil. wh > ia 1700 the ,
a"v>_«: usoi :3 G:vjl: F":.va '«is xCsXC :c:3i> ia iSoo it hid .
rci^^ t«> t5Q^^>9 iccs.^ az^i La i^>5 i^ tccal x;«^xa:.:\ used was .
a^'?^C«^« X.tJO.C«0 l\-<rSL I
U 1*4* A-v*?r*s S. rsr-.-i-si Mx-^s^rraf. dr-<^v"W of t^p^N-sscal .
d-*,vs» ia ;V Aci.U"> c* Svo-oc^ B<Tl.n. dscv»\vrcvi tbc 1
evvjxvsoc' c4 vv.-* -iva >:H^ir ui Uxirwv^ ai« ia 2u.axrv'js ccbcr •
fi.'siir rvxvs wlv" ^"w ja tc--r?«ffji:e' rcjpvosw Bvs cv> |x-a,v:xAl
icst »-xs -*jt^v* wM xSf M>.\>vr« **----,t hi< J>t r.-^. Fx* erst
to osCi. >i * Kv; j^CL? .ic:c^-v wjl$ b\> ?-" . ^"^ $;-,. .-rsscr,
TSc f-xvvrts^fs -^-vx ^v^f at sr>i roo" uspc^svt. bi^t ;ae extra-
err ^i"^ •v-'LA' »-5 ; V --rv-^r « s.;^rxr c« tac Cs>c:ir*Cx carsc^i
t^ lie Nj^vocxv jv ^7^ iTAXT aa icrpfC.^ U" tic iact.;>i;y.
/- V mr- y . t
■ ' * i. ■^ > •>- f -» S V «,L. w*. C^"* ?«.x
l."»C V * 'V*.' !>• TtK,- >» ;w v" »■"€*■ "V .T ?'o X a*,
and beetroot fitlorws ^Ncre eitri i Kili rf at mni^ coAics both
in Germany and in France. In Germany the enterprise came
to an end almost entirely with the downfall of Napoleon I.;
but in France, where at first more scientific and economical
methods of working were introduced, the nnumfactuxcrs were
able to keep the industry aUve. It was not, however, till after
1830 that it secured a firm footing; but from 1S40 onwards it
advanced with gjant strides^
Under the bounty system, by which the protectionist countries
of Europe stimulated the beet sugar industry by boonties on
exports, the production of sugar in bounty-pa>-xng countries
was encoura^ and pushed far beyond the limits it could
have reached without state aid. At tike same time the con-
sumption of sugar was greatly restricted Ofwing to the
heavy excise duties imposed mainly to provide for the payment
of the bounties. The very large quantity of output m^de
available for export under these exceptional condition!
brought about the iooding of the British and other markeU
with sugars at depressed prices, not unfrequcntly below the prime
cost of production, to the haxassment of important industries
carried on by British refiners and sugar-growing colonics. In
these drcnmstaaceSft the Bridsk government sent out ittviu<
tioos OB the sndof July 1887 for an inlernatjoaal conference to
meet in London. Tbe oonferenoe met, and on the 50th of Augnst
iSSS a convention was signed by aQ the powers represented
except France-~naincly, by Austria, IMpnw, Gcxmany, Great
Britain, Italy, the NetberfandB, Rnaaa and Spain. France
withdrew beoiuse the United States was not a party to iL The
first aitidc declared that ** Tbe hi^ contracting parties engage
to take such mcasuics as shall consiitme an ahaolttte and com<
pkte goaxantce that noopcBor disgnised bouBty ilaU be granted
on the maaufactxne or expQctatk» of sagar." The sevectli
article prv>\-ided that boccued sugars {sa^cs frimis) must be
cxckded trom import iato the tcnkories of the signatory poweis,
by absohite pcokibicica of entry or by levying thereoD a special
daty in excess d the amount of the boontks, from which dotj
su^:azs cociag &v>m Ibe coatractiag cocctiies, and not bounty'
icd, muat be free. The convcn^ua was to be ratified 00 tk
ist of August xS^o^ nad was to be pat in force «a the xst ol
Septccsber iSoi.
Tb* c-.-r.\TK:*ios of iSSS was rrrcr ra::ified, and it is doubtful
t^hcihcr i:s railicaiioB was ur^ed, f« a. 1^ ictxoduoed by the
Bht&sh gom&aect in iSSc to ghpe it cccct was not pccssed,
a:^i it was raarifes* that tbere was fcesitatioQ— which presently
bcoir* T«usal— to ;^bc;d t!» pv^cy cf t!;^ penalties on tb<
iar^^ctatioia of bcvxiildd ssB>r wrg^^ifri by the seventh article,
«;;ac«ot whxh the oocweatMB wiiiiH he so anch vaste paper*
FcSt years later. «o tbe tst <rf Augvst i8e6, the bountid
Cfrr^s* by tbf gcN-exr.-vrrs cc Gerrory asd .Vjsrrla-Hcngarj
%crc d^v^-'v:=:j.:«I> Ok^'u.-xi. aa<i Fraace Lad a. bill in pnpan-
t.oa tv> iac^eiftSf h«3S oaKtspt-efci.'fflT.aathowghitwns oomputed
iStt they were e^t^M the- <»,::^\^lfa: t^ a grant oi £5, 591 per ton.
^^ wtvie- Mr v>.i=rber*^2. t^ cv:-?*!! secrrtarr, 00 the 91I1
c* Xc-.vbcc U\Jk «;:;^. t^ lie liviis;.ry. The miottle plainl)
jCatAi iba; n ki^ ^neceea^ a «;uesuca whether the concimied
e**v%— .>c**; <« jii\a.r:a«« lenrtag t'cua the istportarion d
.V-'* Vc^-ry!\-»i s.jr.r rt? scn:* Fr.rah sdnstrxs did not
^■.v\\«^ ;ic r*li cf .Sr 5r\ -^ Su^xr-^cidaciag coloaies; and
«'^; ^ wx^ ^K w«fM.-vc a» »cs«vAr> cc state kr the colonies
:^ ^>\>crc tSr xrs,vc&«^« :v « Alc*:!^jr ■artm to take ihei]
vv 'ST !"^.t :.^ i.-;^. ^"^^ ." t'x-Tv^'r* cc ^r^-atcnrrtioo hithcrtc
. "^-v,*. ij :.:,:. X w Uic bow'Jc* »..iicci having satisfied
<"> ' "^v JL> ;o * :^: >cc\ a ^^i^ot ar.-)cu caUil as legardcd boUl
S-' vv<V*sies j^o .V ev.^sv^^tjer. Mr i"han ImliTii conchidrd
b i*< '^ %V<Sfr tV tTisirv w,'c\f cvoseat to sending I
...V ^* ^.. .. . ^,^, .^» . y. Y» -< I-rcvs 1^ s*;:--.^:* into the efled
vv sSc .^^v^^ si^i* Xx-r^ic* ctt :':k^ pnac^al indwstry.
W T-r ftfi.T *v\vc\v\s Kr pir.Tv-sii. aa^i n royal frnnmiwoa
?^,v«v^">; t^ :S: ^^^-^^ l->,.*r< -^ lVrjMr>er :5o6. and reported i
%•• ^^v V *x ,' -• *>c~. !>- « *»t< c.t — ssuoeT. howrver,
,v*,v.%>\>i .X W>*. - v* «* .V rs il ca ,» •! ;je wttcr breakdcm
4« «s»>Ar aao «t vlr fnr>v<«&^ jsrx» w^nA *i ilmet hwl ■itiii rril
SUGAR
45
tad fully acknowledged. But the minute and commission were
fiot hairtA of result. A fresh conference of the powen assembled
at Brussels, on the invitation of the Belgian government, on the
fth U June 189S; and akhoo^ the British tidegatea were not
t uipM n iie d to consent to a penal clause imposing counter-
vailing duties on bountbd sugar, the Belgian premieti who pre*
sided, was able taaasurc them that if Great Bxitain w^uld agree
to sacfa « clause, he could guarantee the accession of the govem-
iKQls of Gcfmany, Austria, Holland and his own. Of all the
countries ngvcsoLted^Germany, Austria>Hungaxy, Belgium,
Spain, France, Great Britain, the Netherlands^ Russia and
Sweden on^ one, namdy Fiance^ was opposed to the com-
pkte sopptCBskm of all export bounties, direct or indirect;
a»l Russia, declined to discuss the question of her internal
kgisUtioo, contending that her system did not amount to a
bcuaty on exportation.
Apart from the proceedings at the ^ttings, much of the actual
«8ck of the conference was done by informal discussion, imder-
takea to discover some means of arriving at a common under-
•«fwiiog Was a conpnuniae possible which would bring about
a satis^ctoiy ttttlement? The British delegates wrote that
it appeared that there vere at that time but two methods of.
miiiB^ the supptession pf the bounty system— an amngement
lor Innitatian of the French and Russian bounties acceptable
to the other sugar-producing states, in return (or the total
abofitioo of their bounties; or, a convention between a certain
rmber ol these states, providing for the total suppression of
*'^>^T bountifes, and for the prohibition of entry into their tern-
tocy of bounty-fed sugais, or countervailing duties prohibiting
iaportation
The |**^ ff***« ^rn r mwnmfnf thni^gltf ^ rrtmprf>mia<i might be
passible. A proposal was annexed to the prtcks-mrbal of the
fisal szttinf, and the president closed the first session of
the conference on the asth of June 1898 with tHe compression
of a hope that the delegates would soon reassemble.
The snnual aggregate output of cane and date sugar in India
wu short df 4^000,000 tons. Exportation had long ceased,
p^nly owin^ to the bountied competition of beet sugar, and
partly bccavse the people had become able to afford the con-
smnpUoa of n p'eatcr quantity than they produced; and German
sad Austrian sugars w«e pouring Into the country to supply the
4e6dency. But the imporUtion of fotdgn sugar, ch^|>ened
br foreign state aid to a price which matetially reduced the
fair and reasoaable profit of native cultivators, was a state of
tfii&gs the Indian government coidd not accept. On the soth
of March 1899 an act, authorizing the imposition of cotmtervail-
ti^ duties oo bounty-led articles at the port of importation,
vas passed by the Couftcil of India, and received the assent of
the gDWDOV-general.
This decisive step was not \aag m making itself felt in the
^uoeries ol Europe. In October igoo a conditional agree-
writ for the reduction of the bounties was made in Paris
farveen France, Germany and Austria«Hungary; in February
fooi the Belgian government proposed a new session of the Con-
IcscBoeol zl9S,4Lndon the i^ of December following Brussels
ytfknmed once more the delegates of all the powers, with the
eareptioa of Rusna, to the eighth European Sugar Bounty Con-
ftrcace since that of Paris in 1862. The discussion lasted over
rght sittings, but the conference, to which the British delegates
kai come with powers to assent to a penal clause, arrived at an
c^iemandxog, and a convention was signed in March 1902.
TVs was ratified on the zst of February 1903, subject to a
decbration by Great Britain that she did not consent to
penalise boonty-fed sugar from the 'British colonics.
It was agreed " to suf»|M«M the direct and indirect bounties
vhich mUit benefit the production or export of sugar, and not to
ctah'Jsh Douatiesof this kind durine the whole duration of the
emveanaon,*' wfu'ch was to come into force on tfte ist of September
1903, and to icnaio in force five yean, and thenceforward from
|wrsoy«ar, in case no sute deaounoed it twslve months before
(he ttc of aptfrnhfr in any year. A permanent oo mmi i i s ion was
twahrnhcd to watch iu eaecution.
XXVI a
The full text in French, with an English translation, of the
Sugar Coovearion. signed at finisaels on the 5th of March 190a
fav the plenipotentianes of the governments of Germany, Austria-
Hungary. Bdgi ura, Soain, Fruwe, G reat Bri tain, Italy, the Nether-
lands and Sweden, will be found in a letui upresented to paxtiament
in April 190a CMisoeUancouB, No. $. 1902, Co. 1013).
Table I. — Amounts (reduced to English money per cwt. avoir*
dupois} of the total net sugrar bounties granted by European powers,
according to the computation issued by the aeoetary of the United
Sutes treasary 00 the lath of December 189$.
From.
To .
Sugars potarmng
75* 8«* 65* 90' 88*
88* 93* 98*198* 99*
"^y
98'
991-
Countries-
Russia .
Austria-
Hungary
France
Crystals
Refined
Germany
d. s.d. awd. •.d&d. ».dk<Lt.a. ■.d t.d
233
Bounties (per anl;)
98;
lOO*
99:
100*
100"
4 4l
»3
t3
16
i4*3
410I
193
«9 3
Smjors dossed as {per <■<:)
Countries-*
RawSogar.
s. d.
I 10
Refined Sugar.
a. d.
o 76
Sujors analysini iu pure sugar (ptr caC)
Less than
Country—
HolUnd
98%
s^d.
I to8-
98% and o
a.d.
J 6
Hard Dry Refined.
(Additioeal)
s.d.
o 3
Sir H. Besgne reported on the t7th of Joly 1907 to Sir Edward
Grey that—
"The permanent sesrion had met In special session on the 35th
of July, to consider the suggestion of Hb Britannic Majesty's
government to the effect that, if Great Britain could be relieved
from the obligation to enfoice the penal provisions of the conven-
tion, they would be prepared not to give notice on the 1st of Sep-
tember next of their mtentioo to withdraw on the 1st of September
1908 a notice which they would otherwise fed bound to give at
the appointed time "; and he added that " At this meeting, a very
general desire was expressed that, in these circumstances, arrange-
nients should, if possible, be made wh^ would permit Great
Britain to remain a party to the Sugar Convention."
On the zst of August X907 the Belgian minister in London
transWtted to Sir Edward Grey a draft additional act pre-
pared by the commission for carrying out the proposal, of His.
Britannic Majesty's government, and on the iSth of August
following an additional act was signed at Brussels by the
plenipotentiaries of the contracting parties, by which they
undertook to maintain the convention of the 5th of March
ipoiin force far a fresh period of five yean.
. On the and of December 1907 Sir H. Bcqpie wrate to tho
foreign office from Bniasels, rqportlQg that a special session
of the permanent commission, established under the sugar
bounties convention, had opened on the i8th of November, and
the pondpal matter for iU ooosaderation had been the appUca*
tion of Russia to become a party to the convention on special
terms. A prstoool admitting Ruasia to the sugar convention
was signed at Bniasds on the X9th of December 1907.
Sir A. H. -Hatdinge on behalf of Great Britain made the
following declaration>— '
" The assent of His Majesty's goremment to the present protocol
is limited to the provisions enabling Ruasia to adhere to the con-
ventioa. and does not imply assent ro the sdpulation tending to
restrict the importation of Kussaan sugar."
When, in April 1908, Mr Asquith became premier, and Mr
Uoyd Gtargi chancdlot of the'exchequcr, the sugar convention
♦6
SUGAR
Table IL
The WKkft tnde la cane and beet sugar in tooa xvoiidupob at decennial periods from 1840 to 1870. inclusive, and jrearly from 1871 ti
1901 iadosive, with the percentage ol beet sngar and the average price per cwt. in shillings and pence. Tons avoirdupoi
of 2240 lb«- 1016 kilognunmes.
Year.
Cane.
Beet
Total.
Percent.
Beet.
Average
price
per cwt.
Year.
ane.
Beet.
Total.
Percent.
Beec
Average
price
per cwt.
8. d.
s. d
1840
1.100,000
50.000
1.150.000
4-35
4B
18
II
2.;
2,545,000
4,»96.ooo
4.562.000
51-98
12 4
1850
1.200.000
1.400,000
1.899.000
1429
40
18
2,;
2,223.000
t^
13 I
i860
I.5IO.OOO
389.000
831,000
2043
35
18
87
2.:
D
2,733.000
5,078,000
II 9
1870
I.S85.000
2,416,000
JJ^I
32
18
88
2^
2,45i«ooo
4.916.000
49-85
12 9
I 871-1872
".599.000
x.020,000
2,619,000
24 9
24 «
18
«9
2^
2.725,000
4,988,000
54-63
14 10
1872-1873
1.793.000
1,210,000
3.003.000
3,128,000
4029
18
90
2,i
10
3.633.000
§.702,000
6.265,000
63-7«
15 I
1871-1874
1.840,000
1.288,000
4x17
22 10
18
91
2.J
10
3.710,000
59-21
14
1874-1875
1875-1876
1876-1877
1,712,000
1.219,000
2,931.000
4159
20 I
18
92
2,J
10
3.501,000
6,353.000
55-10
13 6
1.590,000
1.343.000
2.933.000
2,718,000
Ji:JJ
18 I
18
93
3.^
3428,000
3,890.000
6,473.000
52-95
14 3
1,673.000
1,045.000
22 8
18
94
3.-
7,380,000
8,322,000
5271
>3 5
1877-1878
1.825.000
1,419,000
3,244.000
43-74
23
18
U
3.J
4.792.000
57-75
9 II
I87S-I«79
2.Oia000
1,571.000
3.581 dOOO
43-89
19 2
lU
2,i
4.315.000
7.145.000
7,818,000
5030
10 7
1879-1880
1,852^000
1.402.000
3.254^000
43-08
19 3
18
97
2,3
4.954.000
4,872,000
56-18
62-70
9 3
i88<Ki88i
I.9I 1.000
1.7^8.000
1.782.000
3.659*000
4613
46-38
20 4
18
98
2^
7,770,000
II 9
1881-1882
2,060^000
3,842/x)0
20 4
18
99
2.<
4»977.ooo
7.972,000
6270
II 9
1882-1883
188J-1884
2.107,000
2.323.000
2.147,000
2,361,000
4,254/)oo
4.684,000
50-47
50-40
20 a
16 8
18
"9
00
,01
2,«
2,U
.JO
5.5io»ooo
5.950.000
8,414.000
u-
11 6
11 6
The quantities of cane sugar are based on the trade drcuhirs of Messrs Willett & Gray of New York; those of beet sugar on th
trade circulars of Messrs F. O. Licht of Magdeburg; and the prices are obtained from statements supplied by importers into th
United States of the cost in foreign coantries of the sugars which they import; The table has been adapted from the MonthI
Summary of Commerce and^ Finance of the United Sutes. January 1902, prepared in the Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department
Washington Cuvetumeut Printing OflSce^ X90S«
Tabls Ul
Quantities of raw and refined cane and beet txytu in tons avoiidopois imported into the United Kingdom in 1870 and in 1875. -am
yearly from t88o to X901 inchisiTe. with the consumptioa per head of the population in B> and the pace per cwt. of rat
and refined sugar.
Consumption per head.
Price Der cwt.
Year.
Raw Cane.
Raw Beet.
Refined Cane.
Refined Beet.
Total.
TotaL
Raw.
Refined.
Raw.
Refined.
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
Tona.
Tons.
n>
Ih
B>
s.
d.
s. d.
187a
556.000
84.000
3.000
16.000
82,000
725.000
956.000
—
:iis
705.000
107.000
128,000
50-64
^88
59-52
60-55
21
2
30 4
590,000
633,000
726,000
260.000
11,000
140,000
1.001.000
51-09
•1
12-58
21
9
H.f
1881
310,000
5.000
6,000
135.000
1.071,000
56-01
67-16
21
9
1882
265,000
133.000
I.IV>,000
i,i83/)00
58-78
2t
I
28 8
1883
597.000
582.000
420,000
7.000
IS7.000
160,000
58-73
68- to
20
I
27 2
1884
399.000
53.000
1.194,000
55-57
6815
15
6
28 11
1885
561,000
410,000
114.000
152.000
1,237.000
55-46
44-61
15-75
18-75
71-21
13
to
18 2
1886
468,000
339.000
71,000
247.000
1,135.000
6336
13
16 8
:iii
439.000
461.000
39.000
311.000
1,250,000
50-80
20-25
lj:S2
12
I
15 8
574.000
319.000
2,000
342.000
1.337,000
4^1
19-99
■3
5
17 8
1889
470,000
263,000
407.000
1,000
448.000
484.000
1.326.000
26-54
74-92
15
i
19 8
1890
503.000
15.000
1,385,000
2822
71-09
12
16 X
16 6
1891
349.000
461,000
27,000
540.000
1.377.000
32-94
30^3
78-02
12
10
1892
386.000
429.000
2,000
529.000
1.346,000
44-58
7S'2t
13
17 X
1893
368.000
434.000
2,000
096,*O0O
1.379.000
4a-4i
5317
75-58
14
2
18 4
1894
Jll:r
391.000
1,000
1,412.000
3718
39-90
g^s
II
5
15 6
\n
4C3.000
406,000
1,000
706,000
1.558,000
45-28
40-10
9
7
13 4
381,000
1,000
738.000
1.536.000
40.94
41-53
8247
to
5
13 7
\^
242,000
286,900
434.000
473,000
1,000
1,000
793.000
825.000
1,469.000
1,560^000
U
43-92
JTa
9
9
8
12 3
13 5
1899
186.000
469.000
1,000
889,000
1.545.000
1,634.000
35-611
84.31
10
6
12 7
1900
150,000
512,000
I.OOO
961,000
5223
87-71
10
1
12 ID
1901
178.472
5*6,451
1,000
1.079.553
1.785.476
5640
93-20
10
12
of 1903 had thuft been renewed in a modified form. Great
Britain, instead of agreeing to prohibit the Importation of
bounty-fed sugar, was allowed to pennlt it under certain limits.
Russia, which gave bounties, was to be allowed to tend into
European markets not more than 1,000,000 tons within the
next five years, and Great Britain undertook to give certificates
guarantedng that sugar refined in the United- Kingdom and
exported had not been bounty-fed. The renewal of the con-
vention was disapproved by certath Liberal poUtldani, who In-
sisted that the price of sugar had been raised by the convention;
and Sir Edwaid Grey said that the government had intondtd
to denounce the convention, but other countries had urged that
Great Briton had Induced them to enter Into it, and to alter
their fiscal system for that purpose, and It would he unfair to
upeel tke (MfiMfimim. BeildML deniindation would not have
,. — ''jLMMl'B'^i ^^ ^^^^ ccuntrics would
have continued the convention, and probably with sue cost
and would have proposed prohibitive or rctaliatOTy duties i
respect of British sugar, with bad results politically. Still th
British government had been prepared to denounce the coi
vention in view of the penal clause which had ensured the c:
elusion of bounty-fed sugar, cither directly or through tli
imposition of an extra duty. But this had been removed, an
it was now unreasonable to Insist on denunciation. Russi
would have made the some arrangement she had obtainc
had we seceded from the convention. She had formerly sei
to England about 40,000 tons of sugar yearly; she might no
send 300,000 tons. Was this limitation a reason for sacrifidr
the advantages we had gained? Under the original tern
of the convention Great Britain might have beoi asked to cloi
her ports to sugar proceeding from one country of anotbe
This was now Impossible.
SUGAR
47
Tbr<
Tm^B IV.
td tte fMrfdfor 1909-19M. witli the average <^ ^ ciopi for the aeveo pncedlng yean from igot-igoj.
in tOM of 2340 D.
r (compiled ffon the Weekly Statistical Sugiw Trade JownaJ of Meein WiDett A Gray of New York, and books and report*
pubkshed under the authority of the govemment of India).
CouatfT.
Onopi
190^1910
kmrngtcna
for 7 years end-
ing 190S-1909.
Country.
Crop.
I909-I9M
Aveiagecrop
for 7 yean«nd-
ing I90»*i909.
Nata. ....
Total in Africa .
S5.000
330,000
4S.oa>
33.J99
ATieodoA . .
Bnal . . .
British Coloniet—
Trinkfad
276.000
132.410
TocdiaAflMrica
Asia—
British India and Depen-
UeilLICB ....
%jOdD
^95&S)00
ai><7t«y ,
2I8.3U
45.000
Aatigua and St Kitu . .
Demenua ■
Lesser Antilles . . .
Total in British Colonies
CostaRica
Cofaa
DaaiBh Coloay* St Croix
Dotcfc Colony, Surinaa
French Colooiet—
llagttnknio . . . .
12,000
25.000
115.000
6.000
g43.ooo
g'go^
45.23*
37.49«
13^53
21,857
I14.9M
10,71s
-i^a4Z;
VOCT
3.yso.ooo
1,700,000
i5/»0
lAOOO
'''^'f03
USSL
QtW
Total in French Colonies
Ecoador ......
Guatemala
Haid and Santo Domingo .
Ki
40.0
34»a79
, 37ryo
Dutch Colooi^-*
Java and Madoera
Tapan and Fomosa
United States posaei
Philippine Idands
Siam ....
Total in Asa .
Austtalia and Bohmesii—
British rolmiies
New South Wales !
Total in Australia and
1,000,000
^teo,ooo
t,ooo,ooo
110.000
UMft7» '
'*5.ooo
7.000
6.232.000
6.000
SiMMy
136,000
'4«yo
m^
-ZiS
lym
tji
^'^■»»
1^.634
7fyo
90000.
130.000
8,oto
5^043
4r5«>
4.260
Spain ....
Total in Bttiope
1^006
l6bOOO
■ 'M73
'M73
150,000
6.S00
143.61
3.619
TcL
PortoRico . . .
Hawaiian Idands . .
Total in United States
32S<ooo
10.000
280.000
490^
3«KrJ4
I76,ar
1.105.000
090,99$
A frica
America ....
Asia
AustiaUiandMyania
Europe
Total pfodnctioQ of
sugar in the worid
365.000
3.955.000
6,232,000
ai9.5">
I6i000
312.436
3.107,252
5,845.432
214.634
1*473
lo.y87.50P
1M99.22y
from data furnished by the Sutlstlsches Bureau fOr die RObeoxucker Industrie dee Deutschaa Reicbes, of
MrF..O.Xicht. Magdeburg).
Crop,
1902-1903.
Crop.
1903-1904.
Crop,
1904-1905.
Cropk
1905^19061
Crop,
I906**K907<
Crop,
1907-1908. 1908-1909.
Crop,
EiStinmted
ciop^
1909-1910.
Avemfleof 7
years 1902-1903
to 1908-1909.
SEVBinkoaiL
1.040.987
220,550
36,004
8^,050
I,734AI4
100^793
t,236!469
192.376
201,510
I,I49»5«^
121,600
I,l87!848
204,847
249.254
875.353
173.079
^44.161
612,592
1*572.923
134.394
935'565
206,410
20*548
cvokdiitpQik.
1.322,716
278.338
65.942
744,153
2,20X8 10
178,551
104,702
1,417,386
426,171
289,220
7lQb2l8
2.095.959
'72.4«7
133.818
1.387.732
1,376.501
994*312
2,049.951
210,958
162,701
1.937,530
377.945
289.935
1,240,102
246,051
^^973
8H.970
a.007,780
196.841
114.166
'•;!J5S
274.594
1,236:172
239.902
53.548
793.058
1.990.637
160,375
rii,7i8
1,194.105
322,890
250,030
Total cffgp of the world
5.665,796
5*977.189
4.840.798
7.102,080
7.030,989
6.891,876
6.818,458
6.505.607
6,332.455
Tbe aaUcr tcmpocarily dropped, but certain Liberal membcit
of parliaxBcnt continued to prcM for the withdrawal of Great
Bntain from the conventk>n, it being stated that a proadae had
ban privatdy given by Sir Henry CampbeU-Banoerroan thai
ih* 00wiBncnt would withdraw as soon at practkabla. Oa
tfe rstb oi July 1908, Mr Aaquith Mid that Sir Edward Grey
had — nowirod in the House of Coruboob 00 the 6th of Juna
fOD7 tlaA the Botiih fovemmcnt intended lo ncgstlate ^th
the imrifs for the iMowal of the conventloD, on oondition that
t^ votM iiiiiiiyiiih the pcnai ckiist^ i^ tbst aete el
the obligations in the convention ~u renewed werie penal or
required statutory authority.
Tables It., III. (p. ?73) and IV. (p. 774) givt su^Icsof cane
and beet sugar production.
Thtf quantitieBf or India have been computed from Itafisnnatiott f or-
nlshedtiqrlhe India oftcc and poUieatioos made under snthorky
of the secretary of state and the com m ercial iatelligenw department
of the Indian gDvermncnt.
The whole of the sugar produced in India is consomcd in the
country and sugar h Impotted, the bulk of it being cane sugar comin*
from Mauritius and Java, and about 85% of the Import la of Mgk
quality rrirmhliBg ^-^
d Java, and •
fanned sugnr.
SUGAR-BIHD-^UGGESTION
SDQAS-Bmo^ the Eq^BA name commoDly ^Tcn in tlw West
India Islands to the louinia "^^'"^fif ai the gtum Ctrtkitta
(bdoaginc to the FuMrine haSty Cooebidae*) for thdr habit
of f xeqnenting the cimnf-houses whexe sugar is kept, ap p ewaU y
attracted thiths by the swanns of flies. They ef ten come into
dwelling-hoases hc|)ping ficom one piece of fnniituxe to another
and carefully exploring the suxtouiding ob jecU with intent to
find a spider or Insect. In their fignre and motions they remind
a northern natcraKst of a nuthatch, while thdr ooloiatiott —
black, yellow, oGve, grey and white-tecsUs to him a titaoose.
They genexally keep in pairs and build a domed but notify nest,
laying therein, three cgss, wUte^ blotched with rasty-ied.
Many apedes axe recognised, some of them with a very hmited
range; three are continental, with a jcnnt range extending from
aoathem Mcaioo to Peni, Bolivia and south-eastern Brazil,
while others are peculiar to certain of the Antilles, and several
cf them to 'one island only. Thus C. caboU is limited, so far
as is known, to Cozumel (off Yucatan), C. ^icdmr to Old Provi-
dence, C. fiwaeota (the type of the genus) to Jaaoaica, and ao
on, while islands that are in s«ht of one another are often
inhabited by different " species." The genus famishes an ex-
cellent example of the effects of isolation in breaking up an
original form, while there is comparatively little differentiation
among the individuals which inhabit a large and continuous
area. The non-appearance of this genus in Cuba Is very
remarkable. (A. N.)
SU6ER (c X081-1151), F^nch ecdesiastic, sUtcsman and
historian, was bom of poor parents either in Flanders, at St
Denis near Paris or at Toury in Beauce. About logr he
entered the abbey of St Denis. Until about 1 104 he was educated
at the priory of St Denis de TEstrfe, and there first met his
pupil King Louis VI. From 1104 to xio6 Suger attended
another school, perhaps that attached to the abbey of St
Benolt-«ur-Loire. In rro6 he became secretary to the abbot of
St Denis. In the following year he waa made provost of Bemeval
in Normandy, and in xiog of Toury. In 1118 he was sent
by Louis VI. to the court of Pope Gdasius H. at Magudonne,
and lived firom 1x21 to xxaa at the court of his successor,
Caliztua IL On hia return from Italy Suger was appointed
abbot of St Denis. Until X137 be .occupied himself at court
mainly with the temporal affairs of the kingdom, while during
the following decade he devoted himself to the reorganization
and reform of St Denis. In X137 he accompanied the future
king, loois VII., into Aquitaine on the occasion of that prince's
marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine, and during the second
crusade was one of the regents of the kingdom (1147-XX49).
Be was bitteily op()osed to the king's. divorce, having himsdf
advised the marriage. Although he disapproved of the second
crusade, he himsdf, at the time of his death, on the 31st of
lanuary 1x51, was preaching a new crusade;
Suger was the friend and counsellor both of Louis VI.
and Louis VII. * He urged the king to destroy the feudal
bandits, was responsible for the royal tactics in dealing with
the communal movements, and endeavoured to regufavise the
administration of justice. He left his abbey, which possessed
considerable property, enriched and embdUshed by the con-
struction of a new church built In the nascent Gothic style.
Soger was the foremost historian of his time. He was the
* Known in Fieoeh as GnAknte. a name used for them alio by
tiMra Tha Oti^imi of Hemandoa (Acr. mtHe. M
" ~ '■ by hhn to be of native
;h thought by Moatbdllanl
Ja BOW known Sk C^ntba
i^ Thenanie (• probably
M: tha" quit ''^appMMl
tEagliah wrii
anthor of a pancgyiic en Loida VL {VUa Udatid regU)^ nnd
part-asthor ol the pcrhafM more xaapattial history of Lonis VII.
{HUlma tforian rtgis Ludavici), In his Uber 4e rebus in
adimmOniUne ma fcsltf, and its sopplement LibdhiS de con-
ucraUone ecfUnae S. Dumym, be treats of the improvements he
had made to St Denia» describes the treasure of the church, aiul
gbcs an aoooont of the rebuilding. Soger^ works served to
imbue the moaks of St Denis with .a taste for histoiy, and
called forth a long series of quasS-olBdal chxonides.
See OL CartrilJeri. AU Smur mm Snui-Demis (Berlin, X898); A.
Lochave, Imus U Grer (F^ns, 1890): F. A. Gervatae^ Histwe de
Sti§ir (Paris, X731X
By the older Britiah writers on psydiology
the woeds" suggest "and "suggestion" were tised in senses very
dose to those which they have hi cnmmnn speech; one idea was
said to suggest another when it recalled that other to mind iJt
(in the modoni phrase) repsodnced it. Modem studies in mental
p a tho logy and hypnotism (g.v.) have led to the use of these
words by psychologists in a spedal and technical sense. The
hypnotists of the Nanqr achool redboovered and gave general
currency to the doctrine that the most essential feature of the
hypnotic sUte is the unquestioamg obedience and dodlity with
wtdch the hypnotised nbject aoxpts, believes^ and acts in
accordance with evoy command or proportion of the hypno-
tizer. (Commands or propositions made to the subject (they
nuiy be merdy implied by a gesture, a glance, or a chance
remark to a third poaon) and accepted with this peculiarly
uncritical aiMl intense belief vere called "suggestions"; and
the subject that acoepted them in this fashion was said to be
" soggc^ibk." It has abn been made abundantly dear, chiefly
by the labooBi of Erench physicians, that a Mgh degree of
" suggestibility " is a leading feature of hysteria, and that this
fact is the key to the understanding of very many of its protean
It is abo beannhig wxddy itcoginaed that the tuggestibiUty
of hypnosb and of hysteria b conditioned by a peculiar state of
the brain, namdy a cerebral or mental dissociation, which in
hypnosis is temporarily induced by the operations of the
hypnotist, and m hysteria arises from some deJBcicncy of energy
in the whole psycho-physical system. In respect to these point s
there is now a wide consensus of opinion among the leading
authorities; but as to the range and aoope of suggestion in our
■aental life great difieeenoea of opinion still obtain. We may
dinin g tn'sh three ptind^ views. Firstly, it is maintained by
a number of physidans (notably by Professor Pierre Janet,
whose profound studies of h>'5teTical patients are justly cde«
brated) that all hypnotixahle persons are hysterical and that
suggestibility is a condition peculiar to hysterical subjects.
In view of the assertions in recent years of several phyadans
of high repute to the «Sect that th«y find more than 90%
of all subjects hypnotiiable, it wouM seem that this view can-
not be maintairwd, and that this restriction of suggestion to
hysterical subjects only, and the stigmatization of suggestibility
as in every case a morbid symptom, are errors arising from too
exdusive occupation with its manifestations in this fidd. A
second group consists of writers who athnit that suggestion may
operate in nonnal minds, but who, while reoognixiag that it is
not an essentially pathoiogical prooes^ maintain that it is a
proces» of very peculiar and e x c eption al nature that has little
or no affinity with normal mental cpeiatioDa. Hicy hold that
suggestion, whether it occun in morbid or in healthy subjects,
always implies the coming into operation of some obscuidy
coocdved faculty or region ol the mind whidi is present ir all
men, but which usnaSy lies hidden or submerged beneath the
flow of our more oommoaplaoe mental activities.. Thb sub-
merged faculty or system of faculties, winch is hdd by these
authors to be operative in all processes of suggestion, is variously
designated by them the secondary or submerged stratum of con-
idoQsness, theMboonacious or subliminal adf (see SonUKiHAL
Si»). Tha writers of this group inabt npon tha more start*
Kng of the effects prodndble by suggestion, the more pro-
found chaagaa of bodily and aMntal ptoccaasa, rach as paralyiis«
SDGGESnON
49
contnctatt^' liypcimettlicaaa, increased power of reeellectioB,
Wlhirmatiops (g.f.), &c.; and they regard diaaodatfon aa the
procaeas by which the submerged and supernormal faculty (or
hcoltiea) that they postulate ia libented from the- dominance
of tbe normal waking self.
A third view has been rapidly gaining groond and is now
psedoniaant. It connects itself with, and bases itself upon,
the view of Prafeaaor Bemhetm and his colleagues of theNancy
school of hyixDotism. Aeooiding to this view all men are nonnaDy
SQgscstible under favourable conditions, and the Jiypnotic
subject and the hysteric patient differ from the normal human
beag ciiiefiy in that their normal suggestibility ia more or less
(sonetinKS very greatly) increased, owing to the prevalence of
the state of cerebral diaaodation. ■
According to this third view, suggestion may be defined as the
CDBxnaaication of any proposition from one peraon (or persons)
to another in such a way as to secure its acceptance with
cooviction, in the absence of adequate logical grounds for its
accepcaace. Thit idea or bdief ao introduced to the mind of
the napknt is held to operate powerfully upon his bodily and
mtatal pcoccssea in proportion to the 6egnt of its dominance
orer all ether ideas or mental processes ^ and the extraordinary
fhsruftrr of the effecta» both bodily and mental, of suggestion
in hypnotic and hysterical subjecta is held to be due to the fact
that, in these conditions of mental dissociation, the dominance
of the aagsested idea ia complete and absolute; whcceaa in tbe
absence of such dissociation the operation o£ the suggested idea
is U«ays subject to some weakening or ihhibition through the
irjjnrncr of many opposed or incompatible tendendea and ideas,
r»en il these do not rise into explidt consdous n ess.
This third view seems justified by the facU that no sharp line
caa be drawn between the suggestibility of normal men and
that of hypnotized or hysterical subjects, and that under favour-
able oondrtiona many of the most striking lesalts of suggestion
(< {. it»n»irfnM»v>n«, oontrmctttres, inability to move, insensibility
of various sense-organs, and so forth) may be produced in
scfajetts who present at tbe time no other symptom of the
hypnotic or hysterical condition.
If, then, we recognise, as we must, that the aloj^cal produc-
tioa of conviction is the essence of suggestion, and that this
fnqoently oocitis in normal minds as well as in those suffering
from various degrees of dissociation, it becomes neoeasary to
dearae the conditions that faveur tbe operation of suggestiott in
aonaal minds.
These cosditions are resident, oa.the one hand, in the redpient
ci the soggastion, and, on the othet hand, in the source foom
«^kh the suggestion comes. Of the conditions of the former
duB three seem to be of principal importance.
(a) Defect of knowledge: the defect may be quantitative or
cuzfitative, ix. it may consist in the lack of knowledge or of
trafy established beliefs about the subject of the proposition,
07 i: may consist in the lack of systematic organization of such
Lwvledge as the mind possesses. The weU-traified mind is
relarivdy tnsuggcstible, firstly because it possesses large stored
M kaovledge and belief; secondly, because tfab mtss of know*
H;^ and belief is systematically organized in such a way that
ill as parts hang together and mutually support one another.
On the other hand, the young chQd, ^e uncultured adult, and
opcaaliy the savage, are apt to be suggestible in regard to
y^Tj many topics, first, because they have relatively h't tie know*
ir.K', secofl»dly, because what little they have is of a low degree
%i cqpuixatiDa; te. it does not form a logically coherent system
»*Jtise parts iccipnxally support one another. Suggestion in
»^h cases may be said to be conditioned by piimitive credulity
er ihe suggestibility of ignorance, (b) But the same person
ri£ not be found to be equally suggestible at all times under
s^silar external conditions. There are changes of mental state
v^kh, without overstepping the limits of the normal, condition
varytug degrees of increased suggestibility. A man is least
seg^eataile when his mind works most effidently, when he is
I and most wide awake; every departure from this
i to fatigue, bodily ill-health, emotional perturbation,
drags or any other<auae, favours suggestibility, (c) fttsons
of equal degrees of knowledge or ignotance will be found, even
at their times of greatest mental efficiency, to be tmequally
suggestible owing to differences of native disposition; one person
is by nature more open than another to personal infhience, more
easily swayed by others, more ready to accept thdr dicta and
adopt their opinions for his own. Differences of this kind are
probably the expression of differences in the naCWe strength
of one of the fundamental instinctive dispositions of the fatmian
mind, an Instinct which is called into play by the presence of
persons of superior powers and the exdtement of which throws
the subject into an attitude-of submission or subjection towards
the Impressive penonafity.
Considered from the side of the agent, suggestion is favoured
by whatever tends to render him impressive to the' subject or
patient— great bodily strength or stature, fine clothes, a con-
fident manner, superior abilities of any kind, age and experience,
any reputation for spedal capadties, high sodal position or the
ocenpatien of any position of ackfK>wledged authority; in short,
all that IS summed up by the term •* personality," aU that
contributes to make a personality ** magnetic " or to give ir
prestige renders it capable of evoking on the pert of others the
sul^miasive suggestible attitude. A group of persons in agreement
is capable of evoking the suggestible attitude far more effectively
than any single member of the group, and the larger the group
the more strongly does it esert this influence. Hence the
sug^tive force of the populariy accepted maxims and well-
established s6da] conventions; such propositions are collective
suggestions which carry with them all the immense collective
prestige of organised sodety, both of the present and the past;
they embody the wisdom of the ages. It is in the main through the
suggestive power of moral maxims, endowed with all the prestige
of great moral teachers and of the collective voice of sodety, that
tbe child is led to accept with but little questioning the code of
morals of his age and country; and the propagation of all religious
and other dogma rests on the same basis. The normal suggesti-
bility of the child is thus a principal condition of its docility,
and it is in the main by the operation of normal suggestion that
sodety moulds the characters, sentiments, and beliefs of its
members, and renders the mass of its dements harmonious and
homogeneous to the degree that is a necessary condition of its
collective mental life. Normal suggestion produces its most
striking effects in the form of mass-suggestion, i.e. when it
operates in large assemblies or crowds, especially if the members
have but little positive knowledge and culture. For, when a
belief is propagated by collective suggestion through the large
mass of men, each falls under the suggestive sway of the whole
mass; and under these conditions the operation of suggestion is
further aided by the universal tendency of mankind to imitation
and sympathy, the tendency to imitate the actions of, and to
experience the emotions expressed by, those about one.
Conditions very favourable to mass-suggestion prevailed
during the middle ages of European history; for these "dark
ages " were characterized by the existence of dense populations,
among whom there was free intercourse but very Utile positive
knowledge of nature, and who were dominated by a church
wielding immense prestige. Hence the frequent and powerful
operations of suggestion on a large scale. From time to time
fantastic beliefs, giving rise to most extravagant behaviour,
swept over large areas of Europe like virulent epidemics— epi-
demics of dandng, of flagellation, of hallucination, of belief in
the miraculous powers of reh'cs or of individuals, and so forth. In
these epidemics all the conditions favourable to normal sugges-
tion were generally present in the highest degree, with the result
that in great numbers of persons there were produced the more
extreme effects of suggestion, such as are usually associated with
the h3rsterical or hypnotic state. At the present time snnilar
manifestations occur in a modified form, as e.g. the popular
pilgrimages to Lourdes, Holywell and other places that from
time to time acquire reputations for miraculous curative powers.
Auto-suggesH9H. — Although auto-suggestion does not strictly
fall under the definition of suggestion given above, its usage to
50
SUHL^-^UIODB
t a menu] proonft vludi piodnocs cffccu very timlUr to
those pcodndbk by svtggstion is now lo well fstaWithcd that it
must be accepted. In«ito-s«cgestioB«propositioaisfonniilated
ia the mind of the subject rather than communicated fiom aaotber
mind, and is accepted with oonvictioa in tiie ahynoe oi adequate
h>gical grounds. Generally the beheC is initiated by some cxLemal
event or some bodily change, or through some aateipictation of
the behaviour of other persons ; €,g. a man fails on the road and a
a-agon very neaiiy passes over his. legs, perhaps grazing them
merely; when he is picked up, his legs are found to be panJysed.
The event has induced the conviction that his legs ar^ seriously
injured, and this conviction operates so effectively as to realize
itself. Or a savage, suffering some sUght indispositkm, inteipcets
the behaviour of some peiaoa in a way which leads him to the
convictiod that this perwn b compassing ins death by means of
magical practices; acoording^y he lies down in deep despondency
and, in the course of some days or weeks, dies, unless his friends
succeed in buying off, or in some way countecacting, the malign
influence. Or, as a more faipiliar and trivial instaiye of auto-
suggestion, we may dte the case of a man who, having taken a
• bread [mII in the belief that it contains a strong pui|Eative or
emetic, realizes the results that he expects.
LiTBRATUBB. — ^H. Bemheim,D<Za Suigesttim, el desesapphcoHoms
4 la thirapetdupu (2nd cd.. Plant, 1887); Pierre lanet. The Majmr
Symptoms of MysUria fLondon, 1907); Otto Stofl, Sugtestion und
Hyfmotismus in der Yiikerfsjckdotie (snd ed., Leipzig, 1904);
"^T^^
Bons Sidis. Th* Psyckdoty ^ ^KfreJum (New York, i^^'; V^!
Keadnge, SuujuHofii mi E a m cQti t m (London. 1907) ; F. W. H. Mycn,
Human Personality and Us Snrvaal cif Bodily Death (Lmidon. 190A;
abridged, 1907): A. Binet, La SuggicstibUUi (Paris. 1906).
. , (W. McD.)
2iid ed.. „
See also literature under Hypnotism.
SUHt, a town of Germany, in the province of Prussian Saxony,
picturesquely atuated on the Laoter, on the southern sl<^ of the
Tburingian Forest, 6\ m. N.E. of Meiningen and 39 m. S.W. of
Erfurt by rail Pop. (190$), 13,814. The armourers of Suhl are
mentioned as early as Uie 9th century, but they enjoyed their
highest vogue from 1550 to 1634. The knights of south Germany
especially prized the swords and armour of this town, and many
of the weapons used in campaigns against the Ttirks and in the
Seven Years' War are said to have been manufactured at
Suhl. It has suffered considerably in modem times from the
competition of other towns in this indiistry, e^)edally since
the introduction of the breech-loading rifle. It still contains,
however, large factories for firearms military and sporting, and
side arms, besides ironworks, machine-works, potteries and
tanneries. The once considerable manufacture of fustian has
declined. A brine spring (Soolquelle) at the foot of the neigh-
bouring Domberg is said to have given name to the town.
Suhl, which obtained civic rights in 1537, belonged to the
principality of Henneberg, and formed part of the possessions of
the kingdom of Saxony assigned to Prussia by the Congress of
Vienna in 1815.
Sec Werther. Chrtmik der Stadt 5uUj2 vols.. Suhl. 1846-1847).
SUICIDE (from Lat. < mi, of oneself, and cidinm, from caedert,
to kill), the act of intentionally destroying one's own life. The
phenomenon of suicide has at all times attracted a large amount
of attention from moralists and social investigators. Its
existence is looked upon, in Western civilization, as a sign of the
presence of maladies in the body politic which, whether remediable
or not, deserve careful examination. It is, of course, impossible
to compare Western ci\ilization in this respect tvith, say, Japan,
where suidde in certain drcumstances is part of a distinct moral
creed. In Christian ethics and Christian law it is vvTong, indeed
illegal, as a/e/<> de se, self -murder. It is within coroparatrvely
recent years that the study of suicide by means of the vital
statistics of various European countries has demonstrated that
while the act may \ft regarded as a purely voluntary one, yet
that suicide as AjMkfi9^orms there to certain general laa-s,
** ' . other than mere individual
• jt can be shown that each
1 that while the rate for
» year, yet it maintains
I to the rates of other
countries. The UBomiag
table
(Bertilhw)^-
Table I.
Cooliy.
Period <^
Obeervatioo.
Anaual Number
of Suicides
per Minion
Inhabitants.
Seaoay
Demaaric
Switzeriand
Baden .......
WOittembeif
France
Pnissia
Belgium
Sw^n
EnglaadandWalcs . . .
Norway ......
IreUnd ...!!!"
I87ft-l88a
1880-1883
1878-1882
»»
•f
1877-1881
1878-188Z
392
251
180
100
9^
49
17
In adchrion to furnishing materials for sm approxima'tely
accurate estimate of the number of suicides which will occur in
any country in a year, statistics have demonstrated that the
proportion of male to female suiddes is practically the same from
year to year, viz. 3 or 4 males to 1 female; that it is possible to
predict the month of greatest prevalence, the modes of death
adopted by men on the one hand and women on the other, and
even the idative frequency of suicide amongst persons follotiing
different professions and employments; and that in most of the
countries of Europe the suidde-rate is increasing. In England
and Wales the annual death-rate per million from suicide has
steadOy advanced, as is shown by the following figures foi
quinquennial periods.' —
T861-T865
1866-1870
1876-1880
1881-1885
1886-1890
I 891-1895
1896-1900
1901-1905
6s per miOratt Irving.
66 „ „
^ M »»
74 ». N
75
89
100
The next table iHustcatei the continued increase in recent
years, and at the same time shows the total number and tht
number of male and female aoicidea each year from 1886 t<
1905.
Taslb f L
Total Snkidis-'MaU and FemaU-m Em^nd and Wales,
i98^ig€>s, tagdker with ike mmnal rate per wittion lioimi
{Pegisirur-Ceneraes JUporU\
Year.
1886
1890
1895
1896
;i^
1899
1900
1901
1903
1903
1904
190S
TotaL
»fi.546
Female
1694
560
1635
570
ao7i
726
1979
«77
2090
702
3166
711
ai2T
7»3
2166
2318
1^
2460
2640
m
2523
822
^
862
9564
TotaL
2254
2205
2797
2656
2792
2877
9K2I
3267
35"
334S
3545
38,119
Suicide-rate
per Millioo
Living.
83
77
90
91
89
90
96
99
105
99
104
The reason of the hig)i suidde-rate in some countries as com
pared with others, and the causes of its progressive increase, ai
not easily determined. Various explanations have been offere<
such as the influence of climate, the comparative prevalence <
insanity, and the proportionate consumption of aloobolic drinks
but none satisfactorily accounts for the facts. It may. howevei
be remarked that suidde is much more common amon^
8UIDAS— SUITE
PMCcstABt ttes mflMOgat Rooub Ctttbolk oommmiidct, while
fews hrve a smaller suicide-rate than Romui Catholics. A point
of ooosidenble interest is the increaae of Boidde in illation to the
adTBitce of demenury education. Qgle states that suidde Is
note ooBBiDon among the educated than the illiterate claiscs. It
a also more prevalent in urban than in run] districts* A curious
feature in large towns Is the sudden outbrealc of self-destiuctioB
whidi sometimes occurs, and which has led to its being described
as epidemic. In such cases forte of example and imitatioii
■Bdoubtedly play a considerable part, as it is weU recognised that
both these forces exert an influence not only in causing suidde,
bot aJso in suggesting the method, time and place for the act.
Ko age above five years is exempted from fUmishing its quota of
sokidal deaths, although self-destruction between five and ten
years fa very rare. Above this age the proportion of suiddes
Bcreases at eadt period, the maximum being reaehed between
fifty-five and sixty-five. Among females there is a greater
rditive prevalence at earfier age periods than among males.
The modes of suidde are found to vary very slightly in different
CDuntrieSw Hanging is most common amongst males; then
dzowning. Injuries from fire-arms, stabs and ctits, poison and
psvc^tation from hdghts. Amongst females, drowning comes
iist. while ponon and hanging are more frequent than otiier
methods entailing effusion of blood and disfigurement of the
person. The methods used in England and Wales by suiddes
'irring 1888-1897, and in Scothmd during the years 1881-1897,
are given in the following table: —
Table til.
U«Am of SmieUt m Emtfand antf W^s, iS88^jS^.
(Mer
ofFxe-
qaeacy.
Males.
Females.
Both Sexes. |
Mode.
Num-
ber.
Mode.
Nam-
ber.
Mode.
Num-
ber.
1
t
3
4
I
Hanging
Stab-cat
Drowning
Pouoo
Fire-arms
Otherwise
5669
3594
1773
Drowning
Poiaon
Hanging
Stabcut
Fire-arms
Otherwise
3089
1336
771
5^
527
Hanging
Drowning
StabKstt
Poiaon
Fire-arms
Otherwise
7005
4365
3916
7204
2300
Total
18.895
Total
6427
Total
»S.3«
Modes ofSmkiie in SetSand, tSSr^ri^.
Order
ofFre-
:;.Kflcy.
Males.
Females.
Both Sexes. |
Mode.
Num-
ber.
Mode.
Nam-
ber.
Mode.
Num-
ber.
1
2
3
4
I
Hanging
tjtowtuttft
Seab-cut
Pbina
Firearms
Otherwise
741
630
5S6
357
245
207
Drowning
Hanging
Poison
Stab-cut
Fiie-arms
Otherwise
430
«57
145
'*t
100
Drowning
Hanging
Sttb<ut
Poison
Fire>arms
Otherwise
1060
99«
700
402
251
307
Total
2636
Toul
10B2
Tocal
3718
The seaaon oi the year influences suidde practically uhlbrmly
■ aA Eon^Kan oountties, the number incRasing ftom the com-
ascciacBf of Che year to a maximum in May or June, and then
dmt<imiwi^ agaiA to a minimum in winter. Morseili attempts to
•camat for this greater prevalence during wliat may well be
calfed the Dott beautiful months of the year by attributing it to
The iaiacocc of iaaeaicd temperature upon the organism, while
Dackkesm iMfgrstTi that the determining factor is more probably
la be found in the length of the day and the effect of a longer
period of daily activity. The soidde-rate is higher in certain
male ecoifrntioas and professions than in othem (Ogle). Thus
it B Ugh aaMnpt addieis, doctots, innkeepers and chemists,
sad low for deigy, bargemen, railway drivers and stokers.
The MBddeotc la twice as great for unoccupied males as lor
ArmnriBS.— Moffsefli, JI Skkidio (Milan. 1879): Lcgsyt Le
• cf watdem (Paris, t88i) : WeMcott. Smeidt: its Hts»or%
\uf0, ^.. (Undone 1885); Ogle. "Sokidea in England and
'ales, jn relation to Age. Sex. Season, and Occupation/* Journaf
cf the Statistical Society (1886). vol. xlix.; Strahan, Suicide and
Insanity (London, 1893); Mayr. "Selbstmord atatistik," in Hand-
wMerttiek der Slaaismiwuekaftm Oena. 1895); Durkbeim, £4
Smkide{f^ui%l99T>> (H.H.L.)
BOIDAS. Greek leacographer. Kothtng Is known of him,
except that he must have lived before Eustathius (isth-ijth
century), who frequently quotes him. Under the heading
" Adam " the author of the lexicon (which a prefatory note states
to be " by Smdas ") gives a brief dironology of the world, ending
with the death of the emperor John Zimisces (97 s), and tmder
"Constantinople" his successors Basil and Constantine are
mentioned. It would thus appear that SUIdas lived in the latter
part of the xoth century. The passages in whidt Michael
PscUus (end of the t xth century) is referred to am cbttsidered later
interpolations. The lexicon of SVdas is arranged alphabetically
with some slight deviations, letters and combinations of letters
having the same sound bdng placed together; thus, m andc follow
8, and o, If, I follow ^. It partakes of the nature of a dictionary
and encyclopaedia. It tndudes numerous quotations from andent
writers; the scholiasts on Aristophanes, Ifomer, Sophocles and
Tbucydides are also much used. The biographical notices, the
author tells us, are condensed from the Onomaiohpon or Pinax
of Hesychius of Miletus; other sources were the excerpts of Con-
stantine Porphyrogenitus, the chronicle of Georgius Monachus,
the biographies of Diogenes LaSrrius and the works of AthenaeuS
and Philostratus. The work deals with scriptural as well as
pagan subjects, from which it is inferred that the writer was a
Christian. A prefatory note gives a list of dictionaries from which
the lexical porrion was compiled, together with the names of
thdr authors. Although the work is uncritical and probably
much interpolated, and the vahie of the articles is very unequal,
ft contains much information on ancient history and life.
Edttio princeps, by Demetrius Chalcondyles (r499): later editions
by L. KCbter (1705). T. Qaisford (1834). C;. Bemhaidy (183^1853)
and I. Bekker (1854); aee K, Daub. De S. Biagraplmcmm on^
cf fide (1880) and Studien su den Biograpkika des S. (1882): and
|. £. SandySk Hisi. of Cassical Scholarship (1906). p. 407.
tUIDUN (Chinese, Sm^M-cAen), a town of China, capital of
the province of Kulja. It fs the reaideace of the 9»vemor-
general, and was founded in 176a duiMig the Muswilman rising,
and rebuilt in 18813. Ic is a militafy town, with provision storeSk
an arsenal tad am aims workshop. Its walla are armed with
steel guask
SUUIA* a gionp of aoa^rununating actaodactyle ungulate
mammab typified by the swine (Suidae), hut also indudiag the
hippopotamus (Hippopotamtdae), and certain ettina forms.
(Se eAnt iopiCTYLA; HmoporAitim; Pbocakv; Swine.)
aUITB iSnUe dt pUctr, Ordn; Partita), hi muaic. a gioup of
dance tunes, mosdy in binary fonn, of a type which, may be
described as " decoiatsve " (sea Sonata. Foaiis); constituting
that daasical form of early i8th<entMiy instnimental music
which most nearly foreshadows the Uier sonata. As ukideistood
by Bach, it consists essentially of four principal movtmcnts with
the insertion of one or more lighter movements between the Ihini
and the last. The iirst movement is the olUmande^ of solid and
intricate texture, in slow common time and rich flowing rhythm,
be^nning with one or three short notes before the first fuU bar.
The second movement is the cmtftUe, of which theie are two
kinds. The French eourante is again an intricate movement, aUo
b^'nning with one ot thice notes before the main beat, and in a
triple time ({) which, invariably at the cadences and sometimes
elsewhere, drops into a crossing triple rhythm of twice the pace
(]). The effect is lestkss and confused, and Was suppoaed to
form a contrast to the aVeroande; but it seldom did so effectively.
Bach's study of Couperin led him to use the French oourante
frequently, but he was happier with the Italian type of camnU,
which did not owe its name, like the French type, lo the use of
spasmodic runs, but was a brilliant continuously nianiag piece
ia quick triple time (J or {), forming a dear and lively contrast
both to the allemande and to the third movement^ which is
generally a s^abtmic
52
SUKHUM-KALEH— SULCI
The sarahande b & slow movement In triple ttme beginning on
the full bar. &nd with at least a tendency to the rhythm
of which Handel's aria Lascia
3 J J X J I «} tf I ^^'*^ pianta is a famttiar example.
Bach's sarabandes are among the
most simply eloquent and charaaerisdc of hit smaller com-
positions. Then come the gaianteries, from one to three in
number. These are the only suite-movements which ever have
an alternative section and a da capo (with the exception of
Couperin's courantes and the courante in Bach's first English
suite). The commonest gaianteries are: (z) the iHtHutt, often
with a second minuet which is called " trio" only when it
is in real three-part writing. It is a little faster than the stately
minuet in Mooart's Don cHooanni, but it is never so quick as the
lively minuets of Haydn's quartets and symphonies which led
to the Beethoven scherzo; and it Invariably begins, unlike
many later minuets, on the full bar; (2) the tflvotte, a lively
dance in a not too rapid alia brtve time (the textbooks say
] time, out there is no case in Bach which could possibly be
played so slowly, whatever the time signature.may be). The
gavotte always begins on the half-bar. A second alternating
gavotte is frequently founded on a pedal or drone-bass, and is
then called miudXc; (3) the bourrie, which is not unlike the
gavotte, but quicker, and beginning on the last quarter of the
bar; (4) the passepUd, a lively dance in quick triple time,
beginning on the third beat. These dances are not always cast
in binary form, and there are famous examples of gavottes
and passq>ieds en roudtan. Other less common gaianteries
are (5) the lourCt^ a slow <lance in I time and dotted rhythm
(dactylic in accent and amphimacer in quantity); (6) the
polonaist, a leisurely triple-time piece, either a shade quicker or
(as in the exquisite unattached examples of Friedemann Bach)
much slower than the modem dance-rhythm of that name, with
cadences on the second instead of the third beat of the bar; (7)
the air, a short movement, quietly flowing, in a more florid style
than its name would suggest. It sometimes precedes the sara-
hande. The suite concludes with a gigue, in the finest examnles of
which the decorative binary form is combined with a light fugue
style of the utmost liveliness and brilliance. The gigue is gener-
ally in some triplet rhythm, eg. {, {, Sr V> ^^^ examples in a
graver style may befound in slow square time withdotted rhythms,
as In Bach's first Ftench suite and the sixth Partita of the Klaner-
Ubung. In gigues in the typical fugato style Bach is fond of
making the second part either invert the theme of the first, or
else begin with a new subject to be combined with the first in
double counterpoint. The device of inversion is also prominent
in many of Us allemandes and French courantes.
All suites on a large ^cale, with the exception of Bach's second
and fourth sdo violin sonatas, begin with a great prelude in
some larger form. Bach's French Suites are small suites without
prelude. His English Suites all have a great first movement
which, except in the first suite, is in full da capo concerto form.
His clavier Partitas show a greater variety of style in the
dance movements and are preceded by preludes, in each case of a
different type and title. Some large suites have finales after the
gigue; the great chaconne for violin solo being the finale of a
partita (see VASiAnoNs).
Handel's suites are characteristically nondescript in form, but,
in the probably earlier sets.published after what is called his first
set, there is a most interesting tendency to make several of the
movements free variations of the first. Earlier composers bad
already shown the converse tendency to make variations take
the forms of suite movements. In general HandeTs suites are
effecrive groups of movements of various Iengths,witb a tendency
to use recognizable suite movements of a Franco-Italian type.
In modem times the term " suite " is used for almost any group
of movements of which the last is in the same key as the first,
and of which a fair proportion show traces of dance-rhythm, or at
least use dance titles. It is often said that the suite-forms have
shown more vitality onder modern conditions than the dassicsl
I The (M^ef Bftch*att^&hAi aidit has In some editUma been
cslled the asQOttd l«viififeMHH|MHrif|ate«f^
sonata forms. But thk only oMans that when composers do not
feel inclined to write symphonies or sonatas they give their
groups of movements the name of suite. Certainly there is no
such thing as a definite modem suite-form distinguishable from
the selection composers make, for use in concert rooms, d
Incidental music written ior plays, auch as Grieg's Pta Gynt
suites. (D. F. T.)
SUKHUM-KALBH. a seaport of Russian Caucasia in ihe
government of Kutais. Pop. (1900), about 16,000. Itissiiuaud
106 m« N. of Batum, and has the best roadstead on the east coast
of the Black Sea, being sheltered by mountains on three sides and
never freezing. In spite of the difficulties of commuoicatioQ
with the interior, and the malarial marshes which surround ibe
town, it has become important for the export of grain (chicfiy
jnaize). There is also a trade in tobacco. It stands on the site
of the ancient Greek colony of Dioskurias. The annual me^n
temperature b 59* F. There are here a cathedral and a
botanical garden. The town was captured by the Russians io
1809, but not formally relinquished by Turkey until 1829. In
1854 and again in 1877 it was occupied by the Turks.
8UKKUR. or Sakhar, a town and district of British India, in
Bind, Bombay. The town is situated on the light bank oi the
Indus, 24 m. N.W. of Skikarpur. Pop. (i9or), 31,316. SuLkur
has always commanded the trade of Sind, and the river is now
crossed by a cantilever bridge carrying the North-A^'cstero
railway to Kotri. The town was ceded to the Khairpur mirs
between 1809. and 1834. In 1833 Shah Shuja defeated the
Talpurs here with great loss. In 1842 it came under British
rule..
The DisntiCT or Sukkus was created in 1901 oat of part of
Shikarpur district, the remainder of which was formed into the
district of Larkana. Area, 5403 sq. m. It is chiefly allmnal
plain, but there are slight hills at Sukkur and RohrL In the
higher-lying parts are salt hinds {Kalar), or even desert in the
area *-nown as the Registan. The climate is hot, dry and encr<
vating. The annual rainfall at Sukkur town averages only 4I in-
The population in 1901 was 533,345, showing an increase of io*!«
iiS the decade. A considerable part of the district is irrigated,
the principal crops being wheat, millets, rice, pulses and oil seeds.
Earthen, leathern and metal ware, cotton jdoth and tiusorc
silk are manufactured, also pipe-bowls, snuff-boxes and scisson
Lines of the North-Westera railway serve the district, and then
is a branch from Sukkur towards Quetta.
«ULA ISLANDS (Sulla, Xuihi.Dutdi 5oeia), a chain of iskndj
forming a prolongation of the eastern prninMila of Celebes anc
the Banggai Islands, Dutch East Indies. The three main islands
are long and narrow (Tidiabu, 68 m. long, Mangoli or Mangala
63 m. and Besi, 30 m.). The two first lie in line, separated b^
the narrow Chapalulu Strait; Besi extends at right angles to thi
south coast of MangolL The natives of Taliabu are allied t o t hosi
of the Banggai Islands and the eastern peninsula of Celebes; bu
immigrant Malays are the principal inluibitants. Economicall)
Besi is the most important Uland. A Dutch commissione
resides at Sanana, at its northern extremity. It is fertile, an
produces wax and honey, and coal has been found.
VUhCU an andem town (mod. S. Antioco), situated on the eas
coast of an island on the south-west of Sardinia. The date oi '\\
foundationis not known, but it is certainly of Carthaginian origii
The assumption that it was originally an Egyptian colony is nc
justified. Its walls, of large rectangular blocks of stone, can V
traced for a circuit of upwards of. a mile: it exunded to the Io
ground on the shore near the modem cemetery, where a dedio
tory inscription set up by the people of Sulci in honour of Hadria
in A.D. xa8 was found (F. Vivanet in Nolitie degli Scan, 189
407). Various discoveries have been made within the circui
both of Phoenician and of Roman antiquities, including sever
sutues^and inscriptions and many smaller <^jects, gems, &<
but at present few traces of ancient buildings are left, owing
their continued destruaion in medieval and modem times.
dstem of fine masonry, perhaps dating from the Punic perio
*A statue of Drusus, the brotjier of Tiberius C7) was found
190&'
SULEIMAN L— SULIMAN HILLS
53
k the !»« groaad bdow tk» modem town, may be mcBlioned.
Claae u> it, amoog the houses of the modem town, a solid base
about 2 sit. s4|uaBet bekwgiac possibly to a lighthouse or a tomb,
itoords the existence of a tempte-of Isb'and Serapis during the
iapcxial peciod. Abilingiudinscxiption of the ist century B.C. ( ?)
ia L&tin and in neo-Punic records the erection of a statue to
Uicnilkat, who had carried out a decrae of the loosl tetMhts for
ite csectAon of a temple to a goddess (described in the Punic
fttsion as d&wuna d«s— possibly Tanit hecaeU) by his son
HimOkat (T. Mommsen in Corp, iuser, laL z. 75x3, 7514)-
Tile Phoenidaa tombs consist o( a chamber cut in the rock,
acssastug about 14 ft. square and S ft. high, and approached by
astaamaei some of these have been converted ihto dwellings
IS modem times. Many of the curious sculptured sidae found
in I hoe tonbs are now in the museum of Cagliari. On many of
them the foddcssTanit is represented, often in a form resembling
Lis. which gave rise to the unfounded belief of the Egyptian
orism of Suki. The ^oman tombs, on the other hand, are
*:^4>ly trenches escavsted in the rock.
There are abo several catacombs: a group stUl exists under
the cfaiudi, in which was discovered the body of the martyr
St Aatiochoa, from whom the modem town takes its name.
The chofcfa-is cxnctform, with heavy pillars between nave and
lidcs, mad a dome over the crossing: it belongs to the Byzantine
period, and oontalns an inscription of Ibrootorius, pzoto^tarius
and SiJnsiaa, ftpxur, dating from the xoth century a.d. (A.
Tarxmelii ia Arckirio stmica sardo, 1907, 83 sqq.). Others
iuther sotttli>west were Jewish; they have inscriptions in red
painted oa the plaster with which they are lined, and the seven-
tiranrhed caadlestidc occnn several times. The fort which
occupies tlie highest point-»no doubt the acropolis of the
huwc period— is quite modem. The long, low isthmus which,
viih the hdp of bridges^ connects the island with the mainland,
is irary likely in part or entirely of artificial origin; but neither
a nor the bridges show any definite tracefc of Roman date. On
dihcr mde of it ships oookt find shelter then as nowadays.
The origin of Sold is attributed by Pausaniaa to the Cartha-
paui%, and the Punk antiquities found there go to indicate .
the oerrnctwess of his account. It is mentioned In the account
of the First Punic War as-the place at which the Carthaginian
A^fniial Haanib^ took refuge after his defeat by C. Sulpicius,
o«t «ss crucified. In 46 B.C. the city was severely puitisbed by
Cjcssr for the assistance given to Pompe/s admiral Nssidius.
Uidrr the empire it was one Of the most flourishing cities of
Sudznia. It was attscked by the Vandals and Saracens, but
i to exist' before the 13th century. Previously to this it
t of the four episcopal sees into which Sardinia was
^vided. A csstle in the low ground, attributed to the index
Toetsotorins, to the south of the modem town, was destroyed in
in NoHtU dtgfi umi {1906), 135; (1908), T45, 193.
(T.As.)
SULEnAM I.Mhe "Magnificent" (1494-1566), suUan of
T jxkey. sooccedcH his father ScUm I. in xsso. His birth coin-
cided frith the opening year of the loth centuiy of Mussulman
cknoooiogy (a.b. 900), the most Morions period in the history
of Islam. Eventful as the age was both in Europe, where the
Seaeissance was in lull growth, and in India, where the splen-
dsrjr of the emperor Akbar's reign exceeded alike that of his pce-
i h ii M Biiii and his successors, Suleiman's conquests overshadowed
al these. It is noteworthy that though in Turkey he is dis-
ta-TPiishrd only as the law-giver (ioaam) , in European history
kc is kaowm by such titles as the Bffa^iifioBnti He was the most
igctuBxte of the saltans. He hsd no rival worthy of the name.
FfOD his lather he inherited a weU-organised country, a dis-
dfSiaeA array and a full treasury. He united in his person the
kcA qnafitiea of his predecessors, and possessed the gift of taking
iaJ adtaotn^B of the talcnU of the able genecals, admirsls and
'Tiihhiiin Mtit son of Bsyssid f^ who nialntahied himself as
wa,am at Adrianople fnim 1402 to 1410, » not reckoned ss legiti-
«a.te by the Ottooien hbtorioKraphen, who reckon Suleiman the
3l«f ttfc«n t as the fint or the name. By others, however, the latter
« nMMiieMB styled Suleiman It.
<»eA.Ta«awei8
viziers who illustraled his reign. If his campaigns weie not
always so wisely and pradentiy planned as those of some of his
predeccssocB, they were in the main eminently fortunate, and
resulted in adding to his dominions Belgrade, Budapest,
Temcsvar, Rhodes, Tabrir, Bagdad, Nakshivan and Rivan,
Aden and Algiers, and in his days Turkey attained the
culminating point of her glory.
The alliance concluded by hhn with France reveab him at
once as rising superior to the narrow prejudices of his race and
faith, which rejected with scorn any union with the unbeliever,
and as gifted with sufficient political insight to appreciate
the advantage of combining with Francis I. against Charles V.
His Pfcrsian campaign was doubtless an error, but was due in
part to a desire to find occupation, distant if possible, for Kjs
janissaries, who were always prone to turbulence while inactive
at the capital. He was perhaps wanting in firmness of character,
and the undue infltience exercised over him by unscrupulous
ministers, or by the seductions of fairer but no less ambitious
vourics of statecraft, led him to make concessions which
tarnished the glory of his reign, and were folfewed by baneful
results for the welfare of his empire. It b from Suleiman's
time that historians date the rise of that occult faifluence of the
harem which has so often thwarted the best efforts of Turkey's
most enlightened statesmen.
^ Suleiman's claims to renown as a legislator rest mainly on-
his organization of the Ulema, or clerical class, in its hierarchical
order from the Sheikh-nl-Isbm downwards. He reformed and
improved the administration of the country both civil and mili-
tary, inaugurated a new and improved system for the feudal
tenures of limitary fiefs, and his amelioration of the lot of his
Christian subjects is not his least title to fame. He was also not
unknown to fame as a poet, under the pseudonym of " Muhibbr "
(see Hammer^Purgstall, Geseh, d. Osmon. Reichs. ii. 331; and
further TVaitEV: History),
Suleiman died on the sth of September 1566, af the age of
77, while conducting the siege of Szigetvlr.
SULEIMAN n. (1641-1691), sultan of Turkey, was a son of
Sultan Ibrahim, and succeeded his brother Mahommed IV. in
1687. Forty-six yeaia of enforced retirement had qualified him
for the cloister rather than for the throne, and his first feeling
when notified of his accession was one of terror for his brother's
vengeance. Nor were the circumstances following on his
elevation to the throne of a nature to reassure him, as one of
the most violent of the revolts of the janissaries ended in the
murder of the grand vizier and the brutal mutilation of his
family, with general massacre and pilUge throughout Con-
stantinople. The war with Austria was for Turkey a suc-
cession of disasters. At this time, fortunately for the Ottoman
Empire, a third great kuprili (Mustafa) arose and re-estab-
lished order in the sorely-tried state (sec Kupriu). In the
reforms which followed, whereby the situation of the Christian
subjects of the Porte was greatly improved, Suleiman is at least
to be given the credit of having allowed Mustafa Kuprili a free
hand. With an improved administration Turkey's fortunes in
the war began to revive, and the reconquest of Belgrade late in
1690 was the last Important event of the reign, which ended
in 1691 by Suleiman's death. (See also Turkey: History.)
SUUBHAlflBH, or Sulehiaota, the chief town of a sanjak of
the same name in Asiatic Turkey, in the vilayet of Mosul, situated
on a treeless plain in the Kurdistan Mountains, in the region
known as Shehrizor, some 40 or 50 m. from the Persian frontier,
at an elevation of 3895 ^* It is a military station, and was
founded towards the close of the nth century. The estimated
population is about ia,ooo, of whom xX|OOo are Kurds, and the
majority of the remaining 1000 Jews.
BXSU.UAX HILLS, a mountain system on the Pera Ismail
Khan border of the north-west frontier of India. From the
Gomal river southward commences the true Suliman system,
presenting an impenetrable barrier between the plains of the
Indus and Afghanistan. The Suliman Mountains finally merge
into the hills of Baluchistan, which are inhabited by the Marri
and Bugti tribes. The chief mass of the range is known as
54
SULINA— SULLA
Takhi-ft-SuUxnan or Solomon's tluone. It piay be wtea on the
western horizon from Den Ismail Khan, a grey, flat-looking
nunport rising from the lower line of mountains north and south
oi it, slightly saddle-backed in the middle, but culminating in a
very well-defined peak at its northern extremity. The Icgoid of
the mountain is that Solomon visited Hindostan to marry Ballus,
and that as they were returning through the air, on a throne
sui^rted by genii, the bride impkned the bridegroom to let her
look back for a few moments on her beloved land. Solomon
directed the genii to scoop out a hoUow for the throne on the
summit of the mountain. The hollow is a cavity some 30 ft.
square cut out of the solid rock, at the southern extremity of the
mountain and is a place of pilgrimage for both Hindus and
Mabommedans. The actual shrine is about two m. south of the
highest peak. Tlie whole mountain was traversed and surveyed
by the Takht-i-Suliman Survey EjqMditkm of 1883 (see Sbekamx)
and was found to consist of two parallel ridges running roughly
north and south, the southern end of the^astem ridge culminating
in a point 11,070 fL high, which istheTakht proper On which the
shrine is situated, and the western ridge culminating at iu north-
ern end in a point xx ,300ft. high known as Kaisaigarh. Between
these two ridges is a connrrtipg tabldand about 9000 ft. high.
This plateau and the interior ^opes of the zidges are covered
with Mlgkosa (edible pine) forests. The mass of the mountain
is composed of nummulitic limestone. No water is to be found
on the summit.
SUUNA, a town in Rumania, at tiie moutb of the Sulina branch
of the Danube. Fbp. (1900), 561Z. Sulina is the only free port
00 the Danube, and is much used for the transhipment into sear
going vesscb of grain which is brought down the rxvcr in large
lighters from Rumania, Russia, Bulgaria, Servia and Austria-
Hungary. No agricultural produce is grown in iU neighbour^
hood, owing to the reed-covered swamps with which it is sur-
rounded. Sulina is the headquarters of the technical depart-
ment of the European Commission of the Danube (9.1.). Large
steamers navigate up to Galatx and Braila. la rgox , 141 x steamea
and sailing craft aggregating 1,830,000 tons register cleared from
Sulina for £un^)eaa ports caxiyiog, besides other merchandise:,
ncariy 13,000,000 quarters of grain. Owing to the improvements
effected by the European Commissioii, there is a depth of
S4 it. of water on the bar, and of 18 to sa ft. in the fairway. A
lighthouse overlooks the estuazy. The town contains the only
Englis h chx irch in Rumania.
SUUTBUIA, a mountain on the frontier between Norway and
Sweden, forming a salient (6x58 it) of the KjQl or " keel " of ihe
Scaodiiuvian prninsuhi. The mass, mmposed of three peaks,
is situated in 67^ 10' N., and covered with a snow-£cIdirom which
many gUders descend. In these rise feeders of the Swedish
rivers UUa Lule and Pile, flowiog south-east. Westward, the
foothills descend upon the Skjexstad Fjord, above which are two
lakes, Nedre and Ovre Vand. From Sjonslaa steamers on the
Langvand and a light railway give communication between the
sea and Fuiulund, \h« headquarters of the Swedish Sulitelma
Mining Company. A mountain track descends from Sulitdma
to Kvickjock (or K^-ikkjokk), a considerable village magnificently
situated on the Tamgock, a head-stream of the Ulla Lule. This
is disUnt thre e da> 's' journey on foot from Furulund.
SULLA. LUCIUS CORHEUUS (138-78 b.c), sumamed Fc/uc,
Roman general, politician and dictator, belonged to a minor
and impoverished branch of the Caxnous patrician Cornelian gens.
He received a careful education, and was a devoted studcst of
fiterature and arL His political advancement was slow, and
he did not obtain the quaestocship untH 107, when he served in
the Joguzthine war under Marius in Africa. In this he great^
distinguished himself, and daimed the credit of havingteiminated
the war tw OH>tiizioig Juguitha himsdf. La these African
jis SoSa ilkpivQdtte he knew bow to win the confidence
of hbaoUieilLsUHiHaiklilfimriheaeaet of his success
of his tzoc^,
g^bwifigthem to
k X04 to tot
» ^]<^i;>p and
Teutooes and fought in the last great battle in the RaodUo
plams near Verona. It was at this time that Marius's )eslousy
of his legate laid the foundations of their future rivalry and mutual
hatred. When the war was over, Sulla, on htf return to Rone,
hved quietly for some years and took no part in politics. In
93 he was dected praetor after a lavish squandering of money,
and he delighted the populace with an exhibition of a hundred
lions from Africa. Next year (92) be went as propraetor of
Cilida with special authority from the senate to make Mithn*
dates VL of Pontns restore Cappadoda to Ariobarzanes,ODeof
Rome's dependants in Asia. Sulla with a small army soon wool
victory over the ge&eial of Mithradates, and Rone's client-king
was restored. An embassy from the Farthians now came 10
solicit alliance with Roue, and- Sulla was the first Roman who
held dipkmuoic interoouzae with that remote people. In the
year 91 , which brought with it the imminent prospect of sweeping
political change, with the enfranchisement oi the Italian peeves,
Sulla returned to Rome, and it was generally felt that he was the
man to lead the conservative and aristocratic party.
Meanwhile Mithradates and the East were forgotten in the
crisis of the Social or Italic War, which broke out in 91 and
tjireateoed Rome's very nrisfrncf. The services of both Marius
and Sulla were given; but Sulla was the more successful, or, at any
rate, the more fortunate. Of the Italian peoples Rome's old
foes the Samnites were the moat formidabie; these Sulla van-
quished, and took their chief town, fiovianum. In recognition
of this and other brilliant services, he was dected consul in 88,
and brought the revolt to an end by the capture of NoU in
rsmpanis The question of the command of the army against
Mithradates again came to the front. The senate had already
chosen Sulla; but the tribune PuUius Sulpidus Rufus movd
that Marius should have the command. Rioting took placi;
at Rome at the prompting of th6 popular leaders, Sulla narrowly
"•^p^g to his legiooa in rampania, wheaoe he marched on
Rome, being the lint Roman who entered the dty at the head d
a Roman army. Sulpidua was put u> death, aad Marius fiedi
and he and his party were cniihed for the time.
Sulla, leaving thkigs quiet at Rope^ quitted Italy in S7, ^
for the next four years he wbs winning victory after vicioq
against the armies of Mithrsdatea and aocomulating boundless
plunder. Athens, the headquarters of the Mithxadatic cauifi
was taken and sacked in S6; and in the same year, at Chaeroneia
the scene of Philip IL of Mandon'a victory mocc than two and)
half centuries before, and in the year followiag, at the neighboui
ing Orchomenus, he scattered immense hosts of the enemy wit]
trifling loss to himself. Crossing the Hellespont in 84 into Asia
he was joined by the troops of C Flavius Fimbria, who soo
deserted their general, & man sent out by the Marian party, noi
again in the ascendant at Rome. The same year peace wii
concluded with Mithradates on coudition that he shoukl be pv
back to the position he held before the war; but, as he raise
objections, he had in the end to content himsdf with being siropl
a vassal of Rome.
Sulla returaed to Italy m 83,1aAding at Biundiahim, havii
previously informed the senate of the result of his campaigns i
Greece and Asia, and annosmced his presence on ItalSan groum
He further complaxaed of the ill-treatment to which his fxieo^
and partisans had been subjected dnriog his aliRmoe. Marii
had died in <6, and the rewolntianary party, specially represent
by L. Conelius Cimu, Ol ^pirius Carbo and the youo^
Marius, had masacred Sulla's soppoitas wfaolesalo, confiscati
his property, and declared him a pid>lic enemy. They ielt tbt
must resist him to the death, and with the troops scatter
thnrag^t Italy, and the newtymfranrhisrd ItaUana, to wbon
was understood that SoUa was bittcriy hostile, they oosintcd con
dently on sacoess. But oa SaDa'a advance at the hcaii o( 1
40,000 vetcnas maay of them kat heart and deserted th
Icftdos, wdiile the Italians themsdvca, wham he caofinned
their new privileges, were won over to his sde. Only the S^
nites, who were as yet without the Roman franchise, resnui
his enemies, and it seemed as If the old war between Rome a
Samnium had to be fought onot again. Sevecal Roman oobl
SULLIVAN, SIR A. S.
55
I F w iy dm (fVKOpty tke Gratt), Q« Gfeedfiuft
I Plus, MaicnsIictniwCnuBai, MarcwLldBiuLuaillni,
, and in the folkmiag year <8a) he wm a dKkhre
vrrtory over the younger Muhis near Ptaenttte (mod. Palettrina)
aad tbea. matched upon Roaae, whem agaby jeat bcime hiidclBat
of Mania* there had been a great maMacre of htaadhcanta, hi
vfaich the leuned jinist Q, Mudoa Scaevda perished. Some
vae at the aame time in catrene peril from the advinee of a
Soanitc acmx, and itas faaRly saved l^SoDa, who, aftera hanl>
ibaghit battle, routed the enemy mder Poathis Tekrinns at the
CdSoe gate «l Rome. With the death of the yoimger Mariua,
1^ killed fcamaelf after the sorreader of Piaeaeste, the chrfl war
was at an CDd, and SaHa was master of JUme and of the Soman
wecld. Then caase the m e m owble " proscription/' when for
the first time in Roman hiatocy a Iht of men dedarsd to be
ombws and fmblic enemies was eihiblted in tlie Isium, and a
leigBoftetxarbegianthxioogboat Rome and. Italy. The title of
" dktator " was rrdred and Sulla was in fact e mp e r or of Rome.
After cekbimting a splendid triumph for the Mithradatic War,
aaA mmnaa^ the snmame of **F«|ix" C £l»phnditns>"
" yema\ fawonite/'^ he styled fafanself hiaddiessing Grseha), he
csnied faiSonnd Tphisgrcat politkalvBforms<iee Rons: Hislcry,
lL"TigK0pmbHe'% The main object of these was to invest the
sraate, whkh he recruited with a number of Ins own party, with fnU
oobcxqI over the state, ever every magistrate and every pnivinoe;
sad the mainstay of his political system was to be the military
OB^nia which he had established with grants of land thiouf^ieiit
erery part of Italy, to the rain of the old lufian freeholdeia
■ri fBBBem* who from this time dwindled away, leaving whole
drtrkts wnstc and desolate.
la 79 Snln resigned his (Bctatorship and retired to Pateoli
(nod. Foasnoii), where he died in the foUowiag year, probably
hen the hantlr« of a blood-vessel The story that he fell a
victim to a dSaeaae simiUr to that which cut off one of the Heroda
(Acts xiL 93) to probably an inveatlen of his eacnics. The
"half Hon« half foV' i* ^ enemies called him, the " Don Juan
of poGtacs '* (IfonuBien), the nun who carded out a pohcy of
' blood aad iron " with a grim humour, amused himself m his
bst days with actoTB and actresses, with dabbling m poetry, and
«wnifa»Siig the liemoks (cawmieitfa r ff, tano^/Mtm) ef his event-
fal He (see H. Feter, HitUHconm r^maitcrum rdtquia*, 1870).
CvcB then he did not give up his interest hi state and local affairs,
Md hm end is aaid to have been hastened by a At of passion
famn^ on hy a remarlt of the quaestor Gtanius, who openly
laaiuil that he would escape pajrment of a sum of money doe
to the Rrwf!'"«, since SuAa was on his death-bed. SnOa sent
far ham aad had him strangled in his presence; In his ezdtement
he bfohe a fafcod'VciMi and died on the foUowhig day. He was
Mimd ed n magnificeat public funeral, Ms body beiag removed to
Some and buried hi the Ckmpua Martins. His manumeat bore
m iuanipti on written by himself, tothe effect that he had always
fally rvpahl the Idndnesses of his friends and the wrongs donehim
by his fftf«i*» ffis military genius was dispfaiyed in the Sodal
War and the campa^ns against Mithradates; while his constitn-
taaal refdmB, although doomed to faHnre from thelacfcofsuc-
QcsBDCB to carry them out, were a triumfiih ef oigaoiaation. But
he aw ■■lint hto enemies in ooM bloedt and exacted vengeance
wish piaSkaa and calculated cruelty; he sactificed cveiythfaig to
hh own anahidoo and the triumph of his party.
The «-'-g**»* authorities for Sulla a^d his time are Us Life by
PIcsaxch (who made use of the Ifammrs); Appian, BetL cw.; for
tte lUkujua a in Cicero see Oreili'aQiMawftfeia TulUcimm. Modera
ttwim by C & Zaeharii. X- CmwtfNr 5. eb (Ma«r i^ fAwMeikM
Fnjatmrt (iAm); T. Laa. Lacitu ConuUtu 5»fla(i855); £.
Umku, Dt heuo ctvOi SvBand ^1896); P. Cantalup!, La Cuerra
d»ae StMam* in Italia (1892); C. W. Oman, 5nen Roman Statesmen
fras); F. D. Gerlach. Marius und SuOa (1856); j. M. Saadeo, " De
B l ii M wia pettsCaae a Ludo SuUa iaMainnta'* ia Skrifiar utgUfna
of L fcaMaai'itflii VdenskapsHUnfundel i UptaUt v., 1897, in which
a m atfptd against Mommaen that Sulla did not deprive the tribunes
<tf the right of jprvnoaing rogations. See also Nf ommsen's History
< J^mie. voL in., ok. W., dn., 8, 9; Drumana, Go fkicku Rams,
'A 8i»ort eptcram on Aphrodite in the Creek Antkclory (Anth.
M, 4f#«aJSa 153) ^ Mcribed to Urn.
aad ed. by Gmehe. il. 36i<4S»s ftaly-Wlsmaia, IMmeyd^pddu,
tv. 1522-1566 (Frdhlich).
His nephew (aa some say, though the degree of relatioaship
cannot be clearly established), PuBXiui ConiEUUS Sulla was
ooOBul in 66 B£. with R Autionias PMtus, Both were convicted
of hcOiesy, and Faetua anhseqnently joined Catiline m his first
conspiracy. There iaiittkdenbt that SuUaaho was haplkated;
Salfantdaes not mention it,b«t other aatbatfties defoitay assert
hh guilt.- After the second Qoospiracy he was accused of having
tafceapart hi hoth conspiracies. S«Ha was defended by Cicero
and Hortcnshia, and acquitted. There is no doubt that, alter his
firu conviction, SuOa lemafaied very cpiiet, and, whatever his
^mpathlea may have been, took no active part in the conspiracy.
When the eivll war broke oul, SuUa took the side of Caesar, and
commanded the right whig at the battle of Phaisalus. He died
in 45-
See CIceRs Pfo StUa, passim <edb J. SL Reid, 1882); Ad fam.
ia. io» XV. 17; Dio Caaaiusxacvi.' 44, xaxrii 25: Suetonius, Caesar,
9; Caesar. BeU. cn^ iii. 51, 89; Appun, Bell, ess. jL 7&
WLUVAir, SIR ASlttUR 8BTII0UR (1842-1900), English
muaical oompooer,- was bom hi London on the rjth of May 1849,
being the younger of the two sons of Thomas Sullivan, a culti^
vatcd Irish musickm iriko was bandmaster at the Royal Military
CoHcge, Sandhurst, from 184s to 1856, and taught at the Miiiury
School of Music at Kneller Hall fmm 1857 tiU his death in 1866.
His mother, wfa Mary Coghkn (18(1-1882), had Italian blood in
her veihs. Arthur Sullivan was brought up to music from boy-
hood, and he had learnt to play every whid instrument m his
father's band by the age of eight. Hie was sent to school at
Bayswater tm he was twelve, and then, through Sir George
Smart, he was, at his own persistent request, made a Chapel
Royal chorister, and entered Mr Hdmore's school for Chapel
Rf^ boys in Cheyne Walk. He had a fine treble voice, and
sang with exceptional taste. In i8j^ the MendeJasnhn Schohtf«
ship 'at the Royal Aoademy ol Music was thrown open for the
first time for competition, and was won by Sullhraa, his nearest
rival befog Joseph Bamby. At the Academy he studied under
Stemdale Bennett, Arthur O'Leary and John Gon, and did so
well that he was given an extenaion of his schohuriiip for tivo
years in succession. In 1858, hb voice having broken, he was'
enabled by means of his schobnhip to go to study at the con*
servatorium of Leipsig. There he had for teachers Moschdes
and Phtidy for pianoforte, Hanptmann for counterpoint, Rieta
and Rebiecke for oomporition, and F. David for orchestral pbymg
and conducting. Among hia feUow-atudenU were Grieg, Cari
Rosa, Walter Bache, J. F. Bamett and Edward Dannreuther.
Instead of the Mendelssohn cidtei which represented orthodoxy
m London, Gennaa musical intermt at this period centred in
Schumann, Schubert and the growing reputation of Wagner,
whilst Lisat and Von BOlow were the celebrities of the day.
Sullivan thus became acquahited for the first time with master*
pfeees which were then practically ignored hi England. He
entered enthusiastfeally Into the spirit of the phux, and after two
years' hard study returned to London m April 1861. Before
domg so, however, he had composed his incidental music for
Tke Tempaa, which he had begun as a sort of diphmaa work.
SulBvansetlilmsblf to find converts in London to the enthuaiasms
he had imbibed at Ldpsig. He became acquainted with
George Grove, then secreUry of the Crystal Pahioe, and August
Manns, the conductor there; and at his instigation Schumann's
Phat Symphony was hitroduoed at one of the winter concerts.
Early hi r862 Sullivan showed Grove and Manns his Tempest
music, and on the 5th of April it was performed at the Crystal
Palace. The production was aa unmixed triumph, and Snlhvan's
exoepti6nal gifu as a composer were generally recognized from
that moment. He had hitherto been occupying himself with
teadiing, and he continued for some years to act aa organist at
St Michael's, Chester Square, but henceforth he devoted most of
his time to composition. By 1864 he had produced his '* Keail*
worth " cantata (remembered chiefly for the lovely duet, " How
sweet the Moonlight "), the " Sapphire Necklace " overture, and
the live beautiful . songs from Shakespeare, which include
S6
SULLIVAN, SIR A. &
" Orplieas with liis Lute/^*'Oli Ifistiwt Mine " and "The Willow
Song." His attnurtive personality, combined with his un-
doubted genius and brilliant promise, brought him many friends.
Costa, who was. conductor at Covent Garden, gave him the post
of or^mist, and in 1864 he produced there his Vtlc Emkantte
ballet. Some of his spare time was spent in Ireland, where in
1863 he began the composition of his (" Irish ") Symphony in E,
which was produced at the Crystal Palace in 1866. The most
important event, however, at this period, as bearing upon his
later successes, was his co-operation with F. C. Bursand in the
musical extravaganxa C^x and Box, which first showed his
capacity for musical drollery. This was acted privately in x866,
and was completed for public performance in 1867, in which year
Sullivan again co-operated with Bumand in CMtrabanditia,
Meanwhile he was in request as a conductor, and was made
professor of composition at the Academy. His father's sudden
death in 1866 inspired him to write the fine " In M^moriam "
overture, whith was produced at the Norwidi Festival. In
1867, besides producing his " Marmion " overture, he and Grove
did a great service to thdr art by bringing to Ught at Vienna a
number of lost Schubert MSS., indudii^ the Rosamundt music
About this time Sullivan induced Tennyson to write his song-
cycle" The Window," to be illustrated by Mlllais, with music
by himself. But Miflais abandoned the task, and Tennyson
was not happy about his share;.and the aeries, published in 1871,
never became popular, in. spite of Sullxvan''s dainty setting.
In 1869 he brought out his oratorio The Prodigal Son at
Worcester, and in 1870 his overture " Vi Ballo " at Birmingham.
In Z871 Sullivan had become acquainted with W. S. Gilbert
(q.v.), and in 1873 they collaborate in a piece for the Gaiety.
Theatre, called Theses; or, Th4 Gods GromuOld, which was a
great .success in spite of the limiteil vocal resources of the per-
formers. In 1875 R, D'Oyly Carte, then acting as manager for
Selina Dolaro at the Royalty, approached Gilbert with a view
to his collaborating with Sullivan in a piece for. that theatre.
Gilbert had already suggested to Sullivan an operetta with its
scene in a law court, and within three weeks of his completing
the libretto of Trial by Jury tht music was written. The piece
succeeded beyond all expectation; and on the strength of its
promise of further successes D'Oyly Carte formed his Comedy
Opera Company and took the Op6ra Coraique Theatre. There in
1877 The Sorcerer was produced, George Grossmith and Rutland
Barrington being in the cast. In 1878 HM^. Pinafore was
brought out at the Op£ra Comique. At first it did not attract
large audiences, but eventually it became a popular success, and
ran for 700 nights. In America it wis enthusiastically received,
and the two authors, with D'Oyly Carte, went over to the States
in 1879, with a company of their own,, in order to produce it in
New York. To secure the American rights for their noit opera,
they brought out Tke Pirates of Pemance first at New York in
1879. In z88o, in London, it ran for nearly 400 nights. In
1 88 1 Patience was produced at the Op6ra Comique, and was
transferred later in the year to the Savoy Theatre. There all the
biter operas came out: lolanthe (1882), Princess Ida (1884), Tke
Jfikado—^^h&ia the most charming ol all — (1885), Ruddigore
(1887), Tke Yeomen of the Guard (1888), The Gondoliers (1889).
This succession of pieces by Gilbert and Sullivan had made their
united names stand for a new type of Hght opera. Its vogue
owed something to such admirable performers as George Gros-
smith-— famous for his "patter songs*' — Rutland Barrington,
Miss Jessie Bond, Miss Brandram, and later W. H. Denny and
Walter Passmore; but these artistes only took advantage of the
opportunities provided by the two authors. In place of the dki
adaptations of French optra bouffe they had substituted a
genuinely English pror"--" *- -* ->-»-«-*'^* —..i.— .
a tinge of vulgarity 01
now arose between the
ship. Sullivan's next
a libretto by Sydney <
collaboration in 1893 i
Tke Grand Duke, was
music, however, still 1
Chieftain (1894)— largely an adaptation of Coutrabandisia', The
Beauty Stone (iSgB), with a libretto by A. W. Pinero and
J. Comyns Carr; and particularly in Tke Xosf of Persia (1900),
with Captain Basil Hood.
In the public mind Sir Arthur Sullivan (who was knighted in
1883) had during these years become principally aawdated with
the enormous success of the Savoy operas; but these by no means
exhausted his musical energies.- In 187a his Te Deum for
the recovery of the prince of Wales was performed at the Crystal
Palace. In 1^73 he produced at the Birmingham Musical Festival
his oratorio iTke Light of (he World, in 1877 lie wrote his
incidental music to Henry VIIL, in 1880 h^ sacztd cantata
The Martyr of Antiock, and in 1886 his masterpiece, Tke
Golden Legend, was brought out at the Leeds FcativaL Tke
Golden Legend satisfied the most exacting critics, that for
originality ol conception and grandeur of execution English
music possessed in Sullivan a codiposer of the highest calibre.
In 1891, for the opening of D'Oyly Carte's sew English opera-
house in Shaftesbury Avenue he wrote his "grand opera"
Ivankoe to a Ubretto by Julian Stuigis. . The attempt to put an
English opera on tht stage for a long run Was doomed to failure,
but Ivinkoe was full of fine things. • In 1892 he composed inci-
dental music to Tennyson'a Foresters. In 1897 he wrote a t>allet
for the Alhambra, called Victoria mid Uerrie England. Among
his numerous songs, a conspicuous merit of which is their admir-
able vocal quality, the b^ known are " If Doughty Deeds "
(1866), " The Sailor's Grave " (1^72), " Thou'rt Passing Hence "
(1875), " I would I were a King " (x87<), " King Henry's Song "
(1878) and " The Lost Chord " (1877). This last, hackneyed as
it became, was probably the most successful F.nglish song of the
19th century. It was written in 1877, during the fatal illness of
Sullivan's brother Frederic, who, originally an architect, had
become an actor, and by means of his fine voice and powers as a
comedian (best shown as the Judge in Trial by Jury) had won
Considerable success. Among Sullivan's many hymn tunes, the
stirring "Onward, Christian SoldiersI^' (1879) is a permanent
addition to Churchmusic. In 1876 he accepted the prindpalship
of the National Training. School of Music, which he held for six
years; this was the germ of the subsequent Royal College. He
received tfaehonorary degree of Mua. Doc. from Cambridge (X876)
and Oxford (1879). In 1878 he was a member of the royal com-
mission for the Paris Exhibition. He was conductor of the Leeds
Festivals from 1879 to 1898, besides, being conductor of the
Philharmonic Society in 1885. Apart from his broad lympatby
and his practical knowledge of instruments, his work as a con-
ductor must always be associated with his efforts to raise the
standard of orchestral playing in England and his unwearying
exertions on behalf of British music and British musicians.
SttlUvan liked to be associated in the public mind with patriotic
objects, and his setting of Rudyard Kipling's " Absent minded
B^gar" song, at the opening of the Boer War in 1899, was, with
the exception of The Rose «/ Persia, the lastof hiscomposiiiocks
brought out in his lifetime. He died somewhat suddenly of
heart failure on the 22nd of November 1900, and his burial in
St Paul's Cathedral was the occasion of a ren^kaUe denM>n-
stration of public sorrow^ He left unpublished a Te Deum
written for performance at the end of the Boer War, and an
unfinished Savoy opera for a hbretto by Captain Hood, which,
completed by Edward German, was. produced in 190s as Tlu
Emerald Isle,
Sullivan was the one really popular English composer of any
artistic standing in his time; and his celebrity as a public man
has somewhat interfered with a definite judgment as to his place
in the histoiy of En^^ music In his own time, English
f-.i J-. i-__j . '-*-'* degree; and mu&icaj
idined to do jusiic^
reeable companions]
n, he was intensely
sd though his health
f years at intcrvalj
t worM who en joycti
:iliithoul being ^xiilt
SUIXIVAN, J.-SULLY, JAMES
bf k. He was alwrnys a devoted and an induliwaB musidaii)
aad from Che day he left Leiptig his influeace was powerfally
CBftcd in tevour of a wider and fuller recognition of nraaital
cdtitre. He was accused in some quarten of bdng unsympathetic
iDwafds Wagnrr and the post-Wagnerians, yet he had been
one of the first to introduce Wagner's nniaic to English audiences,
lie was keenly appreciative of new talent, but his tastes were too
edectic to satisfy the enthusiasts for anjrpartScular school; he
oBtainly had no liking for what he considered uninspired
»r*4npy writing. Serious critics deplored, with more justifica-
doB. that he ahouU have devoted so much of his great natural gift
not mexdy to light comic open, but to the production of a number
<jf snogs wlilch, though always musicianly, were really of the
lutare of *' poC-boiiing.*' SuUivan was an extremely rapid worker,
and his fertility in melody made it easy for him to produce what
vodd pleaae a laige public. Moreover, it must be admitted that
hi» great social success, so early achievod, was not calculated to
i^Hzmh a rigidly artistic ideal. But when all is said, his genius
mnains undisputed; and it was a genius essentially English.
His dioTch music alone would entitle him to a hi^ place
a»ong oMnposers; and The Gdden Legend, I'tankoe, the In
Uemmam overture, the " Irish *' symphony and the charming
** incidental imi^c " to The Tempest and to Benry VIII. form
a splendid legacy of creative effort, characterised by the highest
sriiolarly qualities in* addition to those beauties which appeal to
every ear. Whether his memory wiU be chiefly associated with
these worfcs, or rather with the world-wide popuhrity of some of
his songs and comic operas, time alone can tell.' The Savoy
operas <fid not aim at intellectual or emotional grandeur, but at
pRmdins innocent and wholesome pleasure; and in giving
Dbsical focm to Gilbert's witty librettos Sullivan showed once
lor an what light opera may be when treated by the hand of a
Bttstcr. His scores are as humorous and fanciful qtid music as
Gafccft^ vcnes arc qud dramatic literature. Bubbling melody,
iiiiiaiiiimatf orchcatfation, lovely songs and concerted pieces
(vxMf the famous vocal quintets) flowed from his pen in un-
exhausted and inimitable profusion. If he had written nothing
dK, Us «iiiqne aocoess in this field would have been a solid title
uy lame. As it was, it is Sir Arthur Sullivan's special distinction
wt only to have been prolific in music which went straight to the
hearts of the people, but to have enrichi^ the English rSperioire
vitli ackniwledged masterpieces, which are no less remiufcable
ior their ^f*^^»«<^*1 accomplishment.
^ abo Sir ArAur SuUiieaH: Life-ston, Letters^ tad R tmim i K encn,
by Arthur Lawrence (London: Bowden, 1899)^ Bendea being
Uridy aotobiogFapbicai, this volume contains a complete lift of
^ttvan's wocfcSb coopiifed by Mr Wilfrid Bendall, who for manv
jtan acted aa S«r Artanr's pnvate aeaetary. (H. Ch.)
WaUIWMM* lOHH (1740-1795)1 American soldier and poUtl-
al leaikr, was bom hi Somersworth, New Hampshire, on the
iBih of February 1740. He studied law in Portsmouth, N.H.,
and practised at Berwick, Maine, and at Durham, N.H. He was
a ccoabec of the New Hunpshire Provincial Assembly in 1774,
aed m in^-'TTS ^'^ *- delegate to the Cdntinental Congress,
la 1777 be bad been commissioned a. major of New Hampshire
mTfim^ MmA cu thc K5th of DccembeT 1774 he and John Langdon
fed an cspedition which captured Fort William and Mary at
Krw Ckstle. SuIUvaa was appomted a brigadier-general in
•he Contmeatal army in June 1775 ^^^ * major-general in
^;^j5t 1776. He commanded a briffiide in^the siege of Boston,
la June 1776 he took command of the American army in Canada
ad alter an unsuccessful skirmish with the British at Three
Rhrrs (Joae 8) retreated to Crown Point. Rejoining Washing-
*xfi's itmft he served under General Israel Putnam in the battle
« Loas fcfanil (August 27) and was taken prisoner. Released
I Iw bore a verbal message from Lord Howe to the
1 CMgreas, which led to the fruiUen conference on
In December he was exchanged, succeeded
Lee in command, of the right wing of Wash-
w« a the battle of Trenton led an attack on the
lied a night attack against British and Ix>yalists on
, OD the a2Qd of August i777- In the battle of
57
Bnodywhie (Sfept. n, 1777I %e aga& commanded the American
right; he took part in the battle of Cerraantown (Oct.. 4, »777);
in Mardi 1778 he was placed in command in Rhode Island, and
in the following summer plans'^were made for his cxvoperation
with the French fleet under Count d'Estatng In an attack on
Newport, which came to nothing. Sullivan after a brief engage-
ment (Aug. 39) at Quaker Hill, at th* N. end of the island of
Rhode Island, was obliged toretreat. In 1 779 Sullivan, with about
4000 men, defeated the Iroquob and their Loyalist allies at New-
town (now Elmira), New York, on the 29ih of August, burned
their villages, and destroyed their orchards and crops. Although
severely criticised for his conduct of. the expedition, he receiv«l,
in October 1779, the thanks of Congress. In November he
resigned from the army. Sullivan was again a delegate to the
Omtinental Congress in 1780-1781 and, having accepted a loan
from the French minister. Chevalier de la Luseme, he was
charged with being influenced by the French in voting not to
make the right to the north-east fisheries a condition of peace.
From 178s to 1785 he was attorney-general of New Hampshire.
He was president of the state in i786'-r787 and in 1789, and
in 1786 suppressed an Insurrection at Exeter immediately pre-
ceding the Shays RebelHoo in Massachusetts. He presided
'over the New Hampshire convention which ratified the Federal
constitution in June 1788. From 1789 until his death at
Durham, on the 33rd of January 1795, he was United States
District Judge for New Hampshire.
See O. W. B. teahody, ** Life of John Sullivan " in Jared Sparks*s
Library ef Amerkan Biorrapky, vol. iii. (Boston. 1844); T. C.
Amory. Central Jekm SmUimm, A VindieaHttt ef M Chancier om
a SoUier amd a Patriot (Morrisania. N.Y., 1867); John Scales.:
" Master John Sullivan of Somersworth and Berwick and bia
Family.'* m the Proceedings ef the New Hampshire Historical
Society, vol. iv. (Concord, 1906}; and Journals of ike itililary
Bxpedition of MaJor-CenonU John SuOioem egfliiui the Six NoHont
<fj»d$em$ CAubuni, N. Y.. 1887).
SUlUVAir, TH01IA8 BARRY (1824-1891), Irish actor, was
bom at Birmingham, and made his first stage appearance at
Cork about 1840. His earliest successes were in romantic
drama, for which his graceful figure and youthful enthusiasm
Qtted him. His first London appearance was in 1852 in Hamlet,
and he was also successful as Angiolo in Miss Vandcnhoff's
Woman*s Heart, Evdya in Money and Hardman in Lord
Lytton's Not so Bad as ipc Seem. Claude Melnotte— with Helen
Faudt as Pauline — ^was also a notable performance. A tour
of America in 1857 preceded his going to Australia (x86i) for
six years, as actor and manager. He completed a trip round
the world in x866. From x 868-1870 he managed the Holborn
theatre, where Beverley in The Gamester was one of his most
powerful impersonations. Afterwards he travelled over the
United States, -Canada, Australia and England. Among bis
later London performances were several Shakespearian parts,
his best, perhaps, being Richard UL He was the Benedick
of the cast of Much Ado About Nothing with which the Shake-
speare Memorial was opened at Stratford-on-Avon. He died
on the 3rd of May 1891.
STJIXY, JAMES (X842- ), English psychologist, was born
on the 3rd of March 1842 at Bridgwater, and was educated at
the Independent College, Taunton, the Regent's Park College,
G5ttingen and Berlin. He was originally destined for the
Nonconformist ministry, but in 187 x adopted a literary and
phUosophic career. He was Grote professor of the philosophy
of mind logic at University College, London, from 1893 to
X903, when he was succeeded by Carveth Read. An adherent
of the assodationist school of psychology, his views had great
affinity with those of Alexander Bain. His monographs, as
that on pessimism, are ably and readably written, and his text-
books, of which The Human Mind (1892) is the most important,
are models of sound exposition.
yNonxs.^Sensation and Intuition (jBjuX Pessimism (1877),'
lUusions (1881; 4th ed., 189S). Outlines ef Psychology (1684;
many editions), foacher's Handbooh of Psychology (1886). Studira
of Childhood (1895). Children'* Way* (1897). Mnd An Essay on
Lat^hter (1903).
Mftntes, oa the ijthof December 1560, of anobleUmily of Flemish
deKent. His father, Francois de Bithune, baron de Roany,
(1532*1575), was the son of Jean de B^tJhune, to whom in 1529
his wife Anne de .Melun brought as part of her dowry a seigneurie
at Rosny-sur-Seine, which later (160O was made a marquisatc.
Brought up in the Reformed faith, Maximilien was presented to
Henry of Navarre in 1571 and was thenceforth attached to the
future king of France. The young baron de Rosny was taken
to Paris by his patron and was studying at the college of Bqut*
gogne at the time of the massacre of St Bartholomew's Day,
from which he escaped by discreetly carrying a book of hours
under his arm. He then studied mathematics and history at
the court of Henry of Navarre, and on the outbjreak of civil
war in 1575 he enlisted in the Protestant army. In 1576 he
accompanied the duke of Anjou on an expedition into the
Netherlands in order to regain the former Rosny estates, but
being unsuccessful he attached himself for a time to the prince of
Orange. Later rejoining Henry of Navarre in Guienne, he dis^
pitted bravery in the field and particular ability as an engineer,
in 158 J he was Henry's special agent in Paris. In 1584
be married Anne de Courtenay, a wealthy heiress,* who died,
however, in 1589. On the renewal of civil war Rosny again
joined Henry of Navarre, and at the battle of Ivry (1590)
was seriously wounded. He counselled Henry IV. 's conversion
to Roman Catholicism, but steadfastly refused himself to become
a Roman Catholic. As soon as Henry's power was established,
the faithful and trusted Rosny received his reward in the shape
of numerous estates and dignities. On the death of D'O, the
superintendent of finances, in 1594, the king had appointed a
finance commission of m'ne members, to which he added Rosny
in 1596. The latter at once made a Jtour of inspection through
the generalities, and introduced some order into the country's
affairs. He was probably made sole superintendent of finance^
in I sqS, although this title does not appear in official documents
until the close of 160 1. He authorized the free exportation of
gr.\in and wine, reduced legal interest from 8| to 61%, estab-
lished a special court for the trial of cases of peculation, forbade
provincial governors to raise money on their own authority,
and otherwise removed many abuses of tax-collecting, abolished
several of{)ces,and by his honest, rigorous conduct of the country's
finances was able to save between 1600 and 1610 an average of
a million Itvres a year. His achievements were by no means
solciv financial. In 1599 he was appointed grand commissioner
of highways and public works, superintendent of fortifications
and grand master of artOlery; in i6oa governor of Mantes and
of Jargeau, captain-general of t^e queen's gens d'armes and
governor of the Basrille; in 1604 governor of Poitou; and in
1606 duke and peer of Sully, ranking next to princes of the
blood. He declined the office of constable because he would
not become a Roman Catholic. Sully encouraged agriculture,
urged the free circulation of produce, promoted stock-raising,
forbade the destruction of the forests, drained swamps, built
rmds and bri<lges, planned a vast system of canals and
actu.'dlv bcsan the cannl of Briare. He strcnfithcned the French
mother gave him 3oo/>oo livres for his services and confirmed him
in possession of his estates^ He attended the estates-general
in 1614, and on the whole was in sympathy with the polky and
government of Richelieu. He disavowed the plots at La
Rochelle, in 162 1, but in the* following year was arrested at
Moulins, though soon released. The baton of marshal of
France was conferred on him on the i8th of September 1634.
The last years of his life were spent chiefly at Villebon, Rosny
and Sully. He died at Villebon, on the 22nd of December
1641. By his first wife Sully had one son, Maximilien,
marquis de Rosny (1587-1634), who led a life of dissipation
and debauchery. By his second wife, Rachel de Cochefilet,
widow of the lord of Chiteaupers, whom he married in 1592
and who turned Protestant to please him, he had nine children,
of whom six died young, and one daughter married in 1605
Henri de Rohan. •
Sully was not popular. He was hated by most Roman
Catholics because he was a ProtesUnt, by most Protestants
because he was faithful to the kiiig, and by all because he was
a favourite, and selfish, obstinate and rude. He amassed a large
personal fortune, and his jealousy of all other ministers and
favourites was extravagant. Nevertheless he was an excellent
man of business, inexorable in punishing malversation and
dishonesty on the part of others, and opposed to the ruinous
court expenditure which was the bane of almost all European
monarchies in his day. He was gifted with executive ability,
with confidence and resolution, with fondness for work, and
above all with deep devotion to his master. He was implicitly
trusted by Henry IV. and proved himself the most able
assistant of the king in dispelling the chaos into which the
religious and civil wars had plunged France. To Sully, next
to Henry IV., belongs the credit for the happy transformation
in France between 1598 and x6io by which agriculture and
commerce were benefited and foreign peace and iatemal order
were I
ttconomies d'estat. iomestiques, pdii
U Orand^ Fexempiaire des toys, U pH.
loix, a U pht tn effet ie ses peuf>les f
obisstmces cotnenableSt et admintstr
Sully left a curious coOectioa of .memoirs written in the ncowl
person and bearing the quaint title, Mimoirgs des sages ti rfy&es
arc onomus ^d'estat J domestiqtus, pdiUques, et miUtaires de Henry
' ^ ' " ' • • prince des 9ertus, des armes^ el des
. . es fmnfffis; et des servHudes mtOes,
od/ntiitistnUoHS i&yoles de ^b.thw, dv
Bitknne, rmn des ^us confidens, familiers, et utiles soldais et servUemrs
du grand Mars des Francois: didides A la France, d Urns les hons
soldats, H fM» beupUs franfois. The memoirs are very valuable
for the hiitory oi the time and as an autobiography cf Sully, in sfnte
of the fact that they contain many fictkms, Macfi as a miasMm under-
taken by SuUy to Qoeen Elizabeth in 1601, and the famous ** CraiKl
Design, ' a plan for a Christian republic, which some historians
have Ukcn seriously. Two folio volumes of the memoirs were
splendidly printed, nominally at Amsterdam, but really andcr
Sullv's own eye, at hb chlt<^a in 1638; two otbervolttmes appeared
posthumously in Paris in 1662. The abb6 de I'Ecluae rewrote the
memoirs in ordinary narrati\'e form and edited them in 1745- The
best edhion of the onrinal is that in J. F. Michaud and j. t. F.
Pbujoulat. NnmHt cailecHm des mimaiwts. rdoH/sA rAutoMV d^
Frtmce (1854). vol& xvl-xviL An EngUsfa tmulatioa by Chadarte
Lennox appeared in 1756 and was later revised and republished
(4 \x4s., London, 1 856). "
iOMME, R. F.— SOLMONA
ttoLODdOQ
vtuined in
[am visited
of Queen
ift. SnUy
He died
(luspor-
f York);
lytvania
ndepcB-
', West
e, end
officer
in tbe
mded
the
te.
59
He ms one of the esiliett cfasmpions of CapUin
Dreyfus. Ini9Mhe«iote,incoUsboiattonwithCluuksRkhet^
Lm FrMkim in muau fmaUa. Daring his later yeais iw fived
•t CbitcnBy in great isolation, a victim of perpetnal iU-bealth,
and Buinly oconpied with his j^roie rdifian tdom Pascal (190$).
He had been partially paralysed for some time when hie died
soddenly on the 6th of September 1907. He left a volune of
impaUfahed verse and a prose work, Le Lien mcmI, which was
a revision of an introduction which he had contribnted to
Michelet's £« BiUf 4fe r*MmiMl&
What strikes the reader of SoUy-Prudhomme's 'poetry first
and foremost is the fact that he is a thinker; and moreover a
poet who thinks, and not a thinker who turns to rhyme for
leaeation. The most striUngly original portion of his work
is to be found in hisphikMophic and scientific poetry. If he
has not the scientific genius of Pascal, he haa at least the
scientific habit of nrind and a delight in mathematic certainties.
In attempting to interpret the universe as science revcab it to
us he has created a new form of poetry which is not lacking
in a certain grandeur. One of hb most beautiful poems,
" L'ld^ " {Stances si pohnes), is inspized by the thought, which
is due to scientific calculations, of staa so remote from our
pbmet that their light has been on iu way to us since thousands
of centuries and will one day be visible to the eyes of a future
generation. The second chief charactciistlc of SuHv-Prud'
homme's poetry is the eztzeme sensibility of soul, the pra-
fbundly mdancholy note which we find in his k>ve lyrics and
his meditations. Sully«Pnidhomme is above all things intro-
spective; he penetrates into d»e hidden comers of hk heait;
be lays bate the subtle torments of hb conscience, the shifting
currents of hb hopes and feais, belief and dbbelief In face, of
the riddle of the universe to an extent so poignant as to be
sometimes almost painful And to render the fugitive phases
sad tremulous adventures of hb spirit he finds incomparably
ielicate shades of expression, an exquisite and sensitive diction.
Ve are struck in reading hb poems by the nobility of hb ideas,
J a leligioaB elevatk>n like that of Pascal; for there b in hb
ork something both of Lucretius and of Pascal. Yet he b
r from being either an Epicurean or a Jansenbt; be b rather
Stoic to whwn the deccptwns of life have brought pity instead
bitterness.
is an artbt Snily-Prudhomme b remarkable for the entire
inoe of oratorical effect; for the extreme simplicity and faa-
tus precision of hb diction. Other poets have been endowed
a more glowing imaginatk>n; hb poetiy b neither exubersnt
lour nor rich in sonorous harmonies of rhyme. The gnoe
I vctK b a pace of outline and not of colour, ^ mdocfy
: subtle rhythm; hb vene b as if carved in ivory, hb wmssc
bat of a perfect tmlson of stringed instruments. Ifis
ation b inseparable from hb ideas, and thb bjibe 1
tztraordinary penpicuity of hb poetic style.
:o two extreme limits; on the one hand to tbi
ureal and the dreamlike, as hi a poem nm^ as * Lc
lous " iVames Undresses), in whfeh he snma >f<«wrcs
DressiUe in precise language; on tl»4«Aar heme xr ?s
poems he encroaches on the pHH^a « umi Sn
plastic in the creatico of fan»«liM it^^^^ -
kre emotions and hb iUvmnfi <
lib pure and perfect pbmse ^
'gnlty which informs aB h» ««
-ok among the fun mmr « 1
inion, U PkOmitfim ^ S«S^
m ;— «•
**3
temf* 5^-
6o
SULPHONAL— SULPHONIC ACIDS
kUsahoinSw Mam ddb Tomba a good ttunpk of
. pure Gokkk. S. FnmotsA d'Aasisi oocapks tbe site o£ on
•Mer umI kiser dnucli, the Romaacaqae poKtal of wbich still
ttuMh at tlie omI of tbe Cono Ovidb, and fonas the entnace
to tbe laeat MaikeL Opposite is a pktiirsque aqocdnct of
is66«itlipoiatedarckea. S-Afostiao has a good Gothic pcctaL
Tlie 0!pfifTi^» Oraico, next to the church of the Annniiaata,
hcgoB ia the fist half of the 15th oentuiy» shows aa iateRstiaK
Buxtaie of Gothic and Bmamtnce stjks. The viadim of
the PaUsao Tabaasi i^*siinilar» and both ave due to Lonbanl
BBttsteis. Ia the oooit of the gnainar school is a fiae istb-
ctaittiT statue of Ovid, the most oelcbntcd native of the tows,
whcoe neaoiy is pceserved .among the prasant% ia songs and
foik-lore. The BmU Napoti b an interesting gate of the eaily
14th centttiy. Innocent \IL was a native of the town. In
the Tkinky of the town is Monte MoRone vbae Pietio di
Morane h^-ed (c itst) as a henut and founded a monastoy
fc«r hb hetmits, who ^ter his devation to the papacy as Ceks-
tiae \\ took the name of Okstines; the raonaasteiy (S. Spixito)
leauuned till iS^Ok when it was tnasfonaed into a piisan.
TVete aie some nuns of the impefial penod. attrflmted, gnMind-
lesily, to the boose of Ovid near it. Tbe chmch ronUins a
Gocitk tocsb of X41' by s Gennaa master, in vfakh Renaissance
indueskce i»« according to BurckhudL. tzaceibke far the first
tiase ia sixitb Itai^y in the re&lisuc chanctcnaiion of tbe
portrait %iu«&
^Inck a d:y of the Piadigai, is first mtntSooed duiing the
Scvxvxi Puaic War iiii n.c.K It was the secoed town of the
P»r>^<:ai ia imponaoce. Cef^aiom coening hist. It became a
Komui «»ik»y prolubh- in the rt«ga of Amrostos. and as a nmni-
ci^'.jm it coaiiavwd 10 doumh throughout the empire. It was
9:«ated j m. south-east oi Cocfiniom on the toad 10 Aesemia,
and wns famoos for its ironwnithft* Hazd^ any renaias of the
anoirot oly exist above gnoczMl. owing to fn q umt eaitb-
^«iAk<s.. A Bomber <« dxscoxxsvs of t<«r.tei. iboth arviuic and of
iK* Rcocoa pnicM^. Ac^ b*ve hcwrvxr been a&aie icf. A. de
N;ai(v ia .Yv^ftsa* i^i^* ^x?*, passira^. Ooiies Y. erected it into
a fM*vTxi;^l;>\ wbvii be bestowed on Cbuvs La&aoy, vbo had
CA^<^rtd Frars-t& L at tbe Kattk of r^ria. It chuaately
p&>^4d to tbe Cor7»» and B<Micbcst fiimhri The beshopnc is
hrvw-a as t>k*t of VaIxti stk* ^u'.'>l•«a-
SCLraOKAW orai^oe^-^ifiVxi^tpjKWvCTljSCvSOsCAV
a xxl-abie kxTWCic peroArM bv <ocvrrsi~^ aoKoae w::b
«>\i TirrrcifCAs a tbe rv««vif ol fev^iro^i-Woc acii. tbe wrr>
ca^«x AHi'*r^^v>v-Hii 5cc3»c\i bets^ sslvtnqiotttOy oxaiiard by
|v>.i?is.*r» nerrjL:^rt::ut:c ^i^^ Rauauj;^ 5.*^ tiSJiN to. p^ a^jiSV
fc Si *sc» tccsyu S :^ a.":x^ « aiOv>Kmi: |v>«jt5ii ai«d nie'.\>l
<.w?v:i » i.'croj; i^* ti*- osjdtiv!-. of d:^v\KT<Al wkSi
|KCic&Cv» pt^T.i3^p».T.4:*V I; <tx'$:a.:.?c* ia ?«•->«$ aaev:.?^
«: s;5* mitki 4?e joctvi".^ rssoL^S^^ la cwi irabcr, b^t
«&cvOl« a 5? ttt-^ *C K< JOfci Aio =t AKx^Jvi Jl5P«i «<Vr,
m LK V>r. 1: TcvNT-s^w k-«\r:><«Ni >jtf««» '^ t^'^c*.w«a!
•r-p.MS mwaK7.i&. XT»>' js tisc asr ,. ui :»di-^;x . htuv$ St>t>o w»Sh
ar-i-.o^r « ».-»na <c .- K«c *v,.v5s». *«.•$ tx> it* »-vV^S^.l>.
«r .nor:.. i«-: s$. c :» tvc a .v-.v7««s3 ♦; N* :bf KNirt s-c rr<?v -5:v«
a: c^T ** ««< w-Ww nv^-rx* .i? <e ci-ora: are <w.-a tr vi:<>i
TT cta^ sibr> »*«a :iVr* aS b<v^ -^r. iu* f«vv.N:^
T»fTr ssv v»lvi»\T^ a iTw».Toa.'. ,»we ^sa he a\v«k^i V* a «*«?♦
auac-ve tie mar&c« ^-set .^s acm^oacaaivet Ix ifii ajiwtje ;o
cstf A «c riMHtt .'t vr anme ibaa a iro A>^ al a tonr, «» «
Xbe sobtea^ boKx. «Vx>^ ^ mx<>9kW. Vx
cirbttK«s of ^«r>.vii^ |^>a*rt«».
mpMM^ ^ al^ «ii#nMa^ a»fi tbe ^^4^
sai%^iAmiiontom >i m »mn ^^ ii asrt i jk M>^^**'
eiia^«tKSk Mav «Ma vwMft of «d|r^M«M;
a sin^ hige dose. Tiidoai (Ca)(QIiaC(S(VOH^. and
tetiooal, (C»Hi),C(SO^ii«),, are also hypnotics. They are
faster in action than salphonal, and tiional docs not diaoider
the digestion.
SUIPBfMOG ACDSk in oiipnic cfaemistiy, a gnMip of oom-
poonds of tbe type R-SObH, where R is an alkyl or an aryl
AUpkaik Stdpkmde Adds.— Tht menbeis of this d^ may
be prepared by the direct adphooation of some r»T«jliii« (i.
WocOail. ilaMr.CA(ai.yanni., tSgS, ao.pL6fi4).by theoiidatiott
of UKTCaptans with oonccntnled nitric acid (H. Kopp, iloa.,
t84o, 55, p. 546) ; in the fana of tfadr aahs from tbe aO^ halides
and alkafiae «ipintfs and aa esurs from the alkyl halides and
aih-cr aalphite. They are fw h wriraa oib or crystalline soUds
which aie » ttitw i rly hygnaoopic, way lolable in water and
have a atiungly add reaction. Tbey are anaUcctcd by heating
with aqoeoas alkalis or acids and are stehle towards eoncentrated
nitric ackL Phosphoms peataddoride uawato them into tbe
concspoDding acid chlorides^ RSO^Cl, which are decomposed
sbwly by waiCL TiMse eUorides, on irdoction by sine and
SDlphaiic acid, pass readily into the nil r ca| il an\ vhabt M sine
dust and akobol he laed they are caanfcned into th» •ntfiitinif
addvR-SCML
UakyI smtpkmie mai. CHrSQiH. was ohiaiaed by H. Kolbe
(.4««. I&I5. S«. p. 174) by J " - -•• • - -
. Chtm, Jotau.,
chkiride .foroiked from chlorioe ajid caibon *»«"'rhn**' ia the c
of « iter : CS,-r5a»+2H,0 ^CarSOrO -MHO+Saj with sodium
amiHrxm. It is a coloariess sxTvp «hidi decom p o se s when heated
abo«v im* C The oocrespoodkng add chloride b aa cxtrnndy
suble 90i*i vhich meha at 135* C It is focaaed by the action of
cartxso bUwl;>h:Je on porawBara b i chrum ale ia the mesence of
nitric Aod fcxdr.x-JiVoc aciis Xocm. ZtxL /, Chem^ 1869, p. 82).
WImv beattxi uTKier prtssare it deoosrtposrs vith the final prodtic-
tiM of caiKxix-l and iJikvtxl ciiK-«>les: COrSO^-CCI^-fSO* —
COOx^SOO,.' £:«> Akr*''*^ A^-x. C«Hk -SOdH. iaa etyttaBine del*.
j qjrsorrxt 7«.'';i forrwi b\ vix>.rhr.g ctfcxl nercaptaa or hy reducaiw
I !**< >X CV W<-V
T>Jos4'?licr.ic ackk of the rrpe R-SCVSH are farmed by tbe
an>c n of tbe s>.ph.v^;icndes 00 a ooooeatntcd whrt i nn irf potaaaium
s^v. v.r ; R <v\C: - K^ » R SOiK -rS-r KQ -Ka+ iTsCVSK :
cr ^^ t V art:.-^= ci :Sr si!t of a s^.ilf->.iT-.x: add oa aa aFVallnt sulphide
ia tbe pKJ m c t ct Kfiat ;lXt»» Ber^ 1S91. 24. p. 144).
I A r.*Tu£k: 5ah'f>t.-<«3ir Adis^—Tht acids of this groiq> are very
! sirr-ilir to the oxT«cx»ii2g al^^tic 5i;!iAocic acids and are
' x:^.ii.l>ir c»i<Aiaed by ibe direct beatisg of an arocoatic bydro-
I cartv-o wiih coocesitrated s::l7&=ric acid, haaing sulphuric add
I or scbhur ci:V.Y^yiria. After tbe action is cooq^cd they
j CUT tT«>:;ws:t:Y be ~ sahed ocl "* by ad^ag ooounao salt to
tbe ivSd soh::x« t:rt£ 3i> oore &8o^^es. wbcs tbe sodium salt
. v^ tbe acii se?ura:» vl^ Gi::trra';'n, &r^ 1S91. 24, p. 2121).
' Tij^y aw aiso tccT-<\i >y j«:ii.:i=^ th i op b eaob or by deoompos-
i-^ ^juvvrura sah* mv.V s.>b:Lr.>3S acid. The free acids are
cs5jil\ S^xTposc^^Tir. vT>H:t. T>e scx^>H wik^ are readily soluble
Iia v;itxT >iiy<-7. ^e^:M c;>ier tK c ssuic witb concentrated
^yx*r«.v SXvv ac?d ?o aK'«t 150* C they yiehl hydrocarbons
' a-v1 94.V>,:rv ac^,! TV salts assalSr crysta^liie wdl, and
xS.Tse' v>t The **Ax\ rv-.ii* art cr>cj-ed za ibe piepaiatioa of
r^^'-N-i^ irtyx »5:c>. tK'r p^tss *bca fesed with tbe caustic
all A* -J. WVf*; djs:.*cc ^'\ tvoess^cm c^-aaSde thqr yield tbe
i-xN— .j:v r.^r^-s. TNc >;..ViV'*v'^ *^iis ▼iiSi phosphorus penta-
c^.'s' > A-v vv..•xvr.^i! ir:c sCrevxii^5es wiicb are suble
»*tce >vl * •> ar'T».-ca iVy yidd sulpbooamidc^
^c ibe y);Aonir acids.
<^ '■k.nt, A^ v'.^ii >v\H NH-CV crvstaSam in amail
-X jk ,N<x»,s, '•».><> , • -^ v^.;,, mrc*- S.^^ it 5^^"* C (10 mm.). The
*' -N^KssjiMie «,K,-*K'v»»,- *r*.s^ n;rTVTcar*v the meca and para
^N^^.ys, -V K M« wx •«<^^<%i.».Y rmtt^c »o t^*sr m^ilo^mcnt in thr
xV-kN.. .x-4?<.>^ W' ,\ w; s.»v*>v»u^».ia 01 ao^Lae ywsklK the para
^. -, -fc "^iw*** A.U v\-, \'-. >>'-.- > »-^a:A jyWaBirrs in itm\\
v^oiw^ aifc.* w JB^TT^N H.V. "-i*: -t ,-v»c wars". When fused «ith
»*-.-<v 9v<*<h tj \-«nu4» i— "*.nr '•-rise mssxMM "w^ fhrranic acid
x«>u» bwaat<&i>ia>a> .a ^va^-aapao ^ k ,aiihaHj m be rcfarded
awawMiMm «^ CVvv ^ ^ >. When dmaotiaed in
«mA«ih8lihaam^<v<4|r<M w«^ iHiNci^tJ' u&imeir }irlis heiiamhiae
5^
a ^NvW
SULPHUR
6i
ihs wdi— I «R of tirtndi U iMd •» «■ infibtfor <fA).
•rW C«H«{NHi) (S6Ji) (i.3J. wliicli ctyttallnei in primia. b formed
t>>' the Rductioa of meu-nitrobenxeoe sulphonic acid and is iwed
m the prepantioa of various azo dyee.
SidpHmie acids, R-SOtH, are formed by reducing sulpho-
dilorides with xinc dust, hy the action of sulphur dioxide on
the line alkyls (Hobson, Ann, 1857, 103, p. 7}, 1858, 106, p.
787): by the action of sulphochlorides on mercaptans in alkaline
s>hitioo; and by the action of the Grignard reagent on Sulphur
dioxide or thionyl chloride (Rosenheim, Ber , 1904, 37, p 3152,
Oddo, R. Accad. Lin.^ 1905 (5), 14 (i.), p 169) The free acids
are unstable. They are readily oxidized to sulphonic acids
and reduced to mercaptans Their alkali saks on treatment
with the alkyl faalides yield sulphones, RiSOs. Ethyl sulphmic
add, CsHa'SOsH, b a colourless syrup. Benzene sulphmic acid,
C«R|SOiH, crystallizes in brge prisms and acts as a reducing
agent. It decomposes when heated with water under pressure
3C«H,SO,H«CJl,S0,H+CaiiS0,S CA+HzO The potas-
stta salt when fused with caustic potash yields benzene and
pctassiom sulphite.
SULPHUR [symbol S, atomic weight 3307 (0«i6)), a
Don-metallic chemical element, known from very remote times
and regarded by the alchemists, on account of its inflammable
nat'jre, as the principle of combustion, it b also known as
brnistotie {qv ). The element occurs widely and abundantly
distributed in nature both in the free state and in combination.
Free or native sulphur, known also as " virgin sulphur," occurs
in connexion with volcanoes and in certain stratified rocks in
se%-cral modes, viz. as crystals, and as stalactitic, encrusting,
rrniform, massive, earthy and occasionally pulverulent forms as
, " sulphur meal." It seems rather doubtful whether the unstable
monoclinic modification of sulphur (Sulphur) b ever found
ir a native sCate.
The crystals belong to the orthoriiombic system, and have usually
a p>nmidal habit (bg ), but may be sphenoidal or tabular. Twins
are rare. TTie cieava|ie i» imperfect, but there b
a well-marked conchotdal fracture. The hardness
ranges from about 1 to a. and the sp^gr fromi<9toa i.
Crysubof sulphur are transparent or translucent and
highly refractive with strong birefringence, they
have a resinous or slightly adamantine lustre, and
preaent the characcerbtic sulphur-yellow cok>ur.
Imporities render the mineral grey, greenish or red*
dish, bituminous matter being often {present in the
massive varieties. Sulphur containing selenium,
as oecors in the lale of Vulcano m the Lipari Isles, may be
. t-nd . and a sioiilar cdour b seen in sulphur which
anenic sulphide. Mich as that from La Solfatan near Naples. The
pmcnce <» tellurium in native sulphur b rare, but b known in
cer^m specimens from Japan.
V'okaok solphur usually occurs as a sublinute around or on the
«alh of the vents« and has probably been formed in many cases
by the interaction of sulphur dioaide and hydrogen sulphide. Sub*
laed sulphur also results from the spontaneous combustion of
cijol seams containing pyrites. Deposits of sulphur are frequently
formed by the decomposition of hydroeen sulphide, on exposure
to the atiiKMpheic: hence natural sulphureous waters, especnily
sprian. readily deposit aulphur The reduction el aulphat
salpbides by means of organic matter.
bM
The reduction el
, -, ^ _ „ - Jtter, probably through the
afracy of sulphur-bactena. may also indirectly furnidi sulphur, and
b^e it b frVquently found in deposits of prpsum. Free sulphur
■lay also result from the deoomposition 01 pyrites, as in pyritic
dules and lignitea. or Irom the alteration of galena* thus ciystab
of rjlpbur occur, with anglesite. in cavities in galena at Monteponi
ftsir igtestas in Sardinia; whilst the pyrites 01 Rio Tinto in Spain
wnctrntes yield sulphur on weathenng. It should be noted that
tbe oxidation of sulphur itself bv atmospheric Influence may give
noe to Milphuric acid, which in the presence of limestone will iorm
K-.p>um thus the sulphur-deposits of Sicily suffer alteration of this
< - 1. and have their outcrop marked by a pale earthy gypseous
rack called bmcaU.
i of the most important deposits of sulphur in the world
aic worked in Sidly, chiefly in the provinces of Caltanisetta
aad Girgcnti, as at Racalmuto and Cattolica,; and to a less
cstent M the provinces ol CatAoia, Palermo (Lcrcara) and
Trapaai (Gibellina). The sulphur occurs in Miocene marb
aad limestone, associated with gypsum, cclestine, aragonite
and caidte It was formerb^ believed that the sulphur had a
vokaoic origja, but it b now generally held that it has cither
been reduced from gypsum by organic agendcs, or mote pro-
bably deposited from sulphur-bearing waters. Liquid occasion-
ally enclosed in the sulphur and gypsum has been found by O.
SUvestfi and by C. A. H. Sjogren to oonuin salts like those of
sulphur-springs. An important xose of sulphur-bearing Miocene
rocks occun on the east side of the Apennines, constituting a
great part of the province of Forii and part of Pesajo. Cesena
and Perticara are well-known localities in thb dbtrict, the Utter
SneMIng crystab coated with asphalt Sulphur b occasionally
found crystallized in Carrara marble; and the mineral occurs
abo in C alab ri a. Fine crystab occur at Conil near Cadu;
whibt in the province of Teruel in Aragon, sulphur in a compact
form repbces fresh-water shcOs and plant-remains, suggesting
its origin from sulphur-springs. Nodular forms of sulphur
occur in Miocene marb near Radoboj in Croatb, and near
Swoszowk, south of CrMWw. Russia possesses large deposits
of sulphur in Daghestan in Transcaucasia, and in the Transcas-
pian steppes. Important deposits of sulphur are worked at
several localities in Japan, especially at the Koeaka mine in the
province of Rikuchiu, and at Yatsukoda-yana, in the piovince
of Motsu. Sulphur b worked in Chile and Peru. A complete
list of localities for sulphur would include all the volcanic regions
of the world. In the United Stales, sulphur occurs in the
following states, in many of which the mineral has been woiked*
Utah, Cobrado, California, Nevada, Abska, Idaho, Loublana,
Texas and Wyoming. The Rabbit Hole sulphur-mines are in
Nevada, and a great deposit in Utah occurs at Cove Creek,
Beaver county. , In the British Islands native sulphur b only
a mineralogical rarity, but it occurs in the Carbonifeious
Limestone of Oughterard in Co. Galway, Ireland.*
In combination the element chiefly occurs as metallic sul-
phides and sulphates. The former are of great commercial
Importance, being, in most cases, valuable ores, e.g. copper
pyrites (copper), galena (lead), blende (zinc), cinnabar (mer-
cury), &c. Of the sulphates we notice gypsum and anhydrite
(calcium) , barytes (barium) and kieserite (magnesium) . Gaseous
compounds, e.g. solpbiir dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen,
are present in volcanic'exhaJations (see Volcano) and in many
liuneral waters. The element also occurs in the animal and
vegeuble kingdoms. It b present in hair and wool, and in
albuminous bodies, and b abo a constituent of certain vegeuble
ofls, such as the oils of garlic and mustard. There is, In addition ,
a series of bacteria which decompose sulphureous compounds
and utilise the element thus libeimted in their protoplasm (see
Bactekiolocy).
Extraetion.-^A% quarried or mined free sulphur b always
contaminated with limestone, gypsum, clay, &c.; the principle
underlying its extraction from these impurities b one of simpla
Uqaation, i.€. the element b melted, either by the heat of its
own combustion or other means, and runs off from the earthy
residue.
In the simplest and crudest method, as practised in Sicily, a mass
of the ore b placed in a hole in the ground and fired : alter a time
the heat melu a part oi the sulphur which runs down to the bottooi
of the bole and b then bdled out. This exceptionally wasteful
process, ia which only one-third of the sulphur is recovered, has been
improved by conducting the fusion in a sort of kiln. A semiciicular
or semi-elliptical pit (iaUaront) about 33 ft. in dumeter and 8 ft. deep
b dug into the slope of a hill, and the sides are coated with a wall
of stone. The sole cooabts of two halves sUnting against each other,
the line of intenection forming a descending gutter which runs to
the outlet. Thb outlet having been closed by small stones and
sulphate of lime cement, the pit b filled with sulphur ore, which b
heaped up considerably beyond the edge of the pit and covered with
a byer of burnt-oat ore. In building up the heap a number of
narrow -vertical passages are left to aJloni a draught for the fire.
The ore is kindled from above and the fire so rcguUtcd (by making
or unmaking air-holes in the covering) that, by the heat produced
» RfftrtHces.—A very full article (" Zolfo ") by G. Akhino, of the
Geological Sunrry of Italy, will be found in the Encielopedia ielle
arte e tndustrie (Turin, 1898). Thb includes a full bibliography.
See alto J F Kemp in Rothwell's Mineral Industry (1895), vol. ix.;
Jules Brunfaut, DeVExpUnlalion des umfres (znd cd., 1 874): Ceorcio
Spezia, SuU* erietne del solfo nei iiacementi solfiferi deila Snuia
(Turin, iSoa). For Japanese sulphur see T. Wada, Minerals tf
Japm (TQfcyOk IV^H)*
6a
SULPHUR
by th« combttstion of tbt Imm tuflicicat quantity of anlphur, tlie
it«t U liquefied. The molten tulphur «ccumuUies on the tote,
whence it tn fii>m time to time run out into a square stone receptacle,
from which it is todled into damp poplar>wood moulds and so beousht
into thn shape of truncated cones wewhinc no to 130 lb each.
These oakes are sent out into commerce* A cakarone with a capacity
of »$,I36 cub« ft. bums (or about two months, and yidda about
woo tons of sulphur. The )'icki is about 30%. The immense
vttluiMS of aalphurou* actd evolved 4iive rise to many complaints,
all the minor pits! tutpend work durinf the summo' to avoad de9truc>
two of the cfopa. A cahranMie that is to be used all the year round
must be at least no >xl«. from any inhabited place and. no yds.
from any (WM umler cultivation.
More elhcient is the Oitl kUn which uses coke as a fuel. The kiln
ctM»«Mt« of two (or more) connected ceSs which are both chai]|ed
with the ore. rW &r»t cell t« heated and the products of oombusttoa
are k\l into the scw^nd cell where they p^^ up part of their heat
tx> the ciM^tained o<t>. so thut by the time the fust cdl is cadhaosted
Ihr nvA«s in the 9rcv>nd cell n at a sutficiently hS»h tempenture to
«t«ute »f«^^ntanevMul>* when air is admitted* Other Methods have
bten ew|^nx<iU but mith varyinf oommecrisl success. For otample.
la the Ctn(ti ackI OrUmki procenea the ore is clurfcd into retorts
eav) the iusKyi ctfvcted by superheated ste«m. the sulphur beinc
ma \ifT as tt«ujil. or as wa* 9u$$ested b^ R. E. Bollinaa in 1M7 the
«\ee ma^t be e«tracte<l bv carbon btsulphidek
v>u>ie 9uH>*^ur. a» obtained fivva kiln«» contains about a\ of
v-a
eartN\ i«»HH.:'t*<^ 4IK.I x\^'v^<\;urmlv nrcd& Te4lmM'. The (ouo*
jtivMDitut v»n\y<«<\! v>m»{v»MN b> Miohd of ManeUies and iropfo\ed
M»N<\5«e«m b\ ot>»«r**> enjil>fcp» the RMnuUctwee to produce etther
\>i tw«> Kvwk* «e " nran<U " »ul»<iiir which coasmcece deminds. Ic
c\v%9k«is %>l a Istiee av^aie cKimNsr which coasmiuttcates directly
^fci:N i»v .C^biiK jl»v.. "{< tv^^lkr letortt of irvxu The retvxt* are
cV»:^:*vl »\tS l•^.^^f« *-. ^^ur uwn an c^hvt resrrsv>tr. w*ivh 1$ kept
at ?V rf\ja-«te frCv^i^erstJTe b> r-wvi-s o# the kw« heat o< the ret.vt
arc«k The «^Mt«r V^ a »jii<<><\ \ aW at the t<«p oi its vaU;. whach
«» A> b*Uncx\i tSat iSe W^ ^ur^^ji^ ptessore ftv«n wHhat 9v«sl» it
ki.v l>e ar« IX d c* *^.'^"^JI >Aivvir »iix-a «fi:er» tSe c?u:p.i>er
ta^tr* S^e *!^.* cv>Rvvt> :V ji . <>J tS.- v^a»"S« i^:.> a wxture vV r. :n»-
Jl<^• *->!«. s^^vr V* v'a-nVv fV er\t f-oA>*tr^ i-^A'tre—w or x A^-'ur.
|<r;.. IC N£k>»^ii^ ih vH^Vw; a bree «»*«» of ceUtn«4v cv«l $Wk
cv^-vv-a* tftv" a hi >i V4 ** *.'v»w» ■ h<»«w »a cviewaaeecY a«d vakaed
a* ' i',^*«T» cd *!-V*^*>'* ^f.-rr* *»*'.M»rv»\ Pn cuMiAti^y the
>*7^. "V.vM A'-^N *> tVjt tS* t^'-.vrtrvre wj:>'a tSe cVa.:«^e<■
»T**Ni •* a; a ft. "K 5c«*tN V.'« Je>c*\x. ': •?» yv\»«N»f tv* v>6<aui :W »SoAf
a* iVe cew<vt aa iW K^.-« « " rik^henk " it <v«t£>»ct Crofi "" '
SMI >^ . • r* «a»^^i *,he cj6>. Ja;ik'« i» rvsJe 10 fo on at the q««k best
*.' ^ >is ,>Je rsrev rke te«~^>r-iunp oi 5i< v:r->jc ot tV c^^2^f*■
ifcvs* -^-^ V •».'«> tyjci tv . w>i -^ '.VN. n ct s-'^^^tf v«-^* C aV
tV -.. a.v JKV. n, a-v< *: tSe X^.:x^'a a» a iV;ivi. »'>v^ * ci^-f^vi
^ -,'*• ,i*»«f ^^ t .t»ir »t^ ^r CJt»« *'»ro' t >e c««c-o«kark dcr» o* kv^
F Aj*.* a J>ici. i: cvH-^v-'v^ «i m ><. ^ a Sxr^^vf. i sec ;Sf aiv* -.x*"
ju ^ .>i»>c S •^ :,* •• » .: ..• "v x*- :Vt •v\: ^ ♦ : V -^^t j: 7 *-^
c<l« rt««*« •!*<>«< t ,K TV? ^w*^ t x-o »v.»-<t5«rH. j/t vh-c -^ *V«^ .*e %-*».
* >•».'• -t'»v>* ,x,-»t :'c . ^j. A,v **w ^..'". v"^ •%» :^f •^"
S* -* -' 1 'v' » 1 •.*« V >vX\ V i' « • \ .^ » * ^1
'V * .* " •■<>> V V »i .,^r > '"vtiV ■ V Ov- ,,- ^ x-^ ; a^ .X"t -^T
jd •.•■ ^*» ^!C ' ♦ t-Cv * V 1^ /«» j» ■*.» OvV .' .»«?v t. ^'>> * .•v.irt
••I. • j» ,V V* -* .1 *> >N>.t . AV- ^Vh> • .*, ^v ■* ^>-~ i "v;
»"n » . •>•< m ^v ."I ♦v •' *■** ^'^* ''*^ *' .•v».^s%; it 4 m v»*. .♦- ^ w
♦ l-'t.Af r*V t . •'*■ ■« V - HV *«* j» -.^ s * I .X * «. .%">»' *..>« V»» ,H
**-v'» o'/Jvv "^ .» *v i»V'*«r >^.. V ,N» i» ^-^ •«9*i -♦.>?» <■». ,xw ■*.■»«:
•^ • "«. -«.•»» «i s' ->i. . •>" J"** n-.K- ».» • M fa-**!**.. *.!*» ;'.'»n<'
,^»o '^ ». ,-« ex» » • ' V Nf» >«».*«.«bt ^t::<»h«f> aliv^ » «ij»ak^fi-»
, 'y ^i-.r-.v*. i.'r: -sv vNr»^y»rx» ♦••tw *^-> w.'gs «-we V.i.%.:
1 white, powder. The
• aad dried at a very moderate heat.
>^l
«.)>Om< • iia*: -^
•"V' ■MOmau i W 'r a!«e«n» wt * w^*
• •• t
Vwcv vr xfNMc m >«wf jr e<^e e . * Vf% "jk- >«. 'i*i*« .tse^"*"^!?*. '"Nf
h ::«r»<«rtf. :4hcw« wye*^ ***« *•«* t- w^. • J' * r-sN v * h
^Inr ♦ iig i ^i w A TVe natrt^ww a. WMwe v>*. %vm.w
■||H^^M;^H(Ma^ a«V>^ li(3n||pftar ^ *r kwow a -V S^^N
Are^cHaes.— Sulphur exisU ia teveral allotrppic modificalioiis,
but before oooiideriiig these systcmaticaUy we will deal with the
properties of ordinary (or rhombic) sulphur. Comaerdal
sulphur forms yellow crystals which melt at 113* and boil at
444-S5* C under ordinary pressure (H. L. Callendar, Ckem.
Newi^ 189X, 6j. p. t). just above the boiling point the vapour
b orsnfe-yellow, but 00 continued heating it darkens, being
deep red at 500* , at higher temperatures it l^tens^ becoming
straw-yellow at 650*. These cohMir changes are connected with
a djwyjs t ion of the molecuks. At 524* Dumas deduced the
structure S« from vapoar-<knsity delermmatioos, whilst for the
range 860* to 1040*. Sainte-Claire Deville and Troost deduced
the formula S|. Bilu (fier., 18SS. 21, Pl 2013; 1901, 34. P-
MOo) showed that the vapour density decreased teith the tem-
perature, and abo depended on the pressure. G. Preuner and
W. Scfaupp {ZtiL pkys, Cieau. 1909. 69. p^ 157). in a study of
the dissociation isotherms o^'^er 3oo*-Sso*, detected molecules of
Sh Ss and ^ whibt Si appears to exist beknv pressnres ol 30 mm.
Boiling and freeAag-point de;enninations of the mdecular
weight in solutioB indicate the iormula S*. The ifeosiiy of
solid sulphur is 2-062 to 2-070, and the specific heat 017 12,
it is a bad conductor of e&ectikitj and becomes negatively
ekctiiJkd on friction. It ignites in air at 363* and in oxygen
at 2;s-*So' (U. Moissan. Caat^ nmi^ 1903, 137, p. 547).
burning with a chan<ricris£k Uue iame and focming much
suSphur dxMiide, reo^^piiaed by its puaynu odoor. At the same
tune a little txiauoe is formed, and, accordi^ to Uempel
v&r., iSgok ^, pk t45>^. hak the siJpbar is con%Tfted into this
oxivie if the o!>Kb:£siMo be earned out in oxygen at a pressure *
of ao to 50 a^Bkcsphetes. SiJ^ur a^so romhinei direaly with
most of the cseasects to fona ^•.'fWrnirfc The atomic weight
was detefmiaed b? B<r3eL-.A. Erdssana and yaietend. Diunaa
and Stas. Thdanxn r«^ pkys. Caem, 1894, 13. p. 726)
obtained the vxlwe 32000*.
j«w*v/«. ff - - y--|-f ''i^liB ■1ITMIIT fijmniiif. nmor-
;;^SK3$ aasi ^^fiSiK^' ccCcuii: aones. BissoeicaDy the most
is?octaai as« the iK>b^ ^S«.i aad moarwihiir (^> lonns,
ofeSOBsed by E. M tschexhch in k$^2 tsee Amm. chat, fkys.,
iSix, ra. ^ :«wA T^e tnss^xraarieas cf these two fonos arc
.*^-isseNi -: Ciciicrsr^v. /liMakjiL Rhcnbsc se^shnr mny be
c^;x.2l^i ar:^.>c-.j..\ by skfvi^ cr^^salLang a vnVirm ol sniphar
j^ cai^iNx bcn.>a:joe. er. better, ^y capwsing pyridMe salaratcd
w«:^ sa,;^^^«fet^e^i ^^xft's^e*? is» a rawe^ &etg o ax^ti e w (.\hrens,
^- :5s.w it ^ r-c\5* !t » nsoc.iur =1 wa:er.« bat tcadily
s^ :^ sit cartsa btdoi^oe. si.I^car cikcide and od of tnr-
3«tt. le. The <«mBN.iis K«mix:iaac vaaety is oheained by
X'V^'v^ a crrcst M> >»-9 <ver aiiit l lijn su^ wi by partially
,\vv -^ V a>; ^Sra Vr*i'i.Tg Ae crts« aaif pco^ cS the
>.J ;sv< ^Ktvo. «s«tx><c«in :^ zTAvr «f the weasel will
X ».M.>2 c««>e>a weu> ».*Qy ««iikes or ^hs vaarty. like S. It
* «^^ >i«f <!» csrSm >«!st.r^r.ce Tlree acher !
M>e >«« jift<~^-*i F^ »:rfl:p i^vo a sbAi:x« of
*.»•>»>;*-::.>*;■? •»..> ^S-fSbsssax ^«an>yft-.fc a. Geznes Cjmpi. resntf.
;>isai. \>x > x«4 .^^^xi3«a a »ircK woack he seemed matmi (a
."*»* -s <.'**** ir ;W s»aw ii*iaiic»-vtt w«s iftirMad by Sahntie:
>^..* *<^v ^>^ ^ t,x,'? w ?ffi4:ag V«'i
• .> *rv\>iv* ve i'.HT^ I. * ^aaiJ** csx&^iflr
'•tot^Ssr \>f«W vevc afe.wj« wr^t ::Je vnt? j
» .Ns » vx» >* >,■* **!? J >» » weiitiiws <r A si ul i» n
A «.*- •^'"'T . n SiutM ct» s» iTjcflC w^ r s m ^rth g aaaf
V Ti \ 4"^ >^ i.r K *Vu 5* TcT^c* > »iMtwr^
^'•»* --^' Sc ♦ * •* >^v» :* r^\*i .Tv»; ?^ iR.vi?;p a sol--'.
•k'-v ».'v-«'. jt •»•*? ,— ^K ni *'-> ^-^o^.ivrw the cstnti
^•c*. ' e V »»» V "■ A> ,•• »!>?>-* vwi % — v-:a*c ainn rr rh'mrd
»•*-• ^ V •> > t»%'v>*:*
SDLPHOR
63
K salpfaur or Sy etku in nm foivtt, one tohible in
cmrboB bbolpliide, the other insoluhfe. MUk of sulphur (see
ftbow), obtained by decomposing a polysuiphidc with an acid,
contains both fonns. The insoluble variety may also be obtained
^ < Wirom j[>n M ng sulphur chloride with water and by other re>
actions. It gradually transforms itself into rhombic sulphur.
Hie colloidal sulphur, S4, described by Debus as a product
U the interaction of sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphur dioxide
in a q im oua solution, is regarded fay Spring {Jitc. Irm. ckim.,
1906, 25, p. 3S3) as a hydrate of the formula St-HiO. The
**blue sulphur," described by Orloff, has been investigated
by PSatciad and MauucchcUi {Abs. Joum. Ckem. Sac., 1907,
ii. 4S>).
M^Uem 5iif^icr.— Several interesting phenomena are witnessed
when solphur is heated above its melting point. The solid
^ts to n pale yellow liquid which on continued healing grad>
aaiiy dartena and beoomes more viscous, the maximum viS'
cMity occuiring at 180*, the product being dark red in colour.
This change b associated with a change in the spectrum (N.
Luckyer). On continuing the heating, the viscosity dmiinishes
vmie tbe colour irmains the same. If the viscous variety be
rapidly cooled, or the more highly heated mass be poured into
•ater, an elastic substance is obtained, termed plastic sulphur.
This substance, however, on standing becomes brittle The
riiiiirtrr of molten sulphur has been mainly elucidated by the
Rscarcbea off A. Smith and his colbiboratOTS. Smith {Abs.
JetifM. CktM. Soc., 1907, ii. 30, 451, 757) regards molten sulphur
as a mixture of two isomers Sa and ^ in dynamic equilibriiuB,
& bcJBf light in colour and mobde, and S«i dark and viscous. At
b« temperatures Sa predominates, but as the temperature
is raised Si* increases; the transformation, however, is retarded
by some gases, «.g, sulphur dioxide and hydrochloric acid,
sad accelerated by others, e.g. ammonia. The solid derived
fron Sa it crystalline and soluble in carbon bisulphide, that
bom S» is amorphous and insoluble. As to the formation of
precipitated sulphur, Smith considers that the element first
srparatfs in the liquid Sp condition, whkh is transformed into
S« and finally into S«; the insoluble (in carbon bisulphide) forms
sriie when little of the Sft has been transformed, whibt the
soluble consist mainly of S*. Similar views are adopted.by H.
EnlanaDB {Ann,^ 19018, 36a, p. 153), but he regards S^ as the
polymer S, anaJogous to ozone Oa, Smith, however, regards
SpasS».
Compcmndi.
SolplMirctccd hydroeen. HtS, a compound tint exanmned by
C. Scbccle. may be obtatned by heating tulphor in a current ojf
> >d ro t«ii. combination taking pUee between 300* C. and 358* C,
imJ being complete at the latter temperatore, di«ociatioa taking
place adbo«« this temperature (M. Bodenstein, ZetL phyt. Ch«m.,
t999. >9. p. 315): by heating some metallic sulphides in a current
of bydrocen: by the action of acids 00 various metallic sulphides
iierrptis sulphide and dilute sulphuric acid being most generally
emptoyvd): by the artMMi of sulphur en heated paraRin wax or
vaaelme. or by heating a solution of magnesium sulphydrete. It
ii afao produced dann^ the putrefaction of ofganic substances
ooerainiitg sulphur and is found among the products obtained in
the destructive disr^tion of coal. To obtain pure sulphuretted
t yj i u e e n the method genenlly adopted consists in decomposing
piecipitated antimony sulphide with concentmted hydrochloric
and As an ahemarive, H. Moissan {C^mp. rgnd., 1903. 137. p 363)
CDwdew j es the gas by means of liquid atrand fractionates the product.
Sulphuretted hydrogen is a colourfess f^ possessing an extremely
oJen w ire odour. It arts as a strong poison. It barns with a pale
Mae flane. forming sulphur <fioxide and water. It is moderately
soluble in water, the solution possessing a faintly acid reaction.
This Mluiion b not very stable, since on exposure to air it sk>wly
evJtzes and becomes turbid owing to the gradual precipUation
of solphur. The gas is much more soluble in alcohol. It forms a
hydrate of composition H>S7HA (Oe Forcrand. Ctmpt tend,
tSM. 106. p. t357.) The^as may be Kouefied by a pressure of about
t7 atmospnefes. the liquid so obtatned boiling at ~6i 8* C . and
by forthn^ cooling it yields a solid, the melting pcnnt of wl^ch is
grren by various obs e rvers as —82* to —86* C (ace Ladenburg. 5ff..
'9<iO' 33. P 637}. It IS decomposed by the haloeens. with liberation
ol stt^ur Con c en t r a ted sulphuric acid also decomposes it
H,SO,+H3-2HiO+S0i+S. It combines with many metals
to form sulphides, and also decomposes many metallic salts with
pradectioa of sulphides, a property which lenders 11
extremely useful In chemleal aoalyaiB. h Is ft^equentfy used as s
reducing agent: in acid solutions it reduces ferric to ferrous salts,
arsenates to araenitcs, permanganates to manganous salts, Ac.,
whilst in alkaline solution it converts many organic nitro compounds
into the corresponding aminoderivatives. Oxidisinig; asents rapidly
attack sulphuretted hydrogen, the primary producu of the reaction
being water and sulphur.
By the actbn of dilute hydrochkKic acid on metallhr polysulphides,
an oily product is obtained which C. L. BerthoUet considered to
be HaS*. L. Th^nard. on the other hand, favoured the formula H|S|.
ft was abo examined by W. Ramsay {Joum. Ckem. Soc., 1874. is.
p* 8^)' Hofmann. who obtained it by saturating an alcoholk:
•otution of ammonium sulphide with sulphur and mixing the product
with an alcoholk solution of strychnine, considered the resulting
product to be H«Si: while P. Sabatier by fractionating the crude
product in vacuo obtained an oil which boiled between 60* and
85* C and possessed the compositbn HtS».
Seveml hakwen oompounds of sulphur ate known, the most stable
of whieh is sulphur fluoride, SF«. which was first prepared by f1.
Moissan and Ltheau (Cmm^. rend., 1900, 130. p. 865) by fractionally
distilling the product formed in the direct action of fluorine on
sulphur. It n tastelesa, cotourtess and odourless gas. which is
exceedingly stable and iner . It may be condensed and yields a
solid whuJi melto at ^55* C. Sulphuretted hydrogen decomposes
it with formatuM of hjrarofluoric acid and Kbemtion of sulphur.
Sulphur chloride; S|C1«. ts obtained as a by«product in the manufac-
ture of carbon MCiachloride from carbon bisulphide and chlorine, ond
may also be prepare d on the small scale by distilling sulphur in a
chlorine gas, or by the actfon of sulphur on sulphuryl chloride in
the presence of aluminium chloride (O. RufQ. It is an amber-
coloured, fuming liquid possessing a very unpkasant irritating smdl.
It boils at 139» C. and is solid at -8o» G. It is soluble In caibon
bisulphide and in benaene. It u gradually decomposed by water:
2SiCl. + 3HiO - 4HCI + 2S + H,S,0,. the thiosulphuric eckl pro-
duced in the primary reaction gradually decomposing into water,
soMiur and sulphur dioxide. Sulphur chkmde dissolves sulphur
with great readiness and is-eonsequently used largely f6r vukanixing
robber: it also dissolves chlorine. The chloride SCh according to
the investigations of O. Ruff and Fischer (Ber., 1003. 36, p. 418)
did not appear to exist, but E. Beckmann {Zttt. pkys. Ckem.,
1909. 4S, p. r839) obtained it by distilling the product of the
interaction of chlorine and S>CI| at low pressuiea. The tetrachloride,
SCI4, is formed by saturatine StCli with chlorine at -S3* C. (M ichaelis.
Ann.t 1873. 170, p. I). It IS a yelkiwbh'brown liquid which dissoci-
ates rapidly with rise of temperature. On cooling it solidifies to
a crystalline mass which fuses at ~8o* C. (RufT ibkl.). Water
decomposes it violently *with formation of hydrochloric and sul-
phurous acids. Sulphur bromide. SiBri. is a dark red liquid which
boils with decomposition at about soo* C. The products obtained
by the actk>n of iodine on sulphur are probably mixtures, ahhough
E. Mdvor {Ckem. Sevs, 1902, 86. p. 5) obtained a substance of
compositkm Salt (which in all probability is a chemical individual)
as a reddish-coloured poller by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen
on a solution of k>dine trKhlonde.
Iv>ur oxides of sulphur are known, namely sulphur dioxide. SOr.
sulphur trioxide, SO9. sulphur sesquioxide. S|0*. and persulphuric
anhydride, SiOr The dioxide has been 1tno«^ since the eariiest
times and is found as a naturally occurring product in the gaseous
exhalations of volcanoes and in solution in tomt volcanic springs.
It was first collected in the pure condition by J. Priestley in 1775
and its composition determined somewhat later by A. L. Lavoisier.
It is formed when sulphur n burned in air pr in oxygen, or when
many metallic sulphides are roasted. It ntay also be obtained
by heating carbon, sulphur and many metals with concentrated
sulohuric acid : C + 2H30« - 2SOi -f- C0» + 2HiO; S -f 2HiSO, -
3S6i + 2HiO; Cu +2H,SO, * SO, -I- CuSO, + 2H,0: and by
decomponnff a sulphite, a thiosutphate or a thionkr acid with a dilute
mineral acid It is a colourless eas which possesses a characteristic
suffomting odour It does not burn, neitner does it support com-
bustion. It is readily soluble in alcohol and in water, the solution
in water possessing a strongly acid reaction. It is easily liquefied.
the liquid boiling at •^8* C, and it becomes crystalline at -72 7* C
(Walden. ZeU, pkys. Ckem., looa. 43. p 43') Walden (ibid.) has
shown that certain salts dissolve in liquid sulphur dioxide forming
additive compounds, two of which have been prepared in the case
of potassium iodkle: a yellow crystalline solid of composition,
Kl'14 SO*, and a red solid of composition, Kl 4S0i. It is decom*
posed by the influence of strong light or when stronely heated
It combines directly with chlorine to form sulphuryl cnloride and
also with many metallic peroxides, converting them into sulphates.
In the presence of water it frequently acts as a bleaching agent.
the bleaching process in this case \mn^ one of reduction. It b
frequently used as an " antichlor," since m presence of water it has
the power of converting chlorine into hydrochloric acid SO, -h Cli -h
2HiO * 2HCI + HtSO*. In many ca^es it acts as a reducing agent
(when used in the presenceof acids): thus, permanganate* are reduced
to manganous salts, wdatesare reduced wtih liberation of iodine. &c ,
2KMnO, + 5SO, + 2H,0=.K,S0« + 2MnS04 + 2H,SO«: 2K10,+
5SO, + 4HK) - Ii + 2KHSO, -f- 3H,SO,.
H
SULPHUR
» or b» aa «qu3ibciiia nuiturt of theat
It U prvpartd on the InduttrUl teilo Cor feho maoufacture of
iulphurlc Actd, (or the prtp«ratk>n of lodlum sulphate by the
HmgroavM procttc. and Tor um as a bleaching-diainfoctinf agent
and At a preterv«uv«. Whrn comprosMd it m also uwd targdy
«• A rr(rlscr«ting •gvnt. and in virtue of its property of neither
burnInK m>r •upuortiiig coniboMion it is also used as a ore cxtinctor.
Thr Muitlon oitliv B<tB in WAter is u«cd under the name ol sulphurous
acid. The frvt ectd has not been isolated, since on evaporation
tho volution RrAduAlly loses sulphur dioxide. This solution possesses re-
duving pn>|HMties«and gmduAlly oxidises to sulphuric add on exposure.
When hmted in a seAled tube to 180* C. it is transformed into sul-
phuric acid, with liberation of sulphur. Numerous tilts, termed
Milphiies, Are known. Since the free acid would be dibasic, two
•CI N« uC salts exUt, namely, the neutral and acid salts. The neutral
alkaline salts are soluble in water^and show an allcAline reactioa,
the other neutral sells being eith«r insoluble or difficultly soluble
in w.«trr. The acid salts have a neutral or slightly acid reactioo.
The »uli>hltvs are prepared by the actioo of sulphur dioxide on the
«xUle*. nvdro.\idc» or carbooatee of the metals, or by pro ceases of
Mt\ i^nt At ion. Sulphurous add nay have either of the coostitation
, >a oT r /OH
twt> substances. Altho«tgh the correct loraMila lor the add ta not
known, suU^itea are known of both typaa. Sodium sulphite is
Alnu^t certainly of the second and unsymmetrkal type. Two ethyl
«4il|«hit<<« aie known, the hnl or symmetrical forsa beinc derived
lix^n «uU^ur>i chloride and alcohol, and the second and arnym*
metiKAl (txim sodium sulphite and ethyl iodade; the junction of
4Me ethyl gnmp with a sulphar atom in the second seh follows
bc\^u«e it yiekls ethyl sttUthonic add, also <4>tunAble from ethyl
mcnA^Han, CtlUS^I. Two isomerk sodium pi^assium sulphites
aiv' ktK^wn. and mav be obtained by ncutnsluiog acid sodium salohite
«)ih ix^Msium ciaitHMMite. and acn) not»>erium solohite with sodium
«AiKM%Ate; their lovmuUe art: Oc>KvONa) and U»SNa(OK).
rSir<Y Anr >^arioas Kahwl d«fi>^ti>^(<s of sulphmous acid. Thioaiyl
II^NHuW. S^>K^ has been obtained as a fuming gns bv dtcompoaaiv
Ai^^itK AMs.>cide w^th thioayl chkwide vMoM»Aa end Lebeau. itmft,
r(«i , ig^vv i%«\ p^ lavV'V It » dccoiapoiKd by w«tee into h\\k«-
Wjxmk^ Ait^l «uUih«N«ias «ci«lik Thionyl chkvidr. SOCH. snsy hie ob-
tAt>K\l ^\ the 4kik>ii of pKcwphcvus peote^ hVande on sodium sulo^ite:
b\ tN* jKtk^M) ol 9«il|>hiir thvvudr c«k Mlphur dichkviJe at 7^— So* C
V,\%**. 1 Wii, ^Wk\. l^MA. fv 4^>^ ; mmI bv the action «* chKxiwt
WKN.K\\rxV \wi '<*)^>httr at Vvs te«n)wraturs. It is a ootourksa. hi^hK
rr :ac<* ^ i»s)ttsl. KnUng at 7>*: 11 iumcs 00 exTvwurr to m«tt$t air.
\\jitv« >V\viia;v^ses « oitv* h>\fcvvhWmc a«d mv^^utxhi^ acid*. On
tivs»,,')kir«ki *.,S vv«a«Rj«ii b«\.«iK*r K >ieU» thK>A\l bffv>m»ie. SOBev
« 4 x^ A •^- VT^ o» t^^AKl mSx h Km'.-» at e** C t.«i> auKk) yKanoe and
>v'.>h«i tiwvKW SkS. Bsr »?N>-<*<^I b\- Batti Valrtitme «» the 15th
cv**, •*. %<•* v>K«>«MNJI t\ V Umwrx- n »o;>5 Sv <!k "*ag grvew
\v.x4 It MM^ t^ j»re^>*wsl b\ *fc^»I*.»««ij lumir^ *«'4*cnc ac^j.
V* *VN-e«K*MVNi s«ki.'S^x jktJ o*«t v>.Nv<w^>Kooc» t,>f»K«»Jhf. or b>i
tV X- \vt « •v\* v< >,\-^.t v-vvAt «uh vxwvvB « tW pw«»ce ct
a > *. i \^ '*vS> a* i,>fci: *jcvi Jiiisfwtv* vj*pe Si i rni asc Acip\ Th»
*, '« ** v" I; v\'«»v>»v>f^ t\^ tW >*— .s»r w^>4«^^.'.Ar <vi^,>«f\ >0v
,* .• ,V « >\-«a i; .\>»* .■^•vN'vt* t»> xV rvNKvv'ijKr «,v«^^\ >x"^- >
ViN ' «v • <vx \ %' ^ :^ ^ vNvw Va* ».«ca«>ex- vX-.xvnrs .; vxvt^t •*♦
»v,N X iv'»<xv«\ •♦;^ «^«.cc t.» S>t'm s. .n^.^tc *.>!. ••:» tJie
«.*>>• V' X V ' ««-.)[ auLtx ,»^j. t V o.^M»,N>fc N^-ss ?4 ♦v'x'Tjf :i>r <m » Ki '»c»
Vk «a.. •* ifu rx ..^^«*^ AV k:v»x»j^p A cji S,'.» -x^' T'^JK.^ h Vx?ct-
J^.vx *•* •scv\S »',■* rN*»* c*.-*- vto ,fv* cv.-^«,.vx •VI. i n: -"rv:.f»**^
>v. \^ . X . *-.^ ■» -vx' V\F% Vfwinl V* At ».TCff M 'ttccrnae jw «»f-
»,Kii , X x>Wf -' V ,«««vaiL .V"^ A. ^•vu v>r ^ V*. T**' o».Yec» '^p'*
■«fc .^.v <v»Vu. •r^* Jfcx *: .V,. 6*x An x-«-: *.T>. >iv%vftint ipiAixj *s
♦ Nv4 - N'* x' S.'^*-**'* x*u.x*vv >v.W^ k">t A."* i. tv>; .r "^^^rf
>. V xh**'l ♦<«•.*•. *<•-- >-N «*«. .'. ""V >• *Wair'.«M
v» X » » . -••• J* a «fcA.A«* y» ,,« >«-«rae a*.- -s.i^-c^ c:v'*».« vki* xsw
K ..''. • r»{\j» >i» ;-v ii-«svt A^MCu jx -M. •.»>*»- ..c*;«xir .^ic .h*.*!— nt
,->»xv . "^ a J"hf A^r«e»K.^ 4« a «v.'» otirw-.S"* a>nt >» >«:«-»*
,"• ..x>w vKxKv ♦.-< »f s^ #r«««i«Mr w* a ^a-a *»<< s,x'V !>- »:",'4'x
. • x>v V «..*xNMMft<«^ ^«i»i^ u«iavr a*iv» X>»:^-i' ?»» " ^ a ic • ">.x^
> • K a^*^>» A a.* «wi» 4» V»».txjAwrx «k-v a* ^vI^ommm ^«ul^aKr
V ^ cys«»v J w»g *.>*. SkW* x.>». arsc a wj s i ^nr i* V m Uks.i>^v*
■•x* Jt^ >:^ • >:«. "^ a. . ^ •!»* Mwct uMiw J* "^ ,.s* «•
J ■>.-«*«- «<•% l «ia » t c> ibp^. a^xa «b. iH« 4tSk» >a wS^ai— tf K, «t3v •■•
.«c >.xam8«ssimMM m^r^Mr^. *.w «v-> j»s » i » jms> aK»<.-w.i<vY
c •dd.eBlphafykUpride. Ae.
explosive violence. Disuiphuryl chlonde, S^»Ctt. corresponding
to pyrosulpharic add. is obtained by the actioo of sulphur trioxi<ft
on sulphur dichloride, phoephoros oxychloride, sulphuryl chloride
-~OCU-"'" ' —
or dry sodium chloride :6SOs+2POCli
5SQ, - S*O.CI, + 5S0,: SO. + SO^Cl, -
P«0»-f SS^CU: SiCit^
S>«0,Cls. 2Naq+3SO,'
S|0»CIt+Na,SO«. It may also be obtained by distilling chlor
sulphoiuc add with phosphonss pentacbloride: 2S()tC1-OH-f POk-
S^tCh -(- POCU + 2HC1. It is a colourless, oOy. fuming liquid
which is decompoeed by water into sulphuric and hydrochknc aods.
An oxychloride of compoation S^^U has been dncribed.
Sulphur sesquioxide. SJOu is formed by adding well-dried flowers
of sulphur to mdted sulphur triozide at about ia-15* C. The
sulphur dissolves in the form of blue dropa which sink la the liquid
and finally solidify in blue-green crystalline crusts. It is uostaUe
at ordinary temperatures and rapidly decomposes into iu faeaeratcri
on warming. It b readily decomposed by water with format ion
of sulphurous, sulphuric and thioculphuric adds, with simultaneous
liberation of sulphur. Hyposulpharottaadd. H^^i. was fiint really
obcaiaed bv BerthoUet in 1789 when he ehowed that iron left in
rith an aqueous solution of sulphur dioxkle dissolved with-
out any evolutioa of gas, whilst C. t Schdnbdn subsequently
showed the solutton poaeeaaed redudmr properties. P. Schutxen-
beraer { C mm pi tend.. 1869^ 69, pL 169) obtained thr sodium salt
by the action of mnc on a ooncentntfid solution of sodium bisulphite
Zn + 4NaHSO.-Na.SdO«-|-ZnSOi + Na,30s-l-2HA the sak
being separated from the sulphites formed by fraaional precipita-
A solution of the free acid may be nepared fay aading
•cid to the aohrtian of the oodiom anic This aoMion is
at oniinaty
ire sine salt
pocassHia
• Issge tab«br crystals.
■ otfoayfem.
and m very nnsrahir ^
into sulphur and sulphur dSoaide. A fsire ;
1 by Kabl (ifraa^.. 1899, ao. p. 679)by acting
with sine on a sohttion of sulphur dioxide ra absohite akobol. whilst
H. Mosasan (Cam|t.'fl«nd.. 1908. I3«t. p. 647) has akso obtained snha
by the action of dry aulphnr diasDde on varioM metallic hvdridesw
Consideiable oontrovrny arose aa to the constitution of the salta
of this acid, the formula of sodium salt, (or exampie. being written
as NaHSOi and Na*S/>«; but the inxTstigations of C. Bernthsen
V4nn.. iSfti. aot. IK 14a: itta, eii. pL 185: Btr., 1900. jj. pl 136)
seean 10 decMfe deftnitdy in favmir of the Inner (ne abp TS. Price.
JjmnuChtmk.Sm.1 ako Buchcrer and Sch«aibr. Zai. CHfm. ClesK.,
1404. 17. p^ 1447)- Ahhow^ thb acid appears to be dnived from
an oxide b/K it is not certain thai the known \
anhxdrkle.
IVrssilphnric anh>^iMde. ^Os b a thick \
bv the action of the suewi d»:karge epon a mixxaee of aniohur
trroxkjr aaJ vxyx-jrea. It fcikiiSes at about o* C to a mass of long
atedV?^ aftki is x^err \T<tiTTV It is drrocrposed readBy uKo sulphur
tricvude ar«d ete x fe a whew bcntcd. Water ikm rn pu s tj n wish forma>
taon << «:;f^«nc ac«d and osxvrw • S^0» -«• 4H^ • 4H£Oi 4- Oi.
l\r^'vx''.rK acad. HS.V tV Aoi corrcsccndiag to SdOt. haa not
berta c<Mx -x?d ;a :Se rr* sta^e. K: us. silts wmt Sn» psvpaied in
li^tVx H MiTihu .'rmrm C*m Sx., itei. p. 771 ' b> ckctrohrsang
4ch£:«<>ns ol tbe A*ki lar bKMtVhsssi. The pocassHicn ak. after
rrcrvvtaJisaatK^ ;*vxaa w.traa w.a««t. 9 .
It» *4neo«s k4. :«.>• f*MC ^ *% <teoM»:i
tv'^a^ws as a «erx(^ oiuku-t. a^i VSeratcs kiiine (
Kvoe. 5x<x\. loots OK ;«rR^'viku<^ a tV ccU gnte no predpatate
wKk SRrk«.wi c"^ •.rx.v kx.t w^ew wamec b^nnm ax.';^ce is prccipi-
tatrd w*c> >i*w. :i ««x>i«> LCiesao.^ vs c^xanae lUS^ -r BaC^ »
K»>x\ ♦ KaSv\ T C* TV cv.'»:ian.x'.x mi a 111 mill of G,
^^(x.-^ ~v. T< t^ tac >i ^ cv>is«<«ui( t V ccwSt: tJC JT «aa
T> v^ ,*.^*-*: ac-xr ..fTam.x xm V; i . cv«i.-.:»i *r£*A acid, H^iOa.
c»*"v< Sr ; f r-*trxt\: -t '.W r-v* -ftj:* $.j..ie < $r»sulT dKomposea
>^S.\*.-^\ ;Vf >.*->*•» ;fcr auTJi. kcwrtee. «e srabk, the
Sk.v .4 ^ sfcX '* AS. '. -r«lw tx .i^^-f<c'x i2<>^ .Y pbtx^nsfhac nnniriM 1
i iv.Tc< ,W fci ~« .•• > .w'. * 2 j> >J.t ¥1.1 . >e ggrpiw^ b> digrsttag
ie»-«T> .«• IK* *,rf- * V > swt J -^ vJ *•»■ ' ; tc*^ "Aaa ar 5% txni^ag snlphas
w<> w < .X ^.ne .a :%a a:v«r neacrvxs tar «m9 ^-w« soKstjon
,s^u. 'xxi e«^ evK>v< ;^ *.- wX.'S .ar cxiruas pc»vsfc:*»ie lorascd
» 4r*w»*a ^ vV^i^xTiv' lie," t^.os* .-**» i* j."v*c*riiw«. and the
ot V . n *xi. ; » A> ,x-«xxr ts ^XNT »<r-. i^i ^ v : *c *.'»ri— "^ ii-X • > <o di» t n>
■rjrix.xakK<r cr >^ ^a ,- *>< .**.>.. .r.^a?^ »?^ 7r*;,»N cxcc-xfosed
>xk m.w-x a^-v-^ % * :^x-*^. v,» a <..»»ar Ccaa» a."»i »«c:xtfa ,on
>J« «ti'.>«>>tf \.*:>^ X ^ ,' - . *iXaO '-S-'-S:* -HsO Tbty
vrw n»», A.M>Ne s**^ 4 ^ f x< a jtt-< «a.-t4K ^.n ni en w>th icrrjc
%h».v>»*«r xc»."vx». > •* .xnvxtx Sf%«»'t(r c^ ...;-« • in*i rorir-.a; oa
9^*u».tif ii»iki-.'>** >c T< .t-rx »>psr .^ *.'; » .-T-a..oemJ 10
suwie'V' w <■ -.v' i.tt vV- <- C« • x-Jv^ >.vTim -1 v-6^ :aiA£c "escts
wit> f.^xi >w»w« M- (tx^ si.>2 4'n (xvit >T.os*. .-^J.:* »*jch oa
rTWW't'tc %«x> ^<»-^4.w H>»eror i r^ .nvs-iiu.:*' ^r..,^ etVyl
..• » , . a V >U>.^'fc * N. X ^ , .->, .' ^.v .~ •.- ^ b!^ WS-Cl pSLZtS
V V jxrr*..'x-f X V: ^*- vv • t 'v tv vv » t
:V . * .. i^ .. • . V ••>*.« ' ^ J' - ' ^ r -iz M:r*is^ '^ {■ ; -J tr al
X.«»-t» i a •* >w**w ^Xt*-: >. ^ > *'■ .'."sc- '• ?- «*:"" -"'"'JC
'SULPHURIC AOD
«$
M tkt fonn 4
b>dnted mai
ioto the nuxt
npitargd byi
BungAocse ill
peoter iJamn
Alxiostentird]
tenic oxide,
2Fe^oH), +.;
the available i
ci ferric OJutk
free- add nUK)
dilute suiplmi
It 4Uaias a da
ikm leadittc U
Acid. Thedtl
kydrocbkxic ]
iucmation of .
t^ (orm oC it
utjtKinoCppl
or b«r warin
K-Ajio, - A
by addins Kxi
\'^,SO, + Si
stable; aad a
k>droAttosaiici..
iphur dioxide
It is then pre-
>xide. Much
id H. C. Car-
It this can tie
ieby hydrated
the equation:
loints out that
SO. + H^ +
lat in the case
te is obuincd,
olution ci the
turn salt with
in vacuo until
hex concentra-
and sulphuric
en boiled with
ir dioxide and
s obtained in
r dioxide on a
2K,S,0,-hS:
thio&ulphate:
i>' be prepared
and sulphite:
sahs are un-
be addition of
■^wuwwr^ni. .. ■ . , ation iu vacuo
decomposes capNlly: HtS^c - HtSOi + S -f- S0|. Tetrathionic
acid. HtSwO*. is obtained in the form of its barium salt by digesting
barium thkiaulphate with iodine: 2Ba,S|0i + Ii « BaS/)* + 2Bar
the btariufli iodide formed being removed by alcohol; or in the
(orm of ■odium salt by the action of iodine on sodium thiosulphate.
The free acid is obtained (in dilute aqueous solution) by the
addkioo of dihite sulphuric acid to an aqueous solution of the
banum salt. It is only stable in dilute aqueous solution, for on
coocentratioa the acid decomposes with formation of sulphuric acid,
loipbur dioxide and sulphur.
Wackenroder's solution (Debus, Joum. Ckem. Soc., 1888, 53. p. 278)
b prep ar ed by passing sulphuretted hydrogen gas into a nearly
uturatcd aqtieous solution otf sulphur dioxide at about o* C. The
KAutiott is th«a allowed to stand for ^8 hours and the prodeas repeated
■naay times antil the sulphur dioxide is all decomposed. The
reacxioos takinff place are complicated, and the solution contains
aitimately small drops of sulphur in suspension, a colloidal sulphur
< « hich Spring (Rtc. trav. chim., x^o6, si, p. ^i) considers to be a
hvdrate <» sidphur of composition S|-H]0), sulphuric acid, traces of
mrhkmic acid, tetra-and pentathionic acids and probably hexathionic
arid. Tbe solution obtained may be eva] '— * " — *" *t
artaias a density of 1*46 when, if partially 1 (i
s . drvjxide and filtered, it yields ciystals of 1
K:S..(V3H/>. The formation of the pei e
nrpresented most simply as follows: 5S0} +
4H|0. The aqueous solution of the acid is /
'.^mperatme*. The pentathionates give e
Kkinaoa of ammoniacal solutions of silvr /
a bUck pre ci pitate. Hexathionic acid, Hj! t
« the raotber nqoon from which potassium \ i.
fbe solution on the addition of ammoniacal s — ^.w -
lariy to that of potassium pentathionate. but differs from it in giving
19 immediate precrphate of sulphur with ammonia, w' lu-
tJOR of the pentathkxiate only gradually becomes turl rtg.
The per-acids of sulphur were first obtained in iro
(Zni. amgrw. Chem., 1 898, p. 845) who prepared mc ric
add by the action of sulphuric acid on a persulph; cid
It
dy
, ,^_ ^ , 3».
See ff. E. Armstrong and Lowry, Ckem. Hews (1902). 85. J>- I93;
" '" " ' " ~ : H. E. Arm-
Biay a ^ be prepared by the electrolysis of concenti
x:id. and ft IS distinguishable from persulphuric ac
that' it immediately liberates iodine from potassii
beiuvo as a strong ondant and in aaueous soli
k>-tirolysed. It most probably corresponds to the 1
Lowry and West. Joum. Chem. Soc. (1900). 77. p. 950
strong and Robertson, Froc. JJoy. Soc. 50. p. 105;
Ber . 1902. 35, p. 291 ; Jemm. Chem. Soc. (1906). p. 53; A. v, Baeyer
Fhmnmacoiogy. — The sources of all sulphur preparations used in
nedkiae (except cabi sulphurata) are native virgin sulphur and the
sulfides of metals. Those conuined in tbe British Pharmacopoeia
are the following : (I ) Sulphur suUimalum, flowers of sulphur (U.b.P.).
vhich is insoluble in water. From it are made (a) conjcctio sidphurii ;
Kiii uniumimm iulphurisi (e) xit/^iiMr^a«ct^'(a/um, milk of sulphur
U.S.P.) which has a sub-preparation trochiicus sulphuris each
krOAce conlaining $ grs. of predpttated sulphur and i gr. of potassium
add TAwnte; {fi polaisa iulpkurata (liver of sulphur), a mixture
of sahs (k wluch the chief are sulphides of potassium: (0 sulphuw
iodidum (US.P.). which has a preparation unguentum sulffhuris
iodidi, strength 1 io ac From the heating of native caldum sulphate
aMd cwixm is^itainedf o/x sulphurata (U.S. and B.P.). or sulphurated
&me, a greyish-white powder.
ThtrapeuiUs.-^ExUnMy, eulpbttr is of use in aUn affectaMM.
Powdered, it has little effect upon the skin, but In ointment or used
by fumigation it has local therapeutic properties. In scabies (itch)
it is the best remedy, killi^ the male parasite, which remains on the
surface of the skin. To get at the female aad the ova prokmgcd
soaking in soap and water b necessary, the cpiderm being rubbed
away and the ointment then applied. Predpitated sulphur b also
useful in the treatment of acne, but sulphurated lime is more power-
ful in acne pustulosa and in the appearance of crops of boils. Inter-
nallv, sulphur is a mild laxative, being converted in the imestine into
sulphides. Milk of sulphur, the oonfection and the bxenge. b
used for thb purpose. Sulphur and sulphur waters such as those
of Harrogate, Aix-la-Chapelle and Aix-les- Bains, have a powerful
effect in congested conditions of the liver and intestines, haemor-
rhoids, gout and gravel. Sulphur b of use in chronic bronchial
affections, riddiiig the lungs of mucus and relieving cough. In
chronic rheumatism sulphur waters uken internally and used as
baths are effectual. Sulphur in some part escapes unchanged in
the faeces.
When sulphur is burned in air or oxygen, sulphur dioxide b
produced, which b a powerful dbinfectant. used to fumigate rooms
which have been occupied by persons suffering from some infectious
SULPHURIC AaD. or On. of Vitriol, H»S04, perhaps the most
important of all chemicaU, both on account of the large quanti-
ties made in all industrial countries and of the multifarious uses
to which it U put. It a nol found in nature in the free state
to aoy extent, and although enormous quantities of its salts,
especially calcium and barium sulphate, are found in many
localities, the free acid b never prepared from these salts, as
it b more easily obtainable in another way, viz. by burning
sulphur or a sulphide, and combining the sulphur dioxide thuf
formed with more oxygen (and water).
Originally prepared by heating alum, green vitriol and other
sulphates, and condensing the products of dbtiUation, sulphuric
acid, or at least an impure substance containing more or less
sulphur trioxide dissolved in water, received considerable at-
tention at the hands of the alchemists. The acid to obtained
from ferrous sulphate (green vitriol) fumes strongly in moist
air, hence its name " fuming sulphuric acid "; another name
for the same product b " Nordhausen sulphuric acid," on account
of the long-continued practice of thb process at Nordhausen.
Ordinary sulphuric add, H3SO4, may be prepared by dissolv-
ing sulphur trioxide in water, a reaction accompanied by a great
evolution of heat; by the gradual oxidation of an aqueous
solution of sulphtir dioxide, a fact which probably explaius
the frequent occurrence of sulphuric add in the natural walets
rising in volcanic dbtricts; or by deflagrating a mixture of
sulphur and nitre in large glass belb or jars, absorbing the
vapours in water and concentrating the solution. The Utter
process, which was known to Basil Valentine, was commercially
applied by the quack doctor, Joshua Ward (1685-1 761), of
Twickenham, England, to the manufacture of the acid, which
was known as " oil of vitriol made by the bell " or per campanum.
Dr John Roebuck (17 18-1794), of Birmingham, replaced the glass
vessels by leaden ones, thereby laying the foundation of the
modem method of manufacture (see bdbw).
Properties. — Pure suli^uric acid, HjSOi, b a colouriess^
odourless liquid of an oily consbtency, and having a specific
gravity of 18384 at is*. It boiU at 338'*, and at about 400*
the vapour dissociates into sulphur trioxide and water; at a red
heat further decomposition ensues, the sulphur trioxide dis-
sociating into the dioxide and water. It freezes to a colourless
crystalline mass, melting at Io•5^ The acid b extremely
hygroscopic, absorbing moisture from the atmosphere with
great rapidity; hence it finds considerable application as a
desiccating agent. The behaviour of aqueous solutions of sul-
phuric acid b very interesting. The pure acid (100% HiSOJ
cannot be prepared by boiling down a weaker acid under any
pressure (at least between 3 and 300 centimetres of mercury),
an add of the composition H>S04,i>7H>0 or 12S0>,13HX>
being invariably obtained. Neither is there any advantage
gained by mixing this hydrate with sulphur, trioxide; for
when such a mixture b concentrated by evaporation, sulphur
trioxide b vaporized untQ the same hydrate b left. The pure
add, however, may be obtained by strongly cooling thb hydrate;
u
SULPHURIC hClD
iHMn It MpM»tn In tkc form ol white cryitab, which melt at
10*5*1 tod on ftcntk htatlug e>t>lve sulphur trioxide and again
|i>rm lh« tamt hydrate. When strong sulphuric acid is mixed
with water there b a great development of heat; the hea|
•v\4vvd when four parts ot acid are mixed with one of water being
auRWienl to rsi«e the temperature from o* to xoo* C. (Hence
the Ultoratory precaution i4 always adding the add to the water
ami not the water to the acid.) In addition to the heat evolu-
tion there is abo a diminution in volume, the maximum occurring
when the c\>n\ponents are present in the ratio HiSOi:2HtO,
thus )x4ut\i\g to the existence of a hydrate lIiSO«,2H40.
A second h>^rate« H«StX.HiO» may be obtained as rhombic
1 i\«laU« which melt at ?* ^nd U^l at »o5*. by diluting the strong
avul until it has a spccinc gravity of 1*7$, and cooling the
n^ixtutf ; this convi^und b sometimes known as (/u«ia/ smlpkttnc
a. *J. Both the mono> and dih>>irates form freeing mixtures
wah snow. Olher h>>lrat«a have also been described.
K.N*<.fiNMM ^IphMno 4Kid h*« ih* xiHteM <\^mmec\-«l Applicftiioa
%4 aU vtwm«<4l iVvVkV«t*. Hcrr \v\U hmvIkwu of conuiwtvSAl
Mtthu «tn te \»«*Kk<r\l. AfHl rfKM>f«HY *KvHila l>e mjK*p to the article
S^ i r«ii a Kw rMctKMis inhK-K Jitv ra«w v>( j puirly Aricett6c ictceeat.
>*^\v \t 4x«»vf Uh »»k;V-s Ai»<i u> ix^mift vi» fvx^'<K o;h<* acid*
tivv^ iW*t *aV.v Itt lix- lii>: suvp *< Kavt u* ■K-iK>t the use of j
(«^ «k».)i ma^t t«e u^ xUnvtN. a« K«c w!Ut.^ balkx>o» «>r lor |
|V ^SVt* Ol <\V*«b<^v{KMIC Off Mft lK<- <M«,rf«J \VAvt4tMaL toff iv\ivctK>a
is .;xv*^. a* fiv N^ A -^ » iSr \as»f 1 * x^v-* '.k^ v i>v>*" •»«> v'** Ami ivfc^
v^*^ >r ^V,v^. X' *vv* »»^\ tKr tiV»A*v>« N *'>'*-.x<"» «" ac\v*\*i-v^
%..N .V vv.^^ *• <fv:, i,vsx \| -^ tU>«.\ - M^^V f 11^ vM vVa.-:icsf
Vhi*.- a^v«^ >•« v»^A .>*t vx t%v* an>«fc* o«l a »v>.wjiVft< ar^ai . *Vtif
av k»H.N.Nv na \V »\vv > . ."r a..* V,.; c>jK'^N«f *~ :V t^^;
«( . ^ *v v «.^oW -vNa.x >- ' ^^.- s-..-v-,V •>-*: M - Jil:^\-
aK »• ,<«» 1\*^ xV»»: '-<\ S*.' ^^ '•t.Ji ;W\'<wa"v .s ofc"N>a cvoe
S.S >vx* \i .-Vv *.s -v .-'•'X^ oA-N",,.v -^a,x'%v- .vv-^v.-xxi
>^\-»v i.* '.t%"^5«k *.'»/■ V Jt.»v xx*v V\o%-».*»vvv r ;-x' j^~>fc~Vnc
4i»v aut^ vxK-N *» v> av '<.■■.- *... *A- >» .W >>,*.* »x ?*. '^i -c
^ Vx fc.-vN
,"*.»' "X * "^ .\^>v->« vi» l^>.. ^ .» <N -. "- .V i-V •>^ ■»
^ m "% -An »>— V > V O • "V • ' ^•*» '^' ' V • ♦^ * - •-*
*. ^ C** «K a •• X .i *.• A ,*.-X^' '^>iv.\v.v i'C , • v.v "^ .T - *.--»»\-».
flV * »v- '^ "H"* « »x ♦ V"V J- \\«»r 'jx vV V xNNr».' vnj> ,•* .*V ^V.-X'''^
«(v * rsi • »n I-.. » .'.V»x^* » -V ,\N"*,xx* tv.^ -^ ^Jii*. Z* ' ^ -c
^ » A, X * K -xsx ^ N. • ,-v . * \x -•'S*.'^ T?v '.» - <. .»
^ ,'.».\'«^ » X ,- S,"N I ', x"v""v' *'» •..V- ■ w :« -V ;»'r-<^•^^r ,^ *>
^•.*'. 1 *»>c ak-^x, It *.» ,%-\x>H V t^ •vx,. jt ^-nf- •< t ,ji*^ ji4\, »v
^X x'«*p'*o»»'^ ,x » •■» V .^■%*'.x>..!\rfc •» i's p -.v> *'» ,va'»»r'-'5V
•»\x» x-\-~ v.x"^ * »v x^xw;^ 0%^ «. 'V .V • « 5> «x. • >» ,j..s«.xr
V . iX---v -X • .>v 4.. *.' .V x .V- ' -- .-. ^- .t
> 1. •• . tx >.•>-. .► .. -.x-' V .'•' •. V ^
«| V J.^ * X V JV"^'- ^^ '*- !• ^--v, . -I** .«'TV
,*«i« in ^ 1^ .» >^-x %V'»» - -x t -V >'-^ V. ♦ ^•♦.XWx >«*il-». V
sokiUe in water, mluble in steong sutphttric sdd. and almo§c
tniolubb in alcohol.
Sulphates may be delected by hesiinn ^^ '^^ miscd with sodium
cnrfoonate on charcoal in the nducing flame of the blowpipe:
•odium sulphide b thus formed, and may be identified by the
black slain produced if the mass be tnnsfencd to a silver coin
and thtfi mois t ened . In solution, sulphates are always detected
and estimated by the fonnatioo of a white precipitate of barinm
sulphate, insoluble in water and all the common reagents.
jHasM/odnrr. — ^The first step in its manufacture is the com>
bustioo of sulphur. Formerly thu was employed eachnively in the
free state as brimstone, and thb is still the case to a considerable
extent in some countries, noubly in the United States, but the
givat bulk of sulphuric acid is now maide from metallic sulphides,
especially those of iron and zinc. Most of the brimstone of trade
comes from Sicil>-. but in the United States Louisiana soMiur is
playing an important fart, and seems Itteely to oust the biciiian
sulphur. Free sulphur is abo contained as gas sulphnr ** in ihc
** spent oxides*' of gasworks, which are actnBy utilized for the
■uiuifacture of sulphuric x\± Sulphur b aho wow ere d in a very
pure state from the " alfc::*> waste " of the fjrblanr process, but
thtt ** recovered sulplmr is too enpcusne to be burned for the
purpose in question. In the Uniied Kingdom much gas sulphur
IS used for the ssanufacture of sulphuric acid, logctlier with a
limited ooanticy of SkiKan sn^ur for the productioa of sulpliuTic
acid freeliom aiseuic
4 much larger percentage of the snlphniic ac '
Crfites, a^ more or less pure dtsulphide of iron
tve ouantities in macv oocatries. Great Briiai— , _.,
lutV 01 it. Irelaid a bttV mere, but of poor quality. Most of ihie
rxrittrs cvMksciaoi in the I' tared Kiafdom come firom Spaiw; this
NMub^ pvntcs geoerkUv (ao* alwav-s) contains tnumth copper
\«av ^ or 4"^^ to make tr& extractioa from the residues (** cinders ")
a pa> i^ prucY«Sx asxi :hi» oi course cheapens the price of the sulphur
to :br noj min'jjacta'vr. Sp^iia abo scpohes much pyrites to
G«rra&ia\. Frarce aitti Aoenci ^U ot which couatiics are them-
9ei\vs pcvxfucvTs of tkzs ore. Swevim ajhi Norway are mqwrten
vX i: tc 4*1 rS«ie cv^c-rne^^ OxV rxT-.-« contains fiom 4S so y>**.
exvY^xxv: -> ^r*" to 52S 01 w'.>i^. of whicb al but from i to
4*. & -• -"Ai mSr-a S-r- -"c i>t one Arx-<Ser metallic snl^>hide,
Nv-iif, - ai\ » J« -~ Axti -vif Sx>» Orf-iu.-^. B«^.«m«nd the Cniied
Sr J, rx"^ "? ^^v - Vrss >o • cc ; "^ V ~ • xi Kl-^ j. sa. as a .mmce of sulphur.
Bx- jv cc»-:a.*s xX-V ir».>.: iu. *» =r-*:r <wr*jr as good pyrite*,
a^^ :'^i.> c^-c i.x S: ^4.: x:«^ jfi as caaf-. as trom pyntcs^ but this
rt.>a>: x ^-^ -«' >< >^ - 'v >xx->cv« ^ a=) case is order to prepare
sSc .XT .,v :Sj <\--- . "- ,» -.N: r.»r.
cv- ->c.^.ae 2N «^>..« :«. -"vc »-.-iicut axr csamnenus help: indeed
?W xX-A .-rtfv-i^rxNT -!!v;, -."c a» ^» :.aaM c*-e fest the beat produced
>» ;ssc Vw t-^j: -«- v^**J >••■- --»:: ace -i-.x;*: :.je part of it an the ua>
S« ''ICC <A"f. F^.c^ x'ajt w* ««■ ^( r*r--«i> axQufad. and SMuetinMS
*~Nf r.-w.. x xX .* ".c». ^».i'> :;^^s» T^ace ■riWjt wsmg any
«\~»'Kv>>-* *-<» :'Sf kr*: c.»vi .-rf r* r"^ ^jods'iaa ol the sulphur
a:^^ :i« mv.t >cxx x- V jx.Jtv.-xTC 5c car-> oa £Ik ^rooesa. It the
xXT » .* .xk.xw xX .2kf S..A; .:& a «xkij^c jr •sw-ards. SK is snnsted in
.Xw. t *(.''&.* xV ^«.-Y'>x' ;t>.-<-t.A!vi w^ a gating «if cuicable
x^N-^j-A— c vv -K* ■^-x.-.i' ^ -.♦»: c-_?OBTh. wr-i n saJe doer in the
. > x-« .V . •.-> .^^w X- ')s ' >*^ "«^^ ^<^ ^«: K^e asp of the partially
:^ *vx- .%-r J x: • . I * t * -. >.jx».i„iev: -xX.-* r<um whic^ the bunhcr*
x.«^ » ,-4. '*wx j% i« .1 i K< x^.tT.nutt s^ a %ah3w me «tf Usk. The
Ml .-«- a^r; J. «i .^ ^«v »x A .-</<« xX zvc'xe jr isdEC and ant <me after
ix,^xrt ^v vx" -^JvTf jr z»x.^ a .2J.I a: a^civcnase imerxals,
*.- rax i W-- x' .-ii* »■« .» *.•»' ^iss iik^or ^ me ^^ ro^nd- B>
.-"•..-^i . jsi -X4. ,c ..xv** v.-ix a c^ «■* a.rcT-,aK«aaaci> uufonn
. x">. '„» IX .X-- -vx .'.-«• • • .r^ T'^as.
>v"k » * a I I -X- v.\. S»' , * ii i>Att ii *» dt oK^gcai. '
^ r xt '.. ' ^.".v :» \.k x\.- V- Cij ..-jr *I r*? 50^ moo SOi or
" ^^* X ?^ -. x«» "^t*- '> -•>■ .i'*^^ * ■«»» ' ^t anriK L on uidi i i.d
- -> •t» .X . V . L * X. x.-.Tir-.'-r .Xm.x :t*: d£ pmoeSk butt iJiia
• TTv.i-. >. x vvt rtv x'» .• x" ..tis *i v*.-u» wav^ |nim.]|i iTIy
K- vv . •.. ♦*{» xiv *- • -vovrwv X. 3* £► Maiecra. and
mx-s. X- H .^v -tv^*x %tv}^ •«■-. • -cx"^ ibjAisc anauci^ CDSiSned
•■• V'v •• * >v«x -V .«--(^ .\ «x..r »
r-.-^ x«:>2iaae than the
«<t>t imaRssuwd. 9mA gas
n ^iHK.frr ID that
swrsrc»»sa9T abo
SULPHURIC ACID
The ns prodoccd in the buraiBg of lulphor ofcsi when imiinc
from the burner, holds io oaechafucal suipensioa a considerable
qoaamy of " Boe^ust," which must be removed at far as iscMactic-
afalc before the |as io sobjected to further treatment. Flue-dust
nodfHuly fenic oxide, aiiie oxid6, acsenious and sulphuric
t small quaiititka of the various metals oocurriag m the
I the market b obtained
» the bumcr-gas is employed diractly
far the sohe ot the SOb which it coauins, principally in the madu-
factsie 9i " sttlphtte oellttfese" liom wood. When the fas is to
be otiliaed for toe maoufactoie of sulphuric acid the S0| must be
usiiKf d with move OKyflen, for which purpose an " oxygen carrier "
■sft be employed. Until recently the onl^r agent practically used
for this pu f poo e was furnished by the oxides of nitrogen; more
recently other oocycea earners, acting by " conuct processes," have
abo come into use (see below).
The pniduction of sulphuric acid by the assistance of the oxides
of the oitfogen is caitied out in the " vitriol chambers." These
are iaiiQi nstf iwxptaclei. mostly from lOO to 200 ft. long, ao to 30
ft. vide, umI is to 25 ft. high, constructed of sheet-lead, the joints
o< the dieeta betag made by '* bumiog " or auK)genous soldering,
Kf. tummg ihera tO0eiher by a blow-«pe without the aid of solder
(which would be quickly destroyed by the add). The vitriol
chambers moat be aupported on aU sides by suiuble wooden or
ipM framework, and they are always erected at a certain height
over the pwand. so that any leaks occurring can be easily detected,
le nesnly aU cases several ce these chambera are connected so as to
fonn a set of a cubic capacity of from 100.000 to aoQ.000 cub. ft.
The banser gaa is introduced at one end, the waste gases issue from
the other, the movement of the gsses being impelledpartly by their
•«■ c h emi c a l reactions, partly by the draught produced b;^ a
chimatT (or tower), or by mechanical means. At the same time
' IS incroduccd in a number of places in the shape of steam
' ' I as a spray, to furnish the material for the reaction
H.SO4. - *
SOi -!> O -f HsO «
As this reaction of its own accord takes
plve only to a very smaH extent, an " oxygen carrier " is always
lairedttccd ia the shape of the vapours of mtric acid or th^ lower
ondes of nitrofcn. By the play of reactions induced in this way
practically the whole of the SOs is ultioMtely converted into
mip haii c acid, and at the same time the nitrogen oxides are always
l euw e t e J with comparatively very slight kMses and made to serve
The reactions taking idace in the vitriol chambers are very
ooaiplicated, and have been explained in many different ways.
The view hitherto accepted by most chemists Is that devek>ped
by G. Lunge, according Io which there are two principal reactions
- each other, it may be in quite cont«uous places, but
reat condidons^ Where the nitrous fumes i>revail and
there ia lean water present, sulphur dioxide combines with nitrous
acid and oayten to form nitro«o>sulohuric acid, a crystalliae sub-
waacc of the formula SO»(OH)(ONO). The reaction is therefore:
SOb + O -f HNOk - SOiNH. The solid aubetanoe is, however.
only enoeprioaaUy aaet with, as it at onoe diawlves in the mist
ef iB^phuric acid floating in the chamber and forms " nitrous
TtfrioL" Wherever this nitnuM vitriol comes into contact with
liqwd waeer (««f atcam)* which is ako present in the chamber in
the shape of mist, and practically as dilute sulphuric acid, it is
itaua^Kwrd into sulphuric and nitrousackl. thus: S0b(OH)(ONO} -f
UyO - HJSO4 + HNOh. The re-formed nitrous acid, although not
waUe. any more ihaa is its anhydride. NaOt, is nevertheless the
** osygcn carrier " in questuMi, as the products of its uxmtaneous
deeomjpoaition. when meetmg with other compounds, always react
fake aitfviia acid itrelf and thus may transfer an indefinite ouantity
of uaygu' to the corresponding quantities of SOi and Ha>. with
the carrespoodiog formation of HasO*. This theory at once expbins.
imeag other thuiga, why the acid formed in the vitriol chambera
always cootaios an excess of water (the second of thfi above-qnoted
nanions requiriog the " mass action " of this excess), and why the
exienial coolrng produced by the contact of the chamber sides
wMh the air is of great importance (/ifuuf water in the shape of
a mist of dilute sulphyric acid being necessary for the process). •
la 1906 Lun^ (in a paper published with Bert) to some extent
SBorfified hi» views, by introducing an intermediate compound.
mlphfwitnmic acid. SO^NHi, whkh had beva noticed by various
chemists for aosae time through its property of imparting a deep
bloe coloor to sulphuric add. It is evident that the ^' nitrous
gases " pseseat in the vitriol chamber consist esientially of a mixture
•f NO and NOa, the latter being formed from NO by the excess
of oxysen present. The NOi (or NO + O) reacts upon SOi + H|0.
fanmna SO»NHa. which, being extremely un«table, is at once oxidized
10 SOjiH (nitroao-sulphuric acid). The latter is now either con-
verted by hydrolysis into sulphuric acid and nitrogen oxides:
3SO»NH + H/> « 2H,S0« 4- NO + NOi. the Utter acting as
before: or it reacts with more SOi. forming again sulphonitronic
acai: 2SO»MH -f SOi + 2H|0 » H,SO« + 2S0»NH«. The Utter
caa alsoapKt up directly into NO and S0«Ht.
Wharever be the true theory of the vitriol -chamber process,
thrre is an doubt about the way in which the reactions have to be
camad out ia ptactirs. Since the reactions occur among gases
and lifiuids m the nrtUA'Au •r«> ^w ....
in which the proM** Mw/ U '.'/^' ,^ '
before the waste «*m» >m •.i.^*-- ' > • ' '
These spaces caoocA U «//w w 4/
ally done in the shape tA ♦/- - ws - 4...., ^ >
work can be employed Urn ti^ \^4^^ . .• ' .
destroyed by the acid ljqutd«««<<^fe..«,i.. '
WheA issuing f mm the 'tM*'.«>i> ■•«•/>-* . 11 .,
of the free nitrogen conuiMjd u**** t^ r'..^ * ..^ ' '
burners, together with aU^/t »«#/<^*..^.,,
oxygen originally present thcr»t», *■•'« « ,^^ . ./ .„
quired in order to carry out il*** */fu,*i ^,* ,/ -., '
into sulphuric acid as complctt-ly »* ^,.: ,^ , ^
it Is necessary to employ much ttuft* «.« «/ .,^ . ,
H^O«; and this u all the more n*"*^*/^ ** ,. ^,,
dissolves the nitrous compounds in tU »>.•<>• ,4 ,.,
add. and thus withdraws these oxyg»n r^//^*, 4,.^
of the chambers where the nacesMry i^m^t^L,*^ %,.^ ',
foOows from this that the acid coll«rfing ^ t'l^ v/ '. / .
chambera must never exceed a cen«in tin^Aut, <^.,
H^4 having a spedfic ^vity of i -61 5. l/ui lU^i^»\, ,
it only 66 to 67%, having a specific grsvity *A \ f.i ., t ^ ',
the other hand, it should never go downliekrw O/ % | \hu ^a -
to a specific gravity of 1-50. ». »- •
The commercial production of sulphuric «/id uni^i **>.'*,
requires that the nitrogen oxkles (which oririnaU/ ^t7t ... /
introduced in the shape of nitric acid) should l>r itv^tUt^ ». i,/, .
as possible, before being lost mechanically or hy tt-Ati* im/u u, '. i
inactive forms of nitrous oxide or elementary nitr«A/ii |i«
first step towards securing this requirement was XttVm «» m\/
as 1827 by Gay-Lussac, who discovered that the n\\ttm% fuu^
otherwise carried away from the lead chambers by the wd*te »u»tt,'
spheric nitrogen and oxygen. couM be retained by brir»g»»|( il.»
eases into contact with moderately strong sulphuric arid, iW m g|i
being the formation of nitroso-sulphuric acid: 2HtS04 4- N,^;, *-
2SOi(OH)(ONO) + H|0. and^ the latter remaining i\\<mA>,n\ \n
sulphuric add as " nitrous vitriol." But this important Invrnti^M
was of little use until John Glover, about 1866. found that iks
nitrous vitriol could be most easily reintroduced into the proceM by
subjecting it to the action of burner-gas before this enters into
the lead chambers, preferably after diluting it with chamber
acid, that is, acid of from 65 to 70%, HsSO*. as formed in the lead
chambers. The reaction is then: 2SOs(OH)(ONO) + SOi + 2H|0 m
SHjSO* + 2N0: that is to say. all the ^' nitre" u returned to
the chambers in the shape of NO; the sulphuric acid employed in
the Gay-Lussac process is not merely recovered, but an additional
quantity is formed from fresh SOi: as the heat of the burner-gases
also comes into play, much water is evaporated, which supplies part
of the bteam required for the working of the chambers: and the
add issues from the apparatus in a " denitrated " and sufficiently
concentrated state (78 to .80% HsSOO to be used over again for
absorbing nitrous vapQufs or any other purpose desired. Since
that time, in every properly appointed sutpnunc acid manufactory,
the following cycle of operations is carried out. To begin witn,
in the bumen pyrites (or. as the case may be. brimstone or blende)
is made to yield hot burnef-cas containing about 7 % (in the case
of briautone 10 or 1 1 %) of SCV This, after haviqg been deprived
of most of the flue-dust, is passed through the " Glover tower."
t.e. an upright cylindrical or souare tower, consisting of a leaden
ahell lined with lieat- and ackf-proof stone or brick, and loosely
filled or " packed " with the same materUI, over which a mixture '
of acid from the Gay^'Lussac tower and from the chamben trickles
down io such proportions that it arrives at the bottom as denitrated
acid of from 78 to 80% HaSOi. The gases now pass on to the lead
chambers, described above, where th^ meet with more nitrous
vapours, and with steam, or with water, converted into a fine dost
or spray. Here the reactions sketched above take pUce. so that
" chamber-acid " as already described is formed, while a mixture
of gases escapes containing all the atmospheric nitrogen, some
oxygen in excess, about o-s% of the total SOx> and some oxides
of nitrogen. This gas is now passed through the Gay-Lussac tower,
which eoraewhat resembles tne Glover tower, but is usually filled
with coke, over which sulphuric acid of about 80% HaSO* trickles
down in sufficient quantity to retain the nitrous vapours, t'lli-
mately the waste gas is drawn off by a chimney, or sometimes by
mechanical means.
Of course a great many specUl improvements have been made
in the plant and the working oif chamber sysums; of these we mention
only some of the roost important. By iudick>usly watching all
stages of the process, by observing the draught, the strength of
the acid produced, the temperature, and especUUy by frequent
aaalyses <M the gases, the yield of add has been brought up lo
98 % of the iheoretkaJ maximum, with a loss of nitre sometimes
as low as two parts to 100 of sulphur burned. The supply of the
nitric add reouired to make up this loss is obtained in EogUnd
by " porting that is. by decomposing solid nitrate of aoda by
sulphuric acid in a Hue between the pyrites burners and the chambers.
On the ccmtinent of Europe makers generally prefer to employ
hquki nitrir acid,- which la run through the Glover tower together
68
SULPHURIC ACID
«Hth tht nitrout vitriol. Althbufth this mechod appeara more
tToublrsome, it allowt the amount oTnitre to be more easily and more
accurately regulated. The stxe of the Glover towers, and more
rsprciallv that ot the Gay>Lu>»ac towers, has been progressively
increasffo, and thereby the cube ol the lead chambers themselves
has been diminished to a much greater extent. By improved
OFWsTtai*^*''
Sul^xhunc Xcid riiBt-
\. TVr^te* NiratTk H, .•KchI ^iiar? or Tr«"rr>x«r? fcr
Iv \\r<r o\v\ jvu— /: VJ the acvi to lop oi
l\ Cvv' »^ jv.x* lor Gk>>itr^ K'MltT tx>c brvi'w.-i up
tv^*v% *s>i r\* .^■-'k
r r K. \ >:vbuL»Ntfv j. c> v\-
" j».A»*< ** tNr tT»wtr* W>^ ^^p• r»*vV*T'* -*vnv v*. ->Sl^ »*•< •• 'V
t* AN-.'iv' 'i iV .<«c >,M a vx"** .Nixl. 'i %^v^ *»t> % v<« t'^at
»•^■^^NV *■» a \v-v -^ *cf': V: •> *,:,-— .jx ^^^w Sc\« —jv
V ":n >.x iSf vVi-Sr- v.>»v-^ i'x i.-.\X %T.x •' V- * sV r.-^ K'* ~< jN.x,t
tV •? <H yx'tv »p» »>* •» . \>."^ X • -.■» A» • V .s >v o ''vv--. -< It
;V .^J -St %' ^ <>»>.^ .N s.- X >.♦ • ^ -V- s^j -S. *• •v -»^, r
tVr Cl '•••^ "^"t > v.«>,\-v»., A • * •«.. 'V *^->^ C^'^V A \ i ■ vx!
l.XM »".x ."< t"^ ^ <. •*♦ XX :V I. v'"^.^* "V. '» <V.r .NN - -x
tV ■» x"v.* -> *- *.!• • ■ "a t ^ » \x N -^\> ,»^ X- w > . >*> " ! V a:.
<«,» V r,v ,"* -V N"»,--» X .v-* i"« »»> X- •.« •x-N.* >> •*o»»> ,x »v "
V "^t. .t .V V. -»* -v: .v-^- '•\»«' N-»-. TV* TV '^"« 'rv:--'^* ro St ,"<
J* -.-K \ »>. ,v '».* ,•« J V a .>.«-•>»».»•.- r'^ .V v> Sr V .\« .'•v
■'^^ >,• Si.* T^ :v .t •-.'tKV K>« *^ yVVX* . ? V- * >• ,-* ^.*s^
u K- na -^ Jk. . ■^ .-» >- «v. .-,.■» ^v ..•. > * « "-.x^'N v •«. «>• .^t*
,Wt.n>x» >i t * fv» *t »V ••a* K'. V »"« -^ V '•>»». ^ Vt -y^ S »
f.^tW'N *t 'Stv* *».^«i? »«* T^jvfV *^» X-^ »; ,•».'•'• : ><• , t K N*
siw «%n,-^ rurnfMC a «r«ae xj*vc» ,-« r ^ v > .-» %»-.. '^v* .v» *. V*
«KWir»4t a ^«c««n — a ;r^m m^-.x* Vk* ••we ••(♦ *'*^ •••^^ * xn-w
r^ « c <% diva w —.^ ««<^ f tm r aJ N r<i> ^ -»w «•«» Wx x. • >.. -
s**.-* v^c^ ^X^x-U •-
consideration is the form of the vesads; tliefle may be open pans
or dishes, or closed retorts, or combinations of both. We also note
the Faure and Kessler apparatus, which consisU of a platinum
pan. surmounted by a double*waUed leaden hood, in such a manner
that, while the hood is constantly cooled from the outside by water,
the thin add condensing on its inside is carried aaray without being
albwed to flow back into the pan. The majority of acid makers,
however, prefer retorts made entirely of pbtinum, preferably pro-
vided by the Heraeus process with a dense, closely adherent coating
of gold, including the top or " dome." The new Kessler furnace is
a vetv ingenioos apparatus, in which the fire from a gas-prodiacer
travels over the sulphuric acid contained in a trough nade of
Vdvic lava, and surmounted by a number of perforated plates,
over which fresh acid is constantiv running down ; the te m perature
is kept down by the production of a partial vacuum, which greatly
promotes the vobtiluation of the water, whilst ivtacding inat df
the acid. This furnace is also very wcU adapted for impure aods,
unsuitable for phtinum or platinum-gold stiUs on account of the
crusts forming at the bottom of the retorts: and it b more and inore
coming into use both in Great Britain and on the Continent. A thitd
consideration b the condensation of the vapours formed in the con-
centrating process: the further the ooncentratiott proc e ed s the more
Milphuric add they conuin. Condens a tion b a cooopamti^y ea^-y
task in the case of platinum apparatus, but with glass or potrelain
beakers or retorts it presents great diAcultics. In tkb re sp e ct
the Kessler furnace has also prm-ed to be very eftcariow. ao that
it is at the present time considered the beA apparatus for the
concentration of sulphuric add found in the trade.
The highest strength of vulphnric acid practically attainable bv
N>(Un^ do»n b 98*« H}SO«. and thb b only exrepnonaDy rmchca.
>ir.vv It inx'olves much expenditure ol fuel, loBof acid and wear and
tear of apparatuv The usuul strength of the O.V. cl coasneice,
mv-kftly de>ignated b\- its sred6c gravity as i68* TwaddeH. m froos
45 to Q5, or at most 96 '.• H<SO«. \Mien attempts are made to push
the prv>ce« be>x«nd qS' . it is found that the acid mhic^ «fcittls over
i> a$ »trc«n^ as that j^hhrh remains begird. Real ** aaonobydrate "
or scid ai^ixTQchini; loo ' .. can be made b> Lunge's process of cooling
>trx^rc O \ . c!c>» n to — 16* C- mhen HjSC). crystaUiaes oat. or by the
adviition of anh\ .*rc>es SOj in the sk.ape of futning add.
Snce the dcxr^^p-nert oi the contact rrocesses the faming acid
ha* K>cv"ne so cho-ap that it is new e»clu>«\ely used for the prrpara>
iK'i o( ;he acivi> j ■ •%\i.'' -c tSe ccrrjv^tjon of " monohydrate."
f»» x»f .— .Wi;.kv« t."h, cf Vt>:jl, a iraxtwve or cbeaaical com-
pc'und v^< HjSOv «"th r^.xr or less SO:, has been made for centuries
b\ e\Tvxj-c pwTv HT^.-t to the irf^L^ence ol atsncafilieric agents.
vv vvtirhf the i*>*_:A.>n o< hrrrces and terric sulphate thus formed.
K\ . -^ u d.^m-B ir.tjk a ^a*i rvass ^^ \itnc)^ein ") and heating thia
tc» a k»« rcNi heat ia sr-u' ranSeB-ware retorts. Since about 1800
:>»> i-.'-^rx K»d bem vA%-'-x>i to the rortS-«»est of Bolwmia. and
jt •i'Aiwxi '.^ '■- ^'*^^ »*je^ k wa« eetire*y ab—doned — doC
Svj.><- i;< r.vsf j.-t Kv* Sv <:^e a-*> W-ss m fiwary. b«t. qnite on
:^.- V -'•t-A'A . bwva..^ th-^ cv.-T-vx.-^ i'vrta>iaf liftnd for fmninf^
^i."^''.-x• >.-• ;• jr^ic j^^-A.i^ tW <f-3rvne«-v «f artiftcial aKaarine
a~* ^>t''.- c.v^tir cv»vx.T>» o.x-".: ace fosslK be sw ppSed by the
V*- -^N Iv^V- .* v^xY-w. i>Nfr $o«rre« s.i ivp^ Ima accordingly
i\> Sr s^N-v^: a-v: tNrv «r^ •..x.-i b% c>r=^ back to a neaction koovn
v~,r tV ^ ^ <-aT.'- .>* :Sf i,:.^ oe-:-'^. «W« Jk^*- Dibefeiner
^- >vv\r-\x* :V v^.v ^ ^arva o< SCV i^ O »to 50> by Bweni of
v>.*'o I'-^i* ---*- T" - TirtvoL acw k-x-ww by tbe name ol the
v-a:i X', V vv V- "jvt rr.vTVN, »a* tu.S? ^^^e <«bf(<ct of n patent by
J\ \x *-«< J"^ .>^ >» :>"t a-ad «a- trx^i bter a many ways, but
^a/. Vxv-^ i*%a^-> o,H-^ x'-.-vi a* ssrVs* *cr prvtical paapoan nntfl
5>"S ^V* : mjr* ^••^ ": w\.vN j-^i - Vor-^dratN taben wp by
j.\--»-v\V vv- • r-r v'i a-'- "^ ^\ S. >«; ..^rr awd R. MesK^I in
l«-^- .>.v tv^^ -Sr^*? •'.•. ♦ ,x> Srcii » the saMe mxy, via. by
v"^"--^'-^ '\ -^- •'• -^ -- ".-V *^x: V« a k:*k tenapcniwie into
^V v^ A V t\0 V a^ .» o.-^-Mf S:-^ idi tW ibapf «f steam).
*S<^N '< -.V •J'rr ^* ^ ■^^.-v- *^-«- a'c cam.-<xn^ the SO» and O
t>» o.-^-'N x* re S>s ^'. -X- : -- .-. Txxx -a v» W>a«rd j^timoB in a fine
^ ♦ ^ <>< .*^ --V**- \\ -v^-r ^.'S'^.pi :>,^ t*as ffc-> i irm was brsl
,^^x 1 XX* ^* ■*.\»c x; a<s>r.>s ^^^f"* a *r^ »-vo «l platinmni chloride
^-. .\x>«v.x; -v ..J '. - :.» *V T<*;-4 jv *«»ie. «mS he described
vi N> a Hvv " ac sv 4 — H • c->>t*.-: '•uSca.wce." pRpnied fro«
.>»-,>v at a v« '»r«i'->f-jn-e Tkis mi i a l «l the
XX ,s.vv*' ,x-,x»..'v.. 01 Svx a: a t«rvd wbea this article
Wv- v,..vv>»s Nx^^•^ »x {-«- : - .x-r»aice lawjtd the ffiente«t
<•>• ' ,>-x * I rx^t< ov- ^ - i-o i^-* *.• ^-nef-ws ariinnai ia the
>>•■«?« ^ '^» x.>i-nr .•» •'^v* *v^ ac .«««».-» <dhcv»rbr mutt ufal
,,• >-" N V %'^> ;Nr ^^V ' •» .^rx-'^ss h «»* $cwa kvwd that the
-.-.N'-x XV. ^M a •*• x- J V .^ ^\ i tv.- .^ -tft ^ tr*«v acid, as above
.^-». "^^^ ^*^ Sx> x>'xi «. ^«,t«f a X.- .'.-^s Mid^Tcrn SMtnabrr
,<» rvx -.v^f-x .► v%>v> ,".-,v>^»-x .»%r-«-.-rx «r^ hack to the a»e
.^ ,^.. .» ^ >x,.'x>-<-x v,^ .- -*. f.^- .^v.>,«^ Herners. For a
4VVX' "x. t^ ^x.'x .V ,.-V^ .X".. «x-Txr<H' .n r%iK( aw ^as U -y WM
^.-.v -v-vv >% v"^ ^- •»-,'> Ni ^ w^ ctw* tkaa a sMt<:fac>
« t XV .^•r.r'- >^^^x.» ^ ux- , *^-x>r«^ aKi ia Lon<V>n.
^. K .»x>x#.-» N V «ix-'N» .,-., .,-v, *^ -A-^^vr 1h w^Wr aad Dr
*«^ wi-xvN cac«»f >5 ¥he saT
SULPICIA— SULPICIUS RUFUS, PUBLIU8
iathel
he
ice
ler
b
nit
As
ist
of
be
is
Eh
At
he
he
^ , JCt
•I^Mzatus by means of the gBseous mixture to be later submitted
to the catalytic action, the mixture is at the time heated ^ to the
requiaitie temperature, and a considQuble savir^g oi fuel is the conae-
Mence. Akosether this process has beentirou^t to such a pitch of
sBDpGdty and perfection, that it is cheap enough, not merdy for
dK maxlufacture of fuming oil of vitriol of all strengths, but even for
that of ordinary sulfiAiunc acid of chamber-add strength, while
k m decidedly cheaper than the old pcooessln the case of stronger
•cids. otherwise obtained by concentration by fire. It should oe
aoted tfiat these are not the results of a few years' working with an
csperimental plant, but of many years' work with large plant, now
equal to a capacity of 120,000 tons of pyrites per annum. It b
thcrdbre not too much to say that, in all probability, the contact
process will ultimatdy be employed generallY for concentrated
adds.. Scill, for the reasons given m the beginiong of this article,
the revolution thus impendtnr will require « certain time for its
hment. Since the' Badische process has become known
r contact processes have come into the field, in some
itiilii ulty aj
revcrsble. the 4
Etde above the t
far as is known 4
lesnlu obtained i
the theoifCical q
converted into sa
now known, the
wss the pnxess <f
of the badische i
acricUy secret ud
prindpal features
purification of th
time, both io a <
preventiooof sup
slways occurred I
of which ferric onde is employed as contact substance, but we must
icfiaia from ctescribing these in detaiU (G. L.)
ifsdiciJM.—- Sulphuric add or oil of vitriol is a colourless oily<
lookioc liquid incompatible with alkalis and their cnbonates, lead
and olciom. There are two medidnal preparations: (i) Acidum
nlpkmricuM dSmlitm^ containing 1^-65% of hydrogen sulphate, (a)
madmm smlpkmricum aromalkum (dixir of vitriol), containing alcohol,
tpait oT «3nnamon and ginger and lyS % of hydros|en sulphate.
rkentptuties — ^For external use* sulphuric add is tt powerful
irritant and caustic, acting by its powerful aAcity for water and
t hn t fane defaydiatine the tissues and causing them to txnn black.
It ffM g ^lafga the albumen. Strong sulphuric add is occaaonally
ued as a caustic to venereal sores, warts and malignant growths,
h if difficnit, however, to limit its action, and ^^adal acetic and nitric
scads are preferable for this purpose. Considerable bums on the
face or booy may result from the application of sul^^uric add in the
pnctice known as " vitriol-throwing." a brownish black eschar
' I to distinsuish the bums produced by this acid from those of
nmyf^ flidds. Intemaliy, dilute mlpburic add is used in
; by alkalis as a nsutralixing agent. Both it and the
lofatOTn are powerful intestinal astrioj^ts. and are there-
fore oselal ia diarrhoea of a serious type, being strongly recom-
Mtaded both as a prophylactic and as a treatment during epidemics
of Asiatic cholera. Small doses of the aromatic add also serve as
s p rep hyla ctic to those artisans who work in lead and as a treatment'
k lead poiaoosng in order to form an insoluble sulphate' of lead.
' -; the body with very dilute solutions of sulphuric add is
' ' *r the night-sweats of phthisis.
T0*kaUgy. — Gtvea in toxic dosto or in strong solution, sulphnric
sdd is a severs gastxo-iatestinal irritant, -cauang intense burning
r from the mouth to the stomach, and vomiting c4
nee-coloured material. The eflFects of the ingestion
of large quantities iq^y be so rapid that death may take dace in a
cxnle of hoars, owing to collapse, consequent on perforation of the
«al0 of tbe ocsofiAiagus or stomach, or from asphyxia due to swdling
of the flottia coasequent on some of the aad having entered the
Isryax. Should the patient survive the first twenty-four hours
death generally results later from stricture of the oesophagus or
tstcstiae; from destruction of the glands of the stomach or from
ezhaastioa. Death has occurred in a child firom the ingestion of
laM a tcsapoonfttl of the strong add. but recovery is recorded after
kaH aa ounce had been swaUowed. The treatment consists in the
prompt oeutralixation of the add, by chalk, magnesia, whiting,
piaster, soap or any alkaline substance at I^nd; emeticf or the
stomach pump should not be used. Morphipe nay be given
hypodemacaHy tb midgate the pain. Should the patient survive
he wifl prahamy have to be fed oy rectal enemata. The prognosis
of aolphoric acid poisoning Is bad, €0 to 70% of the cases proving
fstaL The poft-mortera appearances will be those of corro siv e
pfMaiehia The huraal muoous membrane will he grcyidi. brown
flrbbcktfi coknir. d«e to the corrosive effecu of the add.
5po ag in(^
Qsefta tO(
I
SULPICIA. the name of two Roman poets. The eazUer Hved
in the ragn of Augustus, and was a niece of Messalla, the |>atroo
of literature. Her verses, which were preserved with those of
TibuUus and were for long attributed to him, are elegiac poems
addressed to a lover called Cerinthus. possibly the G>mutus
addressed by TibuQus in two of bis ElegUsihk.. ii., 2 and 3; see
Schanz, Cesck. d. rdm. Uu. \ 2^4; F. Plessis, La J*oisu latine,
PP- 376n377 ud references there g^vcn). The younger Sulpicia
lived during the reign of Domitian. She is praised by Martial
U- 35> 3S)* who compares her to Sappho, as a modd of wifely
devotion, and wrote a vobmeof poems, describing with consideff-
able freedom of language the methods adopted to retain her
husband Caleaus's affection. An extant poem (70 hexameteis)
also beats her name. It is in the form of a dialogue between
Sttlpida and the muse Calhope, and is chiefly a protest against
the banishment of the philoaopheis by the edict <A Domitian
(a.o. 94), aslikely to throw Rome back into a state of barbarism.
At the same time Snlpida expresses the hope that no harm will
befall Cakmis. The muse reassures her, and prophesies the
downfall of the tyiant. It is nam genemlly agreed that the
poem (the MS. of which was discovered in the monastery of
Bobbk) in 1493, but has long been lost) is not by Sulpida, but
is of much later date, pfobably the jth century; according to
soma it is a tsth-century production, and dot identical with
the Bobbio poem.
Juvenal and Peraius, revised by F.
Bl nens, Vt Stdpkia* gua» woeahir schm
t . C. Boot (1868) ; k. Ellis inAcadimf^
Pkiiolon (1874). vd. V. : 0. lUbb^
ftng <i893), vol. iii.; U. E. Butler.
Pi u 174*176 ; M . Schans, Cesekickle da
rt 2 ; Teuffd, Nisi, ef Jtoman IMtraHtrt
(I There are E^lish translations by L.
E' \Ty (prose, with Juvenal and Persius)
as }.
SULPICIUS RUFUS, PUBUUS (^.~^ xti-«8 B.C.), Roman
orator and statesman, legate in 89 to Cn. Pompdus Stnbo in
the Sodal War, and in 88 tribune of the plebs. Soon afterwards
Sulpidus, hitherto an aristocrat, declared in favour of Marius
and the popular party. He was deeply in dd>t, and it seems
that Marius had promised him financial assistance in the event
of his being "appointed to the command in the Mithradatic Wac.
To secure the appointment im Marius, Sulpidus brought in a
franchise bill by which the newly enfranchised Italian allies
and freedmen would have swamped the old dectors (see further
Rome, History, IL " The Republic "). The majority of the
senate wertf strongly opposed to the proposals; a justitium
(cessation of public business) was prodaimed by the consuls,
but Marius and Sulpidus got up a riot, and the consuls, in'fear
of thdr lives, withdrew tht justUium. The proposals of Sulpidus
became law, and, with the assistance of the new voten, the
command was bestowed upon Marius, then a mere privatus.
Sulla, who was then at Nola, immediatdy marched upon Rome.
Marius and Sulpidus, unable to resist him, fled inm the dty.
Marius maujiged to escape to Africa, but Sulpidus was discovered
in a villa at Laurentum and put to death; his head was sent to
Sulla and exposed in the forum. Sulpidus appears to have
been originally a moderate refonner, who by force of drcum-*
stances hecame one of the leaders of a democratic revolt. Al-
thou^ he had impeached the turbulent tribune C. Norbanus
(g.f.), and resisted the proposal to repeal judicial sentences by
popular decree, he did not hesitate to incur the displeasure of
the Julian family by opposing the candidature for the consulship
of C Julius Caesar (Strabo Vopiscus), who had never been praetor
and was consequently ineligible. His franchise proposals,
as far as the Italians were concerned, Hrcre a necessary measure
ol justice; but they had boen canned by violence. Of Sulpidus
as an orator, Ciceip says (BmtuSt 55): " He was by far the most
dignified of all the orators I have hesrd, and, so to speak, the
most tragic; hb voice was loud, but at the same time sweet and
dear; his gestures ware fuU of grace; his huiguage was rapid
and voluble, but not redundapt or diffuse; he tried fo imitate
Crassu^, but lackad his chann.'* Sulpidus left ao written
7©
8ULPICIUS RUFUS, SERVIUS— SUNTATRA
•peedict, those that bore his luuiie being written by a certain
p. Canutius (or Cannutius). He ia one of the interlocuton in
Cioeio*8 De oratore.
See Appian. Bdl. eio. i. 55-60: Phitarch, SuOa and ifarttUi
VelL Pat. ti. 18; Livy. Epii. 77; E. A. Ahrens, Du dret VoUkstrtbtaun
(Leipag, 1836): Mommaen, HisL tf Rome, blc iv. ch. 7; Long.
Decline oj lA« Raman RepiMtc, vol. iL ch. 17.
8UU>ICin8 RUFU8. 8ERVIUS (c. 106-43 b.c), sumamed
Lewumui from the tribe to which he belonged, Roman orator
and jurist. He studied rhetoric with Cicero, and accompanied
him to Rhodes in 78 b.c Finding that he would never be able
to rival his teacher he gave up rhetoric for Uw (Cic Brut. 41).
In 63 he was a .candidate for the consulship, but was defeated
by L. Lidnins Murena (q.v.), whom he subsequently accused
of bribery; in 51 he was successful In the Civil War, after
considerable hesitation, he thr^ in his lot with Caesar, who
made him proconsul of Achaea in 46. Ha died in 43 while on
a mission farom the senate to Antony at Mutina. He was ac-
corded a public funeral, and a statue was erected to his memory
in front of the Rostra. Two excellent specimens of Sulpidus*s
style are preserved in Cicero {Ad. Fam. iv. 5 and x a). <^uintilian
iluslU. z. z, xz6) speaks of three orations by Sidpidus as still
in existence; one of these was the speech against Murena, another
Fro or Contra XnjS^m, of whom nothing is known. He is
also said to have been a writer of erotic poems. It is as a jurist,
however, that Sulpidus was chiefly distinguished. He left
bdiind him a large number of treatises, and he is often quoted
in the Digest, although direct extracts are not found (for titles
tee Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Lit. 174, 4). His chief
charaaezistics were lucidity, an intimate acquaintance with
the prindples of dvil and natural law« and an unxivalled power
of es^iession.
See R. Schneider. De Senio Sutpicio Rufo (Letpzig. 1834);
O. Kariowa. Rdmische Ruhtsges£kichte, vol. 1. (Leipzig. 1885) ; the
chief ancient authority is Ckera.
SULTAN (an Arabic word meaning " victorious " or ** a ruler,"
suitat, dominion), a title of honour borne by a great variety
of rulers of very varying powers and importance in Mabom-
medan Africa and the East. The word has thus no exact
eqtnvalent in English, atid was eariy imported into the language
in the Middle English form of soudah (from old Fr. soudan,
sonldan). This title is that conventionally applied by foreigners
to the rukr of the Ottoman Empire, the sultan par excoUence,
whose proper stylejs are, , however, padishak (emperor) and
"commander of the faithful" (see Amis). The feminine
form " sultana " la derived from the Italian (fem. of suttano),
SULTANPUIl,. a town and district of British India, in the
Fyzabad division of the United Provinces. The town is on the
right bank of the river Gumti, midway between Benares and
Lucknow, op the Oudh 8c Rohilkhand railway. Pop. (Z901),
95SC.
The Disraicr or Sultanfui has an area of 1713 sq. m.
The surface is generally level, being broken only by ravines
in the neighbourhood of the rivers. The central p9rtion is
highly cultivated, while in the south are widespread arid pUins
and swampy jhils or tnarshes« The prindpal river is the Gumti,
which passes through the centre of the district and affords a
valuable highway for commerce. Minor streams are the Kandu,
Pili, Tengha and Nandhla, the last two being of some importance,
as their channels form the outlet for the superfluous water of
the jhils, draining into the Sai. There are po forests in the
district, only stunted dkdk jungles used for fueL In zgox the
popuktion was z ,083,904, showing -an increase of less than
t % in the decade. Sultanpur is i purely agricultural district
with a very dense populatioil/ The prindpal crops are rice,
pulses, wheat, barley, sugar-cane and a little poppy. The main
line of the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway (torn Lucknow to Rae
BareU and Mogul Serai serves the soudi-wcstem portion.
The only inddent worthy of note in the history of the district
since the British annexation of Oudh is the revolt of the native
troops stationed at Sultanpor during the Mutiny. The troops
foie in rebelUon on the 9^h of June Z857* •*^* ^^ mutdcring
two of their -oBccn, sacked the station. Upon the restoratioo
of order Sultanpur cantonment was strengthened by a detach-
ment of British troops; but in z^z it was entirely «hflH'*nti
as a military station.
See Sultanpur Dtstrict GauOeer (Allahabad. 1903).
SUMACH. The Sumach of commerce is the finely ground
leaves of Rhus coriaria, a native of the North Mediterranean
region from Portugal to Asia Minor; it is a shrub or low tree
with hairy leaves composed of 11 to Z5 elliptical leaflets with
large blunt teeth, azid la^e loose paziicles of whitish-green flowers.
Another species, Rhus cotinus, known as Venetian Sumach,
I. Flower.
Sumach, Rhus cortarfa.
2. Ouster of fruit. 3. One (nut. 4. A seed.
also a native of southern Europe and Asia Minor, yields the
yellow dye-wood known as young fustic; it b also known as the
Smoke-plant or Wig-tree, from the feathery or hairy appearance
of the flower-stalks, which become ek>ngated and hairy after
the flowering. The genus Rhus is a member of the natural
order Anacardiaceae and contains about zao spedes of trees
or shrubs mostly native in the temperature regions of both hemi-
spheres. The leaves are alternate and simple or compound,
with few to many entire-margjned or serrated leaflets, and
terminal or axillary panides of smaU flowers with parts i» fouiB
or sixeSk The spedes are mostly poisonous> some being espedally
noxious. Such are Rhus toxicodendron^ the North American
poison ivy, a shrub climbing on locks and trees by meazis of
rootlets, and poisonous to the touch. R. senewia, the North
American poison dder sumach or dogwood, also contains an
extremdy irritant poison. R. vermicifera is the Japan lacquer
or vamlsh-tree. Several spedes axe cultivated in the BzUiah
Isles as store, greenhouse or hardy trees.
SUMATRA, the westernmost and, next to Borneo, the largest
of the Great Sunda Islands in the Malay Archipelago. It
stretches N.W. to S.E. from Malacca Passage to Sunda Strait,
between 5* 4</ N. and 5* 59' &, and 9$'* t6' and 106** 3! 45* £.
lu length is about zxoo m., iu extreme breadth 950 m., azid its
area, induding the ndghbouring islands, except Bank^ antl
Billiton, is Z78,338 sq. ro. Ther northern half runs roughly
paralld to the Malay Peninsula, from whid^ it is separated by
the Strait of Malacca, and Che aomhtm end isttpsratsd 1^ tb«
SUMATRA
7«
uu vtM»«u«.a uautc iv aciiwus vcuiauuuB uuc
to zrregnlarity of supply from the mounUios and sudden rain-
Uh. la their lower courses some of them form enormous
interroiniminirsfing deltas. The mountainous regions contain
BoaKSOOftbkes, many evidently occupying the craters of extinct
volcaaoea. When, as sometimes happens, two or three of these
crsten bsre laergcd into one, the lake attains a great size.
AaMng tbe Urfer lakes may be mentioned Toba; Maninyu,
wot oC Fort de Kock; Singkara, south-east of Fort dc Kock;
Koriadis, tnlaad fsom Indrapura; and Ranua, in the south-
rh^trupky.^-lm order to appreciate the orography of the isbnd
f*i* IrJtitjmiof secthMU of Sumatn dioald be discriminated one from
•sa^bsr: Cs) The valley of tbe Adua or Atidi River, UI The pUios
through which the rivers cleave thcirway in a curved and iiregular
course. South of the Middenecbeme* however, the nortnem
affluents of the Batang Hari, the Selitt, Gumanti, Si Potar, Mamun
and Pangea, at least those in the west, again run in longitudinal
valleys. These affluents and the Batang Hari itself (except the part
at the mouth. Mamun-Simalidu) are navigable only by praus drawing
not more than \3 in. (6) South Sumatra, so far as known, presents
everywhere in its valleys the nme character as that of the Batang
Tom. Batang Gadis. Sumpur, ftc They also are closed in on the
north and south by volcanoes which have here produced ^mtlar
masses of tuff, with lakes and rivers of the same formation as in the
north. Such are the valley of Korifiehl, with the river of the same
name, between the peak of Korinchi and Mt Raja; the valley*
of Serampd and Suncei Tenang (as imperfectly known as that of
the Korinchi). in whioi are to be aonfifht the soarees of the Tambesi
aod AMi* both aflueots of the Jambi; the kmgiltidhial valley of
7«
SUMATRA
KftMOi. in LcboBC, ioirfi« to tht-^m. coa«. aad eC the upper
liari, aowiagto the cut cent ;the imlleysoC Mftkakaa uid SdabhiaK
or the opper Komaii«, aa aiBaeiit of the Mini, between Scbdat
end Kam. The MaknkBtt end Sdabong drain into Lake Ranau,
which on the eovth mie is danuncd by the volcano Seminuttf. The
■outhenunotf longkudinal valle^ of Sumatxl is that of the Semanglca,
which flows into the bay of the same name. Generally the tower
vaBeys of the rwtn lie at olevatyons of 600 to xooo ft.; hither np
they nse to 3500 or jooo ft.; the moontain chains rise to 5x00 ft.;
the vokaaoes tower op ftom 6900 to neaiiy io/ko ft. (7) The
section of south Snoatn b u w am the eastern chain of old rocks-
and the east coast with iu nnmcrous river mouths is formed of the
alhivium of sea and rivers. In the river-beds, however, and at some
diManoe from the sea, older strata knd eruptive rocfca underlie the
aBuvium. The strata near the mmmtain chains and volcanoes
ooniwt of diluvial tufb.
GcoCofT-— The oldest rocks aregneias, sdust and-qoaitxite, the
schist otten mntainiuf nhL Thier. probably bdonk to several
neoloKical periods, but all were folded and dmiidcn before the
CarboniferxMis beds were deposited. They form the backbone of the
isbnd, and crop out 00 the surfsoe at intervals along the tnonntain
chain which runs parallel to the west ooast. Here and there they
are p ene trat ed by granitic intrusions which are also Pr&<!!arboni-
ferooL The next series of rocks oonsists of slates bdow and lime-
atones abovcw It lies uneonfonnably upon the older rocks; and the
BoKstone contains FmsMlima, J'hUhfKtf and Productus, Indicating
that it bdones to the Upper Caiboniferous. These beds are found
only in mrt bern Sumatra. They am accompanied by intrusions
of diabase and gabbio^ and 4|iey are sonirtinifs folded, sometimes
bat little distnrbed. No I^ennian beds are known, and for many
years Mesoioic deposits were eu poosed to be entirely absent, but
Triasnc days and sandstones with Daonella have been found in
the upper part of. the basin of the Kwaht (East Sumatra). They
vest mioonformabiy upon the Carboniferous beds, and have them-
sdvcs been tilted to a sleep angle. CretaoeoOs beds also have been
king. Tertiary deposits are very widely spread
nd low-lying counbyt Thoy consist of brccdas,
, saadttones, marls, and Kmestoncs. with seams of
. e. The most valuable coal oocnra in the Eocene beds.
At the dose df the Eocene period neat eroptionB of augite-andesite
took pboe from two fissures which ma along the west coast. The
Miocene oonsista chiefly of marts, with occasional beds of lignite and
Ijinrsronc On the east ooast it sometimes yields petroleum. The
TOocene occun diiefly in the low-tying land uid is generally covered
by drift and alluviusi. fi o mftim r t it containi thykaeams of lignite
t volcanoes lie along a Gne (with offshoots) which runs
I to the west ooast, but some distance to the east of the fissures
1 which the early Tertiary lavas were poured. Lava streams are
aeldoa endtted foam these volcanoes, the material erupted consisting
chiefly of ash and scoriae, which are spread over a very wide extent
of country. Augite*aiidesite predominates, but basalt Mad rfayolite
CUwuU. — hi thfOi»hout the whole of the Malayan Archipdaso,
ao in Sumatra, wUch lies about equally halanrrd on both rides
of the equator, the temperature stands at a high levd subject to
but sliriit variations. The monthly tempoature mounts only
from TT F* in February to 80-6* in May, August and November.
In the distribution of the rainfall, as dependent .on the direction of
the winds, the following parts of Sumatra must be distti^iihed :
(1) south-east Sumatra, on which, as 00 Baalca and BiDfton. the
hciviest rainfall occurs during the north-west monsoon, the
annual volume of rainfall increaring.from 08-4 in. in the east to
139 in. in the west. Of the 119 in. of %'eariy rainfall. 9i>7- ui. are
brought by the north-west and 47*3 in. by the south-east monsoon.
(3) The west coast. Httt the xaimall for the year increases from
the southern and northern extremities towards the nuddle. Ben-
kulen. «./. geu 136 in.; Singkel (a* 15' N.\ 172 in.: and Padang
184 in. m the year. Here, too, the prevailing rainfall is brought
by the north-west monsoon, but in this belt its prevalence b not so
pronounced. Padang gettin|; 94 in. of rain dunng the north-west
monsoon, against 90 in. during the south-east. The mountain diain
dy overhanging it, Uie high temperature of the sea wash-
i frequent thundentorms to which it is subj
ing it. the frequent 1
abject, the moist
atmosphere of its equatorial situation, and the shorter regime of the
dry south-east wiad are the principal causes of the heavier rainfall
on the west coast. The higher stations of middle Sumatra, on the
lee side of the western mountain chain, have a yearly rainfall of only
78-7 in. (3) The northern and north-eastern parts of Sumatra
are swept by a variety of winds. The sooth-east wind, however.
predMmnatek Blowing over land and in the direction of the
lottgitudinal valleyft. the south-east wind is oompaxativdy dry, and
thus favuias the lormation of steppes in the aortn such as the Toba
plains. The nortb<ast and south-west winds, on the other hand^
beins laden with the raootuie of the sea, bring rain if they blow for
any length of time,
/b— u. ■ Thou^ Sumatra w separated from Java by ao narrow a
k. both the auu i u t i a t and the bocanast nt once find that the^have
k the aoobgMt and the bona nisi nt
V ^nond «■ ooHiaK to the BORh
iSnmopilkeau mdalopkus).
the only ape f q— »^ ia ^^m ^
tail ape (Maeacus ncmolr
" DcscrndveCatatogneof-
Trans. JJmm.
__ . ^^ ****** **iMii» »m i^^mmf^mi9w»m fa||M; not OWV
aire the Hnnoceraa (Ak. tmmatnmms), the Sna ssiMns, and the tapir
oommon, but the elephant, altogether absent from Java, ia rraro*
aented in Surnktra by a species considered by some to be peculiar.
The SomatraJB thinooeros diAers from the Javanese in having two
horns, like the. African variety, it as oommonest ia the manliy
lowlands, but extends to some 6900 ft. above sra lewi. The
range of the elephant docs not extend above 4900 ft. T^ wikl
Bos sumdaiems does not appear to exiit in the island. An antelope
(JhuuMag-alm) occurs in the lo nel ies t parts of the njrfands. The
commonMalaydeeruwidelydiceributed.GiTva«Mmi(^leiBso. The
ocang-atai«oocori, rarely, in the nort h e as t Theaiamang [.Smmmtm.
syndatiyia) is a great ape peculiar to the idaod. The nngko {Hyuh-
bates agilis) is not so common. A fairiy familiar form is the simpei
. , ., » Tht dag^ {Cenactbut eymomeltus) v»
i Saiu a ua in a tame aCRe. The ^>
(Irinsx)— «a Baflka diarrihari it in his
. a Zooiogaral Colhction madajn Sumatra."
Sac* (1820), xiiL 243— 4s tnined by the natives of
ascend oooo-nnt trees to gather nnta. The Gnfeo-
pilktcms voUutt (hiAts, flying cat or flyiitt lemur) ia fairiy oomooik
Bau of some twenty-fi^ species have been registcrad; in central
Sumatra they dwdf in thousands in the Cmetone oaves. Tht
RUrapus edmis (falong, flying fox) is to be met vnth almost every
where, cspedaOy in the durian trees. The tiger frequently makea
his preeenoe fdt, but b seldom seen; he prefers to prowl in what th4
Malays call tiger weather, that is. dark, starlesa, tnisty nights^
The clouded tiger or rMuon Mn {Fdis macroseelis) is also knowi^
as well as the Malay bear and wdd dog. ParaioKmna musmf
(** coffee-rat '*. of the Europeans) b only too abondaat. The
Sumatran hare (Le^ netseheri), discovered in 1880^ adds a second
species to the Ltpms WfncaUis, the ovfy hare previously known ia
the Malay ArchmdagOw The iiamis jaaamcms b the only repr»
sentative of the Edentata. Some 350 species of birds are knonn^
and the avifauna dosely lessmbles that of the Malay PeninsoU
and Borneo, induding few peculiar spedes.
Floro.— Rank grasses (kilaag. fMcs), which cover great arena
in J ava. have an even wider range w Somatn^ desrending to withia
700 or 800 ft. of aea-levd; whcrcvera space m the forest b cleared
these aggressive grasses begin to take possesoon of the «dO, and
if onoe they are fully rooted the woodland has great difficulty ia
re<establishing itsdf . Among the orders more strongly rcpresemed
in Sumatra than in Java are the Dipterocarpaoeae, ChryBohalanaren<%
sdcrocarp M>'Ttaceae, Melastomaoeae, Begoniaa, Nepenthes. Oxali*
daoeae, Myristicaceae, TernstrS miac en e, Conaaraoeae. Amyridaoea^
Cyrtandraoeae, Epacridaccae and Eriocaulaceae. Many of tht
Sumatran f <
Peninsula.
Many o
1 in the!
Sonutran forms which do not occur in Java are found in the Malay
In the north the pine tree {Piniu Merkusii) hat
itor, and in the south are a variety kiI
Australian repon. The ^distribuvoa
advanoed almost to the eouator, and in the soitth are a variety kiI
species characteristic of the Australian repon. The distriburioa
of species does not depend on elevation to the same extent n*
In Java, where the horizontal aones are deady mariBed; and that
appears to be a tendency of all forms to grow at lower altitudca
than in that island. A - •• • • .. ^
^ that island. A remarkable feature of the Sumatra^
ffora b the great variety of trees that vie with each other ia
suture and beauty, and a^ a thnber-pcodndng oou&try the
island tanks high <
the fkhly
the
archipdago. Forest prod u c ts g n ma and resias of variom sorta»
L-percha— are valuable articles << export.
such as gutta-percha— are valuable articles << export. The pro
cess of reckless ddoiestation b percep t ible in certain distncta^
the Bttsves often destroying a whole tree for a plank or rafter.
The jxindpal cultivated plants, apart frote sugar-cane and coffee,
are nee Gn great variety 01 kinds), the coco-nut palaa, the aicag f
the areca aind the sago pafans, maiae, yams, and sweet
^
among the fruit trees are the Imjian tamarind, pomcnanate, guava.
Even before the arrival of EuropeaiM
papaw. orange and lemon. ^
Sumatra was known for its pepper ptamations: and these sdll form
the most conspicuous feature ol the south of the idand. For the
foreisn iriarket coffee b the most in^wrtaat of all thecsppa, the Padaiag
districts being the chid seat of iuoiltivntion. Bcnaoin was formerty
ohrainrri ahnost exdusivdy irom Sumatra from the Sljros hauoin.
PppuIcii&m.'—'Tbt foDowing ubie gives tJie trea axul estimated
population of the seyeiml political divisions of Sumatia and of
the Island as a whole (exduding the small paxt bdooging to
the Rioaw-Lingga residency) ^-^
Dt>'ision.
Area in sq. IB.
PV^wJationi
1900.
Sumatra, West Coast ....
Sumatra, East Coast ....
Bcnkulen
Lampoog Districts
Palembang
Achin (Atjsli)
31.649
3Wt»
S3497
1.5»7.S97
421.090
ito.396
110304
Total
t6t,6u
3.l68a»
SUMATRA
7J
or the total popnh ti on, aboot jooo tre Buropeaas, 9$fi09
Qnmae, ss^o Anba, 7000 fdit^giiMS of other nations, and the rest
aatlvca. In 1905 the total population was ^ven as 4,029,505.
The natives of the mainland of Sumatra are all of MUay stock
(those ol the north being the most hybrid), but it is doubtful
lo vhat extent Malay has here absorbed pre-Malay blood. The
<fifrerent tribes vary in language, cnstonis and dvilization.
No race of true Negrito type has been found. The Kubos (f .v.).
a sBTage forest people of the highlands, were believed by some
10 be Negrito owing to the friasled character of their hair, but
it appears certain that they are Malayan. The north of Somatra
B occupied by the Achinese (see Aeaiif). South of Achin and
vest of Lake Toba is the country of the Battas (g.v.) or Battaks.
In the hill-country south of the lake are two forest tribes,
Orsng-uiu and 6rang-4ubu, pure savages of whom practically
nothing is known, affiliated by most authorities to the Battas.
The plains east of this territory are occupied by the Siaks, and
farther south on the east cOast are the Jamb^, both Malays.
Above Padang are the several tribes of the prosperous and com-
paratively dvilized Mlmangkabos iq.v.). The Korinch& live
aoMMig the mountains south of Padang. and farther south On
the borders of Palembang and Benkulen are the Rejangers, a
peculiar tribe who employ a distinctive written character which
they cut with a kris on bamboo or lontar. The same character
ts employed by their immediate neighbours to the sooth, the
PiKomas, who bear traces of Javanese influence. In the extreme
stMth are the Lampong people, who claim descent from the
Mcnanglabos, but have idso an admixture of Javanese blood.
The inhabitants of the islands west of Sumatra are of mixed
or^itt. .Simaltt is peopled partly by Achinese and partly by
Henan^abo settlen. They profess Mahommcdanism but are
pracUcally savages. Nias (q,v.) has an interesting native
populatioB, a ppa r ently of pre-Malayan origin; and the Mentawi
cdands (f .«.) sre inhabited by a race generally held to be a
Polynesiaa settlement which has escaped fusion with Malayan
stock. As regards education and the spread of Christianity
among the natives, the west coast division is far in advance
ef the rest of the island. Here about 33,000 natives profess
Christianity and there are about 300 schools; elsewhere schools
are coopara.tively few and the adhesion to Christianity very
Adanmxiraiae Dhisions and Towns.—ln the west coast lands
European influence, fntite kmI, comparativdy eood roads, agricul-
tnxe timber, and coalfields have created populous se ttl e m ents on
Che coast at Padaiy (the capital of the west coast, with 35.158 inhabi-
tants in 1897, of whom 16^ were Europeans), Priaman, Natal,
Arer Bangis. Siboga. Sinskel, and also on the ptsteaua at Fort de
Kflcfc, Fayokombo, ftc. In the east coast lands it is only at the
■feonths of riven — ^nlembangat the mouth of the Musi, with 53.000
inhabitants* and Medan in Ddi, the residence of the highest dvil
and military officials of the east coast, in which a fine government
kouse has t)oea ere ct ed — that considerable centres of population are
to be found. Nine-tenths of the natives of SumafrA live by agri-
cshare, the rest by cattle-rearing, fishing, navigation, and, last but
not least, from the products 01 the forests; they are therefore
Ettle coooentnted in towns.
The Dutch government of the west coast, extending along the ihore
of the Indian Ocean from a* 53' N. to 2* 2%' S., comprises the
■ ■■jjfa^i &>■ of the Padang bsriands, Tapanun and the ^dang
highlaniis . The governor has his residence at Padang, which
m also the capital of the lowlands residency. Padang Sidempuan,
the chief town of Tapanuli, lies inland, south of Mt Lubu Raja. The
towB of Siboga has oonaidereble connnercial Importanoe, the bay
on wWdi it stands being one of the finest in all Sumata. Bukit
Uaads. a aoull limestone group, well wooded and sparsely peopled
Mas: Ban Idands (Pulu Ptni, Tana Masa, Tana BabTac.).
Mcntasri ami Pegch or Nassau Islands. The residency of Bankulen
(ix. Bmmg Knion, " west coast ") lies alooK the west coast from the
southcam extremity of the west coast government to the south-
western end of the iiiand. The capital, Benkulen, is on the coast
nesr Pulu Tifcu. or Rat Island, in a kiw and swampy locality, and
on an opcw nwdstead. This was the chief estahiiwhrnent poasesMd
by the Bcitiah East India Company in Sumatra. Among other
no t ew o r t h y places are Mokko-Mokko, with the oU Britwh fort
Ama: Pasnr Biatuhan. and Lab (Laye), the former scat of the
The residency ef the Lampong
in the iabnd, bans separated from
„ districts Is the soothernnKMt
. ted from Pislembang by the Masu)i River.
It is partly mountainous, partly so fiat as tolw under water in the
rainy season. The more important places are Tdok Betong, chief
town of theresidency. MenggaU (with a good trade), Gunung Sugi.
Sukadana, Tanjona Karang, and fCota Agung.
The resklency or Palembang consists of Uie former kimrdom of
this name and various districts more or less dependent on that
monarchy. Between the mainland dependency of the Riouw-
Lingga leiidency and the residency of Palembang Ues-Jambi, an
extensive sultanate, of whkb a portkm belongs to the residency of
Palembang as a protectorate, the sulun having in his capital (also
called Jamhi) a Dutch " comptroller." who represents the resident
of Palembang; another portion » claimed by a quasi-independent
sultan who reisns in the interior. Of this interior very little was
known until the scientific expedition despatched by the Dutch
Royal Geographical Society towards the end of the 'seventies, but
m 1901 an armed Dutch expedition, neceasiuted by frequent dis-
turbances, peoetsated right into the Iambi hinterland, the Gajo
districts, where until then no European had ever trod. The town of
Palembang is a large place on the river Musi, with 50,000 inhabitants
(2500 CbiineM), extensive barracks, hospitals, ftc., a mosque (i740}t
cooaidcred the finest in the Dutch Indies, and a traditiooal tomb
of Alexander the Great.* The residency of Riouw, which embraces
many hundreds of blands, great and small, also includes a portion
of the Sumatra mainland, between the residencies of Palembang to
the south and the east coast of Sumatra to the nosth. This is the
old Ungdom of Indragiri. nod lies on dtbqr hand of the river
of that name.'
The residency of the east coast was formed in 1873 of the territory
of Stak and its dependencies and the state of Kampar. In includes
perhaps the richest and best-developed districts of northern Sumatra,
namely. DeU (with an aish ...
Itttk known in 1873, , „ „
century famous among the chief tobacco-producing countries in the
ly. DeU (with an aasistant-tesident), Langkat, Serdang, ftc.--
but by the banning of tne aoih
woHd.' Belawan is the harbour to Deli, but the capiul is Medan,'
where the sultan and the Dutch rssideat reskle. Belawan is
ro B W T t f d with Medan by a rsllway* constructed before 1S90 by a
private company, almost entirely dependent for its earnings upon
the numerous tobacco plantations, several of which txTong to
British corporations. The i^ntarion labouren are almost entirely
alien coolies, largiriy Chinese, and the Malays are oompararivdy few
in number. The tobacco plantations of British North Borneo were
neariy all started by olantcrs from DelL
The government of Achin (c.s.) occuoies the northern port of the
island. No little p i o g re ss has oeen made by the Dutch even in this
war-ridden territory. There Is a railway in the bwer valley of the
Achin River, con n ecting the capital, Kotaraia. and neighbourhood
with CNehleh. a good, free port, with an active trade, carried on by
numerous steamers, both Dutch and foreign. Edi on the north-east
coast, with anotAcr harbour, is capital of a sultanate which formeriy
owed allegiance to the sultan of Achin. but has formed a politicak
division of the foveimntttt of Achin since 1889, when an armed
expedition restored order. Edi is a centre of the still extensive
pepper trade, carried on mainly with the Chinese at Singapore and
Penang, which island faces Edi.
Products and Industry.— Faitits and natural vegetation cover
a much brger part of Sumatra than of lava. Whereas in Jav»
tall timber on the mountain* keeps to altitudes of not less than.
^MX) fc, the tall timber on the mountains of Sumatra commonly
descends bdow 1000 ft., and in many cases risht down to the coast.
In Sumatra, as In Java, the vegctarion of the lowbnds vp to neariy
1000 ft. is distinct from the v^etation of the mountain slopes and
pbteans from that devation up to 4000 ft. and over. The principal
exports from all the regencies alike are black and white pepper,
baimboo (rolan)t gums, caoutchouc, copra, nutmegs, mace and
gamlnr. From the west coast and Palembang conee u also
exported, and from I^, tobacco. The system of compulsory
cultivation of coHee was aboUshcd in Somatra in 1908.
Sumatra pnssrwm various kinds of miooral wealth. Gold occura
in the central region, where it is worked at a profit, and it has also
been worked In the Menang^kabo district and the interior of Pada^ng.
Tin is known, especially m Sbk. Copper has been worked in
the Padana highbnds (most largely in the district of Lake Singkara)
and at Muld ia Achin. Iron is not infrequent. The most important
mineral economically, however, is coaL Coal seams exist in the
Malabuh valley (Achin), in the Stnamu valley, and on both aides of
the Ombifin River; the Ombilin fieM was brought faito espedal
noiioe by D. D. Veth of the 1877^^ eapedition. The ptoductioa
of this fidd increased from 17^0 tons in 1893 to 78,500 metric tons
in igjn. The profit on the working, which ucazried on by the state,
is slight. Lignite of good quality b found in several localities.
The production of petroleum began to be strongly dev eloped towards
the cbse of the i^th century; on the Lepan River m Langkat
it' mounted from 369.880 galkms in 1891 to ao,i4i/)00 gallons ia
1899^ Muara Enim in Palembans also produces peQoleum. Pcriak.
formerhr a tributary state of Achin and now a politica] division or
the Achin government, has become one of the chief centres of the
prtmbwn mdustty. The crude oil b conveyed in pipes to Aru Boy*
74
SUMBA
mm ccMl. 9mA nCMd in tl» MUad «l
Mh|ictT«»«lttm, Mphth4 and Milnhur may becolkctcd w the vokantc
dw(rkt«» A ay«t«iMtk miiwraloticAl turvey bna ben aadcftakea
in central SiiaMtra. ,...«.
AM4t «nrf ie«iJMyt.^In th« wot. witk lU knc hae of cqmi and
nun^mMM vaUr\*». the traaieoct «C co«e« has induced the oonAnic>
tK>n 4»C v«ry loiiBd tondt as far aa the Lalcc of Tofaa. owmc to the
want U na^-icabW nvt«. Th«fB a a railway connecunK not only
tW ix^lMd* of the OmbiUn >«Ucy with Paduc. but aba the
Ombain lixTT and the Uke of Singkara w«h the moct piedttctive
and defuch* pDf^latcd pUteaw and ^mtteys. north tmA touth of
the hne ol the \>>k-^Anoe» SiixgAUn«. Mcca|>» and boco^ A aecond
iMlwa\ itt the dUttkt ^ IVU oMowct* the inUnd pbntatnns wnh
tS*" *\\»«, «nd thece b another* *» alitnd)- indicated, in the lower
VSm \atW\. Otood i\Md» tTa>nrr« the bcuad pUins of Benkiikn.
|\kAMwtNAn( And the LamiMn« distrkta.
// . ,.vrvx— A» far as n known. Suinatnnciviluatiuauidctilttive
aiv^ v>l Himbt vxijpn; and H » nol impn>b&ble that the ishad
wa» the 6r«t \>f aU the aKhipeU|y> to receive the Indiaa imini-
fTAnls «ho laJO"*^ •» importam a part in the histoiy of the
T^tc>v»w Certain inamptiom diaoovctrd in the Pndaag high-
U xK «<f4 t\> vvttit> thceustence in the :th eentniyof n pom-
lU Hi ^tu ii xcvkvnx in Tutah IXaiar. not far frosn the site of
tW Ut<t oaiMt.vl ol MenansiaUv la l^-sc in&-Ti(<>o(KS Sumatra
k* vaU.-vI iK" *' nrrt Ja>'^" IVe traces ol Hu'wiu mriuence still
tvN b^ NH:t^i in the island tie eutwnexv au*x><tvHK) thovirh far
•tv>«» K-vs *> i-Hx>«tARt a$ liK>« « JAxa. TVctc aw rvins of
Ui->.hi KcviN^r* ** ^«»*' » ^'^ "^-^ I>ftt..ii. en the Paabi
t^^ve at U?»»b<. in the u".<t>» v^ kVcwKi-^f aboive LaH^t. and
t* -3-vrvNu* v<V<e KvV .srsk i>*e «« the r^.iw-|>»l H-vU n»:»
»* xt Xtuita rfckc* v>R ;he ka-v^- pStt, I aw- bcIO.-^ v^r-v^-i-
i>C a »,\. VN* 40 tt, h^^ tt^\ vxxss^>;> OAXe twm the i r.ii cer.tutx ■ ^^ ?t«rKw^ d^kac ww\ Sa^atn m rwrr *
: - V !
\« kXe^r Rv ^.-^ atv ir>T«u <:v«x* wnh .-rswT'jHfc.Wtt la >ar*kn
a-vt Mv^m-^aS* >U>\\ SirsAr* ws^ts- ^nvitr ia ibe '»'arww
U \tvj<ccs. >iv<x"^ ' 'r: iSc ^a-n*. . 4 >i l V f a mf »;t'.j: ws.\ tSe SKToi
tr«^ W :W U. M- s> *^^ tSr v*v-.v\i isteot ihe £jL.i.::k Al a
la.<e r«fo>xt ti< W .<i vt .Pctacr » N*wA:r» nx*>cx>:!«rV*cd
b'* *-* :--\:\ >?* i* -^v* t.\Nt ,Ux:iL *V> s«ft:"vv. - rxv— Si:r^
tV«* .^*- v\Ni*c^- %{ > ,\ « ^ • ?, . -^ >- V.-v;^*-?i :• .K -V -,V
It tVe \ i;k x>.'«^%*'> ^i iV-«n*xva •--^t S:^^ * ^'^ sbju.c .jos.. ....
a*v -.» ,VH..-^ H> V ►•< sxXNi a i -t K\v ^xv sc^e cc ••>* -^^i
i-,xx'.$-; ^* .-^ l> \t.-tv^'N\ .cr >ci-v^ :V W.v
rv'xx^ 'xv ^Nv*tvv< .V v"vi. ix
>S ' .vx n * - i. V. X vx V >^ V ^f ► ' • >v, • • v-- >
w .hr >»•*•,> v.. xK ►>.. ^:* »'-^" -^-^ «'• •»*-''v' > • "•' • *
<v*",.xva V*. .*> •>^v \"S.v «v a x- ..«^ CA-^-i 5ai:*virA
S. " -» • < ^N- -c lx-»* K* r*-w«-^ •V-^^ ?V
^^« .V • -^ ,>* <^ i » >> •'»• V »-> 'f»' -^"^ ^'^^ '^* *•
.\^' .. %v •'>. -^'--^ • *-» ^V^'X'T V--^<-nr»t> ^.*»
J ^ . V ., . ,. ,v ^. ^ v^ , * ». r : ^i^ ■ .^.••^•^Ax- .•
v^ .. >...♦,* V- .• -S-> V !?*«-*
^ ♦• * *, > . 'v'» irw r-»- v.t 1 • *T
. ^ . % » V • V >:- >»» •»cfc%x xi'K^ a
, s' *^ -v-v- '> *. c ■*»>;•• V >.\n
I , .> . . t . - • .^n .X it M. '^!
^, » ,v» ". " •**■ -"^■'•'- * ^.•>aiv: a -^vwftv* *i
mv-.'*^*^* *» w J^^t»v*^ - -r X^^ X'^«»
>i X- .«?>*«> l» •*-"" X it ^•^ V»
K._-v i.:c J.** ^ -*« ^- '^ • - *• ' '-"— "-• *^"^^ ^^
r,pM«- 7tm «» «^ ^r»*-=^ "^"^ V ^ i *i *^x
^jjs « -^ "^•le- Wfl-» ♦»> '«jv'«^v
.1 Xi> fcK^ X ^x . ,-». ,,^„. ^
4fe^* wan n«» «k>«w« . ^. x
igiiml AchiiL In 1876 IkcR wm an apeditioa i _
Jutnn (east coaat) and the cmandpntion oC akvcs was curied
out OB the «cat const. In 1878 BrnknVw was made a icsideDcy,
and the dvfl admiiftrtratioa «( Achu aad depcadeodci was
ciilnisted to a fovcnnr. Frooi 1883 to 1894 tbe foivemacttt,
with the help of mrB«nMrir% cstcpdrd iis aotbodty over the
south-east and south-wot of the ialaad, and also over sobw of
the lands to the cast aad Borth of Toba lake. iDdodias the
dtttiicts of Toba, Silinrtom aad Tanah Jawa, and is 189$ over
the southuB part of tho pmimuh of Samosir ia Toba lake.
Its juriadictiaB was also cxtcaded ever Taaiaas* till thea tJw
noithefB frontier of the Dutch eatt coast of Saaiatia. By
Biilitaiy espcditioas (i89»-9s) the Dutdi intufwy ob the
Batang Han» or Vpfier JamU, was iaocased; as also ia 1899 ia
the Una Kotns* in ccnual Sunatia, iachidBd wichia tbe tenitory
oiSiak. ThewariaAchiBdidBot»almllyfeianlthedevelop-
mcttt of SasBatia. aad ahhongh the titular sultaa of Acbin
cootiaiicd a dtsnhoqr tiattaiSU waifaie agaiast the Diacb ia
sible Fteei co^tiy. realty active waiiare has loag ceased. All
aliMtg theaaia coastsof the fonncr sultanate of Adua ouGtaiy
posts kane heca eoaMi-shrd aad nclicaiy roads oonstnictcd;
even in Fedir, oa the aotth ooast« aaul 1^99 the anat actively
turbuknl ccncxe of resBtaace of the askaa^ party, aad still
Uicr ocIy padncd ia paita^ Ikrtdi f a ftiiiis were able to build
a hi$^wav to cocaect the west wich the cast coast, aad other
wori^ ha>^ heca SQcccss:*^y caioed o«.t. ftactacaSy the whole
«k ;he ksjqc is aow 1
Of the
.>io«- »vc«» tW Sfsc w->»»m i» \V. VATiitiea. litsury af «-
.l.-.-vivix i>»: . A :- :st of cxiicr .:^,-r A.r^crities wifl be found
n r J. \.-V» .<*'-*:-. f t^xj^i «.x-i.*TJw»« 3CW 3Merf. IrndU
^<f<^ A— '.-t-:? b?r' ^vrfcs c-w ot «r«it :=zT«wtanoe ia MiMrm
<««M>ar X.-,v-w m v^uc-5Mr«-'««r« jir- :>a.wii3w Fwpgi^. lltTh"
:»>.• ....■«.>r'S. »v>:. sc^ - ec -"•- -v F J. \«a. See abo Beau de
>wi;-r«x l-j>*. . , -V ^'^ . «r>.-i r^-.-x is-'-H. . E. B Kkucxa. ^eschnf;-
r ti rji A.- .( I « .\ ■ •; >"^^ -' >>^- i-^ " Svr^tns West-Ku
'-J
1 5^- : OB the history of
i:. v.Vij_ ,; Nj^-iSij - For topo>
r^ * T 'cc\fa^r_scie en s»olo-
*i prS'? "^s W«stkn=st. Jr./'
^-
"X*^ .fV
i*-^
-.-it--^' 15*7'- VkT. Voir,
;i.i N.Ti-SwBJT-a." Zeii:xtr.
.'-T. J". ^i_ -Jir»r is aeries.. ijL
: A^ r. ^ Er*>, ' BckTJ«e
swc' *«« ^cs-K'late *on.
' F r-.^«rT- r« On- m»d
-.-^ i--jr ,x^t rifciHeak kSqS^ :
a: - :»a: 1. JTisrore J P. -v-aa
xi • .-^- .' "*' rfc* c»i Wez:KcT
^^r'vXx /r 5- ^^^t.«g«^ . aovjf the!
L \
K-t **>
w.. c.-62£S!^ .-c a p^Laeaa with
*»,xv .xv>.
<• .X
■^^^ at
i;:^«a( '
s» "."v •s'*'^ ^<*' v%» X »xwi jv-'-» *- asnx. a^.a»ajLs feo be
o ••*.x*5*.x* 'M s .»» ^.*,.-^,. -, ^ xx't-'s^ ?• Ve a iKt*' Malay
vvN. .. vM ,-v, f. '> V' xx\ jcv: . <vrr^^- r-*.->r 21 ci^ij e ti on
^- ^ .x'S' ». ^ t *^ K' .'hw ,vr -^ BIT '••j.vA 3S "Mj
K ".^ -•> \^-H sN v\ " 'w 'V "*^'" '•■ '> -ie hsBBT i^Aod
A x» '«h V V .taEs. ^ v>ft *^ .jst jwju le WES as *^fV' — ■ !
>* • '>.x StttOw ♦•x» ,>r *<-••• s jr^-^T-a >»— V asad. T^mi
Xv . . . K ,^Xp * .
SUMBAWA—SUMER AND SUMERIAN
75
AWA(I>tttcb50Mitoiw),oiie4>ftheLlttkSuiidftUA]id9
_i the Dutch East ImKes, e«t of Lombok, Ikon -which it js
scpaniMl by the nanow Alu Strait. It haa an area of 4^00
sq. m., or, indttding the ndKhbouring itianda, SHO iq. m. The
deep bay «C Sal£ or Sumbawa on the north divides the island
inio two pmfff«wi«», and the isthnivs Is farther ledoced by the
tuiTowcr Bay of Chempi on the south. The eastern peninsula
is dcqily indented on the north by the Bay of Buna. Four
moutttaia dMuna cxosa the island in a west to east direction.
The northern, as in Bali and Lonbok, is of volcanic origin.
Tamboim, foming a minor penhisola east of Sombawa Bay,
is said u> have lost a third of its elevation in the eruption of
]ftiS» bat ia still 9055 ft. high. In the southern cfaa&i is fontod
a linestoBfe formation aaak^us to that in Bali, Lombok and
Java. Between these two chains aie round hills consisting of
lavas or sometimes of volcanic tnlEs, covered with the long silvery
grass wtdch also clothes vast prunes in Java and Sumatra.
There are no navigable streams. The climate and piodnctlons
are not onUke those of Java, though the rabs are heavier, the
diwight none seveie, and the fertility less. Sulphur, aneaiC)
asphalt and petroleum exist. The natives live solely by sgri*
caltarc. But out of a total population of about 75^000 there
aic 114000 ioreignen, living mostly by trade and navigation.
The nativea consist of Sumbawans proper, a people of Malayan
stock; o< Bogioese and Macassar immigranU, and of wild tribes
of themouatainsof whom nothing is known. Mahommedanism
ptevaOs throughout the island, except among the mountain
trifaea.
_' Suml
to tke
iwa, with Its four independent states, belongs
states of the govemnieat of Celebes and ha
dependeKseSL a situation to be eapbdned by the fact of the old
SQprexnacy of the Macassarest over Sumbawa, Florcs and Sumba.
Tr» indepciident states are Sumbawa proper, Dompo, Sangar and
la. Two or" ^'- "^ '' ' '*" "'"- '
.^.^ . I other states on the northern extremity of the island
vere ao far devastated by the Tambora ortration of .1815 that their
icrntory, after lyii^ iac long uninhabited, was in 1666 divided
Iccween Dompo aad San^. Sombawa proper oocupies the
mtritcra peninsula. Tlie residence of the sultan is Sumbawa on the
r^nh coast. It is surrounded with a palisade and ditches. The
inhabitaatt of this state employ sometimes the Malay and Bometimes
the M u assir chaxacter in writing. A considerable trade is carried
on ia the export of horses, buffaloes, goats, dinding (dried flesii),
ikitis, Inrds* nests, wax. rice, katyang, sappanwood, &c. Sumbawa
entered into treaty relations with the Dutch East India Company
in 1674. Dompo is the western half of the eastern peninsula. The
i"afJrai of the state, Dompo, lies in the heart of the country, on a
ttfcam that falls into Chempi Bay. Bada, the sultaa's residence,
h Uxther west. Sangar occupies the north-western promontory
ef the island, and Bima the extreme east. Bima or Bodjo, the chief
town of the latter state, lies on the east side of the Bay of Bima; it
has a atocK-walkd palace and a mosque, as well as a fXitch fort.
See ZoUii^r, " Soembawa," in Verkandelinitn van hel Bclm»
GenootKhap, xxiii. ; Ligtvoet, " Antcckeningen betreifende den
ccnnomtschea Toestand en de Ethnographic van Soembawa,*' in
rtjdickr. BsL Cen. xmL
SUMMXJL, or Sumbal, also called Musk Root, a drag occasion-
ally employed in European medical practice. It consists of
the root of Ferula sumbtd, Hook., a tall Umbelliferous plant
fcuxul tn the north of Bokhara, its range apparently
cr. ending beyond the Amur. It was first brought to Russia
ID iSiS as a substitute for musk; and In 1867 was introduced
t.'.o tbe British pharmacopoeia. The root as found in com
r-erce consists of transverse sections an inch or more in
th-4.koea& and from x to 3 or more inches in diameter. It has
a dark thin papery bark, a spongy texture, and the cut surface
i> marbled wiUi while and blackish or pale brown; it has a
sRttsky odour and a bitter aromatic taste. The action and
uses of tbe drug arc the same as those of asafetida (g.v.) It
owes its medicinal properties to a resin and an essential oil.
Of the former it conuins about 9% and of the latter } %.
The resin is soluble in ether and has a musky smeD, which is
C)M fuUy developed until after contact with water.
Vt^a the name of East Indian sumbvl, the root of DorewM
ammamiatum, Don., has occasionally been oRered in English com-
merte. ft Is of a browner hue, has the taste of ammoniacum. and
f.cs a much darleer tincture than the genuine drug; it is thus
ea-aly detected. The name " sumbal " U word of Arabic origmi
«0aifying a spike or car) Is afmlied to ip^enl fragrant roots In the
East, thejprincinal being NardMtafkys jalamonsi, D.C (m» Snxs-
naed). West African sumbul b the root of a species of Cyperus.
SUMBR and SUMERIAN. The Babylonian name Shumer
was used in the cuneiform inscriptions together with Akkad,
vis. mat Skumeri u Akhadi, ** land of S. and A.," to denote
Babylonia in general (see Akkad). In tht noo-Semitic ideo-
graphic documents the equivalent for Shumer is Kingi, whidi
seems to be a a>mbination of Urn, ** land " 4- ««, "* iced,"
f .e. " land of reeds," and appropriate designation for Babylonia,
which is essentially a distri^ of reedy marshes iormed by the
Tigris and Euphrates. It was formerly thouf^t that Shumer
«as empkiyed especially to denote the south of Babylonia,
while Akkad was used only of the north, but this view is no
longer regarded as tenable. It is mpie probable that the expres-
sion Shiuner designated thte^ vdiole of Babylonia in much the
same manner as did Akkad, and that the two words " Shumer
aad Akkad" were used together as a comprehensive term.
That Simmer actually did mean all Babylonia appears evident
from the biblical use of Shinar^Shtuncr to describe the district
which contained the four chief Babylonian cities, via. Babel,
Erech, Aocad and Calneh (GctL z. xo), which, according ta the
Old TestsBlent account, constituted the be^nnings of Nimrod^
kingdom. The identity of Shiaar and Shumer is also demco-
Btrated by the Septuagiat rendering of Shinar in Isaiaih xi. ix by
*' Babylonia." in short, these can be no doubt that the bibUcal
name Shinalr was practically equivalent to 'the mat- Skumen u
i4ibbadl»non*SemiticKliigs-{/ftaf the Babykoian Inscriptions.
Furthermore, the fact that the Syiiac 5«fiW« Shinar was
later used to denote the region about Bagdad (northern B^iy-
lonia) does not necessarily prove that Shinar-Shuwer meant
only northern Babylonia, because, when the term Stm^ar was
applied to the Bagdad district the great southern Babykmian
civilization had long been forgotten and " Bidiylonia " really
meant only what we now know as northern Babylonia.
The actual meaning of the word Shumer is lucextaki. Dr
T. G. Pinches has pointed out^ that Shumer may be a dialectic
form of an as yet uaestablished non-Semitic fotm, Shenger,
just as the non<Semitic word dimmer, " god," is equivalent to
another form, dintir. Others have seen in the andent Baby-
lonian place-name Ctr-tu an inversion of Sm-pr^Su-^ir,
which has also been identified with Shumer. In this connexioa
Hommd's theoiy' should be mentioned, that the word Shumer
was a later palatalixation of /Ci-s'ingtr, " land of Imgir "^Ski-
imgir, subsequently Skmgi with palatalized k^sk. and elision
of the finsi r. The form imgir (i mgirr), however, as a place-name
for Babybnia is uncertain. All that can be said at present about
this difficult etymology is that in the non-Semitic Babylonian
the medial m represented quite evidently an indeteiminate nasal
which could also be indi<&ted by the comblnatmn ^. Hence
we find Shumer, probably pronounced Skuwer, with a soand
similar to thai heard to-day in the Scottish (jselic word lamk,
*' hand "; via. a sort of nasalized «. This gave rise to tbe hiter
inaccurate forms: Greek, Senaar; Syriac, Sen'ar; and biblical
Hebrew, Shinar -^Ai^Qor.
The so-called " Sumerian problem," which has perplexed
Assyriologisu for maay years, may be briefly stated ss Ibttows.
In a great number of Babylonian inscriptions an idiom has kog
been recognised which is clearly not ordinary Senrfticin character.
This non-Semitic system, which is found, in many Instances,
on alternate Unes with a regular Semitic translation, ia other
cases ia opposite oolimins to a Semitic rendoxiag, and again
without any Semitic equivalent at all, has been held by one
school, founded and still vigorously defended by the distinguished
French Assyriobgist, Jas^ Hal£vy, to be nothing more than
a priestly system of cryptogrephy baaed, of conne, on the then
current Semitic speech. This cryptogr«i>hy, according to some
of the Hal6vyans, was read aloud in Semitic, but, according to
other expositors, the system was read as an " ideophonic,"
secret, and purely artificial language.
The oppDsing school (the Sumerists) insists that these
* Haatiags's Dia. BibU. tv. 503. * ^^- '
76
SUMER AND SUMERIAN
BOD-Semitic docnmenta were evidenUy in an aoJlati&Ative
language, naturally not uninfluenced by Semitic elements, but
none the leas essentially non-Semitic in origin and fundamental
character. Scholars of this 6pinion believe that this hmguage,
which has been azbitraxily calltei " Akkadian " in England and
" Sumerian " on the European continent and in America, was
primitively the ^seech of the pre-Semitic inhabitanu of the
Euphratean region who were conquered by the invading Semites.
These invaders, according to this latter view, adopted the religion
and culture of the conquered Sumerians; and, consequently,
the Sumerian idiom at a comparatively early date began to
be used exclusively in the Semitic temples as the written vdiides
of religious thought in mudi the same way as was the medieval
Latin of the Roman- Church. The solution of this problem is
of vital importance in connexion with the early histoKy of
man's de\'elopment in the Babylonian region.
The study of the Sumerian vocabulary falls logically into three
divisions. These are (i) the origin of the cuntifomi signs,
(t) the etymology of the i^onetic values, and (3) the du cid a tio n
of the many and varied primitive sign-meanings.
Previous to lYofessor Friedrich Dditasch's maiterly work on
the origin of the most ancient Babylonian system of writing,*
no one had correctly understood the facts regarding the be>
gipninga of the Cuneiform system, which is now generally recog-
nised as having been origLiaDy a pure picture writing which
later developed into a oonvcntiooaliiBd ideographic and s^bic
sign-lisL In order to comprehend the mysteries of the Sumerian
problem a thorough ezaminatioa of the beginning of cveiy one
of these signs is, of course, impenitive, but it is equally necessary
that every phonetic Sumerian value and wotd<combination
be also studied, both in connexioa with the equivalent signs and
with other allied phonetic vahics. This etymological study
of Sumerian is attended with incalculable diflficnlties, because
nearly all the Sumerian texts which we possess are written in
an idiom which is quite evidently aider the influence of Semitic.
With the cirception of .some very ancient texts, the Sumerian
litetatmt^ conristing largely of religioos material such as hymns
and incantations, shows n namb^ of Semitic loanwords and
grammatical Semitisms, and in many cases, although not always,
is quite patently a translation of Semitic ideas by Semitic pti«sts
into the fbmal reUgious Sumerian language. Professor Paul
Haupt may be termed the father of Sumoian etymology, as
he was really the first to place this study on a scientific basis
in his SmmtHan Fmnly Lams and Akkodiam m$td Swmeriam
Ctmeiform Fair.* It is significant that all phonetic and gram-
matical work in Sumerian tends to confirm nearly every one
of Hanpl'is views. Professors Peter Jensen and Zimmera have
also done excellent work in the same field and, together with
Haupt, have established the correct method of investigating
the Sumerian vocables, which should be studied only in relation
to the Suancriaa literature. Samrriatf^vords should by no means
be compared with words in the idioms of more recent peoples,
such as Turkish, in spite of many tempting resemblances.*
V'ntil further light has been thrown on the nature of Sumerian,
this language should be regarded as standing c(Uite alone, a
piehistocic phiMegical remnant, and its etymoloiry should be
studied only with rt f cre uc e to the Someriaui inscriptiom then-
selves^ On the other hand, grammatical and constructional
examples isay be dted from other more modem afcglutinative
idioms, in order to establish the truly linguistic character of
the SOmcriaa peculiarities and to disprove the Hal^-an
contention that Sumerian is really not a luigua^ at all.*
It is net sarpriiii« that HaKvy% view as to the cryptographic
nature of Samermn shooM haw aiiscnL .la fact, the fiist
I hv the bewfldeiing labyrinth of the Sumerian
mia iHniin StM^tfitmmi tdtr dtr Vrsfnmg da
iLrina^iSn).
» Dm smmitixhm fm^ilmttiiht (i&r^^. t>i* •UbaduAt Spfch*
(Beriiii. i«i^. itUMuch - - - - . ^ - . .
t<8i). See especially his
ht K«uxhn*iitsie (Lrtpxic.
ta titts tetcr votk.
word-Ust is the oosdusion that such a vocabidary eoohl never
have arisen in a regularly developed language. For example,
anyone studyuBg Brflnnow'sLisf' will find the same sign denot>
ing pages of meanings, many of which have apparently no con*
nexion with any other meaning belonging to the sign in question.
A great multiplidty of meanings is also attributed, apparently
quite arbitrarily, to the same sign, sound-value or word. In
these instances, however, we can explain the difficulty away
by applying that great fundamental principle followed by tho
Semitic priests and scribes who played with and on the Sumerian
idiom, and in the course of many centuries turned what was
originally an ag^utinative language into v^t has almost
justified HaMvy and his followers in calling Sumerian a crypto-
graphy. This prindple is that of popular etymology, t.e. of
sound-assodation and idea-aasodation which has brought
together in the word-lists many apparently quite distinct
meanings, probably primarily for purposes of mnemonic aid.
The present writer in his Materials Jor a Sumerum Lexkom has
m e ntioned this ruling phenomenon acain and again. A very
few fxamplfs, however, will sufi&ce here. Thus the w(»d
OfBtbe sign RAM^rdiaa, "love" (proper meaning) is
associated with ramdmu^ " to roar," lor phonetic reasons only.
The word o"* the sign A^ " water '* (original meaning) can
indicate anything whatever connected with the idea moisture.
Thus, «">" water, moisture, weep, tears» inundate, irrigate," &c.
The word a can also mean " shining, glisrming," an idea
eWdenUy devdoped from the shining rippling of water. Note that
in Turkish su means both " water " and " the lustre of a jewd,"
while in English we speak of ** gems of the first water." The
combination o-md-ia, literally ** water enter ship," means abUbu,
** dduge," ordinarily, but in one passage am d tM h asade the
equivalent of skabiUmt ** ffame," a pure pun on oMUw, " dduge."
Examples of this, the leading prindple which was followed by
the framers of the Sumierian system, mi^ be cited almost
Facts of this character taken by themselves would perhaps
be suffident to convince most philologists that in Sumerian we
have an arbitrarily compounded cryptograi^y just as Halevy
bdievcs, but these facts cannot be taken by themselves, as the
evidences of the purdy linguistic basis of Sumerian vt stronger
than these apparent proofs ot its artificial character.
Briefly considered there are six most striking proob that the
Sumerian was based on a primitive ag^utinative langiiagr
These may be tabulated condsdy as foUowsrT-
r. Sumerian presents a significant list of internal phonetic
variations which would not have been possible in an arbitrarily
invented language. Thus, taking the voweh alone; e«a by
the prindple of mtidaal. Hence, we find the words ga sth! ge,
o and e for the same idea respecti%tly. The vowd t could
becAne s as i£r»</t, &c. Consonantal ^-ariatioa is most
common. Thus, &««, as kartm^wiantn. Compare the
modem .\rabtc pronundation IfCixlbfk for Baalbek. Perhaps
the most inteitstiog of these consocantot interchanges b that
occurring between » and the sibilants sk and z; nef^sker;
na^xa, which by some scbdixs has been declared to be pho-
netically impossible, but its existence is well established between
the modem Chinese coUoquiai idioms. For example, Peiungcse
rArti, Hakka ny»», Fuchow «J«j, l^Hngpo zMing and wytwf ,
WSnchow ung axkd auwj all -" man." This demoitst rates
be>x>nd a doubt the pos^'btUty of a strongly palataUxed n
becoming a palatal sibibct or vice versa, between which
utterances there b but a \-^r>* slfght tongue nio\-enicnt.
The <&cussx)n of these phenomena brings us to another pcunt
which predudes the possibility of Sumerian having been merely
an artificial system, and that is the undoubted existence In this
language of at least two dialects^ which ha\x been named,
following the inscrptioBs. the Eme-tu, *' the noble or nfcale
speech/* and the Emt-sal, •'the woman's language.** The
existence and general phonetic character of the **w«mian^
language** were first poiated out by Professor P^ol Haupt,
. A?L S ^'tS??*' ^ Outiied List0faa Simpk mmd Csmptmnd
/ dwye ^j (1869). "^
SUMMANUS
11
«fao died, for aampk, the feUimiog very •oomiDon {ntenlla-
kcdc variations: Ente-ku^— Eme-aalmcr*, ''foot"; Eme-ka
«rBEme*«ai xAer, "ruler"; Eme-kn ^«ga**Eiiie-sal seto,
" knee,** Ac Such phonetic ind dialectic cbanget, so difFerent
fmn any o< the Semiiic tingniirir phenomena, ave all the more
viloahie bec a use they are set before us only by means of Semitic
equivaleBta. Certainly no ayptography based eidnsively on
SLffiitic could exhibit this sort of inteichange.
It should be added here in passing that the geogEsphicsl
or tribal aigntiicance of these t^vo Sumerian dialects has never
bmi estabMahed. There can b$ no doubt that Eme^sal means
"woman's language/' and it was. perhaps thus designated
bccwsc it was a softer idiom phonetically than the other dialect,
la il were written moat «f the penitential hjfmnsi which were
possibly thought to require a more euphonious idiom than, for
fxampie, hymns of praise. It is doubtful whether the Erne-sal
ik^ ever r^y a woman's language similar in character to that
of dieCarib women of the Antilles»or that of the Eskimo women
of GveenlaxKL It is much more likely that the two dialects were
thus designated because of their respectivdy harsh and soft
phoDcticSb^
2. Sumerian baa a system of vowd harmony strikingly Hke
that seen in all modem agglutinative languages, and it has also
Tocaltc dissmilation similar to that found in modem Finnish
aad Esthonlan. Vocalic harmony is the internal bringing
tognber of vowels of the same class for the sake of greater
caphony, while vocalic dissimilation is the deliberate insertion
of oflotber daas of vowels, in order to prevent the disagreeable
e^onotooy artsing from too prolonged a vowel harmony. Thus,
£ Sumerian we find such forms as numunnih-Ht " he speaks
aoi to faioi,'' where the negative prefix nu and the verbal prefix
«m are in harmony, but in dissimilation to fhe infix nib, ** to
k«n/* and to the root H, " speak,*' which are also in harmony.
Compare also mhsud-dam, " Uke the heavens^" where the ending
iiM stands for a usual dim, being changed to a hard dam under
the infloence of the hard vowels in ofhsttd.
S- Sumerian has only postpositions instead of prepositions,
vhkh occur exclusively in Semitic. In this point also Sumerian
fi in aoooid with all other ag^tlnative idioms. Note Sumerian
»^ii. ** to the house " (e, ** house," +(fa, " in," by dissimilation),
azd compare Turkish w, " house," de, " in," and etde, " m the
4. The method of word formation in Sumerian is entirdy non*
Seeiitic in character. For example, an indeterminative vowel,
«. r, « or sr, may be prefixed to any root to form an abstract;
ti js, from me, " speak," we get e-m«, " speech "; from ra,
" to 99/* we get o-ro, " the act of going," &c. In connexion
viih the very complicated Sumerian verbal system* it will
be mAdent to note here the practice of infixing the verbal
effect wluch is, of course, absolutdy alien to Semitic. This
I'L'.saaxnoo. appears also in Bssque and in many North
Ajacrican laqguages.
5. Sumerian is quite devoid of grammatical gender. Semitic,
''. the other hand,^ has grammatical gender as one of its basic
piircq)leSk
6. Furtlicrmore, in a real cryptography or secret language,
:f vhicfa EngBsh has several, we find only phenomena based
( the language from which the artificial idiom is derived.
T'lus, in the English " Backslang," which is nothing more than
crtJiuy £ngiiah ddiberatdy inverted, in the similar Arabic
i -rm used among school children in Syria and in the Spanish
- ,i\€^ dialect, tile prindplea of inversion and substitution
; ^y the diief part. Also in the curious tinker's " Thary "
spoken sUll on the English roads and lanes, we find merely
ts often inaccuratdy inverted Irish Gadic But in none of
:b<se nor in any other artificial Jargons can any grammatical
^ .-rk^pment be found other than that of the languagr on which
i!tfy are based.
7. AD this is to the point with regard to Sumerian, because
these very principles of inversion and substitution have been
* Prince, Maleriais for a Sufnerian Laekcn, p. 14.
•Ibid. pp. ao-^
XXVI, !•
dted as bebig the basb of many of the Sumerian comblnationi.
Ddiberate inversion certainly occurs La the Sumerian documents,
and it is highly probable that this was a priestly mode of writing,
but never of speaking; at any rate, not when the language was
in common use. It is not necetsary to imagine, however, that
these devices origmated with the Semitic priesthood. It is
quite conceivable that the still earlier Sumerian priesthood
invented the method of orthographic inversion, which after
an is the very first device whidi suggests itself to the primitive
mind whjn endeavouring to express itself in a manner out of the
ordinary. For example, evident Sumerian invcrsbns are GbU,
" the fire god," for BO-gi; uskar for Sem. shanu, " kmg," ftc.
It is, moreover, highly probable that Sumerian had primitively
a system of voice-tones similar to that now extant in Chinese.
Thus, we find Sumerian ah, "dweOhig," "sea"; aft, " road,"
and -aft, a grammatical sufl&x, which words, with many others of
a similar character, were perhaps originally uttered witl\ dififerent
voice-tones. In Sumerian, the number of conjectural voice-
tones never exceeds the possible number dght.
It is also dear that Stunerian was actually read aloud, probably
as a ritual language, until a very late period, because we have
a number of pure Sumerian words tvproduced in Greek trans'
literation; for example, DeUphta ^DShot, "the Venus^tar'';
i//MMW»the god /0t/»Bd; aid$^itm, "month," &c
In view of the many evidences of the linguistic character of
Sumerian as opposed to the one fact that the language had
engrafted u^xm it a great number tit evident Semitisms, the
opinion of the present writer is that the Sumerian, as we have
it, is fundamentally an agglutinative, almost polysynthetic,
language, upon which a naore or less ddiberatdy constructed
fo k ^Mmi of Semitic Inventions waa supcrimposcfd in the course
of many centuries of accretion under Semitic inftiences. This
riew stands as a connecting link between the extreme Idea of
the Hal£vyan school and the extreme idea of the opposing
Snmeriat schooL
LiTBKATuu.^Radau, Barty Bahyloman fliiitory; Lenormanti
Sludts accadienueSt it. 5k P. 70; Eberiurdt Schnder, Keilnuckriflem
tft. das AlU TettamerU, iu 118 ■qa., KMinsckriflen u. GesfkickU*
foTSchuntj pp. 3QO, 533; Wcissbacn, Zur LUsung der sumaiscken
Frage; T. C Pinches, *' Lan[^uage of the Early Inhabitants of
Mesopotamia," in Joum. Raif. Asiatic Soe. (1B84). pp. 301 sqq.;
Comptes rendus, 3rd sencs. vol. iv. p. 477; 3rd series, vol. Iv. pp. 138.
t^*. Joufnal asicH^, Ttn aeriesi vol. viii. pp. aoi sqq.; JUckercM
eriUnies tur Forigtne di la cmlisatUrti babyumietms (Paris, 1876);
f. D. Prince, Journal of tk^ American Oriental Society, xxv. 49*
07; American Journal of Semitic Languages, xix. 303 sqc).;
Materials for a Sumerian Lexicon, with grammatic introduction
(Leipxig, 190S-1907). Compare also the material dtsed in the foot-
» above, and note the correspoadenoe b e tw een BrOnnow and
Hab&vy in the Banu simitiqm (1906). <J- P* P>«)
fOmAlfUSk according to some, an old Sabbe or Etruscm
ddty; the name, however, is Latin, formed by aasimilatiott
from sub-mdnus (cf. mane, Matuta), signifying the god of the
time "before the morning." His sphere of infiuence wss the
nocturnal heavens, thundefsUmns at night being attributed
to him, those by day to Jupiter. Summaaus had a temple at
Rome near the Qrcus' Maximus, dedicated at the thne of the
invasion of Italy by Fyrrhus, king of Einnis (378), when a terra-
cotta image of the god (or of Jupiter himsdf) on the pediment
of the C^iitoline temple waa strudc by lightning and hurled
into the river Tiber. Here sacrifice was offered crvery year to
Summanos on the soth of June, together with cakes called
summanalia baked hi the form of a whed, supposed to be sym«
boiled of the car of the god of the thunderbolt. In Plautus
{Baukidet iv. 8, 54) Summanus and the verb fMUMaifara
are used lor the god of thieves and the act of stealing, with
obvious rderenoe to Summanus as a god of ni|^t, a time
favourable to thieves and their bushiess. The later e]q>lanatk>tt
that Summaaus is a contraction from Summus Manium (the
greatest of the Manes), and that he is to be idencUM with Pis
Pater, Is now generally rejected.
_ See Augusdna. De tiutak dei, iv. a3i Ovid. Fasti, v«. •
78
SUMMARY JURISDICTION
Kidtus ier Rdmer
MJK. Pn oa num Mgofx G. Wtssowa, Jtdigion und J
(1902}: W. W. Fowler. The Rfmian Fesiwols (1899}.
SUMMARY JURISDICnoir. In the widest sense this phnse
in English law includes the power asserted by courts o£ record
to deal breoi manu with contempts of court without the interven-
tion of a jury. Probably the power was originally exercisable
only when the £act was notorious, ue. done in presence of the
court. But it has long been exercised as to extracurial contempts
(see Contempt ov Couki). The term is also applied to the
special powers ^ven by sUtute or rules to the High Court of
Justice and to county oowts for dealing with certain classes
of causes or matters by methods more simple and expeditious
than the ordinary procedure of an action (see Suuuons). But
the phrase in modem times is applied almost exclusively to
certain forms of jurisdiction exerdsed by justices of the peace
out of general or quarter sessions, and without the assistance
of a jury.
Ever since the creation of the office oi justice efthe peace iq.v.)
the tendency of English legislation has been to enable them to
deal with minor offences without a jury. I^e^slation was
necessfiry because, as Blackstone says, except in the case of
contempts the common law is a stranger to trial without a Jury,
and because even when an offence is created by statute the
procedure for trying must be by indictment and trial before
a jury, unless by the statute aeaiing the offence or some other
statute another mode of trial is provided. In one remarkable
instance power is given by an act of 1735 (rs Geo. I. c. 29, s. 4)
to judges of the superior courts summarily to sentence to trans-
portation (penal servitude) a solicitor practising after conviction
of barratry, forsery or perjury (Stephen, Dig, Crim. Law, 6th ed.,
1x3). In oUier words all the summary jurisdiction of justices of
the peace is the creation of statute. The history of the gradual
devdopment of the summary jurisdiction of justices of the peace
is stated in Stephen's Hist. Crim, LaVt voL L ch. 4. The result
of le^slation is that summary jurisdiction has been conferred
by statutes and by-laws as to innumerable petty offences of
a criminal or quasi-criminal character (most of which in French
law would be described as contraventions) , ranging through every
letter of the alphabet. The most important perhaps are those
under the Army, Game, Highway^ Licensing, Merchant Shipping,
Post Office, Public Health, Revenue and Vagrancy Acts.
A court of summary jurisdiction is defined in the Inter-
pretation Act 1889 as ** any justice or justices of the peace or
other magistrate, by whatever name called, to whom jurisdiction
b given by, or who is authoriased to act \mdar, the Summary
Jurisdiction Acts, whether in England, Wales or Ireland, and
whether acting under the Summary Jurisdiction Acts or any
of them or any other act or by virtue of his commission or under
the common law " (s« & S3 Vict. c. 63, s. 13 [xij>. This defim-
tion does not apply to justices of the peace sitting to hold a
preliminary inquiry as to indictable offences, or in the dischsrge
of their quasi-administrative function^ as licensing authwity.
The expression "Summary Jurisdiction Acts" means as to
England and Wales the Summary Jurisdiction Acts of 1848
(11 & X2 Vict, c 42) and 1879 (44 & 43 Vict, c 49) and any act
amending these acts or either of ihem. These acU define the
procedure to be followed by Justices in those cases in which they
are empowered by staiiUe to hear and detannine civil or criminal
cases witbont the intervention of a jury or the forms of an
actioa or indictment at law or a suit in equity. Besides these
two acU the procedure as to the exercise of summary jurisdiction
is also regulated by acts of 1857 (20 & sx Via. c x, c. 43)» x884
(47 & 48 Vict, c 43) and 1899 (63 & 63 Vict, c 22), and by the
Summary Jurisdiction Process Aa x88x (44 & 45 Vict. c. 24).
The act ol 1848 repealed and consolidated the provisions
of a large number of earlier acU. The act of X857 provided a
mode of appeal to the High 0>urt by case sUted as to questions
of law raised in summary proceedings. The act of 1879 amended
the procedure in ma^y details with the view of uniformity, and
enlaxipd th* powers of justices to deal summarily with certain
classes of offences ordi^ ~ ' * * 'e on indictment. The
act glra poww U> ir '. details of procedure.
The raks now in force were madte In x886, but have since been
amended in certain details. The act of x8a4 swept away special
forms of procedure contained in a large number of statutes,
and substituted the procedure of the Summary Juxisdiction
Acts. The act of r699 added the obtaining of property by false
pretences to the Ust of indirtsMft offences which could sufr modo
be summarily dealt with. The statutes above mentioned foras
a kind of code as to procedure and to some extent also as to
As alreacfy stated, to enaUe a justice to deal ■amoaxily with aa
offence, whether created by statute or by*Uiw, aome statutory
authority must be shown. A very large number of ^ctty offences
(contraventions) have been created {e.t. poaching, nunor forms ol
theft, malicious damage and assault}, and are annually being
created (i) by legislation, or (2) by the by-laws of carporadons made -
under statutory authority, or (3) by departmenta of rtate acting
under such authority. The two latter classes differ from the fin*
in the necessity of proving by evidence the existence of the by-Uw
or statutory rule, and if need be that it is ifttra vires.
In the case of offences which are primarily made puniahable only
on summary conviction, the accused, if the maximum puniohmcDC
is imprisonment for over three months, can elect to be tried by a
jury (act of 1879, ^ '7).
In the case of offences which are primarily punishable only on
indictment, power to convict sommarily is grven in the following
cases s~—
X. AU indicuble offences (except homidde) committed by children
over seven and under twelve, if tne court thinks it cxpediei&t and the
parent or guardian docs not object (1879, s. 10).
a. All indictable offences (except homicide) committed by young
persons of twelve and under sixteen, if the youn^ person coosenta
after being toU of his right to be tried by a jury (i879,a. xi;
1899,8.2).
3. The indictable offences specified in sched. r, col. 2 of the act
of 1879 and in the act of i899f if committed bv adults, if thcv consent
to summary trial after being told of thdr right to be tried by a jury
(1879^. 13).
4. The indictable offences specified in sched. i. col. x of the act
of 1879 and the act of 1890, it committed by an adult who pleads
guilty after due caution that if he does so he will be summarily
convicted (1879. a X3).
Adults cannot be rammarily dealt with under 3 or 4 if the offence
is punishable by law with penal servitude owing to previous convic-
tion or (fK/tc/men/ of the accused (1879,8. 14).
It will be observed that as to all the indktable offences falling
under heads i to 4, the summary jurisdktion depends on the consent
of the accused or a person having authority over him after recci\^og
due information as to the ri^t to go to a jury, and that the punish-
ments on summary conviction in such cases are not those which
could be imposed after conviction or indictment, but are limited as
followB.^
Case I. Imprisonment for not more than one month or fine not
exceeding 40s. and (or) whipping of male children (not more than
six strokes with a birch) ; sending to an industrial school or reforma-
tory.
Case 3. Imprisonment with or wkhout hard labour for not more
than three months or fine not exceeding £10 and (or) wbippiiig erf
males (not more than twelve strokes with a birch) ; sending to an
industrial school or reformatory.
Case 3. Imprisonment for not more than three months with or
without hard labour or fine not exceeding £20.
Case a. Imprisonment with or without hard labour for not over
six months.
These limitations of punishment have had a potent effect in
inducing culprits to ayc^d the greater risks involved in a jury trial.
Where the offence is indictable the accused is brought before the
justices either on arrest without warrant or 00 warrant or summons
under the Indictable Offences Act 1848, and the summary juria-
diction procedure does not apply till the necessary option has been
taken.
Where the offence is indktable only at the election of the accused
the sumoiary jurisdicrion procedure applies until on being informed
of his option the accused elects for jury trial (act of 1879, *• I7)>
In the case of an offence pumshable on summary conviction the
procedure is ordinarily as follows : —
Information, usually orsl. is laid before one or more justices of
the peace alleging the consnusaoB of the offence. An information
roust not state more than a single offence, but great latitude is
given as to amending at the hearing any defects in the mode of
stating an offence. Upon receipt of the information the justice
may issue his summons for the attendance of the accused at a time
and place named to answer the charge. It is usoad to sammon
to a petty sewional court (».«. two iustioes or a stipendiary maeistrate.
or, m the city of London, an alderman). The summons la usuallv
served by a constable. If the accused does not attend in obc<Stence
to the summons, after proof of service the court may either Ls&ue
a warrant for his arrest or may deal with the charge in his ab&cncc.
SUMMARY JURISDICTION
..ekiwbatUcaUedaooatiiuung
sumiBaiy c»aea the accused t» arrested
without apptlcation to a justice, e.g.
Kgabonds and certaiA classes of offences
t it Muad in (bee of a Munnooi in the fint
j the iirforroation must be laid in writing and
verified bv qath. The ptoceedings must be begun, »^. by laying
the lalonBatMB, not later than mx months after the commisMon
of the ndJranr. aleBB bv aome particular atatnte another period
is aaacd or naleas the odenoe ia what ia called a oontinoing oflFence.
la a cotain number of
awkr statutory authority
lA the case of rogues and vagabonds
oonsmktcdiatlwscraet in view of a constable or by ni^ht. Whether
xht aujua d ia brau^ht before the court on antst with or without
warraot or attends in obedience to summona^ the procedure at the
ke^nag is the same. The hearing is ordinarily before a petty ses*
iiyrM court, tJt. before two or more justices sittiiw at their regular
pLhct of meeting or soma plaoe temponirily appointed as the sub-
Rirute for the ragular oonrt-houae, or before a stipendiary nu^ia-
tr^te. or ia the cky of London an alderman, sitting at a- pUoe where
br may by bw do alone what in other places may be done by two
]s -ices (1879. a. 3o; 1889, a. 13). A single jusdoe sittmg alone
m the ordinary court-house or two or more justices sitting together
ix aa nil liiiMiil oonrt-faouae have certain jurisdiction to hear and
(kscnniae tlie case, but cannot order a 6ne of more than 30a. or
icipriMonicnt for more than fourteen days (1879. s. 20 I7]). The
bf inar must be in open court, and parties may appear by counsel
or wwitar. If both narties appear, the justices must near and
•irtennne the case, li the defendant doca not appear, the court
Tjv hear and detemane in his absence, or may issue a warrant
ir.i a'fjoum the hearing until his apprehension. Where the dcfen-
di-** is repneaented by solicitor or counsel but is not himself present
•• 1* u*a3l. exoept in serious cases, to proceed in his abaenoe. If
;^>■ defendant is present the substance of the information is stated
to Kt-n and he is asked whether he is guiltjr or not gnilty. If he
pVsds iruilty the court may proceed to conviction. If he doea not
rh^ court iKars the case, and witnesses for the nroaecution and
i:.^>ny-e ai« examined and croe-examined. If the complainant
'^ <^ n^ appear, the justices may dismiss the complaint or adjourn
H neoesaary rebutting evidence may be called. The prosecutor
i« P7t allowed to reply in the case of the defendant. On the com-
r *vyy of the evidence the court proceeds to convict or acquit.
WNrre the case is proved but is trifling the court may. without
:r ;:-eding to conviction, make an order dismissing the information
« .^;ccT to payment of damages for injury or compensation for loss
U7 *o £10 or any higher limit fixed by statute as to the offence, and
' '-.* 5. or diacharpng the accused conditbnalty on hb giving security
: •^ ^.-Tod bdfiaviour and on paying dama^esand costs (1907, c. ly.s. i).
T ' 'h>5 order probationary conditions may be attach«Ml <9. 3). Subject
to this pffDviMm the punishment which may be enforced depends
a« 3. seneral rule on the statute or by-bw ddinio^ the offence, and
oitvtsts in imprisonment and (or) fine, esccept m cases where a
ruajaivm fine tt sripubted for by a treaty, &c., with a foreien
K^'c €.g. in sea fishc^ conx-emions. The court may mitigate tne
fi-r in tne case of a ftrst offence, even in a revenue case, or may
r^jre the period of imprisonment and impose it without hard
U'Tfor, or substitute a fine not exceeding £25 for imprisonment. A
vak is prescribed for imprisonment on Allure to pay money,
Hn. or costs, adjudged to be paid on a conviction, or in default
erf a sufBdcnt distress to satisfy the sum adjudged (1879. s. 5).
Intfad of sending the defendant to prison for not paying fine and
'^Xk the court may direct its levy by distress warrant, or may
^ ept payment by instahnems. In the case of distress the wearing
4;>ar«1and bedding of the defendant and his family, and to the
vt !.e of CS ^be toob and implements of his trade, may not be taken
A t of 1879, a. 21). If the defendant after going to prison can pay
pan of the money his imprisonment is reduced proportionally
<?r>,iM Act 1898, s. 9). The imprisonment is without hard bbour
*.'>» hard bbour is spedally authoriiEcd by the act on which the
c-:virtion U founded. The maximum term of imprisonment
vuhjKit the option of a fine is in most cases six months, but depends
c the particubr statute. Imprisonment under order of a court
of Mimmary jurisdiction is in the common gaol (5 Hen. IV. c. 10),
te laz kxal pn*cM decbvcd by the home secretary to be the common
5>ol (or the county, Ac, for which the court acts. The pbce of
mpruooment during remands or in the case of youthful ctfendetB
sj , ia certain casesbe elsewhere than in a prison.
The court has power \o order costs to be paid by the prosecutor
nr tSe defendant.^ Where the order is made on a conviction it
* mforceable by imprisonment in default of payment or sufficient
Issrcss..
The eOeaC of the local jinildiction of justices exernsing summary
luoadiction b defined by s. 46 of the act of 1S79 with reference to
offences commirted on the boundaries of two jurisdictions or during
jo^jrneys or on the sea or rivers or in harbours.
ProcecdRigs under the Bastardy Acts are reguTated by spedal
hgidation. but as to proof of seivice and the eniorcement of orders
<ad appjub are assimibted to convictions under the Summary
jjrMfattion Acts. The same rub applies (except as to appeals)
lo orders «ade under the Summary Jurisdiction (Married Women)
Act tf9S M nnoKbd by the Licensing Act 1909*
79
A wanrnnt of atrest b eaKuted by tht.coaaUbb or pmon to
whom It la dwected withm the local junsdiction of the isfuias
oourt; OK a fresh pursuit within seven miles of its boundaries, with*
out endonemeat , in th^ rest of Engbnd and Waba» and ia Scotland*
the Channel Isbads and Isb of Man after cndoiseoicnt by a oam-
petent magistrate of the pbce where the accused b. and in Ireland
by a justkeof the peaceor an inspector of conaubulaiy. An English
to a defendant or witness, except in respect of civil
served in S oot bnd after endorsement by a competeat
magistnite there (Sumiaary Jurisdiction Prooeas Art 1881, 44 and
45 Vict. c. a4). The attendance of a witnem who b an prison
b obtained by writ of habeas corpus or by a aecretaiy of state's
order under the iVison Act 1898. If awitnem will not attend 00
summons he can be brought to the court by wanaat, and if ha
wiU not answer qucstbna bwfully put to him miiy besent to prison
for seven days or until he sooner oonaents to answer.
Cbaf Jarssdicibn.— >ln cases where iosticas have a summary
cavil jurisdiction, «.g. as to certain ^vil debts recoverable summai^,
or to make orders to do or to abstain from doing certain acts, «^.
with refcfnnce to nuisances and building, the praoedure diffen m
certain detaib from that in criminal caso.
I. The summons b issued on n complaint which need not be in
writing nor on oath, and not on an ioformatbtt, and warmats of
arrest cannot be issued.
a. The mica as to the evidence of the defendant and hb «r her
spouse are the same as in civil actbns.
3. The court's deotdon b by order and not by conviction.
4. The Older if for payment of a dvil debt or costs in oonnedoft
therewith b enforceabb by distrem and sab of the defendant'*
effects or by imprisonment, but only on proof that the defendant
has had siaca the order means of paying and has refused or "f g ltrttd
Proceedings tor the enfoKcement of local rates are not affected
by the Summaiy lariadictson Acts except as to the power of sub-
mitting to the High Court questions of bw arising on a s
enf Otoe rates {re Alkn, 1894. a Q.B., 984). The f uoctbns
aa to such rates are sometimes but not ouite aocwateiy dmcribcd
as nunisterial, for their powers of inquiry though limhed are judicial
and of a <iuas»<riininal character.
AppeaL — The orders and convictions of a covrt of
'The f uoctbns of jusUces
jurisdiction are In many
bhle to quarter sessioas. The
on the specific provisions of a
right to appeal b always , ,
statute. The Summary Iiirisdiction Act 18^ pves a general power
of appeal i^nst an adjudication on conviction (but not on plea
of guilty) to imprisonment withont the option of a fine, whether
as punishment for an offence or for failure to do or abstaining from
doing any act, other than oomplianoe with aa order to pay money
or mul sccuriw or enter into tecognixanom or to find suredea
(1879, s. 19). The procedure on the appeab b regulated and made
Uniterm by the acts of 1879, ss. 31, 33; and 1884. These provisions
are supplenwntary of the pnrticuhn' pcovisions of many statutes
authoruingan appeaL
The deasiont of eourta of summary jurisdiction 00 pdms of
law are generally reviewed by a case stated for the opinion of the
High Court under the acta of 1857 and 1879, but are occasionally
corrected by the common bw rmedies of onradftinw, prohibition
orc«nbrori. The appUcation of the la*-named lemcdy b restffkted
by many statntei. The coot of appeal has iurisdietiQn to revbw
Tudgments and orders of the High Court dcnhng with appeals, &c.,
from the decisions of justices m the exercise of their civil juris*
diction; but not when the subject-matter b a criminal cause or
matter.
In proocscdion b e tween husband and wife for separatson orders
there M a special form of app^l on facts as well as law to the probate.
the High Court (Summary
Jurisdiction (Married Women] Act 1895; Licensing Act 1902,
divorce and admiralty division of
• is" -
I).
SC0TL4M0. Cmf.— ;In the Court of Session them are certain
forms of summary civil proceedings by petition, e.g.with reference
to eouils, custody of children, guardians and factors of minors and
lunatics, which are applications for exercise of the nobde efieium or
extraordinary jurisdiaion of the court (see Mackay. Court of Sessi^m
PrectiUt i. 309, ii. 355). Summary jurisdiction e given to justices
of the peace as to t he recovery of small debts.
Criminal and Quasi-criminal. — The only act rebting to summary
jurisdiction procedure common to Engbnd and Sc^tand is the
Summary Jurisdiction Process Act 1881. Summary jurisdietioa
in Scotbno depends chbfly upon the Summary Jurisdiction (Scot*
land) Acts i86iand 1881. The acts follow, to some extent, the lines
of English Ic^slation. but the sheriff and his deputies and substitutes
are included in the definition of the court, as are stipendiary mai;is-
tnites (1897, c. 48). The acts abo apply to proceeding before
burgh courts, or burgh magistmtes, and to justices of the peace
where they have by other statutes power to try offences or enforce
penalties. AH proceedings (or summary conviction or for recovery
of a penalty must be by way of complaint according to one of the
forms in the schedule to the act of 1864. The Engtbh cummoas and
warrant are tepresented in Scotbnd by the warrant of chation and
tba wanaat of apprehension- Where no punishment b fixed for a
6o
8UMMIT-~SUMMONS
MAtutory olTenee, the court ainnot sentence to more than a line of
Kilxty dayt' impritonroent. in addition to ordering caution to
the pMoe. The act of iMi adopts certain of the provisiont
KngliBh act of 1 $79 as to mitiption of fines, tenns of impriaon-
mrat, Ac. and alio gives a discretion as to punishment to a sheriff
trying by jury In cases where the prosecution might have been
by complaint under the acts. By the Youthful Offenders Act 1901,
Scottish ooorts of summary jurisdiction have acquired the same
{ttrisdiction as to offences by children as was conferred on English
ustiees In 1879. Appeals from courts of summary jurisdiction
are no^r mainly regulated by the act of 1875 (38 and m Vict. c. 6a),
and proceed on case statea by the inferior judge. A bill was sub-
mitted to pariiament in 1907 for consolidating and amending the
Scottish summary procedure;
lasLAND.^ — In Ireland the High Court has the same summary
powers in cases of contempt, and the term "court of summary
Jurisdiction " has the same meaning as in England (Interpretation
Act 1889, 8. 13 (ii|)f subject to the definition of the Summary
Jurisdiction (Ireland) Acts, which are, as regards the Dublin metro*
polftaa police district, the acts regulating the powers and duties
of justices of the peace or of the police of that district, and as le sp cu a
any other part of Ireland the Petty Sessions (Irdand) Act 1851
(14 and 15 Vict. c. 5^3) and any act amending the same. The acu
are more extenave in their purview than the English acts, as they
form in a great degree a code of substantive law as wdl as of pro-
cedure. By an act of 1884 the same jurisdiction was given as to
offences by children as by the act of 1879 in Enahuid. Stipendiary
or resident magistrates may be appointed in the dboe ot unpaid
justices under an act of 1836 (6 & 7 W. IV. c 13). The exceptional
political circumstances of Ireland have led to the conferring at
afferent times on courts of summary jurisdiction of an authority,
generally temporary, greater than that which they can exercise
in Great Britain. Rnrent instances are the Peace Preservation
Act 1881, and the Prevention of Crimes Act 188a, both expired,
and the (Criminal Law and Procedure (Irebmd) Act 1887.
British PoiaNioNS beyond the Sbas.— The l^dation of
British poaseasions as to summary jurisdiction foUows the lines of
English legislation, but, and espeoally in crown colonies, tibere
is a disposition to dispense with the jury more than under Eng^h
procedure, and in most colonies stipendiary magistrates are more
treely employed than unpaid justices of the peace (see British
Guiana, (>rd. Na 10 of 1803). Many of the colontal criminal
codes include a number of offences punishable on summary convic-
tion. The procedure closely follows English models, but has in
many cases been oonsoUdatM and ampli&ed (e.£. Victoria, Justices
Act 1890, No. 1105; British Guiana, Ord. No. I3 of i8g|3). In
many colonies stipendiaries and justices of the peace exercise dvil
jurisdiction as to matters dealt with in Englamd by the county
court («.g. British Guiana, Ord. Na xi of 1893).
Umitbd Statbs.— By art iii. s. 3 of the constitution, the trial
of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, is to be by jury. By
art. V. of the amendments no person can be held to answer for a
capital or otherwise in£amoua crime unless on a presentment or
indictment of a grand jury. Considerable changes have been made
by sute legislation in the direction of enlaiging the powers ot courts
of summary jurisdiction.
EuKorBAN CouNTRiBS.-— On the continent of Europe trial of
criminal cases by a bench of judges without a jury is the original
and normal method, and continues except in those cases as to
which under the penal and procedure codes jury trial is made
neccssaiy. In Fiance the place of courts of summary jurisdiction
is filled by tribunatix conecUonds. (W. F. C.)
SUMMIT, a dty of Union county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in
the north-east of the state, about ax m. W. of New York City.
Fbp. (1900) 550a, of whom 1397 wereforeign-bam; (1905) 6845;
(1910) 7500. It is served by the Morris & Essex and the
Psusaic & Delaware divisions of Delaware, Lackawanna &
Western railroad, and by the Rahway Valley railroad extending
to Roselle, 9 m. distant. Summit is picturesquely situated on
the crest of a ridge called Second Mountain, with a mean eleva-
tion of 450 ft. It is a residential suburb of New York, and
attracts a number of summer residents. Among its institu-
tions are a public library (1874), a home for blind children,
the Overlook hospital and the Kent Place school (1894) for
girls. On Hobart Hill there is a monument marking the
site of a beacon light and a signal gun used during the War
of Independence. Summit was incorporated as a township in
1869 from parts of the townships at Springfield and New
Providence, and was chartered as a dty in 1899.
SUMMONS (Fr. senumUt from semotmer or semondre, Lat.
sumnumere, summonUio), in English law (i) a command by a
superior authority to attend at a given time or place or to do
some public duty; ' ^ntaining such command,
and not infrcque- he oonsequencca entaSed
by neglect to obey. The oral summons or dtation seems to
have preceded the written summons in England, just as in
Roman law in jus vocatio existed for centuries bef6re the lihtUus
amveniionis. The antiquity and importance of the summons
as a legal form in England is shown by the presence of the
" sompnour," or summoner of the ecdesiastical court, as one
of the characters in the Canterbury Taies^ and in The History
of Sir John Otdcastkf where the sumner is made to eat a citation
issued from the bishop of Rochester's court. The term is used
with reference to a demand for the attendance of a person in
the high court of parliament. As regards English courts of
justice it is equivalent to what in the dvU and canon law and
in Scots law, and in English courts deriving their procedure
from those sources, is known as " dtation." That term is still
preserved in English ecdesiastical courts and in matrimonial
It is an essential prindple of justice that a court should not
adjudicate upon any question without giving the parties to
be affected or bound by the adjudication the opportunity of
being heard and of bringing thdr witnesses before the court.
The most usual term in English law for the process by which
attendance is cosmuuided or required is the " scunmons.'*
Civil Proceedings,— tn the High Court of Justice, dvil actions
are begun by obtaining from the officers of tiie court a document
known as a "writ 01 summons." In this document are stated
the names of the parties and the nature of the claim made (which
in the case of liquidated sums of money must be precise and particu-
lar). It is sealed and issued to the party suing It out, and served
on the opposing party, not by an officer 01 the court but by an agent
of the plaintiff. The tenor of the writ is to require the defendant
to appear and answer the claim, and to indicate the oonsequenoes
of non-appearance, vis. adjudication in default.
Many proceedings in the High (^urt and some in the county
court are initiated by forms of summons different from the writ
of summons. Of those issued in the High Court three classes merit
mention >~
I. For determining interiocutory matters of practice and pn>-
oedure arising in " a pemling cause or matter. These are now
limited as far as possible to a general summons for directions, intro-
duced in 1883 so as to discourage frequent and ezpemive ap^ica-
tions to the masters or judges of the High Court on questions of
detail. These summonses are sealed and issued on awUcation at
the offices of the High Court. The matters raised are dodt with by
a master or judge in chambers summarily. In matters of practice,
and procedure there is no appeal from a judge at chambers without
leave from him or from the court of app^.
a. For determining certain classes of questions with more
despatch and less cost than is entailed by action or petition. This
kind of summons is known as an " originating summons.*' because
under it proceedings may be originated without writ lor certain
kinds of relief speafied in the rules (R. S. C., O. ^5, r. 3). The
originating summons may be used in all divisions of the High Court,
but is chiefly employed in the chancery division, where it to a great
extent supersedes actions for the admmistration of trusts or oT the
esutes ot deceased persons;^ and for the forecbsure of mortgages
a similar but not identical procedure was created by the Vendor
and Purchaser Act 1874, and the .Conveyancing Act 1881, with
reference to questions 01 title, &c., to real property. In the king^s
bench and probate divisions the originating summons is used Tar
determining summarily questions as to property between husband
and wife, or the risht to custody of children, and many other matters
(O. 54, rr. 4 B-4 F). The proceedings on an originating summons
are conducted summarily at chambcn without pleadings, and the
evidence is usually written. In the chancery division where the
questions raised are important the summons is adjourned into
court. An appeal lies to the court of appeal from decisions on
originating summonses.
The forms of summonses and the procedure thereon in dvil cases
in the High Court are regulated by the Rules of the Supreme Court
1883 to 1907.
3- .Certain prxeedings on the crown side of the king*s bench
division are begun by summons, e.f. applications for bail: and in
vacation writs of habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition and certiorari
are asked for by sununons as the full court is not in sessioii. (See
Crown Office Rules, 1906).
In the county courts an action is begun by phunt and summons.
Two kinds of summons are in use — the ordinary summons used for
every form of county court action, and the default summons, which is
an optional remedy of the plaintiff in actions for detvts or liquidated
demands exceeding £5, and in all actions for the price or hire of goods
* A similar practice existed before 1883 under the powers given by
15 A 16 VfCt. c 86. but was very limited in its operation, as it arolied
simply to the personal csute of a deceased person.
SUMMUM BONUM— SUMNER, C.
aUorkC toifcedcieiKlaiittobeiiMdiatiiewiyof hbcaUinf. It
■ly abo iMoe by kave o( the judge orregixtnx in other cases, with
the siaslc exception that no loav* can be given in claims under £s
where tne datm is not for the price or hire of goods sold or let as
above, if the affidavit of debt discloses thatthe defendant is a.servant
or penoa casaf^ ■" manual labour. The advantage of a* default
airansons is that judgment is entered for the plaintiff without hearing
aiiJcas the defendant gives notice of defence within a limited time.
A default sommons must as a rule be served personally on the
dcfe«Mfant; an ordinary summons need nor be served personally,
bat may in most cases be deUvered to a person at the defendant s
home or place c£ bu«nea& A summons is also issued to a witness
in the county court. Forms of summons are given in the County
Court Rules 1^3. These include certain special forms used in
aHiiiraky and interpleader actions and in proceedings under the
Fnrndly Societies Acts and the Married Women's Property Acts.
Sttsinooaes issued from oounty courts are usually served by a
hjtiiff of the court and not by tne party suing them out.
Justices of the peace have power to issue summonses to persons
srniaeri of iadictaDle offences, or of offences summarily punishable,
(or their atte n danc e , for preliminary inquiry or summary trial
according to tbe nature of tne charge, and also to persons awainst
whom a complaint of a civil nature within the justices' jurisdiction
ft tauSte. On failure to attend on summons, attendance roajr be
enforced by warrant; and in the case of indictable offences this is
the course always adapted. Tbe forms in use for indictable offences
an scheduled to the lodicuUe Offences Act 1816, and those for
other purposes to the Summary Jurisdiction Rules 1886 (see
S-WARV IijrisdictionT. The attendance of witnesses before
jiKtires of the peace may be required by witness summons, enforced
m the event of disobedience by arrest under warrant (see Witness).
The attendance of juron in dvil or criminal trials is required by
junr summooa sent by registered jMst.
In courts for tbe triaf of indictable offences the attendance of
tbe accu sed and of the witnesses to not secured by summons. .Both
snSnarily attend in obedience to recognizances entered into before
JBstices for tlidr attcadaiice. in tike abaeooe of recognisances the
attendance of the acscuaed is enforced by bench warrant of the
rf3t of trial, or by justices* warrant, and that of the witnesses by
writ of tmbpoaid issued from the crown office of the High Court.
Dimbedienee to the writ is punished as contempt of court.
SfwMawJ — Snamoos ia a term confined in strictness to the
i»yiwy;i«l|r of an action in theCourt of Session. The summons Is a
vniin tBe aovercign's name, ngncd by a writer to the signet, citing
dK defender to appear and answer the claim. The " will of the
■namoaa ** is the concluaioa of a writ containing the will of the
aiwutiga nr iudse, rhaiging the cncuttKe officer to cite the party
whose attendance ia icquirad. It is regulated by several acts, «.{.
The Debtors CSootlaod) Act 1838 (i & a Vict. c. 114) and the
Court of Session (Scotland) Act 1868 (ai & 32 Vict. c. 100). A
privikved a uw rno ns h one where the iniitciag are ^ortened to six
<fays ^aanat def en ders within Scotland (Court of Session [Scotland]
Act t6as» a. 53). Defects in the summons are cured by ainendment
arbyasupplen>eittaiysuromons. The summons goes more into detail
than the bigfish wnt of summons, though it no longer states, as it
oaoe did. the grounds of action, now stated in the condescendence
and purwer'n pleas in law annfitfd to the summona. The form of
tbe sumnona ts rtnilaied bv' tbe Court of Seasioa (Scotland) Act
165D. s. t and schedule A. After the action has been set on foot by
, the attendapce of the parties and witnesses is obtained by
The Citation Amendment Acts 1871 and 188a give
1 «f«-a;»;<i« for the encutloa of dtations in civil cases by
___> of l e gisftre d letters, instead of bv the old process known aa
" lock hole dtatioo." In the act of 1871 the term " summona "
is used to denote part of the process of inferior civil courts.
la the sbofff court an action is now begun by writ (Sheriff Courts
^'^iif^-**! Act 1907). and oot as formeriy by petition or summons.
la cnaanal cases the amnmoas of the accused, or of witnesses, is
by wanant of dtarioo. and of jurora by citation sent by rq;utcnd
port 0868. c 9Sf •• 10}-
trtlmmi. — In Trebnd summonses are used substantially for the
anne fmyu m 1 and id the same manner aa in Eii^nd, but eenerally
T*"^'"^ under atatotesaod lulcs applyiflK only to tbe Irish courts.
(W.F.C.)
UnonV BOmni (Lot. for "Mghest good "),in ethics, tbe
ideal of human mttalniiKat. The stgnificance of the term depends
upon the character of the^ethical system in which it occnts. It
■ay heirieved at a perfect moral state: as pleasure or happiness
(see HnomfM; EVDABifOinsic); as physical perfection; as
wealth, and so forth. If, however, we abandon intuitional
ethics, it is reasonable to argue that the term summum bonum
ceases to bave any real sipcuficance inasmuch as actions are
not iotiSasically good or bad, while the complete sceptic strives
a fter ao sy stematic Sdeal.
WffMMESU CHARLES (i8TX-f874), American statesman, was
bora IB Beaton, Massatihusetts, on the 6th of Januaxy 181 1'.'
81
He graduated In 1S30 at Harvard'CoUege, and in 1834 graduated
at the Harvard Law School Here, in closest intimacy with
Joseph 'Story, be became an enthusiast in the study of juris-
prudence: at the age of twenty-three be was admitted to the
bar, and was contributing to tbe American Jurist, and editing
law texts and Story's court decisions. What be saw of Congress
during a month's visit to Washington in 1834 filled him with
loathing for politics as a career, and he returned to Boston
resolved to devote himself to the practice of law. The three
years (1837-1840) spent in Europe were years of fruitful study
and experience. He secured a ready command of French,
German and Italian, equalled by no American then in public
life. He formed the acquaintance of many of the leading
statesmen and pubiidsts, and secured a deep insight into
continental systems of government and of jurisprudence. In
England (1838) his onmivorous reading in literature, history
and jurisprudence made him persona grata to leaders of thought.
Lord Brougham declared that he " had never met with any man
of Sumner's age of such extensive legal knowledge and natural
legal intellect." Not till many years after Sumner's death
was any other American received so intimately into the best
English cirdes, social, political and intellectual.
In his thirtieth year, a broadly cultured cosmopolitan, Sumner
returned to Boston, resolved to settle down to the practice of
his profession. But graduaUy he devoted less of his time to
practice and more to lecturing in the Harvard Law School, to
editing court reports and to contributions to law journals, especi-
ally on historical and biographical lines, in which his erudition
was unsurpassed. In his law practice he had disappointed
himself and his friends, and he became despondent as to his
future. It was in a 4th of July oration on "The Tt^e
Grandeur of Nations," delivered in Boston in 1845, that he first
found himself. His oration was a tremendous arraignment
of war, and an Impassioned appeal for freedom and for peace,
and proved him an orator of the first rank. He immediately
became one of the most eagerly sought orators for the lyceum '
and college platform. His lofty themes and stetely eloquence
made a profound impresnon, especially upon young men; his
platform presence was imposing, for he was six feet and four
inches in height and of massive frame; his voice was dear and
of great power; his gestures unconventional and individual,
but vigorous and impressfve. His literary style was somewhat
florid. Many d his speeches were monuments of erudition,
but the wealth of detail, of alluaon, and of quotation, often
from the Greek and Latin, sometimes detracted from their
effect.
Sumner co-operated effectivdy with Horace Mann for the
improvement of the system of public education in Massachusetts.
Prison reform and peace were other causes to which he gave
ardent support. In 1847 the vigour with which Sumner de-
nounced a Boston congressman's vote in favour of the Mexican
War BUI made him the logical leader of the " Consdence Whigs,"
but he declined to accept their nomination for Congress. He
took an active part in the organizing of the Free Soil party, in
revolt at the Whigs' nomination of a slave-holding southerner
for the presidency; and in 1848 was defeated as a candidate for
the national House of Representatives. In 1851 control of
the Massachusetts legislature was secured by the Democrats
in coalition with the Free SoOexs, hut after filling the state
offices with their own men, the Democrats refused to vote for
Sunmer, the Free Soilers' dioice for United States senator, and
urged the sde^on of some less radical candidate. A deadlock
of more than three months ensued, finally residting in the election
(April 34) of Sumner by a majority of a single vote.
Sumner thus stepped from the lecture pbtform to the Senate,
with no preliminary training. At first he prudently abstained
from trying to force the Issues in which he was interested, while
he studied the temper and procedure of the Senate. In the
dosing hours of his first sesaon, in spite of strenuous efforts to
prevent it, Sumner delivered (Aug. 26, 1852) a spcedi, ** Free-
dom national; Slavery sectional," which it was immedlatety
felt marked a new era in American history. The convr-*^' —
82
SUMNER, C. R.
o£ both the gitat putiet had jost affirmed the finality oC cveiy
provision ot the Compromise of 1850. Eleckkss of political
expediency, Sumner moved that the Fugitive Slave Act be
forthwith repealed; and for more than three houn he denounced
it as a violation of the constitution, an affront to the public
conscience, and an oCTence against the divine law. The speech
provoked a storm of anger in the South, but the North was
heartened to find at last a leader whose courage matched his
conscience. In 1856, at the very time when " border ruffians "
were drawing their lines closer about the doomed town of Law-
rence, Kansas, Sumner in the Senate (May 19-20) laid bare the
" Crime against Kansas." He denounced the Kansas-Nebraska
Bill as in every respect a swindle, and held its authors, Stephen
A. Douglas and Andrew P. Butler, up to the scorn of the world
as the Don Quixote and Sancho Panza of " the harlot. Slavery."
Two days later (May 32) Preston S. Brooks (1819-1857), a
congressman from South Carolina, suddenly confronted Sumner
as he sat writing at bis desk in the Senate chamber, denounced
his speech as a libel upon his state and upon Butler, bis relative,
and before Sumner, pinioned by his desk, could make the slight-
est resistance, rained blow after blow upon his head, till his
victim sank bleeding and unconscious upon the floor. That
brutal assault cost Sumner three years of heroic struggle to
restore his shattered health— years during which Massachusetts
loyally re-elected him, in the belief that in. the Senate chamber
his vacant chair was the most eloquent pleader for free speech
and resisunce to slavery. Upon returning to his peat, in 1859,
the approaching presidential campaign of x86o did not deter
him from delivering a speech, entirely free from personal rancour,
on " The Barbarism of Slavery " — to this day one of the most
comprehensive and srathing indictments of American slavery
ever presented.
In the critical months following Lincoln's election Sumner was
an unyielding foe to every scheme of compromise. After the
withdrawal of the Southern senators, Sumner was made chair-
man ol the committee on foreign relations (March 8, 1861), a
position for which he was pre-eminently fitted by his years of
intimate acquaintance with European politics and statesmen.
While the war was in progress his letters from Cobden and
Bright, from Gladstone and the duke of Argyll, at Lincoln's
request were read by Sumner to the cabinet, and formed a chief
source of light as to political thought in England. In the turaM>il
over the " ' Trent' affair," it was Sumner's word that convinced
Lincoln that Mason and Slidell must be given up, and that
reconciled the public to that inevitable step. Again and
again Sumner used the power incident to his diairmanship to
block action which threatened to embroil the United States in
war with England and France. Sumner ppenly and boldly
advocated the policy of emancipation. Lincoln described
Sumner as " my idea of a bishop," and used to consult him as
an embodiment of the conscience of the American.people.
The war had hardly begun when Sumner put forward his
theory of reconstruction; that the seceded states by their own
act had " become JeLo de se" had " committed state suicide,"
and that their status and the conditions of their xeadmission
to membership in the Union lay absolutely at the determination
of Congress, as if they were Territories and bad never been
states. He resented the initiative in Reconstruction taken by
Lincoln, and later by Johnson, as an encroachment upon the
powers of Congress. Throughout the war Sumner had con-
stituted himself the special champion of the negro, being the
most vigorous advocate of emancipation, of enlisting the| blacks
in the Union army, and of the establishment of the FMcedmen's
Bureau. Ihe aedit or the blame for imposing equal suffrage rights
for negroes upon the Southern states as a condition of Reconstruc-
tion must rest with Charles Sunyicr more than with any other one
man. Heedless of the teachings of science as to the slow evolu-
tion of any race's capacity for self-government, he insisted on
putting the ballot forthwith into the hands of even the most
ignorant blacks, lest their righU be taken from them by their
former masters and .the fruits of the war be lost. But it
must be remembered that in Sumner's plan equal suffrage wa»
to be accompanied by free bometteadt and free Kboab for
negroes.
In the unpeachment proceedings against Johnson, Sumner
was one of the president's most implacable aaaailanta, Sumner's
opposition to Grant's pet scheme for the annexatioo of San
Domingo (1870), after the president mistakenly supposed
that he had secured a pledge of support, brought upon him the
president's bitter resentment. Sumner had always prixed
highly his popuUuity in England, but he unhesiutingly sacri-
ficed it in taking bis stand as to the adjustment of claims against
England for breaches of neutrality during the war. Sumner
laid great stress upon "national claims." He held that
England's according the ifghu of belligecenu to the Confederate
states had doubled the duration of the war, entailing inestimable
loss. He therefore insisted that England should be required
not merely to pay damages for the havoc wrought by the
*' Alabama " and other cruisers fitted out for Confederate service
in her ports, but that, for " that other damage, immense and
infinite, caused by the prolongation of the war," the withdrawal
of the British flag from this hemisphere could " not be abandoned
as a condition or preliminary of such a settlement as is now
proposed." (At the Geneva arbitration conference these
'- national claims " were abandoned.) Under pressure from the
president, on the ground that Sumner was no longer on speaking
terms with the secretary of state, he was deposed on the loih
of March 1871 from the chairmanship of the committee on
foreign relations, in which he had served with great distinc-
tion and effectiveness throughout the critical years since 1861.
Whether the chief cause of this humiliation wis Grant's vin«
dictiveness at Sumner^ opposition to his San Domingo project
or a gennine fear that the Impossible demand, which he insisted
should be made upon England, would wreck the prospect of a
speedy and honourable adjustment with that country, cannot
be determined. In any case it was a cruel Mow to a man already
broken by racking illness and domestic sorrows. Sumner's
last years were further saddened by the misconstruction put
upon one of his most magnanimous acts. In 187a he introduced
in the Senate a resolution providing that the names of battles
with fellow citizens should not be placed on Jhe regimental
colours of the United States. The Massacbusetu legislature
denounced this battle-flag resolution as " an insult to the loyal
soldiery of the nation " and .as " meeting the unqualified con-
demnation of the people of the Commonwealth." For more
than a year all efforts— headed by the poet Whitiier— to rescind
that censure were without avail, but early in 1874 it was annulled.
On the xoth of March, against the advice of his physician,
Sumner went to the Senate— it was the day on which his
colleague was to present the rescinding resolution. With those
grateful words of Vindication from Massachusetts in hia cars
Charles Sumner left the Senate chamber for the last time. That
night he was stricken with an acute attack of M^na pedpris,
and on the following day he died.
Sumner was the scholar in politics. He could never be in-
duced to suit his action to the political expediency of the moment.
" The slave of principles, I call no party master," was the proud
avowal with which he began his service bi the Senate. For the
tasks of Reconstruction he showed little aptitude. He was less
a builder than a prophet. His was the first dear pro^ramDie
proposed m Congress for the reform of the dvil service. It was
his dauntless courage in denouncing compromise, in demanding
the repeal of the Fugitive Slave Act, %nd in ansirting *upon
emandpation, that made him the chief initiating force in the
struggle that put an end to slavery.
See Sumner's Works (15 vols., Boston. 1870-1883), end Edwaitl
L. Pierce's Memoir and Litters of Choffes Summer (4 vols., Boeton,
1877-180O. Briefer biographies have been written by Anna L.
Dawes (New York, 1802) ; Moorfield Storey (Boston, 1900) ; and
GeofKe H. Haynet (Phibdelpkia, 1909).
fUMKER, CHARLES RICHARD (1790-1874), English bishop,
was bom at Kcnil worth on the a 2nd of Novembw 2790, yr yj
was educated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He
graduated B.A. in i8i4> M.A. in 1817, and was ordaUied deacon
SUMNER, E. v.— SUMPTUARY LAWS
83
Ukd piiat. In die two wioten of i.8x4ri8i^ he tninbteted to
the Eacliah conKregatioii at Geneva, and (romx8i6 to 1821 waa
cnxate of Higbdere, Hampshire. In x8ao George IV. wished to
appoint bim canon of Windsor, but the prime minister, Lord
Liveipool, objected; Sumner received instead a royal chaplaincy
and Hbraiianshtp, and other preferments quickly fo^owcd,
till in x8a6 be was consecrated bishop of Llandaff and in 1827
bishop d Winchester. In his long administration of his latter
daocesc he was most energetic, tactful and munificent. Though
evangelical in his views he t>y no means confined his patronage
to thai school. In 1869 he resigned his see, but continued to
live at the ofl&cial residence at Farnham until his death on the
xjth of August 1874. He published a number of charges and
lensoDs, and Tlu Minisl»ial Character of ChriU Practicatiy
C0nsii€r€d (London, 2824). He also edited and translated
John MiUod's De doctrinQ ckristianat which was found in the
Suu Paper office in 1823, and formed the text of Macaulay's
famous easay on Milton.
See the £^«. by his son. G. H. Sumner (1876).
Smnm* VDWIM VOSB (1797-1863-), American soldier,
was bom at Boston, Massachusetts, and entered the United States
■nay in 18x9. He served in the Black Hawk War and in
vaxioas Indian campaigns. In X838 he commanded the cavalry
■Mtractional cstabUshment at Carlisle, Pennsylvania. He took
part in the Mexican War as a major, and for his bravery at
Mflliao dd Rey he received the brevet rank of colonel. In 1857
he oomxnanded an expedition against the Cheyeime Indians.
At the outbreak of the Qvil War, four years later, Sumner had
|Ht been pconoied brigadier-general U.S.A. and sent to replace
Sidney Johnston in oonuaand on the Pacific coast. He thus
taek no part in the fint campaign of the Civil War. But in the
aatmnn he was brought back to the East to command a division,
aad soon aitermrds, as a major-geneaal U.S.V.y a corps in the
aODj thai was being orgaaiaed by McClellan. This eorpa,
inlwiird n., lalained its independent existence throughout
the war, and tuider the command of Sumner, Couch, Han-
cock aad Humphreys it had the deserved reputation of being the
bat in the Union army. Sumner, who was by far the oldest
flf the fOKrals in the army of the Potomac, led his corps through-
out the peninsular campaign, was woimdcd during the Seven
Days' Battle, and received the brevet of major-general U.S.A.,
aad was affain wounded in the battle of Antietam. When
Burxnide succeeded to the command of the army of the Potomac
he grouped the corps in "grand divisions," and appointed
Sumner to amimand the right grand division. In this capacity
the old cavalry soldier took part in the disastrous battle of
Ficdericksbarg, in which the 11. corps suffered most severely.
Soon afterwards, on Hooker's appointment to command the
ansy, Sumncf was relieved at his own request. He died
suddenly, on the 2xst of March 1863, while on his way to
asume supreme conBmand in MissourL
ginniBB, JOHN BHID (X780-X862), English archbishop,
eider brother of Bishop Charies Sumner, was born at Kcnil worth,
Warwickshire, and educated at Eton and Cambridge. In
1S02 he became a master at Eton, and in the following year he
took, orders. He was elected a fellow of Eton in 1817, and in
1^18 the college presented him to the living of Maple Durham,
Oxfordshire. After holding a prebendaryship of Durham for
wmie years, he was consecrated bishop of Chester in 1828.
Dniing his episcopate many churches and schools were built
la the diocese. His numerous writings were much esteemed,
especially t>y the evangelical party, to which be belonged; the
best known are his TreaHu on ike Records 0/ Creation and ike
Moral AttribmUsofihe Creator (London, x8i6) and The Evidence
if CkriUiamty derieed from its Nature and Reception (London,
iSzx). In X&48 he was consecrated archbishop of Canterbury,
ia which capacity he dealt impartially with the different church
panics. In the wcU-knowa "Gorham case"' he came into
iGeofge CbmeCua Gorham (l787-!i857} wa» refused institution
by Bishop PhillpoCta becauae oi ni» Calvinistic vic«-& on baptismal
•cfeaeratJoa. The court of arches u{>h«ld the biabop, but iu
decbioD was revtned by the privy council.
conflict with Bish^ Henry Phillpotts of Exeter <x 778-1869),
who accused him of supporting heresy and refused to com-
municate with him. He supported the Divorce Bill in parlia-
ment, but opposed the Deceased Wife's Sister Bill and the bill
for removing Jewish disabilities.
SUMNER, WILUAM ORAHAM (1840-19x0), American
economist, was bom, of English parentage, in Paterson, New
Jersey, on the 30th of October X840. He was brought up in
Hartford, Connecticut, graduated at Yale College in X863,
studied French and Hebrew in Geneva in X863-X864 and divinity
and history at Gdttingen in X864-X866, and in 1866-1869 was
a tutor at Yale. He was ordained a priest of the Protestant
Episcopal Church in 1869, was assistant rector of Calvary
Church, New York City, and in 1870-1872 was rector of the
Church of the Redeemer, Morristown, New Jersey. From 1872
to X909, when he became professor emeritus, he was professor
of political and social science at Yale. In 1909 he was president
of the American Sociological Society. He died at Engiewood,
New Jersey, on the X2th of April X910.
He was notable especially as an opponent of protectionism, and
was a great teacher. He wrote: History ef American Currency
(1874); Leanres on the History of Protection in the United States
(1875) ; Life of Andrew Jackson (1882), in the " American Statesmen
Sencs"; What Social Classes Owe to Each Other (1883); Collect^
Essays in Political and Social Sciences (1885): Protectionism (,i6Bs);
Alexander Hamilton (1891). and Roberi Morris (1891), in the " Makers
of America Series "; The Financier and Finances of the American
Revolution (a volt., 1891); A History of Bankine in the United States
(1896): .and Folhways: a Study of the Sociological Importance of
Usagest Manners^ Customs, Mores and Morals (1907), a valuable
sociok>gical summary.
8UMFTER, a pack-horse or mule, a beast for carrying burdens,
particularly for military purposes. There were two words onc^
in use, which in sense, iif not in form, have coalesced. These are
" sommer " or " summer " and " sumpter." The first comes
through the Old French sommier, a pack-horse, the other
through sommetieft a pack-horse driver. Both come ultimately
from Late Lat. salma^ from iagma, a pack, burden. Old French
somnUf saume; Greek <rdY/ia, burden, <r&rrciy, to load.
" Siunpter " in the sense of a driver of a pack-horse Is rare, and
the word is always joined with another explanatory word.
SUMPTUARY LAWS (from Lat. sumptuarius, belonging to
cost or expense, sumptns), those laws intends! to limit or
regulate the"private expenditure of the citizens of a community.
They may be dictated by political, or economic, or moral con-
siderations. They have existed both in ancient and In modem
states. In Greece, it was amongst the Dorian races, whose
temper was austere and rigid, that they most prevuled. All
the inhabitants of Laconia were forbidden to attend drinking
exitertainments, nor could a Lacedaemonian possess a house or
farniture which was the work of more elaborate implements
than the axe and saw. Among the Spartans proper simple and
frugal habits of life were secured rather by the institution of the
pheidilia (public meals) than by spedal eiuictments. The
possession of gold or silver was interdicted to the dtiaens of
Sparta, and the use of iron money alone was permitted by the
Lycurgean legislation. " Even in the cities which had early
departed from the Doric customs," says K. O. Miiller, " there
were frequent and strict prohibitions against expensiveness of
female attire, prostitutes alone being wisely excepted." In the
Locrian code of Zaleucus citiaena were forbidden to drink
undiluted wine. The Solonian sumptuary enactments were
directed principally against the extravagance of female apparel
and dowries of excessive amount; costly banqueta also were
forbidden, and expensive funeral solemnities. The Pytha-
goreans in Magna Graccia not only protested against the luxury of
their time but encouraged legislation with a view to restraining it.
At Rome the system of sumptuary edicts and enactments
was largely developed, whilst the objects of such legislation
were concurrently sought to be attained through the exercise
of the censorial power. The code of the Twelve Tables con-
tained provisions limiting the expenditure on funerals. The
most important sumptua/y laws of the Roman comaonwealtk
are the following.'—
8+
<i) Th« Opplim Iaw, 3IS B.c^ providad that no woman ahould
poueu more than half on ounce o{ i^old, or wear a dress of different
coloun. or ride in a carriage in the city or within a mile of it except
on occoalona of public religious ceremonies. This law, which had
been partly dicUted by the financial necessities of the conflict with
Hannibal, was repealed twenty years later, againot the advice of
Cato. Livy (uuuv. 1-8) gives an interesting account ol the com-
motion excited by the proposal of the re^l, and of the exertions
of the Roman women against the biW» which almost amounted to a
female itmuk* (a) The Orchian law, 187 B.C., limited the number
of guests at entertainments. An attempt being made to repeal
this law, Cato offered strong opposition and delivered a speech on
the subject, of which some fragments have been preserved. (3)
I'he Fannian law, 161 ex., Kmited the sums to be spent on enter-
tainments: it provided amongst other things that no fowl should
bo ttrvtii but a single hen. and that not fattened. (4) The Didian
law. 143 BXw extended to the whole of Italy the provisions of the
Fantiian law, and made the guests as well as the givers of entcrtain-
tnvnl* at which the law was violated liable to the penalties. After
a amsidersble interval. Sulla anew directed lagislation against the
luxuiy of the uWe and also limited the cost of foncxals aftd of
•1 pulchral monuments. We are told that he violated his own law
an to funerals when bur>'ing his wife Metella, and aUo his law on
entertainments when seeking to forget his grief for her loss in
extravagant drtnk«ng and feasting (Plut. Suit. 35). Julius Caesar,
in the rapacity of pra^tctus mofi&ms, after the African War re-
en^clvd some of the sumptuary laws which had fallen into ncelect :
ricrro implies (£^ ad AH. xiii. 7) that in Caesar's.abeence his legis-
lation of this kind was no$ attended ta Suetonius tells us that
Cae»ar had officers stationed in the market-places to seiae such
provisions aa weiw forbidden by law, and sent lictors and soldiers
to feasts to remov« all illegal eatables (/«!. 43). Augustus fixed
•new the etpcnse to be incuircd in entertainments on ordinary and
fr«tal days. Tiberius abo sought to check inordinate expense on
Utnquets, and a dccvce of the senate was passed in his reien forbid-
ding the use ckf gold va<ws except in sacred rites, and prohinting the
wearing, of silk garments by men. But it appears from Tacitus
{An». ul. 5. where a speech Is put into his mouth >'ery much in
the »p5rit w Horace's" Quid leges sine moribus >-anae proficiunt?")
that he k)dMd more to tW im|irovement of manners than to direct
legislative action for the restrictioa of liunivy. Suetonius nsentions
sluuc ftgiibtions maile by Nero* and we hear of further legislation
of thU kind by Hadrian and later emperors. In the time of
TrrtiiUian the sumpluar>' laws appear to ba>T been things of the past
In modem timet the first importuit samptmiy legislatioB
was: in Italy that of Frederick II.; in Arason that of Jamo L,
in 1134: lii Ftnnctt that of Philip IV.; in fi«laad that of
£4) ward IL and Edward III. In 1 204 P^ilip IV. made provisiona
•a to the drr» and the table expenditure of the *vcral onlcnof
men in his kingdom. Chailca V. of France fort>ade the use of
kM'jhpointcd shoes, a fashion airoinst which popes and councils
lud pi>)tcstcd in vain. Under later kin^ the uM «f gold and
tih cr embroidery, silk stutTs and noe linen wvei wns rertncted
«— «t nrst morsi and aitcrwanis economic motives being pnt
Kvwani the latter cspcciaU>- from the rise of the mcisnntile
th«>»v. In lin^skand we hear much from the wtttecs of the 14th
cttttunr «tf the cxtravairxncc of drma at that period. Tbcy
let'Jirk Itttli on the fiv«t splendoor and eipeastveoess of the
nrcv.rW v>i the k-4(h«r or.icrs asd on the tanta>iK- and vkionnini:
ii0.x^as nk.kMX<\i br persona of all raikv The piriuunent heid
ntWrstm-tfxvr m i5\t mA^Je kawa i.tr Bdw. III. «. *-i4) to
testrjun (ius iirsi.we e\r<nd::iue and t« regnlatc the dress of the
sr\t«ai ciasscs ol ibe pcv>f^\\ IlMse statutes were rvpnict) in
tVe KvA.^«i:q^ \^ear. Uit $k-\]Ur ones wet* fu&sevl ajpom ia the
»a*.>e t^N^fls. 1>*^ jitesa. K^wertr. t«» have had i.::'* ea«<t. fc» in
the te*^ of Rxrarvi U. t jw- «»=»e e\crssrs prouU<d. oppoie-tiy
Is a uJl fTtwter «^-«e .-\-xxbKr stat-.te sras ;a&»<\i m the
jj^sfcT i4\t \5 kiw, i\. c 5' lv>r lise r«;pi'a:<>n « the drr» oi
^crA.>ais «i 02 ra-tis. U i."^^ « wns stat<>i that *^ the cvhsskvk^
«i tW rceifea. as «et; smsi 05 «v«weL wmr eix'o^'vv a>i i»(,>rvh>
sate af^\sRi t«» the fcrra: c^<ttsace- « U.>L ike e&TKkrr^ of
st*i.«^ T«nA5i. ofia tk< cesfnx-xvn «c tk<$. rosia^"* An act oi
S4L44 k*i pee%>.x2S<r verut<\i thev-v<5;.af. when « *x»«v* |urt
oi : W- wnfts. «t s«r»;sa» ew^v^^e^i a h«{l«aa^ : a Ki ' ■• *r
Wkvf^MT w«* t* *kit* m ax*«a.Tcr ^ 5^ a >e»r s«» hK» cV;^ -*.
» k-*4 ew i«-.>o(^ seoTSff: as. a»: on oc-cr.%ar? mowM ,». ♦vf -
Ks$«ct.«v*<^ I* ?afc^ ♦»^ a»i x«- •►* <^ ^***
AkTftw^ -- ikef^«t F^wn^i U a ;x\v*.fT'-i
SUMPTUARY LAWS
muhitude of meats and dishes which the great men of the kin^
dom had tised, and still used, in their castles/* as well as '* per^
sons of inferior rank imitating their example, beyond what thdr
stations required and their drcnmstances coald afford "; and
the rule was laid down that the great men should have but two
courses of flesh meat served up to their tables, and on fish days
two courses of fish, each course consisting of but two kinds. In
X336 Edward m. attempted also to le^slate against Kixurioua
living, and in 1363, at the same time' when costtunes were
regulated, it was enacted that the servants of gentlemen,
merchants and artifkeis should have only one meal of flesh or
fish in the day, and that their other food should consist of milk .
butter and cheese. Similar acts to those above mentioned were
passed in Scotland also. In 1433 {kmp. James I.), by an act
of a parliament which sat at Ptfth, the maimer of living of all
orders in Scotland was prescribed, and in particular the use of
pics and baked meats, which had been only latdy introduced
into the country, was forbidden to all under the rank of
baron. In 1457 {temp. Janes II.) an act was passed against
" sumptuous ddthing." A Scottish sumptiiaiy low of 1621
was the last of tlie kind in Grcnl Britain.
In Japan sumptuary laws have been passed with a frequency
and minuteness of scope such as has no parallel in thnjustoey
of the western world. At the beginning oif the nth cenTuiy we
find an Imperial edict regulating the sine of a hmisc and even
imposing restrictions as to the materials of which it is to be
built. But it was during the Tokugawn period that sninpttiaiy
laws and regulations were paswd in the most bcwiidcring
profusion; every detail of n man'a life was regulated down to
the least particular— from the wearing of • beaidor the dressiag
of the hair down to the cost of his wife's hsifpins or the price of
his-cbihisdolL*
A. Fergoson and others have pointed oat that ** foxory ** is a terra
of relative import and that all laiMries do not deserve to be dia>
coucBced. Roschcr has called attention to the faa that the natuse
of the prevalent luxury changes with the stage of sodal cievelop*
"^ He endca\t>urs to show thai there are three periods in toe
history of luxury — one in wliich it is coarse and profuse: a second
ia which it aims naialy at comfoft and deganoe; and a thiid.
proper to periods of de r a dpncr . in wltich it-is perDfi w d to vicious
and unnatural cods. The second of these began, in m odem times,
with the enicr^nce of the Western nations from the medieval
period, and in the ancient communities at epochs of similar transi-
tioa. Roschcr hoki5 that the suBptuwy lfanlstion wMch regularly
appears at the opening of this stage was then naef id as piwmoting
the reformation of habits. He remarks that the contemporary
fv>rmatK>n of strong co>'«nuDents, disposed from the consciousness
of th«r strength to intrrffte with the &>'es of their subjects tended
to encourage Mch legislation, as did also tho icaioiBsy felt by the
hitherto doniauit ranks of the risiag «cnkh of the OftiacB dames.
vho ace opt to izaitatc ihe oooduct of their superiors. It is certainly
i2«^abfe that lubits of maueful expeodiiuie and frequent and
wantcm changes of (a.^hioo should he d'scouragcd- But such action
heloAfrs n«onr proprrh- to the Hvitaal than to the t e mpor a l povcr.
In annmt. e^^u >y Roman, fcicw vhen there vns a omfaamn <rf
the t«x> M«vT» la the state sv^em, sumptnary hgistatioa was more
nat.rjil iKan in the rt.xkm moriu. is «hkJi those powers lia\-e been
ia s*".<rAl r«.v.''>. thc^^v** Jr^ptTfecrYv. seforated. I>Dlitical ecooo-
m:« are prjKtK-JiMv ifun>"ic<us tn tWir leprobatioo of the policy
ot hrvrt^tnv oxcpubaoa u itKse anatters. la a niM tmmn paaaage
.VU a S«-a-tS pr>.xc^ts ^jiia»< iK^ ~ impotimnce awl prcmmption
vx k-.-T^r* a k'. niu'~s:ers ia t.>rrtc-x-:^j 10 «a:vh o^er the ecoaomy of
pn\ Atv- ?x\\*f aftJ tv» rp<rj,.-s tbc-r «f\peas<, btir.^ theBi«4:l\-es almays
ji>1 witSxit aR\ ewcTpf^-* tSr i:^j»«« sr e»x*thrrfts in theancietY."
^ «« be ^i.x« SM srem to la%Y ber* a\er^ ftom ai astempta to inAu*
««Ke thrv^:^h toaaboa tW ea|KShJ>t.«e ot ihr hismhler clMsa. The
rxvSrm taxes on carnAj:es. coisss ct araih. male scrvaata. playing
vMr<.*>. ^- . vXi^St peT^.x;* a^x to* be ir^irJcd as lesring on the
j>r v.* of 'tr-ixrmr* 'uwn. Nn c-S as caeaas «f peopartiooiitg
taviiK^o to tW ctpaotv 01 U^anoat tSe Krcen.
v>9c w^i ,Mwiki on Kow-tija ikj:r3«Mr% mws me Gdfaa^ NmOu
*•' \*f* "^ ^.•'^ MA.tv>:»-^. J^iJB^ i*. 17. For Gs«at Briiaia
>*v hv-ir> sV H- -;.-vA.j. :: ji.r»« {v^'Vva y" Ro^Ls Series.** cd. T.
fc^ ,.*\4 i luj^ tvs^. 140-^44. ft x»x g^ iv. 157-163; Tnusa.
;' **. .' "^^ "• ''^*" /^ -*. N- V w^ V.V . \.VT* ce Laad Tetrane and
>•-'» „^"* ^ " Mt-rr-jK t«» ;v >t jlS ct i'niace La« u Old Ja|ma,*'
SUN
Plate I.
(i) 1905, June 2sd. 4h. i6m. 153.
(2) 1905, June 25d. 4h. 17m. 153.
(3) 1905. June 25d. 4h. 17m. 40s.
(4) 1905, June 25d. 4h. 19m. os.
Enlarged Photographs of the Solar Surface. Taken by M. A. Hansky at the Observatory of Pulkowa (1905,
June 25), at intervals from 253. to 80s.
Plate II. SUN
1905, Jan. 3od. i2h. 8m. 27s. 1905, JaxL 3id. iih. 17m. 27s.
10C5, Feb. nL ich. 5cm. .Ss^ 1005, Feb. S<i. ij;b- j;m. 5s.
Photographs of the Sun. ijiken ai the Royal Observaton-. Ciiwnwich. ObM^ner; E. W. Maunder.
Instrument, Thompson Photoheliograph. FocaJ leo^ith. 9 ft. .-Vperture, 9 in.
SUMTER, T.— SUN
8S
i W. J. Aohky. Inkoiuitim to Eaifuk Beaummie History
oW Tkcary (1893)^ W. Denton. England in Ike F^toentk Ctntmn
f ittS). One of the bert extant trmtnents of the whole subject w
that by RoaciMr, in his cssavt Uher den Luxtu, republished in hia
dmuektom dar Ydkarirtkakadt ami dan gewkieMiclm Stondfunkto
( yded.,lg7 8). O-Kfl.)
SUITTBR, TBXmUA (X736-X833), Amcricao soldier, was bom
is Hanover county, Viiginia, on die X4tb of July 1736. He
KTved ia t&e Vuginia militia during the Fxench and Indian War
tad was present at Braddock's defeat (1755). Some time after
17^2 he fcmoved to South Carolina. He is best known for his
sovioe ihiring the War of Independence, but he saw little
active service until after the fall of Charleston in May 1780.
Is July 1780 he became a brigadier-general of state tro<^».
Daring the remainder of the war he carried on a partisan cam-
paiipi, and earned the sobriquet of the " Gamecock." He failed
in as attack upon Rocky Mount (Cheater county) on the xst of
.August 1780, but on the 6U1 defeated 500 Loyalists and regulars
at Hangins Rock (Lancaster county), and on the 15th inter-
cepted and defeated a convoy with stores between Charleston
and Camden. His own regiment, however, was almost annihilated
\ff Licut-^olonel Banastre Tarieton (175^x833) at Fishing
Otek (Chester county) on the i8th. A new force was soon
lecniited, with which he defeated Major James Wemys at
Fbhdam (Union county) on the night of the Sth-Qth of Novem-
ber, and repulsed Tarleton's attack at Blackstock (Union county)
en the zoih, when he was wounded. In January 1781 Congress
fwmany thanked him for bis services. He was a member of
the state convention which ratified the Federal constitution
for South Carolina in 1788, he himself opposing that instrument;
of the national House oif Representatives in 1789-1793 and again
m 1797^x801, and of the United States Senate from i8ox to i8xa
At the time of his death at South Mount, South Carolina, on the
i\\ of June XS32, he was the last surviving general officer of the
War of Independence,
See Edward McCndy, Tk* History tf Sauik Carolina in tie RaUvh
tian (2 vols.. New York, i9Oi-i909f.
SUMTBB, ft city and the county-seat of Sumter county.
South Caxolixu, •UJS.A., 42 m. by rail £. by S. of 0>lumbia.
Pbp. (1900) 5673 (3160 negroes); (19x0) 8109. Sumter is
served by several divisions of the AtUntic Coast line and by the
Southern railways. It is the scat of St Joseph's Academy
(Soman Catholic) for girls. The region produces tobacco,
vegetables and cotton, and there are various manufactories in
t}^ city. Sumter was founded in tSoo and was luuned in honour
vL Ccacgal Thomas Sumter; it was £rst chartered as a city
SUVT, a town of Little Russia, in the government of
ChariunTr xsa m. by rail N.W. of the city of Kharkov, founded
m x6sa. Pop. (xgoo), 28,5x9. It is an important centre for the
trade ol Great Russia with little Rusaiar-cattle and cocn being
sent to the xMrth in exchange for manufactured aiKi grocery
wares. It has ixx^witant sugar manuiacture, and s technicad
schooL
sm (O. Eng. jif9iM, Ger. saiut*. Fr. saUil, Lat. sol, Gr.
$}Uof, fiom which comes hduh in various English compounds),
th? name of the central body of the solar system, the luminous
«b from which the earth receives Ught and heat; (see SuMSKDif);
hence by analogy other heavenly bodies which loim the centre
«( sysieiBS are called suns.
To understand the phenomena of the sun, we should reproduce
ihcm upon the earth; but this is dearly impossible since they
uk£ pla43e at temperatures which volatilize all known substances,
llcaoe oar only guides are such general laws of mechanics and
peyiics as we can hardly believe any circumstances will falsify.
h^ it must be remembered that these require extrapolation
bcm experience sometimes sufficiently remote, and it is possible
i'rxy may lead to statements that are obscure, if not contrar
<Ltiary. The body of the sun must consist of uncombined gases;
ai the surface the temperature is some 2000° C. above the boiling
poiat of carbon, and a little way within the body it may probably
exceed the critical point at which increase of pressure can produce
the lk|akl stau in any substance. 3ut »* th« mean density
exceeds that of water, and probably falls but little from the centff
to the surface, these gases are gases only in the sense that if the
pressure of neighbouzing and outward parts gravitating to-
wards the centre were relaxed, they would expand explosively,
as we see happening in the eruptive pronunenoes. They' have
knt completely the gaseous chaxacteristic of producing a line
spectrum, and radiate like incandescent aolids. The surface
region which yields a continuous spectrum is called the photo^
sphere; it possesses optically a sharp botmdary, which b genets
sJly'a perfect sphere, but shows occasionally at the rim slighr
depiesaions or more rarely elevations. Exiciosiag the photo*
sphere is a tiuly gaseous envelope which b called the ckr&mo^
sphere, and whidi shows a spocttum of bright lines when we can
isolate its emissum from that of the photosphere. This envelope
is also sharply defined, but lis normal appearence Is compared
to the serrations which blades of grass show on the skyUnr of a
hil], and it is disturbed by the outbursts, called prominences, el
which details are given below. Outside this agam is an envelope
of matter |rf enoxmous extent and extreme tenuity, whether
gaseous or partly minute liquid or solid drops, which is called the
corona. It has no sharp boundary, its briii^tncss diminishes
npidly as we recede from the limb, and aach strooiure ss it
shows consists of long streaks or fiUments extending outwards
from the limb in bvmid curved sweeps. Finally there is thtf
envdope of still vaster extent and of unknown constitution which
gim the zodiacal light (q.v.); its greatest extent is dong the
ecCptic, but it can also be certainly traced for 35** in a perpen-
dicular direction. The lower gaseous cloaks absorb a large part
of the Ught admitted by the photoq>here, and especially at the
limb and for the more refrangible rays the loss of intensity is
very, marked.
Jn the instants iriien a sharp inmge of the photosphere is sees
or photographed, it shows a granulated appearance like white
flakes strewed fairty evenly upon a dark greuxui. The figs.
If 9, 3, 4 (plate) ahow enlargements from photo- (fcMmr
gnphs by Hansky at Polkowa (June 25, 1905); Apmormmee
they are aepanted -by intervals^ fiom 25 to 80 •"*•«•-
seconds, and he has succeeded in" showing identity '^^"^
in many of the granules, or more properly, clouds represaited.
Thus they exhibit at once general appfaxance and its changca.
The diameteis lai^e from 400 m. or less up to xsod m., and the
speeds relative to the spot range up to 2 or 3 m. per second.
M. Hansky believes these motions may be the consequences
of matter rising from bebw and thrusting the suriace groups
aside. UsaaDy the changes are such that it is impossible even
to recognise the formations in successive photographs. Besides
granulations the sun's disk shows, as a rule, one or more spots or
groups of spots. Each spot shows with more or less completeness
a ring-shaped penumbra enclosing a darker umbra; the umbra,
which looks black beside the photosphere, is actually about as
brilliant as limcUght. In the neighbourhood surrounding the
penumbra the granules appear to be packed more closely, forming
brilliant patches called Jaculae. In the shape of a spot there is
neither rule nor permanence, though those that are neairiy circular
seem to resist change better than the others. They arise from
combinations of smaller spots, or from nothing, in a short period,
say a day. They are never wholly quiescent. Bridges, more
brilliant than the rest of the photosphere, form across them, and
they may divide into two parts which separate from one another
with great velocity. The largest spots are easily seen by the
xuiked eye, if the brilliancy of the disk is veiled; the \uahn. may
be many~ten or more — diameters of the earth in breadth.
The length of their life Is difficult to assign, because there is
some tendency for a new group to arise where an dd one has
disappeared; but one is recorded which appeared in the same
place for eighteen months; the average is perhaps two months.
They are carried across the disk by the sun's rotation, partaking
in the equatorial acceleration; they also show marked dis-
placements of their own, whether with, or relative to, the neigh*
bouring photosphere docs not sppcar; at the beginning of their
life they usually outnm the average daily rotation appropriate
to their latitude. Spots are rarely found on the equator, or
86
SUN
more than $f N. or S. of it, and at 4$* are practkally
unknown. Their oocuirence within these zones follows statisU'
cally a uniform law (see Aukora). Other information about
the spots is given below, in connexion with their spectra. It
may be said that nothing definite has been esublished aa to
what th^ aie^ The statement known as A. Wilson's theory
(1774), that they are hollows in the photosphere, long supposed
to be proved by perspective effects as the spot approached the
limb, is discredited by F. Howlett's careful drawings, which,
however, do not establish the contrary. To draw a trustworthy
conclusion it is necessary that the spot should be quiescent,
show a well*developed and fairly symmetrical penumbra, and be
observed near the limb and also near the centre, and these
conditions are satisfied in so few cases as to withdraw all
statistical force from the condusnn. Figs. 5» 6, 7, 8 (plate)
are reproductions of the Greenwidi photographs of the sun
from the ^oth of January to the 8th of February 1905.
The first, taken alone, might seem to bear out Wilson's
theory, but the others show that the penumbra is really
very un^ymmetrical and mudi broader on the side towards
the limb, apart from anything which perspective may have
to say. The photosphere does not route in one piece, lower
latitudes outrunning higher. This was discovered by R. C.
CarTingt<m from observations of the spots, extending from 1855
ffXiTtoa of to z86i, from which he determined also the position
f**p*«te- of the sun's axis^ But conclusions from the spots
f^w«. are full of anonnalica. £. W. Maunder and Mrs
Maunder found that different spots in the same aone differ more
than do the means for different aoncs, while a long-lived spot
settles down to give more consistent results than are furnished
by spots of one apparition. In the span of two complete san<*
spot petKKh no evidence was found of periodic or other change
with lapse of time. The problem still awaits complete discussion.
The irregularities incidental to use of the spots are escaped by
comparing the rdative Dopplcr di^iiaoements of the same
spectral line as given by the receding and advanckig limbs of
the sun. The observation is a delicate one,-and was first success-
fully handled by N. C. Dunfr in 189a But his determinations,
repeated recently (Ada upsal. IV. vol. i., 1907) as well as those
of J. Halm at Edinburgh {AsL Nach. vol. 173, 1907), are super-
seded by a photographic treatment of the problem by W. &.
Adanis {Aslropkys. Joum., zzvL, 1907)*
The di^Tmm (fig. o) shows Adams's value for the angular velocity
t for different latitudes f , the dots rrpresenung the actual observa-
tbns. Fig. to shows the consrauent distortion of a sec of racridians
after one revolution (at lat. 30^). An impoitant feature added to
the discussion by Adams is the different behaviour of spectral lines
yW
'*o* lir j«r jr 4«» »• lir w sr •«• ^
Flo. 9.
which are believed to originate at different levels. The daU given
above refer to the mean re\'crsing layer. Lines of lanthanum and
carbon which arc betiex-ed to belong to a low level showed s>*stem-
atically smaller angular velocity than the average. This promises
to ba a fertile field for futum ir * *" "' ' '^
evidence from the spectroscope,
■urfaoa retitioa of
rfaoa retstioa of tha sua appean to be tl
innuliy. Fmding more conclusive
, Che wteqMetation of the
_ , pecul
to be that the central parts
outside them; for if
Fbr
conaider first a frictioalesB fluid. The equatiafis of surfaces of eqval
angular motion would be of the form r>R (i— < cos^), where
c IS proportional to the square of the angular motion, supposed
small, and R increases as « diminishes. Consider the traces th«ae
surfaces cut on any i^ihere r^a: we have d^d^«2csintfcos9/|cos*9-
aK'VR/dt\, which is positive and has a maximum in the middle
latitudes; so that, proceeding
from the pole to the equator
along any meridian, the aaguUr
velocity would oootinually in-
crease, at a rate which was
greatest in the middle latitudes.
This is exactly what the ob-
servations show. Now if this ,
state be supposed established in
a frictionleas fluid, the ooo>
sidcration of internal friction
would simply extend the char-
acteristics found at any spot to
the fieighbourfaood, and there-
fore if the boundaiv, were a
sphere and so for a frictionlesa
fluid an exception, it would
cease to be an exception when
we allow for viscosity. But this
theory gives no due to the results veiattog to hydrogen, which
belongs to a high levd, and wht^h Adams has shown to move with
an angular velocity decidedly gieater than the eouatorial angular
velocity below it, and not to snow any «gn of faili "
the poles.
uling off towards
It b useful to form a conception of the mechanical state within
the sun's body. Its temperature must be dominated directly
or indirectly by the surface radiation, and since the ,
matter is gaseous and so open to redistribution, the •
sam^ is true of dettsity and pressure. It a true that
within the body radiations must be stifled within a short
distance of their source; none the less, they will determine
a temperature gradient, falling from the centre to the borders,
though for the most part falling very slowly, and we may ask
what relative temperatures in different parts would maintain
themselves' if once established. Stefan's law of radiation ac-
cording to the fourth power of the temperature is too difficult
to pursue, but if we are content with cognate results wc can
follow them out mathematically in a hypothetical law of the
first power. We then find that the density would increas<
as we go outwards, at first slowly, but finally vnih cxircm<
rapidity, the last tenth of the ra<fios comprising half the mass
The radiation from such a body would be practically nil, n<
matter how hot the centre was. Of course such a state woulc
be statically unstable. It would never get established because
currents would arise to exchange the positions cf the hotter
less dense, iimer parts and the cooler, mofe dense, outer ones
By this interchange the inner parts would be opened out aind th
total radiation raised. Since the only cause for these con vect io
currents is the statical instability produced by radiation, an
the rapid stifling of radiations within the body produces tber
a temperature gmdieRt falling very slowly^ they would be for xY
most part extremely slight. Only near the surface would the
become violent, and only there would there be a rapid fall <
temperature and density. Through the main body these yiix>u]
remain neariy constant. Indeed it seems that, in thr fin
distribution of density throughout the part which is not subje<
to violent convection currents, it must increase slightly fro
the centre outwards, since the currents would cease alto^eth
as soon as a uniform sute was restored. In the outer stra
a different state must prevaiL Rapidly falling tcmpcraL.l\i
must (and visibly does) produce furious motions which ^v^hol
outran mere restoration of statical balance. Portions cHan
places so rapidly and so continually, that we may take it . ^b<
any average is reached, the energy is ao distributed that t Here
neither gain nor k>ss when sudi a change occurs. This is 1
law of convective equilibrhmt. But in the sun's atniosph<
gravitation alone is a misleading guide. Convective eqiailibr ivj
which depends upon it, gives far too ste^ a tcmperaiti
gradient , for it yidds a temperature of 6o6o' only aoo
within the free surface, whereas the chromosphere is of an sLX'er
thichacss of sooo m.. and attains that temperature only «,t
hise. PNbaMy the factor which thus *«nii«uh^ the cfiTect
SUN
«7
power of gnviutfcm st the sun's bordcn b the
preasore of radiation.
The radiations from the sun must be considered in two parts*
coffTcqxxHiing respectively to the continuous spectrum anid the
tine-spectrum. The latter is considered below;
' it is indicativeof the chemical elements from which
the lines can proceed, and its state at the time of
the former is indicative only of the rate of loss of
energy fron the sun by radiation, and is inwoven with a remark-
able group of physical theory and experiment, known as
(be theory of the black body, or as black radiation. The
" black body " b an ideal ho&y with surface so constituted
as to reflect no part of any radiations that fall upon it; in the
case of socfa a body Kirchhoff and Balfour Stewart showed that
uzviess energy were to be lost the rate of emission and absorption
Bust be in fixed ratio for each specific wr ' — *^
The name has no reference to the appeal the
e>r : «rb«i emitting enern^, its radiations wi hs,
uui li intense enoufh will appeal to the e sen
»i>mt wave-letigths 7600 and 4000 tenth-i ' is
a q jr>tion of temperature, and as it b exq to
ipeak of the bulk of the sobr radbtions ] vill
speak instead of amorphous radbtions front rhe
ifieni radintor b realised within any ckned c ich
VT mnintttwed at a definite temperature b
iifed wkli radiations correspondini^ to thb ese
aniin a certain equilibrium which permits „^ ion
ao be spoken of as a whole, as a scalar quantity, without express
srfcrence to the propagation or interference of the waves of which it
i» oompjsed. It b then found both by experiment and by thcrmo-
&vnMmtc theory that in these aroorphoos radiations there is for each
trmperatare a definite distribution of the energy over the spectrum
acoankog to a law which may be expressed by ^(9\)d\, between the
Tave^teagiths X. X+A; and as to the form of the function ^, Planck
kz* "-hamn (SiisuMfsber. Berlin Akad. 544) that an intelligible theory
c-a be gtTeo which leads to the form ^{9\)^Ci/\exp(ctp<$)—i\,
a (era which agrees in a satisfactory way with all the experi-
ments. Fig. II shows the resulting
distribution of energy. The enclosed
area for each temperature represents the
total emission of energy for that tem-
Eature, the abscissae are the wave-
gths, and the ordi nates the corre-
sponding intensities of emission for that
wave-length. It will be seen that the
maximum ordinates lie upon the curve
>tf>- constant dotted in the figure, and
00, as the temperature of the ideal body
rises, the wave-length of most intense
radbtion shifts from the infra-red
^ towards the liraiinous oart of the
p.^ . , spectrum. When we speak of the sun's
radbtion as a whole^ it is assumed that
k n of the character of the radiations from an ideal radbtor at an
«( i Topriate temperature.
The first adequate determination of the character as well
a« amoant of solar radiation was made by S. P. Langley in
I5Q3 at Mount Whitney in California (14,000 ft.), with the
, an exceedin^y sensitive instrument which he in-
vented, and which enabled him to feel hb way
thermally over the whole spectrum, noting all the
chief Frtunhofer lines and bands, which were shown
by sharp serrations, or more prolonged depressions of the
carve wtuch gave the emissfcms, atid difcovering the lines
asd bands of the invisible ultra-red portion. The holograph
Hktis obtained must be cleared of the absorption ol the earth's
iitua^Atn, and that of the transmittmg apparatus— a spectro-
«c0pc and sideroctat. The first in itself requires an elaborate
stody. The first essential b an elevated observatory; the next
A a long series of holographs taken at different times of the year
and of tbe day, to eiamine the effect of interposing different
TlniiMf ■ of air and Its variation in transparency (chiefly
dje to water vapour). It b found that atmospheric absorption
b generally greater in summer than in. winter, a difference of
ao% being found between March and August; morning hours
ibow a rapid and often irregubr increase of transparency,
rsiamatxng shortly after noon, after which the diminution is
iSow and comparatively regubr.
The fcaiilting allowances and condudoo are illustrated in fig. is,
taken from an articb by Langley in the An ,^ .,
(1903), xvU. a. The integrated cmissbn of energy b f^nrm by the
area of the outer smoothed curve (4), and the conclusion from thb
one bobgraph b that the " solar constant " b s*^ calories. The
meaning of thb statement b that, aisuing away the earth's atmo*
sphere, which wastes about one-halt what b received, a square
Fig. 13.
centimetre, ex po se d perpe ndi culariy to the sun's rays,
" ' r mmute to raise 2*54 grams of
receive
sufficient energy per minute to raise 2*54 grams of water 1® C.
Langley's general determination of the constant was greater than
this — ^3'0 to 3*5 calories; more recently C. G. Abbot at Mount
Wilson, with instruments and methods in which Langley's expe-
rience is embodied, has reduced it greatly, having proved that one
of Langley's corrections was erroneously applied. The results
vary between i-8q and 2'22, and the varbtion appears to be soUr,
not tcrrestriaL Taking the value at 2«l the earth b therefore
receiving energy at the rate of 1-47 kilowatts per square metre, or
1*70 horse-power per square yard. The corresponding intensity
at the sun's surface is 4-62X10' as great, or 6*79X10* kilowatts per
square metre -^ 7*88X10* horse-power per square yard — enough to
melt a thickness of 13*3 metres ( ""39*6 fL) of ice, or to vaporiae
I '81 metres (-5*92 ftj of water per minute.
If we assume that the holograph of sobr energy b simfdy a graph
of amorphous radbtion from an ideal radbtor, so that the con-
y . stants Cu f», of Pbnck'sformub determined terrestrbUy
ZZ^s^^ apply to it, the hyperbob of roaximuhi intensity b >«•
arisvAwa. 2*921 Xio'; and as. the sun's maximum intensity occurs
for about X 04900, we find the absolute temperature to be 5960® abs.
If we calcubte from the total energy emitted, and not from' the
position of maximum intensity, the same result is obtained within
a few degrees. But to call thb the temperature of the sun's surface
b a convention, which sets aside some material factors. We may
ask first whether the matter of which the surface b composed is
such as to give an ideal radbtor; it is impossible to answer thb,
but even if we admit a depArture as great as the greatest known
terrestrbl exception, the estimated temperature b diminished only
some 10%. A second question rebtcs to the boundaries. The
theory refers to radbtion homogeneous at all points within a single
closed boundary maintained at uniform temperature; hi the actual
case we have a double boundary, one the sun's surface, and the other
infinitely remote, or say, non-existent, and at xtro temperature:
and it is assumed that the density of rsdbtion in the free space
varies inversely as the squsres of the distance from the sun.
Though there b no experiment behind thb assumption it can hardly
lead to error.
A third question b more difficult. The temperature gradieat at
the confines of the i^iotosphere must certainly ascend sharply at
first. When we say the sun's temperature b 6000*, of what level
are we speaking 7 The fact b that radbtbn b not a superficial
phenomenon but a molar one, and Stefan's bw, exact though it be,
is not an ultimate theory but only a oonvenbat halttng-pbce, and the
radbtions of two bodies can only be compared by it when theirsuriaces
are similar in a specific way. One characteristic of such surfaces
b fixity, wluch has no trace of parallel in the sun. The confines
of the sun sre visibly in a state of turmoil, for which a sufficient
cause can be ass^^ned in the rebtive readiness with which the outer
portions part with heat to space, and so condensing prx)duce a
state of staric instability, so that the outer surface of the sun in pbce
of bein^ fixed is continually circubting, portions at high tempera-
tures nsins rapidly from the depths to positions where they will
part raptdiy with their heat, and then, whether perceived or not,
<lesdending again. It b dear that at least a oonsiderabb part of
the sobr radiations comes from a more or less diffuse atmo^here.
With the help of theory and observation the part pbyed by .thb
atmosphere b tolerably precise. Its absorptive effects upon the
radbtions of the Inner photosphere can be readily traced p i o gies '
sively from the centre to the rim of the sun's disk, and it has
been measured as a whole by Langley, W. E. Wilson and others, and
for each separate wave-length by F. W. Very (As»npky$. Jeum.,
vol. xvi.). The entries in the table on following page express the
reduction of intensity for different wave>bfigths X, when the slit b set
at distances irX radios from the centre of the disk.
Building upon these resulu A. Schuster has shown {Astrcpkys,
Joum., vd. xvi.) that, if for the sake of argument the sobr atmo-
sphere be taken as homogeneous in temperature and quality, forming
a sheet which itself radbtes as well as absorbs, the radiation whbh an
unshielded kleal radbtor at 6000* would give b represented well,
both in sum and in the distribution of intensity with respect to
wave-length, by another ideal radbtor-^ow the actual body of
88
SUN
tha •un'-«t about 6700*. shieldod by an atmotphere at an mytsjkgt
t«mparatutf« of 5500^ and that such an atmosphere itself provides
about 0>3 of the total radiations that reach us.
In ronnoxion with this subicct it may be mentionca that the highest
measured temperature produced terrestrially, that of the arc, 'v
About 3500* to 4000* abe.
X.
7-0.3.
7-0.75-
7-0-95.
mm.
1500
0959
0*950
0856
lOlO
0-V43
0885
0-765
7«i
0941
2:a?
615
0948
0845
550
0-933
0-831
0587
468
o-9oa
0764
0-462
4I6
0858
0-744
0-471
The encrjjv which th« sun poun out into space is. so far as nt
kmiMk, and except for the minute fraction intercepted by the disks
jtg^^t^ of *nc nlxnets (\ia«SaDro"> ahsolutelv lost for the pur-
Cc- po«e« oi further mechanical cflfect. The amount is such
"^^ th.1t, MippoMng the avTcage s})ccific heat of the sun's
body as high as th«it of water, there woukl result a general fall of
temperature of a -o* to 7^$* C. in the lapse of each >Tar. Hence,
if no other agency is in\x)ked, at an e|xx"h say yXiooo years
a\;»». the sun's hr.tt wwuld haw l»een gTr.iter than now by the
Lictor I +T 3H, where »X6ooo* is taken for the sun'i present mean
tetniv-r.iture. It seems possible that n is not a large number, and
if *e t.ike jt equ.»l. sav, to Joo. m-e come to the most ix>cent estimate —
the a*trx»m^nm'al — ci the tlaie of the earth's sUcial epoch, when the
sun'x ratlwt ton xnas certainlv not much more th,»n it Is now, while this
faottvr «-ouK) iliUcr materially from unity. Hence Kws dees not go on
\«itlu>ut iTjret>cr»iton. and \»^ are apnarentlv at a stage when there
i'i .«n apprx\\imate Kibnce between tWm. It is in fact an impo&si-
InlitN th.tt kv*« shiHiki go on without regeneration, for if any part of
the 5un*« U^lv kw*« hrist, it m-ill l^e u»uble to support the pre-^urc
of n<- chboorins p»tt» U|x»n it: it will therefore be c\mipr«s«l, in
a vct>cfal setise towanls the sun's centre, the \Tlivit»e» of its mole-
ctjK^ will ri^. anil iti» temperature will again teml upwards. In
o«M'<\iuc«ce « the radiation of heat the whole NvK- will be more
v\»'vVtt'<\l than K^foTe, bot whether it is hotter or c\>Kler than before
will iVci^entl on whether the coniractiv^n set up is f« ^re or k-s* than
e^nij^h to re*to«e an exact l\*laiK«. If srr are dc.\Jin<j «ith a-»m-
rAr.titxrlv rwent perii>if« there i* ik> «>iilenoe of prw<Trvst\T chance,
•t tl SUV go ti> remote etxx'h> ami «ippce»e the s«n to h.i\T once l^een
»t^'K..»pil in a f»rt>. Vmi« state, it is clear that it* shrinVase. in spite
W r.u*MtKvi. Ki* Wii it h«>tter. *> that the shrinkase ha* outrun
%S.t «>><:ivl Mittice to maintain it* rav!u?»i>«. . 't is e*)»:anv clear
t*»At tKcre »* a r^MOt l>e\o»vJ mhK-h o^ntra^tv-^n cantn^t gv». ami
tK.rv*';w. it o»^l ;>c<\,>re. the IkxK «tU Ux»n toc^n** \>^»k-r. 1>crr
%!^ tS.^* a twr-.'v; '.'oMnt in the h»e ol e^<•r^ ^tar. TV rv%ep'»c->t
tv>«.;nH civ'.f.ixtK^..* ami iv'»>»\;i>o«tt nve W temj^rati.'r »^Kh
r3iv*a:v>n sc<* i-jv hie o<*t«T mvM ^^'tik oxmuns the <«>;.• MTiir-n-
IV •: .^ «N K-»v^cr bv a 'v.. '.tr a ".xn:!'t: the avvv: '-.■.' a te\1 c\\>r<se<
% -•> a" v*'*** •«*"*■ '^''^ s^o-Tcvi «n the s^m mvi kl ma«' ta» 1 its rai.iu-
t . -* at tSc-r »v\-v<vt late lor m>v$«o >Tat^ that cs for a lew
l^r.T t- a s-.;^" -r >>tit tv» the i^vurt^tv of e-eTr»* w*»ic*t can be
^ -^y\i ti\>r> vv A.-t >v It «np x. vv«p the j^-** r\*<s* o-vr
ev »:«v 1*. a *ia^f »>« c\t.\N->e vt.*-^*.^ tV ery-j:\ n tr'A^I b\ o.''Vvt-
».% ,; .'?o It-* iv\«^ •*: ovvAjvis* »\x \i «s,>» *■. ^ny- Tv^ rr^tt-T.i-t it-*.
f.\vf: raw V :-.* ». .si K-* -'.-.rp iV. a I* vxx» »xv \ra»s «■» tV XMo^t .
»».v I* t* »vAt »»>- >>t\ *\'e I X "art-S to r*^ to cx^t t -x^ ♦?>
fv.\-'*v-: jt-xv -r N "•>#* '.V»:- t^-i" v»— »f :vc >" -n tV t, t.nr T> ^
^ vx-**^ XV I »c«; vV -N^JN -WA "\ * - . — •. . »l »l » "VNJ fc- •.•.v^«.
a*» i*vv-: a»' sV to xV Jo •*v< f»,-«xv* »* n. >r»j»oi«<»* ♦•\'*<i tS-
U v*" V .x>* ji .N>- .•< V*;* y"* 00 r* i* tV >*.»N fjix*,* ».x ■•
»-..•:«• :S- i-kx-^ -: r.- v«.vrt w .V5>x» w.-*^ S.^-* a r»»e v-v:
c» -cv *VN o Nr o ^r ?>*■--- w * - • »v , «• •*— t''at Kv "Yv^f*-?
t • -k St.-? -• •^^ Ti-^-^t.' -x-A. v« i'\ o«V 'jKTo' t*-! - *\v-.r». !v\«,
K •« 0,'o^vv .- v-vNx ,vv< ■. - fc . »-.-:■«-:»- \>ek-v»*
Tiv'^ ^C-»'- •»-**-* ^'^ *^ 4jk.»^-wt.«^* •*r^.>Vs^« Kx-\
V Vs: .*T •.>*. V* ra.-a T r'v o * •*'*" c^-N
>». , i -^1, • .%5 A^ »v - . ► *.^ 4 -» o Sre .•>>-s.v »'
• .xx\»xx* Nv» "v Jtc^' : V .'^ . *" *>.^<> •*•«■ x» *»^ ."*r-«-*i
k ;!♦ W*- \<»x •»."
I.-* .► ; a-v: H ■:> .
• x.«> "
during the year from a •phecfcal «pM» enending befond the orbit
of Jupiter. The earth would intercept an amount of it proportional
to the solid angle it subtends at the sun; that is to say, it would
receive a deposit of meteoric matter about one-tenth of a millimetre,
of density say 3, over its wlx^ aurCace in the ooune of the year.
So far there is nothirtg impoesible in the theocy. But there are two
fatal objections. The sun Is a Moall ^ tar^get ^ for a meteorite
coming from infinity to hit, and if this considerable quantity
reach^ its mark, a much greater amount will circulate round the
•un in parabolas, and tbm b no evidence of it where it would
certainly make itself felt, in perturbatioos of the i^neta. A secoiHl
objection is that it fails in its purpose, because 20.ooo,opo years ago
it would give a sun quite as much changed as the contraction
theory gave. If we examine chemical sources for nuiintenance of
the SUITS heat, combustion and other forms of combination are
out of the question, because no combinations of different elements
are known to exist at a .temperature of 6000*. A source wbicii
seems plausible, perhaps only because it is less easy to test, is
rearrangement of the strticture of the elements* atoms. An atom
is no longer figured as indivisible, it is made up of more or less
complex, and more or less permanent, systems in internal circubt ion.
Now under the law of attraction according to the inverse square
of the distance, or any other inverse power beyond the first, the
energy of ex-en a single pair of material points is unlimited, if their
possible closeness of approach to one another is unlimited. If the
sources of energy within the atom can be diawa upon, and the
phenomena of radio-activity leave no doubt about this, there is
acre an incalculable source of heat which takes the coj^encv out of
any other calculation respecting the souroes maintaininff the sun's
radiatioiu An equi\alent statement of the same conclusion may
be put thus: suppoung a gaseous nebula is destined to condense
into a sun, the elementary matter of which it is composed will develop
in the process into our laiowa tervestxial and solar dements, partixi£
with eaergy as it docs so.
The continuous spectrum leads to aoinferenoe, except that of the
temperature of the central globe; but the multitude of dark liues
by which it is crossed repeal the elements composing 5--,^-^ ^
the truly gaseous cloaks which enclose it. A table ol ^iTrt^
these lines is a ph>-sical document as exact as it is
intricate. The \-i$ua] portion extends from about W.L3700 to 7300
tenth-metres; the ultra-violet begins about 2970, beyond which
point our atmosphere is almost perfectly opaque to it; the infra-
red can be traix\l for more than ten times the visual length, but
the gap> «hich indk^atc absorption -lines have not been mapped
bcNonU 9S71V The ultra-vLckt and the visoal portioa aiv re-
corvkxl phot«,'^:TaphioaUy ; Ri»« land's classical . wo» showa some
57vx> line$ in the tonr.er, and 14^200 in the latter, on a graduated
scale of inten>ii'.»'s from ivxx» to o, or cooo, for the faintest Iir>e*;
lx:«e«n a qi artcr and a third of these lines have been identificil,
fu'.iv rooo bclv^r);in^ to iron, and se\cral hundred to water vapoui
an»f other atn;o-.iVric ab>orp:!oa. The infra-fcd lequiics special
ap,Ijr,<Ts: ic ha> Ncvn eJiomirred \-i>ualiy by the help of p^bosphor-
c-sov.t j-lates vlHX-\;-crvl . a-.d with special photographic platen
v.\V.-w\ ; but tSe m.-st eSiv \-ci way is ro use the bolometer 01
rax'vx'rivnxneter; by this nvkuis some 500 or teo fines have beec
«kir;xxL
iV f-rst pavV!c-a cl the spectrum ts to ideatify the effects ol
atn^v-jvjVcnc aVv.", 1^3. especiiUy oxygen, carbcmsc acid ar»e
maicr \a,x^^r; t^ ^ »< J --»f j^r-wri"y b\ coeapaiing the qac ct ra of th<
«:n at grvat arJ «r«\ ae-.ch-distancr*. or by reducinc the atroo
s|>hrric rt«<\-t bv oNiirrxii^ troo a great elew«tiMW «s aid P. J. C
J.^-vscn iro-a tSc N«rr.-ai o* Moc: ECasic. but the only unquestion
.-' V* te^t r» to t^ - i t\«* l.-vs »b.vi ire rvx touched by X>oppl«"!
r-vvt xV« the rtvxx" -,: a- J a*>^->. — ^ Hrrbs of the sun are com
jM.wl ,v\^^v' . b\ th:< fwetS xl H. F. Nevsll has vcrihed the presence
iM *-va-xven in the x>So:v>spSfw» «sid it had pfevinariy served t«
V WW tSr $olxr ^v <;> « o< orrxa<^ vvi.x'«:es lines., la fact, doubt loni
s, o. Nxx' :Sx- i^rvx xx* vx ow^x - t- ihe s«n, aad was not set a
Tx^t 1 : • K I'* T K.-;x i~.^ F. Paschcn in iS^S identified at
1 - -*<ji t»b*f vVixTpr* f-jJe* i*» tV rrfra-ted. which is shosm terre^
t.xi.A ix-\ la (Wxar&.ss tvV. wVfethespectnmais^rery-difieTen
of ih
.Xii t*.^
ility tKj
it tTAn
naitv,
if th
I w-s i\a: vX a; -x^y^-xix. a,..>cr;x awvis. The absca o e of
%.x\?- "^ V* a-\^ i\ - X ■: :- >-. :^t s«.iir spectntm is no
^SMtt a ncMar^s'-va wsf h
;Vs «x<*v -xx (K^ )k*%e %«v« s^juMa.iNv;
fxser«» M *v»N %\'*v TcaV :W
■apt ^ t)»«» iiiyphi I
xv% ;tK\xx
■^ 'Sf 5;.-: arvir: frcca the
tc-tre«a; j^ a.»tii ocScr on-, v^rstxvs nay
:.<«nx*vi "JO '«.>r^ vi*,'X'-«w tacxV, mix* t> rerhafK the
»x ;V a.xNXY xX r,-. ^voa. »;^ .-.ae a-kS ocber
<\ -v: .- .V ^'^'^ * . K »r i^: »e siici-.*- c:ipect it to be fov
o*N f ♦. V' V-'fc's-^ < .- i ."* tSf >.-*s atrxxsr.Srre. wbcre its tcmfx'-.
t . -t- %a* scM N «v .u :o tVa? x-rf -W oe^faJ g* ^e. sad soaary ab^^M^
t«.x^ * *«■ w^x* < >.V*rN5 »vx c Se %Tat T>-$ is u m l ij^ bt edly if
vA'* » -k Ik I.' ax. s..%r«' *-v r»~v>Nrro wtii aaefcaiy aUo. I
'^ •" » ;- V v^ • vv~ :Sr i-v >jcr:-a of 6k follow irtg ai
-X- • X.X* ;N<> o-x-* -< 4-xx- v-JN-S t*ii; «f the Bxunbers <
»v X.V *^«<rv r\.v>t-. -i^ .:-,-,-: , -^ tS.-He which are tov upc
^*^• »< * » ■r»'»-t-^--«v A -*- ^^ " -xr*^ vX sms'- xrtesarr. Tbechraan
^^Sx *-x-^ .sv .J*ve »»:< w^ :ht ft<. Tie szraaccs Unci at
•"^ '•■ »'-••* " -kAix^-^ar. -V*, >i»w xv**^- 5*xi-*sf. rjcayel, tD the <kni(
•X. XNV
«UN
89
Tht iwHJUin taken near the timb of the ran sho«« incresMd
fnerai «baori>tMNW but also definite peculiariuM of f reat interett in
.onmioa with the spectra of the spott, Irhich it wiU be CDavenient
\Mica the dit of the spectrotoope it let acroas a spot, it abowi, as
Bigfat be expected, a general reduction of brightness as we pass from
» . the photosphere to the penumbra ; and a still gicater one
j^L^!^ M ^ive P>s* to the umbra. This is not a uniiorm shade
^^^^^ ewer tne whole length of the specmim, but shows in
Un4« or Aatlngs of greater or less darkness, whkh in places and at
■rrrrv-als have been resolved by Young. Duo^ and other unque*-
&<iuUle e b s e rv er s into hosts of danc lines. Besides thb the
rctrum ehows very many differences from the mean spectrum
«' tSe disk, the interpretation of which is at present far from clear.
Comity speaking, the same absorption lines are present, but "with
*■ -rttd intensities, which differ f ngm one ^K>t to another. Some
bvrs r/ certain elements are always seen fainter or thinner than on
c^« photoaphctv. or even wholly oblitefated; others sometimes show
tie «ne features, but not alwaysf other lines of the same elements.
perHap* or%inatiiig at a levd above the spot, are not affected ; there
sre J A bright scieaks where even the genersl absorptioa of the spot
19 Abaeaf . and sometimes such a bright line will correspond to a dark
b'-e on the photosphere; most generally the lines are intensified.
itrtraBy us breadth, sometimes in darkness, sometimes in both
r- ether, sometimes in one at the expense of the ottier; oeruin lines
tb^ Ken ia the photosphere show only across the umbrs, others
rr« umbra and penumbra, others reach a short distance over the
{>ro«phet«i A lew of the lines show a double reversal, the dark
«^*tfjrpurMi Koe beii^ fteatly increased in breadth and showing a
fcm/hc emission line in its centre. The umbra of a spot b generally
»-: tormented ^ rapid lineof>sieht motions; wliere any motion has
btrt foond G. K. Hale and W. S. Adams make its direction down*
• -H« : but nMind the rim and on bridges the characteristic distortions
6ae to eraptive prominences are often observed. There appears to
br •otnc oonmdon between pcominences and spots ; quiescent prorai>
b-^*<^ are sometimes found above the spots, and w. M. MitcheU
w .rck an eruptive prominence followed next day in the same place
(">- *he appearance of a small spot. It does not appear that the
ai^ted Goes follow in any way the sun-spot cycle. The radiation
f - 'n a spoC chaises little as it approaches the sun's limb ; in fact
H.Ve and Adams find that the absorption from the limb itsdf differs
i'ln chat of the centre of the disk in a manner exactly resembling
ti^t from a spot, the same Knes being strengthened or weakened
IS the «affla way, tluMigh in much less drarcc, with, however, one
narerial eanception: if a line is winged in the photosphere the wings
a'9 lescrally increased in the spot, but on the limb they are weakened
r' oblircratcd. If the spot spectrum is compared with that of the
rfc-^iTBOApfaere it appears that the lines of most frequent occurrence
e The latter are those least affected in the spot, and the high levd
cy T f u oBpheric liaes not at all; the lutural interpretation is Uiat the
« *# is below the chromoephefe. As to whether the spots are regions
'4 k'^her or lower temperature than the photosphere, the best
T.ak&ed >adffes are reserved or discordant, but recent evidence seems
*9 potst irery definitdy to a lower temperature. Hale and Adams
k«vc tho^rii that the spectrum oontains, besides a strong line-
av^ram of titanium, a faint banded spectrum which is that of
tt*^iii«ua ande, and a second banded part remarked by Newall has
bren ^ik— *ft'*< by A. L. Fowler as manganese hydride. The band
r* t t r sm. which corresponds to the compound or at least to the
-^•^ ule of titmnium, certainly belongs to a lower temperature than
r'^-c l.'ne spectrum of the same metal. Hence above the spots there
t-^ -.scours of tcmperatitre low enough to give the banded spectra
' 'Vri re f mrtor y metal, while only line spectra of sodium, iron and
^-'^ foible at more moderate temperatures are found (see also
^ rT'-rarrvKUOCaAra).
TV chromosphere, which surrounds the photosphere, is a doak
^ gajea of an avenge depth of 5000 m., in a state of luminescence*
,^ leas intense than that of the photosphere. Hence when
~2*"** the phocoqiliere is viewed through it an absorption
** ■* s fttima is shown, but when it can be viewed separately '
a bri^ Cae spectrum appears. Most of the metallic vapoure that
prna} jce this fie too dose to the photosphere for the separation to be
" *«te caeeiit during: eclipses, when a Aadi spectrum of bright lines
*^*ws oat fbr. say, five seconds after the continuous spectrum has '
ATprared. and again before it nsappears (see Eclipse). F. W.
I>i« hu meaaanBd some eight hnadred lines in the lower chromo-
^4crc and identified them with emission qxctra of the following
im, magnesium, aluminium, silicon,
I, vanadium, chi
cyanona
, scandiun
iromium, manganese, iron, sine, strontium,
yttrium, siroonium, barium, lanthanum, cerium, neodymiun^
ytterbium, lead, eurapittm, besides a few doubtful identifiaitions:
It b a cunous fact that the agreement b with the spark spectra 01
these elements, where the photosphere shows exclusively or morl
definitely the arc lines, which are generally attributed to a k>wer
temperature. In the higher chromosphere the following were
reoogiuaed: helium and parhelium. hydrogen, strontium, calcium,
•iron, chromiioa, magnesium, scandium and titanium.
in the hq(her chromosphere on occasions metallic gases are carried
up to such a level that without an eclipse a bright line spectrum of
many elements may be seen, but it b always possible to see those
of hydrogen and helium, and by opening the slit of the ^pettraacope
so as to weaken still further the continuous spectrum from tae
photosphere (now a mere reflection) the actual forms of the gaseous
structures called prominences round the sun's lim may be seen.
In the vbual spoctrum there are four hydrogen lines and one hdhiA
line in which the actual shapes may be exammcd. The features seen
differ aeoording to the Kne used, as the circumstances prevailing at
different leveb of the chromcisphere call out one line or another with
greater intensity. The helium formations do not reach the sun's
limb, and it is another puaaUag detail that the spectrum of the didi
shows no absorption Une of anything like an intensity to correspond
with the emissKM line of heUum in the chromospheres The promi-
nences are of two kinds, quiescent and eruptive. Some of th^ lormer
are to be seen at the limb on roost occasions; they may hang for days
about the same place; they reach altitudes of which the avenge b
periiaps 20,000 m., and mow the spectral lines of hydrogen and
helium. Sometimes they float above the surface, sonetinies they
are connected with it by stems or branches, aad they show delicate
striated detail like cirrus doud. Hie eruptive prominences, called
also metallic, because it b they which show at their bases a compleie
bri^t Bne spectrum of the metallic dements, rush upwards at wee<h
which it b difficult to associate with transfers of matter; the voocity
oftm exceeds 100 m. 4 second: W. M. Mitchell watched one rise at
250 m. a second to the height of 70,000 m., and in five miaules after
it had faded away and the rcnon was quiet. Thb is remarkable
only in point of vek)city. hluch greater heights occur. Young
records one which reached an elevation of ^50,000 m., or more than
three<quartera of the sun's radius. Since identification of spectral
lines b a matter of extreme refinement, any cause which may displace
lines from their normal places, or otnerwise change their features,
must be examined scrupulously. We have ^een above numerous
applications of the Doppler effect. Two other causes of dbpUce*
ment call for mention in their bearing on the solar spectrum-'
pressure and anomalous dbperaion. The pressure which prtKlucet
a continuous spectrum in ppises at a temperature of 6000" must be
very great. Recent experiments on are spectra at pressures up to
too atmospheres by W. J. Humphreys and by W, C --«_^ .,
Duffidd show several suggestive peculiarities, though S*^^ ^
thdr bearii^ on solar phenomena b not yet determined. y? *|T •"
The lines are broadened (as was already known), the ij^
intensity of embskm is much increased, but some '*'"**'
are weakened and some strengthened, nor b the amount of
broadening the same for all lines, nor b it always symmetrkraL
bdng sometimes greater on the red side; but besides the effca ol
unsymmetricai broadening, every line b ditt>laced towards the red:
diiTerent lines again behave differently, and they may be arranged
somewhat roughly in a few groups according to their behaviour;
reversals are also effected, and the revenwd line does not always
correspond with the most intense part of the emission line. For
example, in the iron spectrum three groups about wave-length
4500 are found by Duffield to be displaced respectively 0-17, 0*34,
0-66 tenth^metres, at too atmospheres. Thb shift towards the
red* J. Larmor suggests b due to relaxation of the spring of the sur-
rounding ether by reason of the crowding of the molecules; a sliif l of
0*17 tenth-metres vwuld, if interpreted by Doppler's principle, have
been read as a receding velodty of 1 1 km. per second. It is clear
that these results may give a simple key to some puxzling anomalies,
and on the other hand, they ma.y throw a measure of uncertainty
over absolute determinations of Ime-of-sight velocities.
The possible applications of anomalous dispersion are varied
and interesting, and have recently had much attentk>n given to
them. W. H. Juliuf hokls that thb sole fiact robs of
objective reali^ almost all the features of the sun,
including prominences, spots, faculae and flooculi, and
even the eleven-year penod. Though few follow him so far, an ex-
planation of the principle will make it clear that there are numerous
possible opportunities tor anomalous dispersion to qualify inferences
irom the spectrum. Theoretically anomalous dispersion h insepar*
able from absorption. When a system vibrating in a free period
of its own encounters, say through the medium of an enveloping
aether, a aeoond systeas havias a different freepeood| aad sets it --
vibration, the amplitude of the second vibration b ti '"* — *"
^ ^bki,
except when the periods approach equality. In such a case the
two systems must be regaxdied as a suttle more complex one, the
absorbed vibration becomes larie, though remaining alaavs finllfi^
and the transmitted vibiatbn undergoes a remarkable cnange iq
90
SUN
ito period. This It illuitmted in fig. I3« vbere the effect of a singk
abiorbiJif tyttiOa upon vibrations ol all wave-lengtha is shown.
The line n shows the factor by
which the index of lefraction of
the trananuttcd vibration is
jnuitiplied. and the curve p the
intensity of the absorbed vibra-
tion for that wave-length. The
relative increase of index takes
place on the side where the wave*
length is greater than that of the
absorbifig system. The effect of
sach a cnange may be to ber^
•■W*. 13. back the coloured ribbon of the
spectrum upon itself, but just where this is done all its light will be
robbed to maintain the absorbing system in vibration. Theory is here
much less intricate than fact, but it seems to cover the most important
features and to be well confirmed. Omitting extreme examples,
like fuchsin, where the spectrum is actually cut in two» it n of more
general importance to detect the phenomenon in the ordinary
absorption lines of the metallic etements. This has been done most
oompleteiy by 1^ Pucdanti, who measured it by the interferometer
in the case of more than a hundred lines of different metals; he found
its degree to differ much in different lines of the same spectrum.
Diuerenccs of refractive index produce their greatest dbpersive
effects when incidence on the refracting surface u nearly tangential.
W. H. Julius has used this fact in an admirable experiment to make
the effects visible in the case of the D lines of sodium. A burner
was constructed which ^ve a sheet of flame 750 mm. long and
I mm. thick and to which sodium could be supplied in measured-
quantity. Light from an arc lamp was so directed that only that
part reached the spectroscope which fell upon the flame of the
burner at grazing incidence, and was thereby refracted. As the
supply of sodium was increased, the lines, besides becoming broader,
did BO unsymmetrically, and a shaded wing or band appotred on
one side or the other according as the beam impinged on one side
or the other of the flame. These bands Julius calls dispersion
bands, and then, assuming that a species of tubular structure pre-
vails within a large part of the sun (such as the filaments of the
corona suggest for that region), he applies the weakening of the light
to explain, for Instance, the broad dark H and K calcium lines,
and the sun-spots, besides many remoter applicatbns. But it
should be noted that the bands c^ his experiment are not due to
anomabus dispersion in a strict sense. They are formed now on one
side, now on the other, of the absorption line; but the rapid increase
of refractive index which accompanies true anomalous disjxrsiDn.
and might be expected to produce similar bands by scattering the
light, appears both from theory and experiment to belong to the
side of greater wave-len^h exclusively. Julius's phenomenon
seems inseparable from grazing incidence, and hence any explanation
it supplies depends upon his hypothetical tubular structure lor layers
of equal density. There are other difficulties. In cakrium, for
instance, the £ line shows in the laboratorv much stronger anomalous
dispersion than H and K; but in the solar spectrum H and K are
broad out of all comparison to g. Hale has pointed out other
respects in which the explanation fails to fit facts. In connexion
with the question whether the phenomena of the sun are actually
very different from what they superficially appear. A. Schmidt s
theory of the photosphere deserves mentkm; it explains how the
appearance of a sharp boundary misht be due to a qsecies of mirage.
Consider the rays which meet the eye (at unit distance)
f^r^j-z^ ? at an angle d from the centre of the sun's disk; in their
'^■•■^•' previous passage through the partially translucent por-
tions of this body we have the equation sin <f ar/i sin i
(fig. 14). Now generally m will decrease as r increases,
but the initial value of i* is not likely to be more than, say, twice
its final value of unity, while r increases manifold in the same range,
hence in eeneral tm will increace with r, and therefore for a given
value ol a, 4 «all continually increase as we go inwards up to 90*,
which it will attain for a certain value of r, and this will be the deepest
Fko. 14.
wiN reach the eye at the
* f* to f ' throughout
' * cuts the outer
I, and can
to 90*.
Apart then from abaorption there will be a discontinuous change
in brightness in the apparent disk at that value of the angulli
radius d which corresponds to tangential emission from the uppei
lever r' of this mirage-forming region. Of course we are unable tc
say whether such a region is an actuality in the sun, on the earth
it IS an exception and transient, but the greater the dimensions ol
the body the more probable is its oocunrenos. The theory can be
put to a certain test by considering its implications with respect tc
colour. The greater |i is, the greater would be the value of d, th<
apparent angubr radius, corresponding to horixontal emission froiri
a given level r, and that whether we accept Schmidt's theoiy or not.
Hence if the sun's diameter were measured through different^
coloured screens, the violet disk must appear greater than the rta
Now measunes made by Auwers with- the Cape heliomeler showec
no difference, amounting to o-i', and so far negative the idea thai
the rays reach us after issuing from a level where j* is sensibly differ
ent from unity. Presumably, then, the inner emissions areaosorbo;
and those which reach us start from veiy near the suxface.
The sun'it, distance is the indispensable link which connect!
terrestrial measures with all celestial ones, those of the moon alon^
excepted; hence the exceptional pains taken to deter-
mine iL The transits of Venus of 1874 and i88a were If^ '
observed by expeditions trained for the purpose before- *»'«<«««•,
hand with ev^ possible foresight, and sent out hy the Briti&h
French and German governments to occupy suitable station
distributed over the world, but they served only to demonstrat*
that no high degree of accuracy can ever be expected from thi
method. It is the atmosphere of Venus that spoils the obsetvation
Whatever be the subseouent method of reduction, the instant i
required when the planet s disk is in internal contact with that oC th
sun; but after contact has plainly passed it still remains connecter
with the sun's rim by a "black drop," with the roult that traine
observera usiiu^ similar instruments set up a few feet from one aiK>the
somttimes differed by half a minute ot time in their record. It 1
little wonder, then, that the several reductionsof tbecdJccted result
were internally discordant so as to leave outstanding a considcrabl
" probabte error." but showed themselves able to yiod very differcs
conclusions when the same set was discussed by different persoaj
Thus from the British observations of 1874 ^ ^* ^' ^*^ deduce
a parallax of 8*76' and E. J. Stone 8*88'; from the French observe
tions of the same date Stone deduced 8-88' and V.PuiKux 8-91'
The first really adequate determinations of solar parallax were thos
of Sir David Gill, measured by inference from the apparent diunu
shift of Mare anrang the stanaa the earth turned dittrnally upon h
axis; the observations were made at the island of Atcensioa in 187^
The disk of Mare and his cok>ur are certain disadvantages, and G%
afterwards superseded his own work by treating in the same wa
the three minor planets Victoria* Iri« and Sappho— the last wa
observed by W. L. Elkin. These planets are more remote than Mar
but that loss is more than outweighed by the fact that thciy ai
indistinguishable in appearance from stars. The nwasurcs 'Wr^i
made with the Cape heliometer and have never been superBe<le4
for the latest results with the minor planet Eros otactly cotk&n
Gill's result — 8'8o' — while they decidedly diminish the associate
Man and Jupiter. Its mean distance from the sun is Z'46 tim
that of the earth: but, besides, the eccentricity of its iM-bit
latig^e (0-22), so that at the most favourable opportunity it cs
come within one-seventh of the distance of the sun. This Cavou
able case is not realized at every oppositbn, but in 1900 the diatan
was as little as one-third of that of ue sun. and it was obceived tioi
October looo to January 1901 photographically upon a concert^
but not absolutely uniform plan by many observatories, of v^hi^
the chief were the French national observatories, Greeawici
(Cambridge, Washington and Mount Hamilton. The planet sbow(
a stellar disk varying in magnitude from 9 to 12. On sooac plati
the stars \tr-ere allows to trail and the planet was followed, ia oth^;
the reverse procedure was taken: in eitlier case the planet's posit ii
is measured by referring it to " comparison staiv " of apptoioaiatq
its own magnitude situated within 25' to 30' of the centra of t|
Elate, while these stara are themselves &icd byiaeasunement (rv
righter ** reference stars,'* the positions of which are found |
meridian observations if absolute places are desired. Tlie be
results seem to be obutned by comparing an evening's obaervaticM
with those of the folkywing moning at the same observatory ; t
reference can then be made to the same stacs and errors in th<
porition are therefore virtliaUy eliminated; even if the obeervatio
of a morning with those of the following evening are used the pm
able error is doubled. The observatkms at Greenwich thus netiuc
gave errora *fcO'0O36' and *<H>o8o' sespectivelv. The srenei
result is 8'8oo' ai«o>0044'. To collale the whole of the snaterial ace
mulated at different paits of the workl is a much more diflicult tas
it requires fi^vt of all a most carefully constructed «tar«catatlo0
upon which the further discussion may be built. The diccussi
was completed in 1909 by A. R. Hinks, and includes the material f c^
some hundreds of plates taken at twelve oUervatories; in ceoei
It may be said the discusiion proves that the material ia distiA^
SUN-raRD
9»
ketiiumtmum, mud that in phoeswtor^k would hudly be eatpccted.
The POBlt is nearljr the tanoe as found at Groenwich alont. S*8o6'
*ooo2b', or m. mean distance ci 92,830,000 m. *-t-493XlO^ cm.
virh an error which is as probably below as above jOf 000 miles.
The son's distance enters into other relations, three of which
peraHt at its determination, viz. the equation of light, the constant
^ abensMsoo, and tlM» paialtectic inequality of the moon; the value
^ the velocity of propagation of light enters in the reduction of the
two first, but. as this is better known than the sun's parallax, no
£»dvantage resiitts. The equation of light is the time taken by
igfat to traverse the sun's mean distance from the earth ; it can be
^md by the acceleration or retardation of the ecIijMes of Jupiter's
Btdlites aooordtng as Jupiter is approaching opi>osition or conjunc-
txMi with tbe flon ; a recent analysts shows that its value u 498*6',
which lend* to the same value of the parallax as above, but the
bnami discrepancies of the material put ■* **■"- — a
■ach \awcr leveL The constant of aberratioi ni*i
dmance by a comparison between the vcloci its
orbit and tlfee velocity of light. Its determii >e-
caice it is involved with questions of the chanj he
euth's axis of rotation, b. C. Chandler cons ;2'
it veil established ; this would give a parallaj tef
term in the lunar longitude which mtrodu he
dKtaoces of the sun and moon from th( is
kiovn as the parajlactic inequality ; by analy: tns
F H. Cowell nnds that iu coefficient is i24-7< to
L W. Brown's lunar theory would imply a pa
The best discussion of the sun's apparec en
Bade by G. F* J* A. Auwers, in connexion of
•^-__, tbe Cerman observations of the — of
yyf t87A and 1882. It was found that personality olayed
"■"■"^^an important part; the average effect might be 1%
bet frequently it reached 3', 4', $' or even 10', with the same
wtnuaent and method, nor was it fixed for the same observer.
Sksc 15.000 observations, from 1 85 1 to 1883. taken by one hundred
cbwTvers .at Greenwich, Washington, Oxford and Neuch&td,
dnued as Car as possible of personal equation, showed no si^ of
ckaage Uai could with probability be called proere«sive or pcnodic,
oarticolarty there was no sign of adhesion to toe sun*spot period.
Btrner determinations of the actual value came from the neliometer,
mi iya\-c an angular diameter of 31' 59-26' *»o-io', and the value
of the polar diameter exceeded the equatorial by 0-038 '*o«033',
T^ coudtmaioa is that the photosphere is very sharply defined and
ihovs 00 definite departure from a truly spherical uiape. Using
t:x parallax 8-8o', the resulting diameter of the sun is 864,000 m.
«i 390X10" cm.
If we regard the son as one of the ttart, the first four ^uettioos
er should eeek to aniwer are iu distance fn>m iu acikhboursp
_. proper motion, magnitude and sfiectral type. In some
'T*'* re sp ects the systematic prosecution of these inquiries
•*^* has only begun, and property conadered they involve
seat ««8earches into the whole stellar system. It would take us
too far to treat them at any lengthi but it may be convenient to
flaa^arize aome of the results. The sun's nearest neighbour is
s CcBtauri. which is separated from it by 270,000 times tne earth's^
^stance, a space which it would take light four years to traverse.
It b fairly certain that not more than six stars lie within twice this
dwrjinir No certain ^ide has been found to tell which stars are
aesrest to aa; both br^tness and large proper motion, though of
owrse iacnased by proximity, are apparently without systematic
a-s-ra^e relatioa to parallax.
T^ son's proper motion among the stars has been sought in the
pnu as the aawmption that the universe of stars showed as a whole
' ' ' "iplaoement of its parts, ^nd, on this assumption,
MS of reduction which attributed apparent relative
_^^ nt of parts to real relative displacement of the sun agreed
hxly ««8 in concluding that the " apex of the sun's way '*^ was
6i«csrd to a point in right ascension 275*,. declination + 37 (F. W.
I>ivo and W. G. Thackeray), that is to say. not far from the star
Vezi IB the ooostellation Lyra, and was moving thither at a rate of
iui Jm. Bflea per second. But recent lesearcheA by J. C. Kapteyn and
A. S. Eddington. confirmed by Dyson, show that there is better
{rosed for befierhir that the universe is composed mainly of two
4M«!xms of fltars. the members of each stneam actuated by proper
cAmfin of the same sense and magnitude on the average, than that
'V rHarive motions of the stars with one another are fortuitous
'Vs Stas). This removes comfpletely the ground upon which the
'^'-T J u^ of the sun's way has hitherto been calculated, and leaves
"^ ^a es rioo wholly without answer.
A or is said to rise one unit in magnitude when the logarithm of
'i brightaefls diminisbea by 0-4. Taking as a star of magnitude
' • Taari or c Aquihe. where would the sun stand in this scale ?
S-*^ral eatamates have been made which agree well together;
«''v^her direct use is made of known parallaxes, or comparison i$
mm^ vith bioanes of well-determhied orbiu of the same spectral
rype as the nro. in which therefore it may be assumed there is the
mmt relatioa bu swc eu mass and brilliancy (Gore), the resuh is found
^m iheeen's magnitude is —26-^. or the sun is to** times as brilliant
SB a irfT aijg e itu de star: it wookl follow that the son viewed frxmi
aees of development merely, and that the former repccseot the
irrier stage. ^ This again is disputed, and there is indeed as yet
a Centaup iKwld to^ear as of magnitude 07. and from a star ol
average distance which has a parallax ccrumly less than o-i', it
would be at least fainter than the fifth magnitude, or. say, upon the
border-line for naked-eye visibility. We cannot here do more than
refer to the spectral type of the son. It is virtually identical with
a group known as the "yellow stars." of which the most prominent
examples are Capella, Pollux and Arcturus; this b not the most
numerous group, however; more than one haU of all the stars whose
spectra are known belong to a simpler type in which the metallic
hues are faint or absent, excepting hydnmen and aometioBes helium,
which declare themselves with increased prominence. These are
the white stars, and the most prominent examples are Sirius. Vega
and Procyon. It b commonly tiiou^ not universally held that the
difference between the white and yelbw stars arises from their
sta« ' • • • . . . -
earrK „ „ ^
slight material for a decisive statement.
Summary of Numerkol Dalih
Parallax : 8-8o6» * O'0O3'.
Mean diytance from earth: 92,830.000 m.*> 1-403X10** cm.
(Time taken by light to traverse this distance: 498^6').
Diameter: Angular, at mean distance, 1919-^'.
Linear, i09Xearth's equatonal diameter ■864.000
m.- 1*390X10" em.
Mass: ^32,oooXmass of the earth.
Mean density: •256Xmean density of earth « I'4I5.
Equator: inclination to ecliptic: 7* 15'.
Longitude of ascending node (19080). 74* 28-6'.
Rotation period: latitude o**: 24-46^
30*:26.43<«
6o*:29-63««
8o»:3o-50*
Solar constant, or units of tner^y received per minute per square
centimetre at earth's mean distance: 2-i calorka.
Effective temperature, as an ideal radiator or " black body ":
6000** abs.
Bibliography.— NeaHy all the chief data respecting the sun have
lately been and still are under active reviaon, so that publications
have tended to fall rapidly out of date. The most important series
b the Astrophysiail Journal, which b indufjensable, and in itself
almost sufficient; among other matter it contains all the publications
of Mount Wilson Solar Observatory (Professor G. E. Hale), H. A.
Rowland's roW«-'"' — '- — l. _^_-.t^. _ .. .
reproductions of i
papers which can
of the Royal Astr,
3. P. Langlcy's I
Department (Sig
parallax researdK
of the sun's dbi
observations for
whole subject bC
an euellent sunu
permits, is in Fn
«co/>y (1E94). Sc
(1899), contains
collected and dis
latest moot poin
Solar Hesmnk (B
issutd in 1906. and VOL ii. ia 1908. (|L A. Sa.)
SUN-BIRD, a name more or less in use for many years,' and
now generally accepted as that of a group of over 100 species
of small birds, but when or by whom it was first apph'ed is un*
certain. Those known to the older naturalbts were for a long
while referred to the genus Certkia (Tsee-cbeeper, q,v.) ot
some orticr groap, but they are now fully recognised as forming
a valid Passerine famOy Nectariniidae, from the name Nee*
tarinia invented in x88x by UUgcr. They inhabit the Ethiopian,
Indian, and Australian regions,* and, with some notable
exceptions, the species mostly have but • limited range. They
are considered to have their nearest alGes in the Meliphagidae
(see Hokey-eater) and the members of the gentis Z0sUrops;
* Certainly since 1826 (cf. Stephens, Cen. Zooioty, vol. xiv. pt. r,
p. 292). W. Swainson (Nat. Htst. and ClassiJ. Birds, i. 145) says
th^ are " so called by the natives of Asia in allusion to their splendid
and shining plumage,]^' but gives no hint as to the nation or language
wherein the name originated. By the French they have been much
longer known as " Souimangas," from the Madagascar name dl one
of the species given in 1658 by Flacourt as Soumaniha.
' One species occurs in Baluchistan, which is perhapa outside of
the Indian region, bat the fact of iu bemg found there wuay be a
reason for including that country within the region, ivst as the
presence of another species in the Jordan valley tndiices aoographers
to regard the Gh6r as an outlier <m the Ethiopian region.
9«
SUN-BITTERN
but their relations to the last require further investigation.
Some of them are called " humming-birds " by Anglo-Indians
and colonists, but with that group, which, as before indicated
(see HuMifZNG-Biso), belongs to the PUariaet the sun-birds,
being true Passens, have nothing to do. Though part of the
plumage in many sun-birds gleams with metallic lustre, they
owe much of their beauty to feathers which are
not lustrous, though almost as vivid,^ and the
most wonderful combination of the brightest
colours— scarlet, purple, blue, green and yellow
— is often seen in one and the same bird. One
group, however, is dull in hue, and but for the
presence in some of its members of yellow or
flame-coloured precostal tufts, which are very
characteristic of the family, might at first sight
be thought not to belong here. Graceful in form
and active in motion, sun-birds flit from flower to
flower, feeding on small insects which are attracted
by the nectar and on the nectar itself; but this
is usually done while perched and rarely on the
wing as is the habit of humming-birds. The
extensible tongue^ though practically serving the same end in
both groups^ is essentially different in its quasi-tubular
structure, and there is also considerable difference b^ween
tKis organ in the Nectariniidae and the Meliphagidae.* The
nests of the sun-birds, domed with a penthouse porch, and
pensile from the end of a bough or leaf, are very neatly built.
The eggs are generally three in number, of a dull white covered
with confluent specks of greenish grey.
The Nectariniidae form the subject of a sumptuous Monograph
whi
G..E-Shelley (4to, London. 18^6-1880), in the coloured plates of
ich fulj justice is done to the varied beauties which these gloriously
arrayed little bdngs display, while almost every available source of
information has been consulted and the results embodied. This
author divides the family into three sub-families: Neodrepanirwe,
consisting: of a single genus and species peculiar to Madagascar;
NectarinTinae, containing 9 genera, one of which, Cinnyru, has more
than half the number of species in the whole group; and Arachno*
therinae (sometimes known as " spider-hunters "), with 2 genera
includine ii species — all large in uze and plain in hue. To these he
also ados the genus Ptomerops} composed of 2 species of South
African birds, of very different appearance, whose ainnity to the rest
can as y^ hardly be taken as proved. According to E. L. Layard,
the' habits of the Cape Promerops, its mode of mdification, and the
character of its eggs are venr unlike those of the ordinary Nectari-
niidae. In the British Museum Catalogue of Birds (ix. I-126
and 291) H. J. Gadow has more recently treated of this family,
reducing the number of both genera and species, though adding a
new genus discovered rince the publication of Shelley's work.
(A. N.)
SUN-BITTERN, the Eurypyga hdias of omithobgy, a bird
that has long exercised systematists and one whose proper
place can scarcely yet be said to have been determined to
everybody's satisfaction.
According to Pallas, who in 1781 gave (N. nordl. BcytrAfii,v<AAu
pp, 48-54, pi. 3) a good description and fair figure of it, callmg it the
Surinamische Sonnenreyjjcr," Ardea htltas, the first author to
notice this form was Fermm, whose account of it, under the name of
** Sonnenvog^,!' was published at Amsterdam in 1759 {Descr.t
&c., de Surinam^ iL 102), but was vague and meagre.^ hi 1772*
howcveTj.it was satisfactorily figured and described in Rozier's
Obsfrvahonssur la physique. Sic. (vol. v. pt. i, p. 212, pi. l), &» the Petit
paon des roseaux — by which name it was known in French Guiana.*
A few years later D'Aubenton figured it in his well-known series (Ft.
Enl., p. 782), and then in 1781 came Baffon (/f.AT., Oiseaux, vol. viii.
pp. 160, 170, pi. xiv.), who, calling it " Le Cauri& ou petit paon des
roses, announced it as hitherto undescribcd and placed it among the
Rails. In the same year appeared the above-cited paper by Pallas,
for " roMBiix,*' BttffoA turned the ooloobt aame bom one that had
a good meaning into nonsense. In 1783 Boddacrt, equally ignorant
of what Pallas had done, called it Seoiopas Solaris,* aSad in referring
it to that genus he was followed by lAtham {Synopsis^ iit 156). by
whom it was introduced to English readers as the Caurale Snipe.
Thus within a dozen years this bird w«s referred to three perfectly
distinct genera, and m those days genera meant much more chaa
(PvmC4imMd9tNatunt Biibrj. roL h.," Biidt,** fay pcnniiuMol
MKnuUoa&Ca.LuL)
Fig. i.—Sun-Bittem {Eurypyga helias).
they do now. Not untU 181 1 was it recognized as forming a genua
of its own. This was done by lUiger, whose appellation. E ur y p y g a
has been generally accepted.
The sun-bittern is about as big as a small curlew, but with
much shorter legs and a i&Xhtt slender, straight bill. The
wings are moderate, broad, and rounded, the tail laiher long
and broad. The head is black with a white stripe o>ver and
another under each eye, the dun and throat being also white.
The rest of the plumage is not to be described in a limited space
otherwise than generally, being variegated with Uad^ brown,
chestnut, bay, buff, grey and white — so mottled, q>eclded and
belted cither in wave-like or zigzag forms as somewhat to
resemble cotain moths. The bay colour forms two conspicu-
ous patches on each wing, and also an antepenultimate bar
on the tail, behind which is a subterminal band of black. The
irides are red; the bill is greenish olive; and the legs are pale
yellow. As in the case of most South American birds, very
little is recorded of its habits in freedom, except that it fre-
quents the muddy and wooded banks of rivers, feeding on small
fishes and insects. In captivity it soon becomes tame, and has
several times made its nest and reared its young (which, when
hatched, are clothed with mottled down; Proc. Zool. Soc,
1866, p. 76, pi. ix. fiig. x) in the Zoological Gardens (London),
where examples are generally to be seen and their plaintive
piping heard. It ordinarily walks with slow and precise st eps,
keeping its body in a horizontal position, but at tinges, when
excited, it will go through a series of fantastic performances,
spreading its broad wings and tail so as to display their beauti-
ful markings. This spedes inhabits Guiana and the interior of
Brazil; but in Colombia and Central America occurs a larger
and somewhat differently coloured form which is known as
E. major.
For a long while it seemed as if EuryPyga had no near ally, bat on
the colonization of New Caledonia by the French, an extresncly
curious bird was found inhabiting most parts of that island, to
which it is peculiar. This the natives caUed the Kasu, and it is
the Rhinocketus jubatus of ornithology. Its original dcscribcra,
MM. Jules Verreaux and Des Murs, regarded it first as a heron and
then as a crane {Rev. et Hag. de Zoologte, i860, pp. 4^)9-441 , fd. 2 1 ,
-•'- — -42-144); but, on Mr George Bennett sending two Uvt
* the Zoological Gardens, Mr Bartlctt quickly detected
affinity to Emypygjn {Proc. Zoo/. 5bc.,^ 1862, pp. 21 ?t,
c), and in due time anatomical investigation shorn txl
right. The kagu, however, would not strike the ordi-
^er as having much outward resemblance to the sun-
^hich it has neither the figure nor posture. It is rather a
bird, about as large as an ocdinary fowl, walking quickly
' he saw in the bird's variegated plumage a resemblance
Led snipes. Rhynchaea. His specinc name shows tfaait he
known how the Dutch in Sunoam called it.
iSUNBURY—^DN COPYING
<n
Md thm «uida« alwMl motfapleat , viflk biqiht red bill aad legs,
h.'^cycs.a full pendent <;reat» and is generally of a U^t date-colour,
paltf beneath, and obscurely barred on ita longer winje-coverts and
tail wTtli a darker shade. It is only when it spreads its wings that
these are max to be marked and spotted with white, mat-colour, and
Fig. a.—Kagu {Rhinochelus jvbdius).
Hack, somewhat after the pattern of those of the sun-bittern. Like
CB^i bird, tog^ the ka|[u wul, in moments of excttemen^ give ui> its
crJnary f^aad behaviour and execute a variety of violent gesticUr
Urj'vns. some of them even of a more extraordinary kind, for it will
^tsxx rowod, holdii^ the tip of its tail or one of its wings in a way
that ■• otker Ufd is known to do. Its habits in its own country
were deanbcd at some length in 1863 by M. Jouan (Mim, Soc» Sc.
SiL Ckerbottrg, Ix. SH aod 335), and in l870 by M. Mazie {JicUs Soc
L^m. B&rdeaux, xxvii. 323-326), the last of whom predicts the speedy
axiacisHi of this interesting form, a fate foreboded also by the
».t— ^ of Mean LayanfU^u, i8Sa, pp. 534* 535) that it has
asily dinppearod from the neighbouifaood of ttie moco settled and
iioabucd parts.
The intemal and external structure of both these remarkatie
brais is bow folly known and it appears that they, though separable
«<fisttactfH^3ies,Earypygidae)Miid Rhinochetklae, must be deemed
liK rdk» of very ancient and generalized types more or less related
tB the Rallklae (see Rail), and Psophtidae (ace Trumpetbr). It is
(suy CO be remarked that the eggs of both EMrypyta and Rhincchetus
kime a very stxxmg ralline appearance — stronger even than the
igins r"»i»^«i»**t iPrtc. Zool. Soe.^ 1868, pL la) woukl indicate.
(A.N.)
HnreORT, a borough and the CDonty seat of Northuniber-
Ind ooanty, P)ellllSjrlvanU^ U.S.A., on the Suequefaanna river
aboot 53 ■&. by nfl N. by £. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1900), 9S10,
d flrfsom 197 wexe foreign-boni; (1910 U.S. censtts) i3»770* It
■ KTved by the Penoaylvania, the Northern Gentral (cdntroUed
by the Pennsylvania) sad the Philadelphia & Reading railwayi.
Saabaxy'a ftrindpal induftry is the mannfactttre of silk; the
fteau aylva nia railway has repair shops here. The total vahie
ef the botoogb's factory piodacts increased from $1,868,157
a 1900 to $2,592,8 J9 in 1905, or 38*8%. The borough stands
aa the site of the old Indian vOlage, Shamokin, which wss
yr tfi^^ l by Delawaics, Senecss and Tutdos, and was long the
Indian village in the pro'vhicc; in i747-i7S5
I s Moravian mission here. * Owing to the strategic
bpoftaace «f the place the provincial government erected
Fvt AfltgosU bete in 1756; during the War of Independence
saay of tbe fugitives from the Wyoming Massacre came to this
hmrL Soabcvy was first surveyed in X772 and was- incorporated
as s boroogb in X797«
fUlBUET-OV-THAMES. an uiban district in the Uxbridge
^arlusBeBiary divmon of Middlesex, England, 17 m. S.W. of
V FasTs Cathedral, London,- on a branch of the London &
Sc9!h Weatcm railway. Pop. (1901), 4544. It is a favourite
'i-crszde resort and has grown considerably as a residential
^jKxkt. Tbe church of St Mary, Byzantine in style, dates
bam t7ss. Tbcre are pilmping works and filtration beds ior
lbc water •5U|>ply of London. To tbe north-esst is Kcmpton
Park, tbe maaor-house of wbfch was a royal residence early
in the 14th century. The park is famous for its race-meetings,
the priodpal fixture being the Jubflee Handicap, established
in 1887. ,The manor was granted by Edward the Confessor to
Westminster Abbey, and.passed in the 13th century to the see of
London and in the i6th to the Crown; but was not so hekl later
than 1603.
SUN OOPmiO, or Pboto Copying, the name given to that
branch of photographic contact printing which is carried out
without the aid of a camera-made negative. It is now used
very extensively for copying documents, especially the plans
of architects and engineers.
The earliest discovered process, the ferroprussiate, is still
the one most largely used, on account of its economy and per-
manence, combined with a simplidty of manipulation that
renders it highly suitable for oflBce use; It was invented in 1840
by Sir John Herschd. This method has the disadvantage that
the copies are blue in colour, and, as it is a negative process, the
blade lines of the original become the wMte lines of the print;
the development is by washing in water, so that the important
feature of accuracy of scale is lost. The next step of importance
was in 1864, when WHliam Willis of Birmingham, the father
of the inventor of the platinotypc system of (Jiotographic
printing, invented the aniline process. In this method a paper
sensitized with bichromate of potassium is exposed to light,
with the doctmient (generally a tiadng) in front of it; the un-
protected lines are bleached out, but the protected ones remain
and are developed by contact with vapour of aniline, a sub-
sequent washing for the removal of chemicals completing the
print. For twenty years this process was successfully used
with little opposition other than that of the blue prints pre-
viously referred to, and of the Pellet process, which gave a blue
line on a white groimd, the inventor being associated throughout
with the firm of Vincent Brooks, Day & Son; but since that time
a large number of other methods have come into use, some
requiring a paper negative In the first instance and some
not, but an much aided by improved methods of applying'
electric light. The earliest of these improved systems
utilizing dectric light was that invented by Mr B. J. Hall,*
whose photo-copier consists of two semi-circular glasses forming
a cylinder, ^ifh'ich may be revolved, and through which an arc
lamp travels, while the tracing and sensitized paper are strapped
to its outer surface.
Between 1900 and 1908 attention was chiefly directed* to
overcoming the variation of scale that is inevitable in all systems
that require a final washing in water either for development or
for the removal of chemicals; and at least four excellent systems
have arisen. While Mr F. R. Vandyke was perfecting the system*
which he patented in 1901 and which has been adopted by the
Ordnance Survey Department at Southampton, Messrs Vincent
Brooks, Day & Son were working along somewhat similar lines,
the outcome of which was their " True-to-Scale Photo Litho "
system. In both these methodis a reversed positive print is
secured on zinc, from which copies can be made in printer's
ink of any colour by the usual lithographic method on almost
any material that may be desired. The plates prepared by these
methods are so sensitive to light that excellent results can be
secured from drawings made even on semi-transparent material
such as drawing paper, and of course the plates when made are
capable of alteration or addition and can be stored for reprints. «
An admirable process had since been invented by MM.
Dord Frdres of Paris, which is even more expeditious, and
being less in prime cost is more suitable when only a small
number of prints is required. In this case a large sheet of thin
zinc is coated with chemically-treated gelatin, with the result
that when a ferroprussiate pcint is prised down on it dther.
with the hand or by a roller the protected lines affect the gelatin
in such a way that the parts that have been in contact with them^
receive a greasy ink while the remainder of the surface rejects
it, so that a small number (not generally exceeding Six) of very
excellent prints can be secured. The inventors rdtrained from
taking out_a patent cither in France or dsewhere, preferring to
9*
SUNDA ISLANDS— SUNDAY
woik their invention as a secret process, but the lonnuU appean
either to have leaked out or to have been discovered, so that the
process is, perhaps with sUght variations, used under numerous
names. With the aid of the various systems of rotary copiers,
by which blue prints of almost any length can be secured,
Dorel prints identical in scale with the originals have been made
of the length of 2 a feet. An interesting kindred process bat
with well defined variations is known as vebgrsphy.
For the technical and chemical details of the various meijhods
reference may be made to Ferric and Hdiagrapkic Procesus by G. E.
Brown (DaWbara & Ward). (F. V. B.)
SUNDA ISLANDS, the collective name of the islands in the
Malay Archipelago which extend from the Malay Peninsula to
the Molucau. l^cy are divided into the. Great Sunda Islands—
i,e. Sumatra, Java» Borneo, Celebes, Banka and BilUton,
with their adjacent islands— and the Little Sunda Islands,
of which the more important are Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa,
Flores, Sumba and Timor.
Sunda Strait is the channel separating Sumatra from Java
and uniting the Indian Ocean with the Java Sea. It is 15 m.
broad between the south-eastern extremity of Sumatra and
the town of Anjcr in Java. In the middle is the low-lying
well- wooded island of Dwars-in-den-Weg (" right in the way ")i
otherwise Middle Island or Sungian. In 1883 Sunda Strait was
the scene of the most terrific results of the eruption of Kxakatoa
(ff.«.)» * volcanic island further west in the stzait.
SUlfDARBANS, or Sundesbuitos, a tract of wasto country in
Bengal, {ndia, forming the seaward fringe of the Gangetic
delta. It has never been surveyed, nor has the census been
extended to it. It stretches for about 165 m., from the
mouth of the Hugli to the mouth of the Meghna, and is bordered
inland by the three settled districts of the Twenty-four Parganas,
KJiulna and Backergunje. The total area (including water)
is estimated at 6536 sq. m. It is a water-logged jungle, in which
tigers and other wild beasts abound. Attempts at reclamation
have not been vexy successfuL The forest department realizes
a large revenue, chiefly by tolls on produce removed. The
characteristic tree is the SMndri {Heritiara liUoralis), from which
the name of the tract has probably been derived. It yields a
hard wood, used for building, and for making boats, hmiiture,
&c. The Sundarbans are everywhere intersected by river
channels and creeks, some of wbich afford water communication
between Calcutta and the Brahmaputia valley, both for steamers
and for native boats.
SUNDAY, or the Lobd's Day (4 roD ^Uou ^/i^, dies solis;
4 tcvpcojoil ^{"h^ ^i^ domimca^ dies dtminicus 0, in the Chris-
tian world, the first day of the week, celebrated in memory of
the resurrection of Christ, as the principal day for public worship.
An additional reason for the sanctity of the day may have been
found in its association with Pentecost or Whitsim.* There is
no evidence that in the earliest years of Christianity there was
any formal observance of Sunday as a day of rest or any general
cessation of work. But it seems to have from the first been
set apart for worship. Thus according to. Acts zx. 7, the
disciples in IVoas met weekly on the first day of the week for
exhortation and the breaking of bread; i Cor. zvi.- s implies
at least some observance of the day; and the solemn com-
memorative character it had very esxly acquired is strikingly
indicated by an incidental expression of the writer of the Apoca-
l>T>se (i. 10), who for the first lime gives it that name (" the
Lord's Day") by which it is almost invariably referred to by
all writers of the century immediately succeeding apostolic
times.* Indications of the manner of its observance during
this period are not wanting. Tcackini of the ApcsiUs (c. 14)
*The Teutonic and Scandinavian nations adopt the former
destsnatkm (Sundsy, Semntnt, S^ndat, Ac.), the Latin nations the
latter { dimanckt ^ d^memiem, deminm, ftc.).
* Fram an c » ipw »ii u a in the Epmle of Barnabas (c ts)« tl wo«M
almost seem as if the Ascension also was believed vy some to hav«
taken place on a Sunday.
• In the Epbtle of Barnabas already nifemd to (c i^U fo caM
contains the precept: " And on the Lord's day of the Lei
{Karii cupuua^r ku^Iou) come together and break bread an
give thanks after confessing your transgressions, that yoi
sacrifice may be pure." Ignatius (Ad Magn. c. 9) speaks <
those whom he addresses as " no longer Sabbatizing, but liviu
in the observance of the Lord's day (card Kupuxidlw ^urm) a
which also our lifo sprang up sgain."* Eusebius (H.E. iv. 2^
has preserved a letter of Dionystus of Corinth (aj>. 175) to Sole
bishop of Rome, in which he says: " To-day we have passed tl
Lord's holy day, in which we have read your epistle ", and tl
same historian {H.B. iv. 36) mentions that Melito of Sard
(a.d. 170) had written a treatise on the Lord's day. Pliny
letter to Thijan in which he speaks of the meetings of the Cbri
tians " on a stated day " neisd only be alluded to. The fir
writer who mentions the name of Sunday as applicable to tl
Lord's day is Justin Martyr; this designation of the first day *
the week, which is of heathen origin (see Sabbath), had con
into general me in the Roman world shortly before Just:
wrote. He describes {ApoL I 67) how "on the day caU*
Sunday " town and country Christians alike gathered togetb
in one place for instruction and prayer and charitable offerini
and the distribution of bread and wine; they thus meet togeth
on that day, he says, because it is the fixst day in which Gt
made the worid, aiul because Jesus Christ on the same day ro
fh>m the dead,
A& long as the Jewish Christian element continued to ha<
any influence in the Church, a tendency to observe Sabbath
wdl as Sunday naturally peoisted. Eusebius {H.E. iiL i
mentions that the Ebionites continued to keep both days, ai
there is abimdant evidence bom Tertullian onwards that so i
as public worshq> and abstention from fasting are coocem(
the practice was widely spread among the (kntile churcht
Thus we learn from Socrates (H.E. vi. c. 8) that in his tit
public worship was held in the churches of Constantinople 1
both days; the Apostolic Cofums (can. 66 [65]) sternly prohit
fasting on Sunday or Saturday (except Holy Satupday) ; and ti
injunction of the Apostolic dnsHhOiom (v. so; cf . li 59, vii. a
is to *' hold your solemn assemblies and rejcnce every Sabba
day (excepting one), and every Lord's day." Tlius the carlic
observance of the day was confined to congreffstioaal worshj
either in the eariy morning or late evening. The social co
ffition of the eariy Christians naturally forbade any genei
suspension of work. Irenaeus {c i4»-2oa) is the fixst of t]
early fathers to refer to a tendency to make Sunday a day
rest in his mention that harvesting was forbidden by the Chun
on the day. Teituliian, writing in ao3, says " On the LoR
day we ought abstain from all habit and labour of anxiet
putting off even our business." But the whole matter «
placed on a new footing when the dvil power, by the coostit
tion oi Constantine mentioned below, began to legislate as
the Sund^ rest. The fourth commandment, holding as
does a conspicuous place in the decalogue, the precepts of whi
ooold not for the most part be legaxded as of merely ttansito
obligation* and never of course escaped the attention of t
fathers of the Church: but, remembcnng the liberty given
the Pauline wridngs ** in respect of % feast day or a new mo
or a Sabbath " (CoL iL 16; cf. Rom. zhr. 5, GaL iv. 10, ii), th
usually ocplained the " Sabbath day " of the commandment
meaning the new era that had been introduced by the adve
of Christ, and interpreted the rest enjoined as meaning oessati
from sin. Bnt when a series of imperial decrees had eDJoio
with increasing stringency an abstinence from labour on Si]
day, it was inevitable that the Christian c ons rie nfe should
roused on the subject of the Sabbath rest also, and in inaJ
minds the tendency would be such as finds' exprcKion in t
Apostolic ComstHmHoms (viiL 13): " Let the slaves work fi
days; but oa the Sabbath day and the Lord's day let them ha
« The longer recensaoa ruat: " Bat let cvoy one of you keep I
Sabbath after a spiritual maxuicr . . . And alter the obaervaoce
the Sabbath let every friend of Christ keep the Loid*s day as a f
li^» the ivsunvctioci day. the queen awl ^kf of aO the day
The writer finds a rcfcrenoe to the Lord's day in the titles to Pa-
Ud aik. wIM are ** set to the eighth."
SUNDAY
95
loRM to CO to dMuth for iBftnctloil iu piety." Ttot & cvl*
4Boe of tiie aane tendency in the at>poiUte amon (39) of the
oooadl of Lftodkcm (j63)» wUch forbids Clinatiaas inm Judaw-
uf aad ivstinc 00 the Sabb&th day, and actually enjoins them
u vark oA that day, peel etciag the Lord's day and so far as
pomMc resting as Chiisdans. About this time accordingly
•e find traces of a (fijpoittloaiB Christian thii&en to distingnirfi
^emcA A temponiy and a petmanent clement in the Sabbath
<it]r pncBpC; thus Chrysostom (10th homily 00 Genesis) distens
t£e hmdaamtal pcoidpie of that precept to be that we should
<iK!icate <me wbok dny in the dide of the week and set it apart
for ciacise ia spixitual things. The view that the Chrisdan
Lofd's day or SuBdny is but the Christian Sabbath transferred
hxim the seventli to the first day of the week docs not lind
catesBocal cs p p esa i op tilt a much later period, Alcvin being
sppamily the first to allege of the Jewbh Sabbath that " ejus
obMtvatioociD mos Christianus ad diicm dominicam oompe-
icacius tnaaiulit " (cf . Dbcalooub).
Law Relatuto to Sukdav >
The ***«*^ recognition of the observance of Sunday as a
lepi duty ia a constitution of Constanttne in 321 AJ>., enacting
121.1 aB courts of justice, inhabitants of towns, and workshops
voc to be at rest on Sunday {vtnerabiU dU sdis), with an
' " t' ^* ii^ favour of those engaged in agricultural labour.
Tha was the first of a long series of imperial constitutions, most
cf which are incorporated in the Code of Justinian, bk. liL tit.
:j iDt f€Hi$y The constitutions comprised in this title of the
cadt b^iiB writh that of Constantine, and further provide that
rauKxpatioa and manumiadon were the only legal proceedings
piTmisible on the Lord's day (dU domnico)^ though contracts
iad compcomiscs might be made between the parties where no
iiiiifiHliiw of the court wss necessary. Pleasure was forbidden
a wdl a» boaiseas. No spectacle was to be exhibited in a
'hextre or circus. If the emperor's birthday f cU on a Sunday,
as oefebcatioa was to be postponed. The levra days before
lad after Easter were to be kept as Sundays. In Cod. i. 4, 9,
ippears the singulation that prisoners were to be brought up for
rxaaisaXJoa aad interrogation on Sunday. On the other hand.
Cod. bL xa* zo^ distinctly directs the torture of robbers and
piatcsycwea on Easter Sunday, the divine pardon (says the law)
boBg hoped for where the safetv of society was thus assured.
.Ifter the time of Justinian th^observance of Sunday appears
'e have baoome etriaer. In the West, Charlemagne forbade
aboor of aay kind« A century later la the Eastern Empire No.
br. of the Leonine constitutions abolished the exemption of
^pcultunl labour contained in the constitution of Constantine;
i-A this exemption was specially preserved in England by a
UMiiiiatiiai of Archbishop Meopham. The canon hiw followed
the fc«*« of Koman law. Hie decrees of ecclesiastical coundls
oa the subject have been numerous. Much of the law is con-
t«aed ia tbe Decretals of Gregory, bk. ii. tit. 9 {Defenis), c. 1
fd which (tramdated) runs thus: " We decree that all Sundays
:* chserred from vespers to vespers (o vesfer* cd vesperam),
sad that aB ndawful work be abstained from, so that In them
xadbv ^ 1'9>' pioceediogs be not carried oa, or any one con-
domMBd &a death or pumshment, or any oaths be administered,
Qopt for peace or other necessary reason." Works of necessity
•'•^edaBy in the case of perishsble materials or wheie time
«« iiBportaait, as in fishing) were allowed, on conditioa that a
•^w prepodion of the gain made by work so done was given
•) the ctasdi aad the poor. The consent of panics was in-
laficseai to give jurisdiction to a court of law to proceed on
Vmiiliy, tboogh it was suflSdenI in the case of a day sanctified
^ the ecdcsiastical authority for a temporary purpose, e,g.
«> thufcssrriag for vfattage or harvest.
la v* ffM»A kgiilatloa on the subject begu early and con-
*m9a dowB to the most modem times. As eariy as the 7th
^iicnr the laws of Ina, king of tbe West Saxons, provided that,
a * theowmaa ** worked on Sunday by his lord's command,
1 ' was to be free aad the lord to be fined 30s.; if a freeman
wwkod wiihoat Us kiid'acommand, the penalty waa foricit«se
6t fkeedon or ■ fine e^ 608., and twfce u much in the case of a
priest. The laws of .Athelstan forbade marketing of iEthelred
fdlkmooU and hunting^ on the Sunday. In almost aU the pre>
Conquest compilations' there are admonitions to keep the day
holy. The frst aDusiaa to Sunday fahstatute law proper is in
13 $4 U^ £dw« III. c 14 iep-)> forbSfkHng the sale of wool at the
staple en Sunday. The mas of legidatnm from that date
downwards may be convemently, if not scientifically, divided
into five da si e a cc desiasticsl, constitutional, judicial, sodal
and csmmePclai. The terms ** Sunday '* and ** Lord's day "
are used ia the statutes, hut the term " Sabbath " occurs only
m ordlnaaoes of the Long Parliament. ^ Sabbath-brealung "
is sometimes used to -describe a violation of the Simday obser-
vance acts, hot is objected to by Blackstone as legally incorrect.
Good Friday and Ottistmas Day are as a rule hi the same legal
position as Sunday. In English tew Sunday is reckoned from
midnight to midnight, not as in canon htw o fespifa ad tesperam.
The acts to be mentioned kst Mill law unless the contrary is
stated.
SccUtiaslk^.-^'Bdon the Reformation there appears to be
little or no statutory recognition of Sunday, except as a day on
which trade was interdicted or national sports directed to be
held. Thus the repealed acts of 1388 (is RSc n. c. 6) and 1409
(ix Hen. IV. e. 4) enjoined the practice of archery on Sunday.
The church itself by provincial constitutions and other means
declared the sanctity of the day, and wss strong enough to visit
with its own censures those who failed to observe Sunday. At
the R^orraation it was thought necessary to enforce the obser-
vance of Sunday by the state in face of the question mooted at
the time as to the divine or merely human institution of the day
as a hdy day. Sunday observance wss directed by injunctions
as well as by statutes of Edward VI.. and Elisabeth. The
second Act of Uniformity of r 551 (5^6 Edw. IV. c. 1.) enacted
that all inhabitants of the realm were to endeavour themselves
to resort to their parish dnuch or chapel accustomed, or upon
reasonable let thereof to some tsoal place where common prayer
is used every Sunday, upon pain of punishment by the censures
of the church. The same pwindple was re-enacted by the Act
of Unifonnity of 1558 (i Elis. c. 9), with the addition of a tem-
poral punishment, vis. a fhie of twelve pence for each offence.
This section of the act is, however, no longer lav, and it appears
that the only penalty now incurted by non-attendance at church
is the shadowy one of ecclesiastical censure. Protestant dis-
senters, Jews aad Roman Qitholics were in 1846 (9 ft 10,
Vict, c 59) exempted from the set, and the pecuniary penalties
were abrogated as to all penons; but the acts as to Sundays
and holy days are still binding on members of the Church of
England [Jfsriikolf V.6fdtosf, 1907, 3 K.B. 112].
Aa act of 1 551 (5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 3) directed the keeping of all
Sundays as holy days, with an exception in favour of husbandmen,
labourers^ fishmnen and other persons in harvest or other time of
necessity. Canon 13 of the canons of 1603 provides that "aU
manner of persons within the Church of Ei»;Und shall celebrate
and keep the Lord's day, commonly called Sunday, accordine to
God's hmy w31 and pleasure and the orders of the Church of England
pmcribed in that behalf, that is, in hearing tbe wofd of CkxI read
and taught, in private and public prayers, in acknowledging their
offences to God and aritendment of the sanie.^ in reconciltng them-
selves charitably to their neighbours where displeasure hath been,
in oftentimes receiving the communion of the body and blood of
Christ, in visiting the poor and sick, using all godly and sober con-
versation." The Lone Paxiiament, by an ordinance of 164^, c. 51.
directed the Lord's day to. be celebrated as hdy. as being the
Christian Sabbath. Ordinances of 1650, c. 9, and 1656, c. 15. con-
tained various minute descriptions of crimes against the sanctity of
the Lord's day, including travelling and " vainly and profanely
walking." These ordinances lapsed at the Restoration. The
Act of Untformity of i66f (13 & 14 Car. II. c. 4) enforced the reading
on every Lord's day of the morning and evening prayer according
to the form m the Book of Common Prayer— a duty which had been
previously enjoined by canon 14 of 1603. By the Church Building
Act 1818, the bishop may direct a third service, morning or evening,
where necessary, in any church built under the act (s. 65). By tht
Church Building Act 1838, he may order the performance of two
full services, each if he so direct to include a sermon (s. 8). The
Burial Laws Amendment Act 1880. which authorizes burials in
chuiuhyards of the Oraich ol EoghMd without the «« of the funeral
96
SUNDAY
oflioe of that chutch. does not allow mcb boriala to take place on
Sunday. Good Friday or Christinas Day if the parson of tlie church
objects.' Under the Metropolitan Police and Streets Acts, the
T&mt Police Oaoses Act 1841 and the Public Health Acts, street
traffic amy be regulated during the hours of divine service.
' Constitutumal.—'Vaidxuaent has. occasionally sat on Sunday
in cases of great aneigcncy, as on the demiae of the Crown.
Occasionally divisions in the House of Commons have taken
place early on Sunday moning. The Ballot Act xSya enacts
that in reckoning time for election proceedings Sundays are to
be excluded. A similar provision is contained in the Miuiicq>al
Coiporations Act 1882, as to proceedings under that act.
Judicial.— As a general rule Stmday for the purpose of judicial
proceedings is a dies wmjuridicus on which courts of justice do
not sit (9 Co. Rep. 666). By s. 6 of the Sunday Observance Act
1677 legal process cannot be served or executed on Stmday, except
in cases of treason, felony or breach of the peace. Proceed-
ings which do not need the intervention of the court are good,
eg. service of a citation or notice to quit or daim^to vote. By
8. 4 of the Indictable Offences Act 1848 justice may issue a
warrant of apprehension or a search warrant on Sunday. The
rules of the Supreme Court provide that the offices of the
Supreme Court shall be closed on Sundays, that Sunday is not
to be reckoned in the computation of any limited time less than
six days allowed for doing any act or taking any proceeding,
and that, where the time for doing any act or taking any
proceeding expires on Sunday, such act or proceeding is good
if done or taken on the next day. In the divorce rules Sundays
are excluded from compilation. In the county court rules
they are excluded if the time limited is less than forty-dght
hours, and the only county court process which can be
executed on Sunday is a warrant of arrest in an Admiralty
action. Where a time is fixed by statute, the Sundays are
counted in. Where a term of imprisonment expues on Sunday,
Christmas Day or Good Friday, the prisoner i» entitled to
discharge on the day next preceding (Prison Act 1898, s. ix).
•Social.— Under this head may be grouped the enaetmepta
having for their object the regulation of Sunday travelling and
amusements. The earliest example of non-«cdesiasttcal inter-
ference with recreation appears to be the Book of Sports issued
by James I. in 1618. Royal authority was given to all but
recusants to exercise themselves after evening service in dandxkg,
aachtry, leaping, vaulting, May-games, Whitsun-ales, mofris-
dances and setting up of Maypoles; but bear and bull-baiting,
interludes and bowling by the meaner sort were prohibited.
The Sunday Observance Act 1625 (i Car. I. c. i), following the
lines of the Book of Sports^ inhibited meetings, assemblies or
concourse of people out of their- own parishes on the Lord's day
for any sports and pastimes whatsoever, and any bear-baiting,
bull-baiting, interludes, common plays or other unlawful exer-
cises and pastimes used by any person or persons within their
own parishes, under a penalty of 3s. 4d. for every offence. The
right to enforce ecclesiastical censures is left untouched by the
act. The act impliedly allows sports other than the excepted
ones as long as only parishioners take part in them. In 1897
some lads were prosecuted at Streatley under this act for
playing football in an adjoining parish, but the justices dismissed
the charge, treating the act as obsolete. But in 1906 the Sodety
for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals instituted a prosecu-
tion under the act with the object of preventing extrarparochial
rabbit-coursing on Sundays. The Game Act 1831 (x & 3
WiU. IV. c. 32, 8. 3) makes it punishable to kill or take game,
or to itsc a dog, net or other instrument {e.g. a snare), for that
purpose on Sunday. The prohibition only applies to game proper
and does not extend to rabbits.
There is no law in England against fishing on Sunday except
as to salmon. Fishing for salmon on Sunday by any means
other than a rod and Une is prohibited by the S^on Fishery
Act x86i, and free passage ior salmon through aD cribs, &c.,
used for fishery is to be left during the whole of Sniday,
The Sundav Observance Act X78x iit Geo. IIIlttdllUMlBi
debate vpOD any part of the Lord's day called Snndiy , to wlikli
pcTMns axe admitted by payment of money or by tickets sold
for money, is to be deemed a disorderly house. The keeper is
to forfeit £300 for every day on whldi it is opened or used a&
aforesaid on the Lord's day, the manager or master of the cere>
monies £xoo and every doorkeeper or servant £50. The advcr>
tising or publishing any advertisement of such an entertainment
is made subject to a penalty of £50. Proceediiigs under this
act for penalties may be instituted by a common infomicr
within six months of the offence. It was held in 1868 that a
meeting the object of which was not pecuniary gain (though
there was a charge for admission), but an honest intention to
introduce religious worship, thoug^ xkot according to any estab-
lished or usual form, was not within the act. The hall used
was registered for religious worship. On this principle, forms
of worship such as Mormonism or Mahommedanism are pro-
tected. In 187s actions were brought against the Brighton
Aquarium Company and penalties recovered under the net.
As doubts were felt as to the power of the Crown to remit the
penalties in such a case, an act was passed hx 1875 to remove
such doubts and to enable the sovereign to remit in irixole 01
in part penalties recovered for offences against the act of xySx.
The substantive effect of the act is to hit all Sunday exhibition;
or performances where money is charged for admission. In i9^*
it was decided that the cfaainnan of a meeting held to hear a lectun
was not liable as manager of the mcetiiiK, and the soUcitar of th<
liquidator of a company was held not to be liable for merely let tin]
the halt for the meeting. In X906 ah attempt was unsuccessful}^
made to apply the act of 1781 to open-air meetings for rabNt
cournng. The rules for the govcrameat of theatres and places a
public entertainment, and the terms of the licences issued, usual!]
prohibit performances on Sundays. The lessees of certain place
of public resort in London have in some cases obtained their licence
from the London County Council on condition that they do not faoli
Sunday concerts, but the recent policy of (he Council has been no
to interfere with or restrict the giving of Sunday oonoerts unless thei
are dvcn for private gain or by ^-ay of trade. The Council has n
legal authority to dispense with the Sunday Observance Act 1781
^ich enforces penalties on chring entertainments to which person
are admitted by payment of money or by tickets aold for oKMie)
The law has been judicially inteipreted, however, to mean tha
charges for reserved seats are not incompatible with free admiseior
Queen's
ilaces within that jurisdiction. No chaige is made for admisstot
but thote who wish (or seats mufUpay for them, and the procec<;!
of the concerts are not made the subject of profit. At the Iicensin
sessions conflicts have annually arisen on this subject between th
advocates and opponents of Sunday mnac
Bands play on Sundavs in roost of the paries in London, wheth<
royal or under municipal control ; and it is said that local authocitu
cannot make bylaws forbidding bands of music in the streets o
Sunday (Joknsen v. Croydon Corporation, 1886, 16 Q.B.D. 70S
Libranes, museums and gymnasiunis maintained by local autbontii
may, it would seem, be lawfully opened on Sundays, and the natinrr
gaJIeries and museums are now so open for part of Sunday.
CpmsMrcfo/.— At common law a contract made on Sunday
not void, nor is Sunday trading or labour unlawful, and cixbs
ment of a soldier on a Sunday has been held valid. At stn «ar
period, however) the legislature began to impose restrictioB
at first by making Sunday trade impossible t^ dosing tl
places of ordinary business^ later by declaring certain kin
of trade and labour illegal, stiU later by attempting to j>rohit
all trade and labour. 28 Edw. III. c. 14 (i3S4i xk>w vepeale
closed the wool mariiet on Sunday. An act o£ 144S (
Hen. VI. c. 5) prohibits fairs and markets on Sunday (necessa
victual only excepted), unless on the four Sundays in harvest
an eumption repealed in 1850 (by 13 & 14 Vict. c. 933
Edw. IV. c. 7 (u64 rep.) restrained the shoemakers of Ix>nd<
from carrying on their business on Sunday. An act of 1637
Car. I. c. 3) imposes a penalty of aos. on any carr&fer, wa^oz
or drover tmveUing on the Lord's day, and a penalty of 6s. I
on any butcher killing or selling on that day. The act docs i
aiiriy to stage coaches. Both this and the act of 16*5 w<
._v:*^« J ^y ^ ^ limited period, but by — *
SUNDAY
97
Ike better obseivavcc of Uie Liud't day, owniiHiriy ctUed
Soaday."
After an exhortation to theobaervatioa o( the Lord's day by ex^
caes in the duties of piety and true reUsjon.-pubUdy and privat^y,
Ae. act pcvtidcs as ToUows: No tradesman, artificer, workman*
hboorer or ocIks oenon itjutdem iemeris) whatsoever shall do at
cstndse any worldly labour, business or work of their ordinaiy
offiap opQO the Lxird's day or any part thereof (works of necessity
sad chanty only excepted); and every person betnK of the age a
fourteen yean or npwaids offending in the |>remises shall for every
:h ollenoe forfeit the sum of sa.;
aball publicly ay, show forth or <
iebyh
wouldt
and no persoik or persons what-
y avt abow forth or expose to saJo any i^rarea,
laerchamliaes. fruit, henia, goods or chattels whatsoever upon the
Lord's day or anv part thereof upon pain that eveiy person so
dUfndta^ shatll fondt the same goods so cried, or showed forth* or
exposed to sale (s. i). A barber was hcid in i^oo not to be a trades-
nan. artlftoer, Ac within the act* and to be free to shave customers
M Sooday*; Aor is a farmer. No drover, horse-courser, wagoner,
hatcher. hi0ler or any of their servants, shall travel or come into
~|ing upon the Lord's day or any part thereof, upon
and eveiy such offender shall toncit aos. for every
«rh offence: and no person or persons shall use, employ or tnivd
spoB the Lord's day with any beat, wherry* lighter or bar]^. except
a be npon eatmonunary occanon to be allowed by some justice of
dK pence, Ac., npon pain that every person so offending shall forfeit
and bae the sum of 5S. for every such offence. In default of distresa
or wm-paymeot of forfeiture or penalty the offender may be set
Mbfidy in the stocks for two hours (s. a), a punishment now obsolete.
Nochiiqp in the act is to prdiibit the dressing of meat in families,
or the dresaing or sdling of meat in inns, cooks' shops— which in-
dsde fried hA shops (Batfrn y. Ward, i^s, 74 L.J.K.B. 916)—
or victnaJSog houses for such as cannot be othorwtse provided, nor
the crytttK or selling of milk before nine In the morning or after four
is the aitemooa (a. 3). Proaecutiona must be within ten days
after the offence (s. 4). The hundred is not responsible for robbery
si penoais tisvclbn|p upon the Lord's day (a. 5). This act has fre-
oBcatly leoeived judicial construction. The tue of the word
ordinary " in aectioa x haa led to the establishment by a series of
I of the principle that work done out of the course of the
"* : of the penoo doing it is not within the act. Thus
. _arae on Suaday by a hone'dealer would not be en-
r him and ha wotud be liable to the penalty, but these
1 not foOow in the case of tf sale by^ a person not a horse-
Certain acts have been held to laH withm the exception as
ro vodtaa of neoeaBsty and charity, €.g. baking provfsiona for customers
Cb«t not faaldnff bread in the ordinary course of business}, running
^leNcoacliss, or hiring farm-labourers. The kf^ture also inter-
vened to obviate some <rf the inconveniences caused by the act.
By 10 WaL III. c xa .<i696} maclcerel was allowed to be sold before
a^ after mtrvkat. By II Will. IIL c ai (1699), forty watermen
«m« aBowed to ply on the Thamea on Sunday. By 9 Anne, c 2$
(1710), iift ■»■««< coachmen or chairmen mic^t be hired on Sunday.
Bw an act of 1794 (34 Geo. III. c. 61), baloers were allowed to bake
and adi bread at certain hours. ' Theie acts are all repealed. StiU
Ia««c the acts of 176a (a Geo. IIL c. 15 s. 7), allowing fish carriages
Ts cxsvd on Sonday in London and Westminster; 18^7 (8 Geo. IV.
r. 75), rcpeaKnc SL a of the act of 1677 as far as regards Thames
bMcnea. The Bread Acts of iSaa (3 Geo. IV. c 106) allow bakers
m Loodan, and of 1836 (6 & 7 Will. IV. c 37) aUow bakers out of
~ , to carry on their ttade up to 1.30 p.m. Since 1871, by an
xMitiaoed (34 & 35 Vict, c 87), no proseeudon or
penalties under the act of 1677 can be instituted
t vidi Che consent in wridng of the diief officer of a police dis-
> tJse consent of twp justices or a stipendia^ magistrate,
snnt he obtainfd before begmnmg the prosecutM)n, t.<. before
a;i^yii« lor a snmmoas (Vrnffer, PrieihuU, 1897. i, OB. 159).
The ace of 1871 does not apply to bicachea of the Bivad.Acta
(£. T. JTand. 190a. a K.B. 3ia).
A good znaiiy biOa have been Intzodiiced with respect to Sun-
day tradxns. Host have been directed to the dosing of pablie-
houaes on that day; but the Shop Houn Bill introduced in 1907
coniaiaed clanaes for dosiDg shops on Sundays, with the ezcep-
*^o. of cotain ipedfied trades. The xesolt of the act of 1871
d LoDdao has been in substance to make the Lord's Day acts
a dead fetter as to Sunday trading. The commissiooer of police
areiy if ever allows a prosecution for Sunday trading. Suaday
w>T%fft are usual in all the poorer districts, and .shopkeepers
cci hairicers are allowed freely to ply their trades for the sale
«f eataUes, tesipcrance drinks and tobacco. But the conditions
* It k t mi n u s that by an order in oouadl of Hen. VI. to regulate
1^ aanctnary of St Martin-le^Jrand it was provided that all aruncers
*— <»^ wioin the said aanctuar)^ (as well barbers as others) keep
i3*r the Snndays and other great festival days without br^ch or
laiai'iriiir their craft aa do the ddaens of Loodoa (Gomme, (tosens*
nsM ^ Zaadsn. 1907. P- 339).
anottsUy o
seedinn lor
of BotBcea for tfaesab of faitcnicants and for refttshmeht bonea
are strictly enforced with respect to Sunday. In districts
where the town coimcHs have oontrol of the police, prosecutions
for Sunday trading are not infrequent; but they seem to be
instituted rather from objection to the annoyance caused by
street traders than from letigiona scruples. The Hmitatioii of the
thne for pmaecutioa to ten days, and the necessity of the previous
consent oLthe chief consuUe, have a great effect in restricting
prosecutions. In moit districts there is a distinct disposition
to lefnin from enforcing the strict letter of the older hiw, and
to pennit the latitude of what ia described as th« " Contioental
Stinday," except xa the case of businesies carried on so as to
interfere with tiie public comfort. In most districts liberality
in admtnis^mtion has pragiessed ^ori paisu with a change ill
public opinion as to the uses to whkh Stinday may properly
beput; it is becoming less of a holy day and more of a holiday.
These is great activity among- those intcnsted in. different
theories aa to the proper use of Sundays. On the one side.
Lord's day observance societies and the organizations concerned
in the promotion of " temperance " («.«. of abstinence from
alcoholic drinks) have been extremely anxious to enforce the
existing kiw against Sunday trading and against the sale of
intoxicants to persons other than bona fide Uavellers, and to
obtain legislatbn against the sale of any alcohol on Sundays.
On the other side, the Sunday League and other Ukeorganiza*
tions have been active to organise lectures and concerts and
excursions on Sundays, and' to promote so far as possible every,
variety of recreation other than attendance at the esDcrcises of
any religious body. Travelling and boating on Sunday are
now freely resorted to,- regardless of any restrictions in the old
acts, and railway companies run their trains at all hours, the
power to run them being given by their special acts. Tnm-
can and omnibuses run fredy on Sundays, subject only to
certain lestrictiona. Hackney carriages « may in London ply
for'hire on Sundays (1 & 2 WiU. IV.. c 22).
Besides the general act of 1677, there are various acta dealing
with special trades; of these the Ucensing Acts and the Factory and
Workshop Acta are the m<^t important. By the Licensing Acts,'
187a and i874« premises licensed lor the sale of intoalcating nquovs
by retail are to be opoa on Sunday only at certain hours, prying
according* as the premises are situate in the metropolitan district,
a town or ^opuloos place, or dsewher& The hours may be varied
to fit in with the hours of religious worship in the district. Alt
exception is made in favour of a person lodging in the house or a
bona fide traveller, who may be served with refredunent during
prohibited hours, unless In a house with a dxday ficeooe. In thd
case <rf ttx-day licenoes, no sale of liquor may be made except to
penons lodging ia the house. Attem|>ts have often been made
to induce the legislature to adopt the principle of complete Sunday
ckKing in England as a whole, or in particular counties.' In the
session of 1880 a bill for Sunday doang in Durham was passed by the
Commons but rriected by the Lords. The advocates of Sunday
dosing in Wales have been more successful. The Sunday Closing
(Wales) Act 1881 contains no exo4>tions of towns and the only
exemption is the sale of intoxicating liquors at railway stations.
Public biniaid tables may not be used on Suaday (8 & 9 Vict. c. 109) .
The Factory and Workshop Act (1901) forbids the employment of
women, young persons or diildren on Sunday in a factory or work-
shop (s. 34). But a woman or young person of the Jewish rdigioa
may be employed on Sunday by a Jewish manufacturer if he keeps
hi^ factory or workshop closed throughout Saturday, and does not
open it for traflk: on sonday, and doea not avail himadf of the
excqitioas aathociziiig employment of women or young persons on
Saturday evening or for an additional hour on other weekdays
(ss. 47, 48). There are a few other legislative (Movisions of less
importance which may be noticed. Caxrying on the budness of a
pawnbroker on Sunday ia aa offence within the Pawnbrokers Act
187X Distilling and rectifying spirito on Suaday is forlndden by
the Spiriu Act 1880. The effect of Sunday upon bilb of exchange
is declared by the Bills of Exchange Act iKa. A bill is not invalid
by reason eniy of its bearing date on a Sunday (s. 13). Where the
UMt day of grace falls on a Sonday, the bill is payable on the pre-
ceding buatncss day (s. 14). Sanoay is a " non-busineas day " for
the purpoees of the act (s. 9a).
5'colbiid.^The two eailiest acts which dealt with Sunday
are somewhat out of hannony with the feneral legidation on
* The act 1 Tames T. c. 9 (now repealed) appears,' however, to have
provided lor cioaing ato-hoases in moat cases, except on uAal working
«UNDAY
the subject, Thtt of uSTi c 6, ordered the pnctke «( ucliery
on Sunday; that of 1526, c 3, allowed markets for the sale of
flesh to be held on Sunday at Edinburgh. Then came a loog
series of acU forbiddinf the profanation of the day, especially
by salmon-fishing, holding fairs and markets, and working in
mills and salt-pans. The act of Z579> c. 70, and x66x, c. x8,
prohibit handy kUwuring and working, and trading on the Sab-
bath. Under the act of 1579 the House of Lords in 1837 held
that it was illegal for barbers to shave their ctutomers on Sun^
days, although the deprivation of a shave might prevent decently
di^xised men from attending religions worship, or associating
in a becoming manner with their families and friends through
want of personal douliness. The later legislstion introduced
an exception in favour of duties of necessity and mercy, in accord-
ance with ch. szof the Confessioa ol Faith (1690,0. 5).
In more modem times the exigencies of tiax^ning have led to a
still further eMenaion of the exception. In theie acts the woid
Sabbath is generally used as in the G>mnionwealth ordinances.
The Sabbath Observance Acts were freouently confirmed, the last
time by the Scots parliament in 1696. The Scottish Episcopalians
Act 17x1 (10 Anne, c 10) contains a proviso that all the bws made
for the frequentina of divine service 00 the Locd's day commonly
called Sunday shall be still in force and esecnted against all poBons
who shall not resort either to some church or to some consregation or
assembly of religious worship allowed and permitted 6y this act.
The Scoto acts wereheld by the High Court of Justiciary in 1870 to
be still subsisting, as (ar as they declare the vkaepine open shop
on Sunday to be an offence by the bw of Scotland (Bute's Case,
1 Couper's Reports, 49$), but all except those of 1579 <^nd 1661 above
specibed were repealed in 1006. The Ltcenstng Scotland) Act 1903
provifles by the sqheduledf forms of certificate for the dosing on
Sunday of public-houses, and plaoes licensed for the sale of excisable
liquor, and m the case of mns and hotels forbids the tale of intoadcants
except for the accommodation of lodgers or travellers. There has
been litigation as to the legality of ninm'ng tram-cars on the Sabbath.
By the Herring Fishery (Scotland) Act 1813. s. 11, herring nets
set or hauled on the coast or within two leagues thereof on Sundays
are forfeited. By the Salmon Fisheries (Scotland) Act 1868. s. 15.
fishing for salmon on Sunday, even with a rod and line, is an offence,
as is taldng or attempting to take or assisting in fishine for salmon.
Aa to contracts and legal process, the law u in general accordance
with that of England. Contracts are not void^part from statute,
simply because they are made on Sunday. Diligence cannot be
executed but a warrant of imprisonment or nudUatic fupu is
•• enrdsable."
Irdcnd.^Jn Irehmd an act of 1695 {7 WOl. m. c. 17) coven
the same gfotmd as the English act of 1677, but the acts referred
to under England do not apply. An act of X851 (14 8c 15 V.
c 93, s. xx) provides for the issue and execution of warrants
for indictabk offences and search-warrants 00 Sundays. But
proceedings to obtain sureties for the peace taken on Sunday are
void. The Irish act of 1787 against killmg game on Sunday
(?7 (ko. m. c 35, s. 4) includes rabbits and quaH, landrail or
other wild fowL The Sunday dosing of public-houses with
exemptions as to certahi dtxes and as to raOway sutions,
packet-boats and canteens, is enforced by legislation of 1878,
continued annually until 1906 and then made perpetual with
certain modifications (1906, c. 39, a. z), and in the case of six-
day licences by acts of X876, X877 and i88a
In 1899 a race-course used for Sunday radng was dosed by
injunction as causing a i^uisance to the Stmday peace and quiet
of the neighbourhood and the services of the adjacent churches.
Where railway trains are run on Sundays one dieap train
each way is to be provided (7 & 8 Vict. c. 85, s. xo; repealed
in 1883 as to Great Britain).
British CoUmUs. — The English law as to Sunday observance
was the original law of the colonies acquired by settlement,
and in many of them so much of it as does not relate to the
Church of England is left to operate without colonial legislation.
In other colonies it is supplemented or supecKded by colonial
acts. Canada has an act (No. 27 of 1906) prohibiting aU buyfaig
and selling and all exercise by a man of his ordinary vocations
or business, either by himseli
day, except in case of works
Zealand an act of 1884 (c. 24
hibits the carrying on on Sue
the exceptions are numerous,
or chtfity, Indiide driving Kve stodt, sale of medidnes, sale
or delivery of milk, hairdressing or shaving before 9 a. m.,
driving public or private carriages, keeping livery subles,
workmg raflways, ships and boaU, and letting boau for hire,
and work in coimexion with post offices and telegraphs and
with daUy newspapers. (W. F. C.)
Pcrdgn Cotmfrtef.— Consequent on the faitroduction of a
Weekly Rest Day Bill (which obtained a second reading) in
the English House of Lords in 1908, a parliamentary paper was
published in 1909 (cd. 4468) containing " Reports from His
Majesty's Representatives Abroad as to Legislation in Foreign.
Countries Respecting a Weekly Rest Day." The principal
points are summarized below: —
ilitf/r*a.— Legialation is embodied in laws of 1895 and 1905.
which prohibit any industrial work on Sunday, rest on that day
beginnmg not later than 6 a.m., and lasting for not less than twenty-
four hours. Permission is given (or absolutely necessary work,
provided the empbycr' submits to the authorities a list giving the
names of the persons empbyed, and Uie place. duratk>n and nature
of thdr employment. S^unday work is permitted in ceruin indus-
tries. As to buying and aeUing. Sunday trading is permitted, for
not more than four hours, kxal authorities bemg the power for
arranging the time; they may also forbid Sunday trading altogether,
if they think it necessary. Traders who do not employ workmen
may not work for themselves unless the doors by which the public
may enter are closed. On feast-days, empk>yees must, according
to their respective religious bdiefs, be allowed the necessary time (or
attendance at morning service. Offences are punishable bv fine;
a warning, however, is given 00 the first offence, and the fine (4s. 2d.
for the first offence) rises for each subsequent offence.
Bdgium. — ^Laws of 1^ and 1907 forbid work on Sunday to per-
sons engaged in industnaland commercial enterprises, with certain
exce(>ti<ms, such for example, as industries which exist Only at
certain periods of the year^ or which have a press of work at certain
times, or open-air industries which depend on the weather.
Denmark. — ^The only legislation b a bw of 1904 oonoeming the
public peace on the National Church hdidays and Constitution Day.
It fcwbids all kindis of occupations, which, 00 aooount of noise, misbc
disturb the holiday's peace. In the larse towns carriage traffic lor
business purposes is also forbidden after 10 a.m.
France.— A law of the X3th of July 1906 established a weekly day
of rest, for every workman or employee of not less than twenty-
four consecutive hours. The weddy day of rest must be Sunday.
The law applies irrespective of the duration or character of the work
done, and to employees in all establishments of a oomnyaoal or
industrial character. There are certain necessary exceptions, such
as shops for retailing food, occupations in which pteoe, season, the
habits of the public. &c, make observance impossible, and in sudb
the weekly day -of rest must be given in roution to the employees
or a compensating holiday instead.
Germany. — Regulations as to Sunday rest are contained in the
Trade Regulations ipewerbeordnuni) of the a6th of July 1900. accord-
ing to wmch manufacturers cannot compel workmen to work on
Sundays or holidays, except in certain cases of necessity. Nor in
trading businesses may asMStants, apprentices or workmen be em-
ployed at an on Christmas Day, Easter Sunday and Whitsunday,
or on other Sundays and holidays more than five hours. The regula-
tions do not apply to hotels, caite. &c., <>r to theatre or other piaoe«
of amusement, or to means of oommunication. ^ Infringement of tk«
r^ulations is punishable by a fine, not excnrdrng 600 marka oc by
.mpnsonmsnt.
Araa^ofy.— By a Uw of 1891 and others of 190s and 190S al
industnal work is prohibited on Sundays and St Stephen's Day itru
patron saint of Hungary). Certain categories 01 industries an
exempted on account of necessity or the needs of the coosumini
public; independent small craftsmen who work at home withou
asustants are also exempted. The bw is enforced by the polto
authorities and infringement is punished by fine.
Italy. — ^A weekly rest day has been enacted by a bw of the 71!
of July 1907. Exceptions to the law are river, bke and m»ritim
navigation ; agricultural, hunting and fishing induttries ; state rail
ways and tramways and state public services and' Industrial under
Ukings.
Other European countries which have l^isUtion are the Ncthct
bnds (bw of 1889. as amended by a law of 1906: Spain (law c
March 1904, Regubtions of April 1905); and Switrerland (1906).
UniUd States.— In the United States there is no Federal Uw
the question of a rest day being left entirely to the state Icgv
Jktttrei, consequently ''there exists considerable diversity <
le old Quaker la^^ <
ig of the x8th centui
stem agricultural an
however, where it
who Is forced to woi
SUNDERLAND, 3RD EARL OF— SUNDERLAND, 2nd EARL OF 99
« Saoday slnll receive mnother equivalent day of rest." {Re^eH
4 SM. Ambaaadcr to Ou t/^. xid4 supra). In Massachusetto,
tUcb Bay be iairiy taken at lepitientmg the Eastern staiei»
pifaSc aemoe oorporationt, aiidi as railway, atieet xailwny,
steamboat, tdegnph, telephone, electric lighting, water and gas
conpanies, are permitted to serve the public in the usual manner.
Fohlic padss and baths are open. Tobacco nuy be sold by
kesMd iaabolderB, common victualleis, dniggista and news*
(kalea. Bake shops may be open during certain hours. AH
o(kr shops most be dosed. Saloons are dosed, and liquor can
be served oidy to the guests of licensed innh<4defs. Horses,
oniages, boats and yachts may be let for hire. AU games and
eateitaxnmenu, except Hcensed sacred ooncerU, are prohibited,
b Ctenecticnt Sunday recreation is still prohibited, but electric
ud steam can are allowed to run.- Sunday is a dose time for
gnae sod birds (1899). In many of the Western states base-ball,
ptflKs and vatioas entertsinments for pay are permitted, and
a some takxms are open, bi many but not all the states such
persons as by tiidr rdigion are accustomed to observe Saturday
m ifloved to pursue their ordinary business on Sunday, hk
Mivare and Illinois barbers may not shave customers on Sun-
days; snd m Georgia guns and pistols may not be fired (rSoS).
h North Dakota the fines for Sabbath-breaking have been
n ised.
SUIDBtLAlID, CHAS188 SFBHOBR, 310 Eau. ot (e. 1674-
1722), En^ish statesmsn, was the second son of the snd earl,
bat 00 the death of ha eider brother Henry in Parts in Septem-
ber 1688 he became heir to the peerage. Called by John Evdjm
"a foiith of extraordinary hopes," he completed his education
ai Utrecht, and in i69S-a>tered the House of Commons as mem-
ber hr Hverton. b the same year he married Arabella,
6sghter of Henry Cavendish, and duke of Newcastle; she died
B 1698 snd in 1700 he married Aime Churclull, daughter of the
iuBoai duke of Mariborough. This Was an important alliance
lor Sonderiand and for his descendants; through it he was
iBtTodcoed to political life snd bter the dukedom of Marl-
boTDQgh came to the Spencers. Having succeeded to the
pRizge in 1703, the earl was one of the commisnoners for the
■BOO between England and Scotland^ aid in 1705 he was sent
bo Vleona as envoy extraordinary. Although he was tinged
ind> repnhficxn ideas and had rendered himself obnoxioua to
(^ea Anne by opposing the grant to her husband. Prince
Ceuye, through the influence of Marlborou^ he was foisted
isto the nmiistry as secretary of state for the southern depart-
DCBt, taking^ office in December 1706. Fkom 1708 to 17x0 lie
«as Qoe of Uie five whigs, called the Junta, who dominated Uie
rnrenuaent, but he had many enemies, the queen still dislfted
bia, and in June 1710 he was dismissed. Aime offered him
a peasion of £3000 a year, but this he refused, saying " 9 he
odd not have tlie honour to serve his country he would not
plnderit."
Sunderland oontinued to take part in public Sfe, and wtt
ifthre hi oummum cating wi^ the court of Hanover about
t!ts sttps to be taken hi view of the approadiing death of
^ qceen. He made the acquaintance of George I. in 1706,
t«! when the elector became king the office which he secured
«is the comparativdy unimportant one of lord-Keutenant of
bdaad. In August 17x5 he joined the cabinet as lord keeper
«' the privy seal, and after a visit to George I. in Hanover he
ktaicd in April x 71 7 the portion of secretary of state for the
:ar:beni dqnrtment. This he retained until March 17 rS, when
b became first kn4 of the treasury, holding also the post of
krd pre^dent of the conndL He was now prime minister,
^^edeiind was especially hiterestcd in the proposed peerage
^ a measwe dfwgpcd to limit the number of members of the
Hbw oI I«c^» ImC tt5» ivas defeated owing partly to the opposi-
'in rf Itir HJafrK Wilf I ill He was stm at the head of affairs
' I bubble burst and this led to his political
Mne part in launching the scheme of 1720,
1 finandafly by it; however, public opinion
Bm and it was only through the efforts
^ Sfr SIHH^BBia ^i be was acquitted by the House of
Commons, when the matter wis investigated. In April 17a] he
reafgned his offices, but he retain^ Us Infiuence with George L
until his death on the xgtb of April 17SS.
SuadeHand ioherited hia father's paaaion for intrigue, while hia
naahen were lepeUing, but he standa high among his aasodatea
for diainteiestedneaa and had an alert and diaoerning mind. From
hia eariy yeara he had a great love of books, and he sjpent his leisure
and hia wealth in forming the fibrary at Althorp, which in 1703 was
described as " the fineat in Europe." In 1749 part of it was fejmyvea
to Blenheini*
The eari's aecond wife having died in April 1716. after a career
of cooaiderable influence on the political life of her tune, in 1717 be
married an Irish lady of fortune, Judith Tichbome (d. 1749). By
Lady Anne Chuidiilf he had three tons and two daugfatera. Robert
(1701-^x730), the eldest aon, aageeeded as 4tfa eail, and Charies
(<706*t7S8), the aecond smu became the 5th earL In 1733 Charles
inherited the dukedom of. Marlborough and he then tranaerred the
Sunderiand estates to hia brother John, father of the tat Eari Spencer
(aee MARLaoiouoH, Eabls and Dukbs op).
For the career of Sunderlaad see W. CoBce^ Jtfamdra 0/ Jfoi "
(1847-^849); Earl Stanhope. Hittofy ef SngjUuid (1853), and 1. 9w
Leadam, Politkai History tifEutfani, 1709-1760 (1909).
SmfllBRlASD^ R09BR1L8PBHGBB, smd Eau. or (1641^1703),
En^ish politician, was the oidy son nf Henry Spencer (i6a»<
1643), who succeeded his father, William, as 3rd Baron Spencer
of Wormleii^n in 1636. This baioiqr had been bestowed in
1603 upon Sir Robert Spencer (d. 1627), the only aon.of Sir John
Spencer (d. x6oo) of Althorp, Northamptonshire, who claimed
descent from the baronial family of Deqsenser. The fortttnes
of the family were founded by Sir John Spencer (d. issa) of
Snitterfieid, Warwickshire, a wealthy iprasicr. Hia descendant,
Sir Robert Spencer, the xst baron, wfts in 1603, "^reputed to
^ve by him the most mon^ of any person in the kingdouL"
Sir Robert's grandson, Henry, the 3xd baron, was created earl
of Sunderland hi June 1643, uid was killed at the battle of
Newbory when fighting for the king ft littk later in the same year.
He married Dorothy (16x7-1684), daughter el Robert Sidney,
snd eari of Ldoestcr. She was the Saefufissa of the poems
of her admirer, Edmund Waller, and for her second husband
she msrried Sir Robert Sniythe. Theur son Robert, the and earl,
was educated abroad and at Christ Church, Oxford, and in
i66s married Aime (d. 17x5), daui^ter of John Digby, 3rd earl
of Bristol; she was both a beauty and an heiress, and la also
famous for her knowledge and love of intrigue. Having passed
some time in the Court drde, Sunderiand was socoessivdy
ambassador at Madrid, at Paris and at Cologne; in 1678 he was
again ambiiaador at Parift, In Pcbruaiy 1679, when the ooontry
was agitated by real or f anded dangers to the Protestant religion,
the cad entered political life as secretary of state for the northern
department and became at onoe a member of the amall cKque
responsible for the government of the country. He voted for
the exdusion of James, duke of York, from the throne, and
made overtures to William, prince of Orange, and consequently
in x68x he lost both his secretaryship and his scat on the privy
council. Early in 1683, however, through the influence of the
king's mistress, the duchess of Portsmouth, Sunderiand regained
his place as secretary for the northern department, the chief
feature of his term of office being his rivalry with his brother-
in-law, George Savile, marquess of Halifax. By this time he
had made his peace with the duke of York, and when in February
1685 James'became king, he retained his position of secretary,
to which was soon added that of lord president of the council.
He carried out the wishes of the new soverdgn and after the
intrigues of a iew months he had the satisfaction of securing
the dismissal of Lawrence Hyde, earl of Rochester, from his
post as lord treasurer. He was a member of the commission
for ecdeaiastical causes, and although afterwards he claimed that
he had used all his influence to dissuade James from removing
the tests, and in other ways illegally favouring the Roman
Catholics, he signed the warrant for the committal of the seven
bishops, and appeared as a witness against them. It should be
mentioned that while Sunderland was thus serving James II.,
he was receiving a pension from France, and through his wife's
lover, Henry Sidney, afterwards earl of Romney, he was furnish-
ing WlUam of Oimnge with particnlan about affairs in KngJMid.
100
SUNDERLAND
Ifl tke last months o£ Jamet's reign be wu obviously unooBfoct*
abb. Although he had in 1687 openly embraced the Roman
Catholic faith, he hesitated to commit himsdf entirely to the
tcU o( the fierce devotees who sunDunded the king, whom he
advised to reverse the arbitrary acts of the last year or two, and
in October 1688 he was dismissed by James with the remark
'* I hope you wiU be more faithful to your next master than you
have been to me." , ^ „ .
Sunderland now took refuge in Holland, and from Utrecht
he soo^t to justify his recent actions in A letter to a friend wi the
country. He had been too deeply involved in the arbitrary
acts of James II. to find a place at once among the advisers of
William and Maty, and he was excepted from the act olindemnity
of x6go. However, in 1691, he was permitted to return to Eng-
land, and he declared himself a Protestant and began to attend
the sittings of parliament. But his experience was invaluable
and soon he became prominent in public affairs, a visit which
William IIL paid him at Althoip, his Northamptonshire seat,
in 1691, being the prelude to histecall into the royal counsels.
It was his advice which led the king to diooee aU his mimaters
from one political party, to adopt the modem system, and he
managed to effect a lecondKation between William and his
Bstcr-in-law, the princess Anne. From April to December 1697
he discharged the duties of ferd chamberlain, and for part of
this time he was one of the lords jusUoes, but the general suspicion
with which he was rcprded terrified him, and in December he
resigned. The rest ol his life was passed in seclusion at Althorp,
where he died on the aSth of September 170J. The earl was a
great gambler, but he was wealthy enough also to apejd money
on improving his house at Althorp, which he beautified both
within and without. His only surviving son was Chaxlea Spcaoer,
5id call of Sunderland (9^.).
Lord Sunderland poasessed a keen intellect and was amsumcd
by intense lestkssnos; but hischaracter was wanting in stead-
fsstnes, and he yieWed too easfly to opposition. HIsadioitn«8
in intrigue andhis fsyinating manners were exceptional even to
mtH^wktn nuA quaUties formed part of every statesman s
edu^don; but the characteristica which ensured hun success
S^hTSise of Lo«ls and in the Ko«l doset led to f aduie m
ysattcMts to understand the fedings of the massofhiscountry-
-^raSrtency of condBct was m>t among the objects which
he aiiiwl at, aor did he shrink fitwi thwartingTxf seoet a pohcy
wLh he «|iport«J i* I~Wi<^ A large A« of theAsaedit
ttSbg toSTmeasures oljames n. most be assigned to the
"^be* arcane <^ S^^^'*^ j"^^^^, '^' ^***«*' ^
Ifce I>«iL JTit .»«»• whkh give, a f ufl bihliogfaphy.
SUmBLUnH a seaport and municipal, county and parlU-
J^^^ o£ DiAam. En^and, at the mouUi of ^e
^^'t^^iht North-Eastem tailway, 261 m- N. by W.
k^i^^lJ^Ycp. (189O, 131.686: (1901) u6/>77. The
h^-^b^^ thTtownship of Bishopwcannouth.lo the souUi
uL-^l^Tp^^X^^ ^ on.the south b^ olthe
?.- aza tjj^ rfMonkweannduth, on the north bank.
/l' iJn^ tt^iwtaxiDouth on the north-west is the exten-
t:r^ iL^^izi^ of Southwick, within the P^J^-^lw
t" IX A z?«it cast-iron bridge crosses the nvcr with a
^ .ie'^V;^ ft, a«3 a hdght of 100 ft. above low water
t ilv^ r-u^i by Ronlind Burdon, opened m 1796. ^^
V^i^^^^^^:^ of Robert Stepteison in 1858
--.f ' - - -2 of a-ViT-^rian iiitcrest b the church of St
?' ./ y^l^^^I^jr^Jh, in whkh part of the tower and other
l-^^'i^J^T^lit S«oo bdldiBg attached to the
i-li«^, C.^^: by Bo^ct Bisect, in 674- Tl»e churA of
^■' ' iLk' i.^-::^-r4r»:-ih, is oa an andent site, but is a
I'.'"-- -z A lie :-/.]5 ccriv-ry. Tb«ie b a large park at
i V"^'^' ti* =crJ:^ct3t a ibc towm a favourite seaside
rir-" J^ ;=..--« c-brr p^ro that at Bisfcopwearmooth
bourkood. the exicteoce of which gave rise to an export tiade in the
reign of Henry Vll., which has erown to great importance Manu-
r.^.i^tnA ;n«iiie«YMa inMiirff^ fthinhiiiMiitff. iron and stcd workA
worka ana paper nuus. ljidcsuiik: u wgay wwi«w. . «. a —.
above iu mouth the Wear resembles on a reduced scale the Tyne
in its lower course. The harbour is constantly undergoing um)ro\'e-
ment The docks cover an area of upwards of 200 acres, and there
are several graving docks no to 44( ft. in length. The pwiamentary
boiough returns two membera. The muwcipal borough is undera
mayor, 16 aldermen and 4a councillors, and has an area ol 3357
acres.
Yit:zsy Havdock, who was boni
-rbcod.
The history of Sunderland is complicated by the name Wear-
mouth {WiramuA, Wermuih) being applied impartially to the
Monk's town on the north bank of the Wear; the Bishop's
town on the south and the neighbouring port now known as
Sunderiand. In both Monk's and Bishop's Weannouth the
settlement was connected with the church. Benedict Biscop
in 674 obtained from Ecgfrith king of Northumbria seventy
hides of Und on the north bank of the river, on which he founded
the Benedictine monastery of St Peter. Not more than a year
after the foundation Benedia brought over skilled masons and
glass-workers from Gaul who wrou^t his church in the Roman
fashion, the work being so speedily done that Mass was celebrated
there within the year. A subsequent visit to Rome resulted
in a letter from Pope Agatho exempting his monastery from all
external control. lAter Benedict acquired three hides on the
south side ol the river. The abbey, where Bede was educated,
was destroyed by the Danes and probably not rebuflt until
Bishop Walcher (1071-1081) settled Aldwin and his companions
there. They found the walls in rums from the ne^ect ol 208
years, but the diurch was soon rebuilt. Bishop William of
St Carileph (1081-1099), desiring to acquire the possessions of
the house for his new foundation of Durham, transferred the
monks there, Weannouth becoming henceforward a ceQ of the
larger house. Meanwhile Bishop's Wearmouth was becoming
important, having been panted to the bishops by iEthelstao
in 930. As a posKssicn of the see it is mmtion rd in Boldon
Book in conjunction with Tunstafl as an ordinary rural viK
rendering one milch oow to the bishop, while the demesne
and iu mill tendered iao, the fisheries £6 and the borough of
Wearmouth 20s. There seems no doubt but that the borough,
identical with that to which Bishop Robert de I^nset granted
his charter, was in reality Sunderland, the name Wearmouth
bemg used to cover Bishop's and Monk's Weannoath and th«
modem Sunderland. It was from Weamouih tJhat Edgai
iEtheling set saQ lor Scotland, the account implying that this
was a frequented port. Ittii97 the town of Wearmouth rendered
37s. 4d. tallage during the vacancy of the see, and in 1306-130;
the assessment of a tenth for Bishop*s Wearmouth was £5, 5Sw 4d.,
whae that of Monk's Wearmouth waa£x, 6s. 8d. Probably ih4
northern town remained entirely a g rimltur a l , while the shipping
trade ol Bishop's Wearmouth was steadily increasing. In ijS^
what was piob^ a dock there Rfldeaed as, and in 1385 tb
issues of the town were worth iAi»9^ sd-annnally. In 1431
the rent of assise from the demesne lands oC Monk's WearmouU
was£5,ia.od. A further contrast is shown by the number a
houseling persons, or those who received ibe sacrament, retuniej
in 1548: Bishop's Wearmouth had 700 ««1 Monk's Wearmout]
300. From this time, at least. Bishop^ Weannouth seems ti
have been completely identified with Sondedand: in is^
Wearmouth was one ol the three ports m Durham where pri
cantiow were to be taken against pintes, while no menUon ]
node of Sunderland. Monk's WcazmoeCh roMined purd,
agricultural until 1775, **« * Aipb^adfag yarf was estafc
Sed and prospered to sack an estcwft that by X795 ^V
similar yards were at work. » . d
The Boldon Book states that S^drfsnd was al £annmug
JtSStTiiSiDingsa-ithrt— ciS-d^
58 shillings taBage in 1197 *«!■« *^ J"^? !c^.^J
HgTrhS^tovin hcW the l«^
te rent, courts «*d tolk^ w«ty^^«;^^^^
.^ sedevacnnje. gm-eda ^'igjtft ~t o^
SUNDEW
lOI
■kb dmpped to £4 u> 1590. Bfahap Moiton JnoMponud
Sand ffbn d ia i634t stating that it had been a borough from
lime iaimrmoiial under the name of the New Borough of Wear-
■ottih. This charter lapsed during the Civil Wars, when the
bonxigb vas sold with the manor of Houghton-le-Spiing for
l^Sh 9&- 6d. Nevertheless the inhabitants retained fhdr
tiifau. SonderlaiKi became a (MLrliamentary borough returning
two members in 1834. The charter of 1634 granted a market
aad ajuuud fair which are still held. The dharter of Bishop
Hagb provided for pleas between burgesses and foreign mer-
(kois, and directed that merchandise brought by sea should
be luded before sale, except in the case of salt and herrings.
Bishop HatSeld gave a lease of the fisheries in 1358. In the
19^ ceolury commissions were held touching aalmon<fisheriet
aad oUiractions in the Wear, while Bishop Barnes (x 577-1587)
appoioicd a water-bailiff for the port, and licensed the building
di wharves for the sale of coal. During the 17th century
SttBdrrUnd was the seat of a vice-admiralty court for the county
fihtiat and in 1669 letters patent permitted the erection of a
pa aad Uglitliouse as the harbour was " very oommodiously
ttBite for the shipping of vast quantities of sea-coles plentifully
ftlcD lod wrought there."
See WHfiam Hutchinson, History and AnHomties ef the County
faktmcfDurkmm (Newcastle, 178S~I794): J- W. Summeri, History
udAMuraties iff Snuderlamd (Sunderland, 1858); Victoria County
nnnffW* in botany, the popular name for a genus of plants
kaovsasDroMTACGr. 5p6a»;,dew; Fr. r^ua/u, (}er. SonnaUkau)
KcaOed fiom the drops of v^dd transparent glittering secretion
boott by the tentacles which cover the leaf-surface. It is a
osanpditan grans of slender glandular herbs, with leaves
maaged ia a basal rosette or alternately on an elongated step,
ad iiicpresented in Britain by three spcdes, which are found
iaipQBg^bo0i and heaths.
The conraon sundew (D. rohmdifoUa) has extremely small roots,
ad bean 6ve or aix radical leaves horizoouny extended in a rosette
wwad the fiower-stalk. The upper auciace of each leaf is
ntmd vith gland-bearing filaments or " tentacles," of which
tWn are on an averaee about two hundred. Each gland is
anottfl de d fay a large dew-like drop of the viscid secretion. A
— " "^ ' r baiidle (6, fig. 3, B), consisting mainly of m»ral
Fta I. — ^Lcsf of Sundew (prosera rotundifUia).
. rum vp throagh the stalk of the tentacle and Is surrounded
y a layer of tWyated parenchyma odls outside of which is the
^'^ " fitted with a homogeneous fluid tinted purple by a
r <€ cidomphyll (eryhrophyll). The epidermis bears small
*"" ""^^ ei^ The glandular head of the tentacle
_ _ ,._ I of sphally tWckencd crJIs (trachetds) in
jtaCMMMilCwflhthe opper end of the fibrovascniar bundle.
IffSSBSttBiSf^^ ^*^ colguikas thin walled <eUs which
diorter time, over inorganic bodies. Alter Danria.
The benduig of the tentacle takes r,^ . t „f c e j
place near itf base, and may be Jj^:/''!^^'''!^'^'
Srited (I) by repeated toi^hes, ^' ^^hL J^SjS'^
although not by g!irts of wind or ?" |1~ J**t^^Sl/*^
drops of tain, thus saving the plant fuj^zj^ ™*^ P**^ ^
from much oselesa movement; (2) by
contact with any solid, even though insoluble and of far greater
minuteness than could be appreciated by our sense of touch—
a mond of human hair weighing only ^)«, of a grain, and this
(After Dodd-Poct.)
Fic. 3.— <;iands of Sundew „
A, External aspect with drop of secretion
I, Internal structure.
largely supported too by the viscid secretion, sufficing to induce
movement: (3)by the absorption of a trace of certain fluids, mostly
nitrogenous. During the inflexion of the tentacle, and even before
it touches the stimulating object, the secretion of the gland increases
in quantity, and, instead of remaining neutral, becomes acid. The
secretion contains a digestive enzyme which renders soluble the
nitrogenous substances of the insect's body:
these are then absorbed through thin-walled
cella at the base of the gland. After absorp>
tion the tentacles recurve and the Inf
assumes its normal appearance.
Closely allied to Drosera is DrosopkyUum
lusitanicum, which catches such vast numbers
of flies in a state of nature that the Portuguese
cottasers call it the fly-catcher, and hang up
branches of it in their houses for this purpose.
Its long narrow leaves are thkkly covered
with stalked glands, which resemble in the
main the tentacles of Drosera, save in that
they are incapable of movement, and that
the secretion is less viscid and freely leaves _ n ^ ^
the gland to wet the insect, which, creeping , ''l^' J-'~\^, "
onward, soon clogs its wings and dies. There Lea/ ol DrosopkyUum
are, moreover, many minute colourless sessile tusttanuum.
glands, whkh, when stimulated by the absorption of nitrogenous
matter, excrete an acid digestive secretion similar to that of the
sundew, by means of winch tha body of the captured insect is
I02
SUNDSVALL— SUNFLOWER
tUNDSVALL. a seaport of Sweden in the district {tan) of
Vestemorrland, on a wide bay of the Baltic, at the north of
the Selinger River, 360 m. N. by W. of Stockholm, the terminus
of a branch from Ange on the northern railway. Pop. (1900),
14,831. It was rebuilt in brick and stone after a destructive
fire in x888. In the town and its vicinity are numerous steam
saw-mills, besides wood-pulp factories, steelworks, brickworks,
engineering shops, breweries and joineries, but Sundsvall owes
its chief importance to its export trade in timber (6 to 7 million
cub. ft. annually), the bulk of which goes to Germany, France
and Great Britain.^ It also exports wood-pulp, iron and fish.
There is a special t'rade with Finland. The harbour, which is
usually dosed by ice from about, the middle of December to
the second week in iSlay, is sheltered against the east winds by
a group of islands.
8UKFISH, a ^ame chiefly and properly applied to a marine
fish {Orthagoriscus) of the order Plectognathi, which by its large
size, grotesque appearance and numerous peculiarities of organi-
zation has attracted the attention equally of fishermen as of
naturalists. Only two species are known, the rough or short
sunfish (0. fiio/a), which is found in all seas of the temperate
and tropical zones; and the smaller and scarcer smooth or oblong
sunfish (0. ^iMco/Mj), of which only a small number of specimens
have been obtained from the Atlantic and Indian oceans.
Sunfishes have the appearance of tailless fish. This is due
to the extreme shortening of the caudal region which is sup-
ported by only a few short vertebrae; the caudal fin is absent,
what appears to be a tail being formed by the confluence of
dorsal and ventral fins: pelvic fins are aj^ wanting. The anterior
parts of the dorsal and ventral fins are high* and broad, similar
to each other in size and triangiilar in form. The head is com-
pletely merged in the trunk, the boundary between them being
indicated only by a very small and narrow giU-opening and a
comparatively small pectoral fin. This fin can be of but little
use in locomotion, and the horizontal and vertical movements
of the fish, as well as the maintenance of its body in a vertical
position, are evidently executed by the powerful dorsal and anal
fins. The small mouth, situated in front of the head, is armed
with an undivided dental plate above and below, similar to but
weaker than the teeth of the gbbe-fish (Diodon).
Sunfishes are truly pelagic, propagating their species in the
open sea, and only occasionally approach tBe cosft^ Diliing
the stormy season tt " • •• - *.»-..-.:-
bright weather the]
their dorsal fin high
to the popular name " sunfish," a term also sometimes iipplied
to the basking-shark. In some years the rough sunfish is
by no means scarce on the south coast of England and on the
Irish coasts, where it appears principally in the summer months.
The usual size is from 3 to 4 ft. in length, but this species
attains to 7 ft. and more. One of the largest specimens (shown
in the figure) was cai^t near Portland (Dorsetshire) in 1846,
and is now in the British Museum; its length is 7 ft. 6 in. The
sunfish has no economic value, and is rarely, if ever, eaten.
Whibt the rough sunfish has a granulated, rough, shagreen-
like skin, the second q>ecies (0. Iruncalus) has the surface of
the body smooth and polished, with its small dermal scutes
arranged in a tesselated fa^ion. It is oblong in shape, the
body being much kxnger than it is deep. The sides toe finely
ornamented with transverse silvery, black-edged stripes running
downwards to the lower part of the abdomen. It has not
been found to exceed 2 ft. in length. Only a few specimens have
been captured on the coasts of Europe, at the Cape of C^ood
Hope and off Mauritius.
SUNFIX)WER. The oommon sunflower, known botanically
as Hdiantkus annuusy a member of the natural order Compositac,
is a native of the western United States. It is an annual herb
with a rough hairy stem 3 to xa ft. high, broad coarsely toothed
rough leaves 3 to 12 in. long, and heads of flowers 3 to 6 in. wide
in wild specimens and often a foot or more in cultivated. Double
forms are in cultivation, one (ghbosus jistulosus) having very
large globular heads. The plant is valuable from an economic as
well as from an ornamental point of view. The leaves are used
as fodder, the flowers yield a yeUow dye, and the seeds contain
oil and are. used for food. It is cultivated in Russia and other
parts of Europe, in Egypt and India and in several parts of
E^^land hundreds of plants are grown on sewage farms for the
seeds. The yellow sweet oil obtained by compression from the
seeds is considered equal to olive or ahnond oil for table use.
Sunflower oilcake is used for stock and poultry feeding, and
largely exported by Russia to Denmark, Sweden and elsewhere.
The genus Hdiantkus contains about fifty species, chiefly nati\*es
of North America, a few being found in Peru and Chile. They
are tall, hardy annual or perennial herbs, several of which arc
well known in gardens where they are of easy cultivation in
moderately good soil. H, decapetalus is a perennial about s ft,
high with solitary heads about 2 in. across in slender twiggy
branchlets; H. multijlorus is a beautiful spedes with several
handsome double varieties; H. orygalis is a graceful perennial
6 to 10 ft. high, with droopmg willow-like leaves and numcroxis
comparativdy small yellow flower-heads. H. atrorubens, bettei
known as Harpalium rigtdum, is a smaller plant, 2 to 3 ft. high,
the flower heads of which have a dark red or purple disk and
yellow rays. There are many fine forms of this now, some oi
which grow 6 to 9 ft. high and have much larger and finer flowen
than the type. Other fine spedes are H. giganleus, xo to 12 ft.
H, laetijlorus, 6 to 8 ft., and H, tnoUiSt 3 to 5 ft. H. tubfrossn
is the Jerusalem artichoke.
Since the word " stmflower," or something corresponding t<
it, existed in English literature before the mtroduction o
Hdiantkus annuus, or, at apy rate, before its general diffusioi
in English gardens, it is obvious that some other flower mus
have been intended. The marigold {Calendula officinalis) i
considered by Dr Prior to have been the plant intended bj
Ovid {Met. iv. 26^270) —
"... nia Buum, quamvis radice tenetur,
Vertitur ad solem; mutataque servat amorem "—
and likewise the solsaece of the Anglo-Saxon, a word equivalcn
to sdsequium (sun-following). But this movement with th
sun is more imaginary than real, the better explanation for th
application of the name to a flower being afforded by the re
semblance to "the radiant beams of the sun," as Oerari
expresses it. The rock-rose (Hdiantkemum vulgare) was aJs
termed sunflower in some of the herbals from its flowei
he sunshine. AciineUa grandijlara, a pr^it
in. high, from the Colorado mountains, j
sy sunflower.
SUNIUM— SUNNITES
103
iOnini (Zgtwar; mod. Cftpe C6lonna), » cape at the
•ootbern extrexnity of Attica, with a temple of IVsddon upon
It, which serves as a landmark for all ships approaching Athens
froB the cast. 1^ rocky promontory *oi» which the teiiq>le
tfiads was fortified fay a wall with towers, hi 413 b.c, as a
protection against the Spartans in Decelea^ but it was soon after
seiccd by a body of fugitive slaves from the Lauriiun mines.
In the 4th oeniuiy it was still kept up as a fortress. The temple
■as ahawB by an inscription found in 1898 to be dedicated to
^nddoB, not, as formerly supposed, to Athena, the remains
«f whose temple are to be seen about a quarter of a mile away
to the north-east; they are of a peculiar plan, consisting of a haU
with a coloiinade oa two aides only. The extant temple on the
prcimoatovy was probably buOt in the time of Perides. It took
the place of an earlier one, of similar proportions but built of
tda or ** poros " stone. There are still standing nine columns
cf the sovtb side and two of the north of the peristyle, and ene
of the ami<t€ and an inner cohmm of the pronaos. They are
boOt of local white marble, which has suffered much from the
weathet'. In form they resemble those of the Parthenon and
TheseuBi, bat they have only sixteen flutings. Recent excava-
tioas have revealed porticoes, a gateway and other buildings,
and also the remains of several colossal early statues, the best
pieservcd of which is now in the museum at Athens. The site
of Cape Cbkmna is extolled by Byron, and is the scene of
FaJmo^ - Shipwreck." (E. Gk.)
SOm, or ImfiA Hexp {CroHolaria juncea), a plant which is
a native of India and Ceylon. It frequently receives other
aunes, c^. false hemp, brown hemp, Bombay berop, Jubbulpore
heaip, Sana, ftc The plant b an annual, requires a light soil,
xcd is easily cultivated. The ground is ploughed two or three
times, and from 80 to xoo lb of seed are sown broadcast. The
Kcdiings qnickly appear above the surface, but it is about four
■KNiths before the plant begins to flower. Sometimes the seed
is sown in October for the winter crop, and sometimes in May
cr June for the summer crop. When the seeds are sown in
Hay, the bri^t yellow flowers appear fai August, when the plant
cay be gathered. It is not unusual, however, to defer this
cpnatJoii until the seed is ripe, especially if a fibre of great
ttrength is desired. The stems may be puUed up, as is the case
with 5aZy or they may be cut down. Different opinions exist
as to whether the stems should be steeped immediately after
they are pulled, or left to dry and then steeped: in the wet dis-
tricts they are taken direct to the water. Since the root ends
are much thicker and coarser than the tops, it is common to
pjrcc the bundles erect, and to immerse the root ends in about
a foot of water. Afterwards the bundles are totally immersed
iL the pon^, and in two to four days the fibre should be ready
lur stripping. There is the same danger of over-retting and under-
Rtting as in other fibres, but when the retting is complete, the
workmen enter the poods, take iip a handful of stems, and swish
them upon the surface of the water until the fibre becomes loose.
AJter the fibre has been peeled off it is hung over poles to dry.
M'hen intended for ck>th it is combed in order to remove any
iorciga matter, but if it is intended to be used for rope or similar
p&rposes, the fibres are simply separated and the woody matter
csmbed out with the fingers. The fibre is of a h'ght grey colour,
and has an average length of 3 to 4 ft. It is extensively used
lor rope and cordage and also for paper-making in its native
co^try, but it has made little, if any, progress in talis country.
Acconiing to Warden, the fih» was tried in Dundee in the
beginning of the 19th century. About 1820 the price of India
hemp bagging, as quoted in the Dundee Advertiser, was i|d.'
per yard below bemp bagging, and |d. a yard below tow warp
h«ing.
It k soted in Sir G. Watc*s Diettcmry eUhe B<oHomk Products,
tf Indim that a cord 8 in. in siac of best Fetenri>uiir hemp broke
«nh 14 tons, 8cwt. x qr., while a Mmilar rope of «unn only gave way
•kh 1% toQS, 7 cwt. I k^. Roxburgh's experiments with ropes made
ina tats and other fibres appear oo p. 607 of the above work. The
Mm wBf* toted la the fnish state, and also after having been im-
fiw no days. His results, reproduced in the
Mim»«ltkirtaata^
' JUi;i«iWi^awMik«di«ttiih.l>«k.. 1
Wkaifmk.
Alter no d^mMMn.
WUte.
Tuned.
Ttiwd.
White. [Tiiii>«l|Ttet^
English hemp, a piece of
new tiller-rope . .
I««
-
-
Rotten, aa was also
the EngUsh log-line.
Hemp from the East
nearCafcutU. . .
1"
Ij9
45
All rotten.
Sunn hemp of the Be»
gafc«
J 68
69
60 !lottec
5«
65
lute CBHi«hi.pit) . .
68
-iSL
61
40
-iSL
60
It would appear that, after maceration, neither ordinary hemp nor
una hemp can compare with jute for strength.
literally, <* tfaoee of the path," nmnat U. followeis
of the Prophet's directknis, the name of one of the two main
divisions of Uam, the other being' the SbTites (9.9.). The
Smmltes, who accept the orthodox tradition {Simna) as well
as the Koraifc as a source of theologico^juristic doctrines, pre-
domiiuite hi Arabia, the Turkish Empire, the north of Africa,
Turkestan, Afghanistan and the Mahommedan parts of India
and the east of Asia; the Shf rtes have their main seat in Pershi,
where their confession Is the state religion, but are also scattered
over the whole sphere of Islam, especiatty in India and the regions
boftlering on Persia, except ainong the nomad Tatars, who ate
all nominally Sunnite. Even in Turkey there are many nati^
Shfites, generally men of the upper classes, and often men in
high ofiice (see generally Mabommeoan Reugion).
Orthodox Idam preserves unchanged the fmm of doctrine
established in the loth century by Aba *1-Qasan al-Ash*aif
(see ABH*Aitl). The attacks of rationalism, aided by Greek
philosophy, were repelled and vanquished by the weapons of
scholastic dialectic borrowed fnmi the enemy; on most points
of dispute discussion was forbidden altogether, and faith ia
what is written in Koma and tradition was enjoined without
questmn as to how these thhigs were true {bUd kaifa). Freer
allegorical views, however, were admitted on some spedaNy
perplexing pdnts, such as the doctrine of the eternity of the
Koran, the crude anthropomorphisms of the sacred text, &c.;
and, since Mo*tazilite (Mu*taziltte) views had never taken deep
root among the masses, while the caliphs required the help of
the clergy, and from the time of Mouwakkil (a.d. 847) became
ever more closely bound to orthodox views, the freethinking
tendency was thoroughly put down, and to the present day
no rationaUzing movement has failed to be crushed in the bud.
Phflosophy still means no more than scholastic dialectic, and
is the humble servant of orthodoxy, no man veniuring on deviou$
paths except in secret. In the years 1872-1878 the Afghan
Jamil ud-Din, a professor in the Azhar mosque at Cairo, at*
tempted to read Avicenna with his scholars, and to exercise
them in things that went beyond theology, bringing, for example,
a globe into the mosque to explain the form of the earth. But
the other professors rose in arms, forbade him to enter the
mosque, and in 1879 procured his exile on the pretext that be
entertained democratic and revolutionary ideas. Thus the
Later movements of thought in Islam never touch on the great
questions that exercised Mahommedanism in its first centuries*
e.g. the being and attributes of God, the freedom of the will,
sin, heaven and hell, &c. ReUgious earnestness, ceasing to
touch the higher problems of q>eculative thought, has exproscd
itself in later times exclusively in protest against the extrava-
gances of the dervishes, of the worship of saints, and so forth,
and has thus given rise to movements analogous to Puritanism.
That even in early times the masses were never shaken in
their attachment to the traditional faith, with all its crude and
grotesque conceptions, is due to the zeal of the trr tmj.
ulcma (clergy). Mahommedanism has no priest-
hood standing between God and the congregation, but Koran
and Sunna are full of minute rules (or the detalb 6f private
104
SUNNITES
and dvil U(e, the Vnowledge of which is necessarily in the hands
of a dass of professed theologians. These are the 'vlemA {q.vX
"knowers," theology being briefly named "the knowledge"
Ctfm). Their influence is cnonnous and hardly has a parallel
in the history of religions. For it is not supported by temporal
agencies like the spiritual authority of the Christian priesthood
in the middle ages, but is a pure power of knowledge over the
ignorant masses, who do nothing without consulting their
spiritual advisers. When the vigorous Spanish sultan Man$Qr
b. Abl 'Amir proposed to conflscate a religious foundation and
the assembled ulemi refused to approve the act, and were
threatened by his vixier, one of them replied, " All the evil
you say of us applies to yourself; you seek unjust gains and
support your injustice by threats; you take bribes and practise
ungodliness in the world. But we are guides on the path of
righteousness, lights in th» darkness, and bulwarks of Islam;
we decide what is just or unjust and declare the right; through
us the preoepU of religion are maintained. We kftow that the
auUan will soon think better of the matter; but, if he persists,
every act of his government will be null, for every treaty of
peace and war, every act of sale and purchase, is valid only
through our testimony." With this answer they left the
assemb^, and the sultan's apology overtook them before they
had pascd the palace gate.' The same consciousness of inde-
p«aHient authority and strength still survives among the ulemft.
ThiB the sheikh ul-IsUm 'AbbAsI (who was deposed by the
piofcsaoii of the Aahar in iSSa) had in the first period of his
presidency a sharp conflict with 'Abbis Fasha, viceroy of Egypt,
who asked of him an uiuust kgai opinion in matters of inherit-
«nce. When bribes and threau failed, the sheikh was thrown
into chains and treated with great severity, but it was the puha
who finaUy yidded. and *Abb«sI was lecalled to honours and
Ach rewards.
The way in which the ulenA are recnuted and formed into
» hierarchy with a \Sgon>us *sprU de corps throws an instructive
Ught on the whole subject before us. The brilliant days are
past when the universities of Damascus, Bagdld, NishlpQr,
Cairo* KairawSa. Seville, Cordova, were thronged by thousands
of students of throk«>% when a professor had often hundreds
or even, like Bukh&rl, thousands of hearers, and when \'ast
estates in the hands of the clciv>' fed both aoasteis and scholars.
Oi the groat unixxrsiiics but one survixrs— the Xihar mosque
at Cairo— where thvuxsands of students still gather to follow a
cv»ur^ c\t $tudy mhich giv-rs an accurate picture of the MahoBi-
auxUn itlcjd of thcoU^piCAl education.
IW sjuvk^i* *4 thtv\>:N v^MKJ-i'iy bc^m their cour« in oxrly
jvvjth, Isjt Tv^t j*'l.^^m in iljvr wars. .■Mrwt a\\ c\m'h» fr\^m th<'
^ ..K>ttT»t »'«c\K'f». a !^» frvMn the rrhK^lc cIjk^'N aini none
I?''y trvvK tbe hivbe^ mpW of fcvirtx' — a l*ct mkich i«
^™**""™ u»:( eichisk-^ *X\ enM>ient» of Ircer And morr iv6nrd
es'.»*c-tJon. TS'sc *cn* of jvx>r iv.\5ant\ ariisins or trAdovnH^n
av A'tw.viv ii:>,XM*\I i*^ n,\:T\^w fA Mrni^m. AnJ grncrAMv tale »tp
«is'\ ** A •*«<NAn< x>* li\vLSx>d rjitScr tK.%n frv^m g\"rn!i'>e irS'.^v^i:*
im ,t^. n>c •.-S*Niar Aj^>cir» lvt«.^(V the i^-^viont** xvixJAn
*',^ h»* |xv\r N' «" y t'C* t*^^^ »!r iw A ie\l h*nkiWnhrc<, *ihJ Alter
A J .» ; 1 ,»'r.>v-»*> •> * c ■:;x:\>'. »^n the list ^^( «^ "h' v'*! tSe 'vMir ^nh Vviax
ru^ >' .''.I .'. • ^\ ^^•l Vite a ^^ i{\\*^ .' 10 v<«v >! MiovMi ^vN
i *H\ It V r« '-.vvN he STt* A jJiv-.N^j; »^'.»v>e mstSm the rN^^jij^^.
a c*'*^ to »K.\i h»^ t^'C^ Aivl A a.u;\ rAtixMt of hrrA»i. The Vp«
l.\ . , w:.» *\Alr vS n lo . \v *m.:vnV* A". l^e»t i V\ cAn. Uit Anc a" vIav
i* :"^. '»^•*',^^ j; xt aiv vUv-". v*cvf;<\'. bx Mov\-mcS.-.: i\, HA\jrj
I v^^» .V ^A -.•* .>S xS<^ s-S.kN Ajxi lc>v Vr* »>l S* A-S^x>!. tV i>; ; :
A* . N tV ^<v -•*:-.»: «>« tV K\-T«r«k F«M' KxnI< a fewc^'"^•,v-^;u•.r->»
R -Skv h- n. lV>«le^%>ni Aivi Ktmirot* f at her exTty f»on)s<v< N* the
c . X ft wtt: tSe« the pcvve**ir» tAlje tJw^t «Nir» At the i»v>t ct the
1 * ^ .. '^s- CTTVit »v^:t A.v; the «* .V-t* ctv-u^h on nut-* At tSer
f.-. : T^v- NV vv' tAVr* ^»M a cwrsie »« the »;.A'rrvir v>* cUk*.va{
.A Sc v ' Se Kx* h;:hefto leartwd ^^•^'v w* wokI >«Ti^ aiM ewT-r.
1 V r^^f* <rf cr»*»iMr are nad o«t in the i i io K il x^enM c* tfce
4 -« - >^ a«3 the teochcr addi aa expoNtvoa. y a t f m ty l«*d liv«i
"* I'^schitf ia«k tft to i»m the rUe*
V>
rr«entAi>\ tWttwiaat'^s
s •.>Nv-."C:«S»4, he Is
»-> A cer. x-^Aje vV^totV i i nm <
h.ai i« »Mcli it io ethtta. D*
V^c.\M A-d ane^WX
ass ct l«kAa atre Mt
^jwaiw rd at the ee4 <f tbe >ear
la Ms ViffMv^i^
; They are demonsmted by sdMlascfe dialeetic
•object taken up." - *
and at the end of his second year the student, teceiving his certificate,
deems himself a pillar of the faith. The study of law (fiqk\ which
rests on Koran and tradition, is more difficult and complex, and
bc^na, but is often not compleced, in the third year. The student
had learned the Konm by heart at school and has often repeated it
since, but only now is the sense of its words explained to him. Of
the traditions of the Prophet he has learned something incidentally
in other lectures; he is now regularly introduced to their vast artificid
system. From these two sources are derived all religious and cK-il
laws, for Islam is a political as well as a religious institntion. The
five main points of religious law, " the pillars of Islam," have been
enumerated in the article Mahoioiboan Religion; the civil law,
on the development of which Roman law had some influence, is
treated under heads similar to those of Western jurisprudence.
It is here that the differences between the four schools come most into
notice: the Jijanifite praxb is the least rigorous, then the Shifi'ite;
the ^anbalitcs, whose system is the strictest, have nacticaUy dis-
appeared in the Mfilikites. The Hanlfite rite is official in the Turkish
Empire, and is followed in all go v ernment offices whenever a decision
still depends on the sacred law^ as well as by all Mahominedans of
Turkisn race. In this as in the previous studies a compendiom is
learned by heart, and explanations are eiven from comntcntaries
and noted down by the students word for word. The professors
aie expressly forbidden to add anything of their own. The rt^cog•
niaed books of juriqinidence^ some of wfaicfa nm to over twenty
folio volumes, are vastly learned^ and occasionally show sound
sense, but excel mainly in useless hair-splitting and feats of scholastic
gymnastics, for which the Arabian race has a natuxal gift.
Besides the three main disciplines the student takes up according
lo his tastes other subjects, such as rhetoric (iiia'M «a6ayd«).
logic {mantiq)^ prosody ('orfi^, and the doctrine of the correct
pronunciation oi the Koran (^trd'a wo/iyieid). After three or four
years, fortified with the certificates of hb various professors, he seeks
a place in a Iaw<ourt or as a teacher, preacher, cadi, or mufti of a
viUage or minor town, or else one of the innumerable posts of con-
fidence for which the complicated ceremonial of Mahommedanism
demands a theologian, and which are generally paid out of pioua
foundations. A pbce is not hard to Sm. for the poweriul corpora-
tion of the u1em& seeks to put its own mc m ben s into all posts, and,
though the leiwiaeiatioa is at first small, the young 'Olim graduailv
aocumolates the revenues of several oflkes. Gifts, too, lul in. aod
with his natt\'e a\-arice and economy be rises in wealth, position and
reputation for piety. The commonalty revere him and kiss hi«
hand; the rich show him at least outsnrd respect; and even th(
Ko\enunent treats him as a person to whom consideration ia du«
tor his influence with the masses.
This sketch of his education is enough to explain the narrow-
mindedness of the *tfiiii. He deems all ifc>n-thcological scienci
to be \-ain or hurtful, has no notitm of pcoeress. and resaids tru<
science — tjc theok)sy~«s having reached hnality, so that a nov
superrommcntary or a new students' manual is the ooly thing iha
h (vrhAps »:in «x>rth writing. How the mental faculties are t)lunte«
b> scholasticism and mere memory work muatt be seen to be belieM-d
such an eiiucation is enoofh to i^xal the best head. All originality
is crushed out and a Mind and l u d fcr o ns dependence on writrei
trA.ii;ivVi — e\T^n ia things profane — takes its pisoe. Acutenes
iVj:r-^orAte$ into Ivi:r->plucii;g and cle%^cr plays on words after thi
m.i^ner of the nbMns. T^ Axkar students not s^dom entc
pi\'emme»t o^t«ce« and even hold insportant administtati%'e posti
Uut th«-v ne\-er lose the stM9p of their education — the narrow, un
tck»i HaVio H^'^t. inc.>|aUc of progiess,al«ayslo8t in external dot Aih
Artvl ixwr at !c to i;TAsp principles and get behind fonns to tb
»*:J stance of a mAtter.
Yet it i« but a srvaH fraction of the nlenl of die Modem wx^rl*
that eov>v even such an ed j»it«oa astlK Azhar affords. It dra v
lew $4wNit IKS iTv^nn io<\-i:n ports,* where the local schoob
Air d' the jvx^jx-^ V. ' ,:. t \Cv~p: in lodia , thanks to a Bridsh
fyNXTr-x'-t^ ATv! pfrh.»p> «r. Or>tA=t:rc»p*e.» Bokbira was onee
ehJvM" Mat ol lear;:-c ^-: »* now so sunk ia narrow fanatkrism that ii
etj:*'iT t«A^:ij,t •e.iift.s.'f* »-ith tbeir 5000 students only turn o*
A Y V »:i\i a:x. !sx. v-i c\ rp vVAtalA>).* Bet for this very K-«sa
P^ v\.;ri i> lir.Hv! A* A l-r.I-urr of rcie theology and spreads ii
i-!'..\-^-ve vMXr T.;-Kes*a'. 5>.beria, Chi-%A, Kashmir, Afghanistai
Arvi e>T*. cxrr Ir "•ia. Mirjor 5cS.-vi$ arr^hed to mosques are foi: n
in orKrr pUces, bnt tea:h scii kss than the great somols alrrvad
■aentv><xM>
Except ia Ibi&» whete it ia cmtro&ed by the govcnunen
* Tn 1^? <» < TO t« <'* Wrr-e-r^-r-* c/ tV Axiur had 3707 student
af mKxti orS m CA«?te J- .-r Co-VA-t"*-'pJe aod the northern pa.r
oltheOtNM»Aa£w)ik?v «> .'voaXon^a.Vataa, 1 from the cofvemrxvei
of Rat»i>i. td lAMs K>R«.VMt and ; inxa India with its tiair-i
■H&Ma SuSSMO.
* In Kaaaa «>a» the wab^lt^! cf ksraiag aeems to havw bee
h^ Kewsna a<id Ueser ■« atSoW^
* The lejtiasi «» Ikiy a c.xtr^c fv-iefAlS> attnched to a naoaau
«^)»«i«ft «4Msr ir\v^.«« .-«>c^xx :«k^ rvsk»«l -nstnirtioa a»d
alasltfodaAittwOvivx i^ scifc jar% and aearfMV
BUNNITBB
105
tkopirinlioii «r tbe prii^ Md jidUal .
■ ihe fcaoob is a comtKomiic bctiPttti wimi thcologiou piiii'
_^^ dpla dkute and what the lUte demuds. Neither
mt Kann nor Siuna dirthiguiabca. between tenpofal
T i n piwf aad spiiittial powcia, and no sttch dutinction was
^ **' known as long as the caliphs acted in all things as
"*"^' sucoessocs of the prophets and heads of the commnnity
d the bhhtvL Bat, as the power of the *Abbisids declined.
in article Caupdatc, ad fin.) and external authority fell in
the pcovinces into the hands of the governors and in the capital
i:;ic those of the amir al-cmardf the distinction became more and
Qore paJpaUe, eq>eciaUy when the BOyids, who were disposed
to ShTitc views, proclaimed themselves sultans, i.e. possessors
of all ml auihority. The theologians tried to uphold the ortho-
dn theoiy by declaring the sultanate to be subordinate to the
isimtc or soveieignty of the caliphs, and dependent on the
latter espedally in all religious matters; bOt their artificial
ihema have never modified facts. The various dynasties
cisuluns (Blkyids. Chaznevids, SeijQVs, and Snally the Mongols)
uitr paid httd to the caliphs, and at length abolished them;
b«i the fall of the theocrscy only Increased the influence of the
dogy, the expounders and practical administrators of that
crisUtion of Koran and Sunna which had become part of the
liic oi the Mabommedan world. The Mamelukes in Egypt
liti to make their own government appear more legitimate
tj aominally recognizing a continuation of the spiritual dignity
u \ht caliphate in a surviving branch of the ^Abi^std Hne which
fky proteaed, and in 923 a.h. (1517) the Ottoman Selim, who
^royed the MEameluka power, constrained the *Abbftsid
M-vtavakkil IIL, who lived in Cairo, to make over to him his
^ziiial caliphate. The Ottoman sultans still bear the title
d " soccessors of the Prophet," and still find it useful In foreign
rtiatioiis, since there is or may be some advantage in the right
cf *be caliph to nominate the chief cadi {id4l) of Egypt and in
;U Ua that the spi^itnal head of Khiva calls himself only the
>4ii (vic^crcnt) of the sultan.* In India too the sultan owes
Ksethiiig perhaps to his spiritual title. But among his own
*:^:Wts he IS compelled to defer to the ulemi and has no con-
i icrzble iaflnence on the compotition of that, body. He nomin-
ns ihe Sieikk ul-IsJam or mufti (q.v.) of Constantinople (grsnd
e&'tij. who is his representative in thelmamate and issues judg-
BoiU in points of faith and law Iron which there is no appeal;
^ the nomination must fall on one Of the tndlahs^ who form
it opper stratom of the hierarchy of ulemi. And. though the
«v»as places of religious dignity are conferred by the sultan,
^ one can hold office who has not been examined and certified
^y older uleml, so that the corporation is self-propagating,
uj palace intrigues, though not without influence, can never
brtak through iu iron bonds. The deposition of *Abd ul-AzIz
£ u avaple of the tremendous power that can be wielded by
*"< okmi at the head of their thousands of pupils,* when they
->MK to stir up the masses; nor Would Ma^mad 11. in 1826
^n vent vcd to enter on his struggle with the janissaries unless
ke had had the hierarchy with him.
The student who has passed his examinations at Constantly
^ or Cairo may take up the purely religious bffice of imAm
^^^ (president in worship) or hhatib (preacher) at a
^Sa roosqiae. These offices, however, are purely minis-
terial, are not necessarily limited to students, and
9VC BO place In the hieiarcby and no particular consideration or
^ccaI status. On the other hand, be may become a judge or
-:^ Every place of any importance has at least one cadi; who
1 r^aiaated by the government,^ but has no further dependence
/ Tin the Ruwians gained preponderating influence the khin of
'*\ Vi also acknowledged the suttan as his suzerain.
- M^Oah is the Penv-Turkish pronuncktion of the Anbie msmM.-
*riXy "pstron," a term applied to heads of orders and other
'^'c'oQf dieiiitariea of various grades.
'Called la Coosteodnople sagta, Ftanaa OkkiOt burned up, sci}.,
>rh nal or love to God.
* la Efypc before tho time of Said F^sha (1854-1863) the local
!»•« ^ere appointed by the chief cadi of Cairo, who re sent from
Since then they have been nominated by the
^:
on it, and if anacnblt only to a mfenbcr of the tUfd dais
of the ukmg, via. the mufti or pnmouncer of faHoas, A falwa
is a decision according to Koran and Suntu, but without reasons,
on an abstract case of law which is brought belore the mufti
by appeal from the cadi's judgment or by lefeienoe from the
cadi himself. For eiamplc, a dispute between masur and sUve
may be found by the cadi to torn on the general question,
** Has Zaid, the niaster Af ^Amr,« the absohite right to dispose
of his skve's earnings?'' When thb is put to the mufti, the
answer will bfc simply " Yes," and from this decision there is
no appeal, so that the mufti is sopreme judge in his own district.
The gcand mufti of Constantinople is, as we have seen, nominated
by the sultan, but his hold on the people makes him quite an
uidependent power in tlm state; in Qdro he Is not even nominated
by the government, but each school of law chooses its own sheikh,
who Is abo mttiti, and the Hanifitsa ia head mufti because his
school Is official In the Turkish Empire.
AH this gives the judges great private and political influence.
But the former is tainted by venality, which, aggravated by
the scantiness of judicial salaries or in some cases
by (he judge having no salary at all, is almost ctearM.
universal among the administrators of justice.
Their political influence, again, which arises from the fusion
of private and political law in Koran and Sunna^ is highly
inconvenient to the state, and often becomes intolerable now
that relations with Western states are multiplied. And even
in such distant parts as Central Asia the law founded on the
conditions of the Prophet's lifetime proves so tmsuitcd to modem
life that cases are often referred to dvil authorities rather than
to canonical jurists. Thus a customary law {*orf) has there
sprung up side by side with the official sacred law {sharfa),
much to the displeasure of the moUahs. In Turkey, and above
aQ In Egypt, It has been found necessary greatly 10 limit the
sphere and influence of the canonical jurists' and to introduce
institutions nearer to Western legal usage. We do not here
speak of the paper constitutions {khait-i-skerXf) and the like,
created to impose upon Western diplomatists, but of sucfa things
as consular and commercial courts, criminal codes, and so forth.
The ofiRdal hierarchy, strong as it is, divides its power with
the dervishes. A religion which subdues to itself a race with
strongly marked individuality is always influenced in cultus
and dogma by the previous views and tendencies of that race,
to which it must in some measure accommodate itself. Mahomet
himself made a concession to heathen traditions when he recog-
nized the Ka*ba and the black stone; and the worship of saints,
which is now spread throughout Islam and supported by obviously
forged traditions, is an example of the same thing. So too are
the religious orders now found everywhere except in some parts
of Arabia. Mystical tendencies hi Mahommcdanism arose mainly
on Persian sofl (see ^Orfissf), and Von Krcmcr has shown that
these Eastern tendencies fell in with a disposition to asceticism
and flight from the world which had arisen among the Arabs
before Islam tinder Christian influence.* Inter- ^
course with India had given Persian mysricism S^Jv^^.
the form of Buddhistic monkery, whil^ the Arabs
imitated the Christian anchorites; thus the two movements
had an inner kinship and an outer form so nearly idenrical that
they naturally coalesced, and that even the earliest organiza-
tions of orders of dervishes, whether in the East or the West,
appeared to Mabommedan judgment to be of one type. Thus,
though the name of ^Hjl (see ^OfIisv) is first applied to Abd
Hashim, who died in Syria in 150 a.h. (767), we find it transferred
without question to the mystical brotherhood which appears
in Khorasan under Aba Sa'fd about 300 a.r. (8 1 5/8 16). Yet
these two schools of $afls were never quite simOar; on Sonnlte
son ^fiftism could not openly impugn orthodox views, while
in Persia it -was saturated with Shf ite heresy and the pantheism
of the extreme devotees of *Alr. Thus there have always been
two kinds of ^Qfls, and, though the course of h&tory and the
wandering habits which various orders borrowed from Buddhism
■ Zaid and *Amr are the Caius and Sempronius of Arabian 1am
* Op. cit.p.s' *^*
ro6
Sl^NSHINE
have tended to bria^ tbem doeer to one eaother, we still find
that of the thirty-six chief orders three cUlm an origin froa» the
caliph AbObekr, whom the Sonnites honour, and the rest from
*A1I, the idol of the Shf ites.> Mystic absorption in the being
of God, with an increasing tendency to pantheism and ascetic
practices, are the main scope of all lafdsin, which is not neces-
sarily confined to membezs of orders; indeed the secret practice
of contemplation of the love of God and contempt of the world
is sometimes viewed as specially meritorious. Anid so ultimately
the word fUfi has come to denote all who havi thb religious
directbn, while those who follow the spedal rules of an order
are known as dervishes (begffusr in Arabic fuford, aiag.f^lr
— names originally designating only the mendicant orders).
In Persia at the present day a $Qfi is much the same as a free-
thinker?
I.) oo the Moslem
I t Idtm da Jslams
t Studien, vol. iL
y (London, loot);
1 I, 1870): N. B. K.
i860; £.Sechau,
vi (Stuttgart and
(trans, by Houdas
) tiu lianners and
For the oraaniza-
\ g the middle ages
'^,:^rr''
^.)
SUNSHINE. As a meteorological dement sunshine requires
some conventional definition. There is uninterruptea continu-
ance of gradation from the burning sunshine of a tropical noon
to the pale luminosity that throws no shadow, but just identifies
the position and shape of the sun through the thin cloud of
northern skies.
The Campbell-Stokes 'Sunshine Recorder.— In the British Isles
the sun is allowed to be its own timekeeper and the scorch of a
spcciaJQy prepared card used as the criterion for bright sunshine.
The practice arose out of the use of the sunshine recorder which
depends upon the scorching effect of a glass sphere in the sun's
rays. The original form of the instrument was suggested by
J. F. Campbell of Islay in 1857. He used a glass sphere within
a hemispherical bowl of wood. The scorching of the wood along
successive lines of the bowl as the sun alters its declination from
solstice to solsUce leaves a rugged monument of the duration
and intensity of the simsbme during the half-year, but does not
lend itself to numerical measurement. The design of a metal
frame to carry movable cards and thus give a decipherable
record of each day's sunshine is due to Sir G. G. Stokes. The
excursions of the sun to the north and south of the equator are
limited by the tropical circles, and the solar record on the hemi-
^herical bowl will be confined within a belt 23* 27' north and
south of the plane through the centre parallel to the equator
or perpendicular to the polar axis. Thus a belt 46^ 54' in angular
width will be suitable for a sunshine recorder for any part of
the world. Wliatever place be chosen for the observation the
same belt will do if it is set up perpendicular to the earth's
polar axis. But there can be no record if the sun is below the
horixon; hence any part of the belt projecting above the horixon
b not only useless for recording but is liable to shadow a part
of the belt where there might be a record. Hence to meet the
requirements of a particular locality the belt as set up rOund the
polar axis shoxild be cut in two by a horixontal plane through
the centre and the half projecting above the horixontal removed.
Reversed it makes a half belt, exactly similar to what b left,
and thus each complete belt b cut by a horixontal plane through
the centre into two frames suitable for sunshine recorders for
the particular locality.
The cutting of the belt may, of course, vary between the direct
transverse cut along the poUr azb which gives a half -ring belt
to be set vertical in order to receive the record for a point on
the equator, and the cut perpendicular to the polar axb which
CHretri onter to apTHi^ WWBHW fcJWP wl tt# CMM| lndlliuiiiliitii
aedtoleatk . *-« ^-ra.MK^_a . ^ . ..
^Fortheairvyi
divides the bek lato two liBilar ifaigi subaUe for leeetdisg the
s un s hine at the poles. Clearly, when the belt b so cut that im
complete rings are formed, a continooas reeord of suuhini
throughout the twenty-four hours may be expected, so that foi
the polar drdes the cut will ran diagonally between opposite
points of the extreme circles of the sun's records. As example;
of the cutting of the belt for different btitodes we may put sid<
by side the recorder as used in temperate htitudes (fig. 1) aac
Fig. I.— Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Recorder.
the spedal form designed in the Meteorological Office, Londo
for use On the National Antarctic Expedition, 1 901- 1904 (fig. 2
A belt cut for a particular latitude b serviceable for some n
Flo. t.— Antarctic Sawhinr Reconler. to carry la-hour recor
on either side of that latitude if the cards are not trimmed
doeely to the cutting of the belt. The bdt must always
adjusted round the parallel to the polar axis. If the cut of
beh b too oblique for the latitude of the place where it Is expo
and the cardi^are cut strictly to the belt, the northern side d
cut will be below the horison and the southern aide abov
SUNSHINE
107
»rst — *»>^"* nay be kit near waaaiat or saoaM itt the winter
because there is no urd to receive it. The part projecting above
(k horiacm in sommer will partly shadow the globe, and faint
Bsahine may be lost/ for at most only half the globe can be
■>lari»H at sunset. But the loss due to this cause is unimportant.
Siokes designed the complete belt to use successively three cards
Fio. 3.
of dtfexefltihj4>e for different times of the year. The equinoctial
card fonas a portion of a cylinder round the polar axis for spring
lad autumn, the sommer card and the winter card each forms
I part of a cone making a vertical angle of 16^ with the polar
Mm as indicated in fig. 5.
Adjmstm€Mls, — ^The adjustinents of the instrument are to. set the
bek so that its axb is parallel to the polar axis and symmetrically
adnisted with reference to the meridian of the place, and to set the
ipbere so that its centre coin- .
odes pfccasely with the centre
of the belt. No ooe of the
tkree adjasbaenU aaaa^ to
gafceortotcat because neither
tSe ceotre of the sphere nor
ite ceatra inor indeed the
uis)of the belt can be easily
■*wtf^ft»*<- For an instrument
for testinc tlieae adjustments
•c QmarL Jpmm, Kay. UtL
5k. noDi. 249-
laatnunenta cUffer aoooni'
isf to the aneans provided for
BOBBting or adjusting the
postkaw of the bdt or spbera,
aod is that known as the
regafd to the equinoctial card. The section of the supporting
surface by a plane through the polar axis is to be as in fig. 3.
ThA Sphere. — The material for the sphere must be '"crown "
glass, colourless, or of a very pale yellow tint. The diameter 4 in.
The wewht bet ween 3*93 and 3*09 tb. The focal length from the
centre oTtho sphere to the geometrical focus for parallel rays should
be between 3«96 in. and 3*99 in.
Mtaswcmml «/ the Stmduae Reecrd.-^li was mentioned that
the Campbell-Stokes recorder involves a conventional definition
of sunshine. The recorded day of sunshine is less than the
actual time during which the sun is above the horizon by about
twenty minutes at simrise and sunset on account of the want
of burning power of a very low sun. Some further convention
is necessary in order to obtain a. tabulation of the records which
will serve as the basis of a comparison of results for dimato-
logical purposes. The spot which is scorched on the card by the
sun is not quite limited to the image of the sun, and a few seconds
of really strong sunshine will produce a circular bum which is
hardly distinguishable in size from that of a minute's record.
(See fig. 4*) Consequently with intermittent sunshine exaggera-
tion of the actual duration of burning is very probable. Strictly
speaking m fa sur e mrnts ought to be between the diameters of
the circular ends of the bums, but the practice of measuring
an the trace that can be distinctly recognized as scorched has
become almost universal in Great Britain, and appears to give
a working basis of comparisons.
^'bsppie Casella instrument
. the feted bdt b replaced bv a movable card holder. The chief
Advantage of Stokoi's specification is the simplicity of the use
o( tke MMtnu neat when ooce it has been properly adjusted and
fisd.
It is isarnfiil that the glass sphere should be of the proper size
sad vdndtiy index to give an image —~^
of tke son on the prepansd card or
vehia the aoth of an inch of it nearer
t^ centre. It b abo essential that
t>se cards ased riiould not only be of
useable mnterial but abo of tne>right
<&wMoea for the bowl. The colour
a«j aaterial of the cards wen selected
WScokes in consultation with Warren
Ik b Roe, who was at that time hb col-
FkG. 4. — Records obtained by exposing a Campbell-Stokes Sunshine. Recorder for
nvab varying from one second to thirty mini'— '**''" "* ' ' '*■ ' "*'■
burns increases from right to left of the diagram.
Intervab varying from one second to thirty minutes. The duratioo of the exposure of the separata
reasesm> ' *^' " * '" ' ' "
kw«e 00 the hfeteorolof^cal Council,
adthe cards osed T
Ivkal ofioe are still supplied by
M«9«B De b Rue & Ca Accuracy in
by thb method depends upon
6e proper adfaatment of the dimen-
momid the dXtnat constituent parts
of Che lecorder aad accordingly the
fu B u ^ ii^ snecifieatioo of sundard
■Kteoralatical oflUJe.
7\e Timu ScmU, — On the time scab
«f the equinoctial casd twelve hours
wr uij uss nrrrt bT 9«> in.-
n* BmsA.-— The dbmeter of the
Wi measascd between tbeoentrtsof
•ke 6 o'do^ m aHcsoo a me^l coui-
■Qcfiat cxrxl of ihkkness Xf02 m. wnen
•litsp&ce. btobe5-73in<*o-o«in) ^ ,
Hill— II cdgen of tke upper winter flange and the
fawe flSBst not be bss than a-4$ in., nor exceed 3*50 in. The
a^ a »* — fntm the aoiddb line on the cqninoctbl card to the
»i4>^ liDca on the summer and winter cards are to be 0*70 in.
I * o^a SB.). The iocUnation of the summer card, in place, to the
•soarcasdLla
Other Types oj Sunshine JZteofdef .—There are, however, various
other conventions as to sunshine which are used as the basis of
recorders of quite different types. The Jordan recorder uses ferro-
cyanide paper and the sun keeps the time of its own record by the
traverse of a spot of Ught over the sensitive paper, arraogcQ as a
• K) II Hid. I 2 3 4 5
7 8
Fig. 5.— Sunshine Record Oune 19 aad 30, 1908).
The distance between the \ cylinder about a Kne parallel to the pobr axis^ The effect thereby
necorded b a photochemical one, and the comppate character of the
sun's radbtioQ, modified by the elective absorption of the atmosphere
makes the rebtion of the record to that of the sun's scorching power
dependent upon atmospheric conditions and therefore on different
occasions, so that the two records give different aspects of the solar
Other fscotden use the thermal or photographic effect
I place* b to be 3a* * |*,cynmMtricallyanangBdwith 1 influence.
io8
SUNSHINE
4
of the tun't rmyi and rocord dimtloa by a clock imtMd of allowinf f excluaively local, and mdacd the ^oidble daiatioii of soiuhine ;
the sun to keep Ui own time. la the Marvin eunahine recoiden of I any sutioa is a local cfaaracterisUc whkh it b denrabks to kno^
Consequently at evidence of the peculiarify 4
the site the recorded sunshine mignt be rcfcrrt
to the total poanbte with a free horison. On tl
ochor hand, taidng -the rsoord of sunshine as i
iodicatioo of the dca n wts of the sky for tl
purposes of general meteorology, the scxeenir
of the sua by hills must be vesaided aiinply i
limiting the time during which observation
possible and the duration of the sunshine recordt'
should be referred to the possible duration at tl:
particular site. It would, therefore, be desirab
m publishing records of the duration of sunshir
recorded to note also the possible amount for tl;
tnstnimcnt as exposed {see Hourly Means 1
Fwe Oksamlana nmier tke.Mdtvratogical Couru 1
1891, No. 113. p. 10). The table shows i\
number of hours die sun is above the horizc
during each month in the latitude of the Brit is
Isfes.
By way of exhibiting the results obtainc
from sundiifie records we reproduce (fie. 7) tl
sunshine map of the British Ides taken from tl
annual summaiy of the Monthly " Weatb
Report," 1908 {Britisk MeieorologiaU Year- Boo
pt. ii.)> Corresponding maps embodying dai
from ox-er 130 sutions are prepared each montl
fg. 8 shows the variation in the distribution 1
sunshine that may take place in different month
Farther, lig. o represents the a\-erage week!
distributioo of sunshine in different scctioi
of the British Isles according to the average <
twenty-five years.
Fl<k (k — Monthly A\<t(age Duration of bright Sunshine for each hour of the day
at Valencia (Ireland).
the I'mted State* weather bureau an electrical contact is made h»
the th«Tnuil effect of the sun and the duration of the contact b
ftconKM. An instrument which gi\<es a corresponding result b
dr«:nb(\1 by \V, H. Dines {Q—rt /♦am. R»y. UH, S«€. xx\-i, h^)-
TV^c define sunshine by the effect necessary to produce or maintain
a crrtAin thermal effect, but the definition once aocet^ted there b
IH> unixrtainty as to the record. The CaUendar sunshine raeonler*
gix-ve a iTcord of the di ff erence of temperature of two wires, one
•Alxrbird and the other not. and it b therefore a continuous record
of the ihemvU effect of s*.>Ur and tenestri*! radiation. It b vastly
more tktAiKAi thAn that of other instruments (see fig. 5). but thr
interprt'tAti\>n of the record in terms suitable for meteorvlo^sl
or clutvtu>k^iv-Jil |Hinxt«e« is a mcial ^udy, «hich has not >et been
attempted. In a wynem-hat similar wny inforwMtiaa about the
duratk^ and intensity of sunshine with an abundance of drtjul can
W obtaimvl from the rrcwvi ufon photv^aphic psper pasnnr under
aa a^xTtuce in a drum mhich lew^es with the sun, asta theLaader
VCWMxkT, but the j4u\t\- of Mich detAn» has not been betun.
:<^»,v|i«f Ka.o^j* \^ ikt 5':, I* 4 1ms —The interest m the nse of
(waPsSi.-te iTcon'.cr* i» nnvr %i»kl\ cxtcxxVeJ in the British Ides than
e?'*»he<r>w arsi il ix *o Ur as the pcMv «re concerned, the nscvrf
iccixxtant metevTv^o^vAl e'.e«">eat, but it b MtuuUr that up to the
pre*'^t A ki»o«rt<vl^ »ii the Iv^:aI anvHjat of *»inj}i;«e recxvdevl drnn^
the »U\, the wre*« the mcvith or the \T*r b all thjn i* ar*^*re«tl\
Htv;. r»Ni F\v>e^c for iSe obsrrsAiories in cv>«'X'\iv>n >Mth the
»x<vxw>\xvx' v>rSct> awn^ a fesi vsVrs the dbtr.^H.tJ\>« *>f *>«!»> sSirs'-
d r X jSe vii\ I* -^.s txVcn xn t» *." tVvt *r ait' st." H^rte\li>rAtK>e t'w^
a::*. Jl. ■« the tvv>{^ ~~* •^n>o-^f^^ ^^ tV •» >rr ^V?-*-!-^ vf '•v^'ar wvwxH
F^ e vV«> the AwA^ce v*v4t .^a vM N'c*»t »i,'*.>h'ne lv^e>*cl» K%^t
« ;Kf »*A\ \v OK H -v>- .^ At \ Jk V V a, W exixv tAtuva k>I n» nv^ »<•
i^ C'VAr.-v: At \ 1% ~i A%! r , w »-» Ma>.>*>,Kc there b a ^v<* r^Atitv*
st\\ Nixo rvA\ ••.;r i« ><-.\v- vVr.
.'iN »-f Wt »\^w cvv^vVt **»%t the \ii»'N |•tf>^J^K> nN\>f^*
*VA .>» '.v. or »«A«v«^ eN>»»». \« vVgil e\)>»««ife has au u«H-;tfr
TCv C.tJOO. teCO tt^a r9C9tmt.
^'coo
a-v* »^i«'*S"tr ;V* w» ,•* tV *'^
K; v.^i evtvvs, "i>. t V ,x A*^* w» tv>
S< ,^^, t "VN* I* -V's • . VN. •» s "•..'xt*
|c - V .^- N »; -^tx N- -' A-».^ :-4e tv*
tv A vrt «* •*»v^ iS" *. < ** ».>t
vxS<-.v-^>i fsv A« a*v«»'^v»>v Atn »"<
1^ .'AX I ». ? V«r V \ , ' vjA v>e« *l
Ktv\N->r< A -j^v"^ vs» *Sf>.S\ -, x* » *^N. •t
M> tV i^V— , ■• (>>ra.>V K^ ** vn
i*;Tr~.T«ei Kv'j^^ v^ tV »*.fcv «m '«*
|v>.v*>ie K>r tV parxN^iUr eMvi^'te^
TV X «wer »> the ^w<«« nwi wmCN A>»v*n*» *^v*» tW|>«ii(>v>i«- n^ «as )k 1
the » >C.Wa«k.Wt ^ W^MMei- A* A * .■ •^IKxxh>t«»'A\ I4««1>^ 01 \W *»S-JkWt\
FivV r.~>«scc$ft>ine m the Britbh isles in 19OS.
tf ike British Isles,
^ f *^ .'^%N»'«r m :W
!'i;
U-
r<<v
5»'*
->N,'
'•<*
.V'SS
v.*
:^\"
,*"\N
\Sv 1
v-*
•v-^*
♦\\
.^^
M*
>*•
'•\
^St
>«*
N^^
>N*
r*^
M*
2s<"
.-^^
f-^
,VA*
^^•'
NV
*'A
K**
?>>
NV*
^-N''
>**
J>^
"V
•.' *
T^*
tn
Vv\
J!;*^
U-e*'
\,>.^'
Max
?.-*
UN A^-
Sepc
Oct-
Nov.
Dec.
,%.\\
4UX
4*:^
4^^
4^5 1 ♦*»
373
3*1
266
*46
jt-\\
♦ «»
4'"
4>-
4^ 1 444
3J3
3x5
262
241
^%.\v
♦ U*
4^»
*ct
40^ 1 ^40
374
3*4
258
a,l<>
>^4
«U
4J*
40S
4<^ A?P
5T5
3»3
»S4
23«
>^N^
4^*
♦*^
>"'\'^
5^ 4S5
3.^5
3M
a5«
2*5
,t>^V
4>>
*^
> ^^
^
3«9
a45
21*
tvN.'
4.V
*xV
^.^
5 ^ • A5'»
3:*
3t*
239
311
^^.^
4.\\
S>*
.v.^4
5^.51 I -t^
^
3U
«36
205
,*"»
•J^
5to
.Vi
• V>^ • 4e:
3?k
jia
»3»
197
VI
«v
>*"
M-
foJ" 1 *:»
3,"^
3»9
«5
1*7
•^ 4fe« l*M>. V T^vv«.««< — ^h b ctaar that so far 'as col
W w«e ■ >>«• ^> * ..> jv« ' \ IK thb fwnirt^ar regioiw the annU
the »hai«^ CJM hx the iWff)M»ih<^ Mb b «« waiMtt An^<^ A ^ |xa«< , ««kx* •< ^ «*■*»»». -if «'. «% • -Ov>« » ww fees ncnhwanl. It uoult
«i the iiimnn h««wp«a the l w »h » \ m l«e npoi hw ^ «wA <N<*t W^ • W«^ xv*. im« >ie ^mt iw« vy^-«.vV ;has ct;is dMbMOMi m the aggn
' V4 »wts. bi r 1 . ...
aia^> t^^tr^ u I ^h^k ^iMmt*^ «
fBcs an writfaout I
•A. .\c least the conenpondiu
iw«MsiMl««we«i liieninftbnbeai^phrre. No doul
SUNSHINE
Y09
ortunhine
anti-
tk (nqiiency of doad and the conacquent tern ol dunticMi of 8U B
•odd tocnaae (or correaponding latitudes from the tropical
O^looe touthward, but beyond the r^on of minimum pressure
It the winter quarters of tnc *' Discovery ** in latitude 77 51' S.,
ptvde 166* 45' E., die amount of bright sunshine recorded during
The total for
. , . ,. and in December" of that y«ar an
ivenge of 16 hours per day was registered.
ue r»o y%an tooa and igot waa remarkably targe.
1903 equalled that for Sally. • * -^
tS0JOO^6.3O0 mm4 350 k,a.
•? /
.Aji/1. ^'^^^
r^
f
«»*^ X^^^"^**^""^
«,^
^
-l'^^
r
May 1909.
June 1909.
Fic. 8. — Sunshine in the British Isles in May and
June 1909-
^nmskxme Results for Other Parti of the 1Vortd.—M»pe showing the
i"*"!^ amiiud distribution of sunshine over Europe and North
•''•"'nca are given in Bartholomew's Physical Atlas, vol. iii. Atlas
ff M£teerelogy. Over Europe the largest totals, over 3750 hours
.%- aanom, are abown over central Spain. In North America,
nijcs es»d 3350 hours per annum in the New Mexico region.
• ^ ntber psirta of the world the information available is not suflfi-
-"t^My extensive for the construction of charts.
tfea npom Stmskssu Records of the Smoke of Great Cities.— Much
^v-oMKifi has taken place from time to time as to whether the
Hitte of a locality can be altered by artificial means. Questions
'i»^ bcm raised a» to the effect of forests upon rainfall, as to the
*^T»-^ effect of irrigation or the converse jirocess, the oblitcra-
s fj rutttral irrigattoa by blown sand, and as to the possibility
•* prvJudns. •rregdag or modifying ramfall by the (fischarge of
XXVI 3
The one question of the kind to which the sunshine recorder
gives an absolutely incontrovertible answer is as to .the effect of the
smoke of great cities in diminishing the sunshine in the immediate
Spring
ExtnmB
eMtMm§ South
Woatem
faatern
30
Summer
Section
Section
Autumn
3SL.
Fig. 9. — ^ATerage Duration of bright Sunshine in the British
Isles Cor each week.
neighbourhood. This may be illustrated by the figures for sunshine
dunng the winter months off Bunhill Row, E.C., in the middle of
London, Westminster, Kew and Cambridge.
MomtUy Average Duration of Brigjkt Sunshine derned from OAmts**
lions extending ooer Twenty Years,
Sution.
NoN-ember.
December.
January.
February.
Bunhill Row . .
Westminster , .
Kew . . . .
Cambridge . .
7-5
406
141
18.4
403
489
30.6
32-8
54-6
73-8
This is not a question which comes out merely by taking averages.
The answer can be seen directly by comparing the daily cards (sec
fig. 10, Sunshine Cards for Cambridge, Westminster and Bunhill
Row for December 1904). Thus it appears that the direct effect of
the local contaminauon of the London atmosphere results in tht
2a
no
diminution of the recorded sumhtne for the whole year by 37%.
4nd tt w dear that the contamination extends in some degree as Car
•s Kew. where the Iocs amounts to about 10%. There is evidence
of various kinds to show that the effect of the smoke doud of cities
SUNSTONE— SUNSTROKE
Cambridge.
Westminster.
BunhiURow.
can be trared mmcttme* (or great distaaoes, and in special conditioats
ol wvcithcr with easterly winds the effect is soaetiaaes remarkably
P«T»»««»t. (W. N. S)
SUMSTOiraL t felspar exhibiting in certain dircctioos a bril-
haat spangled appearance, which has led to its use as an
omamental stone. The effect appcais to be due to reflections
from enclosures of red haematite, in the form of minvte scales,
which are hexagonal, rhombic or inegular in shape, and are dis-
posed parallel to the principal deavagei>Une. These cndosures
giN-v the stone an appeannce something like that of a\TRturine
(if.ej, whence s u n stone is known also as " aventurinc^febpar."
It is not common, the best-known locality being Tvrdestrand.
near .^rendaK in sooth Norw^, where masses of the sonstone
occur embcvkicvl in a \Tin of quarts running through gneiss. It b
f(>ttad abo near Lake Baikal, in Siberia, and at several locaKties
in the Vnited States^ notably at MtvkUetown, Delaware county,
ryfRa^jj-tvAr.!!. and at StJit«\-iIle in North Carolina. The fcbpar
which usually dr:>plays the a^^nturine apfvarance b oligcdase
(< T ^. b«l the edect b socnetioKS seen also in ortbodase ^^.r.):
hirncr two kIsJs of suostooe are dz5tingu*$hed as " oHgocLase
s«rR5tooe " aad * orthcciise snnstooe.** The htter has been
KMtad near Crowwpciiat and at srtrtral other localities in the
state of New Wvi. as abo at <*<n RivlJle in Delatrire cxmtr.
IVR£:^v|\:a:us« and at Amdtia Conzt Uoose, Amcuia ooontjr,
SUKSraOm C?7a::^n>.i1v; /«j:;w.'w«c; rkrr«nc Fiwr:
^'jTfctswV. a term Af>oocd to the efi^t* pro^luced upon tSe CYWtral ,
SMTWUS 5>r<tc^. irxi t^roc^ it apoo otbNfr ocyir* o< tb»e body. '
bv eip*.>svLre' ts> the jua oc to owrVAtrd jur-. Ai:S.H;3jrti BBC«t
lnfN;««::»Y x>^i!«^oe^i irs irvr-c^ nqpc^s^ tk» df^eajie vvvur* abo
in ter-'pctjiw' V roAtc* oar.atg bic< wratiiNrT A wcvsa cvao:Uk»
•I the a:aai>5jrVfte. whxn . i:<^-.co» w::h v>}ccs«c vx t !3k^ OTerhe*ted
K.v*v. fTtMtly :scTt-*5e» tW ^a> :v tv"» «i*Trr »Tom ^^c* iI'rMfc!. i
S^:r5trde bji* Nrm c^-v/^ c^tvr^r^j aatvi i*5>.v<:-^ji:<\i as '
SeoKv aavi la the iv«k;iae v< xvu a-i'v cv;r. cisk c* tbtss ,s;:>oiLsr
cvvt:$titwt(«i a cv«s».icraNit :t<« v*! stvi-rss aavi atK-rti'iiv, Ihc
wcreased aitcrtvo »>• imxI by w-* 4•^ a^iV-.o :s» »he
l<r»Mal hcA^ sjai com^-xl of the soicxr. |Mr.v->^*a-N as
ituaiiiihniiaft a nwiiiiiiriT an^f trrn irtrt*^ r'V iWcsnr
taik<n ai iw l^ i firif iW time nad moile mi »» vs— n t «• iiw>ps«
h» awr «wA to loMB tie soctafity ^'vm tHs ca^^ h
( UQT oae UfMi^i t« (Jht iaJMKe «f 1
I strong solar heat may suffer from the symptoms of sunstroke,
there are certain conditions which greatly predispose to it in the
case of individuals. Causes cakukted to depress the health
such as previous disease, particularly affections of the nervous
system—anxiety, worry or overwork, irregularities in food, and
in a marked degree intemperance— have a powerful predisposing
influence, while personal undeanliness, which prevents amon|
other things the healthy action of the skin, the wearing of tight
garments, which impede the functions alike of heart and lungs,
and living in overcrowded and insanitary dwellings have an
equally hurtful tendency.
While attacks of sunstroke are frequently prcdpiuted b>
exposure, especially during fatigue, to the dirert rays of the sun,
in a large number of instances they come 00 under other drcum-
stances. Cases are of not infrequent occurrence among soldiers
in hot climates when there b overcrowding or bad ventilation
in their barracks, and sometimes several will be attacked ii
the course of a single night. The same remark applies to similai
conditions existing on shipboard. Further, persom wbos<
occupation exposes them to excessive heat, such as stoker^
laundry workers, &c, are apt to suffer, particularly in hot seasons
In the tropics Europeans, especially those who have recenU>
arrived, are more readily affected than natives. But natives
are not exempt.
The symptoms of heatstroke, which obviously depend upor
the dbotganization of the normal heat-regulating mechanism,
as well as of the functipns of drculatkm and respiration, vary
in their intensity and likewise to some extent in their form.
Three chief types of the disease are wsnally described.
, I. HtalSymc»pt,—ln the form the symptoms are those of ezhaus.
A fully deydoped attack of thn deacriptioa b nsnaDy preceded h\
acknos. gKkhaes^ some aoKNuit of aMtal eadtcment followed hi
^^T^'^L*^ ^ the pasMge into the i^noopal cooditioa. ir
which there are pallor and coidMas of the skuTaTweak, quick kn"
mtenmttcm pube. aitd nsfuc or sighiiic respiratioa. Ilie pupils
are often cootrxted. Dcmth may qi^cldy oocar; but if ^cly
treatment b available recovery atay take pboe. "««>
irbet her y eceded or M by the pru mimtu i y symotoom already
mentioDed. B usually sudden, and occurs in the farmlininapoplectK
seiOTe. with great r^cubx enrasMeM. as «eea in the fluabedface,
^.—^^ 1. i.n __iL_ ^^ srertwmm fanathing. There
...I , jj^^^
to
. ..^ great ..»».»
congested e>Ts, quick fuH
b usuaU>- insensibtHty. and ooorubioas are mx.
ts often terv sudden. Thb fans, houov,
treatment.
(hyperpjrresia). the 1
o6^«oiio*F.orMon
the b(xi>- rising at such times to 106' _^ — — «.
ing thb are the other •ywvicms d[^t^ lebr£ disturiS^^'
jS/*^* *^^ qwckfuU pobe. paiws t kwj M i;hu ui the bodv.
^'^"^^ ""-r »•"-* »— ^. H»-«-^.»«*» t-wcw;. puns awoonont
^!~*^*J**"*^ *** >ora«t«t. toerthcr with respbatflry embarraii^
cc two da%^ death may eaaue from coa»e oTfrom thT^
*wum.:^ the sjpo^jfcvtK f«Tn already dacSed. But here, too
treat ni«rnt (tuy be sucwssfiH li it b preamch* asnibd.
&»»!» tk»ev other vamtWs <1i-p«£h owthe imiiu , ^c
'^^,;^\*\r^''*^x*^. accasiMilS met inth. The chvi chancer
in tSe Kxh jitrr d»th fnxn hoMstnjke aie those of aaaeiaia^ Hie
^^^4 V*;!:^^'^^'" '^ ''*' ^''^^^ ^^fether with softaem of the bean
t'^ : J^ '"f'^i^lLlS?** •'*^^:- Th* Wood b dark and fluid
A-xl iSr Nvxxi vvrr«wc*e* are »ocwbit akcred ia skape. Attacka
vH ««s«rv^ xre Ape to ka^e tiac« of their ejects «|»atb^ coastitu-
ll'^i 'w?^'! \ '?^'* ^^ aerivw s>>scem. A Kabffity to aex^err.
.^'^ c*.^ '^;^T««u'^ t_>. n^^xic fas. maSlk^Slity^ i
x:t*^:w«» un iW v^o^>»t:x^ a.-T amoiw the ->^ — mnortaat. 1 1 i^
"''C'^ S?!!rT^ ^^ ^^^ :^ ^^" »^^*» ^^^ aftsrwKs in borae^
t ux'I: t'^ ^ ■^^'' ^^ «-«K«SLttdVSJS
; -.: ^;rf^~M<*a» sJ^xOi Up aA?pc«l •» pR^es attacks ia th«
otoif .^^ ;.K^ wW 3.t»« »tv>:s&ir» 5e expand to tkea^ Tfc-S^
A>«..< .« tW ^jm- ^< w» Kv>*r cv.^^^ with the ck»Sm of VhS
Sra.^.' v^ ml^^ .n k^; :,> i^ ^,^ , ^^^^ ^ head. ir2«3t«tioS
^m
SUPERANNUATION— SUPERINTENDENT
/ to dfltth from bean failure, rest In thit recumbent poeitlon,
tk ttse of diffusible admulants, auch a» aromonw or ether, &c.,
togetber with friction or warmth applied to the ^actremtties, arc the
■eaiB to be adopted. Where,- on the other hand, the symptoms
« those tA apoph^xy or of hypcrpvrewa, by far the most successful
Rsolts an obtained by the use of cold (the cotd affusion, rubbing
the snrface with ice. enemata of ice-cold water). The elfect is a
aurfced lowering of the temperature, -while at the same time a
tfimaltts is riven to the respiratory function- Mustard or turpentine
ippbed to the nape of the neck or chest is a useful adjuvant. Should
the tempersture be lowered in this way but unconsciousness still
pmisi, fcmoval of the hair and blistering the scalp are recommended,
msobseqaeot treatment wiU depend upon the nature of the result-
isg symptoms, but change to a cool curaate is often followed by
marked benefit.
lUnUAinnfATIOIf (formed on the basis of "annual,"
' uunaty," Irom the Late Lat. superannaius, one that has lived
btjoad the year, super, above, and an^us, year, Fr. suranner,
to grow very old), properly a dhqualification or relief from office
or service on account of old age, infirmity, or of passing the limit
of age fixed for service, hence the pension or allowance granted
b respect of service at the expiry of the term or the retirement
(«e Pkxsion). Educationally the term is specifically used
of the removal of a backward pupil, who would otherwise remain
is a diss or form below that which his age demands.
8UP1SCAROO, a term in maritime law (adapted from the
Span, sobncargo, one over or in charge of a cargo) for a person
eapbyed on board a vessel by the owners of the cargo to manage
their trade, sdi the merchandise at the ports to which the vessel
8 saifing, and buy and receive goods for shiptnent homewards.
He has control of the cargo unless expressly or impliedly limited
by his contract or agreement. He differs from a factor, who has
I fixed place of residence at a port or trading place, by sailing
fro m port to port with the vessel to which he is attached.
tUPUEROOATIOIf (Late Lat. supererogaiio, payment
beyond what b due or asked, from iuper^ beyond, erogarCt to
payout, expend, ex, out, rogare, to ask), the performance of more
than B asked for, the action of doing more than duty reqtiires.
b the theology of the Roman Church, " works of supereroga-
tioo " are those which are performed beyond what is required
by QoA, thus forming a reserve store of works of merit which
on be drawn upon for the dispensation of those whose works
hfljort of the s tand ard requiiied.
SVPBElllTKNDEirr, a term which, apart from its general
sse for an official in charge, has a distinct reh'gious connotation,
bong applied, e.g. to the head of a Sunday school and to the
chief minister in a Methodist circuit. In its most important
biitorical sense it refers to certain ecclesiastical officers of
ttfonned churches of the Lutheran mOdeL
At the Reformation the question of the ordering and con-
SitBtion of the churches was urgebt. The greatest confusion
pievafled: the priests were often dissolute, the people were
iporant, and meanwhile nobles were seizing the Church lands.
Uther tad Mdanchthon would have preferred to retain the old
Wopal control, and to have charged the bishops with the
Any of making the necessary alterations in the ecclesiastical
Qnstitvtioa. For, while they taught that in spiritual powers
il onaisters were equal, they recognized the propriety of aUowing
xhainstrative distinctions. But the bishops were. unwilUng
totoaeto any terms with the Reformers, and it became necessary
to appoint officers of some new kind. The name of super-
ialesdeat was then given to a class of men who discharged
xoy of the functions of the older bishops, while bearing a
cbancter which in several respects was new. Only in Denmark
*tt the name of bishops reserved for the new officen after the
Latheran model had been adopted and the older bishops had
been dqxaed and imprisoned. It is still used there, though
M daiiB is made that it is the sign of formal apostolical succes-
^- In Scotland the First Book of Discipline provided not
^y for ministers, teachers, elders and deacons, but also for
BVerintendents and readers. The superintendents (who were
appointed because of the scarcity of Protestant pastors) took
<bv^ of districts corresponding in some degree with the
■pttcopil dioceses, and made annual reports to the general
III
assembly of the ecclesiastical and relfgfous state of their
provinces, in the churches of which they also preached.
The dbtinctive character borne by the new officers was
detennined by the cardinal principles which Luther had laid
down in his work regarding the religious 'functions of the state.
He concci^'ed of the secular govenmient as an ordinance of God,
and as being set to direct and control the external fortunes
of the Church. He hoped that righteous magistrates would
at all times form a sound court of appeal in limes of ecclesiastical
disorder, and that they would guard the interests of truth and
justice more securely thaii had been done under papal jurisdic-
tion. The superintendents who now had to undertake large
administrative responsibilities in the Church were therefore to
be appointed by the civil power and to be answerable to It.
They were to stand as intermediaries between tJie prince or
magistrates on the one hand, and the ministers in their districts
on the other.
In his earlier writings Luther had laid his main emphasis
on the spiritual priesthood of all believers. Every sincere
Christian was declared free, not only to preach, but also to
administer the sacraments and to rebuke evil livers. The
differences in office and function between the members implied
no difference in rank, for the members of Christ's Church were
all members of Hia body, and Luther believed that they would
all be ruled into true order and charity by the Head. But he
was shaken by the Peasants' War, and his faith in the virtues
of the average man never recovered itself. The result was
seen in his later writings, where he expresses his conviction that
men need to be directed and restrained from without, and he
looks to the state to* undertake" this duty. In the last resort
the civil magistrates must take control of the Church. His
vindication for thus subordinating the ecclesiastical to the civil
lay in his assumption that the rulers of a Christian land would
themselves be Christian, and that it vras the Christian duty of
the Church to render obedience to those who had been ordained
of God to bear rule. He, and the rest of the Reformers, were
as firm believers in a visible Catholic Church as were any of
those of whom he speaks as " the adherents of the old religion,"
and Luther, always conservative in feeling, clung to an alliance
with the state and denied that the repudiation by the Reformers
of papal authority had severed them from the visible Church.
The character of the office and duties of the superintendent
were not everywhere the same. Luther shrank from imposing
any stereotyped forms and asked that the special drcumstances
of each separate district should be consulted. He hoped that
as few changes as possible would be made, and trusted that
the reformed doctrines would spread peacefully throughout
the country. After the Diet of Spcyer (1526) the civil authori-
ties were invited to reorj^nise the Church in their respective
dominions as they thought best. This was not felt to present
any great difficulties in the free towns, for institutions of self-
rule had there grown strong and schemes of ecclesiastical
readjustment were speedily drawn up. Richter and Sehling*
have published a liumber of these ordinances, and they show that
as a rule one of the city clergy was appointed superintendent
by the city fathers and set in a position of administrative
authority over all the churches within their jurisdiction. They
were answerable to those fathers for their good order. Greater
difficulties presented themselves in the territories of the German
princes, and in the case of Saxony Luther proposed to the elector
that his first step should be to send out a commission of visitation
which should report on the moral and spiritual condition of
his principality, district by district. His proposal was carried
out, and Luther himself became one of the visitora (1527-1528).
He found the people in a state of such religious indifference and
ignorance, and the clergy living often in such grossness, that
his faith ih their fitness to govern themselves ecclesiastically
sank even lower than before, and he resisted all schemes for
self-government such as had been proposed by Francis Lambert.
The church organization which he devised for Saxony provided
* In their works on Die evangehuh^n Kirchenordnung des i6len
Jakrhunderts (Weimar, 1846; and Ix^ipsts. 1902-1904).
SUPERIOR, LAKE
1 1.2
no place ior democratic or representative elemenU: the grasp
of the state must at all times be felt. The superintendent must
speak at aU times as a minister of the state, and the state must
be represented in the synod to which he makes his first report,
for upon the synod there must sit not only the pastors but also
a delegate from evei^ parish. If any appeal should be made
from Uie decisions of the synod it must be heard in the court
of the electoral prince, for he, as supreme civil ruler, possessed
the JM episcopale, the right of oversight of the churches. Luther
proposed that he should exercise this right by appointing a
consistorial court composed in part of theologians and in part
of canon lawyers, and it was thus that in 154a the Wittenberg
Kclesiastical consistory was formed. Other principalities
adopted the model, so that the institution became common
throughout (he Lutheran churches.
In this scheme the superintendent (or supenttendant) was charged
with such p«rt of the duty of the older bishoi» as had been purely
administrative. He must concern himself with the dischaTge of
their duties by' the pastors of the. churches, as well as with their
character and demeanour. He must supervise their conduct of
public worsbipt as well as give them licence to preach. He must
take cogniBince of their ministry to the indigent in their pariahes,
and ci their manaf[ement of the schools. He must further direct
the studies of candidates for the pastoral office. He was answerable
to the ciNil authorities to report all evil-living and false teaching,
and those authorities had final power in the matters referred to them.
If those matters, however, presented technical difficulties, they
a>uld be referred to the consistorial courts.
The earliest occasion of the appointment of such a superintendent
would seem to be found in the acci&ions of Prince John of Saxony
about 1527. He assigns the duties of the ofiice, and summons the
ncwl^ appointed officer to give diligent heed to the conduct and
teaching of the pastore under him, laithfully to warn them of all
errors, and. in case they prov-e obstinate, to report them to the
electoral court. He must further gi\-e close attention to the due
ol^tervance of the marriage laws, for in this matttf the previously
a]>pointcd visitors to the principoUtv had reported grave laxity.
'Ine title of this office was not new, out was taken over inm the
later Scholastics, who had emploj-ed it as a suitable translation of the
word <r{tf«ovM, but rrinoe John made it clear that his superinten-
dents were not to be bishops in the old sense of the term. For ex-cry
pastor was declared in the reformed doctrine to be truly a bishop
aad to have the spiritual functions and authority of a bishop; but
the Mtz bishops had also claimed a large number of administrative
}x>vrers, and these for the future must be retained in the hands of
the secular power, which would ex|Ness itself in the first instance
through the state-appointed superintendent. In the few cases
tn which the old bishoprics were retained in Lutheran communities
their tenants held otficc directly from the state.
Sonte of the sniaUer princivxilUics appointed but a singie super-
intendent for their territorv*. who, instead of being answerable to a
consistary, sat as sfnritual member on the territorial council, whilst
ia towns the superintendent was sumntoiwd to the town council
whenever Churvh matters aakse fi>r disvi.5iion. In Ur^cr states
there SkTre VAtivHis classes of supcrinteudci;ts with their respect i\-e
duties severally asMjn'o-J,
In modem times the functions of the superintendent have been
somen hat confused in o>asequeiKe of the intuxiuction into Lutheran
Chuivh theory of inconsi^cnt elements of Pre5b>-tcrian and s>T.txial
t>\>v
^ee T. M- 1 '•^vImv. ff«>f.'r' «*' '** Rff^'^^zfr\*m (To.y»^. i. 400-416:
and the Arti.-Jeis " K..rvhor;s>r,*nanc ** and "" Suivnr.tetxient " in
Hen«v^Hauck's Krfv*Ic*.j»*.v>\«;« /•/ f-.w>;^«.*^iW i i<vw<i* mmi
SUPEBKML the most rorth-Yrt^crty of the Gneat Lakes ol
Kcrth America, and the largest body 01 fresh water in the tKurid,
l>ing Ketwettt 46* s<> and 4^?* N-. and &4* 30' and oi* W. It
i» bi>unxled E. and X. by the pn^xiuce of Outario. \V. by the
stale of Minnesota, amd S. by Wsoo&sia and Muhi^an. It
has ikefs rxtren^ly cvM. cicar waur, and h>«;h acd nxky
shocvs akmg a large portk» at its cvMst. Its pcoeral iotm is
that «f a wide ciescrnt cv^nv^rx towards the nonh. but tls shoRS
are' m«Me irregular in ouUi:>e than these of the other Ukcs.
F«xk>winf the cuixTS of its axis from west to <a^ the lake is
ahottt ^ m. lc«g» and its gne^test breadth is iCo m. Its
triiaram rrcorded «kpth is «oo& ft^ and iu height above
nettn sctt kv«] is iot ft., or aKotit tt ft abow that of lakc»
^if^ig^^ aftd K«raD. to wifiic^ it is jocaed at ks eastern ex-
Uowly- tlwovijh iht imr S^ XIaiy. IV lake receives the waters
ol joo imoi* and dPMS a territory et 4$.eco sq. m.. the total ,
aica «l ia Imm bcitt Soytee a^ m. TIk U<9ea aver «i«ch 1
empties into it is the St Louis, at its western end. The prin-
dpal rivers on the north shore are the Pigeon, which fonns
the international boundary line, the Kaministlkwia, the Nipigon,
which drains the lake of the same name and together with the
lake is about 200 m. long, the Pic, the White and the Midii-
picoten. No large rivers empty into Lake Superior from the
south. There are not many islands in the lake, the largest
being Isle Royal, 44 m. long; Michipicoten Island in the eastern
part; St Ignace, in the northern part, off the mouth of the
Nipigon River; Grand Island between Pictured Rocks and
Marquette; Manitou Island, east of Keweenaw Point, and the
Apostle Group, to the north of Chequamcgon Bay.
The boundary between the United States and Canada runs
up. the middle of the outlet of the lake and follows a median
line approximately to about mid-lake; thence it sweeps north-
westward, so as to include Isle Royal within the territoiy of
the United States, and continues near the north shore, to the
mouth of Pigeon River, which it follows westward, leaving the
whole west end of the lake in United Sutes territoiy.
Lake Superior lies in a deep rift in rocks principally of
Archean and Cambrian age, of the Laurentian, Huionian and
Keweenaw formations, rich in minerals that have been ex-
tensively worked. The lake is, as it were, surrounded by iron,
which is the probable cause of very strong magaetic fields of
influence. Native silver as well as silver ores exist around
Thunder Bay, native copper was formerly worked on Isle Royal,
and rich copper mines are worked on the south shore, wbiie
nickel abounds in the country north of the lake. Hie Aicheao
rocks produce a picturesque coast-line, the north shore par-
ticularly being indented by deep bays surroiuded by high
difls, mostly burnt off and someahat desolate; the islands al:>o
rise abruptly to considerable heights, the north shore furnish-
ing the boldest scenery of the Great Lakes. On the south
coast, opposite the broadest part of the lake, are precipilous
wails of red sandstone, extending about 14 m., famous as the
Pictured Rocks, so called from the effect of wave action on them.
There are no appreciabk tides and little current. A general
set of the water toi^-aids the outlet exists, especially on the
southern shore. From the Apostle Islandis to the eastward
of Keweenaw point this current has great width, and towards
the eastern end of the bke spreads out in the shape of a fan, a
branch passing to the northward and westward reaching the
north coast. Autiunn storms raise dangerous seas. The level
varies with the season, and also from year to year, the maximum
\'ariation, covering a cycle of years, being about 5 ft. The
discharge of the lake is computed to be 7S»20o cubic ft. per
second at mean stage of water.
The season of nax-igat'ion, controlled by the opening and
closing of the Sault Ste Marie canals, averages about eight
months — from the middle of .\pril to the middle ol Dccembtr.
The season has been extended for a few days, in both sprii g
and autunm, by the use of ice^ breaking tugs at Fort Wililuin
and I\m .\rthur. this sei\ice being organiied by the govem-
UKnt particularly to iaciiiuie the movement of grain from tbt:
Caiuiiian North-west. The bke never freezes over, though tht
temi^raiure of the water does not, even ia summer, rise iss
.ibo\-e frxx'xing pctnt. The ba^-s freeze over and there is
border ice. oiica gaihc.-vd by wind into brgcfields In the bays
and extresiiiies ot the Uke.
Late 54,j^xT>>r b fairiv bt?I pn>\Sded with natural harbours.
a'ul ttork* of sT'-yx\>\vr>ent ha>Te crratevl additiona] harbours oi
n'--^ at va'^.-j? r» i-.t*. MArc»*je«e. M^cb.. FVesqve lie Point,
Muh . As»te Riv. Vi-in . Cra-.J Slarats. .Mian^aad Ashland. Wi?. ,
are or. Ivi^-s »h»:h haA^ jxv<ec;i%'e brrukw-atcrs aa<osa their mouths
l^j\th. <crcrwr. Tort \\;c^, \V".&^ C^tcaajoio, Mich., and Gnir.«i
V..»',\.s Vvh. a-r harK-.Ts wf:b e—.rx'i.-cs formed by parallel
^:vs cxrr-.*^'^; actcxss oS^nvt:-;;: Sars. On the Canadian sid*
Foct W»-*.>-:. irs tVe »<H.t^ v>'. the lvaxn»i0cilcwik. and Fort Arthur,
f.H- BBL« d^ant. an a^i^^v^UI harKvr. aer the only ireportani
s^*^ • ;>«'^ ^x' t*» Ufiai the lake trrzuaa'* ct three great trar.?
vv *:. -^-T'l' rai*-jiy s>>t<^*<. tV>«c^ ;>« *h.>le acrth shone ts 1?.^'
a 'v *^ ■■ ^.-Ol %'.:*' r.»t\.nl Kv'S.-'^rs. Tbe traSc c« Lake Super: :i
CTv>«r» o''-t»«»ptS- « \vJ v^. tke wcreaae ia toaaace of each >x<ii
«wr tH»t o* the jwreesifc «jr hav^. for 50 years past. a-wrasK
' iMaaad oat ' ' ' '
«o V The fre^ht cMTwxi 1
I oat af the iakc, as (at^cd b]
SUPERIOR>-SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT
"3
tke atatutics ipuaered at the bauit (;^aal otfiGes, ^nvcgated m 1907
over 58,000,000 («hort) tona. The principal freight shipped east-
▼Knd ooiisists of flour, wheat and other grains, throtign Dulutb-
Sapoior froo the United States, and through Fort wHliam-Pbtt
Aitkur from the CaBBdian prairies; copper ore from the mines on
t^« liouth sboce; inm ore ta immenBe quantities from both shores,
the priadpal ore shipping ports being Ashland, Two Harbors,
MiiTjuette, Sui^erior and Imchipicoten, and lumber produced on
the tribtitanr nvers. West-bound freight consists largefy of coal
kreenaal ilistTsbution and for terminalrailway points.
The fishing industnr of Lake Superior is iaportaiit, salmon-trout
{'^Jxlinus namaycush, Walb). ranging from 10 to 50 th in weight.
br-ig pthered from the indi^duat fishermen by steam tenders
tad shipped by rail to city marlcets. The river Kipigon, on the
sonb Mion, is famous for speckled*tnnit {SoMiims fonHnalis^
Mitchili) of unusual siae; and all rivers and brooks falling into tht
ukt are trout streams.
See Bulletin No. 17. Survey 0/ ITortkem and North-Westem Lakes,
U5. Wtr Department, Lake Sunrnr Office. Detroit (1907); Soiling
OwKHns far Lake Superm and the St Mofy's Riwer, U.S. Hydn>-
tnvUc Office publication No. 108 A. (Washington. 10D6). with
swJeaients. - CwTp.A,)
> a city, a port of cotty and the ooanty-feat of
Dooglas county, Wisooosin, U.S.A., about 140 m. N. by E. of
Miimfapolis and St ^ul, on Superior, St Louis anVl AUoues
bijrs at the hod of Lake Superior, and dixectly opposite Duluth,
MioiMsota, with which it is connected by ferry and by xallway
tod nsd bridges. Vcp. (1890), 1 1,993 ; (1900)^ 31 ,091 , of whom
11419 were foreign-bom (2854 Swedish, 3404 English Cani^
(fizos^ soa6 Norwq{ian, and 801 Ocnnaa), and 186 were ncgtocs;
i i9io» U.S. census), 40,384- Superior is served by the Northem
hd6c, the Bnluth, Soath Shore & Atlanfic, the Wisconsin
Ccalnl, the Grant Northem, the Mtnneapolis, St Paul & Sault
Ste Marie, and Uie Chic^o & Nortb-Westem taUways, and (for
6«ght only) by the Cfaicsgo, Mflwaukee & St Pnul. A belt line
ailway connects the seveni systems. Superior sham with
]>aloth one of the finett natnni inland harbours in the worid.
Ike harbour, which has been imjproved by the Federal govern^
Bent, is fomied by two narrow strips of sandy land, known u
Afimiesotn and Wiscoown Points, which extend several miles
tooss the head of the Uke from the MuD&esota and Wisconsin
ikgns xespectively and almost meet in the centre. The body
cf vater tfans foraEWd, Superior and Alloues bays, varies in
*Kkh faom I to li m., and b 9^ m. long. St Louis Bay, on
tbe vest, is about z| by 4 m. The dty is situated on gently
Rng gmond facing these bssfs, .and has 29 m. of ' harbour
fnouge; The settlement of Superior at different times and in
^i^aeat places is responsible for the large area covered by the
di7 (36*1 sq. Ds.) and its appearance is that of three distinct
tnna. The intervening portions have however been platted and
or now higdy settled. Superior is the seat of a state normal
«M (1896), which occupies a splendidly equipped building,
isd, m addition to the ordinary normal courses, has departments,
of lindc^jartcn training, manual training and domestic science.
Ike dty is the see of a Roman Catholic bishop. Superior has
1 dtcap fuel supply and power is furnished by electricity gene^
nud on the St Louis riverl In 1905 the value of its factory
inducts was $6,3s6,98r. Flour is the principal product, and
^hoiUtng is impoctant. Among steel ships, the type known
» tke '* whalebacfc " originated here; and iron and wooden
i^K, launches and small pleasure craft are also made. Other
■u^iiaaures are railway cars, calks, cooperage, saw and planing
■ill products, fiuniture, wooden ware, windmills, gaS'engines,
ttd natiiessfes and wire beds. Superior is an important
Fria markeu Much in» and copper ore is shipped from the
I>kJath>Supetior hari>our; and large quantities of coal, brought
by hke boats, ar^ distributed from here throughout the American
«Qd Canadian North-west. The total tonnage of the Duhith-
Siperior Harbour was estimated in 1908 to be exceeded in the
t'aifcd States only by that of New York and thatof Philadelphia,
lime Esprit Radisson and Medard CJbouart des Groseil-
&n probably visited the site of Superior in i66t, and it is prac-
^Kally certain that other French counwS'd€S'bois'yreTt here
K different times before Daniel Greysokm, Sicur Du Lhut
^uth), established a trading post in the neighbourhood about
f^X About r82o the Hudson's Bay Company esublished i
post here, but there was no pemunent aetttement until after
the middle of the xpth century. Attention was directed to
the site by. a survey made by (>eorge R. Stunts, a government
autveyor, in i8sa, and in 1853 a syndicate of capitalists, at
the head of wfakfa was William Wilson Corcoran, the wealthy
Washington banker, associated with whom were Senators
Stephen A. Douglas (from whom the county was named), R.
M. T. Hunter and J. B; Bright, Ex-Senator Robert J. Walker,
Coi^Rssmen John C. Breckinridge and John L. Dawson,
and others, largely Southern politicians and members of Coa-
gressi bought lands here and platted a town which was named
Superior. The propriecore secured in 1856 the construction of a
mUitaxy road to St Paul, Minnesota, 160 m. long. The town
grew rapidly, and in 1856-1857 had about 2500 inhabitants.
The panic of z8^ intempted its growth, and the population
dwindled so that in x86o there were only a few hundred settlers
on the town^te. The QviL War increased the depression,
and the lands of thoie who had taken part against the Union
were confiscated. In i86a a seiies of stockades was buiH as a
protection from the Indians. Within the area under the govern-
ment of the town of Superior, which was at first co-extensive
with the county. West Superior was platted in 1883 and Sooth
Superior soon afurwards. A village government was estab-
lished in September 1887, including the three settlements men-
tioned, and in April 1889 Superior was chartered as a dty. The
harbour was surveyed in zSsj-iSas by Lieut. Henry Wolsey
Bayfield {tjgs^iS&s) of the British Navy. In i86o*x86z it
was resurveyed by Captain (korge G. Meade, who was kngaged
in the work at the outbreak of the Civil War. A branch of
the Northera Pacific railway was built to Superior in 18S1.
8UPp£, FRANZ VON (1830-1895), Austrian musical com-
)K>ser, whose real name was Francesco Ezechiele Ermenegildo
Supp6-Demeili, was bom at Spslato, in Dahnatia, in iSso, and
died at Vienna in 1895. OriginaUy he studied philosophy at
the unive^ty of Padua, but on the death of his father devoted
^dmaelf to music, studying at the Vienna conservatoire. He
began his muskad career as a conductor in one of the smaller
Viennese theatres, and gradually worked his way up to be one
of the most popular composers of ephemeral light opera of the
day. Outside Vienna his works never won much success. Of
his sixty comic operas TalinUza (Vienna, 1876; London, 1878)
was the most successful, while Boccaccio (Vienna, 1879; London,
1882) only enjoyed moderate favour. Supp^'s overture to 2>f^A^
and Batier is his most successful orchestral work. He also wrote
some church music.
SUPPLY (through Fn from Lat. tupfkn, to fill up), pro-
vision: more particularly the money granted by a legislature to
carry on the work of government. In the United Kingdom the
granting of supply is the exclusive right of the House of
Commons, and is carried out by two committees of the House,
one of sup[^y and the other of ways and means (see. Parua-
memt). In the United Slates supply originates in the House of
Representatives (see United States: Appropriation).
In Scotland commisdoneTs of supply were officers appointed to
assess and <x>Uect the land tax offered as supply to the sovereign.
Under the Lands Valuation (Scotland) Act t854 all ownen of
property of a certain value were qualified as commissioners of
supply. Their duties were also enlai%cd to comprise the general
administration of the country, but Dy the Local Government
(Scotbnd) Act 1880 all then- powere and duties were transferred
to and vested in the county council. They still meet annually,
but transact only formal busuess.
SUPPLY AND TRANSPOBT, HIUTABY. In aH ages the
operatk>ns of armies have been influenced, and in many cases
absolutely controlled, by the necessity of pro^^ding and distri^
buting food, forage and stores for men and horses. In modem
history these supplies have become more and more varied a^
weapons developed in coifiplezity, power and accuracy of work-
manship. In proportion, the branches of an army which are
charged with the duties of " supply and transport " have become
specialized as regards recruiting, training and organization.
The predatory armies of the middle ages not only lived upon
the country they traversed, but earich«i themselves with the
114
SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT
plunder they obtaioed from it, and thia method of subsisting
and paying an army reached its utmost limits in the Hiirty
Years' War. During the last stages of this war Germany had
been so thorou^ly devastated that the armies marched hither
and thither Ulce packs of hungry wolves, every soldier accom-
panied by two or three non-cOmbatants— camp followers of all
sorts, mistresses, ragged children and miserable peasants who
had lost all and now sought to live by robbing others under the
protection of the army. An English traveller, as eariy as 1636,
twelve years before the peace of Westphalia, reported that at
Bacharach-on-Rhine he had found " the poor people dead with
grass in their mouths," and that a village at which he stayed
" hath been pillaged eight«Dd*tweoty times in two years, and
twice in one day."
From these horrors there followed a revulsion to the other
extreme Unless ordered by higher authority for political
reasons to sack a particular town or to pillage a particular
district, the soldiers were rigidly kept in hanid, rationed by their
own supply officers and hanged or flogged if at any moment
an outbreak of the old vices made the example necessary. After
1648 there were very few districts in Middle Europe that could
support an army for even a few days, and the burden of their
sustenance had to be distributed over a larger area. Thus, at
the mere rumour of aa army's approach, the peasantry fled with
all their belongings into the fortified places, armies soon came
to be supplied from " magarines," which were filled either by
contract from the home country or by inducing the peasantry —
by meatas of good conduct and cash payments — to bring their
produce to market These niagarines were placed in a strong
place, and if one was not available, a siege had to be undertaken
to meet the demand. Moreover, soldiers in Marlborouj^'s
time were not as easily obtained as in the Thirty Years' War,
and they had to be housed and fed comforU'bly enough to make
it worth their while to stay with the colours instead of deserting.
From these and' similar conditions there grew up a system of
supply and transport usually called the " magazine system,"
unider which an army was bound, under penalty of dissolution,
to go no farther than seven marches from the nearest fortress,
two days from the iiearest field bakery, and so on. When an
x8th-century army .foraged for itself it was because tint regular
supply service was interrupted, ix, when it was tn extremis.
But iht relative rarity of wan in the x8th century, the habit
of demanding nothing from the -inhabitants of the country
traversed by an army, and the virtual exclusion of the people
from the prince's quarrels, gave Europe a century's respite in
which to recover from the drain of the Thitty Years' War.
And therefore, when the French Revolution came, the attempts
of the armies of old Europe to suppress it without robbing a
single Frenchman of a loaf of bread proved futUe, and soon the
national army created by the Revolution, unencumbered by
tents, magazines and supply trains, swept over southern Gct«
many and Italy. The Revolutionary armies differed indeed
from those of the old wars in this, that they did not devastate
wantonly, nor did they murder for the sake of loot But they
were merciless in their exactions, and, moreover, the tides of
their invasions flowed in particular channds, so that the greater
part of the invaded country escaped. This had a considerable,
sometimes even a predominant, influence on the strategy pur-
sued, a retreat along their own lines of communication being
often in fact avoided by the Frendi as being the worst fate that
could befall them. Napoleon, however, systematised the waste-
ful and irregular requisitioning that his predecessors had intr<>-
duced, and in his hands the supply service, like all else connected
with the art of war, underwent a thorougl\ reform. His
strategy ' in the offensive passed through two distinct stages —
(a) the swift and sudden descent into the theatre of war, and
(b) the dose grouping of his armies in view of the decisive blow.
The first stage was characterized by extraordinarily swift move-
ment, complete independence of all trains (other than the
reserves of ammunition) and thorough exploitation of the food
resources of the traversed cone. If the troops suffered, as well
» H. Camon, Cuerr^
as the inhabitants, this did not shake the emperor's purpose in
the slightest. If all the disorders which are the natural conse-
quence of ill-regulated requisitioning— that is, marauding-
cost the army 50,000 men, he had foreseen the loss and taken
50,000 men more than he needed for the battle. But the second
stage, which as a rule involved three or four days' occupation,
without considerable movement, of a restricted area, required
other measures of supply. In this the army lived upon maga-
sines, which were filled from the captured supply trains from
the available supplies in the area, and from the resources
accumulated in requisitioned vehicles dose 4o the head of the
routes followed in the first period. These resources were col-
lected in the towns within this concentration area, and placed
" out of reach of an insult " (that is, made safe against raiders)
with a garrison and field works to supplement the town walls
and gates. From this cmire of openUums Napoleon never
allowed himself to be severed, whereas to the preservation of the
route between France and that centre of operations he gave
very little thought and assigned few or no troops, and most of
the confusion of strategical thought since his time has been
due to the general failure to perceive the essential distinction,
in Napoleonic practice, between a centre of operations and a
In the'xoth century, however, there came the inevitable
reaction. ' Purdy political wars, and the consequent indifference
of the inhabitants to the operations of war, produced as before
a return to the system of cash payments and convoy supply,
especially in the Austrian army. As regards Europe the intro-
duction of railways enormously facilitated the supply and trans-
port service, and campaigns were ndther as barren nor as pro-
longed as they had been under the old conditions. The French
and British armies- did not, at least to the same extent, wage
political wars, but their oeasdess ooloniai warfare imposed upon
them the magazine and convoy ^tem, and habituated them
to it The French, in 1870, stood still in the midst of the rich
fidds of Lorraine, and as a prolonged halt is fatal to the system
of living on the country, it woqld have failed, even had it been
tried. The G»mans, <m the other hand, levied requisitions,
dvilian transport, and contributions in money in accordance
with Napoleonic tradition, though (owing to the existence of
railways) with much less than Napoleonic severity. Their
system has been accepted as the best for European warfare
by all the great powers, whose organizations and methods of
transporting and issuing supplies are the same in prinriple.
This prindple is based on the Napoleonic distinction between
supplies required during an advance and those required during
a concentrated halt. The British Fieid Seniee RegulatwHs
(1909), pt. ii., lay it down that " the system of subsistence
should be dastic and readily adaptable to every situation as
it arises," but that it must always be based on the rule that
** all mobile supplies are to be regarded as a reserve " for use
when ndther local nor line-of-communication resources are
available. As a general rule local resources should be used
bdore the line of communication is called upon, and last of all
the call is made on the mobile supplies in the hands of the
fighting units. During a strategical concentration or a long
halt "the resources of the immediate neighbourhood cannot
be expected to support the troops. At such times they may
be supplied from field d6p6ts established at convenient centres,
and filled with supplies that ase obtained by purchase or
requisition and collected by requisitioned or hired (dvilian)
transport'' tDuring an advance, on the other hand, " by far the
most advantageous method is for the troops to be rationed
by the inhabitants on whom they are billeted . . . This
method should be employed whenever possible."
The extent to which it can be employed varies considerably
with the place and the season, but the British and all continental
armies have their own " rules of thumb " or rough generaliza-
tions based on experience. General hcvil {SiraUgie de mardUt
p. 47) says that in a country of ordinary fertility, with 70
inhabitants to the square kilometre, or 180 to the square mile,
10,000 men can be subsisted for one day on an area of 92 square
SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT
«i5
k3iMBctres or 8| square mile», or i>oe per stinsTe mile. General
BooBtl ia his Sadawa gives 36 square miles as suflSdeni for
Ute maiiiCenance of an army corps (30,000-35,000) or about
1 100 men to the square mile daring the assembly period, but
•aiy on coadition of helping out local resources by special sup-
plies from the base. The British Field Service Regulations
oitc that ordinary agricultural districts of Western Europe, not
previously traversed by troops, will support a force of twice the
strength of the population for a week at a maiimum. This
voold mean exacting fourteen rations from esibh inhabitant,
bat the incidence of the burden is spread over several days.
A practical rule therefore would seem to be, in a district of soo
ioiebitanu to the square mile, to allot 1400 men per square mile
lor a flying passage of one day and 400 for a stay of one week,
the resources of the country being more thorou^y and syste-
natically exploited in the latter case. A British diviskm (com-
batant r^anrn ooly) dosing up to half its marching depth at
the ctkd of the day would require xz square mUes, and as its
depth would be about s| miles, its front or width would perhaps
ateod for only a mile on either side of the route. It b quite
poaubie to move two divisions for several consecutive days
oa the same road, living on the country exclusively, subject
to the condition that the second should halt on the areas
vhkh the 6rst has passed through without stopping. In
continaitai armies the rule is, hi fact, ''one army corps (— s
British divisions) on one road."
Dunns the period of concentration, however, even if in move-
■WBt, a modem army will necessarily be supfjAied in somewhat
the same way as Napoleon's. The billets will be allotted
''withant subsistence,'' and the regimental reserve supplies
«S he called upon to ration their men, while all afound the
•ccupaed towns and villa^BS the supply officers and their mounted
caoocts win requisitiofl food and vehicles to bring the food into
the ooooentxBtfa)n area. In view of this, " supply officers will
be sent on with cavalry or mounted brigades to investigate
the n wHiiu s of the country ahead of the main body, and if
poKible to collect supplies at. suitable points." Only commis-
Booed officers and, as a rule, only those officers to whom the
power ia expressly delegated are entitled to carry out requisi-
tiaB% though in aa emergency a commander of any tank may
obtain firom the hihabitanu articles or services by requisition
and on his own responsibility, which responsibility may meaa
naweiia g to a cbargt ol ** plundering " before a court-martial.
On purely lequisitionDig work direct contact between the
troops aad the faihabitaats is to be avoided.
GcnoaSy, then, a British icgiment operating fai Europe would
be fed, dnrins aa advance, (a) by the inhabitants who provide
the billets, without the necessity of a supply officer's interven-
tjBo, ih) iff the ret^mental reserves, which would be filled up
as they were emptied from the field d£p6ts, of food-stulfs re-
qoxBtioDed by the supply officers, or (c) on emergency by direct
icqaiskiionins. During a concentration it would be fed (a)
■ the first instance by " billeU with subsistence," as in an
advance, (d) in so far as this was insufficient, by regimental,
br^ule and divisional reserves, which would refill partly from the
las of conununicatkm and partly from the field d^pAts created
hf the fcquBsitioning supply officers. Thus, as regards food and
ian^e, the British Regulations-Chough it was not untH 1909
tlai they appeared— are based on the fundamental principles
of Napoleon that strategy must be the master, not the servant
ol snpply, and that this mastery is most complete when— by
■exBs of ** billets with subsistence " or by means of field d£p6is
ol rcquisitkmed iood-stuffs— an army makes itself practically
iadeposdent, as regards food, of its lines of communication.
Tbc general organization of the supply service in Great
Bntaia, calculated for a campaign under European conditions,
s » SoOows: There are d£pAts of various kinds and " mobile
Mpptio^'* The former are classified as (e) hose dipdt, which
a the great reserve magazine that collects all resources that
coBtt from outside the theatre of war; (6) inUrmediaU dipHs
(&fled from tlie base or by local requisitioning) at intervals
aloBf tte lins of communication, which serve principally to
feed the troops posted oa the line of communfcatfen and those
passing along it to the front, but can also be used as an ** over-
flow " magariae if the base d£p6t is full, and aa a meana of
bringbg reserves nearer to the front: (c) advanted dtpdis at the
head of the line of conununication, whidi serve as the ezpense-
magaane, issuing to the '* mobile supplies " what these nieed to
enable them to supplement local resources; {d) field dipdu^ fro-
quently alluded to above, which are smaiu temporary d^pfits
(fiHed by requisitioning) in the immediate aei^bourhood of
the front, and from which, in preference to thdr own mobile
reserves, the troops draw supplies if the inhabitaaU dq, aot
furnish them directly hi the blOeu; field dfpdU may also be
utilized for storing local supplies surplus to the immediate
wants of the army. The ' mobile supplies " are cUssified as
follows: (o) Reg^mmlal, which are cairiBd partly by man aad
horse ia the raaks aad partly ia ''rcgimeatal transport"
vehicles, and oonsnt of the current day's ration and the " emer-
gency ration " of compressed food (which is never to be used
^cept in aa extremity) on man or horse, and a complete ration
for every man and horse on the ratioa Strength of the unit,
with an extra ** grocery ration " and some compressed forage
ia the vdddcs. (6) CdumMf which are carried in the Army
Service Corps " supply cdomns " of the dlyisioa aad cany one
day's complete ratioa^ and one emergen^ ratkni per head
of awn and anlmals--these are ia a sense mobile fidd d^pdls
and depend either on reqiiisitionfng or oa the advanced dfp6t
of the line of oommuaicatloa. (c) Fork, whidi are carried la
" divisional parks " that move a day'k nuoch (often more) ia
rear of the divisions and miupila e n last mobile reserve of
dirce days' rations of food and forage for the troopa.
In WMf are in ssvsge or undeveloped couatrfes the oonditlonA
are far less favooxable, aad eadi case has to be dealt with on
its merits. But, hi general, such warfare always aeocasitates
aa almost complete dependence on msgsrine supply. There
are few or no •• billets with subsistence " or •• field dfpftts "
which are the backbone of the supply system in European
wari^re, and the regimental and colunm supply vehicles have
generally such difficulty in keeping touch with the advanced
d^pdt of the line of communication that the striking radius
of the army is strictly limited to the position and output of the
Une of communications: Moreover, the difficulty— even the
principal difficultjr-is the transport of the supplies obtained
from the line of communication. The alternative, which has
often to be adopted by " punitive " expeditions, is to carry all
supplies for the calculated duration of the movements with the
troops, but the penalty for this freedom to move is either slow-
ness of movement-~the fighting troops regulating their pace by
that of the supply vehicles or pack animals— or a dispropor-
tionate number of " useless mouths " or non-combatants who
must be fed. Altogether, the supply difficulty in expeditions in
the Sudan, or West Africa, or on the Indian frontier hifinitely
outweij^ all difficulties of country or enemy. Moreover, para-
doxical as it may be, the triumphant surmounting of these
difficulties has its disadvantages as regards European warfare.
Generals and supply officers who have always dealt with the
maximum of difficulty find it almost impossible to bring them-
selves to deal with easier conditions. In 1805 Mack vainly
sought to teach the Austrian soldier how to live on the country
in the Napoleonic fashion. In 1806 the Prussians starved in
the midst of riches, in 1870 the French moved as slowly and kept
themselves as closely concentrated as desert columns in Algeria,
and so deprived themselves of the resources of their own
country.
Military transport— other than water and fail—may be claued
in respect of the means cmplojrcd as draught and peck, and in re<pect
of its organization and (unctions as transport on the line of com-
munications and transport in the field, the latter being subdivided
into first line and second line. The British army, on account of
its frequent expeditions into undeveloped countries, makes a large
— in the view of many, far too large — use of pack transport, (or
which mulos, camels and human carriers arc employed. But in
^One day's supply of meat b usually taken with the column
•onthehobf."
lib SUPRA-RENAL EXTRACT— SURAJ-UD-DOWL AH
EusQpean. and to a large extent in other warfare, hotBed transport
is by far the most (eaerally used. Mechanical transport (eenerally
either traction engines with trucka or motor lorries) is, however,
■uperwding horae draught to a considerable extent in •econd-iine
tranffport. The vehicle usually employed for military tnuisport
IS the " General Service Wagon," a heavily-built springless four-
wheeled vehicle drawn by six or four hones aocordmg to circum-
stances, which weighs empty about i8 ewt., and allows ofa maximum
load 01 3/f> cwt. There are also four-hoiw " limbered wagona "
consisting of body and Umber, weighing 13 cwt. empty and 43
cwt. fully loaded, and Ughtec two-whc«led carts which can take
13-15 cwt- load.
As regards organisation and functions, road transport is used
on the line of communications to supplement the railway, and consists
of locally hired or requiaitionfed vehicles worked cry the Aimy
Service Corps, or by civilian personnel under A.5.C control.
Transport with the fidd units is, as has been said, divided into first
line, which accompanies the fighting troops, and second line, which
*oUows them at a disunce. Both lines are, as a rule, manned
exduaivelv by the A.S.C. (or regimental detaib in the case of
regimental tranroorO Bad composed of r^ulation-fiattem carts
and wagons. The brst-line vehicles include ammunition wagons
and carts, tool carts, engineer vehicles and medical vehicles. All
bamge and store and supply wagons, as well as a proportion of
medical, ammunition and engineer vchidea, form the second line.
(C.F.A.>
SUPRArRSNAL BZTRACT. The extract of the ^aprarreiial
(land b one of the moat valuable remedies recently introduced
ha. medicine. Feeding with the fresh gland of sheep was at
fint practised, but the stexilueed glycerin preparation known
as supra-renal extract is now used, the dose being S to 15
minims. The active principle of the gland, best known as
adrenaline or epinephrine, occurs only in the medulla of the
gland. It forms minute white crystals, soluble in weak
solutions of hydrochloric acid. The U.S.P. contains a desiccated
preparation, Clonitilat suprarmaUa skcat. Adxeoaline is most
frequently used in x % solutions of the chloride.
Adrenafine has no action on the unbroken sldn, but locally
applied to mucous membranes it causes blanching of the part
owing to its powerful constriction of the capillaries by stimulating
the muscular fibres of the vessel walk. It acts rapidly in a amilar
manner when hypodcrmically injected. The vessels of the uterus
are strongly acted upon by it, but the effect on the cerebral vessels
b slight, and the pulmonary vends are unaffected.^ The heart
b slowed and the systole increased. Adrenaline stimulates the
nlivary glands. It also produces a temporary glycosuria. In
poisonous doses it causes haemorrhages into the viscera and oedema
of the lunss. .
In Adouoa's (Usease the use of supca-renal tetract has been
beneficial in some cases, but its chief use b in the control of hae*
morrhage. For this purpose it b given in conjunction with local
anaesthetics such as cocaine in order to produce bloodless opera-
tions on the e)'e, nose and elsewhere, it b also useful in hae-
morrhage from small vessels, where it can be applied at the bleeding
spot, as in epistaxis. In mcnorrhaffb and metrorrhagia it b also
ol service. In surgical shock and in chloroform syncope an injection
of adrenaline often sa\'cs life through the rise of blood pressure
produced. An. attack of bnmdhiai asthma may be cut short by
a hypo d ermic injectkm of adrenaline sdntion. It should ae\-er be
used in the. treatment oC haemoptysis. Similar commercial pro-
ducu on the market are hemisioe, renaglandine. suprarenice,
adnephrine. paranephrine and renostyptine. Supra-renal snuGF
containing the dry extract with menthol and boric acid b of use
in hay fever. Rhinod}^^ b of thb tvoe^ Suppositories contaimng
fttpra-OBoal extract are used to check bleeding piles.
The chemistry of adrenaline has been mainly elucidated by the
in\'estigatioas of Pauly. Jo^-ett and Bertrand; }ov>ctt proposing
a constitution (see annexed for-
H O mula) now accepted as correct.
HC/ VcH(OH).CHrNHMeM^r subatanoes having related
^^^ y^ * constitutions ha>-e bcens>^the-
Adienaline. ttzcd. and it has been found that
they irscmbic adrvn^iltne in
incRttsiBg the blood pressure. For ejcample', the corresponding
ketone, adrenalone (obtained in 1904 by Stolz) b active, and the
methyl group can be rrpbced by h>*drogcn or another radical
without destroying the activity. It teems that the para-hYdroxyl
group is essential. For insunce. para-hydroxvphcnyleth^lamine.
HO-C.H,CH,-CHjNHt, which b one of the active bases of ergot,
closely resembles adrenaline (G. Barger. J9^r%, Clum. Sx,, 1909,
9St PP> l'23* '7^> K- ^' Roseamund. 0rr.. 1909, ai. p. ijxS):
as oocs also its dimethyl derivative hordcnine, an alkaloid found
in barley (G. Barger. ibid., p. 2193)- Adrenaline b optically acti\T.
' B MSmW occurring isomer being the laevo form; it b mtercat-
'^— *"lg nioogine, the bevo base has a much gireater
rtanAthedextro.
SUPREMI COURT OF JUDIGATUBI* in England, a court
of law established by the Judicature Act 1873, by section 3 of
which it was provided that the high court of chancery, the
courts of king's bench, common pleas, and exchequer, the
high court of admiralty, the court of probate and the divorce
court, should be united under this name. By section 4, the
Supreme Court was to consbt of two divisions, one to be called
the " high-court of justice " and the other the " court of appeal."
See further under Judicaiuse Acts, and also the articles under
the headings of the different courts enumcf ated above.
The Supreme Court of the United Sutes b the bead of the
national judiciary. Its establishment was authorised by article
iii. of the Constitution, which states that " the judicial power
of the. United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court,
and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to
time ordain and establbh " (s. i.). Section iL states that " the
judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity arising
under thb Constitution, the laws of the United States, and
treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority;
to all cases affecting ambassadon, other public ministers and
consub; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;
to controversies between two or more states, between a stale
and dtiaens of another state, between citisens of different
states, between citizens ol the same state claiming lauds
under grants of different sUtcs, and between a state, and the
citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. In
all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and con-
suls, and those in which a state shall be party, the Supreme
Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases
before mentioned the Supreme Court shall have appellate
jurisdiction both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and
under such regulations as the Congicn shall make." The
Supreme Court of the United Sutes also occupies the unique
position of being guardian of the Constitution. It has to
dedde whether a measure passed by the legislative powers b
unconstitutional or not, and it may thus have to veto the
deliberate resolutions of both bouses of Congress and the
president.
See Unitbd States.
SURABAYA (Dutch Soerabafa)^ a seaport of Java, in the
eastern division of the island, on the narrow Surabaya strait,
which separates the island of Madura from Java, and at the
mouth of the Kali Mas River. Pop. (1900), 146,944 (Europeans
8906*, Chinese 13,03 s). Surabaya is the principal mercantile
town in Java. Its roadstead is sheltered by Madura, and it
has important dockyards. It is also the headquarters of the
military authorities for East Java, and has artillery workshops.
Railways running north-west, south-west and south give it
connexions throughout the island. In the old town, with its
partly demoUshed fortifications, houses, shops and warehouses
are more ckiscly packed and the streets are narrower than in
most East Indian towns, and, althou^ a considerable number
of Europeans live in this quarter, the outlying quartets, such as
Simpang (where b the government house) and Tuntuogan,
are preferable for residence.
8URAJ-UD-00WLAH (d. 1757), nder of Bengal. The date
of hb birth b uncertain, but b generally placed between 1729
and 1736. Hb name was Mirza Mahoramed, and he succeeded
hb grandfather Alivcrdi Khan as nawab of Bengal on the ^ih
of April 1756. He was a cruel and profligate fanatic Being
offended with the Englbh for giving protectioQ to a native
official who had escaped with treasure from Dacca, he attacked
and took Calcutta on the 20th of June 1756. He then permitted
the massacre known in luslor>' as " The Black Hole of Calcutta **
(see Calcutta). This atrocious art was soon aviaiged. Cal-
cutta was retaken by dive and Admiral Watson on the and
of January 1757, and on the 23rd of June, Suraj-ud-Dowlah,
routed at Plasary, fled to Rajmahal, where he was captured.
He was put to death on the 4th of July 1757 at Murshidalud.
by order of Miran, son of Mir Jafar, who bad conspired af^inst
Surahud-Dowlah and had been present at Plattey without
taking past in the batde.
SURAT— SURFACE
iij
ffOBAT, a dty and dbttict of Biithh India in the northern
diviaioa of Bombay. Tlie city is on the site where the English
first cstabiiabed a iactory on the mainland, and so planted
ibe seed of Cthe British Empire in India. Local traditions
is the estabtishment of the modem city in the last yter of the
tftvcnth century, and in 15x4 the Portuguese traveller Barbosa
dc&cTibed it as an important seaport, frequented by many
snips from Malabar and all parts. During the reigns of Akbar,
Jihangir and Shah Jahan it rose to he the chief commer-
oil city of India. At the end of the x6th century the Por-
tagoesc vere undisputed masters of the Surat seas« But in
16 1 J Captain Best, and after him Captain Downton, destroyed
tht Portuguese naval supremacy and obtained an imperial
Lrman making Surat the seat of a presidency under the English
East India Company, while the Dutch also founded a factory,
la 1664 Sir George Qzenden defended the* factory against
S'.-aji with a bravery that deserves to rank with Clive's defence .
oi ^\rcoi. The prosperity of the factoty at Surat received a
E&tal blow when Bombay was ceded to the Company (1668) and
sbonly afterwards made the capital of the Company's posses-
AOQs and the chief scat of their trade. From that date also the
cij began to decline. At one time Its population was estimated
at 3oo,ooo, by the middle of tbe 19th century the aiunber had
tillca to 80,000; but in 1901 it had risen again to 119,306.
S-jrat was taken by the English in 1759, and the conquerors
usaxoed the undivided government of the dty in rSoo. Since
the iDtrodudion of British rule the district has remained com-
paratx\*ely tranquil; and even during the Mutiny peace jfns
»3C disturbed, owing in great measure to the loyaky of the
lya.'TT^g Mobommedan families.
Tbe dty is situated on the left bank.of the river Tapti, 14 m.
tnm its aaouth, and bad a station on the Bombay, Baroda
t CaAnl India railway, 167 m. north of Bombay. A moat
cufkates tbc di\'iding-l&ie between the city, with its nairow
stxects azui handsome bouses^ and the suburbs, mostly scattered
aaiaiiv cultivated lands; but the dty wall has almost disappeared.
On the river frontage rises the irregular pkturesque fortress
I Zt about 1540. A fire and a flood in 1837 destroyed a great
aombcr of buildings, but there remain several of interest,
■Kh as the moaque of Nav Saiyid Sahib, with its nine tombs^
the Saiyid Edroos mosque (1634) >od the ornate Miraa Sami
Bosque and tomb (1540). The most interesting monuments
ue the tomba of English and Dutch merchants of the X7th
otatoiy, especially that of the Oxenden brothers. Surat is
laa a centre of trade and manufacture, thouf^ some of its
fcTSCT industries, such as ship-buildlng, are extinct. There
are cotton rniDs, factories lor ginning and pressing cotton,
me-dcamag mflb and paper miUa. Fine cotton goods are
woven in faand-looras, and there are special manufactures of
s.'i brocade and embroidery. The chief trades are organired
iT j^ads. There are many wealthy I'arsee, Hindu and Mahom-
s.-isn merchants..
The PisntiCT OY SimAT has an area of 1653 tq. m., and the
pC/polAtion in 1901 was 637,017, showing a decrease of 2% in
the decade. The district has a coast -line of 80 m.,. consisting
of a barren atretch of sand drift and salt marsh; behind this
b s rich, htgUy-cnltivated plain, nearly 60 m. in breadth,
ci the mouth of the Tapti, but narrowing to only 15 m. In the
•Gdthcxa part, and on the north-east are the wild hQls and jungle
«( the Dang^ The prindpal crops axe millets, rice, pulses,
tuton and a little wheat. After Sunt dty the chief centre of
vn^ is Bulsar. The district is traversed by the main line of
\k£ Bombay & Baroda railway, with a branch along the
Txpti valley to join the Gxcat Indian Peninsula railway in
UMxkdcafa. Kear the coast, under the influence of the sea
bre^, an equable temperature prevails, but 8 to xx m. inland
the breea ceasas to blow. The coast also posseses a mt|di
fi«fattf lainfaU than the intetMr, the annua] average laAging
bocB 30 in. in Olpad to 7 s hi Chlkhli, whOe at Surat dty the
rrerage is 59I iii.
Tlw Surat Agbmcv consists of three native states: Dharampur
f|j), Bansda (g.f.) and Sachin^ together with the traa known
88 the Dangs. T»td area, 1960 sq. m.; pop. C1901), 179,975.
Sachin has a revenue of £i7>ooo and Its chief is a Mahoinmedan.
StlRBASB (Lat. super, whence the Fr. sur, above or upon,
and .base, q.9,), tjt, upper base, the term in architecture applied
to what, in the fittings of a room, is called the diair-rall. It
Is also used to distinguish the cornice of a pedestal or podium
and is separated from the base by the dado or die.
SURBITOll, an urban district hi the Kingston pailiamentary
division of Surr^, Engkmd, X3 m. S.W. of Chaxing Crtas,
London; on the London ft South- Western rulway. lV)|a
(1891), xa,x78; (1901), x 5,017. It has a frontage upon the right
bank of the Thames; with a pleasant esplanade. . The district
is largely residenthd. Surbiton is the headqaartexa of the
Kmgs ton R owing Club and the Thames Sailing Club.
SUHSTT. in law, the party liable under a contract of guar-
antee {qji.y. In criminal practice sureties bound by recognisance
iq.t.) are a means of obtaining compliance with the order of a
court of justice, whether to keep the peace or otherwise.
SUBFACB, the bounding or limiting parU of a body- In the
artide CirkvE the xnathematical question is treated from an
historical pobkt of view, for the puipose of showing how the lead-
ing ideas of the theory were successively arrived at. These
leading ideas apply to surfaces, but the ideas peculiar to surface
are scarcely of the like fundamental nature, being rather devekp-
ments of the former set in thehr appiioation to a more advanced
portion of geomcfiy; there is. consequently less occasion for the
historical mode of treatment. Curves in space are considered
in the same artide, and they will not be discussed bete; but it is
proper to refer to them in connexion with the other notions of
solid geometxy. In plane geometry the dementaiy figures are
the point and the Imc; and we then have the curv^, which may be
regarded as a singly infinite system of points, and also as a
singly infinite system of lines. In solid geometry the dementary
figures are the point, the line and the plane; we have, moreover,
first, that wl}ich under one aspect is the curve and under another
aspect the dcvdopable (or torse), and which may be regarded
as a singly infinite system of points, of lines or of planes; and
secondly, the surface, which may be regarded as a- doubly
infinite system of points or of planes, and also as a specid
triply infinite system of lines. (The tangent lines of a surface
are a special complex.) As distinct partictdar cases of the
first figure we have the plane cun^e and the cone, and as a par-
ticular case of the second figure the ruled suxface, regulus or
singly infinite system of lines; we have, besides, the congruence
or doubly infinite system of lines and the complex or triply
infinite system of hues. And thus crowds of theories aris6
which have hardly any analogues in plane gcometiy; the re-
lation of a curve to the various surfaces which can be draws
through it,, and thaf of a surface to the various curves which
can be drawn upon it, are different in kind from those which in
plane geometxy most nearly correspond to them — the retation
of a system of poinu to the different curves through them and
that of a curve to the systems of points upon it. In particuhic,
there is nothing In plane geometry to correspond to the theory
of the curves of curvature of a surface. Again, to the single
theorem of plane geometry, that a line is the shortest distance
between two points, there correspond in solid geometry two
extensive and difficult theories— that of the geodesic Imes on a
surface and that of the minimal surface, or surface of mim'mum
area, for a given boundary. And it would be easy to say mor»
in illustration of the great ettent and complexity of the subject
In Part I. the subject wiO be treated by the oidinary methods
of analytical geometry; Part XL will consider the Gausslaa
treatment by differentials^ or the £, F, G analysis.
Part I. •
•Swfaeis in Gtntnl; Tofs$t, ^c
I. A surface may be regarded as the locus of a doubly infinite
•ystem of polnta— that is, the locus of the system of poinU deter-
mined by' a single equattoa f/>»(*]x, y, s, i)*,e0, between the
cartesian co-ordinates (to fix the ideas, say rectangular co-ordinates)
«, > s: or. if we please, by a single homogeneous reUtloii V^
i*jis, y, M, w)", «o. oetwcen the quadr^anar co-ordinates x, y. s, w.
ii8
SURFACE
The dagree n of the aquation U the oidtr dl the turfaoe: and thU
definition of the order agreet with the geometrical one, that the
order of the surface la equal to the number of the inter-
•ections of the surface by an arbitrary line. Startins from the
foregoing point definition of the surface, we might develop the
notions of the tangent line and the. tangent -plane; but it will be
more convenient to consider the surface ab initio from the more
general point of view in its relation to the point, the line and the
plane.
a. Mention has been made of the plane curve and the cone; it
b proper to recall that the crder of a plane curve is equal to the
number of its intersections by an arbitrary line (in
~V^ the plane of the curve), and that its class is equal to the
J~ number of Ungents to the curve which pass through
** an arbitrary point (in the plane of the curve). The
cone is a figure correUtive to the plane curve: corresponding to
the plane of the curve we have the vertex of the cone, to.its tangents
the generating UneH of the cone, and to its points the tangent
planes of the cone. But from a difi^erent point of view we may
consider the generating lines of the cone as corresponding to the.
poiqu of the curve and its un^nt planes as correuwnding to the
unienu qi the curve. From this pomt of view we define the order
of tne cone as equal to the number of its Intersections Cgenerating
Knes) by an arbitrary plane through the vertex, and its daas as
equal to the number <u the tangent nIaaeB which pass through
an arbitrary line through the vertex. And in the same way that a
plane curve has singularities ysingular points and singular tangents)
so a cone has angularities (singular generating lines and singular
tangent planes).
3. Consider now a suiface in connexion with an arbitrvy line.
The line meets the surface in a certain number of points, and, as
ahnndy mentioned, the order of the surface is equal to the number
of these intersections. We have through the line a certain number
of ungent planes of .the surface, and the thss of the surface is equal
to the number of these tangent planes.
But, further, through the line imagine a plane; thu meeu the
surface in a curve the order of which ia equal (as is at once seen)
to the ordo* of the surface. Again, on the line imagine a point;
thb IS the vertex of a cone drcuraacribing the surface, ami the
cVus of this cone is equal (as a at once seenji to the class of the sur^
iace. The ungent lines of the aurface which lie in the plane are
.nothing else than the Ungenu of the plane section, and thus form
^ sii^Iv infinite series of hnes; similariy, the tangent lines of the sur>
face wnich pass throqgh the point are nothing else than the generat-
ing lines of the dreuroacribed cone, and thus fom a singly infinite
Wnea of Unea. But, if we consider those tangent lines 01 the sur>
lace whkh are at once in the plane and through the point, we see
that they are finite In number; and we define the roaJk of a surface
as eqiMl to the number of tangent lines which lie in a g^ven plane
and pass throogh a given point in that plana. It at onoe follows
that tb» ^tesa of the plane section and the order of the drcum-
scribed cone are each equal to the rank of the surface, and are thus
* ' It may be noticed that for a general suiface
.* — I ..!._. .J pjjj^ dngulaiities the rank
. ._,. _, A ■»(•— l)*; this implies
(what is in fact the case) that the drcnauicribed cone has line
sii^laiities, for otherwise iu class, that ia the daaa of the surface,
would be a(a~i), which is not ««(«— 1)*.
4. The notions of the tangent line and the tangent plane have
been awnmnd as known, but the^ reqoira to be further explained
-^ in re f e r ence to |he ongiaal point definition of the siir>
^^g face. Speaking generally, w« may say that the points
j^^^^ of the surface consecutive to a gi\'en point on it Ue in a
^^^ phne which n the tangent plane at the gi\^en point, and
convendy the gi\'cn point is the point of contact of this tangent
plane, aad that any fine through, the point of contact and in the
tai^ent plane is a tangent line touchii« the surface at the point of
conuct. Hence we see at once that the tangent Hoe is any line
meeting the surface in two consecutive points, or— what b the same
thiag-^ Kne meeting the surfaoe in the point of contact coaating
aa two intersections and ia a— a t>ther points. But, fraa the
foregoing notion of the tangent plane aa a plane containing the
point of contact and the con5ecuti>-c points of the surface, the passage
to the true defimtion of the tangent plane b not equally obvioas.
1 the ocder a in a carve of
acnoed cone ara eacn equai ro tne ranx 01
equal to each other. It may be noticed
( I'i y> 8..v)*.«o, of order « without i
^ V -»<»-i). and the dasa b a*.
» a
contact.
A plane in general meets the Miibre of 1
that onfcr wtthoat doabb poiaia: but the plane may be such that
the carve has. a dottbb point, and whea thb b so *
tangent plane havins the doubfe point for its poii
The dottUe point b either aa acnode Tisolated point), then the aurface
at the Doiat ia qaiatba b coovex towards (that is, concave away
from) the taageat plane^ or cbe it b a crunode. and the surface
at the poiat in qncstioa is thee eencavo-conxex. that is, it has its
two carvataiea w eppoaile aens«s (see bdow, par. 16). Oboerve that
ia eitWr case aay hae whato'er ia the nlaae and through the pcant
meets the surface to the points ia wftxh if meets the pbae curve,
vis. in the pomt <tf contact, which foo doable point coants as two
intvfmctioos. and in «-a other noiats; that b, we have the
Kttcdrfiaitbaorthetaaceotbe.
, _.„ of thetaofeot I
S> The complete eavmcratiaa and 1
daauilaceba umHb >ft«wr
tsaot yet
been aolved.^ A plane curve has point singularities and fine
singularities; corresponding tP these we have for the surface isolated
point singularities and isolated pUne singularities, but
there are besides continuous singubrities applying to
curves on or torses drcumscribed to the surface, and
it is among these that we have the non^special singubrities whkh
play the most imporunt part in the theory. Thus the pbne curve
represented by the general equation ('Jx, y, «)»-»o, ol any given
order n, has the non-special line singubnties of inflexions and
double tangents; corresponding to this the surface represented by
the general equatbn (*!'* Vt *• v)'*-o, of any given order a,
has, not the isolated plane singularities, but the continuous
singularities of the spinode curve or torse and the node-coupb
curve or torse. A filane may meet Che surface in a curve
having (1) a cusp (spinode) or (3) a pair of doubb points; b
each case there b a singly infinite system of such sii^guUr tangent
pUnes, and the locus of the 'points of contact ts the cur>'e.
the envelope bf the tangent pbines the torse. The reciprocal
singubrities to them are the nodal curve and the cuspidal curve:
■the surface mav intersect or tooch itself along a curve m such wise
that, cutting the surface by an aihitnury pbne, the curve of inter-
section has at each intersection of the plane with the curve
on the surface (i) a double point (node) or (a) a cu^ Observe
that these are aingularitim not oociuring in the surface represented
by the general equatkm (*ix, 7, a, «»)• mo of any order; observe
further that in the case 01 both or dtber of them singularities the
definition of the tangent pbne must be modified. A uneeat pbne
is a (>bne such that there b in the pbne section a double point in
addition to the nodes or cuspa at the intersections with the aihgular
lines on the surface.
6. As regards iaobted 8ingubritbS| it will be sufficient to mention
the point singularity of the conical point (or cnicnode) and the
corresponding plane singubrity of the coni^-of contact (or cnictropc).
In the former cam we have a pdnt such that the consecntive points,
instead of lying in a tangent pbne. he oa a quadric cone, having
the pdnt for its vertex; in the latter cam we have a pbne toachins
the surface along a omic; thit is, the complete intersection of the
surface by the plane b made up of the conic takoi twice and ol
a residual curve of the order a— 4.
7. We may, ia the general theory of anrfacea, mnsicliT either a
aurface and its reciprocal surface, the redpiocal surface' beii^
taken to be the surface envdoped by the polar pboes
to a given quadric surface) of the points of the origin
or— what b better*— we rar *-•— — ' ' — *-
to the reciprocal rdations c
In dther cam we have as
BpondiM series of accented letters, and the rsbtions between thcra
are such that we may in anjr equation interchange the accented
and the unaccented letten; in some cases an voacoented letter
may be equal to the oonespoodinc accented letter. Thun, let a.
a' be aa before the oider and the dam of the aurface^ but, ixmtead
of immedbtely' defining the rank, let a be nmd to denote the daaa
of the pbne section and •' the order of the drcumacribed cone :
also let 5, 5* be numben referring to the amgidaritiea. The fonn
of the rebtions b a«a' («rank of surface); a'-a («^i)^.S:
a'-n (»-ip-5; o-a* (n'- i) -i*; a « a' (^'- i)» — y.
In them last equations 5, 5* are merely written down to deix>t€
proper corresponding combinations of the several numbera referrinf
to the singubritim collectively de n ote d by 5, 5* r e sp e cti vely, Tlx
iheorr , as aheady mentioned, b a eomplex aad ififlicult om^
8. A tone or devdopabb corresponds to a curve in spate in th*
same manner as a cone corresponds to a pbne curve: aJtbousl
capabbofrepremntatioabyanei j— "-'•v w
*o. and ao
definition of a s u rf ace, it b an entirdy distinct Beo-"
aaetricd conception. We may indeen, fan soriaoe, resmn]
aa a surface characteriaed by the property that eacla of ii
tangent planm toucho it, not at a singb point, hat »V>t\w
line: thb b cquivabnt to mying that it b the envdope, mot of
doubly infinite aeries of nlaaea^ aa b a proper aarfaoe, kmat of
singly infinite aystem of planes. But it b jpmiapa easier to resai
* * '*'"'' of^Iines, ear*" •• -
iremntatioa by aneouation If » (•lx;y, s, »)• , .
» of coming under the Ibrmoing point i***^ *^
a surface, it b an entirdy distinct bbo-**'*"^^*
, each line
it as the locus of a singly infinite system c
the consecutive line, or, what b the same tnmg. loe ones o^ins ta
gent hoes of a cttr\« in space. The tangent pbne b then tbe ula
through two consecutive lines, or. what la the same thing, ^tx o^<:
bting pbne of the curve, whence aho the tangent pbne imt.er>^
the surtacc in the genenunf line counting twice, and in m resell
curvT of the order •— a. The cui>^ b said to be the edlf^ of ,
gressioo of the de>dopable. and it b a cuspidal curve tberc*
that b to my. any plane acctioo of the developable ham ^^ ^^
point cf iatiecsection with the edge of regreaBiott a cusp^^ J^ ^%^
of paper beat ia any asaaaer without cnuspling givm a dev^o^^[g
* la a pbae curve the ceAy sngmbritim which need to %»» ^
sademd are thom that present tbcsaadves in Ptiicker's g*«>7r^
for e%"«f>- higher singuUritv »hate\Tr b equivalent to ^ c»r?
number of nixtes. cvh>s* iR'^\ioi\s and doubb tangents^ aV^
gaids a surface. 00 such Tc\2ucti«Mi of the higher cix^ul^ri. ^^T
aa ye« been amde. "^^
SURFACE
"9
'm orAt* thttC the eqaatioo V'
vkh the second diScfeatiai oocffi
bet «c caanot with a aingte iheet of paper piopeily eihiUt the
faffB m tke ndUibaurhood of the edge of reKresokm: we need two
«bects fimi i wtwi along a plane curve,, which, when the pape^ is
bent, turimwi the et^ c« regftawon and appears as a cuspidal
oome oo the anrfsce.
It wBj be mentioned that the condttiott which must be saUsoed
*o shall repiesent a developable
or functional determiaant formed
dents of U muflt vanish in virtue
<d the «miataoa £/»o^ or-'wfaat la the same thing— &<!/) most
ooatnia u aa a factor. If in cartesian co-ordinates the eqoation
a taken ia the form s— / (»< 7)*o, then the condition is ft—^'^o
kinticaUy, where r, #, I denote as usual the second diffei^eati^
oDcficieats of a in regard tox,y respectively.
9^ A fcsulns or ruled surface is the locus of a singly infinite
•y«em of lines, where the consecutive lines do not intersect j this
^ . ma tnie surface, for there is a doubly infinite aenea of
TST tangent planes— in fact any plane through any one
r ^ of the KiKa is a tangent plane of the surface, touching
it at a point on theline, and in such nise that, as the
an^eat plane turns about the line, the point of cootaet moves
jloBg the Kae. The complete intersection of the surface bjr the
tangent plane ia made up m the line counting once and of a residual
c'jrvc ofthe onder a— i. A quadric surface is a regulua in a two*
UmI naanrr for there are on Uie surface two systems of lines
each of which ba rcguhn.. A cubic surface may be a regulua
i»ee below, par. Ii).
Surfaces rf Iht Orders 2, 3 and 4,
la A sorfaoe of the second order or a quadric surface Is a surface
SBch thai every line meets it, tn two points, or— what comes to the
^ .^ same thing— such that every plane section thereof
?Tr* b a conic or quadric curve. . buch surfaces have been
*■"■■•• studied from every point of view. The only singular
fonas are when there b (l) a conical point (cnicnode), when the sur-
face b a cone of the second order or quadricone; (3) a conic of
C'ctact (icmctropt), when the surface b thb conic; from a different
jfjint of view it b a '* surface aplatle " or flattened surface. Ex-
zi.j<^Bg these degenerate forms, the surface b of the order, rank
aad ^sa each." 2, and it hsis no singularities. Distinguishing
the fctnas according to realiiy, we have the ellimoid, the hyper-
l>Jaid of two sheets, the hyperboloid of one sheet, the etuptic
puabokwi and the hyperbolic paraboloid (see Geometry: | Ana-
A particular case of the ellipsoid is the sphere ; in abstract
;?onrtry this b a quadric surface passing through a given quadric
c^sTt, tne circle at mfinity. The tangent plane <h a quadric surface
Tceci it in a quadric curve hiving a node^ that Is, in a pair of lines;
Voce there are on the surface two singly infinite sets 01 lines. Two
hxs of Che same set do not meet, but each b'ne of the one set meets
txh fine of the other set; th^ surface b thus a renins in a two-
Md manner. The lines axe real for the hyperboloid of one sheet
sad for the hyperbolic paraboloid; for the other forms of surface
fhrr are isiagviary.
II. We have next the surface of the third order or cubic surface.
w^kh has abo been very completely studied. Such a surface
^^. may have isolated point singularities (cnlcnodes or
r*r points of higher singubrity), or it may have a nodal
•■■■* Hne; we have thus 31 -fa,* 23 cases. In the general
cue ef a nwrfa*^ without any nisularities, the order, rank and clam
tn»x, 6. 12 respectively. The surface has upon it 27 lines,
>t*s^oy thiees in 45 planes, which are triple tangent planes. 0I>-
mrre tnat the tangent pbne is a pbne meeting the surface in a
<ar>e having a node. For a surface of any given order n there
vQ be a cerrain number of i^es each .meeting the surface
m a car«e with 3 nodes, that b, triple tangent pbnes; and,
ia the particular case where «*"3. the cubic curve with 3
aoiss » of ooone a set of 3 lines; it b found that the number of
trpk taxweot planes is, as just mentioned, -45. This would
r-te 135 hiiea. but thitMM;h each line we have 5 such pbnes, and
dK sumbcr of lines b thus "27. The theory of the 37 lines Is
as octenaive and interesting one; in particular, it may be noticed
tiu we can. in thirty-ax ways, select a system of 6X6 lines,
w " doable sixer.** such that no two lines of the mme set intersect
cKh other, but that each line of the one set intersects each line of
ttrotfecraet.
A aAmc $mfaa having a nodal line is a ruled surface or regulus;
a fact any pbne through the nodal line meets the surface
a thb fine counting twice and in a readual tine, and there is
tk» oa the aorfaoe a sb^y Infinite set of lines. There are two
faiwa. ^'
t2. Aa tcgards quartic surfaces, only particular forms have been
A quartic surface can have at most 16 conical
Its (cnicnodcs): an instance of such a surface is
Frcatel's wave surface, which has 4 real cnicnodes in
one of the principal planes, 4X2 imaginary ones in
lb other two principal pbnes, and 4 imaginary ones at infinity —
■ iA 16 caacnodcs; the same surface has abo 4 real+ia imi^inary
pbrvs each toaching the surface along a drde fcnictropes)— in
ift 16 '■^tffi-*^ It waa eaay by a mere iMM uo gMphic tnasfonaa'
£2L ^^
tion to pan to the asore general surface called the tctrahedroid;
but this waa itself only a particular form of the genecal surface
with 16 cnicnodes and 16 cnictropes first studied by Kummer.
Quartic surfaces with a smaller fiumber of cnicnodes have abo beta
ooasidered. . .
Another very important form b the ouartic surface haviiq; a
nodal conic ; the nodal oonb may be the circle at infinity; and we have
then the so<aIled analbematic* surface, othenHse the cyclide
(which indndes the particulsr form cdled Dupin's cydide). These
correspond to the bidrcular quartic curve of plane geometry. Other
forms of quBitic «urfaoe might be relencd to..
C^MffMAKM end ContpttxtMm
13..A congruence b a donUy infinite system of fines. A fine
depends on lour paranietefa and can therefore be determined so
as to satisfy four conditions; if only two oonditioos are
imposed on the line we have a doubly infinite system
of liaes or a congruence. For instance, the linea meet-
ing each of two given lines fona a ooagraence. It b hardly
necessary to remark that, imponog on the line one more
condition, we have a ruled surface or regulus; thus we can in an
infinity of ways aeun iat e the c u i ig i ue me into a siii^ infinite
system of nguh or 01 tones (see bdow. par. 16).
Considering in <innnimnB with the con g ruence two arbitrary
lines, there will be in tin oongnienoe a determinate number of linea
which meet each of tiwse two lines; and the pambcr of lines thus
meeting the two lines b said to be the order-dass of the congruence.
If 'the two arlMtrary lines are tahen to iatcnert each other, the
oongraenoe Hnes which meet each of the two lines separate them-
selverinto two sets-Hhose which fie ia the pbne of the two linea
and those which pea through cheir intenection. There will be in
the former set a determinate number of co n gi u eoce lines which
is the order of the congruence, and in the btter aet a d e t e rm i n ate
number of congroenoe lines which b the obrrof the oongraenoe.
la other words, the order of the oongruenoe b equal to the number
of congruence lines lying hi an artstmry plane, aad its dam to
the number of congruence linea passing throagh an aibitmry
point.
The following systems of lines form each of them a congroenoe;
(A) liaes meeting esch of two given airvcsr (B) fines meetiim a
given carve twice; (C) lines meeting a given curve and touching
a given surface; (D) tines touching each ef two given surfaces;
(E) lines toochlBf a given surfsos twice, or, say, the bitangeats
of a given surface.
Toe bst case b the most general one; and conversely for a given
congruence there will be in general a smfacfe having the congruence
lines for bitaBgeiita.x Thb surface b ssid to be the /osef tmrfou
of the ooagrueooe; the geaend surface with 16 cnicnodes first pre-
sented itself ia thb manner as the focal surface of a congruence.
But the focal surface may degenerate into the forms belonging to
the other cases A, B, C, D.
14. A complex b a triply infinite system of fince-^or instaaoe,
the tangeat lines of a surface. Considering an arbitrsiy point
in connexion with the complex, the complex lines which y. ^
pam through the point form a cone: eonsidcriag a pbne ^
in connexion with it, the complex tines whbh fie in the pbae envdop
a curve.. It is easy to see that the clam of the curve b equal to
the order of the cone: in fact each of these numbers b equal to the
number of complex Imss sdiich lb in an arbitrary pbne and pass
through an arbitrary point of that plane; and we then say '
of complex » Older of curve; rank of oomplex^daM of
. rank of complex- _ . _
•order of eone; dan of oomplex>"Clam of eo/te. It b to be
observed that, whib for a congruence there b ia general a surface
having the coagrnenoe tines for bitangents, for a complex there b
not in general any surface having the complex fines for tangcnu;
the tangent fines of a surface are thus only a spedal form of complex.
The theory of compleses first presented itsdf in the researches
of Mains on systems of rays of -tight in connexion with douUe
refraction.
IS. The aiudytical theory as well of congr u ences as of complexes
b most easily carried out bV meaas of the ax coordimites of .a line:
viz. there are coordinates ut, 6, c, /. g, k) connected by the equation
af-^-h^+dt^o, and therefore such that the ratios aibu-Jitik
constttnte a system of four aiUtnvy parasMtcrs. We have thus
a congruence of the order a represented by a sinde homogeneous
equation of that order (*]a, b, c. /, s, a)"«o between, the six
co-ordinates; two such relations determine a congruence. But we
have in regard to congruences die same difficulty as that which
presents itself in regard to curves in space: it b not every congru-
ence which can be represented completely and prerisely by two
such equations (see Geometry: I liii^).
The linear equation (*Ia. b, r. /. g,k)»o represents a congruence
of the first order or linear congruence; such conKmenccs are inter-
esting both in geometry and in connexion with the theory of forces
acting on a rigid body.
CtiffiM ef Cunahtre; AsjmpMU Lines.
16. The normals of a surface form a congruence. In any ooiv
grucaoe the liaes consecutive to a given congruence fine H» *»«»
I20
in geoeral meet thb line; but there is a determinate nwnbcr of
consecutive lines which do meet it; or» attending for the moment
to only one of these, say the congruence line is met by a consecutive
oongmence-line. In partionlar, each normal is met by a amaecutive
normal; this again is met by a consecutive normal, and so on.
That is, «% have a sinriy infinite system of normals each meeting
the consecutive normal, and so fonniiq{ a torse; startittg from
different normab successively, we obtain a singly infinite system
ai such tones. But each normal is in fact met by two consecutive
Kirmals. and. usag in the oonstniction first the one and then the
other of these, «e obtain tiro singly infinite systems of tones
each intersecting the given surface at ri^ht angles. In other
words, if in place of the normal we oonsadtf the point on the
sarfacei, we obtain on tl^ surface two singly infinite systems of
corves such ihat for any curve of either system the normals at
consecutive points intersect each other; moreover, for each
normal the tones of the two wstems intersect each other at
right angles; and therefo re for each point of the surface the curves
of the two systems intersect each oth^ at ric^t angles. The two
systems of curves are said to be the corves of airvature of the
surface.
The normal b met by the two consecutive normals in two points
which are the centres of curvature for the point on the surface;
these lie either on the same side of the point or on opposite skies,
and the surface has at the point in question like curvatufcs or
oppQsike curvatures in the two cases r e sp ec ti vely (see above,
par. 4).
17. In immediate connexion with the curves of curvature we
have the so<allBd aaym^tk curves (Haupt-tangentenlinien).
The tangent pbne at a point of the .surface cuts the aurfaoe in a
curve having at that poutt a node. Thus we have at the point
of the surface two dicectioos of passage to a consecutive potat,
or. say, two elements of arc; and, passing along ooe of these to
the coosectttive point, and thence to a consecutive point, and so
on. we obtain on the surface a curwe. Surtia|K sucoessivdjr from
different points of the surface we thus obtain a singly infinite
system of cvr\-eB; or. using first one and then the other ci the two
directions, we obtain two singly infinite systems of curves, which
are the curves above referred to. The two curves at any point
are cQuatty indtaed to the tsro curves of curvature at that point,
or — what is the same thinp-^tfae aunpleraentary angles formed by
the two asymptotic lines are bisected by the two curves of curvature,
la the case of a qoadrk surface the a^aptotic curves are the two
systems ol lines on Uie surface.
18. A geodetic line (or curve) b a shor test c wve 00 a snface;
more accuratetv, the deoKnt of arc between two consecutive
poiats.of a gcooetic line b a shortest are oa the surface. We are
thus led to the fundamental property that at each point of the
cur^T the osculating plane of the curve passes through the normal
of the surface: in other words, any two consecutt^-e arcs PP*. I**F"
are m tUm* with the normal at P" Staning from a given point
P on the surface, we have a singly infinite s>'stem <x gcodetics
proceeding along the surface in the direction of the several tar^ent
lines at the point P; and, if the diiectsoa PP* b given, the property
gives a coastnictaoa by successive Uemtats of are for the re(|uired
SURFACE
Conssdering the geodetic Knes which proceed from a given point
P of the surface, any particular geod ct i e line b or b not again
intersected by the coo««cutive geocrating line: if it b thus inter-
sected, the senerating line ba sJMRest Uneoathesarfnceii{>to.but
not beyond, the point at which it b first i nt erse ct e d _,
secutive |(enecating line; if it b aot i t er s e ct e d , it continues a
shoftcst hoe for the whole course.
la the aaahtical theory both of geo d e tic Gaes and of the carves
of cwrrat w e. and in other parts of the theorv of surfaces, it b veiy
rottveaient to consKfer the rectangular co-crtlinates x. y. a of a point
oC the surfjMX as ei\>» runctU>ns of two ipviepeiKk'nt parameten
/k. f ; ^e form of tnese fuottMas of oaurse deterauncs the surface,
siaoe by the diminatioa of ^ 4 tram the three equalioas we obtain
the eqaatioa in the co-ordinates «. y» a. We have for the geodetic
Haes a diffeteatiatl equatioa of the secaad order betaeen a and f ;
the tenenl aohitua coataiaa two arbitrary oonstaats, and b thus
capable of reprcaeattng the geode t i c line which caa be drawn from
a fivea poiat isi a gi^Ta dUectioa oa the saiface. la the case ol
theirstkimU
i^The
ioa iavQhpes hypeieUiptic integrals ol
the square met ol a saxtic (uactiott.
I of the co-ocdiaate« «; y. ■ Ui terms of ^ f
— r r^aadk it thb b VQg«raed aa a gi\Tn o>n*
k itfCf te 4 point on a gUm
U tMM iadt|teiidrnt ivita*
'* a peiat In tpacew deters
; ihge jj^ aiaroettri
% BIW Maiiwd<^nsc
pravB ivMmM us
«, y. i; say we have ••/i(s, y. s), ^^Mx, y, s), r -/,fe y, a), which
eauatwns of course lead to cxpressiaos f or f, 9, r each as a function
olx, y, s. The first equation determines a sii^ly infinite set of sor>
faces: for any p;^ven value of ^ we have a surface; and similarl
second and thud equations determine each a singly infiaite c
surfaces. If, to fix the ideas, /t, ft, ft are taken to denote a
similarly the
' • ssctof
.,-.,_. ^ each a
rational and integral function of x. y, s, thea two surfaces of the
same set will not intersect each other, iod throurii a given point
of space there will pass one surface of each set; that is, the point
will be determined as a point of interaectton of three surfaces be*
fonging to the three sets respectively; moreover, the idiole of mmcc
will be divided by the three sets ^ surfaces into a triply infinite
system of demenu, eadi of them beiiig a paialldepiped.
OrtkUomic Surfaces; ParaOd Surfaces.
aa The three setsof surfaces may be such that the three surfaces
through any point of qpace whatever intersea each other at right
angles; and they are in thb case said to be orthotomic The term
5+5+^
' "^tpSt '**"?4t " *• *°^' ^ *** **"*
- , * - . y* *}' «*^<*' ?• «
system of orthotorac surfaces, we have m the restricted
^* f • r as the curvflinear oo-ordiaates of the point.
An interesdng special case b that of confocal quadric surfaces.
The general eqaatioa of a surface confocal. with the ellipsoid
«■_
»+•
equation we consider a, y, s as given, we have for 9 a cubic equation
with three real roots ^, q, r. and thus we have through the point
three real surfaces, one an dKpsoid. one a hyperboloid of one sheet,
and one a h\-perboloid of two sheets.
ai. The theory b connected with that ot curves of curvature
by Dupin's theorem. Thus in any system of orthotomic surfaces
each surface of any one of the three sets b intersected by the
surfaces of the other two sets in its curves of curvature.
aa. No one of the three sets of surfaces b altcwether arbitrary :
in the equation p »/i(x, y. s). ^ b not an arbitiary function of x, v, s.
but it must satbfy a certain partial diflferential equation of the third
order. Assumii^ that f has thb value, we have Q'^ftt*, y, s)
and r»/t(x. y, s) determinate functions of x,y.s such that the three
sets of surfaces form an orthotomic system.
23. Starting from a given surface, it has been seen (par. 16)
that the normals along the curves of curvature form two systems
of torses intersecting each other, and abo the given surface, at right
aneles. But there are. intersecting the two systems of torses at
right angles, not only the given surface, bet a smgly infinite s>-stcm
01 surfaces. If at each point of the avtn surface we measure off
along the norrrul one and the same distance at pleasure, then the
locus of the points thus obtained b a surface cutting all the normal,
ol the given surface at right angles, or, in other words, having the
same nonnjls as the given surface; and it b therefore a parallel
surf.%ce to the gi\Tn surface. Hence the singly Infinite system of
parallel surfaces and the two singly infinite systems of torses form
together a set of orthotomic surfaces
TUMk
ISmfaa,
14. Thb b the surface of minimum are a more icctiratefy. a
surface such that, for any indefinitely small dosed curve which can
be drawn on it round any point, the area of the surface is less ihaii
it b lor any other surface w!ute>xr through the closed curve. !l
at ot\ce follows that ihe surface at every point b concavo-convex
for. if at any ooint this was not the case, wecoidd, by q^ting tlw
surface bv a pbne, describe round the point aa indefinitely sixiall
closed pUne cur^r, and the pUne area within the closed cur^i
wxHitd tVn be less than the area of the dement of surface ^-ithil
the SAme cur^e. The cor.d.tjon leads to a partial differcntL^
equation of tV sev>>ad order for the determination of the nsinirrs
surface: con-vskrins: s as a funcrion of r, y. and srnting as usu.3
f. f. r. r, I for the firict and the second dSfferentbl coeflicients c
s tn regard to t, v respect i%^h% the equation (as first sho^m b
Ugraace^ b (i + ^)f - i/s*^ + (i +p»)l -o. or, as this may ala
i ♦ , i P
be written.
The s^nen
integral contains of course arbitrary fnactioiis. and, tf vre tmac:\t
the«e M dererniined that the surface may pass through « gfv-g
cK<i«vvl turxwk anvl if« nvvrover. there b but one minimal surfa<
IM^-i't^ thn^tv<h tSat cunx. we hi\"e the solution of the problc
«4 anJtn^ the sartace ei mtaaaum area within the sasne cutn
l*he sutloce coatiaoed bc>^)nd the cfosed curve b a miaitnal surfac
bat it b not of D«cr9«>.ry or in feoeral a surface of minimufn ar
for aa arHirarv KmixU:^ cutv^ not wholly induded within t
(jlve« eV^ird curves. It w hanlS necessary to remark th^t t
I |4*ae ba lut.umal nMtaww a-M tait. if the given doaed cicirv^:
I a plane car^e. tW j^** » t!s<' pcthw sohitiaa; that ia, tHc pla
area withia the tivea cis^scd cm^e afc fcws ihaa the area for au>y oti
MrtK* tlMi«^ tis WW can%. The cpsea dosed cw^'^u ,
above k
r « mt^Atcuvftt h may be, for iwhiiipff, a ikew polygoa
U ^^ential equation wu dealt with in a very
by Riftciann. From the eeooad form given
appean that we baiFfe^^=^^-a complete diffe-
iel, or, pottixig t\AB^df, we introduce into the solution a vari-
able r, which oombincs with s in the fQtraa,z*it (t<»V — i).
The boundlBry oonditione have to be oatiafied by the detomlnation
oi the oonjucate variables v, «' aa fiihctiona of n-^-ift ^-«ff or,
sy. of Z, Z: xespectively, and by writing 5, S to denote x+«yt
v—tv mpectively. Riemann obtains finally two ordinary diner-
estiai equationa ot tlw firat order in 5. S^ 9, ^ , Z, Z*, and the resulta
are oonqple||riy worfced out in lome very interesting ^lecial caaea.
Past II.
We proeeed to treat the differential geometry of suxfacea, a
study fcNimded on tbe consideration of the expression of the lineal
pU«i^>wt In tcsma of two parameters, m, v,
■"CODsl, «>"COiist, being thus systems of curves traced on
the surface. Thb method, which may be said to have been
baoguxated by Gauss in his dassical paper published in 1828,
Disjiusitioius generaUs circa superficUs cwvas, has the great
advaatage of dealing in the most natural way with all questions
coeaected with geodetics, geodetic curvature, geodetic circles,
^— in fact, all relations of lines on a surface which can be
farmolaled without reference to anything external to the
nrfacc AU such relations when deduced for any particular
saiface cam be at once generalized in their application, holding
food for any other surface which has the same exprraaion for
ks Caeal element ; e.g. reUtions involving great circles and
amall cirdea on a sphere furnish us with corresponding relations
for feodetica and geodetic circles on any syndastic surface of
**■>«*■»*» specific curvature.
i.Gaoaa beg^ by introducing the conception of the int^al
carwuute ifimrvtUura iiikgTo\ of any portba of a aurface. tnia
fe ddiaes to be the ana of the conesponding portion of a sphere o(
fcak lafiiaa, traced oat by a radius drawn parallel to the normal at
ech poiat of the surface; le. it taJfds/RSi* where R, R' are the
^naa^ ndS cf corvatnre. The quotient obtained by dividing
t^ mtcgxal curvature of a amall portion of the fturfaoe round a
pmat by the area of that portion, that ia x/RR', he naturally caUa
ue ■msnie of curvature or the specific curvature at the point in
^aaboa. He prooeeda to establish hta leadlngproposition, that this
wpbdAc curvature at any point a expreasible ux terma of the £, F
aad G which enter into the equation for the lineal element, fo-
fedier with their differential coemcienta with reapect to the variablea,
a jad 9.
it is deainble to aiafce clear the exact aignificance of thia theorem.
Of ooone^ Um any particular auriaoe^the curvature can be expressed
a aa ht^f"^'*^ variety of waya. The speciality of the Gausaian
I If! aiua is that it is deduced ia auch a manner aa to hold good
f Y Jl aoxiaoea which have the same cxpreaaioo for the lineal dement.
The expreasioa for the specific curvature, which ia in general
aii^wlnf elaborate, aswirwn a very aimple form when a system
of p'^^iI rT*^ and the system of their OTtbogonal trajectories are
[ for the parameter curves, the parameter a bemg madethe
SURFACB 121
tlnaenee, d9 tiie ang^ between two consecutive conjugate tangenta;
f the angle the conjugate tangent makea with the curve. There-
tore, aa ^ retuma to ita ori|^nai value when we integrate round the
curve, we have Zd»->2i9. This equation holds for both the
curve on the given aurface and the representative curve on the
sphere. But the tan^nt planes along these curves being always
parallel, their successive intersections arc so also; therefore 2</9 ia
the same for both; consequently Zdi for the curve on \he surface
«Zrf* for the representative curve on the sphere. Hei^ce integral
curvature of curve of aurface » area of repreaentative curve on
aphere,
-2T— Zdi on sphere by spherical geometry,
■•2a— Zdi for curve on surface.
' A useful expnesdon for the ffeodetic curvature of one of the carves,
v>iCOost, can be obtained. U a curve receive a smalt displacement
on any surface, so that the displacements of its two extremities
are nonnal to the curve, it foUowa, from the calculus of variations,
that the variation of the length of the curve M/p-^Sndf where /f*
u the geodetic curvature, and 8a the normal component of the dis-
placement at each pobt. Applying thia formula to one of the
V curves, we find
tfPdff^ J{dPldu)9ud9^ S length of curve "/p-> S«P(2r,
and aa Su b the same for all points of the curve, p-^o P'^dF/du.
We can deduce immediately from this expression GausaV value
for the specific curvature. For applying hia theorem to the quadri*
• ' ' ' .... vi, and 1 " * * '
le^th of the axe of the geodetic, measured from the curve. «»o
■tetad aa the ataodaxxT If this be done theequatiott for the
leat becomes d^^ di^ -hP^v*. and that tor the specific
<RR>^-»-P-* d*PfdJ. By means of thia last ex-
cstMoa Ganaa tnea proves that the intt^ral curvature of a triangle
tanwd by three eeodetics on the surface can be cxpreaaed In terms
tI its aaAa, aiMl la equal to A+ B+ C-v.
ThiatSeorem may be more generally atated:—
71r imttgral cunainre af any portum of a, surfacBm29-^Zdi
-mid tkt cmU&ur of Ikis porHou, where d% deootea the angle of
ffateie csandngenoe of the boundary curve. The angle of geodetic
.■ iM > ; « y »« M -* of a curve traced on a surface may be defined aa the
«^fe of iatcraecttoo of two geodetic tangenta drawn at the ex-
•s^rnkxa of aa elemeat ot arc, an angle which may be easily proved
•9«e dK same as the projection on the tangent plaiieof the ordinary
■Ite of coatiaeeaoe. The geodetie curvature, p^, ia thua equal
ti the osdiaary curvature multiplied by ooe ^ ^ being the angle
' of the curve makes with tne tangent
i may be estabttahed geometrically in the following
^._ «,^..„„ - U we draw suooeaaive tangent planes along the
cw«ti. these will iatcraect in a ayatem of Unea, termed the amjugqie
^min^ fomung a developable surface. If we unroU this develop-
abiet^a ^i^^'i^t where di ia the angle of geodetic con-
lateral formed by the curvea it, Ui,
Zdi along a geodetic vaniahea, we have
// (RRO-*Pdtftir- - Zdi for curve BC- Zdi for curve DA,
- — Zfi-^ds for curve BC+ Zfi^ds for curve AD,
- ^ J^ g^Pdr for curve BC+ Ji ^Pir for curve AD.
-/1G%--(S).K
tnerefore passing to the limit P/RR' ■■ - i*P/rf««.
Gauss then proceeds to consiaer what the result will be if a surface
be deformed in such a way that no lineal element is altered. It b
easily seen that thb involves that the anj^le at which two curvea on
the aurface intersect b unaltered by thia deformation; and aince
the angle of geodetic oontin-
curvatura an ako unaltered.
that the integral curvature of
any portion of a aurface and the specific curvature at any point are
unaltered by non<cxten^ooai deformation.
Ceod^ties and Geodetic Oircks.
A geodetic and ita fundamental propertiea are stated in part I.,
where it b also explained in that artide within what range a geodetic
possesses the property of being the shortest |Mith between two of its
points. The determination of the geodetics on a given surface
•dependa upon the aolution of a differnitial equation of the aecond
oraer. The first integral of thb iequation, when it can be found for
any given class of surfaces, gives us the characteristic property of the
eeodetics on such aurfacea. The following are aome of the well*
known classes for which thb integral haa been obtained: (1)
quadrica; (2) developable aurfacea; (^; aurfaoes of revolution.
I. Qmdrics, — ^Several mathematiciana about the middle of the
19th century made a apecial study of the geometry of the linea of
curvature and the geodetica on quadrica, and were rewarded by the
discovery of many wonderfully aimpb and elegant analogies between
their propertiea and those of a aystem of coiUocal conica and their
tangenta in piano. As e3q>lained above, the linea of curvature on a
quadric are the systema of orthogonal curves formed by its inter-
section with the two systems of confocal quadrics. Joachimsthal
shovnsd that the interpretation of the first mtegral of the equation
fQrg«>detica on a central quadric ia, that along a geodetic ^D *» con-
stant (C,) p denoting the perpendicubr let fall from the centre on
the tangent plane, and D the aemidbmetcr drawn parallel to the
element of the geodetic, the envdope of all geodetica having the aaroe
C bdiig a line of curvature. In particular, all geodetica passing
through one ol the real umbilics (the four pointa where the indicatrix
b a code) have the aame C.
Michad RoberU pointed out that it b an immediate conaequenoe
of the equation ^D*>C, that if two umbifica, A and B (aewcting
two not diametrically oppoaite), be joined by geodetics to any point
P on a given line 61 curvature, they make equal angles with such line
of curvature, and consequently that, aa r moves along a line of
curvature, dthcr PA+rB or PA— PB remaina constant. Or,
conversdy, that the locua of a point P on the auriace, for which the
aum or difference of the geodetic distances PA and PB b constant,
ia a line of curvature. It follows that if the ends of a 'string be
fastened at the two umbilics of a central quadric, and a style move
over the surface keeping the string dways stretched, it will describe
a line of curvature.
Another striking analogue b the following: As, m piano, if a
varuble point or an ellipse be Joined to the two foci S and H,
123 SURFACE
tui r PSH un iPHS -const, and for the bypcfboU ttui |PSH/taa
lPHb"Cooit, M f or a line of curvature oa a central quadfic, if P
be joined to two umbtUcs S and H by gcodetica. either the product
or the ratio of the unpnts of ^PSH and |PHS will be consunt.
Chasles proved that if an ellipse be intersected in the point A by a
confocal hyperbola, and from any point P on the hyperbola tangeats
PT, PT' be drawn to the ellipse, then the difference of the arcs of
the ellipse TA, T'A-the difference of the Ungents PT, PT; and
subsequently Gra\'es showed that if from any point P on the outer
of two confocal ellipses Ungents be drawn to the inner, then the
excess of the sum of the tangents PT. PT* over the intercepted arc
TT is constant. Precisely the same theorems hold for a quadric
replacing the confocals by lines of curvature and the rectilineal
tansents by geodetic tangents Hart still further developed the
analogies with oonfocal conies, and established the following • if a
geodetic polygon circumscribe a line of curvature, and all its
vsrtioes but one move on Knes of curvature, this vertex will
also describe a line of curvature, and when the lines of curvature all
belong to the same system the perimeter of the polygon will be
1. GjodtHes M D*ulotmbi§ SmHaets.—Ou these the geodetics are
the curves which become right lines when the surface n unrolled into
a plane. From thb p roper t y a first integral can be immediately
deduced.
3. Gei$dHics om Surfacts •/ AnvfalMM.— In afl sodi the g eodetk»
are the curves given by the equation r sin ^*coost, r being the
perpendicular on the axis of revolution, 4 the angle at which the
curve crosses the meridian.
The general problem of the determination of geode tics on any.
surface may be advantageously treated in connexion with that of
** parsIM " curves. By paraucl '* curves are meant curves whose
geodetic distances from one another are constant — in other words,
the orthogonal trajectories of a s>'stem of geodetics. In applying
this method the determination of a $>-stem oif parallel curves comes
first, and the determination of the geodetics to which they are
orthogonal follows as a deduction. If # (a, v) » const be a vvstem of
parallel curves, it b shown that 4 inu;!>t satisfy the partial differential
cquatioo
If 4 (■• «. •) "const be a s^-stem of jparaDel carves satisfying tUs
equation, then 4# da^cooft » pai\-«d to r e pre s ent the orthogonal
geodeticsi. The same method eiubWs us to establish a result first
arrived at by Jacobi. that wheno-er a first integral of the differential
cqwitioQ for geodetics can be found, the final integral is always
rrOucible to auadntum^ In this method # corre s p o nds to th«
characteristic luncttoo in the Hamtltoaian d%-namic», the geodetics
being the paths o<* a particle confined to the surface when no
cxtraaeous tocces are In activvu
The expression for the lineal dement on a quadric in eWrric
co-i>rdinaces SM^jP^Jtvi to Liou%-ille the cott5>denitK>n of the class
of aurfAce* K>r »**u-H this equation ukes the more eeoeral form
^ -\l-V>,l\Vj).»T-V,Vi»»>. mhete V. I', aiv fuocti w of a, and
\\ V, (uactk>&» o< r. and shows that, for this class, tl^ 6rst integral
of the <«]aJi;K<n of tS«^ ^rjiiWb is iramedlitrh' obtairable. and h«nce
tktt of the ct3rre«tv-5 ii'»^ grodetics. It b to be renvirfced tKit for
tht» more prncral c'jjs .m Wrt^ices the theorems of Qus^ and Gra\T5
given above srfll jHo hoV! pocd.
Ge^jiietks oo a s^rt jce c v jnespoo dl w^ to ticht Snes on a plane, the
qcestioo arbes vHjc ctxrvrs 00 a surtaoe shock! be coctskirred to
corresfKMid to Kiae cirvles^ There are two claimants for the posi-
tion : i».->t. iH< curves >ie««»mb<d by a fvirt wboee geodetic distance
fr\>m a $!>>'(*« r>Hnt b coestaat; aaid. secccd. tbe carves of constant
geodetv ».\.r> j r -np,
tV* orTTa'"* M^'" joffs tHe curre* w^x^ sattrfv cwK of thtit tL « u < !i ?io «j
' .>*m;-.'\ tStoc^er. but in gvoeral the rr> curves most be caret ul!v
dt«i.'t^i>>v"\l The pro-
pert^ t-v.>lv«| in the
seco«*i de^ttx>n b monp
irtts-i:. a^i we *hj*l
iVnrtonf. fo«V>snaf Lknx^
vi'Vf. c-aH the cur>T» pc*"
9cs»iT5f it geodrtv cirvVrs^
It rzxr~ be noted t*»at
fevxkcic c i rc t e s . eaivpc
o« su-fjces cf coAftasc
SH.x\'.ic cvrvatM-e. <>■» eoe
r?*.rs S»-c urvo t'V'n-
^\^r^ "tef rrvv-H rs ft-t^
A» a TM ^vv..*r «r-<i-^re
a r»Vr'v oi» *■» e-" .-<-id
(*-'v"» is. of sxu-Nc. a
sm umbiSc, wken it returns agss*. as 5t tlM<« ro CMt a-^S'v •nifecs
a a«ce angle wnh its on^iaal atartinc ch'>^;h>«. \» tv t v «.-. ->v
dip5*n>pd fcTT a puMt wW»e m^ietK ^fcstj-Ke irv^m a p*en ce*»*-re
«> cvttscaM. Gawas d hon i d ftom th» ? *. ■ >*■ -■ . ^al pcv^errv <t a
Fw.t.
geodetic that this curve rcaemblea the phae circle in bdnr every>
whe^e perpendicular to its radius. In the same way tt ■--■'■'
that the curve desui b ed
by a point the sum (or
difference) of whose geo-
detic distances from two
given points (fod) U con-
stant, resembles the plane
ellipse (or hypobola) m the
property that it bisects at
every point the external
(or internal) aiwle between
the geodetK local radii.
and, as a consequence.
that the curves on any sur-
face answerii^ to confocal
ellipses ' and hyperbolas
intersect at r^ht angles.
The equation for the lineal
element enables us to dia*
cuss geodetic circles on sur-
faces of constant specific
curvature; for we have
seen that if we choose as
parameters geodetics and
their orthogonal trajec-
tories, the equation become s
^-ia*+Ptfa*: and since
(RRT* - - P-VPirf«»,
and here (RRO-'-^a-*,
it follows P>-A cos •*-•+
B sin wr*, or P-A cosh na-^+B sink no
surface b syndastic or aniklaatic If
ature iT*) be
for the startifw
a 00. and if » fie
thelef«thoftheaicOY.
intercepted oa thb drck
by the curve »<-const
(see fig. i). then A and B
can be proved to be inde-
pendent of • and Pa
cos iw^+air* sin ■«"• for
a svndasttc surface. P»
cosh mar*-\-alr* sinh ■*"•
(or an anticlastic sur-
face. It foUows frosn
the c a|aea»iu o for the
g eodetic cur>-atuiv #"*—
PMP'da that in both
daises of surfsces all the
other ortho^.^nal curves
■ •const «^iil be geo-
detic circtesw It also
appears that oa a sj-n-
clastic surface of con-
stant speciSc curvature
all the ceodetic^ normal
toageoArticdrHecoovergi , _ _.
and can be de^nt^cd »i:N a «nrtcbed string uking either of thr« <
;>Htt» v^ centre. t»* Icrcth oi the ^nr^ beirf « tan"* «*^ («c^
r<. 3>. These ncnrak *iil be all cut crt^ogooaRy by aa equator,
tSat is. by a geodetac cude
of aero cttr*-at«fT.
For aAticiajtic surfaces,
tvwe^^er. ■« mttst dt*-
tt'^ftiish tspo cases. If the
cjr*afjre A"* of the geo-
vV'v cirrW >«~* the geo-
o«r»ic noTTuils Btert in a
po«nt ©• the coccive sic^e
o< the feodetic cirvVp. ^vi
car t*t drscnbed a* 00 tSr
s\'^:'-a5t»r b\ a stnrvcVv^
>t'^nic. the lefljjth vH tV
<n->^ Sft'*^ a ta.»N~* aJk "•,
bvt in th <« case the fco-
v.\-^v cortM^ bAve eo
<\;-aror v?re fi« xV It
I ».« the o«*'fT feaAl tSe
• cur%-acare o< the eeocVtic
I vt-.,'le be <a'^ tW »^
I •»• I** A> Bo< !B«rt c« c»;*»<T
Is.'.V. bat c>> (v<«a<:s» as
«S,a*s,>r. aK* 1: ^'♦is ckj-.!-
tor t*Sf f«vxV<v •^M—.afe
' %.vr>r a««'e<- ?,vf*V-«" :*'as tV^- Jo a s« sh « ^ efae (see ig^V
toa point on either side as <« a sp is^ n, *.
w
Fte.4.
gtwdetks p*vvY«M^>^ irv>n a ^v* 2; a««a>s osect acaia at the |Tnili_i ^^
SURFACE
123
► gMierally f«r aity ifadtatie wifarce whole
spedic curvature at every point lk« between the fiffllti «^ and ft^
two near Modetks proceeding from a point always meet agatn at a
ge u de tic diatance intermediate in value between «a and rft. On an
aotidastk surf aoe two near geodetics proceeding from a point never
Reprtstmtatimt •/ Fig&w on a Swftu by Cwretp<mdiH'g Fiiures on a
Fian€; Theory of Maps.
The moat valuable methods of effecting such repreienutlon are
" ntical ti • • * ' '
those in which small figures are identi
In shape with the figures
viach they icpreaent. This property is known to belong to the
i H ii nrria»Ti-^ ol a spherical surface by Mercators method as weU as
to the icprcacoUtkm by stenographic proiectioa. The problem of
effecting this " conformable representa t ion is easily seen to be
cqaivalcot to that of throwing the expression for the uneal element
hto what is known in the theory of heat conduction as the isotheraMl
funs d^-X(4^-h^. for we have then only to choose for the
rvpfesewtativw poiat on the plane that whoee rcctanguhir co-ordinates
m x-a, y«». A curious investigation has beeis made by
Bdinnii — when is It possible to represent a surface on a plane in
sorb a way that the geodetks on the surface shall correspond to the
n^rirt liaea oa the plaae (as, for example, holds true when a spherical
>ur(ace is proiccted oa a plane by lines through lU centre)? He has
pro\wd that tac only dasa of luiiace for which such tepretentation is
(uitfible is the class of uniform specific curvature.
Just as the intrhtac properties of' a synclastic surface of uniform
" r otnrature are reducible to those of a particular surface of
this type, «>. the sphere, so we can
deal with an antioastic surface of
constant specific curvature, and
reduce its properties to a particular
anticlastte surface. A convenient
surface to study for this purpose is
that known as the pstudctphere,
formed by the revolution cA the
tractrix (an Involute of the caten-
ary) round its base (see fi^. 5).
Its equations are r^a sm ^,
s-a(cos 4+log tan U). This
surface can be conformably repre-
sented as a plane map by choosing
_ _ the longftude'of the point and ir *o/sin ^.
It win then be found that Sr^iuf///, where dx- lineal element on
*M tarfar*. dt^ *same on the map. It easily appear* that geodetic
rirdes oa the surface are represented by circles on the map, the angle
r n. which these circles cut the base depending only upon toe
r
Fig. 5.
^
^S2:2s^^-^^
/
Une /'.«
\
/
\
«
\
,•
\
i
\
u rr aiare of the geodetic circle, cos ^ being equal to p"*. As a
yut'iaslar case it follows that the geodetics on the surface are
i by those spaial drcles on the map whose centres lie on
»W Use (see fig. 6). The geodetic dblance between two potnts P
i2d Q 00 the surface b represented by the logarithm of the anhar-
sK.'oc faactioo AP^Q', where FQ' are the representing points on
A B the points in which the circle on toe map which passes
s M pi^tc accordingly enables us to demonstrate anew by means
■i tW pwdosphera the properties which wn have shown to hold
r»d m aB antidastic surfaces of constant curvature. Thus the
«««« af geodaiics cutting orthogonally a geodetic circle C will be
'[■iMlsiT on the nap by drdes having their centres on the base,
•«l cactiaa a given ciiae C' orthogonally, i.0. by a coaxal system of
•^recs. We koow that the other orthogonal trajectories of this last
«"««» atw another coaxal system, and therefore, goine back to the
e learn that if a system of geodetics be drawn normal
only poiata lying above the Kaaywa which have their pratotynes
on the surface, tae portion of the plane below this line not answering
to any real part of the surface. It we take any curve C 00 the map
crossing this line, the part of the curve above this line has as hs
prototype a curve on the surface. When C reaches this line, C
reaches the cireular base of the pseudosphere, and there terminates
abruptly. The distinction between the two cases of a geodetic cirde
with curvature greater and one with curvature less than ar^ also
comes out deany. For if curvature of C>a~> the map drde C
* •-• « '"'ortho-
If
map circle C intersects the base, the coaxal
system cutting C' orthogonally does not inteisect in a real point, and
C has accordingly no centre. Itisof interest to examine in what way
a pseudosphere diffen from a plane as regards the behaviour oif
paralid linesu If on a plane a geodetic AB (t .«. a ri^ line) be taken,
and another geodetic constantly pass through a pout Pand revolve
round P, it will always meet AB in the point exceipt in the particular
poation. On the pseudosphere, if we carry out the corresponding
construction, the position of the non-iatersectiiw geodetic is not
unique, but all geodetics drawn within a certain angle tail to meet the
geodetic AB.
Mlinimal Surf out.
From the definition given in part I. readily followt the well-
known property of these surfaces— that the two prindpal curvatures
are at every point of' such a surface equal and opposite. For
familiar instances of the class we have the surface fcMrmed by the
revolution of a catenary round its base called by French mathema-
ticians the alysstide. and the right conoid, n^a tan~*(y/x), formed
by the successive edges of the steps of a miral staircase. Monge
succeeded in expressing the co ordinates of the most seneral minimal
surface in two paiameters, and in a form in which toe variables are
separated. The separation of the variables in the expression signifies
that every minimal surface. bdonss to the dass of surfaces which can
be generated by a movement of translation of a curve. Enneper
has thrown the expcesrion for the co-ordinates Into the following
convenient forms:—
*-j/(i-e^/(«)rfn+l/U'-»0*W«fc.
y-l*/(i+i^)/(a)4fa-ii/(i+i^)*(s)ab,
M^JufiM)dm+j^(v)dp.'
it is noteworthy that the expression for the lineal demtnt. 00 a
minimal surface aawaies the isothermal form d^»X(^4-*^)-.(i)
when the curves a>*oonst, 9>coast are so chosea as to be the Knes
of eurvature: and (a) when they are c h osea to he theliaes ia which
the surface is iatenected by a system of paialld planes and the
orthogonal tra}ectorJes of these haes. It is easfly oreved that a
minimal mrface po ssess e s the property of being coaformable to its
spherical repreaentatloa. For abce the iadicatiiic at every point is
a rectangnfav hyperbola, the aocie between the demeats of two
mtersectmg ciirres«aa«e between their conjugaie tangeata; btit
this ••angle between ooniogate tangente to repnieatative curves oa
" ' " - enth^c
ephere««angle beta _ .
The prablem ef finding;a minimal surface to pass through a given
curve in space, known asPlateau's problem, possesses an eiocMional
interest from the dreomstanee that it can be always exhibited to the
eye in the following way by an actual physical experiment. Dip a
wire having the form of the given curve in a soap-babble solution, and
the fihn adhering to the wire when it is withdnwa b the surface
required. Thb is evident, dnce from the theory of surface-tension
we know that a very thin film mhst assume that form for which the
area of its surfatce is the least possible. The same theory also f ur^
ntshes us with an elementary proof of the characteristic propeity
that the sum of the curvatures is eveiyw h efe aero, inasmuch as the
tiormat oressure on the film, here aero, is known to be prop or tional to
the Borface^ension multiplied by the sum of the curvatuiea.
Riemann, adopting a method defiending upon the use of the oon*
'" a geodetic circle. aU the orthogooab to this system are geodetic
m^Kk. It ia to he anted that while every point on the surface has
e« fumsiacsfiyr on the map, the converse does not hold. It is
it connsts of any two circles situated in peralM planes. (I^or Lie's
invesrigations in thb domain, see Gxoups, Tbeokt ov«)
lfon-€xleiuional Deformation.
We have already explained what b meant by this term. 1i b a
subject to which much study has been devoted, connecting itsdf, aa
it does, with the work of (jauss in pure geometry on the one hand
and with the theory of elasticity on the other. Several questions
have been opened up: (1) What are the conditions which must be
fulfilled by two surfaces such that one can be " deformed " so as to
fit on the other? (2) What instances have we of known surfaces
applicable to one another? (j) What surfaces are applicable to
themselves? (4) In regard to infinitely small deformations, uhat
are the differential equations which must be satisfied by the displare-
ments? (5) Under what circumstances can a surface not be
deformed? Can a dosed surface ever be deformed?
1. Of course if two surfaces are applicable we must be able to get
two systeau of paiameier curves a-coitft, v -const, op **-' ^—^
124
SURFACE
warimat, and two tyfltdaft en tbe aeooad, ^utk that the eqiatioo for
the UiMsl ekmeat. when referred to tbeK, may have an identical
form for the two eurfaceft. The problem it now to select these oorre-
■ponding tystenM. We may conveniently talce for the co-ordinate
u the specific curvature on each surface, and choose for v the function
dmj^ which denotes the rate of increase of n along a direction normal
to the curve m «const. Then, since at corresponding points both u
and » will be the same for one surface as for the other, itthe surfaces are
applicable, £, F and G. in the equation ^«E^ii<+2F<JiMi9+CJp>,
must be identical for the two surfaces. Clerk Maxwell has put
the gtonetiical relation which exists between two applicable
surfaces in the following way: If tk-e take any two corresponding
points P and 9* on two such surfaces, it b always possible to draw
two dements through P parallel to conjugate semi-diaroeters of the
indicatrix at P, such that the correspoiraing elements through P
shall be panUlel to conjugate semi-diameters of the indicatrix at P*.
llie curves made up of all these elements will divide the two surfaces
into small parallelogrann, the four paiallelognms having P as
coounoa vertex being identical in sin and shape with the fourhavinjg
P as vertex. Maxwell regards the surfaces as made up in the limit
of these small parslldojpams. Now, in order to render these sur-
faces raady for aoplication. the first ttep would be to alter the anale
between two of the planes of the parallelograms at P, so as to make
It equal to that between the corr^ponding planes at P. If this be
done it is readily seen that all the angles bet w ee n the other planes at
P and P, and at all other conemonding points, will become equal
also^ The curx'es which thus belong to the conjugate mtems
common to the two surfaces may be regarded as /ums ^ hfmtmi.
a. Any surface of uniform specific curvature, whether positive or
negative, b applicable to another surface of the same unifona
specific cuTN'ature in an infinite \'ariety of ways. For if we arbi-
trarily dtoose two points* O and </, one on eaich surface, and two
it9« one through cadi point, we can apply the surfaces, making
0* *• .... . ^
O and O' conespooding points and the
elements. .This folk>ws from the form of the eouation
element, which is for s>'ncbstic 6tufaccsdi**«ii'+^ai^(«o->)^.
and for aaticUstic, ^-^fc*-hi* sinh*(Ma-*)rfi'. and is therefore
identical for the two surfaces in question. Again, a ruled sarface
nuv evidently be ilefonned by first rotating round a generator, the
fx-tftion of the surface King to one side of this generator, then round
the consecuti>« generator, Uie portion of the surface lying beyond
thi« again, and so on. It is dear that in such defonnation the
rtctiUnear grneraton in the old surface remain the rectilinear
geocraton in the new; but it is interesting to note that two ruled
surfaces can be coatBtmctrd whk^ diaU be applicable, yet so that
the wner at o re will not corrnpoad. For. defonn a hyc>cTbok)id of
bar rfieet in the manner descfibed, tvraing tbe portioas of the surface
round the oonsecutave generebors of one system, and then deform
the h>Tc«bok>id, using the geaeraton of the other •>'Sleak The
two surfaces so obtained are. of coarse, applicable to oae aaother.
yet eo that their geacracors do not now cocrcipoad. Coaverseiy
Bcinet has shown that, wh^^ne^^er two nikd surfaces are thus
ap;>H-al4e. without <x>CTrHXwknoe of grnerai«n» they must be both
avs^'^^l^ to the «aa»e h\ }>erUKN td vif oac ^-ht^. The ah^sadde b a
c.vxi evk.-n^t^ of a njrtacc ol rovlution ai^piK^^ble to a ruled surfacei
in thi» case the n^t circuUr conoid, the Maecatora of the caaoid
€OtacK'.*«: «Sth the r>eoauas of the al>^iaeide.
5. A» kn«xancY« of S4.riAce9 ap;4w-able to theaa9e)>«9^ we may take
sarfaon ol uaftKvm spcciac cur\ature% as oh>ii>u>.S fcUow» fa-«n the
rcAMe:^ a.trN»a>' gi^xn: abo surfaces of rewdutWu injismuch a*
attv sLvh »urtakY can be turved round its a]d» and miU 6t upon its
oM («:««tMn .VAtn. heikvisUI 9urtaoe» oosscss thU ^^>pcm\ A
heS»cvt»i*l Minav-Y nioaas that traccsl out l>> a vipd wire, mhxh i»
givxa a «cre« mocKVi ivv-p.v'. a u\«d avi*. or. ■• ^v-h vx»aw* tv> the janK
t>i«^ the furf.'wc ma«k> ,-?> of a ♦x-^ew of y<ii^v* »«Aninj: liv-ioi ii<
Cx:Lt>ol a s»*vn cunv, aiJ Sji\ii^ iKc ♦arv av»- .vxI the juctx inceoAl
rtmvra the kk\v*«\« tNir\K*v !><' ji-.\v.cjI . ^\ ol **kS a >uiifc.T
to i;>vCi. »t t^twtt a scsvw mo(K4i tvuxvJ tbe aikS6> » e\Kk«t (rom the
Isw ct tt» tona&.KVk.
4. The po«^' jc '««v*SI t«fijit'H>as | % f of th< |x^Jnt« «f a anrfaor
vhea It M ».:^^<vt to a snv.i *. ix*vt«'nM<^vi) <v»vXT«utN\^ are ixwhV
t»^K^i t«\ :V Ck;»A:v>i« ijj^ t4>-*« <*-^4^» ^^X cr malang a aad .«
L^ isi(lp«r«oca( xanAN.»» .
From thb k fcTAdwa that t^e t^rer cqw£t7.^as mtM airarate^
.^«
.Vcarfa^N . the A**rr ; \*t vt %v
.<^f>cj\-«L
,^-v„v-^ i. 1^ i ol iVe xATuN.;* * * ; n;>a,.vx ^^.^* K;,^, ,v <
C^»^ t^ <vw*c:aat<» t* • av ^ ^w^\ «-x\Nut ,<-x\ ^^
are the c«^e»ol iadkxaia on the s«%**rv the ^x\ ;k>« knI i V *>»»miivv**
can be Aawm 10 dcpeaj «jv>a i%at *^ the *^«u:va ^ *•«» - \w.
where X b a faattwa of «a»S •« Acye^J»NL<- ^h< t,^«im v< the >*,i v..^
TW ^ laMiiia can be i«H0«9«^ *"^.^«<* l^^«A* xh«>MVMt».>a
umform ncdfic curvature. It b aaaily shown that if we banc
determmed the dbplacements for any curtace S we can do so for any
surface obtained from S by a linear transformation of the vambie&.
For let
^matX'ity+c»s-\-dh yaa+bty+c^-^dt,
then the displacements
^ «'-A^+g"+<^«r.y-A=C+B--HCrf, f -A,{+Brt+C,r.
where Ai Bt. &c., are the minors of the determinant joi fti c*]. will
evidently aatbfy the equation
Accordinriy the known stjiutmn for a sphere funnshes as with a
solutk>n for any quadric. Mootard has pointed oat a cnriotn
connexion be t wee n the pr ob le m of saail deformatioa and that of the
applicability of two finitely different surfiMes.
For if d»<(-^djid«-Msir*0. it fbOows that if * be aoy
Cooaeqoently, if we take two surfaces such that for the firrt
X-x+41, Y-,.|.hfc2-.-|.*f,
and lor the aoond
then
X' - *-»t Y' - 3f«-*fc r - i-Ar.
and therefore the new surfaces are applicable.
5. ^ellett and Oerk Maxwell have shown by different methods
that, if a curve on a surface be held loEBd, there can be no small
deformation, except thb curxx be aciirv« of inflenoa. Thb may be
also proved thus: There can be 00 dispbeement of the tangent planes
akwg the fixed carve, for. at any point of the carve the geodetic
curk-ature cannot alter; but in present case the onfinary curvature
of the curve b abo fixed, thcrelare their ratio b oeostant, so that
icosf-— sin M-Ol whoc f b the angia which the oacubting
plane makes with the tangent plane; therefore onlea sin •>0, as it
tt akmg a cmve of inflciion, tf bQ. and therefore the tanaent plane
at each point b unaltered. UenDe it. can be shaaniuiat alon;
the gi\Ta cun^ not only |, «. {^ vanish, bat abo thcb differentia
cofflKirnts of all orders, and therefore ao dian l arwnfn t b possible.
The qnestioo has been much diacuaaed: Can a dosed ^oclasdi
surface be deformed? There seems to be a ptcvaleot opinio
aoMogst mathematidaas that sach deformation b always impoesibh
but we do not think any unimpeachahk demonstration of thU ha
>Tt been gi\Tn. It b ocrtaia that a fomp l etr sphoical surfaix do«
not admit of inextenave defocmatioo, for if it did it would folio*
from Gaasa*s th eorem that the new sorfaoe would have a insif on
specific cnrvatore. Now. it b aot difiicnk to prove that tiie onl
CKkJcd sarface mw i irvsing tlm nroperty b tbe sphere itself, provide
that the surfaces in qoestioa be soch that all their tangent plao
lie entirely outside them. We caa thea, fay the naetbod
Hnear transforms tion aheady givea, extend the ~
imnossibiI:rv- ol deformation to aay effnnid.
The theorem tlut a sphere b theodhrdw
saecibc cun^ture may. we saggest, be csaa ,
the following tvo proposicioax which boU for iatecntioa <
ckiMd surface, p bong the perpcadk^br from the origin os& t
ta^seatpbae^~
tjf/'dS - jfTMi 11 + i.-RVS.
Now muTtipK- both »ics of the first aqfaatioa by the oasHtaat ,/p
aaJ aihtrait ihaaaoaa^aad smjit
w^^ i» ifnr«wAMe adks K *R tmj afc ue , maoe fai aooorda
>inth the {Yo\"j?<> f a> orr\ where posidve.
T*'<\>reT* ,1' *»d .: xre dtpiarcd fcy }e!1ett bymeans ol
c*V. *.'* xM \ Ara:v^*« ic his treat .« ce tWt sutTOCt. They m&y
Se \\««> »»-..\ '.xvMfvi ♦"'.$: tVaw ocraaH to the anrfaoe alone
.vno*T» d tN- j.-vj" 's^.a-*? tonacJ S Uses of carwtnre, m:tu
tVvp r*{r< sivvs^xAy- ;\i-''c* str-i.Ts at «<^«»*t*^-w 4a, tbexa
Kit tai' -w t*^;^* «w<xV the perpeadnlaca ht U iiwaa O 00 a
rent ru -< iv^ tW vv.e«T ».drtace* p^m cm aooDomt of tb« pmrml.1
^ c W ««^.x«. \iM iS NT oaaer att t at w dSn H-ss/R^<i 4-a
th(rr*ok<e wiume m jwiwisa
• i.' v^ ^ • vt 4 aK a ^^li^^-- IjTTidS
SURO&~SURGERY
125
Hacge^BiUmcocCcientff Che powet*^ it—
((p(tm -I- i/R'VK - >//«.
a»f //^prfS/RR' -//(i/R + i/ROrfS.
References to the orieinal memoirs will be found in Salmon's
dnslytual Geometry ef Tnree Dimensions, Frost's 5«/id Geometry and,
nore conpfetely, in Oarboux't Lefons sur la Ihiorie fhtirme des
ivfaces. (J. PWii F. Pu.)
SVRlrE, 10 meteoroTogy, an irregular fluctuation of the
kiromfter, extending over a long period {e.g. a month), in
coTitradistinction to the shorter fluduations, covering two
or three days, caused by alternating conditions of high and
bw pressure. The cause of surges is not understood.
SURGERY (Fr. chirurgie, from Gr. x«pwp7la, i.e. hand-
■orit), the profession and art of the surgeon (ckirurgUn),
connected spcdally with the cure of diseases or injuries by
operitfve manual knd instrumental treatment.
Hirf«7.— Surgery in all countries is as old as human needs.
A certain skill in the stanching of blood, the extraction of arrows,
the binding up of wounds, the supporting of broken limbs by
splints, and the like, together with an instinctive reliance on
the healing power of the tissues, has been common to men
ntiywbere. In both branches of the Indo-European stock
s«^ practice (as well as medical) reached a high degree of
perfection ac a very early period. It is a matter of controversy
khetber the Greeks got their medicine (or any of it) from the
Hiodtts (ihroui^ the medium of the Egyptian priesthood), or
v^her the Hindus owed that high degree of medical and surgical
ksowledge and skill which is reflected in Charaka (ist century
ti)) and Suiruta (2nd century) (commentators of uncertain
iiU 00 the Yajur-Veda) to their contact with Western civiliza>
tiM after the campaigns of Alexaader, The evidence in favour
of the foreter view is ably stated by Wise in the Introduction
!'»his//rj/*ry of Medidnt Among the Asiatics (London, i8$8).
^ correspondence between the Suiruta and the HippocraiU
CaBftiMii is closest in the sections relating to the ethics of medical
pooke; tbe description, also, of Btbotomy in the former agree*
iboit exactly with the account of the Alexandrian practice
tt liven by Cebus. But there are certainly some dexterous
<9Qations described in Suiruta (such as the rhinoplastic) which
•ne of native taveation; the elaborate and lofty ethical code
*?pan to be of pure Btahmanical origin; and the copious
materia mcdk^ (which Included arsenic, mercury, zinc, and
may other substances of permanent value) does not contain a
fiagk article of foreign source. There is evidence also (in
Anian. Strabo And other writers) that the East enjoyed a
;<^erbial reputation for medical and surgical wisdom at the
^ of Alezaader's invaaion. We may give the first place,
t^. to tbe Eastern branch of the Indo*Earopean atodc in a
^cb of the rise of surgery, leaving as insoluble the question
"^ the date of the Sanskrit compendlums or compilations which
pas under the names of two representative persons, Charaka
ud Suiruta (the dates assigned to these ranging as widely as
?» years on each side of the Christian era).
The Suimta speaks throughout of a single class of practitidners
*fe undertook both sutgical knd medical cases. Nor were
^^ there any fixed degrees or orders of skill within the
profession; even lithotomy, which at Alexandria
*3s assigned to specialists, was to be undertaken by any one,
he leave of the raja having been first obtained. The only
-aisction recogniaxi between medicine and surgery was in
'* inferur order of barbers, nail-trimmers, ear-borers, tooth-
^3«as and phlebotomists, who were ootsde the Brahmanical
cute.
Sttinrta describes moie than one hundred surgical instrnments,
^^ of steel. They should have good handles and firm joints, be
*<A mlbhcd, and sharp enough to divide a hair; they dhould be
?erfitJy dean, and kept in flannel in a wooden box. They included
■viotts shapes of scalpels, bistouries, lancets, scarifiers, saws, bone-
' iVfrx KJsaora. trocars and needles. There were also blunt hooka,
*^ probes (including a caustk'-holder), directors, sounds, scoops
*"i t-wreps (for poifypi, Ac), as well as catheters, sytingn. a rectal
5«n*3m and bougtea. There were fourteen varieties of bandage.
^ favunite form ef spline wu made pf thin slips of bamboo bound
together with string and cot to the lengith required. Wise says that
he had frequently used " this admirable splint," particulariy for
fractures of the thigh, humerus, radius and ulna, and it was subse-
quently adopted in the English army under the name of the '* patent
rattan<ane splint."
Fnctures wcfe diagnosed, among other signs, by ciepitua Di»
locations were daboraieiy classified, and the diflcrential diagooais
given : the treatment was by traction and countertraction. circuro-
duction and other dexterous manipulation. Wounds were divided
into incised, punctured, lacerated, contused, ftc. Cuts of the head
and face were sewed. Skill in extracting foreign bodies was carried
to a ^feat beisbt, (he roagrtec being used for aroa particles under
ccrtam specified circumstances. Inflammations were treated by
the usual antiphlogistic regimen and appliances; venesection was
pracrised at several other points besides the bend of the elbow;
leeches were more often resorted to than the lancet ] copping also
was in general use. Poulticing, fomenting and the like were done
as at present. Amputation was done now and then, notwiihataiKiing
the want of a good control over the haemorrhage; boiling oil was
applied to the stump, with pressure by means of a cup-Jormed
bandage, pitch being sometimes added. Tumoure and enlarged
lymphatk glands were cut out, and an arsenical salve applied cb the
raw surfaces to prevent recurrence. Abdominal dropsy and hydro-
cele were treated by tapping with a trocar; and vaneties of hernia
were understood, omental hernia being removed by operation on the
acnxum. Aneurisms were known, but not treated; the use of the
ligature on the continuity of an artery, as well as on the cut end of
it in a flap, is the one thing that a modem surgeon will miss somewhat
noticeably in the ancient surgery of the Hindus: and tbe reason of
their backwardness in that matter was doubtless their want of
familiarity with the course of the arteries atid with the arterial cacu*
lation. Besides the operation already mentioned, the abdomen was
opened by a short incision below the umbilkus slightly to the left of
tne middle line for the purpose of removing Intestinal concretions
or other obstruction (laparotomy). Only a small segment of the
bowel was exposed at one rime; the concretion when found was
removed, the intestine stitched together aeain. anointed with ghee
and honey, and returned into the cavity. Lithotomy was practised,
without the staff. There was a plastic operation for the restoration
of the nose, the skin being taken from the cheek adjoinine, and the
vascularity kept up by a oridge of tissue. The ophthalmic surgery
included extraction 01 cataract. Obstetric operations were various^
including csesarcan section and crushing tbe foetas.
The medication and constitutional treatment in surgical cases
were in keeping with the general care and elaborateness of their
practice, and with the copkiuancss of their materia medica. Oint-
ments and other external applkations had usually a bssisof ghee (or
clarified butter), and contained, among other things^ such metals as
arsene, zinc, copper, mercury and sulphate of iron. For every
emeigency and every known form of disease there weie elaborate
and minute directions in the iftstras. which were taught by the
physician-priests to the -young aspirants. Book leamfaig was
consklered of no use without experience and manual skfll in opera-
trnns; the different surekal operations were shown to the student
upon wax spread oa a Board, on gourds, cucumbers and other soft
fruiu; tappmg and puncturing weie practised- on a leathern bag filled
with water ex* soft mud; scarifications and bleeding on the fresh
hides of animals from whkh the hair had been removed ; puncturing
and lancing upon the hollow stalks of water-lilies or the vcsseb 01
dead animals; bandaging waa practised on flexible models of the
human body; sutiires on leather and cloth; the plastic operstions'
on dead animals; and the application of caustics and cauteries on
living animala A knowled^ of anatomy was heU to be necessary,
but tt does not appear that it was systematkrally acouired by dissec*
tion. Superstitions and theurgic ideas were diligendy kept up so as
to imnress the vu^|ar. The whole body of teaching, itsnf the slow
growth of much close observation and profound thinking during the
vigorous period <^ Indo-Aryan progress, was given out in later times
as a revelation from heaven, and as resting upon -an absolute
authority. Psthologica] principles were not wanting, but they were
derived from a purely arbitrary or conventional physiology (wind,
bile and phlegm) ; and the whole elaborate fabric of rales and direct
trons, great though its utility must have been for many generariona,
was without the qukkening power of reason and freedom, and became
Inevitably stiff and decrepit.
The Chinese appear to have been far behind the Hindus ia
their* knowledge bf medicine and surgery, notwithstanding
that China profited at the same time as Tibet by
the missionary pn^ngation of Buddhsm. Surgery
in particular bad hardly developed among them beyond the
merest rudiments, owing to their religious respect for dead
bodies and their unwillingness to draw blood or otherwise
interfere with the living structure. Their anatomy and physio-
logy have been from the earliest times unusually fandfuJ, and
their surgical practice has consisted almost entirely of external
applications. Tumours and boils were treated by scarifi<^rinn«
126
SURGERY
or incisions. The distinctive Chinese surgical inyention is
acupmidmre^ or the insertion of fine needles, of hardened stiver
or gold, for an inch or more (with a twisting motion) into the
seats of pain or inflammation. Wise says that " the needle
is allowed to remain in that part several minutes, or in some
cases of neuralgia for days, with great advantage "; rheumatism
and chronic gout were among the localized pains so treated.
There are 367 points specified where needles may be inserted
without injuring great vessels and vital organs.
Cupping*vessels made of cow-horn have been found in ancient
l^yptian tombs. On monuments and the walls of temples
ni titfto*- *'* figures of patients bandaged, or undergoing
"^y^"^*' operation at the hands of surgeons. In museum
collections of Egyptian antiquities there are lancets, forceps,
knives, probes, scissors, &c. Ebers interprets a passage in the
papyrus discovered by him as relating to the operation of cataract.
Surgical instruments for the ear are figured, and artificial teeth
have been found in mummies. Mummies have also been found
with well-set fractures. Herodotus describes Egypt, notwith-
standing its fine climate, as being full of medical practitioners,
who were all "specialists." The ophthalmic surgeoiis were
celebrated, and practised at the court of Cyrus.
Greek Surgery. — As in the case of the Sanskrit medical
writings, the earliest Greek compendlums on surgery bear witness
-^. to a long organic growth of knowledge and skill
through many generations. In the Homeric picture
of society the surgery is that of the battlefield, and it is of the
most meagre kind. Achilles is concerned about the restoration
to health of Machaon for the reason that his skiU in cutting out
darts and applying salves to wounds was not the least valuable
service that a hero could render to the Greek host. Machaon
probably represents an amateur, whose taste had led him, as
it did Melampus, to converse with centaurs and to glean some
of their traditional wisdom. Between that primitive state of
civilization and the date of the first Greek treatises there had
been a long interval of gradual progress.
The surgery of the Hippaeratic CoUeeium (age of Pericles) bears
every evidence of finish and elaboration. The two treatises on
llflipnrrBft' f'^^u'^CB and on dislocations resixctively are hardly
cJ^!L surpassed in some ways by the writings of the present
^"*"^' mechanical age. Of the four dislocations of the
shoulder the dispbcement downwards into the axilla is given
as the only one at all common. The ttr* most usual dislocations
of the femur were backwards on to the dorsum tlii and forwards
on to the obturator region. Fractures of •the spinous processes
of the vertebrae are described, and caution advised against
trusting those who would magnify that injury into fracture of the
spine itself. Tubercle {^i^tTa) are given as one of the causes of
spinal curvature, an anticipation of Pott's diagnosis. In all matters
ot treatment there was the same fertility of resource as in the Hindu
practice: the most noteworthy point is that shortening was by many
regarded as inevitable after i^nple fcscture of the femur. Fractures
and dislocations were the most complete chapters of the Hippocratic
surgery ; the whole doctrine and practical art of them had arisen
(line sculpture) with no help from dissection, and obvioudy owed
its excellence to the opportunities of the palaestra. The next most
daborate chapter is that on wounds and mi'uries of the head, whkh
refers them to a minute subdivision, and includes the depressed
frscture and the eonireceup, TrepMnittg was the measure most
commonly resorted to, even where there was no compression.
Numerous forms of wounds and injuries of other parts arc specified.
Huptures, piles, rectal ^lypi. fistula m ano and prolapsus ani were
among the other conditions treated. The amputation or excision of
tumours does not appear to have been undertaken so freely as in
Hindu sunsical practice; nor was Uthotomy pe rf ormed except by a
specially expert person now and then. The diagnosis of emfiyema
was known, ana the treatment of it was by an incision in the
iatercostal space and evacuation of the pus. Among their instru-
ments were forceps, probesL dtrectorsi syringesr rectal ipecuTum.
catheter and various kinds of cautery.
Between the Hippocratic era and the founding of the school
of Aluaodria (about 300 b.c.) there is nothing of surgical
progress to dwell upon. The Alexandrian epoch
'stands out prominently by reason of the enthusiastic
cultivatbn of human anatomy— there are allegations
.also of vivisectioii^-at the hands of Horophtlus (339-280 B.c.)
and EruistraCuft (fta B<^ ^ ftfiJlN tlPcg of this movement
appeaia 16 hMrt iiHttilMlMlHHflliMpOt n&attcnded with
AhMmadiiaal
pedantic minuteness), boldness of operative procedure, sub-
division of practice into a number of spociaUties, but hardly- 1
single addition to the stock of physiological or pathological
ideas, or even to the traditional wisdom of the Hippocratic
time. *'The surgeons of the Alexandrian school were sU
distii^ished by the nicely and complexity of their dressings
and bandagings, of which they invented a great variety."
Hcrophilus boldly used the knife even on internal organs such
as the liver and spleen, which hitter he regarded " as of litik
consequence in the animal economy." He treated retention
of urine by a particular kind of catheter, which long bore his
name. Lithotomy was much practised by a few specialists,
and one of them (Ammom'us Lithotomos, 287 B.C.) is said to
have used an instrument for breaking the stone in the bladder
into several pieces when it was too large to remove whole. A
sinister story of the time is that concerning Antiochus^ son of
Alexander, king of Syria (150 B.C.), who was done to death by
the lilhotomists when he was ten years old, under the pretence
that he had stone in the bladder, the instigator of the crime
being his guardian and supplanter Diodotus.
The treatise of Celsus, De re medica (reign of Augustus), reflects the
state of surgery in the ancient world for a period of several centuries:
it is the best record of the Alexandrian practice itself, and it may bt
taken to stand for the Roman practice of the pniod foltowing.
Great jeatousy of Greek medkine and sureery was expressed by
many of the Romans of the republic, notably by Cato the Elder
(23^-149 B.C.), who himself practised on his estate according to the
native traditions. His medical observations are civen in De re
rustica. In reducing dislocations he made use of the followine
incanution: " Huat hanat ista pista sista damiato damnaustra.
The first Greek surgeon who established himself in Rome is said to
have been Archagathus, whose fondness for the knife and cautery
at length led to his expul^on by the populace. It was in the person
of Asclepiades, the contemporary andT frier ■ ' "• -. ...
Hellenic medkral practice ace
He confined his practice most!
^ ^-^-, -J friend of Cicero, that the
Hellenic medkral practice acouired a permanent footing in Rome.
" ' * ' * tiy to meoicioe, but he b credited with
practising the operation of tracheotomy. He b one of those whom
Tertullian quotes as piactising vivisections for the jp^tifkation of
their curiosity {De
15).
, , „, The next figure m the sargical
history b Celsus, who devotes the 7th and 8th books of hb De re
medica exclusively to surgery. There is not much in ^ .
these beyond the precepts of the Brahmanical iftstras "■■'
and the maxims and rules of Greek surgery. Plastic operations
for the restoration of the nose, lips and ears are described at
some length, as well as thf treatment of hernia by taxb and
operation; in the latter it was recommended to appAy the actual
cautery to the canal after the hernb had been returned. The
celebrated description of lithotomy is that of the operation
as practised long before in Indw and at Alexandria. The
treatment of sinuses in various regions b dwelt upon, and in the case
of sinuses of the thOrack wall resection of the rib is nnentioncd.
Trephining has the same prominent place asdgncd to it as in the
Greek sursery. The .resources of contemporary surgery may be
estimated by the fact that subcutaneous urethrotomy was practtMd
when the urethra was blocked by a caknlus. Amputation of an
extremity is described in deuil for the first time in surgical literature.
Mention is made of a variety«of ophthalmic operations, which were
done by specialists after the Alexandrian fashion.
Galen's practice of surgery was mostly tn the early part
of hb career (b. a.d. 130), and there b little of special surgical
interest in his writings, great as their importance a^m,
is for anatomy, physiology and the general doctrines
of disease. Among the operations credited to him are resection
of a portion of the sternum for caries and ligature of the temporal
artery. It may be assumed that surgical practice was in 1
flourishing condition all through the period of the empire fronj
the accounts preserved by Oribasiua of the great surgeon
Antyllus, Leonides, Rufus and Heliodorus. Antyllus (aj>. jo<^
is claimed by H^ser as one of the greatest of ^ _,,
the world's stugeons; he had an operation for Jj["JJ
aneurism (tying the artery above and below the
sac. and evacuatmg its contents), for cataract, for the ctiie c
stammering; and he treated contractures by something li%
tenotomy. Rufus and Heliodorus are said to have practise
torsion for the arrest of haemorrhage; but in later periods bol
that and the ligature appear to have given way to the actui
cautery. Hilser speaks of the operation for scrotal henv
attributed to Heliodorus as "a brilliant example oC the surgiq
skill dtiring the empire." Tha same suigeon treated strict^
SURGERY
IZ7
«r the urrthn by iBteraal Mctton. Both Ltotddm And AntyBos
imovcd glanduUr tweUSngs of the neck itbmmui); the totter
Lgatured vcsseb befoie cutting thenii uad gives directioM for
Avoiding the carotid artery and jugular vein. Flap-amputations
vere practised by Leonidcs and Hdiodoros. But perhaps
the most striking Illustration of the advanced surgery of the
period is the freedom with which bones were resected, including
the kms bones, the lower jaw and the upper jaw.
^Itateva: progress or decadence surgery may have experienced
( the next three centuries is summed up in the authoritative
treatise of Paulus of Aegina (a.d. 650). Of his
' seven books the sixth is entirely devoted to opera-
tive surgery, and the fourth is largely occupied with surgical
diifs<f< The importance of Paulus for surgical history during
several centuries on each side of his own period will appear
from the following remarks of Francis Adams (1796-1861) in his
tzaaslatioB and commentary (ii. 347): —
"This book (bk. vi.) contains the most complete system of opera-
tive surnry which has come down to ns from ancient timea. . . .
Haly Abhaa (d. a.d. 994) in the9Ch book of his Proctieacopiea almost
r««rythsog Iran PaulusL Albucaab lAbulcasis} (loth century A.o.)
gives man original matter on surgery than any other Arabian
author, and yet, as will be seen from our commentary, he is indebted
for wliole chapters to Paulus. In the Continens of Rhases, that
precio Ms le^ositonr of ancient opinions on medical subjectst if there
be aay sufgical information not to be found in our author it is moally
dt-hv«d from Aotyllus and Aichigcnes. As to the other authorities,
»': hough we will occasionally have to explain their opinions upon
pancolar subjects, no one Kas treated of sorcery in a systematical
Tsaner; for even Aviceana, who tnrats so fully of everything else
coaaMctcd with medicine, is defective in his accounts of surgical
opeiatiosis: and the desaiptions which he does give of them are
alnost all b orro w e d from our author. The accounts of fractures
and dislocations given by Hippocrates and his commentator Galen
sny be pronounced ahnost complete; but the information which
they supply upon most other surgical subjects ia acaaty."'
Psoitis' sixth book, with the valuable commentary of Adams,
brmgs the whole surgery of the andent world to a focus. Paulus
& credited with the principle of local depletion as against general,
«Ttb the lateral operation for stone instead of the medial and with
.adetttanding the merits of a free external incision and a limited
ictcmal, with the diagnosis of aneurism by anastomosis, with
as opcratioo for aneurism like that of Antyllus, with amputa-
tioo of the cancerous breast by crucial incision, and with the
treatment of fractured patella.
The Arabians have hardly any greater merit m medicine
*kin thai of preserving intact the bequest of the ancient world.
4^1^^ To surgery in particular their services arc small-
first, because their religion prosaibed the practice of'
laaJony, and, secondly, because it was a characteristic of their
'ace to accept with equanimity the sufferings that fell to them,
Afid to dedinc the means of alleviation. The great names of the
\nbian school, Avicenna (980-10J7) and Averroes (1126-1198),
ve altogether unimportant for surgery. Their one distinctively
».rgKal writer was Abukasim (d. 11 23), who is chiefly celebrated
.T his free use of the actual cautery and of caustics. He showed
I good deal of character in .declining to operate on goitre, in
rcwniaiC to tracheotomy but sparingly, in refusing to meddle
»i:h cancer, and in evacuating large abscesses by degrees.
F«e the five hundred years following the work of Paulus
4 Aegina there is nothing to record but the names of a few
ff^^^ practitioners at the court and of imitators or com-
pifers. Meanwhile in western Europe (apart from
'he Stfacen civilisation) a medical school had grown up at
Mlerno. which in the luCh century had already become famous.
fton It issued the Rcginun saUrnitanum, a work used by the
iwy lor several centuries, and the Compcudinm saternitanufHt
•tftch circulated among (he profession. The decline of the
vitool dales from the founding of a university at Naples in 1224.
h A\ best period princes and nobles resorted to it for treatment
^■m an parts of Europe. The hdtel dieu of Lyons had been
^**fviitd in 560. and that of Paris a century later. The school
•f MorupetUer was founded in 1025. and became the rallying
poot of Arabian and Jewish learning. A good deal of the
■edical and tnrgf^' practice was in the hands of the religious
orders, pvticnlariy of the Benedictiacs. The prtctice of
surgery by the clergy was at length forbidden by the Council
of Tours (tt6i). The surgical writings of the time were mere
reproductions of the classical or Arabian aulhois. One of the
first to go back to independent observation and reflection was
William of Saliceto, who betonged to the school of Bologna;
his work (1275) advocates the use of the knife in many places
where the actual cautery was used by ancient prescription. A
greater name in the history of medieval surgery is ttat of his
pupil Lanfrancht of Milan, who migrated (owing to political
troubles) fint to Lyons and then to Paris.. He disUnguished
between arterial and venous haemorrhage, and is said to have
used the ligature for the former. Contemporary with him in
France was Henri de MoadeviUe <Hermondaville) of the school
of Montpellier, whose teachteg is best known through that of
his more fkmous pupil Cuy de ChauUac; the Ckhmrgie of the
latter bears the date of 1363, and marks the advance in precision
which the revival of anatomy by Mondino had made possible.
Eighteen yean before Lanfranchi came to Paris a college of
surgeons was founded there (1379) by Pitard, who had accom-
panied St LouB to Palestine as his sun^eon. The college was
under the protection of St Cosmas and St Damhinus, twD
practitioners of medicine who suffered martyrdom in the reign
of Dk>cletian, and It became known as the College de St C6in«.
From the time that Lanfranchi joined it it attracted many
pupib. It maintained its independent existence for sKeral
centuries, alongside the medical faculty of the universKy; the
corporations of surgeons in other capitals, such as those of
London and Edinburgh, were modelled upon iu .
The 14th and 15th centuries are almost entirely without
interest for suigical history. The dead level of tradithm is
broken first by two men of originality and genius — ^P. ParacelauB
(1493*1541) and Par6, and by the revival of anatomy at the
hands of Andreas VesaKus (1514-1564) and Gabriel Fattopius
(1523-1562), professors at Padua. ^ Apart from the mystical
form in which much of his teaching was cast, Paracelsus has
great merits as a reformer of surgical practice, n. ,,^!.^
" The high vahie of hb surgical writings," says
Hiser, " has been recognized at all rimes, even by his oppenenta'*
It is not, however, as an innovator in operative surgery, but
rather as a direct observer of natural processes, that Paracelsus
is distinguished. Hb description of "hospital gangrene," -for
example, b perfectly true to nature; his numerous observations
on syphilb are abo sound and sensible; and he was the first
to point out the connexk>n between cretinbm of the offspring
and goitre of the parents. He gives most prominence to the
healing of wounds. His special surgical treatises are Die
kteine Ckirvrpe (1528) and Die grosse Wnnd-Annei (1536-1537)
— the latter being the best known of his works. Somewhat
later in date, and of much greater concrete importance for
surgery than Paracebus, b Ambroise Par6 (1510- ^^^^
1590). He began life as apprentice to a' barber-
surgeon in Paris and as a pupil at the h6tel dieu. His earliest
opportunities were in military surgery during the campaign
of Francis I. in Piedmont. Instead of treating gunshot wounds
with hot oil, according to the practice of the day. he had the
temerity to trust to a simple bandage; and from that beginning
he proceeded to many other developments of rational surgery.
In I $4 5 he published at Paris La Milhcde de traieter Its playes
faictes par kacquebules et aultres hdshns d feu. The same year
he began to attend the lectures of Sylvius, the Paris teacher of
anatomy, to whom he became prosector; and his next book was
an Anatomy (1550). His most memorable service was to get
the use of the ligature for large arteries generally adopted, a
method of controlling the haemorrhage which made amptrtatkm
on a large scale possible for the fitst time. Like Paracelsus, he
writes in the language of the people, while he is free from the
encumbrance of m>'stical theories, which detract from the merits
of hb fellow reformer in Germany. It is only in hb book on
monsters, .written towards the end of hb career, that he shows
himself to have been by no means free from superstitio** *»^
was adored by the army and greatly esteemed
128
SURGERY
nth
Ccatay.
French kings; but his innovations were ofipoaed, as usual, by
the faculty, and he had to justify the use of the ligature as well
as be could by quotations from Galen and other andenta.
Surgeiy in the i6th century recovered much of the dexterity
and resource that had distinguished it in the best periods of
antiquity, while it underwent the developments
Ctntigy, opened up to it by new forms of wounds inflicted
by new weapons of warfare. The use o( the staff
and other instruments of the " apparatus major " was the chief
improvement in lithotomy. A "radical cure" of herma by
sutures superseded the old application of the actual cautery.
The earlier modes of treating stricture of the urethra were tried;
plastic operations were once more done with something like the
skill of Brahmanical and classical times; and ophthalmic surgery
was to some extent rescued from the hands of ignorant pre-
tenders. It fe noteworthy that even in the legitimate profession
dexterous special operations were kept secret; thus the use of
the " apparatus major " in lithotomy was handed down as a
secret in the family of Laurence Colot, a contemporary of
Park's.
The X7th century was distinguished rather for the rapid
progress of anatomy and physiology, for the Baconian and
Cartesian philosophies, and the keen interest taken
in complete systems of medicine, than for a high
standard ol surgical practice. The teaching of
Par£^ that gunshot wounds were merely contused and not
poisoned, and that simple treatment was the best for them,
was enforced anew by Magati (1579-1647), Wiseman and others.
Trephining was freely resorted to, even for inveterate migraine;
Philip William, prince of Orange, is said to have been trephined
seventeen times. Flap-amputations, which had been practised
in the best period of Roman surgery by Leonidcs and Hcliodorus,
were reintroduced by Lowdham, an Oxford surgeon, in 1679,
and probably used by Wiseman, who was the first to practise
the primary major amputations. Fabriz von Hilden ( 1 560- 1 634)
introduced a form of tourniquet, made, by placing a piece of
wood under the bandage encircling the limb; out of that there
grew the block-tourniquet of Morel, first used at the siege of
Besancon in 1674; and this, again, was superseded by Jean
Louis Petit's (1674-1750) screw-tourniquet in X718. Strangu-
lated hernia, which was for long avoided, becamfe a subject
of operation. Lithotomy by the lateral method came to great
perfection in the hands of Jacques Bcaulieu. To this century
also belong the first indications (not to mention the Alexandrian
practice of Ammonius) of crushing the stone in the bladder.
The theory and practice of transfusion of blood occupied much
attention, especially among the busy spirits of the Royal Society,
such as Boyle, Lower and others. The seat of cataract in the
substance of the lens was first made out by two French surgeons,
Quarr£ and Lasnier. Perhaps the most important figure in
HbviDu. ^^* surgical history of the century is Richard Wise-
man (i623?-i676) the father of English surgery.
Wiseman took the Royalist side in the wars of the Common-
wealth, and was surgeon to James I. and Charics L, and accom-
panied Charles IL in his exile in France and the Jx)w Countries.
After serving for a time in the Spanish fleet, he joined the
Royalist cause in England and was taken prisoner at the battle
of Worcester. At the Restoration he became serjeant-surgeon
to Charles II., aiMi held the same office under James IL His
Seven Ckirurgical Treatises were first published in 1676, and
went through several editions; they relate to tumours, ulcers,
diseases of the anus, king's evil (scrofula), wounds, fractures,
luxations and lues venerea. Wiseman was the first to advocate
primary amputation (or operation before the onset of fever)
in cases of gunshot wounds and other injuries of the limbs.
He introduced also the practice of treating aneurisms by com*
pression, gave an acxurate account of fungus articulorum, and
improved the operative procedure for hernia.
The 1 8th century marks the estabUshment of surgery on 9i
broader basis than the skill «f iiMtfyiAiyt apMOBS ^ U)e court
and army, and on a iQAie .4SiHI<i^Hi8^iAdft(deik oC
thumb of the multitude
orders of practitionen. In Paris the CoU^ de St C6me gave
way to the Academy of Suifery in 1731, with Petit as direaor,
to which was added at a later date the £cole Pra-
tique de Chirurgie, with Francois Chopart (1743- S«fwr.
179s) and Pierre Desault (i 744-1 795) among its first
professors, llie Academy of Surgery set up a very high standard
from the first, and exercised great exdusiveness in its publica-
tions and its honorary membership. In London and Edinburgh
the development of surgery proceeded on lesa academical lines,
and with greater scope for individual effort. Private dissecting
rooms and anatomical theatres were sUrted» of which perhaps
the most notable was Dr William Hunter's (1718-1783) school
in Great \yindmill Street, London, inasmuch as it was the
first perch of his more famous brother John Hunter (17 28- 1793).
In Edinburgh, Alexander Monro> (1697-1.767), first of the name,
became professor of anatomy to the company of surgeons in
1 7 19, transferring his title and services to the university the
year after; as he was the first systematic teacher of medicine
or surgery in Edinburgh, he is regarded as the founder of the
famous medical school of that city. In both London and Edin-
burgh a company of barbers and surgeons had been in existence
for many years before; but it^as not until the association ol
these companies with the study of anatomy, comparative
anatomy, physiology and pathology that the surgical p«ro-
fcssion began to take rank with the older order of physicians.
Hence the sigm'ficance of the eulogy of a living surgeon on John
Hunter: " More than any other man he helped to make us
gentlemen " {HurUerian Oration, 1877). '^he slate of surgery
in Germany may be inferred from the fact that the teaching
of it at the new university of Gottingen was for long in the hands
of Albrecht von Haller (i 708-17 7 7), whose office was " professor
of theoretical medicine." In the Prussian army it fell to the
regimental surgeon to shave the officers. At Berlin a jnedico-
chirurgical college was founded by Surgeon-General Ernst von
Holtzendorff (1688-1751) in 1714, to which was joined in 1726
a school of clinical surgery at the Charit^. Military surgery
was the original purpose of the school, which still exists, side
by side with the surgical diniques of the faculty, as the Friedrich
Wilhclm's Institut. In Vienna, in like manner, a school for
the training of army surgeons was founded in 1785 — Joseph's
Academy or the Josephinum. The first systematic teaching
of surgery in the United Stales was by Dr Shippcn at Phila-
delphia, where the medical college towards the end of the century
was largely officered by pupils of the Edinburgh school. A great
part .of the advance during the i8th century was in surgical
pathology, including Petit's observations on the formation oi
thrombi in severed vessels, Hunter's account of the re|>arati\-^
process, Benjamin BcU's classification of ulcers, the observation!
of Duhamel and others on the formation of callus and on bone
repair in general. Pott's distinction between spinal curvaturt
from caries or abscess of the vertebrae and kyphosis from olhe
causes, observations by various surgeons on chronic disea.se q
the hip, knee, and other joints, and Cheselden's description c
neuroma. Among the great improvements in surgical proccdui
we have Chcscldcn's operation of lithotomy (six deaths in eight
cases), Sir Caesar Hawkins's (1711-1786) cutting gorget for ih
same (1753), Hunter's operation (1785) for popliteal anexirisi
by tying the femoral artery in the canal of the triceps wHcre i|
walls were sound ("excited the- greatest wonder," AssalinS
Petit's, Desault's and Percival Pott's (1714-1788) treattn«ni <
fractures, Gimbcrnat's (Barcelona) operation for slrangiil^i,
femoral hernia. Poll's bistoury for fistula, (Tharles WKJitj
(1728-1813, Manchester) and Henry Park's (1745-1831, Live
pool) excision of joints, Petit's invention of the screw-tourniqu<i
the same surgeon's operation Tor lacryrrtal ^stula, CTliopa^rl
partial amputation of the foot, besault's bandage for fr^cturj
clavicle, William Bromfield's (1712-1792) artery hook, aj
William Cheselden's (1688-1752) operation of iridectooi
Other surgeons of great versatility and general merit were Sha
pf London, Benjamin Gooch (J. 1775) of Norwich, William I|
(1736-1819) of Leeds, David and Claude Nicolas Le Ca.t < 1 -ca
1768) of Rouen, Raphael Sabatier (1732-1811), Georges ^^ |
SURGERY
129
Fatc (J701-1781), Ledcan, Aatoiiie Louis (t7«t-S799)> Sauveur
Moiand ('X697-X773) and Piexre Percy (1754-1825) of Paris,
Bertiandi of Turin, TVQJa of Naples, Palleta of ^lilan, Schmucker
o( the Pnissian army, August Richter of G5ttingeo, Siebold of
Wmriwig, Olaf Acrd of Stockholm and Callisen of Copen-
hagen.
Two things gave surgical knowledge and sklU in the
igtb oentuiy a character of scientific or positive cumula*
tiveness and a wide diffusion through all ranks
of the profession.^ The one was the founding
of museums of anatomy and surgical pathology 1^
the Hunters, Guillaume Dupuytren (1777-^835), Jules Ooquet
(1790-1843), J.P. Blomenbach (1752-1840), John Barclay (1758-
1S20}, and a great number of more modem anatonusCs
lod surgeons; the other was the method of clinical teaching,
cMisplified in its highest form of constant reference to prindpl^
by Thomas Lawrence (X7XI-Z783) and James Syme (1799-1870).
Is suri^cal procedure the discovery of the anaesthetic properties
d ether, chloroform, methylene, &c., was of incalculable service;
vhile the conservative principle in operations upon diseased
or injared parts, and especially what may be called the hygienic
idea (or, more narrowly, the antiseptic and aseptic principles)
ia the oooditions gpveming surgery, were strikin^y benefidaL
Tbe foDoviag were among the more important additions to the
a mi i v ea cX tbe •urgical art: the thin thread ligature for arteries,
■sraduced hy Jones of Jersey (1805) ; the revival of torsion of arteries
bv Jeaa Amuscat (1796-1856) [1829]; the practice of dramaec by
F^nc Marie Chaasaignac (1805-X879) [1859]; aspiration by PhiHpfn
i^Aetaa 0747-1839) ana recent improvers; the plaster-of-Paris
faaadsse or oclicr immovable application for simple fractures, club-
foot. &c (aa old Eastern practice recommended in Europe about
1S14 by tlie English consul at Basra); the re-breakine of badly set
Irtctians; ^vano-caustics and ^raseors; the genefal introduction
rf Toecckm of joinu (Sir William Fergusson (i 808-1877), Syme and
«^n>; ceM»tomy by Jacques £>elpech (1777-18^) and Louis
StToneycr (1804-1876) [1831]; operation tor sqmnt by Johann
VkSemth (1 795-1847) 1184a]; successful ligature of the external
"ae for aoeoriam of the femoral by John Abemethy (1764-1831)
:»j6i; Ggature of the subclavian in the third portioo by Asuey
r (i7«8-l84l) [1806), and in its first portion by CoUes ; crushing
te ia the fcudder by .Gruithuisen ot Munich (18 19) and Jean
Ovdie (X793-1S67) of Paris (1826] ; cure of ovarian dropsy by remov-
ac the cy*t (siaoe greatly perfected) ; discovery of the ophthaImo>
npc. aad many improvements in ophthaknic surgery by Alfred
ma GtHe (i«30-x8q9) and others; application of the Jaryngoscope
m operatiom on the larynx by Jean Caennak (i828-i87;3) [i860] and
vt^xti togedaer with additions to the resources of aural sureery and
destktry. The great names in the surgery of the first hatt of the
besides those mentioned are: Antonio Searpa of Italy
'.747-i«H?; Aleais Boyer (1757-1833), F6Hx Urrey (1766-1842)--
tj> vteia Napoleon left a legacy of a hundred thousand francs, witr
be ealogy: ^ C'est rbomme le plus vertueux qbe j'aie connu.'
iVd]
]M (1780-1854), Jacques Lisfranc (1790-1847), Alfred
Ipeao (1795-XB68). Joseph Matgaigne (i 806-1865), Auguste
(1807-1873)— all of the French school : of the British school,
BcD (1763-1820). Charles Bell (1774-1842), Allan Bums
). Robert Listen ^794-1847). Jj "* ' ' "
fr?i-i8i3).
James Wardrop (1782-
__.^„ - _ Listen (1794-1847,. _ ...
;»-j9>, Astiey Cooper, Henry Clme (17S0-1827), Benjamin Travers
'.793-t^8)« Benjamin Prodie (1781-1862), Edward Sunky (1793-
vms, aMlUeOffe Guthrie (1785-1856) ; in the United Sutes.V. Mott.
% D. Gciaw ano others; in (jcrmany, Kern and Schuh of Vienna,
• wa Walthcr andTextor of WQrzburg. Chelius, Hessetbach and the
•«,y Lasi^cnbecks— Koorad (1776-1851) and Bernhard (1810-1887).
AcTBoaxTBa. — ^Wise, HiUary of Medicine among the Asiatics (2
«-WL, L/qrwf**! 1868); PatUus XwMia, translated with commenUry
1' t^iK kaowfcdme 01 tbe Greeks. Romans and Arabians in medicine
t-vi suwcryi Wrrands Adams (3 vols., London, 1844-1847).. Hflser.
■V-^ d. MeHcin (3rd ed., 1875-1881). vols. L and n. (C. C.)
Utierm Ptadiee of Surgery.*-^ A great change has taken place
z. rht pntctioe of surgery since the middle of the X9th century, in
Tcae^joeace of the new science of bacteriology > and the introduc-
^- of aa^rtic methods, due to the teaching ol Lord Lister.
b faa^i long been known that subcutaneous injuries followed
V ho* sore a^isfactory course than those with wounds, and the
i^arj cM Borgeiy gives evidence that surgeons endeavoured,
iv :^t -ase ol various dressings, empirically to prevent the evils
« *gr4» vere matters of common observation during the healing
* Utrf^ College erf Surgeons in London w^s established in
!Se cstle b^g changed in 1843 to Royal College of Surgeons
. mfgery of any particular region or organ, reference
f I'f b« flMda to the article on that region or organ.
of open wonnda. Various means were also adopted to prevent
the entrance of air, as, for instance, in the opening of abscesses by
the " valvular method " of Abemethy, and by the subcutaneous
division of tendons in " club-foot." Balsams and turpentine
and various forms of spirit were the basis of many varieties
of dressing. These different dressings were frequently cumber^
some and difficult of application, and they did not attain the
object aimed at, while, at the same time, they shut in the dis-
charges and gave rise to other evils which prevented rapid
and painless healing. In the beginning of the X9th century
these complicated dressings began to lose favour, and operating
surgeons went to the opposite extreme and applied a simple
dressing, the main object of which was to allow a free escape of
discharge. Others applied no dressing at all, laying the stump
of a limb after amputation on a piece of dry lint, avokling
thereby any unnecessary movement of the parts. Others, again,
left the wound open for some hours after an operation, preventing
in this way any accumulation, and brought its edges and sur-
faces together after all oozing of bkx)d had ceased, and after the
effusion, the result of injury to the tissues in the operation had to
a great extent sub^ded. As a result of these measures many
wounds healed kindly. But in other cases inflammation
occurred, accompanied by pain and swelling, and tbe formation
of pus. High fever also, due to the unhealthy state of the wound,
was observed. These conditions often proved fatal, and
surgeons attributed them to the constitution of the patient,
or else thought that some poison had entered the wound, and,
passing from it into the veins, had contaminated the blood aad
poisoned the patient. Tlie dose association between the forma*
tion of pus in wounds and the fatal " intoxication " of many
of those cases encouraged the belief that the pus oeUs from
the wound entered the circulation. Hence came the word
" pyaemia." It was also observed that a septic condition of the
wound was usually associated with consdtutional fever, and it was
supposed that the septic matter passed into the blood-^whecce
the term ''septicaemia." It was further observed that the
crowding together of patients with open wounds increased the
liability to these constitutional disasters, so every endeavour
was made to separate the patients and to improve ventilation.
In building hMpitals the pavilion and other systems, with
windows on both sides, with cross-ventilation in the wards,
were adopted in order to give the utmost amount of fresh air.
Hospital buildings were spread over as large an area as possible,
and were restricted in height, if practicable, to two storeys.
The term " hospitalism " was coined by Sir J. Y. Simpson, who
collected statistics comparing hospital and private practice, by
which he endeavoured to show that private patients were far
less liable to such catastrophes than were those who were
treated in hospitals.
This was the condition of affairs when lister in x86o, from
a study of the experimental researches of Pasteur into the
causes of putrefaction, stated that the evils observed ^_-^
in open wounds were due to the admission into them stmr^
of organisms which exist in the air, in water, on ^^
instruments, on sponges, and on the hands of the surgeon or
the skin of the patient. Having accepted the germ theory of
putrefaction, Uster applied himself to discover the best way
of preventing all harmful organisms from reaching the wound
from the moment that it was made untfl it was healed. In
the germ he had to deal with a microscopic plant, and he desired
to render its growth impossible. This, he thought, could he
done either by destroying the plant itsdf before it had the
chance of entering the wound or after it had entered, 6r by
facilitating the remo^rol of the discharges and preventing their
accumulation \n the wound, and by doing everything to prevent
the lowering of tbe vitality ol the wounded tissues, because
unhealthy tissues are tbe most liable to atuck. Several sub*
stances were then known as possessing properties antagonistic
to sepsis or putrefaction, and hence called " antiseptic." Acting
on a suggestion of Lemaire, Lister chose for »»• ' '-
carbolic acid, which he used at first in a crud
ittiny difficulties to contend with^the impuritj
13©
SURGERY
its irritatint properties and the difficulty of finding the exact
strength in which to use it: he feared to use it too strong, kst
it should impair the vitality of the tissues and thus prevent
healing; and he feared to use it too weak, kst its antiseptic
qualities should be insufficient for the object in view. As
dressings for wounds he used various chemical substances,
which, being mixed with carbolic add, were intended to give off
a certain quantity of carbolic add in the form of vapour, so that
the wound might be constantly surrounded by an antiseptic
which would destrey any organisms approaching it, and, at
the same time, not interfere with its healing. At first, althouf^
he prevented pyaemia in a marked degree, he, to a certain
extent, irritated the wounds and prevented rapid healing.
He bqjan his historic experiments in Glasgow and continued
them on his removal to the chair of dinical surgery in Edin-
burgh. After many disappointments, he gradually perfected
his method of performing operations and dressing .wounds,
which was somewhat ss follows.
A patient was suffering, for instance, from disease of the
foot necessitating ampuUtion at the ankle joint. The part
to be operated on was enveloped in a towel soaked with a 5%
solution of carbolic add. The towd was applied two hours
before the ooeration, with the object of destroying the putro*
factive ocgamsms present in the skin. The patient was placed
on the operating table, and brought under the infhience of
chloroform; the limb was then elevated to empty it of blood,
and a tourniquet was applied round the limb bek>w the knee.
. The instnunents to be used during the operation had been
previously purified by lying for half an hour in a flat porcelain
dish containing carbolic acid (i in 10). The sponges lay in a
similar carbolic lotion. Towcb soaked in the same solution were
laid over the table and blankets near the part to be operated
upon. The hands of the operator, as weO as those of his assist-
ants, were thoroo^y cleansed by washing them in carbolic
lotion, free use being made of a nail brush for this purpose.
The operation was performed under a doud of carbolixed watery
vapour (x in 50) (roni a steam spray-producer. The N^sible
bleeding points were first ligated; the tourniquet was removed;
and any vcsseb that had escaped nodce wvre secured. The
wound was stitched, a diminage-tube made of i«d rubber being
introduced at oat coracr to prevent accumulation of disdiaige;
a strip of " protective *^—oilcd silk coated with carbolized
dextrin— was washed in carbolic lotion and applied over the
woumL A double p|y of carbolic gauae was soaked in the
btioo laid over the protective, overlapping it freely. .\ dressing
OHisistii^ of eight layers of dry gauae was placed over all.
covering the stump and passing up the leg for about six inches.
0\>er tiMt a piece of thin mackintosh doth was pbcrd, and the
whole anangement was fixed with a gause band.tge. The
saackiatosh doth prevented the carbolic add from escaping
and at the same time caused the disrharfe fn^m the wound to
sprf^ through the gause. The wound itself was shi^kM by
the protective from the vapour gi>Tn off by the carK^lKT gauxe,
whilst the surrounding pacts, being cckn^tAnihr etpo^etl to its
activity, were protected from the intrusion of s<i>ttc contamina-
tioa. And th«e cooditHws were aaaintxined unt il scmnvl heAhni;
toc^ |)lace. WheMwr the discharge leoche^l the e^tge of the
mackintosh the case required to be drmed. sod a new sufH^y
of gauae was an'^^'^ round the stump. \\h<>i>e\'Tr the «\Hind
was exposed for dmsic^ ths stump was e«i\ek^p<d in the
vapour of carbolic acil by mcoas of the Meam s|^ra\ |wx1xicer.
At first a s>Tiage was used to keep the tutlACv «\Mnunt)v wet
wJthlotioBandthcnahand^l'ray. These dnrttings were rrfeate^l
at interrab until the wound wwsbeakd. the dmina|Ee4ube was
gndually shoctesMd, and wus uhMsattly vrmovc^t alt%>gether.
The object liitcf had ia view from the btginning of hU
eiperimcBts wna to pkco the opes woiuri in • co»tttt(on aa
R«aidi the cMsaK* of MfluiHn «s MW^ aa ponlUe iSht a
truly sttbcumMMS wound, such an n cuMMtai nt •
fiwctv«, in which the uahrokeo shil MMI M % ~^
hf liMtr tfected a
surgery. The dark times of suppurating wounds, of foul
discharges, of secondary haemorrhage, of pyaemic abscesses
and hospital gangrene constitute what is now spoken of in
surgery as the pre-Listerian era.
As years went on, surgeons tried to simplify and improve
the somewhat complicated and expensive measures and dressings
and chemists were at pains to supply carbolic add in a pure
form and to discover new antiseptics, the great object being
to get a non-irritating antiseptic which should at the same
time be a powerful germidde. Iodoform, oil of eucalyptus,
salicylic add, boradc add, merairic iodide, and corrosive
sublimate were used.
For some yeais Lister irrigated a woimd with carbolic lotion
during the operation and at the dressings when it was exposed,
but the introduction of the spray disphced the irrigation method.
All these different procedures, however, as regards both the
antiseptic used and the best method of its application in oily
and watery solutions and in dressings, were subsidiaiy to the
great prindple involved — namdy, that putrefaction in a wound
is an evil which can be prevented, and that, if it is prrv'ented,
local irritatimi, in so far as it is due to putrefaction, is obviated
aixi septicaemia and pyaemia cannot occur. Alongside of this
great improvement the immense advantage oi free drainage
was universally acknowledged. Moreover, surgeons at once
began to take greater care in securing the deanliness of wounds,
and sotne of them, Lawsoo Tait and Bantock, for example,
produced such excellent results by the adoption merely of
methods of strict deanliness, and became so aggressive in their
champicMiship of them, that many of the older practitioners
were bewildered aixi tmable to decide as to where truth began
and where it ended in the new doctrine. But thouglMbe actual
methods, as tau^t and practised by Lister, have, with the
spray-producers, passed away and ^ven place to new, still
the great light which he shed in the smgical world burns as
brightly as ever it did, and all the methods which are practised
to-day are the direa results of his teaching.
By 18S5 the carbolic add spray, which to some practitioners
had apparently been the embodiment of the Listerian theory
and practice, was beginning to pass into desuetude, though for
a good many years after that time certaid suigeons continued to
employ it during operation, and during the subsequent dressings
of the wound. Suigeons who, having had practical experience of
the tmhappy course which their operation-cases had been apt
to run in the pre-Listerian da}'S, and of the vast improvements
which ensued on their adoption of the spray-and-gauze method
in its entirety, were, not unnaturally, reluctant to operate
except in a cloud of carbolic vapour. So, even after LJstei
himself had gi^'cn up the spray, its use was continued by man)
of his disciples. It was in the course of 1888 that operat in|
surgeons began to neglect the letter of the antiseptic treatment
and to bring themscK-cs aaore under the broadening infl ucnc4
of its spirit. Certain adx'entnrons and partially uiiconvince<
«urproii5 began to gi\<e up the carbolic spray gradually, b;
impirtii^ a smiUer percentage of carbolic add to the vapoui
until at U<t the antiseptic disappeared altogether, apparent I
without detiimcftt to the exoellenoe of the results obtaincc
But while simte surgeons were thus ceasing to apply the ami
jeptic »prAy to the wv-Hind during operation, others were pouxin
miM vAiN'Iio kxkm. or a ^-ery wok sohition of corrosive sul
Isnute un extren\<^ly potent germidde) over the freshly -ex
jLUclAocs. These mea$unes wvre in tura ^ven up, to the advai
t4ge oi the p«tuH)t; tor it was hardly to be expected tlxat
v^<>ruvAl Aiecnt mhtch was strong enough to destroy or rcn<i«
wen sri^k mkxo-ocgantsas in and about a wound would f x
t<k iaiure expoaed and bxing tissaes. Eventually it beca.x]
gtoer4ll> SvloMticd that if a surgeon was going to operate up<
the depths o( an C4>em abdocxn kff an hoar or more, the cKxUij
ami the chemical intiKMstoes of the ^nj must certainly low
the \Uality of the pans es^^ised. as wdll as interierc wirkk t
pMUPt h<«lii« «f the wwuftird suiiaoes. With the spray ^«rc
•feM the '^ ptotevttvcw" the para£a gause. and the aackiiatci
ghMrt^ lAch tmillfid ihi bdi^i II 011114
SURGERY
«3>
Yean befom Uiis hsfjpened, to. tlie tddftit <m surgeiy g^ven
at the Cock meeting of the British Medical Aswciatiaii, Sir
WiBiam (then Mr) Savory had somewhat severely
critkiaed the rigid eidiisivenest of the memben of
the spFay-and-^uiae school: the sum and sabstance
of the addiesB was that every careful surgeon was an anti«
septic saigeoa, and that the sococss of the listerian surgeon
liki not depend upon the spray or the gauze, or the two together,
but apQO ekanUuen—^hal thesoxgeon's fingers and instruments
and the area opeiated on must be surgically cka». Though
precise eqieriments show that it is impossible for the surgeon
.o xcmowe every trace of septidty from his own hands and from
the skin of his patient, still with nail-brush, soap and water,
and alcohol or turpentine, with possibly the help of some mer*
axric gmnidde, be can, for all practical purposes, sender his
haads safe. Recognizing this difficulty many surgeons prefer to
opexate in thin rubber gloves which can, for certain, by boQing,
be rendered free of all germs; others, in addition, put on a mask,
acrile overalls, and india-rubber shoes. But these excessive
rAsements do not seem to be generally acceptable, whilst the
Rsohs off practice show that th^ are by no means necessary.
The careful, the antiseptic surgeon of 183$ is to-day represented
by the careful, the aseptic surgeon. The antiseptic surgeon
was waging a constant warfare against germs which his creed told
^jn were on his hands, in the wound, in the air, everywhere —
is-i these he attacked with potent chemicals which beyond
qaestioa often did real damage to the healthy tissues laid bare
«*i9iDg the operation. If, as was frequently the case, his own
hzads became sore and rough from contact with the antiseptics
be employed, it was not to be wondered at if a peritoneal surface
or an indeed tissue became more seriously affected. The surgeon
t4 to-day has much less commerce with antiseptics: he operates
vrJk hands which, for all practical purposes, may be considered
as gemiless; he uses instruments which are certainly germless,
br they have just been boiled for twenty minutes in water (to
wbiA a Ettle common soda has been added to prevent tamish-
isg of the flted), and he operates on tissues which have been duly
Bade dean in a surgical sense. If he were asked what he oon«
aikn the chief essentials for securing success in his operative
aractice, be would probably reply, " Soap and water and a nail-
^roh." He uses no antiseptics during the operttions, he keeps
ife woufed dry by gently swabbing it with aseptic, absorbent
■jottoa wuol, and. he dresses it with a pad of aseptic gauze.
Ttis is the simple aseptic method which has been gradually
cv^fed from the listerian antiseptic system. But though
tbe pendulum has swung so far in the direction of aseptic surgery,
sTsy lar^e proportion of operators still adhere to the antiseptic
sj uaaiei whkh had proved so highly benefidal. The judicious
ttployneot of weak solutions of carbolic add, or of mercuric
«a^< and the application of unirritating dressings of an anti-
septic nature cannot do any harm, and, on the other hand, they
SST be of great service in the case of there having been some
Siv m the carrying out of what should have been an absolutely
cKpdc operation.
K gnat change has taken place in connexion with the use
«f scit iodia-nxbber drainage-tubes. In former years most
^ s u rgeo n s placed one or more of these in the dependent
21"^ parts of the area of operation, so that the blood or
scnnn oozing from the injured tissues might find
t cesdy escape. But to-day, except in dealing with a large
txtm or other septic cavity, many surgeons make no provision
"* <lraanage, but, bandaging the part beneath a pad of aseptic
*«l. pot on so much pressure that any little leakage into the
«£s B qtDckly absorbed. If a drainage-tube can be dispensed
^k. 90 much the better, for if it is not actually needed its
iJs jtiMje keeps up irritation and delays prompt healing. But
^aiBr>i^ ss a tube if rightly placed in a deep wound is an insur-
ers a^nst the occurrence of " tension," and as it can easily
^ «i*hdravn at the end of twenty-four hours (even if it has
«Tsd no tiseful purpose), It is improbable that the practice
' irihafe of freily made cavities will ever be entirely given
%■ If the tube is remo v ed after twenty-four hours its presence
can have done no hann and sometimcB the large amount off
fluid which it has drained from the wound affords dear evidence
that its^use has saved the patient discomfort and has probably
expedited his recovery. For septic cavities drainage^ubes are
still used, but it must be remembered that the tube cannot
remain long in position without causing and keeping up iirita*
Uon; hence, even in septic cases, the modern surgeon discards
the tube at the earliest possible moment. If after he has taken
it out septic fluids collect, and the patient's temperature rises,
it can easily be reinserted. But it is better to take out the tube
too soon than to leave it in too kmg; this remark applies with
special force to the treatment of abscess of the pleural cavity
(empyema), in the treatment of which a drainage-tube has
almost certainly to be employed.
Poultices are now never used: they were apt to be foul and
offensive, and were certainly septic and dangerous. If moisture
and warmth are needed for a wound they can be obtained by the
use of a fold of dean lint, or by some aseptic wool which has
been wrung out in « hot solution of boracic or carbolic add, and
applied under some waterproof material, which effectually pre-
vents evaporation and chilling. There was no special virtue in
poultices made of linseed meal or even of scraped carrot: they
simply stored up the moisture and heat. They possessed no
possible advantage over the modem fomenution under V»il^
silk.
Much less is heard now of so-called "hloodless " operations.
The bloodlessness was secured by the part t6 be operated <
an arm, for instance — being ra^ed and compresMd.
from the fingers to the shoulder by successive turns ^
of an india-rubber roller-bandage (Esmarch's), the
main artery of the limb being then compressed by the applicatioD
of an elastic cord above the highest turn of the bandage. The
bandage being removed, the operation was performed through
bloodless tissues. But when it was completed and the elastic
cord removed from around the upper part of the limb, a reac-
tionary flow of blood took place into every small vessd which had
been previously squeezed empty, so that though the operation
itsdf had actually been bloodless, the wound could not be dosed
because of the occurrence 6f unusually free haemorrhage or
troublesome oozing. A further objection to the application
of such an elastic roller-bandage was that septic or tuberculous
material might by chance be squeezed from the tiSBues In which
it was perhaps harmlessly lying, forced into the blood vessels,
and so widely dissemhiated through the body. Esmarch^i
bandage Is therefore but little used now in operative surgery.
Instead, each bleeding point at an operation is promptly secured
by a small pair of nickel-plated dip-forceps, which generally haw
the effect, after being left on for a few minutes, of completdy
and permanently arresting the bleeding. These clips woe
specially introduced into practice by Sir Spencer Wdls, and it b
no unusual thing for a surgeon to have twenty or thirty pairs
of them at hand during an extensive operation. Seeing bow
convenient, not to say indispensable, they are. in such drcum«
stances, the surgeon of to-day wonders how he formerly managed
to get on at all without them.
Biers's treatment by passive congestion is carried out by
gently assisting the return of venous blood from a part of the
body without in any way checking the arterial flow. In the
case of tuberculous disease of the knee-joint, for instance, an
elastic band is gently placed round the thigh for several hours
a day, and in disease of the wrist or elbow the girth is applied
round the arm. The skin below becomes flushed, and the arterial
blood which, as diown by the pulse, is still flowing into the
affected part, is compelled to linger in the affected tissues,
giving the serum and the white corpuscles time to exert thdr
benefidal influence upon the disease.
In the case of tuberculous, or septic, affections of the lymph-
atic glands of the neck, or of other parts where the constriction
cannot b* conveniently obtained, effective -•'
secured by the use of cupping glasses.
suppuration is taking place in the interior O
the cupping-glasses can be applied after a
132
SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPLIANCES
been made into the softened part of the gland. In this way the
whole of the broken-down material can be got away without the
necessity of making an actual incision or of resorting to scraping.
The method of inducing hyperaemla should be so conducted as
to give the patient no pain whatever: it must not be carried
out with excessive energy.
By means of the Rdntgen or X-rays (see X-Ray Tkeatment)
the surgeon is able to procure a distinct shadow-portrait of
deeply-placed bones, so that he can be assured as
i^J^ to the presence or absence of fracture or dislocation, or
of outgrowth of bone, or of bone-containing tumours.
By this means also he is able to locate with absolute precision
the situation of a foreign body in the tissues — of a coin in the
windpipe or gullet, of a broken piece of a needle in the hand,
of a splinter of glass in the foot, or of a bullet deeply embedded
in soft tissues or bone. This effect may be obtained upon a
fluorescent screen or printed in a permanent form upon glass
or paper. The shadow is cast by a xo- or x2*in. spark from a
Crookes vacuum tube. The rays of Rfintgen find their way
through dead and living tissues which are far beyond the reach
of the rays of ordinary light, and they are thus able even to
reveal changes in the deeply placed hip-joint which have been
produced by tuberculous disease. In examining an injured
limb it is not necessary to take off woOden splints or bandages
except in cases where the latter have been treated with plaster
of pans, lime-salts obstructing the rays and throwing a shadow.
Thus the rays may pass through an ordinary uric add calculus
in the kidney or bladder; but if it contains salts of lime, as does
the mulberry calculus (oxalate of lime), a definite shadow is
cast upon the screen. The value of the X-rays is not limited
to the elucidation of obscure problems such as those just indi-
cated: they are also of therapeutic value; for example, in the
treatment of certain forms of skin disease, as well as of
cancer.
Too much, however, must not be expected from them.. For
the treatment of a patch of tuberculous ulceration (lupus),
or for a superficial cancerous sore (epitheliomft), they may be of
service, but in the treatment of a deeply-seated malignant
growth— as a cancer of the breast — ^they have not proved of
value. Moreover, the X-rays sometimes cause serious bums of
the skin; and although this happens less often now than was pre-
viously the case, stiU the frequent application of the rays is apt
to be followed by cutaneous warty growths which are apt in
turn to develop into cancer. In many cases in which the X-rays
are used a noore prompt tuid efficient means of treatment woidd
probably be by excision. One great advantage which operative
treatment by the knife must always have over the treatment by
X-rays is that the secondary implication of the lymphatic
glands can be dealt with at the same time. And this, in many
cases, b a matter of almost equal importance to that of removal
of the cancer itself.
The employment of radium in surgery is still in its infancy.
Doubtless radium is a very powerful agent, but even if it were
-. - found of peculiar value in treatment its cost would,
* for the present, put it out of the reach of most
practitioners. Probably it will be found useful in the treatment
of naevus, rodent ulcers and superficial malignant growths.
As to what influence radium may have in the treatment of
deeply-seated cancers it is as yet impossible even to guess.
For those sad cases, however, which the practical surgeon
is reluctantly compelled to admit as being beyond the reach of
his operative skill, the influence of radium should be tried with
determination and thoroughness. The therapeutic influence
of radium may eventually be found to be great, or it may be
disappointing. The fact that under direct roycj patronage an
institution has been established in London for the investigation
of the physical and therapeutic value of this newly discovered
agent should satisfy every one that its properties will be dvHy
inquired into and made known without mystery or cha
and absolutely in the interest of the people. But in I
while too much must not be expected from it as i
agent.
SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND AFPUANCB8. The pur-
pose of this article is to give an account of the more important
surgical instruments that are now in general use, and to show by
what modifications, and from what discoveries in science, ibe
present methods of an operation have come to be what they are.
The good surgeon is careful to use the right sort and pattern
of instrument, and the chief fact about the surgery of the present
day, that it is aseptic or antiseptic, is recorded in the make o(
surgical instruments and in all the installation of aji operating-
theatre. Take, for insUnce, a scalpel and a saw that are figured
in Ambroise Par6's (i 510-1590) surgical writings. The scalpel
folds into a handle tike an ordinary pocket-knife, which ak)ne
was enough in those days to keep it from being aseptic. The
handle is most elegantly adorned with a tittle winged female
figure, but it docs not commend itself as likely to be surgically
Fig. I.— -Needle-holders.
A, Hagedom's; B, Macphair*; C, Allen and Ilanbury*s, foi
Hagedorn or ordinary needles,
dean. The saw, after the same fashion, has a richly chased
metal frame, and, at the end of the handle, a tion's head ia
bold rdief, with a ring through its mouth to hang it up by-
It may be admiral^e art, but it would harbour all sorts of
germs. If one contrasts with these artistic weapons the
Fig. 2. — ^Tenotomy Knives forged in one piece,
instruments of 1850, one finds no such adornment, and fc^
general finish Savigny's instrumenu would be hard 10 beat ; bu
the wooden or ivory handles, cut with finely scored Unes like th
cross-hatching of an engraving, are not more likely to be asepti
than the handles of Park's instnmients. At the present tim^
instead of such handles as these, with blades riveted into therj
scalpels are forged out of one piece of steel, their bandies ai
nickel-plated and perfectly smooth, that they may afford r^
crevices, and may be boiled and immersed in carbolic lot id
without tarnishing or rusting; the scalpd has become just
single, smooth, plain piece of metal, having this one purpo^
that it shall make an aseptic wound. In the same way the s^
is made in one piece, if this be possible; anyhow, it must be, ^
far as possible, a simple, smooth, unrusting metal instruir^erj
that can be boiled and laid in lotion; it is a foreign body \\\\
must be introduced into tissues susceptible of infection, and
im^M^ C«ny infection with it.
ent periods of surgery, the v^Hol
It of bleeding from a divided bloc
Bras the first to use the ligature
loe ol some sort of ligature is
SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPUANCE8
<33
dd u Cdeo) tlie ligature .was a diiufale thread, bomfiqtAwU
n iankk] and be employed a forceps to draw forward the cut
ead of the vessel to be ligatured. From the time of Ambroise
PaM to the time of Lord Lister no great improvement was made,
la the middle of last century it was no uncommon thing
for the houae-surgeon at an operation to hang a leash of waxed
cJUeads, slk or fiax, through bis button-hole, that they might
Fig. s.'^Ampucating Sawi.
be haiKly doriag the operation. Then came Lofd Lister's
vQcfc OB the afaawhahle ligature; and out of this and much other
eipcriineBtal ww4e has come the present use of the ligature in
its utmost perfection's thread that can be tied, cut short,
aad feCt in Out depth of the wound, with absolute certainty
that the woud niay at once be closed from end to end and
aothing more will ever be heard of the ligatures leftburied in the
^^oMi€ The choice of materials for the ligature is wide. Some
Kigeoss prefer catgut, variously prepared; others prefer silk;
lor certain purposes, as for the obliteration of a vessel not divided
hot tied in its course for the cure of aneurism, use is made of
kasgaioo-teodon, or some other animal substance. But what-
ever is cbosea is made aseptic by boiling, and is guarded
v%Saatiy fiolki contamination on its way from the sterilizer
kco the body of the patient. The old ligatures were a common
czaac off ooppuration. Therefore the wound was not dosed
tkag iu wlmle length, but the ligatures were left long, hanging
«Bt of one end of the wound, and from day to day were gently
pcfcd tmtH they came away. Certainly they served thus to
6aaa tbe 'woimdj but they were themselves a chief cause of the
■ppontioa that required drainage.
Setores, IQce ligatures, were a common cause of suppuration
h cr amend tlie edges of the wound. IliereCore, in the hope
^ avaidins this trouble, they were made of silver wire, which
vismconvcnicnt to handle, and gave pain at the time of removal
«r t^ autm es. At the present time they are of silkwonn-gut,
OKgat, silk or bocsehair; they are made aseptic by boiling, and
aa be feft any number of days without causing suppuration
im{ -»w then be removed without pain.
Sat toMy come the consideration of surgical dressmgs. In
:be d»ys wbeo inflammation and suppuration were aknost
^rvicalale, tbe dreMtngs were usually something very simple,
i^ ooald be easily and frequently chan8ed--ointment, or wet
» to begin with, and poultices when suppuration was
Jt Zs jcported of the great Sir William Ferguason
m toU ins students, " You may say what you like,
but after all, there's no better dressing than cold
Is not tbe place to try to teU the k>ng history
{ peifect suigieal dressing, and the advance
I Lord Lister invented bis carbolic paste.
f flowfy itt tbeiotemational unity of sdence
. .-Tlie perfect antiseptic dressing must fulfil
^ It must be absorbent, yet not let its
>tiU<Uy soaked out of it; and it must be
I Hnilent or poisonous. Of the many gauacs
BOW avaJlabie, that which is' chiefly used is one impregnated
with a double cyanide of zinc and mercury. Its pleasant
amethystine tint has no healing virtue, but is used to di^inguish
it from other gauaes-^carboUzed gauae, tinted atraw-colour;
iodoform gauze, tinted yellow; sublimate, blue; cfatnosol, green.
The chinoso! gauze is especially used in ophthalmic surgery;
for general surgery the cyanide gauze is chiefly cmpkyed.
The various preparations of absorbent wool ($.«. wool that
has been freed of its grease, so that it readily, takes up moisture)
are used not only for outside dressings, but also as sponges
at the time of operation, and have to a great extent done away
with the use of real ^x>nges. The gauzes in most cases are used
not dry, but Just wrung out of carboHc lotion, that their anti-
septic influence may act at once.
The whole subject of surgical inetrumenu may be eonsideied in
more ways than ooou It may be well, for tbe sake of dcaring the
ground, to take fint some of the more common instrumento of geiml
Fig. 4.— Artery Fonepa.
A, Piao't; B, Spencer Wells's.
Mirgery, and then to pote the working out, in the opersdons of
surgery, of the three great jxindplea— the use of anaesthetics,
the use of antiseptic or aseptic methods, and the surgical uses of
electricity.
Fhs. 5.-^RetrBctork
Of the essential Instfumcnts that ore common to all operations,
we may well believe that they have now become, by gradual develop-
ment, perfect. Take, for mstaiice, the ordinary smtical needle.
In tbe older forms tbe eye was slit-shaped, not easily threaded, and
the needle was often made of a triangular outline, fil"
bayonet. At the present time the needles used in
are mostly Haeedorn's, which have a full-sized roi
tlireading, are flat for their whole Ingth and have a
13+
SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPLIANCES
on one aide, near the point. Thus they enter the skin very eatily,
like a miniature knife, and the minute wound they make is not a
bole, but a tiny slit that is at once drawn together and, as it were,
obliterated by the tying of the suture. Or, for another simple
instrument in universal use, take the catch-foroqw that b used lor
taking hold of a bleeding point till it is ligatured. This forceps is as
old as the time of Par6, but he made use of a very heavy and dumsv
pattern. Up to the last few years the artery-forceps was made with
.broad, curved, fenestrated triades, with the catch set close to the
'blades. At the present time the forceps in Kenaal use, named after
Dr Pian in France and after Sir Spencer \^s in Eneland, is made
with very narrow grooved blades, and the catch is placed not near
the blades, but near the handles: thus it takes a surer hold, and can
be set free when the ligature u tied by a moment's extra pressure on
the handles.
Among other instruments in universal use are divers forms of
retractors, for holding gently the edges of a wound: the larger
patterns are made with broad, slightly-concave, highly-polished
surfaces, that they may, so far as possible, reflect light into the
wound. Among tourniquets, the old and elaborate Petit 's tourni-
quet, whkh was a band carrying a pad screwed down over the main
artery of the limb, has given place to the elastic tourniquet^ with
Esmarch's bandage. For example, in an amputation, or in an
operation on a joint or on a vessd or a nerve in a limb, the limb is
«
Fig. 6. — ^Tourniquet (Esmarch's).
raised, and the Esmarch*s elastic bandage is applied from below
upward till it has reached a point well above the site of the opera-
tion; then an elastic tourniquet is wound round the limb at this
point, the bandage is removed, and the limb is thus kept almost
bloodless during the operation.
^^
Kic. 7.— Lithotrite (Bigelow's).
It is not possible to describe here the many forms of other ordinary
instruments of general surgery — probes, duectors, scissors, forceps,
and many more — nor those that are used in operations on the bones.
Nor again can the numerous instruments used in special departments
of surgery be discussed in detaU. But, with regard to tne q)ecial
Fig. 8.— Tohsilktome (Mathieu's).
surgery of the eye, and of the throat and ear, it is to be noted that
the chief advance in treatment arose from the invention of the
present instruments of diagnosis, and that these are of compara-
tively recent date. The optkaJmoscope was the work of Helmholtz.
The taryngoscopt was invented by Manuel Garcia in the otiiddle of the
Pig. 9.— OphthalmoKope (1
19th century: and the use of a frontal mir
light on the membrana tympani, in the
yas in use somewhat earlier. Before ih
impossible to study the internal disease)
laryngoscope the diseases of the larynx
mauUy a matter of guess-work, a»d 01 va|
ment. Before the use of the frontal minor the dise— es of the tai
were hardly studied, ui that sense in which they are studied now.
The wonderful advance of the special departments of sureejy wu,
of course, the result of many forces, but one of the chicTol tbcie
Fic. to. — Laryngoscope (Lennox Browne's).
forces was the invention of proper instruments of di^nosis. The
textbooks that were written immediately before those instruments
became available were not far in advance of Ambroise Pari, so (ai
as these special departments are concerned.
It may be well next to consider in what ways the conduct of an
operation is influenced by those two great discoveries of anaesthetics,
and the more gradual development of the principles of antiseptic and
aseptic surgery ; with special reference to the use of the instruments
of surgery. The jubilee year of anaesthesia was 1896; the first use
of nitrous oxide was on the nth of December 1844: the first opera-
tion under ether was on the 30th of September 1^6; the first use
of chloroform was on the 4th of November 1847. Tne choice of the
anaesthetic, or of some combination of anaeatbetica, that is best
suited to each partkular case, is a matter of careful consideration;
but, on the whole, the tendency in England is to keep to the via
media between the more general use of chloroform in Scotland and
the more general use of ether in the United States. Of the methods
of administering chloroform there is no need to say much ; by some
Fig. II.— Inhaler Qunker's).
anaesthetists no instrument is used save a fold of Unf or some sue!
stuff, or a piece of flannel made into a sort of cone or mask. Use i
generally made of a modificatran of " Junker's inhaler." whereb'
the vapour of chloroform is administerra by means of a hand-ball
For thiie administration of ether some form of Clover's inhak^r i
generally used, whereby the ether in a small metal chamber passe
as vapour into an indiarubber bag, and there is combined with tli
patient s breath in pro>
portions determined by
the anaesthetist throueb-
out the operation. The
metal chamber b so de>
signed that by turning
it the exact proportion
of ether to air u fixed
in accordance with the
requirements of the case.
Of late years, by the use
of an iron cylinder of
nitrous oxide, connected
by a tube with a Clover's
inhaler, it is posnble to
begin with nitrous oxide,
and to go on, without
aratua
mXkomr
SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPLIANCES
>35
TttKricsof diseoveries whkh. in in applkatioa to atufeiy, hu
bmq^atioiit the present antiseptic axkd aseptic methods of opera-
M, Ncaioeraed both with the shape or use of the instruments oi
surgery and with their prepsiao
tion for use. The mere stenliza-
tioa, by boiling or by steaming,
of all instruments and dressings,
is enough to ensure their freedom
fhdm the cmiiaary micro-oigan-
isms of suppuration; but the
■urgeon cannot boil or steam
dtber himself or his patient.
n
I.
The preparation, therefcve, of the
eon'iB bands, and of the
surgeon's bands, and of the sldn
i over the area of operation, is
made not only by scrubbing inth
soap and hot water, but by
careful use of antiseptic lotions.
Again, ligatures and sutures,
which must be kept in stoclc
t ready for use. are kept, after
f careful sterilization, in antiseptic
lotion, or are again sterilized
immediately before an operation.
' Again,^ all towds used at an
nc i^-Iactnunent Sterilizer. ^h«- by sterilization or by im*
mernon in antiseptic lotion.
TVe iteriluation of all instruments and dressings is a simple
fuotr: the usual sterilizer is a vessel like a fish-kettle, with a per-
iaoted BKdl tiay in it, so that the instruments can be immersed
« bnEw water, and can be lifted on the tray and transferred
miilit (nxn the sterilizer into vessels containing sterilized water or
cdipoc htka. For the sterilization of oresangs an upper
<wl is fitted to the sterilizer, so that the steam may permeate the
Aosagi placed in it. In hosiwtal practice it b used also to sterilize
^ tnds, aprons and the like in a large cylindrical vessel. Sterilizat
M bf boia'ag or steaming, together with the use of antiseptic
knn, or of water that has been boiled, for all such things as cannot
^ boded or steamed, is the essential principle of the surgery of the
nn day: and psacdcally the antiseptic method and the aseptic
*^ Aave become one, varying a little this way or that according
t^'>tk natare and cireumstances of the case.
Baide anaesthetics and antiseptKs, there is a third series of
^i*Hiet that ha* profoundly influenced aurgery — ^the use of the
<>>tB of cfectridty. The uses of electricity are fivefold.
I- The Gtkana-CatUery. — ^The original form of the cautery, the
^ oiifd of Fare's time, for the arrest of haemorrhage after aroputa-
^ na a terrible affair. Happily for mankind, his invention of
^ %itsfe put an end to this use of the cautery, but it was still
!«d a a naU number of other case*. Subseouently Claude
^ P^odia (b. X836) invented a very ingenious form of cautery,
' eis of metal blades or points of different shapes and sizes, that
y^ be fitted to a handle: these points were hollow inside, and were
^ «ith fine platinum gauze, and, by means of a bottle and hand-
|^a*n. they could be kept heated with benzene-vapour. Thus,
^ t^ had once been raised to a glowing heat by hokling them
I Fig. 14.— Calvaoo-cautery Set.
"^ > ipirit4afn|». tbey coakl be kept at any desired heat. This
\ "-"J^iaem is sdUin uae foe a few cases where very rapid and exten-
'* f^terizatwo i« necessary. But for all finer use of actual heat
> ;^yiao<Mitery alone is used — a series of very minute points of
>sasBi, witb a suitable trigger-handle, connected with a battery or
1 ^ ae»A of a coaverter) wiu the ordinary house supply of electri-
l Jb this w«y it is possible to apply a glowing point with a
/ *^» and aocuiacy ai adjustment that were wholly impossible with
y ^«^'» cautery.
' ' -This method is of great value, in suitable cases,
for the arrest or obliteration
of small growths. ^ The
passage of the electric cur-
rentbetwcen needles intro-
duced into ot under the
skin brings about a ^dual
shrinking or ckratnzatioo
of the tissues subjected to
it. without the production
o« any unsightly scar.
y, Etectr^MeUfr Pofrntr. —
During recent years the use
machine has come into the practke of
sons on the bones; especially for the
the mastokl bone. It is. 01 course, a
better mctlniel for the use of a firte drill or burr, for example, than
the'* dental engine," where the power is ^nerated by a pedal
turning a whed, and it will probably come into wide use both for
dental suigery and for those operations of general surgery^ that
require very gradual and delicate removal of amall circumscribed
areas of bone, especially of the cranial bones.
4. Tkt X-iSayr.— -This, the most imezpected and, aa it weie, the
qkost sensattonal discovery that has been bca t owed on phyaiciana
and surgeons since the discovery of anaesthetics, is now used over
a venr wkle and varied field of practfce. Its value does not stop at
the detection and localization of foreign bodies; indeed, this Is but
a small part of its work. It is oaed constantly for cases of actual or
8uq)ectM fracture or dislocation; for cases of congenital or acquired
|»
Fig. 16,— Cyaioaoope (Nitze's).
deformity: for cases involving difficulties of diagnosis b et we en a
swelling of the bone due to inffammation and a swelling due to a
tumour: and for obscure cases of spinal disease, hip disease and the
like. Moreover, it has been found possible, by Dr Hugh Walsham,
and odien to obtain pictures of the thorack organs that are a very
valuable guide in many obscurftcaaes of disease of the lungs or of the
pleura, and in many cases
of thorack aneurism or
of intra-thorack tumour. *
Every year the number ■
and the range of the cases
where the X-rays are
helpful for diagnosis and
for treatment |>ecome
greater; and it is impoe-
Bible to say at what point
the surgical value of this
discovery will find its
limits. Beyond these
uses, it is probable that
the X-rays will maintain
and extend the import-
ance that they already
have in the direct treat- I
ment of certain caaes of
disease of the skin (see ^ ,« .l rf • i • \ 1
X-RayTrkatmbnt). Fig- i7.---V'^'*"**^P*^ (Fenwick s). also
5. The EIrctric Light. "*^ ^^ **'» **<>*• throat, «c-
Beside the general superiority of this light to other lights for the
routine work of surgery, there are several special uses for it. Of
theses the most important is
the cystoxope, a long narrow
tube, shaped and curved
somewhat like a catheter,*
and having at its end a very
minute glow-larap and re-
flector, and a small window.
Its other end is fitted with
a lens, and is connected by
a switch with the main cur-
rent. With' this instrument,
in skilled hands, it is possible
to inspect the interior of the
bladder, and in many cases
to make an exact diagnosis
under circumstances where
otherwise it would be im-
possible. Another instance
of the value of the electric
Lamp in diagnosis is given by
the trans-illumination of the
facial bones in cases of sus-
pected disease of the central
cavity of the superior max-
illary bone. A small dow-
lamp b held in the closed
mouth, in a darkened room,
and by a comparison of the
shadows on the two rides of
the face, thus trans-illumin-
ated, an exact diagnosis cao
often be obtained as to the
presence or absence of pus in
this central cavity. Again,
a smalt glow-lamp, duly sterilized, is often of giep*^
operatKMis on the abdominal cavity.
The bactericidal properties of light have lom; b
by Bie and others. Professor Niels Finsen of Cop
the ultra-vklet rays of solar light in the treatmer
18.— Finsen-Reyn Lamp^
136
SURICATE— SURPLICE
ootebly of lupus. He later invented, the hnp whicli bean his
name. The original Finscn lamp compriaed a voltaic arc of 60 to
60 amperes round which four tubes collected the light by quaru
lenaes, the light being cooled by passing through water and the tubes
being surrounded by a water-jacket. The usual exposure was one
hour. In the Finsen-Reyn modification now used, a sinsle collect-
ing tube fitted on an adjustable stand is placed in front of a
sassors arc lamp consuming ao amperes. The rays are cooled and
water-jacketed as in the oris^. A suitable quartz compressor
with a chamber containing cuvulating water Is pressed upon the
skin of the part to be treated and held at rieht angles to the
impinipng rays. The time of exposure is now reduced to iorty-five
minutes.
Radium when used in surgery is applied by means of applicators,
either having the fixed salts on ^uare or oblong metallic plates or
cloths or by applicators having free radium in sealed metal tubes.
These tubes are sometimes buried in the tissues. Sometimes a
method of " screening " is adopted in order to modify the intensity
ot the radiation. This Is done by enveloping the tubes containing
Fig. 19. — Radium Applicators!,
the radium In. cases of ^Iver, lead or nickel of various thicknesses.
In this, known as the method of Dr Dominici, the a and p rays
are intercepted by the metal screens and the highly penetrative rays
only applied to the morbid tissues.
The illustrations in this article are by permission of Messrs Allen
& Hanbury, London, and that of tne radium applicators , by
permiiAion of Messrs Siemens Brothers, London.
SURICATE, or Meeiucat (Suricaid Ulradactyla), a small South
African mammal of the civet family, ranging from Cape Colony
to Algoa Bay. The head and body are about 14 in. long, and
the tail half as much; the fur is long and soft, light grizzled grey
in colour, and banded with black on the lower part of the back.
Meerkats are sociable animals, living in holes in the rocks on
the mountains, and burrowing in the sandy soil of the plains.
They form amiising pets, and in a wild state, writes Mrs A. Martin,
they feed chiefly on "succulent bulbs, which they scratch
up with the long, curved, black claws on their fore-feet. They
are devoted sun-worshippers and in the early morning, before
it is daylight, they emerge from their burrows and wait in rows
till their divinity appears, when they bask joyfully in his beams."
SURINAM TOAD {Pipa americana), an aglossal tailless
Batrachian, rendered famous by its mode of reproduction,
first observed in 17 10 by the Dutch anatomist F. Ruisch. It
inhabits South America east of the Andes and north of the
Amazons, and is thoroughly aquatic. In Its extremely flattened
head it is paralleled by two other vertebrates ocJy, which,
curiously, inhabit the same parts of South America, viz. the
Silurid £&h. Aspredo batrackus and the Chelonlan Chelys matamata;
the end of the snout and the angles of the jaws bear several
lappets, the fingers terminate in a star-shaped appendage,
the toes are very broadly webbed and the eyes are minute and
without lids.
The eggs are carried on the back by the mother, and the skin
thickens and grows round the eggs until each is enclosed in a
dermal cell, which is finally covered by a homy lid, believed to
be formed by a secretion of the skin < '
remains of the gelatinous capsule wh
the eggs. These, which may number
measure five to seven mHUmetrcs in di
within these pouches, and the young
condition, without a vestige of a tail,
the water, the male clasping the femal
way in which the eggs reach the back
observed in specimens kept in the Lon
During oviposition the cloaca projects fr
like pouch, which is inverted forwards,
female and the breast of the male, an
positor the eggs are evenly distributed over the whole back
How the eggs are fertilized has not been ascertained.
AtrrHORiTXBS. — G. Gr5nbcrg and A. von KUnckowstrfin, " Zur
Anatomie der Pipa americana/' Zool, Jakrb.. i4fMl vii. 609: A D.
Bartktt, " Note on the Breeding of Che Surinam Water Toad,"
Proc. Zool. Soc. (1896), p. 595.
SURMA, or Basak, a river of Assam, India. It is one of the
two chi^ rivers of the province, watering the southern valley as
the Brahmaputra waters the northern and larger valley. It
rises in the Barail range to the north of Manlpur, its sources
being among the southern spurs of Japvo. . Thence its course
is south with a slight westerly bearing, through the Man^)ur bills
to British territory. The name of Barak is given to the upper
part of the river, in Manipur and Cachar. A short distance
below Badarpur in Cachar it divides into two branches. One
of these, which passes Sylhet, is called Surma. The other is
called Kusiara till it subdivides into (a) a branch called Bibiana
or Kalni, which joins the Surma near Ajmiriganj, and (b) a
branch which resumes the name of Barak and joins the Suima
near Habiganj. At Bhairab Bazar in Mymensingh the Surma
imites with the old Brahmaputra and becomes known as the
Meghna. The river is navigable by steamers as far as Silcbar
in the rains. Total length about 560 m.
The Surma Vauxy and Hill Districts Division is a
division of the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It
includes the five districts of Sylhet Cachar, Lushai hills, Naga
hills, and Khasi and Jaintia hills, with a total area of 25,4^1
sq. m. and a population in xgoz of 3,084,527.
SURPLICE (Late Lat. superpdliceum; Fr. super, over, and
pellis, fur; Span, sohrepdlice; Fr. sttrplis; in Ital. coUa and
Ger. Chorrockt choir coat), a liturgical vestment of the CbrisUai
Church. It is a tunic of white linen or cotton material
with wide or moderately wide sleeves, reaching — according
to the Roman use — barely to the hips and elsewhere in Ihi
churches of the Roman communion to the knee It is usuall;
decorated with lace, but in modem times — ^in Germany at leas
— also with embroidered bordures. The surplice ori^naU
reached to the feet, but as early as the 13th century it began t
be shortened, though as late as the xsth century it still fell t!
the middle of the shin, and it was not till the X7th and iSv
centuries that it was considerably shortened. More drastic wei
other modifications which it underwent in course of time i
several localities, which led to the appearance of various sul
sidiary forms alongside of the original type. Such were tj
sleeveless surplice, which was provided at the sides with holes
put the arms through; the surplice with slit-up arms or lapp<
(so-called " wings ") instead of sleeves; the surplice of which t
only the sleeves but the body of the garment itself were s
up the sides, precisely like the modem dalmatic; and, final
a sort of surplice in the form of a beD-shaped mantle, will
hole for the head, which necessitated the arms being st«
out under the hem. The first two of these forms were v,
early developed; and, in spite o! their prohibition by syn
here and there {e.g. that of Li6ge in 1287), theysurvivefn vari
places to. the present day. The latter two only appeared ai
the close of the middle ages; the first of them in South Germa
the second more especially in Venetia, where its use is at tea
by numerous pictorial records. As a rule, however, tl
subsidiary forms of surplice were Worn mostly by the lei
I clergy. They were the result partly of the influence of
irticuiariy of consideration
testes sacrae, though it reqj
lU clerics, even to those who \
bishop himself vesting wil|
surcd by him. Its use in di
rn in choir at the solemn o£|
be lower dergy in their iitufj
it when administering the si
IS, and the like; the use o^
cdusivcly confined to the i
this. In general it may b^
/ SURRENDER— «URRENTUM
137
tbttUi tu, ib all naitt ptftticuUrt, ihe<iittoin m early as the
j^ceatuiy.
The oUer Uftoiy of the surplice is obscured by lack of eiaa
ttfonutjoii. lu same is derived, as Durandus and Geriand
also affinn, bom the fact that it was formerly put on over the fur
pmeDts which used to be worn in church and at divine service
a I protection against the cold. It has been maintained that
t^ nipiioe was known in the sth oentuiy, the evidence being
Ik pnacats worn by the two clerics in attendance on Bishop
Muimiaa represented in the moaaics of S. Vitale at Ravenna;
ia this case, however, the dahnattc has been confusrd with the
wpftce. In all probability the surplice is 00 mote than an
opaoMa of the ordinary liturgiiAl a)b, due to the necessity
far veuing it over thick furs. It is first mentioned in the nth
aotuy, 'm a canon of the synod of Coyaca in Spain (1050) and
iftiaerdinaaoe of King Edward the Confessor. In Rone it was
kaovQ at least as early aa the z sth century. It probably origi-
Mied outside Rome, and wss imported thence into tho Romaa
OK. OrigibaUy only a choir vestment and peculiar to lower
door, it gridttally— certainly no later than the 13th century
-ttphced the alb as the vestment proper to the administering
«( Utt ncraments and other sacerdotal functions.
In Uie Oriental rites therp ii no surplice, nor any analogous
fCRstenL Of the non-Roman Churches in the West the sor-
?ice has continued in regular use only in the Lutheran churches
•( Deanark, Norway and Sweden, and in the Church of England
'« below). (J. Baa.)
CitrU 4/ EHifMd,—The surpHce was prescribed by the
uxad Prayer-Book of Edward VI., as, with the tippet or the
tcadeaical hood, the sole vestment of the minister of the
iarcft at " ail times of their ministration," the rochet being
oadically regarded as the episcopal suiplice. Its use was
isumly assailed by the extremer Reformers but, in spite of
<har efforts, was retained by Elisabeth's Act of Uniformity,
ud cofoteed by the advertisements and injunctions issued
Bder her authority, which ordered the *' massing vestments "
'i&asables, albs, stoles and the like— to be destroyed. It has
«ace fonained. with the exception otf the cope (f .«.)» the sole
^mait autbofised by law for the ministers, other than
:«hnpa, of the Church of England (for the question of the vcst«
Kita pfcscribed by the " Ornaments Rubric " see Vestments).
Its Qse has never been confined to clerks in holy orders, and it
te hcen worn since the Reformation by all the " ministers "
>-'«&« vkar»<faoral and choristers) of cathedral and colle>
'■ue chutches, as well as by the fcUows and scholars of colleges
"> viapcL The distinctive msrk of the clergy (at least of the
SRC dignified) has been the tippet or scarf above mentioned, a
a«d band of black silk worn stole-wise, but not to be confused
v^ Ike stole, since it has no liturgical significance and was
33!iD4fly so flwce thsn part of the clerical outdoor dress (see
^^•J). The swiplioe was formerly only worn by the dersy
ntt Goodoctiac the service, being exchanged during the sermon
.f fihr ''black gawn,"-ijf, either a Geneva gown or the gown
iu aoudemicnl degree. This custom has, however, as a result
* *^ High Gkurdi movement, fallen almost completely dbeoleCe.
iV *bhck gown,*' Gonsklered wrongly as the ensign of
^v Omrdi views* survives in comparatively few of even
iugeikal " churches; it is still, however, the custom for
of univcfsity sermons to wear the gown of their
Tbe tnditsMinl form of the surplice in the Church 01 England
■ 'to vjncb survived from pre^Reformation tiniea, vis. a wide-
>B«^ very fiall, plain, white linen tonic, pleated from the yoke,
«d fttdnc almost, or quite, to the feet. Towards the end
[ '&t tTih ceotsify* «hen Urge wigs came into fashion, it came
hrasveakaoe Co be constructed gown-wise, open down the
^«ad inrft**"*^ «t tbe neck, a fashion which still partially
a o Ub i j T *^ ^^ universities. In general, however, the
ig under continental influence, to curtail its
ajqple vestment with beautiful falling folds
Ib CMigr ^urches given place to a scanty, unpleated
to the knee. In the more *' extreme "
chordies the surplices are fiank iaftatfens of the
««o. (W. A. P.)
BURREVDEB* In hiw, a mode of alienation of real estate.
It is defined by Lord Cdce to be " the yieUing up of an estate for
life or years to him that hath an immirfiale estate in revendon
or remainder " (Coke upon Littleton, 337 b). It b the converse
of release, wUch is a conveyance by the reversioner or remainder-
man to the teiumt of the particular estate. A surrender is
the nsual means of effecting the alienatmn of copyholds. The
surrender is made to the lord, who grants admittance to the
purchaser, an entry of the surrenda and admittance being
made upon the court rolls. Formerly a devise of copyholds
coukl only have been made by surrender to the use of the
testotor'a will foUowed by admittance of the devisee. The
Wills Act of 1837 now aUows the devisee of copyholds without
surrender, though admittance of the devisee is still necessary.
A surrender must, sinoe the Real Property Act 1845, be by deed,
except in the case of copyholds snd of surrender by operation
of law. Surrender of the latter kind generally takes pbux by
merger, that Is, the combination of the greater and less estate
by descent or other means without the act of the party (see
Remaindeb). In ScoU law surrender in the case of a lease
is represented by renunciation. The nearest approach to
surrender of a copyhold is resignation in remanentiam (to the
lord) or resignation M/osfffMi (to a purchaser). These modes of
conveyance were practically superseded by the simpler fonns
introduce d by t he Conviqrancing Act 1874.
SURRENTtm (mod. Sorrento, q.v.), an ancient town of
Campania, Italy, situated on the N. side of the promontory
which forms the S.E. extremity of the Bsy of Naples. The
legends indicate a dose connexion between Lipara and Surrentum,
as though the latter had been a colony of the former; and even
throu£^ the Imperial period Surrentum remained largely Greek.
Before the Ronmn supremacy it was one of the towns subject to
Nuceria, and shared its fortunes up to the Social War; it seems
to have joined in the revolt of 90 B.C. like Subiae; and was
reduced to obedience in the following year, when it seems to have
received a colony. Its prosperity dates from the imperial period,
when Capieae was a favourite residence of Augustus and Tiberius.
Numerous sepulchral inscriptions of Imperial slaves and frecdmen
have been found at Surrentum. An inscription shows that Titus
in the year after the earthquake of a.d. 79 restored the koroiogiuM
of the town and its architectural decoration. A similar restora-
tion of an unknown building in Naples in the same year is
recorded hi an Inscription from the last-named town (cL A.
Sogliano in Notkie dogli 5covf , igor , p. 363). The most important
temples of Surrentum were those of Athena and of the Sirens
(the latter the only one in the Greek world in historic times);
the former gave its name to the pnmontory. In antiquity
Surrentum was famous for its wine (oranges and lemons which are
now so much cultivated there not having been introduced into
Italy in antiquity), its fish, and its red Campanian vases; the
discovery of coins of Msssilia, Gaul and the Balearic Islands here
indicates the extensive trade which it carried on. The position
of Surrentum waa very secure, it being protected by deep gorges,
except for a distance of 300 yds. on the south-west where it was
defended by wslls, the line of which is necessarily followed
by those of the modem town. The arrangement of the modem
streets preserves that of the andent town, and the dispositjon
of the walled paths which divide the plsin to the east seems to
date in like manner from Roman times. No ruins are now pre-
served In the town Itself, but there are many remains in the villa
quarter to the east of thartown on tfie road to Subiae,of which
traces still exist, lunning much higher than the modem road,
across the mountshi; 'the site of one of the hugest (possibly
belonging to the Imperisl house) is now occupied l^ the Hotel
Victoria, under the terrace of which a small theatre was found
in 1855; an andent rock-cut tunnel descends hence to the shore.
Rqnains of other villas may be seen, but the mr-'"^"* ■"•■-*
ruin is the reservoir of the (subterranean) aqued*
the town on the east, which had no leas th;
chambers each about 90 ft. by ao ft. Greek a
I4X>
SURREY
whkli aln appetr in isoUt«d MtchM at Headky near L«aUNrlMad :
and the Thaoet Saads at the base crop out between Beddington,
Banstcad and Lealhcrhea^. The north-western nortion of the
cotinty, covered chiefly by heath and Scotch fir, oclonn to the
Upper Eocene. Bagshot Sands: the Fox hills and the bleak Chobham
Ridges are formed of the upper series of the group, which rests upon
the middle beds occupying the greater part of uagshot Heath and
Bislcy and Pirbright commons, while eastwards the commons of
Chobham, Woking and Esher belong to the k)wer division of the
group. To the south of the Eocene formations the smooth rounded
outlines of the chalk hills extend through the centre of the county
ieom Famham to Westerham (Kent). From Farnham to Guildford
they form a narrow ridge called the Hog's Back, about haH a mile
in breadth with a higher northern dip. the greatest elevation reached
In this section being 50S ft. East of Gmldford the northern dip
decreases and the outcrop widens, throwing out picturesque
summits, froQuently partly wooded, and commanding wide and
beautiful views over the Weald. The Upper Greensand, locally
known as firestone, and quarried and mined Cor this purpose and
for hearthstone near Goastone, crops out underneath the Chalk
along the southern escarpment of the Downs. The Gault. a dark
blue sandy day, rests beneath the Upper Greensand in the bottom
of the long narrow valley which separates the chalk Downs from the
w<^l-marMd Lower Greensand hills. The Lower Greensand includes
the subordinate divisions known as the Folkestone Sands, exploited
aear Godstone for oommerdat purposes; the Sandgate beds, to which
the wdl'known fuller's earth of Nutfickl bdongs, and the Hythe
beds, which contain the Kenti&h Rag, a sandy guuconitic limestone
used for road repairs and buikiing; also a hard. conek>mcnitic phase
of this series k>cally called Bargate stone. To thb lormation beloi^
the heights of Leith Hill. Hindhcad and the Devil's PunchbowH
Holmbury Hill. Between the Lower Greensand and the Weald
Clay is a narrow inconspicuous belt of Atherficld Clay. The Weald
Clay itsdf consists of a blue or brown shajy dav, amid which are
deposited river shells, plants of tropical origin ana reptilian remains.
The lower portion of the Weaklen series, the Hastings Sands, occupy
a small area in the south-eastern corner of the county. Bordering
the Thames there are terraced deposits of gxavd and loam.
Africidturt. — Between one-half and three- fifths of the area of the
county, a k>w {voportbn, is under cultivation, and of this about
five-mnths is in permanent pasture. There are considerable
varieties of soil, rangii^ from plastic day to calcareoua earth and
bare rocky heath. The plastk clay is well adapted for wheat, but
oats are the most largdy ipiwn of the decreasing grain crops. A
conaderable area is occupod by market ^rdens on the alluvial
•oil along the banks of the Thames, especially in the vicinity of
London. In eariy timee the market garoeners were Flemings, who
introduced the culture of asparagns at Battersea and of carrots at
Chertsey. Rhododendrons and azaleas are largdjr grown in the
north-western district of the county. In the neighbourhood of
Mitcham various medicinal plants are cultivated, sudi as lavender,
mint, camomile, anise, rosemary, liquorice, hyssop. &c. The
calcareous soil in the neiighbourhood of FamAiam is well adapted for
hops, but this crop in Surrey is of minor importance. There is a
large area under wood. Oak, chestnut, walnut, ash and dm are
extensively pkinted ; alder and willow plantations are Common ; and
the Scotcti fir propagates natursilly from seed on the commons in
the north-west. The extent of pasture land ia not great, with the
excepttoa of the Downs, whkh are chiefly occupied as sheep-runs.
Dairyt-farmin^ is a more important industry tnan cattle-feeding,
large quantities of milk bdn^ sent to London.
Mani^actures and Communtcaiions, — ^The more important manu-
factures are chiefly confined to London and its immediate ndghbour-
hood. The rivers Mple ana Wandle, however, supply power for a
variety of manufactures, such as oil^ paper and sheet-iron mills.
Communications indudc the navigation of the Thames and Wey,
and the Basingstoke canal, communicatmg with the Wey from
Frimley and Woking. Owing to Its pcmdnHty to London the ooimty
is served by many hnes of railway, the corawurioi being the London
& South-western, the London Brighton a South Coast and the
South-Eastem & Chatham.
Population and Administration.— The area of "the ancient county
b 485,12a acres, with a population in 1901 of 2,012.744. The
population in 1801 was 368.233, and in 1851, 683,082; and it nearly
doubled between 1871 and 1901. Under the provisions of the Local
Government Act 1888, part of the county was transferred to the
county of London. Thus the area of the ancient county, extra-
metropolitan, is 461,5)99 acres, with a population in 1961 of 675,774.
The area of the administrative county is 461 ,807 acres* The county
contains la hundreds. Croydon (pop. yi.805)^ is a county borough,
and the otner munidpal boiroBKhs are Godalming (8748). Guildford
(i^»^38), Kingston (34475). Kcigate (25.993). Richmond (31.672).
Wimbledon (41.652). The following are urban districts: Barnes
(17.821), Carshalton (6746), Caterham (9486), Chertsey (M«76a),
Dork&ig (7670). East and West I''* — -^^---^ ^'^— ^- -"-^
Epsom (10.915), Esher and The 1
Frimley (8409), Ham (1460). Le
and Coombs (6233), Surbiton (i<
on-Thames (10,329), Wey bridge (
are sU parliamentary division*— North Western or Chertsey, Mid or
Epsom, Kingston, North Eastern or Wimbledon. South Eastern
or Reigate, South Western or Guildford ; each returning one member
The borough of Croydon returns one member. Surrey is in the
south-eastern dioiit, and assizes arehdd at Guikiford and Kingston
alternately. The administrative county has one court of quarter
sessions, and b divided into eleven petty sessional divisions. The
borou^s of Croydon, Godalming, Guildford, Kingston, Reigate
and Richmond have separate commissions of the peace, and Croydon
and Guildford have in addition separate courts of quarter sessioas.
The central criminal court has jurisdiction over certain parishes
adjacent to London, All those dvil parishes within the county of
Surrey, of which any part is within 1 a m. of, or of which no part is
more than 15 m. from. Charing Cross, are in the fnetro[x>litan
police dUtrict. The total number of dvil parishes b 14A. The
ancient county contains 230 ecclesiastical parishes or districts.
wholly or in part situated in the dioceses of Rochester, Winchester,
Canterbury, Oxford and Chichester.
History.— Tht early hbtory of this district is somewhat un-
certain. Ethdwerd^ in the Anglo-Saxon Chronide for 823, places
it in the "Medii Angli" or "Medii Saxones." Its posiiioti
between the Weald and the Thames dedded its northern and
southern borders, and the Kentish boundary probably dates
from the battle of Wibbandune between Elhclbcrt of Kent and
Ceawlin of Wessex, which traditionaUy took place at Wimbledon,
though thb is disputed. The western border, like the southern,
was a wild uncultivated district; no settled boundary probably
exbting at the time of the Domesday Survey. The numbci
of hundreds at that time was fourteen as now, but the hundred
of Famham was not so called, the lands of the bishop of Win-
chester being placed in no hundred, but coindding ^ith the
present hundred of that name. There b no record of Surre>' evci
having been in any diocese but Winchester, of which it was ar
archdeaconry in the X2th century. At the time of the Domesda)
Survey there were four deaneries: Croydon, Southwark, Guild
ford and EwdL Croydon was a peculiar of (Canterbury, in whicl
diocese it was induded in 1291. In the time of Henry VIII.
Croydon was comprehended in the deanery of Ewell, some of it
rectories being included in the deanery of Southwark. The oV
deanery of Guildford was included in the modem one of Stok<
In 1877, Southwark, with some parishes, was transferred to l^
diocese of Rochester. In the 7th century Surrey was under th
overlordship of Wulfhere, king of Merda, who founded Chertse
abbey, but in 823, when the Mercians were defeated by Egbei
of Wesscx, it was induded in the kingdom of Wessex, as tl:
Anglo-Saxon Clironicle relates.
Surrey was constantly overrun by Danish hordes in the ^\
century and until peace was establbhed by the accession
Canute. In 857 a great national viaory over the Dajies toe
place at Ockley near Leith Hill. Surrey is not of great historic
importance, except its northern border, the southern pa
having been forest and waste land, long uninhabited and almc
impassable for an army. Guildford, fiioogh the county tow
and often the seat of the court under John and Henry III., ^
of little importance beside Southwark, the centre of trade al
commerce, the residence of many ecdeslastical dignitaries,
frequent point of attack on London, aad a ceatn for rebellk
and riots. The Norman army tiaversed and lavaged the coui
in their march on London, a htrge portion of The county havi
been in the hands of Edward and Harold, fell to the share
William himself; hb most important tenants in chief being C
of Bayetix and Richard dt Tonebridge, son of Count Ctitx
afterwards " de Clare." The dnirch also had large possessil
in the county, the abbey of Chertsey being the largest nnona
house. Besides these private jurisdictions, there were the b
royal porks and forests, with their spedal jurisdiction. '
shire court was almost certainty held at Gttildftm)^ vrhere
gaol for both Sussex and Surrey was from as early as 1202 u
1487, when Sussex bad its own gaol at Lcwea. The housei
Warenne and de Clare were long the two great rival influence
the county; thdr seats at Reigate and Blechingley bein|^ rci
* " " ' ^ i time of Edward I. till the Rcf
the time of the Barons* Wars t
ire marching with Montfort, ami
. In the Peasants' Ri&ins oi r
SURROGATE— SURTEES, R.
ud duriog Jack Ca4e's Rebellion in the next century, Southwark
ns iavaded, the prisons broken open and the bridge into
Loodon croased. London was unsucccssfnlly attacked from the
Surrey side in the Wars of the Roses; and was held for three days
^ pillaged during a rising of the southern counties under
Muy. During the fears of invasions from Spain, levies were
bdd ia readiness in Surrey to protect London; and it was an even
Bore inportant bulwark of London in the Civil War, on account
d (be powder mills at Chilworth and the cannon foundries of
tie WeaM. In common with the south-eastern district generally,
Sumy «-as pariiamentarian in its sympathies. Sir Richard
Osihw and Sir Poynings More were the most prominent local
lodm. Famham Castle and Kingston, with its bridge, were
stretaJ times taken and held during the war by the opposing
l&TuOj and in the later part of the war, when the parliament and
ray vere treating, three of the line of forts defending London
n» 00 the Surrey side, from which the army entered London.
Tie last serious skirmish south of the Thames took place near
£vdl and Kingston, where the earl of Holland and a body of the
%ali&ts were routed. This was the last real fighting in the
aunty, though it was often a centre of riots; the most serious
iuai those of 1830, and of the Chartists in X84S, who chose
Kmioiton Common as their meeting-place. ', The Mores of
Loseey and the Onalows were among the most famous county
iixl!ae& under the Tudors, as at the time of the Civil War; the
Oa&o-vs being even better known later in the person, of Sir
.In hex OQsk>w, Speaker of the House under George L _^
The earliest industries in Surrey were agricultural^ The
£S)c qtiairies of Limpsfield and the chalk of the Downs were
^j used, the latter chiefly for lime-making. Fuller's earth
12} obuiixtd from Reigate and Nutfield; and the. f acuities
licded by many small streams, and the excellent sheep pasture,
^-^ it ol importance in the manufacture of cloth, oi which
C Jdfoid was a centre. Glass and iron were made in the Weald
i^xt, whose forests produced the necessary charcoal for
trcluog. Chiddingfold ia mentioned in 1266 for its glass-
^^^^>^ and was one of the chief glass-producing districts in
^ Tudor times. The ironworks of Surrey were of less impor-
«-*:£, and much later in development than those of Kent and
^'^£0, owing to the want of good roads or waterways, but the
-jKaacg demaod for ordnance in the i6th century led to the
c>^d of the industry northward; the most conaiderable works in
"^^^ being those of Viscount Montague at Haslemere. Chil-
K. A which was famous for its powder mills in the 16th century,
^!=-Qs a seat of the industry. Southwark and its neighbour-.
^^ oriy became a suburb of London and a centre of trades
v^ were crowded out «f London. The earliest Delft ware
tucfictocy ia En^and was at Lambeth, which maintains its
^^ u a ceacre of earthenware manufacture. The beautiful
'>Z2Bbctiiesaf Cheitaey Abbey art thought to have been made
' ^y < h nrnfi n it rt '^ "^ ****^ ^'^"" *bi> t 5th c^ntiiry- Although
•^ cooaty w«s doubtless represented in the representative
-ocj d the veign of Henry III., the first extant returns of
**» flag^ d the ature axe for the padiament of 1390.- The
^■^«B BOl of XB54 gsve Surrey four members; dividing the
^=^ into emat and west divistoos. Several boroughs were
^^^rrd t^en and in 1867, when East Surrey was again
^"^ftd into cast and and diviaionfl, en account of the growth of
-^^^ anbarba^ two more members beiiig added at the aame
^ la xftss sU old boroughs and divisions were superseded;
« oKLty K#^p| f divided into the electoral divisions of Chertsey,
S^Jurd, Prfg*»^, Epsom, Kingston and Wimbledon, each
^B^ ocke mcs&ber. Finally, in 1888, the new county of
^^■^ "^r***^ laTge portions of Surrey along the northern
_ — *J%t only ecclesiastical ruins worthy of special
oa'liha picturesque walls ol Newark Priory, near
lor Augustbuans in the time of Richard Coeur
Bapfy Engfiish crypt and part of the refectory
' , the earliest house of the Cistercians in
dl^t The church architecture is of a very
peculiaily ^ledal features. Among the
i+i
more interesting churches are Albury (the old church), near
Guildford, the tower of which is of Saxon or very eariy Norman
date; Beddington, a fine example of Perpendicular, containing
monuments of the Carew family; Chaldon, remarkable for its
fresco wall-paintings of the zath century, discovered during
restoration in 1870; Compton, which, though mentioned in
Domesday, possesses little of iu original architecture, but »
worthy of notice for its two-storeyed chancel and its carved
wooden balustrade surmounting the pointed transitional Norman
arch which separates the nave from the chancel; Leigh, Perpen-
dicular, possessing some very fine brasses of the 15th century;
Lingfield, Perpendicular, containing ancient tombs and brasses
of the Cobhams, and some fine stalls (the church was formerly
collegiate); Ockham, chiefly Decorated, with a lofty embattled
tower, containing the mausoleum of Lord Chancellor King
(d. X734), with full-length sUtue of the chancellor by Rysbcack ;
Stoke d'Abemeo, Early English, with the earliest extant E^siish
brass, that of Sir John d'Abemon, 1277, and other fine examples.
Churches at Guildford, Reigate and Woking are also noteworthy.
Of old castles the only examples are Farnham,' occupied as a
palace by the bishops of Winchester, originally built by Henry
of Blois, and restored by Henxy IU.; and Guildford, with a
strong quadrangular Norman keep. Of ancient domestic
architecture rxamples include Beddington Hall (now a female
orphan asylum), the ancient mansion of the Carews, rebuilt in the
reign of Queen Anne, and in modem times, but retaining the
hall of the Elizabethan building; Crowhurst Place, built ia the
time of Henry VII., the ancient seat' of the Gaynesfords, and
frequently visited by Henry VUI.; portions of Croydon Palace,
an ancient seat of the archbishops of Canterbury; the gate tower
of Esher Place, built by William of Waynflete, bishop of Win-
chester, and repaired by Cardinal Wolsey; Archbishop Abbot's
hospital, Guildford, in the Tudor style; the fine Elizabethan
house of Loseley near Guildford; Smallfield Place near ReigaU,
now a farmhouse, once the seat of Sir Edward Bysshe (c. 16x5-
1679), garter king-at-arms; Sutton Place near Woking, dating
from the time of Henry VIII., possessing curious mouldings and
ornaments in terra-cotU; and Ham House, of red brick, dating
from 1610. ".
'tology 0/ Ou Wtald and' Whitalcer's (Teofofy ef
Li rming part of the Memoirs of CtKiiopad Survey
I (London, 1875): J. Aubrey, Natarai HisUtry and
rrey (5 vol*., London, 1718-1710): D. Lymm,
m (5 vols., London, i8oo-i8it): Baocter, iMme^
y (1876); O. Manning and W. Bray, History •nd
'ey (3 vols., London. 1804-1814); E. W. Bravley,
story 1^ Surrey (5 vol*., London, |84i'l848;;
eviaed by E. Walfbrd (London, 1878); Arehae^-
(Suney Aichaeotoncal Society; London, from
cr, Bif/npays and byways ta Surrey (London,
8URR00ATB (from Lat. surrogare, to substitute for), a deputy
of a bishop or an ecclesiastical judge, acting in the absence of his
principal and strictly bound by the. authority of the btter.
Canon 128 of the canons of 1603 lays down the qualifications
necesaaxy for the office of surrogate and canon x 23 the regulations
for the appointment to the office. At present the chief duty of a
surrogate in England is the granting of marriage licences, but
judgments of the arches court of Canterbury have been delivered
by a surrogate in the absence of the official principal. The office
is unknown in Scotland, but is of some importance in the
United Sutes as denoting the judge to whom the jurisdiction of
the probate of wills, the grant of administration and of guardian-
ship is confided. In some states he is termed surrogate, ia others
judge of probate, register, judge of the orphans' court, &c. His
jurisdi ction is local, being limited to his county.
SURTEES. ROBERT (17 79-1834), English antiquary and
topographical historian,' was the son of Robert Surtees of
Mainsforth, Durham. He ^ras educated at Christ Church,
Oxford, and after studying law without being called to the bar
he settled on the family esUte at Mainsforth, whJ'-*^
on his father's death in 1803, and where he lived
the rest of his Ufc, devoting himself to the stud)
ties and collecting materials for his History o
d6
A
r.
ac
X908}.
142
book WM imblithed In (ouf volumes, the first of which appeared
tn i8t6, and the last in 1840, after the author's death. The work
contains a large amount of genealogical and antiquarian infor-
mation; it is written in a readable style, and Its learning is
enlivened by humour. Surtees had also a gift for ballad writing,
and he was so successful in imitating the style of old ballads
that he managed to deceive Sir Walter Scott .himself, who
gave a place in his Mitulrelsy of the Scottish Border to a piece by
Surtees called " The Death of Featherstonehaugh," under the
impression that ft was ancient. Surtees, who in 1807 married
Anne Robinson, died at Mainsforth on the nth of February
1834. As A memorial of him the "Surtees Society" was
founded in 1834 for the purpose of publishing ancient unedited
manusczipts bearing on the history of the border country.
See G. Tkylor. Mtmcir tf Robert Surteeft with additions' by
J. Raiae (Surtees Society, London, 185a).
nratm, ROBBRT sum (1803-1 864)/ English novelist
and sporting writer, was the second son of Anthony Surtees of
Hamsteiley Hall, a member of an old Durham family. Educated
to be a solicitor, Surtees soon began to contribute to the Spirting
JfafttsiM, and in 1831 he published a treatise on the law relating
to hones and particulariy the law of warranty, entitled The
Horsewtam*t Jf OfiiMrf. In the following year he helped to found
the New SpoHmg Vac<tsM«, of which he was the editor for the
next five yeaxa. To this periodical he contributed between
183s and 1834 the papers which were afterwards collected and
publbhcd in 1838 as Joefcks's JauiOs vti JoUHies, This
humorous nanative of the sporting experiences of a cockney
grocer, which suggested the more famous Fkkwick Papers of
Charks Dickens, is the work by which Surtees is chiefly ve-
BMmbexcd, though his tto\*el H9tiMey Cross, published in X&43,
in which the character of ** Jorrocks " is reintroduced as a master
of fox>hottnds, also enjoyed a wide popularity. The former of
theae two books was illustrated by **Phis** (H. K. Browne),
and the latter, as well as most of Surte«s*s subsequent no%*cls,
by JcAn Lfcch, whoee pictures of " Jonv)cks " are everywhere
familiar and were the chief means of ensuring the lasting popu<
brity of that huaotous creation. In 1838, on the death of his
father. Surtees, whose ekier brother had died in 1831 « inherited
the family property of Hamsterley Hall, where he liN^ed for the
rest of hi$ U(e. The later aovds by Suxtcei included Huiimfiim
H^ (184 5>, M whkh **Joirocks" afmin appears; H«ra4Mi
Ormitt {tM*^l Ur Sfs*mf4's Speriini r<mr (1853^; Ask ifMMM
(1855^; tijtm *e JC»<i:. tj/ O^S^'^i ^^ F^^ R.^wf^rJ's Himmis
(tS6.0. The ksl M Xhat no\<:l& appealed after the author*s
<kaih, whk-h CHXumcxi on the lOth of March iS04^ In 1S41 he
■urried lJ.£&b<^ 1aiH\ dAughttr of AddiMa Feawkk oC Bishop-
«««rmocth. by whvvn he had coe son aad two dAU|:hter$« the
yottsfer o< «hv%R\. t:o.inv>r. in 1^5 ourrkd John IV^dcrgast
Vcnker. atterwarus sth \ so^unt iVvt.
See R S. SerttrHt, /•— aK«V .'w-c. .-W .'^TVi* ^T-^wka, lScv»\
cvetair.-^ a bvx-A >v.-i r^ -N^r « :Np *. ."^.v; W P. Fr;>
SURTEES, R. S.— SURVEYING
v4 \vi«N, ^M^kA..^^ i;Nv»-A;b^>..
ti>c ttv-^vvi! t«ta fcT t!>e art cf dv'tfrr.-v.Cr^
ihr pvtsuoa ot pKcr.-r«i jvxst* *>J c^:*^or c^^^-r? cs ib< s^iricc
of the fToctsd. ;or ibe pcTpcwt « aMkv tVrr:r.>aa a ^■Ai^i*:
Kpn5«s:a£ua ct ibe xnrA stnv>Td l>c prrvn iv-..— \> ctt
vijch scrrrys are cori;:.i.>i arsi r. Ap* x-.-r->;^ -.rv^ s, x ii o-it*
are in all :=ka»ces the sxrr, crr.A-r -rc-'v-.-v* r
grooBd. and oorre^'cci.r^: oci>^rvtj *-f -v.vris
vhatcver sciJc oay be a ojctt-- v.-. '.-i* .v^a <v N- tw:^-x1 j<:xV
Jht ■eihod Of ^nx^^T;^: v^-v» » .>. :V rv- ...v v>5 :i<«
sorvTV, which may ecSrsce as <t— -c ^e ^- "v^stc; a >:-ir ;voj
of had. All snntry* rest p«ax~:i> ctt > -r^; WltAs;.^v«^c«;$
far the diica drteraiaatkA ^ ^kfcaaors^ bi.: Va<«r mc&isTe^
nent is often a«wfc»e«t«d Vr a«p^ »<*asct«r-i w^'vk
enables distances to be ihtfiBMtfJ ^ fc2*:^;fci « ^'«^.-'^
over areas winch can** be LMaTWiwur^ »«ae>i A?tv-^.
such, for instance, as hily «r hnftxni ■*■■&. TV^arwr
of the «iiv«y detiflMis am tke |n«r 'w* «■*
angular measures bear to one another and is almost dwsys a
combination of both.
History. — ^The art of surveying, i.e. the primary art of map-
making from linear measurements, has no historical beginning.
The first rude attempts at the representation of natural and
artificial features on a ground plan based on actual measurements
of which any record is obtainable were those of the Romans, who
certainly made use of an instrument not unlike the plane-table
for dctermijiing the alignment of their roads. Instruments
adapted to surveying purposes were in use many centuries earlier
than the Roman period. The Greeks used a form of log line for
recording the distances run from point to point along the coast
whilst making their slow voyage from the Indus to die Persian
Gulf three centuries B.C. ; and it is improbable that the adaptation
of this form of linear measurement was confined to the sea alone.
Still earlier (as early as 1600 B.c) it is said that the Chinese
knew the value of the loadstone and possessed some form of
magnetic compass. But there is no record of their methods of
linear measurements, or that the distanrrs and an^es measured
were applied to the purpose of map-making (see Cokpass and
Map). The earliest maps of whi(^-we have any record were
based on inaccurate astronomical determinations, and it was
not till medieval times, when the Arabs made use of the Astrolabe
(9.*.), that nautical surveying (the earliest form of the art) could
really be said to begin. In 1450 the Arabs were acquainted with
the use of the compass, and could make charts of the coast-line
of those countries whidi they visited. In 1498 Vaaco da Gamn
saw a chart of the coast-line of India, which was diown him by a
Gujarat!, and there can be fittle doubt that he benefited largely
by information obtained from diarts whkh were of the nature
of practical coast surveys. Hie begiiming of land surveying
(apart from small plan-making) was probably coincident with the
earliest attempts to discover the sixe and figure of the earth
by means of exact measurements) ue, with the inauguration of
geodesy (see Geoocst and Easts, FictntK of mz), which i&
the fundamental basis of all scientific .surveying.
Ctxssii<alioiu — For convenience of reference surveying may
be considered under the following heads— involving very distinct
branches of the art dependent on <fifferent methods aad instr«>
meats': —
K Cirod<^ic triangulatMn. S Traversing, and fiscal or revenue
a. Lc\x-'Un^. aoryeysL
■ 3. Tof>osTtic>hkal aoffveys. 6. Nautical wrvcys.
4> GcognpUcal anvcya.
I. Gkqbbik TkuwdnAuaH
Geodesy, as aa abstna wimfe doafag ponarily with the
dimensions and figure of the earth. May be foimdfnliydiacuaacd
in the artkks Gcoobsy amd Eaam, Fteaut or xbe; bat, ats
: faiwshiog the basis for the oaaatnKboB of the first frnaewoKk of
1 trianpiUiMD OK whkh all further awcfsdapcad (whkh voiy be
descntied as its seoood hut Bost iiwitfal faaction), geodaAj
B an integral put of the ait of — w ej r h ig , and hs reinthna to
subM^queat prxcsaes requires acpaiMc c—wklrT i ti oa. The part
I wh^ck geodeijc tinngclatiea pb^s an the tEncnl aDrveyn of
o\-iun^ cnoBtixs wiixh icqaire dsrely
torai$ ot flMpnnfr :« hi&stnte thcar phyacat
pvvitKal «r nscAl pai^oaca is best
scat <v«Bp;««d s\-sc<« whach has ahiaiilj
_«>rtralaigeavm. Ihatoiift.tnwilaen«nsa
TV jTPAt tTU-jc-JsT>.\r, c< t-^Ta w»& «t ks aaccptieB. calcolated
^^ *s? v\ tSr m;. t--v -^* .•< $cv>5mt «s «cfi as geomphy. tirraiiM^
thf U:'i»kV» Av! '...v:^>»ijM <tf tJh* poiarcs of the liiai^Mlatwn
k»c ^.o Sc oc.<-.>M*.'xM KY :«;«< RCtawe br aamm el ^'^w-^J^*^^
.V V- < ti».* :\-, .-^ oc :W tru.tjf--j.:v« vtU the ■*^»*^t^ of the
.Ni->^.>j;-^ TV Urrrr «««T xw< :£R k»o«« wkh BMch accuracy.
•.V ^- -x' c«vvVw- .vy.-A:v«s kaf ti«M sHaailycaevied oa m Earope.
*»4 *Jk» svvojiJ 4«vn:v-«f smmt tT '
TV T-^T^^ vtt :V oe-;-x'
caw- aaa clmcbwa K ti aw Vw m
«n»«^l««Ctll'
(SDDEnC TRMNCUL&TiaMI
SURVEYING
*43
to fanii a geodcdc aic» with the addition o£
/ detaranned iatitiada at ceruin of the BUtiooa. The
boMioM were nieMUicd with chains and thn imncjpal
angles with a %-it. tfaeodolitek The aKoab were cainm
. of staaca or pdea. The chains weie aomeadiat rude and
rT^" their units ol length had not been detennined originaUy.
"^ and ooohS not be afterwards ascertained. The results
wre good of their kind and sufficient for nognqshicaL pur>
pocs: but the central meridional are-^the "^gnat arc" — was
'-' inaclequate for geodetic ' requirements. A
I oquipment was introduced, with an i m proved
Fig. I.
v'ius •ptvcmdi, under the direction of Colonel Sir G. Everest in
ity. The network system of triangulation was superseded by
■ tnrfiiwi a l and longttudinal- chains taking the form of gridirons
Md refine on base-lines at the angles oT the gridirons, as repie-
oted ia hf. i. For convenience of reductbn and nomenclature
'he tmngotttioo west of meridian 9a* E. has been divided into
i«v secdona— the lowest a trigon, the other four quadrilaterals
£'«iivvished by caidinal points which have reference to an ob-
Kn-aiory ia Central India, the adopted origin of latitudes. In the
quadrilateral, which was first measured, the meridional
alMMSt one
e apart; this distance was latteriy much
Illy certain chains — as on the Malabar coast
cyj oe aneridJan 84* in the south-east quadrilateral — were dbpcnsed
*ttk becanae good secondary triangulation for topography had been
Kc 'Uiuli s hed before they could be begun.
^2 hu*4imes were measured with the Colby apparatus of com-
x i MUun bars and microscopes. The bars, xo tt long, were set
■9 honaoataOy on tripod stands; the microscopes, 6 in. apart,
«ei« moaated in pain revolving round a vertical axis and were
et ep on tribracha fitted to the ends of the bars. Six bars and
tw oeatnl and two end pain of mkrroscopes — the latter with their
p eif or at ed for a look-down te l escope constituted
> apparatus, measuring 63 ft. between the ground pins
.^ L Compound bars are more liable to accidental changes
t «iigth than mmple bars; they were therefore tested from time
" tme by coopariaon with a standard simple bar; the microscopes
«*?t also testra by comparison with a sundard 6-itt. scale. At
"* irst baae^iine the compensated bare were found to be liable
" enable variatioas of length with the diurnal variations of tempe-
'srjf^: these were mppoised to be due to the different thermal
-ladartmtiea of the brass and the iron components. It became
"m^aory, therefore, to determine the mean daily length of the bars
r-'^iftrfy, for which reason they were systematxrally compared
\x*i i^ standaid before and after, and sometimes at the middle d,
' - hase Hoc measurement throughout the entire day for a space
'T three daya, and under conditions as neariy similar as possible
^ il^se oMasiunc during the measurement. Eventually therrao-
aoBs wcra applied experimentally to both components of a
>— pnmtl bar. when it was found that the diurnal variations in
n^rck were principally due to difference of podtion relatively to
'be Ma. not to diflerence of conductivity — the component nearest
-> con acquirsng heat roost rapidly or parting with it most slowly,
avwtthstaa^iiir that both were in the same box. which was alvi-ays
aetravtd ffoaa the ann's ra^ Happily the flystematk comparisons
« r^ compoond bars with the standard were found to give a
T ""i ■■■nl/ caoct daterroination of the mean daily length. An
•Jurxvt i Mi ia l i rnt^*** of theoretical probableerrors (^.«.) at the Cape
'ill ill base wowed that, for any base-line measured as usual
^rdoat ilicimuiPi wni in the compound bars, the p,t, may be taken
V •!•$ HiMJnafh parts of the length, excluding uaascertainable
"^txnt nror%, ago that on introducing thermometen into these
3WI the f.€^ was dunfaiished to ^ 0*55 millionths.
In an baso>iioe meaanremcnts the weak point is the <!
of the tempentnre of the bare when that of the a____,
mpklly rising or faUing; the thermometers acquire and lose heat
more rapklly than the bar if their bulbs are outside, and more slowly
if insUe the bar. Thus there is always more or less lagging, and
its effects are onljr eliminated when the rises and falls are of equal
amount and duration; but as a rule the rise generally predominates
greatly during the usual hours of work, and whenever this happens
1^8Sifl« may cauae more error in a base-line measured with auni^
bars than all other aotroea of error combined. In India the probable
average lagging of the standard-bar thermometer was estimated
aa not leas than 0*3* F., cor re s p onding to an error of — a millionths
ia the lenirth of a base-line measured with iron bars. With
compound ban lasging would be much the same for both coro-
ponfents and its influence would consequently be diminated. Thus
the most perfect base-line anwretus would seem to be one of com-
peasatioa bars with thermometers attached to each component;
then the comparisons with the stamiard need only bo taken at
the times when the temperature b constant* and there is no
■^v
plan tf trumfukuiom waa broadly a system of internal
meridional and longitudinal chaina with an cxtenial border ol
oblique chains following the course of the frontier and the coast
linea The design of each chain waa necessarily much influenced by
the physical features of the country over which it was carried. Tlie
moat difficult tracts were plainsL devoid of any commandiag points
of view, in some parts covcrea with forest and jungle, mauuioiia
and almost uninhabited, in other parts covered with towns and
villages and umbrageous trees. In such tracts triangulation waa
impossible except by constructine towere aa stations ol observation,
raising them to a sufficient height to overtop at least the earth's
curvature, and then either incnsasin^ the height to surmount all
obstacles to mutual viswn, or clearing the Imca. Thua in hilly
and open country the chains of triangles were generally made
" double " throughout, Le, formed of polygonal and quadrilateial
figures to give greater breadth and accuracy; but in forest and ckwo
country they were carried out aa series ot single triangka, to give
a mimmum of labour and expense. Symmetry was secured by
restricting the angles between the limits of 30* and 90*. The average
side length waa 30 nv in hill country and 11 in the plains; the
longest principal side was 63<7 m., though in the secondary tri-
angukttion to the Himalayan peaks there were sides excmling
aoo m. Long sides were at first considered desirable, on the prin*
ciple that the fewer the finks the greater the accuracy of a chain
of triangles; but it waa eventually found that good observationa
on long skies could only be obtained under exceptionally favourable
atmospheric conditiona. In plains the length was g ove r ned 1^
the haght to which towers could be conveniently raised to surmount
the curvature, under the well-known coaditu>a, height ui feet ■-
I X square of the distance in miles; thus 24 ft. of height was
needed at each end of a sMe to overtop the curvature in la m.,
and to this had to be added whatever was required to surmount
obstacles on the ground. In Indian plains refraction is more
frequently negative than poddve during aunahine; no reduction
could there f ore be made for it.
The seUeHoH tf sties for sI&Hms, a dmple natter in hilla and open
country, ia often difficult In plains and close country. In the eariy
operations, when the great arc was being carried acroas the wide
(Mains of the Gametic valley, which are covered with villagea and
trees and other obstacles to disunt vision, masta 3^ ft. high were
carried about-for the support of the small reconnoitring theodolites,
with a sufficiency of poles and bcunboos to form a scaffolding of
the same height for the observer. Other masts 70 ft. high, with
arrangements for displaying blue lights by night at 00 iL, were
erected at the spots where station sites were wanted. But the
cost of transport was great, the rate of progress was dow. and the
results were unsatisfactory. Eventually a method of touch tather
than ught was adopted, feeling the ground to search for the obstacles
to be avoMed, rather than attempting to hiok over th«n; the
" rays " were traced either by a minor triangulation, or by a traverse
with theodolite and perambulator, or by a simple alignment of
flags. The first method gives the dbection of the new sution
most accurately; the second searches the ground most closely;
the third Is best suited for tracts of dnlnhabited forest in which
there is no choice of either line or site, and the required station
may be built at the intersection of the two trial rays leading up
to It. As a rule it has been found most econonucal and expeditious
to raise the towers only to the height necessary for surmounting
the curvature, and to remove the trees and other obstacles on the
lines.
Each principal staHoiOxM a~^centfal masonry pillar, circular
and 3 to 4 ft. in diameter, for the support of a large theodolite,
and aroand it a platform 14 to 16 ft. square for the observatory
tent, observer and signallers. The pillar is isolated from the plat-
form, and when solid carries the sution niark--a dot surrounded
by a circle— engraved on a stone at its surface, and on additional
stones or the rock in situ, in the normal of the upper mark; but,
if the height is considerable and there is a liability to deflection,
the pillar is constructed with a central >-ertx:aI sitf '
14-4
SURVEYING
theodoiKte to be plumbed over the eround-level mark, to which access
b obtained throug^h a passage in the basement. In eariy years this
precaution against deflection was neglected and the pillars were
built solid throughout, whatever their height; the surrounding
platforms, being usually constructed of sun-dried bricks or stones
and earth, were liable to fall and press against the pillars, some of
which thus became deflected durmg the rainy seasons that inters
vened between the periods during which operations were arrested
or the beginning and close of the successive circuits of triangles.
Large theodoUtes were invariably employed. Repeating circles
were highly thought of by French geodesists at the time when the
operations in India were begun; but they were not used in the
survey, and have now been ^erally discarded. The principal
theodolites were somewhat similar to the astronomer's alt-azimutli
instrument, but with larger azirauthal and smaller vertical circles,
also with a greater base to give the firmness and stability which
are requirpd ' . . • . . . jj^^ aamuthal
circles nad m( in., the vertical
circles having odolites the base
was a tribrach (rs,and the circles
are read by i iments the fixed
and the rotat< ome the vertical
axis was fixed irds; in others it
revolved in th ;. In the former
the azimuthal ._ ^ . _ die the telescope
pillars, the microscopes, the clamps and the tan^nt screws were
attached to a drum revolving round the vertical axis; in the
latter the microscopes, clamps and tangent screws were fixed to
the tribrach, while the telescope pillars and the azimuthal circle
were attached to a plate fixed at the head of the rotary vertical
axis.
Cairns of stones, poles or other opaaue signals weie primarily
employed, the angles being measured oy day only; eventually
it was found that the atmosphere was often more favourable for
observing by night than by day, and that distant points were raised
well into view by refraction by night which might be invisible
or only seen with difficulty by oay. Lamps were then introduced
of the simple form of a cup, 6 in. in diameter, filled with cotton
seeds steeped in oil and resin, to bum under an inverted earthen
jar, 30 in. in diameter, with an aperture in thf side towards the ob-
server. Subseauently this oontnvance gave place to the Argand
lamp with parabolic reflector; the opague day signals were discuded
for heliotropes reflecting the sun s rays to the observer. The
introduction <^ luminous signab not only rendered the night as
well as the day available for the observations but chan^ the char-
acter of the operations, enabling work to be done during the dry
and healthy season of the year, when the atmosphere is generally
hazy and dust-laden, instead of being restricted as formerly to the
rainy and unhealthy seasons, when distant opaque obiects are
best seen. A higher degree of accuracy was also securea, for the
luminous agnab were in\'ariably dispbyed through diaphragms of
appropriate aperture, truly centred over the station mark; and,
looking like stars, they could be observed with greater precision,
whereas opaque signals are always dim in comparison and are liable
to be seen excentncally when the light falls on one side. A signal-
ling party of three men was usually found sufiidcnt to mantpuUte
a pair of heliotropes -one for single, two for double reflection,
according to the sun's position— and a lamp, throughout the ni^ht
and day. Heliotropers were also employed at the observing
sutions to flash •instructions to the signallers.
The theodolites were invariably set up under tents for protection
t sun. wind and rain, and centred, lex-elled and adjusted for
, the runs of the microscopes. Then the signab were
Me!ZmZ observed in regular roUdon round the horizon, alter-
nonnmimi i^^iy f^^^ ^ghl to left and vice versa ; after the pre-
scribed minimum number of rounds, either two or three,
had been thus measured, the telescope was turned^ throueh
180*, both in altitude and azimuth, changing the position of the
face of the vertical circle relatively to Uw observer, and further
rounds were measured; additional measures oi single angles were
taken if the prescribed observations were not sufficiently accordant.
As the mJCTDscopes were invariably equidbtant and their number
was always odd. either three or five, the readings taken on the azi-
muthal ancle during the telescope pointings to any object in the
two positions of the vertical drde, ^' face right " and face left."
were made on twice as many equidistant graduations as the number
of microeoopes. The theodolite was then shifted bodily in azimuth,
by being tiuned on the ring on the bead of the stand, which brought,
new rraduationB under the microscopes at the tekacope pointings;
then further rounds were measured in the new positions, face right
and face l^t. This process was repeated as often as had been pre-
viously prescribed, the successive ai^rular shifts of position bong made
by equal ares brinsii^ equidbtant graduations nnder the microscopes
d uring the aucoeasi vc ta l eaoop e powtioga to one and the same object.
By these vnngeaaeati all perio dic cfran U fcaduation wei^ elimin-
ated, the numerous iriA»ttWli||iWfciP»»» f^ tieiidcd to cancel
accidental errora oC WMMlHSHnMHM.lQPildB of measures
to minimbe the
and personal «•*— , , ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^, _
Under thb syiS^^^^^^^^^^^^BpH ordioary
Verikml
Aaghu
fGEODETIC TRIANGULATIOK
errors are practically cancelled and any remaining error b most
probably due to lateral refraction, more especially when the rays
of light graze the surface of the ground. The three angles of every
triangle were always measured.
The apparent altitude of a dbtant point b liable to consderable
variations during the twenty-four nours, under the influence of
changes in the density of the lower strata of the atmo>
sphere. Terrestrial refraction b capricious, more par-
ticubriy when the rays of light ^raze the turfaoe of the
ground, passing throu^ a medium which b liable to extremes of
rarefaction and condensation, under the alternate influence of the
sun's heat radiated from the surface of the ground and of chilled
atmospheric vapour. When the back and forward verticab at a
pair of stations are equally refracted, their difference gives an exact
measure of the difference of height. But the atmospheric conditions
are not always identical at the same moment everywhere on long
rays which graze the surface of the ground, and the ray between
two reciprocating stations b liable to be differently refracted at
its extremities, each end being influenced in a greater d^rce by
the conditions prevailing around it than by those at a distance:
thus instances are on record of a station A being invisible from
another B, while B was visible frorri A.
When the great arc entered the plains of the Gangetic valley,
simultaneous reciprocal verticals were at first adopted with the
hope of eliminating refraction; but it was soon iound f[titm^aa
that they did not do so sufficiently to justify the ex-
pense of the additional instruments and observers. Afterwards
the back and forward verticab were observed as the stationa were
vbited in succession, the back angles at as nearly as possible the
same time of the day as the forward angles, and always during
the so-called " time of minimum refraction," which ordinarily
b^ns about an hour after apparent iKxm and lasts from two
to three hours. The apparent aeoith distance b always greatest
then, but the refraction is a minimum only at statnns'wbkh arc
well elevated above the surface of the ground ; at stations on ^ios
the refraction is liable to pass through zero and attain a consider-
able negative magnitude aurine the heat of the day, for the lower
strata of the atmosphere are then less dense than the strata imme-
diately above and the rays are refracted downwards^ On plains
the greatest positive refractions are also obtained — maxunuro
values, both positive and negative, usually occurring, the former
by night, the latter by day, when the sky is moat free from cloudsi.
The values actually met ^nth were found to ran^ from + 1-21
down to -0*09 parts of the contained are on plains; tlK normal
"coefficient of refraction" for free rays between hill stations
below 6000 ft. was about 0*07, whkJi diminished to 0*04 above
18.000 ft., broadly vaiying inversely as the temperature and
directly as the pressure, but much influenced also by local climatic
conditions.
In measuring the vertical angles with the great theodolites,
graduation errors were redded as insignificant compared with
errors arising from uncertain refraction; thus no arrangement vas
made for effecting changes of zero in the circle settings. The ob-
servations were always taken in pairs, face right and left, to eliminate
index errors, only a few daily, but some on as nuuiy days as
possible, for the variations from day to day were found to be greater
than the diurnal variations during the houra of minimum
refraction.
In the ordnance and other sorveys the bearings of the surroutKl-
ing stations are deduced from the actual observations, bat from
the " included angles " in the Indian survey. The wb^M.
observations of every an^le are tabulated vertically in """"
as many columns as the number of circle settings face left and face
right, and the mean for each setting b taken. For several ycsars
the general mean of these was adopted as the final result; but
subsequenUy a " concluded angle " was obtained by combining the
single means with weights inversely proportional to g* + o* ->- it — g.
being a value of the t.mj} of graduation derived emplri<^y fro<n
the differences between the gonial mean and the mean for each
setting, o the «.m.x. of observation deduced from the difference*^
between the individual measures and their respective means, nml
n the number of measures at each settiog* Thus, putting Wx^wt, ., .
for the weights of the single means, v for the weight of the con-
cluded angle, M ioc the general mean, C for the concluded angle,
and <fi, ^ . . . for the differences between M an^ the single
means, we have ' ...
;c-ir + 2^±^ (O
and. .w»wi-\rv%-\r ^^ (a)
C" U vanishes when n b constant; it a Inappreciable when ^
b much larger than 0; it b significant only when the naduatk^a
errore are more minute than thie errora. of obMrvatkm; but it wms
always small, not exceeding 0*14' with the ssratem of two nmo<ia.
of measures and ok>5' with the system of three roonda.
The we^hts of the concluded angles thns obtained wci« employ^eti
in the primary redoctkxis of the angles of single triangles a^xi
polygons whidt were made to satisfy the g eomitf i cnl conditjoq a
' The theoretical " error of mean square " ■* 1*48 X "prnhst>lc:
GEODETIC TRIANGCLATIONI
of eadi bgnn, becaoae they were ttrictly febtive for all angles
■Euured wkli the same instroment and under similar cireumstances
md cxMMfitioMs, as was almost always the case for each single figure.
B^ in the final feductions, when numerous chains <^ triangles
corapoced of figures executed with different instruments and under
>£3erent circumstances came to be adjusted simultaneously, it was
iKoessary to modify the original weights, on such evidence of the
prcdsioa of the angles as might be obtained from other and more
rdiable sources than the actual measures of the angles. This
neacment will now be described.
Valves of theoretical error for groups of angles measured with
the sanae instrument and under sixnilar conditions may be obtained
in three ways — <l.^ from the squares of tiie reciprocals
" ' *" '* '' of the weight w deduced as above from the measures
r'*r^ of sttch ansle, (it) from the magnitudes of the excess of
*'i^*' the sum oi the angles of each triangle above i8o*-f the
s^:;herical excess, and (iii.) from the magnitudes of the corrections
viach it is necessary to apply to the angles of polygonal figures
aid a d w or ks fep satisfy the several fjeometrical conditions.
Every figure, whether a single truingle or a polygonal network,
sat made consistent by the application of corrections to the observed
, angles to satisfy its geometrical conditions. The three
*"■■■ armies of every triangle having been observed, their
tT sum had to oe made*x8o* -f the spherical excess;
^tf*^ in networks it was also necessary that the sum of the
aogfes iBcaaurrd round the horizon at any station should be exactly
«36c»*, that the sum of the parts of an angle measured at different
toaes sfaoaftd equal the whole and that the ratio of any two ades
skould be identical, whatever the route through which it was com-
psted. These are called the iriangular, caUrcI, Mo-partuii and sids
aom&iioBB; they present » geometrical equations, which contain
I sakaonwn quaoticies, the errors of the observed angles, t being
airays > s. When these equations are satisfied and the deduced
valus of errors are appltea as corrections to the observed angles.
t^ figure becomes consistent. Primarily the equations were treated
by a neibod of successiye approxiniatk>ns ; but afterwards they were
2il solv*ed simultaneously by the so-called method of minimum
^aaro, which leads to toe most orobabk of any system of corree-
The angles having been made geometrically consistent inter u
m each ^ure. the side-lengths are computed from the base-line
^^ onwards by Lcgjoidre's theorem, each angle being dimin-
rr* - , isbed by one-third of the spherical excess of the triangle
'"■*'" to which it appertains. The theorem is applicable
without sensible error to tnai^les of a much larger size than any
tkat are ever measured.
A station of origin beinff chosen of which the latitude and longitude
Bc known nstromNnicalTy, and dso the azimuth of one of the
bj»^ surrounding stations, the differences of latitude and
ba#ioagitude and the reverse azimuths are cakubted in
succession, for all the stations of the triangulation,
k fl# by Puissant 's formulae {TraiU de giodisiet 3rd ed.. Paris,
18^3).
Probiemu — ^Assuniii^ the earth to be spheroidal, let A and B be
:^o Oationa on its surface, and let the latitude and tongitude of A
be known, also the azimuth of B at A, and the distance between
A and B at the mean sea-levd ; we have to find the btitude and
lu^tude of B and the azimuth of A at fi.
The following symbols are employed: a the major and b the
xis; e the excentridty, - \ ^i \ *. P t^» radius of
CiiTvatore to the meridian in btitude X, " jt»g»sln*xli • ' ^^^ normal
to the meridian in btitude X, ■ {t,e£in*xh ' ^ *°** ^ ^* ^^®°
kijrade and loneitude of A; X + AX and L + ^ the required lati-
tsde axtf] longitude o( B; A the azimuth of B at A; B the azimuth
'^ A at B; iii -B~ (r-|-i4) : c the disUnce between A and B. Then,
uths beioK measured from the south, we have
SURVEYING
Air»
-f T: T^S cosM sin aX coscc 1"
-Hg—^ sinM cos i4 (1+3 tan«X) oosec 1
TSTx*^**^ '
, I c*stn 2i4 tan X „
«J ^(14-3 tan'X) sin iA cosi<^^^^ ^„
6 r • cos X
. 1 «• sin'^ tan* X .,
+3^ cosX «»«^ *
(3)
'(4)
AA" or
~^ sin ^4 un X cosec 1*'
+Jp j i-l-J tarfX+^^ { sin 3i4cosec 1
-^(g+tan«x]'*-^
-sin 2A oosA cOaec i*
-f^psinM tan X (i+a tan'X) cosec 1"
145
(5)
tan cturvty.
l.Z J
Each £L is the sum of four terms symbolized by li, ht, ii and d*;
the calculations are so arranged as to produce these terms in the
order S\, 6L, and &<1, each term cntedng as a' factor in catcubting
the following term. The arrangement is shown below in equations
in which the symbols P, Q, . . . Z represent the factors which
defend on the 'adopted, geodetic constants, and vary with the
latitude;^ the logarithms of their numerical values arc tabulated in
the A uxUiary Tables to FacQUate the Caknlaiions of the Indian Survey.
«,X - - P. cos^ .c «iL - +»iX . Q.sccX.tanil 3^4 - +iiL .s\n\\
«,X-+M./?.sin>4.r «,L--«,X.5^ot>l M-+«iX..r
a,X--M. V.cot4 «>L--faA.t/.8ini4.c 5v4-+«»X,."
a4X--«,A.-y.tanA a«Z:-+««X. K.tanX itAm^tL.^ ^
The calcubtlons described so far suffice to make the angles of
the several trfeonometricaJ figures oonsbtent inter se^ and to give
preliminary valuoi of the lengths and azimuths of the
sides and the btitudes and longitudes of the stations. Ke d n et ha
The results are amply sufficient for the requirements •'^[''■^{^
of the topographer ^id bnd surveyor, and they are^**"*""*"
published in preliminary charts, which give full numerical ^'^*
detaib of btitude, longitude, azimuth and side-length, and of
height also, for each portion of the trbngubtion — 'secondary as
weu as principal — as executed year by year. But on the com^
pletion of the several chains of trbngbs further reductions became
necessary, to maloe the trbngubtion everywhere consistent inter se
and with the vcrificatory base-lines, so that the lengths and azimuths
of common sides and the btitudes and longjitudes of conunon stations
should be identical at the junctions of chains and that the measured
and computed lenf|[ths of the base-lines should also be identical.
As an illustration of the problem for treatment, suppose a
combination of three meridional and two longitudinal chains com-
prising seventy-two single triangles with a base-line at each comer as
shown in the accompanying c _ _ _ ^
dbgram (fig. 2); suppose the
three angles of every triangle
to have been measured and
made consistent. Let A be
the origin, with its btitude
and bngttude given, and also
the length and azimuth of the
adjoining base-line.
th — -• —
cu
th
lei
bi
D
t«
Ih
vi
th
mi
(a. ..
With
of cal
hraugh I
ain the
ot the
andloni
Fxc. a.
itudes of the stations, say in the fol-
„ i to £, through F to E. through F to
C, and through F and D to C. Then there are
nuth, latitude and longitude at E— one from
vb B, the other from the left-hand chains
are two sets of values at C; and eadi of
C and D has a cakubted as 'well as a
lus deven absolute errors are presented
^ je trbngubtion by the applicatkm of the
most approprbte correction to each. angle, and^ as a preliminary
to the determination of these corrections, equations must be con-
structed between each of the absolute errors and the unknown
errors of the angles from whkh they originated. For thb purpose
assume A^ to be the angle opposite the flank side of any triangle,
and Y and Z the angles opposite the sides of continuation ; also let
X, y and s be the most probable values of the errors of the angles
which will satisfy the given equations of condition. Then each
equation may be expressed in the form [ox-h&y-f czj -£, the brackets
indicating a summation for all the triangles involved. We have
first to ascertain the values of the coefficients a, b and c of the
unknown quantities. They are readily found for the side equations
on the circuits and between the base-lines, for x does not enter
them, but only y and s. with coefficients wbbh are the cotangents
of K and Z, so that these equations are simply [cot K.y— cot ZjiJ-£.
But three out of four of the circuit equations are geodetic, corre-
sponding to the closing errors in latitude, longitude and azimuth,
and in them the coefncienu are very complicated. They are ob-
tained as folbws. The first term of each of the three expressions
for AX. AL. and B is differentbted in terms of c and A, giving
<f.AX
rf,A£«
AX
|f-rfi4tonil sini"!
hL\^+dA cot A »\ni"\
dB^dA'¥^\^+dA cot /
(7)
(
146
SURVEYING
in which dc and dA represent the errocB in the length and azimuth
ol any tide e which have been ^fterated
^ in the couree of the trianculatKm up to
it from the baae-fine and the aximuth
station at the origin. The erron in the
latitude and longitude of any station
which are due to the triangulation are
3 iK -M.^l. and dU -I^.AiL]. Let
station i be the origin, and let 2. 3. . . .
be the succeedins stations taken akmg
a predetennined line of traverse, which
may either run from vertex to vertex
of' the successive triangles, zi^xagging
be tw ee n the flanks of toe cham, as in
fig. A (i). or be carried directly along one
of tne flanks, as in fig. ;) (2). For the
general symbols of the differential equa-
tx>ns substitute AXm ALm Ai4.. a. i4«.
and Bm for the side between stations »
and fi+l of the traverse; and let Icm
c^ . and Ii4» be the errors generated between
fiG. 3. tiie aides ci^^ and <•; then
iL4.-L4,;<M,-«/B,+«X,; , . . dA^^d3^-HA^
P^orming the necessary substitutions and .summations, we get
+(i+,'M cotvll sin i»)«i4,+(i+;iA.4 cot A\»n i*)*^,
H-. . . +(i -CAil. cot if. sin i')l^«.
-{^ tan i4)Mi+;iAX tan AYsAfi-. . .
+AX.tanil.L4.1wil'
+i;iAl cot .41«X,+^AL cot i4)U,+ . . .
+A£,coti4,^4.)sin I*.
Tins we have the foHo^-ing expresaioa for any geodetic errors—
(«)
dct a^jja.
rffl^-
.+^rf^.-£.
m!u^ # and 4 represent the respective summations whidi ars the
„«n. i^mt* of ic and tA in each instance but the first, in which t
^ id^td to the summation in forming the coefficient of 14.
j^ Mcaltf errors x, y and s must now be introduced, in place
It k aadlAt into the general expression, which will then take oiffer-
-zt ^dnna. according as the route adopted for the line of traverse
:iK Tir**f Ol* <^ direct. In the former, the number of stations
« -^ tarMsa is ordinarily the same as the number of triangles.
^x^^^hrr orno. a common numerical notation may be adopted
~°L^ ^^ traverse stations and the collateral triangles; thus the
'^ ^.— of every triaiutle enter the general expressioa in tbe
~^^^ A^+cotF.p'y-ootZ.n's,
^•t .'«^ sin i', and the upiier sign of ^ is taken if the triangle
' "T^^taife. tte bwer if to the right, of the line of travcfse. Wlwn
'^^^. *|w«Tse 'm adopted, there are only half as many traverse
lI!^mtiMHln> m^l therefore only half the number of n's and
*"™«^3r but it becomes necessary to adopt <tiffcrent
"^ ^-^2L itattona and the triangles, and the form of the
- _T rd, tke aMular efTors alternates in auooeasivc triangles.
""i^fe iiiMlh Has no side on the Ene of the traverse but
' , ,[L^:^*^«»*tfa»n. the form is
J ^.J^-fCOl Y^.Mi'O^-eot Z>.^'.^
r^ - -4wk W • »J»*« between the lih and the 9-f i)t!i
-^^tau ibt tosm U
-^w^ V W* 4- /u lOOt K«)y. - (♦i*! - m* cot ZJs^
— v^aiifeht^nd and • l•(^hand branch, the errors
'^n^^Mnrtt 10 M to present equations of the
~i.as^«^tina Muiatlons of condHioQ bavins
tak
As t
two po-
w«rema<
off
IGEODETIC TRIANGULATION
ai, * and V being the neiproeats of the weii^ts of the observed aa^ies.
Thw necessitates the simultaneous aolutioa of eighty-three equations
to obtain as many values of X. The resulting vahiea of the crron
of the angles in any. the pih, triangle, are
x,.iija^l; y,-sJ*^J; •.-•pM|. (9)
ii. One of the unknown quantities in eyery triangle, as x, may
be eKmtnated from each of the eleven circuit and base-line equa*
tions by substituting its equivalent— Ov+<) for it. a similar substi-
tution oeing made in the minimum. Then
formU*-«)y+Cc-a)sl»
the equations take the
£. while the minimum become s
[^+?+9-
Thus we have now to find only deven values of X by n simukaneooa
solution of as many equations, instead of eighty-tliree values from
e^hty-three equations; buf we arrive at more complex expressions
for the angular errors as follows>«
3^-5PFvl^^'+^^^"'*^^"*'^^''"'
The seoQod method has invariably been adopted, originally be>
supposed that, the number of the factors X being ro
-«,)X1|J
doced from the total number of equations to that of the circuit and
base-line equations, a great saving of labour would be effected. But
subsequently it was ascertained that in this rcs|iect tboe is little
to dMMse between the two methods; for, when x is not dimtnated,
and as many factors are introduced as thoe are eciuations, the factors
for the triangular equations may be readily eliminated at the outset.
Then the re^ly severe calculationa will be restricted to the solution
of the equations containing the foctors for the drcnit and base-line
equations as in the second method.
In the preceding illustration it is assumed that the baae-Knes are
ciimlcss as Oompared with the triangulation. Strictly spcakinf^,
however, as base-lines are faltible quantities, presumably of differ-
ent weignt. their errors should be introduced as unknown quantities
of which the most probable values are to be determined in a simul-
taneous investigation of the errors of all the facts of observation,
whether linear or angular. When they are connected together
by so few triangles that their ratios may be deduced as accurately,
or neartv so. from the triangubtion as from the measured lengths,
this ought to be done; but. when the connecting triangles are so
numerous that the direct ratios are of much greater weight than
the trigonometrical, the errors of the base-lines may be neglected.
In the reduction of the Indian triangulation it was decided, after
examininff the relative magnitodes of the probable errors of the
linear and the angular measures and ratios, to assume the base-lines
to be errorlns.
The chains of triangles beins braely comiysed of polygons or
other networks, and not merdy of single triangles, as has been
assumed for simplicity in the illustration, the geometrical harmony
to be maintained involved the introduction <m a large number of
'* side," " central " and '* toto-partial " eouatioas of condition, as
well as the triangular. Thus the problem for attack was the simul-
taneous solution of a number of equations of condition » that of all
the geometrical conditions of every fi^ure-^four times the number
of circuits formed by the diains 01 tmngles-hthe number of base-
Hnes— I, the nombier of unknown quantities contained in the
equations bdng that of the whole of the observed angles; the
method of procedure, if rigorous, would be predsdy simifcsr to that
already indicated for ** harmoniring the angles 01 trigonometrical
figures," of which it is merely an expansion from sin^ figures to
The rigorous tr ea tm ent would, however, have involved the nmul-
taneous solution of about 4000 equations bet w een 9230 unknown
Quantities, m'hich was impracticable. The trianjpilation m-as
therefore di>'ided into sections for separate reduction, of wrhsch
the most important were the five b et wee n the mericfiara of 67*
and 92* (see fig. i}, consisting of four Quadrilateral figures and a
trigoQ, each comprising several chains 01 trianries and some base-
lines. Thb arrangement had the advantage ot enabEng the Ixna!
red u ction s to be taken in hand as soon as coovrnient aiter the
completion of any section, iiu«ead of being postponed until all
were completed. It was subject, however, to the condition that
the sections containing the best chains of triangles were to be 6rvt
reduced: for, as all chains bordering contiguous sections wrotild
Mrily be " fixed " as a part of the section first reduced, it "wras
usly desrable to run no risk of impairiiw the best (haiits by
ig them into adjostmeat with others oT inferior quality. It
rncd that both the north-cast and the south-west quadrilaterals
ined several of the older chains; their reduction was therefore
to foOow that of the collateral sections containing the modern
s.
t the reduction of each of these great sections was in itself a
formidable undenaldng. necessitating some departure frc»m
dy rigorous treatment. For the chains were larsely composed
lyconal networks and not of sin^ triangles oxi^ 'ls assumed
e ohastiatioa. and therefore mtmnire had to be taken of a
cEooenc TRUNCULATiaiq
SURVEYING
«47
> of "mdt" and ocber tcomctifcal equations of CQadition«
miuch cBttnd irresulariy and cauted neat entang^eniefit. Eoiia-
T'„r^ 9 and lo of tfie inustration are oia simple form because tney
Live a sioi^e geometrical condition to maintain, the triangular,
•hich is aot only expressed by the simple and symmetrical equation
s-tj+s'^Q, but — what is oi much greater imixntance — recurs in
s regular order of sequence that materially facilitates the general
Kw'utKia. Thus, though the calculations must in all cases be very
BjaenNis and laborious, rules can be fottoulated under which they
can be well cootroned at every stage and eventually brought to a
uooesrfnl issue. The other geometrical conditions of networks are
mpwjt d by equations which are not merely of a more complex
f<,rm bat have no regular order of sequence, for the networks pre-
KM a variety of forms; thus their introduction would cause much
tixaaAwent and coroolication, and neatly increase the labour of
the cakuJatHMis and the chances of failure. Wherever, therefore.
aoy cooBpouod figure occurred, only so much of it as was required
ts fona a chain of single triangles was employed. The figure having
pfwioudy been made consistent, it was immaterial what part was
cB^c^ed. but the sdectioa was usually made so as to introduce
the Cewcat triangles. The triangulation for final simultaneous
leductkNi was thus made to consist of chains of angle triangles
ODiy: but all the included angles were *' fixed " simultaneously.
The evlisdcd angles of compound fieures were subsequently bar*
vcfliaad with the fixed aog^es, whicn was readily done for each
igaie^crse.
This deMrtuie fR>m risorous accuracy was not of material im-
prctanoe. for the an^es of the compound figures excluded from the
nmeltaDeous reduction had already, m the course of the several
kdepeadent fi^ral adjustments, been made to exert their fiill in-
tLtiiot oa ^e included angles. The figural adjustments had, how-
ever, iatroduccd new relations between the angles of different
fCDRSk caiMtqg their wcighu to increase catUris ^rihus with the
saabcr of ceotaetrical conditions satisfied in each instance. Thus,
SBppoae sr to be the average wdght of the f observed angles of any
ffsR. and • the number of geometrical conditions presented for
sUjsCactioa; tJica the avenge weight of the angles after adjustment
■By be cafcaa 9M 9.fz^' ^ factor thus being i-$ for a triangle,
•^ fer a In wmn. 3 for a qoadrilateral. 3*s for the networic around
the Stroaj baae-Une. Ac
bs Itaming the normal equations betwcea the indeterminate
Carton X ior the final nmultaneous reduction, it would have gready
added to the labour of the subsequent cakulations if a separate
•c«hi had been given to each angle, as was done in the primary
iKBflal reductioaa: this ana obvioudy unnecessary, for theoretical
w i ^Mutuwj ta would aow be amply satisfied by giving equal weishts
tb aJi the ancles of each independent figure. The mean weight
tkir was finally adopted for the angles of each group was therefore
^^eimg the modidoa.
The second ol the two pracessee for applyinf dM method of
w^iBxom aquares having been adopted, the values of the errors
f *Md t of the angles appertaining to any, the ^th, triangle were
t^jj|> expressed by the following eouations. which are derived
I < to) by substituting » for the reciprocal final mean itoight as
(n)
The ioBteming table gives the number of eqoadona of condition
i^ Baknown quantities— the angular errors*^ the five great
I of the triangulation, whicb were respectivdy included in
graeral reductions and relegated to the suh-
~n of each figure Ai^ M r~
1
.— fW. 1
1
EottCb^
IE
EqsttbM.
ii
Ii
1
1
Ji*
4
A
1
Sde.
i\
• 1 V.W. Quad. .
49
23
34
550
277
573
1650
831
1719
267
164
113
'S
1
79
3»
152
101
52
6
3
3
76f
476
341
M7
^37
no
68
50
77
40
The corractions to the anales were generally nunute, rarely ex-
w«^i^ the theofctical probaUe errors of the angles, and therefoae
I, |fc ihla arkhout taldag any Uberti^ with th^ facts of observa-
AamutQ obeennMio&s in con n exidn win the ptineipal triangular
tk>n were determined by measuring the horiaontal angle between
a referring mark and a circumpolar star, shortly before
and after dongation. and usually at both eloa^tions
inordertoeUminatetheerrorof thestar'splace. ^stero*
atic changes of " face " and of the aero settings of the
ithaTcircIe 1
SfSL
were made as in the measurement of the principal
i«aj but the repetitions on each aero were more numerous:
aamuthal levels were read and corrections applied to the star
observadoAs for dislevelment. The triangulation was not adjusted,
w.the cottiae of the final dmultanoous reduction, to the astronomi*
caUy detemined admuths, because they are liable to be vitiated
by loeal attractions; but the admuths observed at about fifty stations
•round the primary aaamuthal station, which was adopted as the
origin of the ijeodetic calculations, were referred to that sUtion,
through the triangulation, for comparison with the priqiary adrnuth*'
A tane was prepared of the differences (observed at the origin —
conqmted from a distance) be t we en the primary and the gecxletic
uJaMthe; the diffeseoOee were assumed to be mainly due to the
local deflexions of the plunib*l!ne and only partlaUy to error in the
tziaogulatioo, and each was multiplied by the factor
tangent of latitude of origin,
tangent of latitude of comparing station
in Older that fhjt effect of the local attractioo 00 the admuth oh*
served at the distant station — which varies with the latitude and
is «■ the deflexion in the prime vertkal X the ungent of the hthude
"-might be converted to what it wouM have been had the aiatioa
been dtuated in the same latrtuda as the origin. Each deduction
was given a weight, w, inversdjf proportional to the number of
trianves connecting the sution with the origin, and the most prob-
able value of the error of the observed admuth at the origin waa
^ {(observed "■computed) ^ wi
isr
(");
the value olC' thus obtained was — i*i'c
The formulae employed in the reduction of the admuth obeefva^
tions were as follows. In the spherical triangle PZS, in wldch
P is the pole, Z the aenith and ^ the star, the co-latitude PZ and
the pobr distance PS an known, and, as the angle at 5 is a riaht
angle at the dongation, the hour angle and the aximuth at that
time are found from the equations
cosP - unPScatPZ,
co&Z>>cosP5dnP.
The interval, tP, between the time' of any ofMervadon and that
of the elongation being known, the corresponding admuthal angle,
S2. between the two podtions of the star at the times of observa-
tion and eioogatioQ is given rigoroudy by the following expreadon
—tan&Z
-- coti>Jli;n/>Zs;n/^|i4-tJ?JP^£Itf4-ee^^&oti'dnili»I C13)-
which is expressed as foBows for logarithmic compntatiott"-
., mtznZco^PS
12- ,-,-H >
whoe »- 3 dn^ coecc I', a - 3 d]^P5 dn<^, and
l«cot P dn IP; I, m, and n are tabulated.
Let A and B (fig. 4) be any two poinu the normals at which meet
at Cf cutting the soa-lcvd at p and g; uke Dq^Ap, then BD U
the difference of height; draw jju^^^ «.J A « ~
the Ungenu Aa and Bb at tSZJtmZ
d and S, then oAB is tiie •**""^
depreanon of £ at A and ^BA that of
d at ^: join AD, then BD u determined
from the txiangkdBD. The triangulation
gives the distance between d and B at
the sea*lcvd, whence p9*c; thus,
putting Ap, the height of A above the
aearlevel. «£r. and pC- r,
dX)..(i+f-^) (14).
Potting Dm and i>» for the actual depres-
sions at d and B, 5 for the angle at A
usually called the
and Jb for BD—
S - i(Oi-I>,
and
A-dX>
coal's
angle.
(IS)*
(16).
The angle at C being «l>»-(-Z>«, 5 may
be expressed in terms of a dngle vcrtkal angle and C when
observations have been taken at only ' •
3Ar«~** '
and D\ for the observed vertical angles, a
*~ whkh they are affected by rein
D'^-H^l ^ and #» nay cliiicr is
Q the "contained aie,"-
t
148
SURVEYING
(LEVELLING
cannot be wtpaxtiAy aadettniMd tbey are almya aasumed to be
equal; the hypothesis is sufficiently exact for practical (mrposes
when both verticals have been measured under similar atmospheric
conditions. The retractions being taken equal, the observed
verticals are substituted (or the true in (15) to find S, and the
difTerence of height is calculated by (16); the third term
within the brackets of (u) is usually omitted. The mean value of
the refraction is deduced from the formula-
♦-*|C-i)'.+I>^)) (17).
An approximate value is thus obtained from the observations
between the pairs of reciprocating stations in each district, and the
corresponding mean " coefficient of refraction," 4+C, is computed
for the district, and b employed when heights have to be deter-
mined from observations at a single station only. When either of
the vertical angles is an elevation— £ must be substituted for D
in the above expressions.^
2. Levellxmc
Levelling is the art of determining the relative heights of points
on the surface of the ground as referred to a hypothetical surface
which cuts the direction of gravity everywhere at right angles.
When a line of instrumental levels is begun at the sea-level, a
series of heights is determined corresponding to what would be
found by perpendicular measurements upwards from the surface
of water communicating freely with the sc& in llndergroimd
channels; thus the line traced indicates a hypothetical prolonga-
tion of the surface of the sea inland, which is everywhere
conformable to the earth's curvature.
The trigonometrical determination of the relative heights of
points at known distances apart, by the measurements of their
mutual vertical anglesr— is a method of levelling. But the method
to which the term " levelling " is always applied is that of the
direct determination of the differences of height from the
readings of the lines at which graduated staves, held vertically
over the points, are cut by the horizontal plane which passes
through the eye of the observer. Each method has its ovm
advantages. The former is less accurate, but best suited for
the requirements of a general geographical sinvey, to obtain the
heights of all the more prominent objects on the suriace of the
ground, whether accessible or not. The latter may be conducted
with, extreme precision, and is specially valuable for the deter-
mination of the relative levels, however minute, of easily
accessible points, however numerous, which succeed each otho-
at short intervals apart; thus it is very generally undertaken
fori passu with geographical surveys to furnish tinea of level for
ready reference as a check on the accuracy of the trigonometrical
heights. In levelling with staves the measurements are always
taken from the horizontal plane which passes through the eye
of the observer; but the line of levels which it is the object of the
operations to trace is a curved line, everywhere coi^orming to
the normal curvature of the earth's surface, and deviating more
and more from the plane of reference as the distance from the
station of observation increases. Thus, either a correction for
curvature must be applied to every staff reading, or the instru-
ment must be set up at equal distances from the staves; the
curvature correction, behig the same for each staff, will then be
eliminated from the difi'erence of the readings, which will thus
give the true difference of level of the points on which the staves
are set up.
Levelling has to be repeated frequently in executing a long line
of levels — say seven times on an average In every mile — and must
be conducted with prccautipn against various errors. Instru-
mental errors arise when the visual axis of the telescope is not
perpendicular to the axis of rotation, and when the focusinj^ tube
does not move truly parallel to the visual axis on a chanse 01 focus.
The first error is eliminated, and the second avoided, by placing
the instrument at equal distances from the staves: and as this
procedure has also the advantage of eliminating the corrections
lor both curvature and refraction, it should invariably be adopted.
* In topographical and levelling operations it is sometimes con-
venient to apply small corrections to observatioas of the height
for curvature and refraction aumiltaneously. Puttinc d for the
distance, r for '*^ *^' ^ ' ' » — . . ,
refraction, and
Che correction I
-Jd*; correct!
1
a
ErrOra of staff readings ahould be guided against by having the
staves graduated on both faces, but differently figured, so that
the observer may not be biased to repeat an error of the first
readinf^ in the second. The staves of the Indian survcv have one
face painted white with black divi&ions — feet, tenths and Hundredths
— from o to 10, the other black with white divisions from 5-55 to
I5"55' Deflexion from horizontality may either be measured and
allowed for by taking the readings of the ends of the bubble of the
spirit-level and applying corresponding corrections to the staff
readings, or be eliminated by setting the bubble to the same position
on its scale at the reading of the second staff as at that of the first,
both being equidistant from the observer.
Certain errors are liable to recur Jn a constant order and to
accumulate to a considerable magnitude, though thev may be too
minute to attract notice at any single station, as wnen the work
is carried on under a uniformlv sinking or rising refraction — from
morning to middaj^ or from midday to evening — or when the instru-
ment takes some time to settle down on. its bearings after being set
up for observation. Thev may be eliminated fl.) by alternating the
order of observation of the staves, taking the back staff first at one
station and the forward first at the next; (ii.) by working in a
circuit, or returning over the same line back to the origin; (iii.)
by dividing a line into sections and reversing the direction of
operation in alternate sections. CumuTative error, not eliminable
by working in a circuit, may be caused when there is much northing
or southing in the direction of the fine, for then the sun's light
will often fall endwise on the bubble of the level, illuminating the
outer edge of the rim at the nearer end and the inner edge at the
farther end. and so biasing the observer to take scale readings
of edges which are not equidistant from the centre of the bubble:
this introduces a tendency to raise the south or depress the north
ends of lines of level in the northern hemisphere. On lone lines,
the employment of a second observer, working independently over
the same ground as the first, station by station, is very desirable.
The great fines are usually carried over the main roads of the country,
a number of " bench marks " being fixed for future reference. In
the ordnance survey of Great Britain lines have been carried across
from coast to coast in such a manner that the level of any common
crossing point may be found by several independent lines. Of these
points there are 166 in Engfand, Scotland and Wales; the^ dis-
crepancies met with at thera were adjusted simultaneously by the
method of minimum squares.
The sea-level is the natural datum plane for levelling opera-
tions, more particularly in countries bordering on the ocean.
The earliest surveys of coasts were made for the use , .
of navigators and, as it was considered very important
that the charts should everywhere show the minimtim depi h
of water which a vessel would meet with, low water of spring-
tides was adopted as the datum. But this docs not answer the
requirements of a land sur/ey, because the tidal range bciwetn
extreme high and low water differs greatly at different points on
coast-lines. Thus the generally adopted datum plane for land
surveys is the mean sea-level, which, if aot absolutely uniforrcv
all the world over, is much more nearly 10 than low wateri Tidisl
obsery^tions have been taken at nearly fifty points on the coasts
of Great Britain, which werfr connected by levelling operations;
the local levels of mean sea were found to differ by largjcr
magnitudes than could fairly be attributed to errors in the lin-es
of level, having a range 6f is to 15 in. above or below the mean
of all at points on the open coast, and more in tidal rivers.' But
the general mean of the coast stations for England and Wales wa^
practically identical with that for Scotland. The observations
however, were seldom of longer duration than a fortnight, whi«rV
is insufficient for an exact determination of even the sKoi-t
period components of the tides, and ignores the annual and serv^i
annual components, which occasionally attain considerable nta^
nitudes. lie iftean sea-levsls at Port Said in the MediterTane^.a.1
and at Suez in the Red Sea have been found to be ideniiec&l
and a similar identity is said to exist in the fevels of the AtIar\xV
and the Pacific oceans on the opposite coasts of the Isihmtis o
Panama. This is in favour of a uniform level all the world ov-^^
but, on the other hand, lines of level carried across the contir^^.-^
of Europe make the mean sea-level of the Mcdilerraneai* „
Marseilles and Trieste from 2 to 5 ft. below that of the No-i-x
Sea and the Atlantic at Amsterdam, and Btest— « result wlxi<:
" il estuaries and rivers the mean water-level rises ab»^:»^
ica-fevel as the distance from the open coast-tine incre^ ^.-^.
:e. in the Hooghly river, oassing Calcutu. there b a -,^-
n 42 m. between Sagar (Saucor) Island at the moot K *
nd Diamond Harbour, and a further riae of ao in. in a •» J
KanoAdHailKmrandKidderptr. *^ *
TaraCKAFHICAL. SURVEY^
SURVEYING
149
It it 001 essy to explun on tnechaiiica! principles. In India
wknos tidal stationa <m the east and west coasts, at which the
con sea4eviel has been determined from several years* observa-
tiaM» have been ooonected by lines of lievel run along the coasts
tad acmas the continent; the differences between the results were
la xO cases dtxe with greater probability to error generated in
leveling over lines of great length than to actual dificreoccs of
K»-lcvei an different locahties.
The sea>level, howeyer, may not coincide everywhere with the
feBBhctrical figure which most dosely represents the earth's
Qt^tr surface, but may be raised or lowered, here and there,
g H h nf ^ under the influence of local and abnormal attrac-
^^— tioos, presenting an equipotential surface— an ellip-
tni or spheroid of revolution slightly deformed by biunps and
toLsm — which H. Bnins calls a " geoid." Archdeacon Pratt
kis shown that, under the combined influence of the positive
ittxsctioo €d the Himalayan Mountains and the negative attrac-
tion of the Indian Ocean, the sea-level may be some 560 ft.
i^icT at Karachi than at Cape Comorin; but, on the other hand,
the Indian pendulum operations have shown that there is a
ds£ciency of density under the Himalayas and an hicrease under
the bed of the ocean, which may wholly compensate for the excess
«t the Bkountain masses and deficiency of the ocean, and leave
tbe sorface undisturbed. If any bumps and hollows exist, they
aaaot be measured, instrumentally; for the instrumental levels
vfi be affected by the local attractions precisely as the sea-level
a. sad will thus invariably show levd surfaces even should there
be coQskierablc deviations from the geometrical figure.
3. TOPOGRAFHZCAL StniVElB
The skeleton framework of a survey over a large area should
be trian^ulation, although it is frequently combined with travers-
sf The method of filling in the details is necessarily influenced
'js wae extent by the nature of the framework, but it depends
sxrniy on tbe magnitude of the scale and the requisite degree
oi oLiuitiae. In aU instances the principal triangles and circuit
» have to be broken down into smaller ones to furnish a
nunxber ol fixed points and lines for the subsequent
ygeniioos. The filling in nuiy be performed wholly by linear
BGsorements or wholly by direction intersections, but is most
fr^queatly effected by both linear and angular measures, the
f 'C^ser taken with chains and tapes and o0set poles, the latter
«.'Ji small theodolites, sextants, optical squares or other reflect-
r^ isstruments, magnetixed needles, prismatic compasses and
lt.is£ tables. When the scale of a siuvey is large, the linear and
*aj»-.:yr measures are usually recorded on the spot in a field-
irjok and afterwards plotted in office; when small they are
h'Tieiimes drawn on the spot on a plane table and the field-book
5 licensed with.
I;i every country the scale Is generally expressed by the ratio
c' Some fraction or multiple of the smallest to the largest national
-1-15 of length, but sometimes by the .fraction which indicates the
rjo of the length of a line on the paper to that of the concspond-
si^lxut on the ground. The latter form is obnously preferable,
fccs-.g intema-ttonal and independent of the various imits of length
ly^pted by different nations (see Map). In the ordnance
t-^.-ey of Great Britain and Ireland and the Indian survey the
c.»ab.c unit of the foot and the Gunter's link (*iP^of a foot)
it employed, the former invariably in the triangulation, the
Lt'er generaOy in the traversing and filling in, because of Its
:Bv«:£ience in calcnlaiions and measurements of area, a square
-^.^'i'A too Gunter's links being exactly one-tenth of an acre.
Is tSe ordnance survey all linear measures are made with the
'^^ cr • chain, all anrular with small theodolites only; neither
- «- "Axtd oar reflecting instruments nor plane tables are ever
«-.^^^, except in hill sketching. As a rule the filling in is done
fcf Va^^ic-chaininflr only; traverses with theodolite and chain are
■»-^V*akn>' rtssortcd to, but only when it is necessary to work round
»*,.^ ar>d hiU tracts across which right lines cannot be carried.
Dfzsil smfveyint ^ triangles u based on the pK^ints of the minor
' r rxi^nts wl>ere ih ... ^
» '^. the aKgnment is encctcd with a^ small theodoute, and
"- --^ ifation. - i .. , . , ,
Mnts wf>ere the lines of interior detai
sides are first chained perfectly straight, all
' "il cross tne sides being
j-^, xre establish^ at the crossing points and at any other
points on the aides whevs they may be of use in the subsequent
operations. The surveyor is given a diagram of the triangulation.
but no side lengths, as the accuracy of his chaining b tested by
comparison with the tri^nometrioal values. Then straight Knea
are carried across the intermediate detail between the points
establbhcd on the sides; they constitute the principal " cutting up
or apUt linos"; their crotiings of detail are marked in turn and
straight lines are mn between them. The process is continued until
a sufliciertt number of lines and marks have been estabUshed on
the eround to enable all houses, roads, fences, streams, railways,
canals, rivers, boundaries and other details to be conveniently
^ 1 — . 1 £ — 1 n i:„.i Ug^g ^^ limited to
eig Jes of 6 in. to a mile
an
ed by traverses it is
di^ !nt mze, bounded by
roi irersc on the meridian
of ' of each bk)ck. Be-
gii dolite b set to circle
rw e north, and at every
*' i e b set to the same
rea j " back " starion as
wa ilescope was pointing
to leted and the theodo-
Ut ast back starion with
th( Iff, with the telescope
ag ill be the same as at
fir system establishes a
CO erations and enables
th( Item of lines parallel
to r check the traverse
U ( 1 stationsby measured
an ntly carried between
th minor triangles; the
inl r- , jridian, as the axis of
co-ordinates for the plotting, the tek>scope being pointed with circle
reading o* o' to other of the trigonometrical stations at the ex*
tiemiucs of the side..
The plotting b done from the field-books of the surveyors by a
separate agency. Its accuracy is tested by examination on the
ground, when all necessary addenda are made. The examiner
"-'Who should be surveyor, plotter and draughtsman— verifies
the accuracy of the detail by intersections and productions and
occasbnal mrect measurements, and generally endeavours to cause
the details undfer examination to prove the accuracy of each other
rather than to obtain direct proof by rcmeasurement. He fixes con-
spicuous trees and delineates the woods, footpaths, rocks, j>recipices,
steep slopes, embankments^ &c., and supplies the requuite infor-
mation regarding minor objects to eiuble a draughtsman to make
a perfect representation according to the scale of the map. In ex-
amining a coast-line he delineates the foreshore and sketches the
strike and dip of the stratified nocks. In tidal riven he ascertains
and marks the highest points to which the ordinsury tides flow.
The examiner on the 25-344 in. scale (■>i»\ni) is required to eive all
necessary information reearding tbe parcels of ground of different
character — whether arable, pasture, wood, moor, moss, sandy —
defining the limits of each on a separate tracin|: U necessary. He
has also to dbtinguish between turnpike, parish and occupation
roads, to collect alfnames, and to furmsh notes of military, baronial
and ecclesiastical antiquities to enable them to be appropriately
represented in the final maps. The latter are subjected to a double
examination — firat in the ofiice, secondly on the ground; they are
then banded over to the officer in charge of the levelling to have the
levels and contour lines inserted, and finally to the lull sketchers,
whose duty it b to make an artUtic representation of the features
of the ground.
In the Indian survey all filling in b done by plane-tabling on a
basb of points previously fixed; the methods ditTer simply in the
extent to which linear measures are introduced to supplcmest
the direction rays of the plane-table. When the scale of tne survey
is small, direct measurements of distance are rarely made and the
filling b usually done wholly by direction intersections, which fix all
the principal points, and by eye-sketching; but as the scale b
increased linear measures with chains and offset poles are introduced
to tW extent that may be desirable. A sheet of drawing paper b
mounted on cloth over the face of the plane-table; the points,
previously fixed by triangulation or otherwise, are projected on
It — the collateral meridbns and parallels, or the rectangular co-
ordinates, when these are more convenient for employment than
the spherical, having first been drawn; the plane-table b then
ready for use. Operations are begun at a fixed point by aligning
with the sight rule on another fixed point, which brings the meridian
line of the table on that of the station. ^ The magnetic noccllc
may now be placed on the table and a position assigned to It for
future reference. Rays are drawn from the station ooint on the
table to all conspicuous objects around with the aid of tJie slcht rule.
The table is then taken to other fixed poi-- of
ray-drawing b repeated at each; thus a n
of which may beoome available as stat'
fixed. Additional stations may be estab
ISO
SURVEYING
IGEOGRAPIOCAL
table on a ray, adjusting it on the tMck station— that from which
the ray was drawn — and then obtaining a cross intersection with
the sight rule laid on some other Axed point, also by interpolating
between three fixed points situated around the observer. The
magnetic needle may not be relied on for correct orientation,
but is of service in enabling the table to be. set so nearly true at the
outset that it has to be verv slightly altered afterwards. The error
in the setting is indicated by the rays from the surrounding fixed
points intersecting in a small triangle instead of a point, and a slight
change in azimuth suffices to reduce the triangle to a point, which
will indicate the position of the station exacuy. Azimuthal error
being less apparent on short than on long lines, interpolation is
best performed by rays drawn from near points, and checked by
rays drawn to distant points, as the latter show most strongly the
magnitude of any error of the primary magnetic setting. In this
way, and by sdf-verificatory traverses on the back ray " between
fixed points, plane-table stations are established over the ground
at appropriate intervals, depending on the scale of the survey ; and
from th^ stations all surrounding objects which the scale permits
of being shown are laid down on the table, sometimes by rays only,
sometimes by a single ray and a measured distance. The general
confij^uration of the jjround^ is delineated simultaneously. In
ckecktni and txaminalum various methods are followed. For large
scale work in plains it is customary to run arbitrary lines across
it and make an independent survey of the belt of ground to a dis-
tance of a few chains on either side for comparison with the original
survey ; the smaller scale hill topography is checked by examijtation
from commanding points, and also by traverses run across the
finished work on the table.
4. Geographical Susveyikc
The introduction by mechanical means of superior graduation
in instruments of the smaller class has enabled surveyors to effect
good results more rapidly, and with less expenditure
on equipment and on the staff necessary for transport
in the field, than was formerly possible. The i3-in.
theodolite of the present day, with micrometer adjustments to
assist in the reading of minute subdivisions of angular graduation,
is found to be equal to the old 24-in. or even 36-in. instruments.
New Methods for the measurement of bases have largely
superseded the laborious process of measurement by the align-
ment of " compensation " bars, though not entirely independent
of them. The J&derin apparatus, which consists of a wire 25
metres in length stretched along a series of cradles or supports, is
the simplest means of measuring a base yet devised; and experi-
ments with it at the Pulkova observatory show it to be capable
of producing most accurate results. But there is a measurable
defect in the apparatus, owing to the liability of the wires to
change in length under variable conditions of temperature. It
is therefore considered necessary, where base measurements for
geodetic purposes are to be made with scientific exactness, that
the Jaderin wires should be compared before and after use with
a standard measurement, and this standard is best attained by
the use of the Brunncr, or Colby, bars. The direct process of
measurement is not extended to such lengths as formerly, but from
the ends of a shorter line, the length of which has been exactly
determined, the base is extended by a process of triangulation.
There are vast areas in which, while it is impossible to apply
the elaborate processes of first-class or " geodetic " triangulation,
■ it is nevertheless desirable that we shouid rapidly
acquire such geographical knowledge as will enable
■**> us to lay down political boundaries, to project roads
and railways, and to atuin such exact knowledge of special
localities as will further military ends. Such surve>'s are called
by various names— military surveys, first surveys, geographical
surveys, &c.; but, inasmuch as they are all undertaken with the
same end in view, i.e. the acquisition of a sound topographical
map on various scales, and as that end serves civil purposes as
much as miliury, it seems appropriate to designate them geo-
graphical surveys only.
The governing principles of geographical surveys arc rapidity
and economy. Accuracy is, of course, a recognized necessily. but
Prtmc^itt ^^^ term must admit of a ccrUin eUsticity in gco-
whkM graphical work which is inadmissible in geodetic
frtrmOf-oT cadastral functions. It is obviously foolish to
jn^*»' expend as much money over the elaboration oi lopo-
^"'^'^ graphy in the unpeopled sand wastes which bprdtr
the Nile valley, for instance (albeit lh<
topographical detail)* as in the vaHey itsdf— the great centre
of Egyptian cultivation, the great military highway of northern
Africa. On the other hand, the most careful accuracy attainable
in the art of topographical delineation is requisite in illu&lrating
the nature of a district which immediately surrounds what may
prove hereafter to be an important miliUiy poaitioo. And this,
again, implies a dass of technical accuracy which is quite apart
from the rigid attention to detail of a cadastral survey, and
demands a much higher intelligence to compaas.
The technical principles of procedure, however, ate the same in
geographical as in other surveys. A geographical survey must
equally start from a base and be supported by
triangulation, or at least by some process analogous &^^*'
to triangulation, which will furnish the necessary
skeleton on which to adjtAt the topography so as to ensure a
complete and homogeneous map.
Thb base may be found in a variety of ways. If geodetic
triangxilation exists in the country, that triangulation should of
course include a wide extent of secondary determina* 7^,3,^
tions, the fixing of peaks and points in the landscape
far away to either flank, which will either give the data for
further extension of geographical triangulation, or which may
even serve the purposes of the map-maker without any such
extension at all. In this manner the Indus valley series of the
triangulation of India has furnished the basis for surveys across
Afghanistan and Baluchistan to the Oxus and Persia.
Should no such preliminary determinations of the value of one
or two starting-points be available, and it becomes necessary to
measure a base and to work ab iniiio, the Jiderin wire apparatus
may be adopted. It is cheap (cost about £50), and far more
accurate than the process of measuring either by any known
" subtense " system (in which the distance is computed from the
angle subtended by a bar of given length) or by measurement with
a steel chain. This latter method may, however, be adopted so
long as the base can be levelled, repeated measurements obtained,
and the chain compared with a standard steel tape before and
after use.
The initial data on which to start a comprehensive scheme ol
trianeulation for a geographical survey are: (i) latitude: i^omirx^tm
(2) longitude: (3) azimuth; and (4) altitude, and "**»•
this data should, if possible, be obtained pari passu with the
measurement of the base.
A 6-in. transit theodolite, fitted with a micrometer eyepiece
and extra vertical wires, is the instrument per exttlUtHe for work
of this nature; and it possesses the advantages of portability and
comparative cheapness.
The method of using it for the purposes of determining values
for (1) and (3), i.e. for ascertaining the latitude of one end of the
base and the azimuth of the other end from it, are . _^.._^, ^_-
fully explained in Major Talbot s paper on Military TzZ^^^
Survfyini in Ike FiM Q- Mackay & Co.. Chatham. ^*""<*-
1S89). which is not a theoretical treatise, but a practical illustraticm
of methods employed successfully in the geo^phical survey of a
very large area of the Indian transfrontier districts. It should be
noted that these observations are not merely of an initial character.
They should be constantly repeated as the survey advarKCs, and
under certain circumstances (referred to subsequently) they require
dailv repetition.
The problems connected uith the determinatbn of (a) longitudi
have oi late years occupied much of the attention of 8cicnti&
surveyors. No system of absolute determination is - ^
accurate enough for combination with triangulation. «^""ai
as aflordinc a check on the accuracy df the latter, and the space
in the world across which geographical surveying has yet to b
carried are rapidly becoming too restricted to admit of any liabilit
to error so great as is in\-anably involved in such detcmunationi
It is true that absolute values derived from the observation of lurw
dis.tancc^ or occultations, have often proved to be of the htghc;
value; but there remains a degree of unceruinty (possibly dt
to the want of exact knowledge of the moon's position at any ii
stani of lime), ex-en when observations have been taken with a
the advantages of the maM elaborate arrangements and the it*©
fcicntific manipulation, which renders the rouehcst jform oC ti
nngulation more trustworthy for ascertaining dinerential loneitu^
than any comparison between the absolute determination <m at
two ^ints. Consequently, if an absolute determination is f»cct
sary it should be made tnce, with all possible care, and the val
obtained should be carried through the whole scheme of triancrui
lion. It rests with the surveyor to decide at what point of t
•ral survey this value can best be introduced, provided
CEOCRAPHICAM
Ofl cstunate the probable loositadiitti vtlue of his initial base
«:tlua a few minutes of the truth. A final correction in loi^ti-
t:^e b constant, and can easily be applied. With reference to
sicii absolute determinations of longitirae. Major S. Grant's " Dia*
Kram for determining the parallaxes in declination and right aacen<
<w'>n of a heavenly body and its application to the |>rediction of
rr'-ohations " (Roy. Cwg. Sac, Jounu for June 1S96) will afford the
obcrrvcT valuable assistance.
B«t the Rco^iscd method of obtaining a loo^tude value in
ivrat gcographtcal fields is by means of the telegraph — a method
^^^^ so sample and so accurate that it may be applied with
: '*'*?' advantage even to the checking of long hnes of tii-
T**""*** angulation. No effort should be spared to introduce a
*'*' tdegraphic longitude value into any scheme of geo-
fnkpUcal survey. It involves a clear line and an mstnicted observer
it each end« but« given these desiderata, the interchange of time
: for an
SURVEYING
' an accurate record only requires a night or
T«o of clear weather. But inasmuch as rigorous accuracy in the
<i '^-rt Jtions for time is necessary, it would be well for the surveyor
i~ :be field to be pnnided with a sidereal chronometer. Under all
^:K(T circumstances demanding time observations (and they are
3' nvntial supplement to every class of astronomical determina-
-..t) as ordinary mean time watch is sufficient.
iSith reference to altitude dcterminatioas, there has lately been
ubvnrable amongst surveyors a growing distrust of barometric
^ rcMjlts and a reaction in favour of direct levelling, or of
*^*^ differential results derived from direct observation with
the theodolite (or clinometer) rather than from comparison of those
6^ttvaMBA by aneroid or hypsoroeter. It is indeed impossible to
f^ liaate the unceruintics due to the variable atmospheric pressure
L' traduced by " weather" changes from any barometric record. A
r«:carial barometer advantageously placed and carefully observed
At ktad diumal intervals throughout a comparatively lon^ period
■ay give fairly trustworthy results if a constant companson can
*jr joaintaiacd throughout that period with similar records at sea-
'•%H. or at any fixra altitude. Vet observations extending over
v^TTsI months have been found to ^yield results which compare-
nu« unfavMuably with those attained during the process of
tmagolation by continued lines of vertical observations irom pojnt
*s pnic. even when the uncertainties of the correction for refractbn
T taken into account. Errors introduced into vertical obscrva>
'i "s by refraction are readily ascertainable and comparativeljy
.'.•voortant in their effect. Those due to variable atmospheric
ovditions on barometric records are still indefinite, and are likely
*' rrmain so. The result has been that the latter have been rele-
(.*Kj to purely local conditions of survey, and that whenever
p'.-icable the fomer are combined with the general process of
rruagalation.
TIk conditioos under which geographical surveys can be
ozoed out are of infinite variety, bat those conditions are rare
srhich absolutely preclude the possibility of any such
^surveys at alL Perfea freedom of action, and the
recognition of such work as a public benefit, are not
olten attainable. Far more frequently the oppor-
tunity offers itself to the surveyor with the progress
^ of a political mission or the advance of an army in the
£rld It cannot be too strongly insisted on that geographical
^srvty% are functions of both civil and militaxy operations. Very
Bxh of siKb work is also possible where a country lies open to
a^U;rataoo, ZMt actively hostile, but yet unsettled and adverse to
tuasgcrs. The geographical surveyor has to fit himself to all
6.'h cooditions, and it may happen that a continuous, compre-
insive scbcsne o2 triangulation as a map basis is impossible.
Cader soch circumstances other expedienU must be adopted to
CTSjne that accuracy of position which cannot be attained by
'u. topograpber unaided.
Dvrmg a Umg<ontinued march extending through a line of
rt.Btry gractaily fa\'ourable for survey p ur po s e s a condition
^. vbkh frequently occur^-when forward movement is
?*** . a necessity, and an average of 10 to 15 m. of daily
■ **■• pi o gres s is maintained, one officer and an assistant can
-r^sam a dady base, obtain the neceasaiy astronomical deter-
* eif mi uiaogulate from both ends so as to fix the admuth and
< uasKw frosa the base of points passed yesterday and those to be
.-u«wd to-fTfeorrow: project those points on to the topographer's
..tte-caUe co be ready for the next day's work, and check each
<^'% record by latitude; whilst a second assistant runs the topo-
ra?^ thnyugh the route, basing his work on points so fixed, on
"*« irale of 2 or a m. Co the iiKh. sccording to the amount of detail.
'*' A^Monally a hill can be reached in the course of the day's march,
' '. ^ruig a day's halt, which will materially asast to consolidate
••5 streagthm tbe ssriea. , ^ .
It nay. I mw v ar, frequently be impossible to aumtain a coa-
SMBM serie* of crfangalawNi for tha " control " (to osa an AmHieaa
151
_ . tbe topography, even when tba oonfigurstton of
the land surface ts favouiabie. In such circumstanees the method
of observing axtmuths to points situated approximately
near to the probable route in advance, and of detei^
mining the exact position of those points in latitude H^f',
as one by one they are passed by the moving force, c*""**
has been found to yield results which are quite sufficiently
accurate to ensure the final adjustment of the entire route geography
to any subsequent system of triangulation which nuy be extended
through the country traversed, without serious discrepancies in
compdation. It is, however, obvious that as accuracy depends
greatly on the exact determination of absolute latitude values,
this method is best adapted to a route ninninc approximately
parallel to a meridian, and is at complete disadvantage in one
running east and west. Where the conditions are favourable to
iu apfdkatiott, it has been adopted with most satisfactory results;
as, for instence, on the route between Scistan and Herat, where the
initial data for the Russo>Afghan boundary ddimiution was secured
by this means, and more recent^ on the boundary surveys of
western Abyssinia.
When an active enemy n m the fidd, and topographical <
tions am conseouently restricted, it is usually poidble to <
the necessary- "control" {xjt. a few welNfixedpointe
determined by triaiwulation) for topography in advance
of a position securely held. With a very little assist*
ance from the trianguUtor an experienced topographer will he
able to sketch a fidd of action with far more certainty and rapidity
than can be attained by the ordinary so<alled " miliury surveyor,^'
and he may, in favourable circumstances, combine his work with
that of the militery balloonist in such a way as to represent every
feature of unportance, even in a widdy extended pontkm fadd hi
the enemy. The applkation of the camera and of telephotography
to tbe evolution of a map of the enemy's podtion is well understood
in France (osde Colond Laussedat's treatise on "The History of
Topography "), as it is in Russia, and we must in future expect
that all advanteges of an expert and professional map of the whole
theatre of a campaign will lie in the hands of the generd who is
best supplied with profcsdonal expertt to compass them. Geo-
graphical surveying and military surveying are convertiUe terms,
and it is important to note that both equally require the services
of a highly trained staff ofprofessional topographers. During the
war between Russia and Turkey.(i877-7ft) upwards of a hundred
professional geographical surveyors were pressed into military
service, besides the regular survey staff which is attached to every
army corps. Triangulation was carried across the Balkans by
eight different series; every pass and every notoble feature of the
Balkans and Rhodope Mountains was accurately surveyed, as well
as the plains intervening between the Balkans and Constentlnopfe.
Surveys on a scale which averaged about I m. ■■ 1 in. were
carried up to the very gates of the city.
The use of the camera as an accessory to the plane ttble (t.r.
the art of photo-topography) has been applied almost exdusively
to geographical or exploiatofy surveys. The camera
is specially prepared, resting on a graduated horiaontal '
pfaite which is read with verniers, and with a small '
telescope and vertical are attached. Cross wires are fixed la the
focal plane of the camera, which is also fitted with a magnetic
needle and a scale so placed that the magnetic declination, the
scale, and the intersection of the cross wires are all photographed
on the plate containing th4* view^ A panoramk: group of views
(slighdy overlapping each other) is token at each station, and
the angular disunce between each is measured on the horiSontal
circle. The process of constructing the horisontal projection
from these pasoective vicwa involves plotting the skeleton tri-
angulation, as o«>tainod from the primary triangulation, with the
theodolite (whkh precedes the photo-topographfeal survey), or
from the horizontal plate of the camera. With several stations so
plotted, the view from each of them of a certein portion of the
country ma^r be projected on the plane of the map, and imlinir
pointo seen in perspective may be fixed by intcraectbn.
The fidd work of a photo-topographic party consists primarily
in execution of a triangulation by the usual methods which would
be adapted to any onlinary topographkal survey. To this is
added a secondary triangulation, which is executed ^ort pasx»
with the photography for the purpose of fixing the positk>n of the
camera stetions. From such sutions alone the topographkal
detaOa are finally secured with the aid of the photographs. Great
care is necessary in the sdection of stetkms that will be suitable
both for the extension of triangulation and the purposes of closed
overlooking topographical detaUa In order to obtein means for
correctly orienting the photographic views when plotting the map
from dwm, it is usual, whilst making the exposures, to observe
two or three points in each view with the alt-anmuth attached to the
camera, in order to ascertein the horisontal and verti^l angles
between them. It is also advisable to keep an outline sketch
of the landscape for the purpose of recoH' -4ds,
buildings. &c.
The process of projecting the map from
the use of two drawing>boaniB, on one
dsterminacioa of tha pointa la 1
152
SURVEYING
(TRAVERSING AND FISCAL ^
of the final topography are drawn. The principal trigonometrical
points are plotted on both these board* by their co-ordinates,
and the camera stations either by their co<«rdinate values or by
intersection. Intermediate points, selected as appearing on two
or more negatives, are then projected by interMction. The hori-
zontal projection of a panorama consisting of any given number of
plates ts a re^lar geometrical figure of as many sides as there are
plates, enclosing an inscribed circle whose radhis is the focal length
of the camera. Having correctly plotted the position of one plate,
or view. with reference to the projected camera station by means
of the angle observed to some known point within it, it is possible
to plot the position of the rest of the scries, with reference to the
camera station and the orienting triangulation point, by the angular
diiTercnces which are dependent on the number of photographs
forming the sides of the geometrical figure. Having secured the
correct orientation of the horizontal plan, direction lines are drawn
from the plotted camera station to points photographed, and the
position of topographical features is bxed by ihtersection from two
or more camera stations.
The pbne-table is the instrument, ter excellence^ on which the
geographical surveyor must depend lor the final mapping of the
physical features of the country under survey. The
y^?^ methods of adapting the plane-table to. geographical
"**• requirements diner with those varying chmatic con-
ditions which affect its construction. In the comparatively dry
climate of Asiatic Russia or of the United States, where errors
arising from the unequal expansion of the plane-table board are
insigmficant. the plane-table ts largely made use of as a triangulat-
ing iiutrument, and is fitted with slow-motion screws and with
other appliances for increasing the certainty and the accuracy
ot observations. Such an adaptation of the plane-table is found
to be impossible in India, where the great alternations of tempera-
ture, no less than of atmospheric humidity, tend to vitiate the ac-
curacy of the projections on the surface of the board by the unequal
effects of expansion in the material of which it is composed. The
Indian plane-table is of the simplest possible construction, and it
is never used in connexion with the stadia for ascertaining the
distances of points and features of the ^und (as is the case in
America): and in place of the complicated American alidade,
with its telescope and vertical arc, a simple sight rule is used, and
a chirometer for the measurement of vertical angles. The Indian
plaite-table approximates closely in general construction to the
Gannett *' pattern of America, which is specially constructed
for exploratory surveys.
The scale on which geographical surveys are conducted is neces-
sarily troall. It may be reckoned at from i : 500000 to I s 125000,
or from 1 itwS m. to i in.«2 m. The i in.-i m.
''^■'^ scaVe is the normal scale for rigorous topography, and
although it is impossible to fix a definite line beyondf which geo-
graphical scales merge into topographical (for instance, the I -in.
scale is classed as geographical in America whenever the con-
tinuous line contour system <A ground representation gives place
to hachuring), it is convenient to assume generally that geograpnical
scales of mapping are smaller than the i-m. scale.
On the smaller scales of I : 500000 or i : 250000 an experienced
geographical surveyor, in favourable country, will complete an area
n.t_t,,i *^ mapping from day to day whkit will practically cover
""""^' nearly all that falls within his range of vision; and he
will, in the course of five or six months of continuous travelling
(especially if provided with^ the necessary " control ") cover an
area of geographical mapping illustrating all important topographical
features representable on the small scale of his survey, which may
be reckoned at tens of thousands of square miles. But inasmuch
as everything depends upon his range of vision, and the constant
occurrence of suitable features from whidi to extend it, there is
obviously no guiding rule by which to reckon his probable out-turn.
The same uncertainty which exists about '* out-turn " manifestly
exists about " cost." The normal cost of the i-in. rigorous topo-
fjrt graphical survey in India, when carried over districts
• which present an average of hills, plains and forests,
may be estimated as between 35 to 40 shillings a square mile. This
compares favourably with the rates which obtain in America
over districts which probably present far more facilities for survey-
ing than India doeSv but where cheap native labour is unknown.
The gcoifraphical surveyor is simpty a topographer empk>yed
on a smaller scale survey. His equipment and staff are somewhat
less, but, on the other hand, his travelling expenses are greater.
It is found that, on the whole, a fair average for the cost of geo-
graphical work may be struck by applying the square of, the unit
ol scale as a factor to i-m. survey rates; thus a quarter-inch scale
•"•^^f u '♦."*• ^^ *^ "*-^' **»o"W be one-sixteenth of the cost p^r
mile of the i-m. survey over simibr ground. A geographical reo
naissanceonthescaleof 1 : 500000 (8 m. - 1 in.) »houW be one-six
lourth ot the square-mile cost of the l-in. survey, &c. Tkst
indeed, a close approximatk>n to the results obuined on the Ind
transfrontier, and would probably be found to hold good for Brit
colonial possessions. , ,
In processes of map reproductk>n an invention for the rinrnlMIJ
of drawings by a method of direct printing on one initl!S&
intervention 01 a negative has proved U great «*Ti%Tri MM
ni<nhod a considerable quantity of work fuM been tuned out in '
much less time and at a much lower cost than would be j. .^^ <
involved by any process of photo-zincography or JJJ/^ •*
lithography. A large number of cadastral maps >
have been reproduud at about one-ninth of the ordinary «
cadastral rate. "^
For the rapid reproduction of geographu»l maps in the field ia '
order to meet the requirements of a general conducting s campaign.
or of a political officer on a boundary mission, no wtter rwtbod
has been evolved than the ferrotype process, by which blue prints •;
can be secured in a few hour\ from a drawing of the original on
tracing-cloth. The sensitized paper and printing-frame are far :
more portable than any photo-lithexraphic apparatus. Skctchfs
iliustrarive of a field of action may be placed in the hands of the "
general commanding on the day following the action, if the veatha
conditions are favourable for their development. The necesaty 1
for darkness whilst dealing with the sensitized material ii a drav-
back, but it may usually be arranged with blankeu and waterproof
sheets when a tent is not available.
5., Traversing and Fiscal, or Revenue, Sueveys
- Traversing is a combination of linear and angular measures id
equal proportions; the surveyor proceeds from point to point,
measuring the lines between them and at each point the angle
belwoen ihe back and forward lines; he runs his lines as much as
possible over level and open ground, avoiding obstacles by work-
ing round them. The system is well suited for laying down roads,
boundary lines, and circuitous features of the ground, and \s
very generally resorted to for filling in the Interior details of
surveys based on triangxUation. It has been largely empbycd
in certain districts of British India, which had to be surveyed iiv 3.
manner to satisfy fiscal as well as topographical requirements;
for, the village being the administrative unit ol the district, the
boundary of every village had to be laid down, and this necessi-
tated the survey of an enormous number of circuits. Moreo\'er,
the traverse system was better adapted for the country than a
network of triangulation, as the ground was generally very dat
and covered with trees, villages, and other obstacles to distant
vision, and was also devoid of hills and other commanding points
of view. The principal triangulation had been carried across it,
but by chains executed with great difficiJly and expense, ar.A
therefore at wide intervals apart, with the intention that the
intermediate spaces should be provided with points as a basis
for the genera! topography in some other way. A system d
traverses was obviously the best that could be adopted under the
circumstances, as it not only gave all the village boundaries, but
was practically easier to execute than a netwotlL ^ xs^^
triangulation.
In the Indian survey the traverses are executed in mind
circuits following the periphery of each village and in tniW'
circuits comprising groups of several villages; the former art!
done with 4' to 6' theodolites and a »ngle chain, the latter witi
7' to 10' theodolites and a pair of chains, which are compare*
frequently with a standard. The main circuits are connectc;
with every station of the principal triangulation within reacti
The meridian of the origin is determined by astronomical obsc
vations; the angle at the origin between the meridian and iV
next station is measured, and then at each of the successiv
stations the angle between the immediately preceding and follov
ing stations; summing these together, the " inclinations '* o\ v1
lines between the stations to the meridian of the origin are succe
sivcly determined. The distances between the stations, mul
plied by the cosines and sines of the inclinations, g;ive the Aislar
of each station from the one preceding it, resolved in the din
tions parallel and perpendicular respectively lo the meridian
the origin; and ihe algebraical sums of these quantities give \
corresponding rectangular coK>rdinates of the successive sta-ti*
relatively to the origin and iu meridian. The area included
" jjy the formula
^ ot products (xi4-JCa> (>W— yO (
. of the tot. and act, y» those of
I'of the traverse In succession ro^
o.both appBcable at the c
ig. the sum of ssU the in:<
' |<fae equal to twice as o
r
SURVEYING
«5S
ifitiqiisu Uic figure ha« adest lets four; the Mcond is linear,
VL the algebrajcal sum of the x co-ordinates and that of the y
annfiiates (hould each be«o. The astronomical test is this:
Kaqfflatioo of the ttaverae the azimuth of a referring marlc may
bedctmniaed by aatfononical observations; the inclination m
i^Hk between the station and the referring mark to the meridian
'/i^or^in is given by th<v traverse, the two should differ by the
ra^tritflcy of the meridians of the station and the origin. In
iniitt the aogtes of the traverse are usually adjusted to satisfy
■^ipKalgBometrical and astronomical tests In the first instance,
Kii^ the oMxdiaates of the stations are calculated and adjusted
h irrnxtioos applied to the longest, that the angles may be least
-isiW. as no further corrections are given them.
'n<taact ^«luc of the convergence, when the distance and ad-
ten* math of the eeoond astronomical station from the first
my m known, ia that, of B—if-^A) of equation (5):
Mins but, as the first term is sufficient for a traverse, we have
oonvergMcy-ix tan X ■ ^ -'.
s-kiiutln^ z, the co-ordinate of the second station perpendicular
' '< neridian of the origin, for c sin X.
7^^ oHifdinates of the principal stations of a tngonometrical
£Aey ue uttaUy the spherical co-ordinates of latitude and loagi*
•^,1^ tude; tlioee of a traverse survey are always rccungular,
tfr^ plane for a' small area but spherical for a large one.
,B,_j- It is often necessary, therefore, for purposes of cora-
.^.7 parison and check at stations common to surveys of
^^ l»th descriptionB. to convert either rectanpilar co-
ordinates into latitudes and longitudes, or vice versa,
Border (iat the errors of traverses naay be dispersed by proportion
'"^'laoHjrdinatcs of the traverse stations, if desired, o» adjusted
-vtt final mapming. The latter is generally all that b necessary,
'^ pmicuUrty when the traverses are referred to successive
'^'e^aooKtrical stations as origins, aa the operations are being
""I'M in order to prevent any large accumulation of error.
^J« conversions are aJso frequently necessary in map projections.
'^nwhod of effecting them will now be indicated.
^4»aiBh^ any two points, Aa the meridian ol A, Bb the
P»ud d latitude of B; then i4 6, £6 will be their differences in
-^ . latitude and longitude: from B draw BP
!t^2>"^ perpendicular to Aa; then AP, BP
S Tfr?* *3l be the rectangular spherical co-ordin-
•^■■■* ctea of B relatively to A. Put BP^x,
iiP-y. the arc Pb^n, and the arc Bb, the differ-
ence of lonptude,«w; also let X«, X* and X* be
the latitudes of /I, B, and the point P, p, the radius
of curvature of the meridian, and Pp the normal ter-
r, mlaating in the axis minor for the latitude X,,; and
.) »i *-. ^ P» be the radius of curvature for the latitude
•**.;: Then, when the rectangular co-ordinates are given, we
*• *' liking A as the origin, the latitude of which is known,
>»-X.+2co«ci";t--2^tanX,coseci"; 1
PS ap^"* f(i9).
^-^-^cosec l"— ^; M«=^sec(X»+ Ji») coscc 1" J
^ ••wi the latitude and longitude are given, we have *
'-(r)'^
I 2 X« sin
;■}
(20).
y-p4x*-x.-fii|s4ji
Xaidi',^X)S(X*+1v)6m
; J^/ '^R^^ or other prominent object haa been observed
njmber of sUtions whose co-ordinates are already fijted, the
^««Hifaa converging rays may be projected graphically, and from
•fCwirtw *" ftc aminaiion of their several intersections the most
fut piDbaUe poaition of the object may be obtained almost
A-». ^.■? ^"^'"ately as by calculations bv the method of least
^ rf* "«vwy bborious and out of place for the detcr-
\ tjg -Jj. * .•econdarjf point. The following is a description
'•^oulu^?* ? ***•* method to points on a plane surface
-^«?5S?*~ ^ ^^ ordnance surv^r. Let ji, «,,... be
. i J, '"^ wctaogular co-ordinate^ «i, ir„ . . . perpendicular,
' «ir? * * ■ P***"*!* to the meridian of the origin are given;
''i ii» mLu- • °? **** bearing*— here the direction-inclinations
^lerLT^Sf" ^ *>« origfn-of any point P, as observed at
*• oxJrfiSS?*** *""* let ^ be aa approximate positkm of P,
Ift^vt lZr^%» yp» •• determined bynaphical projection on
\^n^mZ^y°!^^ calculation. Construct a diagram of
■round p, by taldng a point to represent P
— tbrough it at right angles to each other to
tables are employed for these calculations
I' of anc in feet pn the meridian, and on
*t intervals of 5' apart; also a corresponding
V of spheroidal arcs of parallel (Bb) I* in
''«C;V«r8ines for shorter or longer arcs are
^«* equarcs of the arcs; x is taken aa the
'Vtcd into linear measure.
J
indicate the directioas of WMth, south, cast and west. Gakubta
accurately (yp— yO tan <h. and compare with (x,-«xi); the differ-
ence will show how far the dircctbn of the ray from si falls to the
east or west of ^. Or calculate (x^— Xi) pot ai, and compare with
(yp-^yi) to find how far the direction falls to the north or south of
pb Set off the distance on the corresponding aada of p, and through
N
Fig. 6.
the point thus fixed draw the direction ai with a common protractor.
All the other rays around P may be drawn in like manner; they wflf
intersect each other in a number of points, the centre of which may
be adopted as the most probable position of P. The co-ordinates
of P will then be readily obtained from those of p*the distances
on the meridian and perpendicular. In the annexed diagram
(fig. 6) P is supposed to have been observed from five stations,
giving as many intersecting rays, (l, i), (2, 2), . . . ; there are ten
points of intersection, the mean position of which gives the true
position of P, the assumed position being p. Tfie advantages
claimed for the method are tnat, the bearings being independent,
an erroneous bearing may be redrawn without disturbing those that
are correct; similarly new bearings may be introduced without
disturbing previous work, and observations from a large number
of stations may be readily utilized, whereas, when calculation
is resorted to, observations in excess of the minimum number
rec[uired are frequently rejected because of the labour of computing
them.
Authorities.— Clarke, Geodesy (London); Waller, "India's
Contribution to Geodesy," Trans, Roy. Soc., vol. clxxxvi. (1895);
Thuillier, Manual of Surveying for India (Calcutta) ; Gore, Hand-
book of Professional Instructions for the Topographical Branch
Survey of India Department (Calcutta) ; D'A. 'Jackson* Aid to
Survey Practice (London, 1899); Woodthorpe, l^nts to Travellers
(PUne-tabling section); Grant, "Diagram for Determlninc Pacal*
laxcs,'* &c., Gcoe. Joum. (June 1896); Pierce, "Economic Use
of the Planc-Table," vol. xai. pt. ii., Pro. Inst. Civ. Ent- ; Bridges-
Lee, Photopaphic Surveying (1899); London Society of Engineers;
Laussedat, Recherches sur les instruments les milhodes et le dessin
topographi^ue (Paris, 1898); H. M. Wilson, Topographic Surveyint
1905); Professional Papers Royal Engineers (occasional
(New York. , , . . - ,
paper scries), vol. xiii. paper v. by Holdich; vol. xiv. paper ii. by
Talbot ; voK xxvi. paper I by MacDonnell (R.E. Institute. Chatham).
(T. H. H.*)
6. Natttxcal Sukveyinc
The great majority of nautical surveys are carried out by
H.M. surveying vessels under the orders of the hydrographer
of the admiralty. Flans of haibours and anchorages arc also
received from H.M. ships in commissloa on foreign stations,
but surveys of an extended nature can hardly be executed
except by a ship specially fitted and carrying a trained staff
of officers. The introduction of steam plac^ means at the
disposal of nautical surveyors which largely modified the con-
ditiQns under which they had to work in the orlier days of sailing
vessels, and it has enabled the ship to be used in various ways
previously impracticable. The heavy draught of ship^ in the
present day, the growing increase of ocean and coasting traffic
•11 over the world, cou)Jed witii the desire to save distance by
rounding points of land and othor dangers as closely as possible,
demand surveys on larger scales and in greater detail than
was fonncrly necessary; and to meet these modem requiiemcnta
resurveys of many parts of the world are continually bciof;
called for. Nautical surveys vary much in character- according
to the nature of the work, its importance to " * " ^ ^ <he
time available. The elaborate methods * ^
a triangulation for geodetic pttipoaes on r
(
IS6
SURVEYING
(NAUTICAL
and the ^eodoKte mding of it be noted, the obaerved angte» may
be reduced to what they would be at the centre of the station.
False stations have frequently to be made in practice; a simple
rule to meet all cases b of great asststance to avoid the possibility
of error in applying the oorrection with its proper sign. This
may very easily be found as follows, without having to bestow a
moment's thon^ht beyond applying the rule, Which b a matter of
no small gain m time when a large number of angles have to be
corrected.
J^ak.— Put down the theodolite reading which it b required to
(increased II necessary by 360"), and from it subtract the
theodolite reading o( the centre of the
station. Call thia remainder B. With
• as a " course *' and the number of feet
from the theodolite to the station aa a
" distance," enter the traverse table and
take out the greater increment if $ lies
^reaUr \ X &f*att^ between 45* and Ijj}*, or between 225*
O
metier \/tf<TuU
l>vwanint/\rncrBmfHA *"^ 3«5'. and the^'faier increment Jot
-^ > >^ other angles. The aooompanymg dia-
mm (fie. 10) will assist the memory.
Refer this increment to the " table of
725^ Increment ^SJ» subtended angles by various leiKths at
different distances (using the distance
Fig 10 ^ ^^^ object observed) and find the
corresponding correction in arc, which
mark + or — according as 6 is under or over 180*. Apply this
correction to the c^Mervcd theodolite angle. A " table of subtended
angles " b unnecessary if the fOTihula
Angle in seconds-T"^^ ^,^?^ 8ubtendedX34 ^ ^ . ^
rt»Bic in BW.WUUS distance of object in sca-milcs *^ ""^ "»^^i*.
ComertenCy of Meridians.— -The diflfcrcnce of the reciprocal true
bearings between two stations is called the " convergency." The
formula, for calculating it b : Conv. in minutes ^dist. in sea>miles
X sin. Merc, bearing X tan. mid. lat. Whenever true bearings
arc used in triangulation, the effect of convergency must be con-
sidered and applied. In north btitudcs the southerly bearing; b
the greater of the two, and in south latitudes the northerly beann^.
The Mercatorial bearing between two stations is the mean of their
reciprocal true bearings.
After a preliminary run over Ihc ground to note suitable
positions for main and secondary stations on prominent head-
TrUagw lands, blands and summits not too far back from
laUdCotut the coast, and, if no former survey exists, to make
Survty. ^^ ^jjg gj^jjjg ^ijjjg ^ rough plot of them by compass
and patent log, a scheme must be formed for the main
triangulation with the object of enclosing the whole survey in
as few triangles as possible, regard being paid to the limit of
vision of each station due to its height, to the exbting meteoro-
logical conditions, to the limitations imposed by higher land
intervening, and to its accessibility. The triangles decided
upon should be well>conditioned, taking care not to introduce
an angle of less than 30° to 35^, which b only permissible when
the two longer sides of such a triangle are of nearly equal length,
and when in the calculation that will follow one of these sides
shall be derived from the other and not from the short side.
In open country the selection of stations is comparatively an
easy matter, but in country densely wooded the time occupied
by a triangulation b mainly governed by the judicious selection
of stations quickly reached, sufficiently elevated to command
distant views, and situated on summits capable of being readily
cleared of trees in the required direction, an all-round view being,
of course, desirable but not always attainable. The positions
of secondary stations will also generally be decided upon during
the preliminary reconnaissance. The object of these stations
is to break up the large primary triangles into triangles of smaller
size, dividing up the distances between the primary stations
into suitable lengths; they are selected with a view to greater
accessibility than the latter, and should therefore usually be
near the coast and at no great elevation. Upon shots from these
will depend the position of the greater number of the coast-Une
marks, to be erected and fixed as the detailed survey of each
section of the coast is taken in hand in regular order. The nature
of the base to be used, and its position in order to fulfil **- ^-
ditions specified under the head of Bases must be co
the base when extended forming a side of one of the main \
side at the other «ttfeme of the survey, derived by cakuUtion :
through the whole system of triangles, with its length deduced
from a check base measured in its vicinity. It is generdly a
saving of time to measure the base at some anchorage or harbour
that requires t hirge scale plan. The triangulation involved
in extending the base to connect it with the main triangulation
scheme can thus be utiiixed for both purposes, and while the
triangidation is being calculated and plotted the survey of the
pUn can be proceeded with. Tnc bearings are observed at
both ends of the loivey and tlie Tesnlts subsequently compared.
Astronomical observations for latitode axe obtained at observa-
tion spots near the extremes of the survey and the meridian
distance rtm between them, the observation spots being connected
with the primaiy triangulation; they are usually disposed at
intenrab of ftom 100 to 150 m., and thus errors due to a tri-
angulation carried out with theodolites of moderate dbmeter
do not accumulate to any serious extent. If the survey is
greatly extended, intermediate observation spots afford a satis-
factory check, by comparing the positions as calctiated in the '.
triangulation with those obtained by direct observation.
CaUnlatine tiu TriampdaHon.—Tht tzianglea aa observed being
tabubted, the angles of each triangle are corrected to brin^ their
sum to exactly i8o^ We must expect to find errors in the triangles
of as much as one minute, but under favourable conditions they
may be much less. In distributing the errors we must consider
the general skill of the observer, the siae of hb theodolite relatixTly
to the others, and the conditwns under which hb angles were
observed; failing any particular reason to assign a larger error to
one angle than to another, the error must be divided equally.
bearing in mind that an alteration in the small angle will make
more difference in the resulting position than in either of the other
two, and as it approaches 30* (the limit of a receivins; angle) it b
well to change it but very slightly in the absence oT any strong
reason to the contrary. Ine length of base being determined, the
sides of all the triangles involved are calculated by the ordiaary
rules of trigonometry. Surtint^ from the true bearing observed at
one end of the survey^ the bearm^ of the side of each triani^ that
forms the immediate line of junction from one to the other is found
by applying the angles necessary fw the purpose in the respective
triangles, not forgetting to apply the convergency between each pair
of stations when reversing the bearings. The bearing of the bnal
side is then compared with the bearins obtained by direct observa-
tion at that end of the survey. The difference b princifnlly due to
accumulated errors in the triangulation; half of the diffcrciKe b then
applied to the bearing of each side. Convert these true bearings
into Mercatorial bearings by applying half the convergency bet^txti
each pair of stations. With the lengths of the connecting aides
found from the pleasured base and their Mercatorial bearing, the
Mercatorial bearing of one observation spot from the other b found
by middle latitude sailing. Taking the observed astronomical
positions of the observation spots and first reducing thctr true
difference longitude to departure, as measored on a sphercnd from
the rormaU Dep.-T. D. long. ISi £ U '. I'^t?" - '^ "^ «»■*
d. Ut. and dep. the Mercatorial true bearinc and distance between
the observation spots b caknilated by middle latitude sailing, and
compared with that by triangulation and measured base. To
adjust any discrepancy, it b necessary to consider the prdbabk
error of the observations for latitude and meridian distance; within
those limits the astronomical positions may safely be altered in osxhi
to harmonize the results: it b more important to bring the bearingi
into close agreement than the distance. From the atncndcj
astronomical portions the Mercatorial true bearings and distanr^
between them are re<aku1ated. The difference between ihn
Mercatorial bearing and that found from the triansalation am
measured base must be applied to the bearing of each aide to ge
the final corrected bearings, and to the logarithm of each sitic c
the triangulation as originally calculated must be added or s>j!j
tracted the difference between the logarithms of the distance of th
amended positions of the observation spots and the nme dsFt-^ooe b
triangulation.
QUemlatini JntermediaU AskonomietJ Positions^— -The Utitod
and longitude of any Intermediate main station maty nov li
calculated from the finally corrected Mercatorial true besrini
and lengths of sides. The difference longitude so found in wlw%t
would be if meaMired oo-'t true aphere, whereas we require it i
tneaamd on ji,^apliniQ|i^<«M^ U aHghtly leas. The corrccti«i
be subtracted; or ^hc
fH
direct from the
mqncALi
4\kt ndo aad tMr lenglbs ultimattly ■ depend alioMt «iUrdy
•poa the asnDnomka) otMsrvadons st toe extnene* of tlie survey;
tk obeerved uue bearings and measured base are oonseoueiuly
moK ia the nature of checks than aaythlng else. It is obvious,
xttKiooe, tbAt the nearer together the observation 6])ots. the greater
dxt will a given error in the astronomical positions have upon
ik tcagth and dinctioo of the sides of the triangulatton, and m
AKh c»es the beariags as actually observed must not be altered
u isy lar^ extent when a triiUng change in the astronomical
(ntjons mig^t perhaps effect the rcouired harmony. For the
*^vas given under Astronomical Base, nigh land near observation
£«(> may cauac very false results, which may often account for
csiepancies when situated on opposite sides of a mountainous
UiSKry.
Great caxe is reqntBttein projecting on paper the points of a
ssvey. Ibe paper should be allowed to stretch and shrink
M it pleases until it comes to a stand, being exposed
to the air for four or five hours daily, and finally
tdl fiattened out by being placed on b table iwith diawmg
bonds placed over it heavUy vwighted. If the triangutation
^ been calcolated beforehand throughout, and the lengths of
C the diffevent sides have been found, It h more advantageous
to begia plotting by distances rather than by chords. The
■BB si&tkMM are thus got down in less time and "with less tiwible,
kA these are only a small proportion of the points to be plotted,
ia4 Vxag lines must be ruled between the sutions as seros fsr
pigtiJDg other points by chords. In ruling these lines care
£A be tnkcn to draw them exactly through the centre of the
pds denoting the stations, but, however carefnlly drawn, there
B lability to alight enor in any line projected to A point lying
kjwd the distance of the stations between which the aero Mne
B <!ia«n. Ia plotting hy distances, therefore, all points that
»a sabfieqvently have to be plotted by chords should lie well
s^dsa the area covered by the main triangulation. Three
ttiiBces must be measured to obtain an intersection of the arcs
mting each other at a sufficiently broad anf^e; the plotting
4 the main stations once begun must be completed before
Astflition of the paper can occur from change in the humidity
^ '^ atmofipbere. Plotting, whether by distance or by chords,
^ be begun on as kmg a side as possible, so as to plot inwirds,
^' siih decreastng distances* In plotting "by chords it is impor-
■:jci u> remember in the selection of lines of reference (or zero
'^), that that should be preferred which makes the smallest
ii^t vith the line to be projected from it. and of the angular
fbcjix those nearest to the object to be projected from them.
brt^ar Metkais qf Pl9ttmi.-^\n surveys for the ordinary
i jrpoc^ of navigation, it frequently happens that a regular system
'< 'Tur^ulatioo cannot be carried out, and recourse must be had to
: -snctv of devices; the judicious use of the ship in such cases is
''» essential, and with proper care excellent results may be
J-jAcd, A few examples will best illustrate some of the methods
M-1. btft circumstances vary so much in every survi^ that it is
"J; poeible to meet them properly by studymg^ each case as it
-- *!«. and to improvise methods. Fixing a twsi'tion by means c#
'X " back-angle ^ is one of the most ordinary expedients. Angles
iim^ faeea oSaerved at A« to the station B. and certain other fixed
?v B» o< the survey, C and D for insunoe; if A is shot up from B,
i v^Jrh fetation angles to the same fixed^ points have been observed,
t "5 k fa tK>e necessary to visit those points to fix A. For instance,
•^ tS* triingle ABC, two of the ancles have been observed . and thero-
^ tae thifd angle at C is known (the three angles of a triangle being
SURVEYING
*57
often invaluable in carryina <
■ may remain visible when all i
r:M CO 180*). and it is called the " calculated or back^angle from
■ * ' / coodition b that the receiving anelc at A. between
nrect or calculated), must be sufnctcnily broad to
'■-, two fines »
r* & good cat: also the points from which the " back-angles " are
'A Mxed afaoold not be Btuated at too great distances from A.
aaiiAdy CO the distance between A and B. A sution may be
• *iM by la^ag down the line to it from some other station, and
1 tfadng-papcr a number of the angles taken at it.
"""» to the station from which it has been shot up. If
' 'l Bhgtes afe taken are well situated, a good
^.sts accuracy being much strengthened by
£ a S|ie to it. whtcn, moreover, forms a good
DsT^ft.^ angles from the station when plotted.
OS must be carried on with a point
'An effort must be made to check this
t back " from staiions dependent
point; failing this, two stations
pricking one and tay^nK down the
chedL A wclt-denned mountain
virited. when once It is well fixed Is
Fig. 11.
on an icrasular tnaqgulation, as it
may remain visible when all other origfnal points of the survey
have disappeared, and '* back-angles '* trom it may be contmually
obtained, or it may be ased for plotting on true bearing lines of
it. In pk>tting the true beanng of such a peak, the convcrgency
must be found and applied to get the reversed beanng, which is
then laid down from a meridian drawn through it . or the reversed
bearing of any other line already drawn through the peak bctntf
known, it may simply be laid down with that as a aero. A rougn
position of the spot from which the true bearing was taken must
be assumed m order to calculate the
convergency. Fig. 1 1 will illustrate
the foregomg remarks. A and B are
astronoroicalobservation spots at the
extremes of a snrvey, from both of
which the high, inaccessible peak C is
visible. D, E, F are intermediate
stations; A and D, D and E, E and
F, F and B being respectively visible
from each other. G is visible from
A and D, and C is visible from all
stations. The latitudes of A and B
and meridian distance between them **
being determined, and the true bear-
ing of C being observed from both
observation spots, angles are observed at all the stations. Calcu-
latii^ the srAieroidal correction (from the formula, correction*
d. kmg. S^JI^Ji^^and adding it to the true (or cbrtmometric)
difference longitude between A and B to obtain the spherical
d. lonE.; with this spherical d. lon^. and the d. lat., the Mer^
catorial true bearing and distance is found by middle latitude
sailing (which is an equally correct but shorter method than bv
spherical trigonometry, and may be safely used when dealing with
the distances usual between observation spots in nautical surveys).
The convergency is also calculated, and the true boarina of A from
B and B from A are thus determined. In the pkioe tnangle ABC
the angle A is the difference between the calculated bearing of B and
the observed bearing of C from A; similarly angle B is the difference
between calculated hearing of A and obserwxl ocaring of C from B.
The distance AB having bean also cakulated. the side AC ia found.
Layuig down AC on the paper on the reqiurod scale, D is plotted on
its direct shot from A, and on the angle back from C, calcubted in
the triangle ACD. G is plotted on the direct shots from A and D,
and on the angle back trom C, calculated either in the triangle
ACG or GCD The perfect Intersection of the three lines at G
assures these four points being correct. £, F and B are plotted
in a similar manner. The points are now all plotted, but they
depend on calculated angles, and except for the finit four points
we have no check whatever cither on the accuracy of the angles
observed in the field or on the plotting. Another well-defined
object in such a portion, for instance as Z, visible from three cr
more stations, would afford the necessary check* if lines laid 00 to it
from as many stations as possible ^ave a good intersection. If no
such point, however, exists, a certain degree of check on the angles
observed is derived by applying the sum of all the calculated angk»
at C to the true beanng of A from C (found by revensng observed
bearing of C from A with convergency applied), which wul give the
bearing of B from C. Reverse this bearing with convergencv
applied, and compare it whh the observed bearing of C from B.
1 1 the discrepancy is but small, it will be a strong presumption in
favour of the substantial accuracy of the work. If the calculated
true bearing of B from A be now laid down, it is very unlikely that
the line will pass through B. but this is due to the discrepancy which
must always be expected between astronomical positions and trian-
gulation. If some of the stations between A and B require to be
placed somewhat closely to one another, it may be desirable to
obtain fresh true bearings of C instead of carrying on the original
bearing by means of the calculated angle.
In all cases of irregular plotting the ship Is very useful, especially
if she is moored taut without the swivel, and angles are observed
from the bow. Floating beacons may also assist an irregular
triangularion.
Surveys of various degrees of accuracy are included among
sketch surveys. The roughest description is the ordinary
running survey, when the work is done by the ship
steaming along the coast, fixing points, and sketching smy^y,
in the coast-line by bearings and angles, relying for
her position upon her courses and distances as regbtered by
patent log, necessarily regardless of the effect of wind and corrent
and errors of steerage. At the other extreme comes the modified
running survey, which in point of praaicai accuracy falls little
short of that attained by irregular triangulation. Some of these
modifications will be briefly noticed. A •" rtf a
coast -line between two harbours, that ha '*■-
pendently and asttononucaUy fixed^ m
I
158
SURVEYING
IKAUTICAL
by fixing the ^ip on the points already laid down on the harbour
surveys and shooting up prominent intermediate natural objects,
assisted possibly by thoxlolite lines from the shore stations.
Theodolite lines to the ship at any of her positions are particu*
larly valuable, and floating beacons suitably pbced materially
increase the value of any such work. A sketch survey of a coast
upon which it is iippossible to land may be well carried out by
dropping beacons at intervals of about xo m., well out from
the land and placed abreast prominent natural objects called the
" breastmarks," which must be capable of recognition from
the beacons anchored off the next " breastmark " on cither side.
The distance between the beacons b found by running a patent log
both ways, noting the time occupied by each run; if the current
has remained constant, a tolerably good result can be obtained.
At the first beacon, angles are observed between the second beacon
and the two " breastroarks," an " intermediate " mark, and
any other natural object which will serve as " points." At the
second beacon, angles are observed between the first beacon
and the same objects as before. Plotting on the line of the two
beacons as a base, all the points observed can be pricked in on
two shots. At a position about midway between the beaoons,
simultaneous angles are observed to all the points and laid off
on tradng>paper, which will afford the necessary check, and the
foundatk>n is thus laid for filling in the detail of coast-line»
topography, and soundings off this particular stretch of coast
in any detail desired. Each section of coast is complete in itself
on its own base; the weak point lies in the junction of the different
sections, as the patent log bases can hardly be expected to agree
precisely, and the scales of adjacent sections may thus be slightly
different. This is obviated, as far as possible, by fixing on the
points of one section and shooting up those of another, which
will check any great irregularity of scale creeping in. The
bearing is preserved by getting occasional true bearing lines
at the beacons of the most distant point visible. Space does
not here permit of dwelling upon the details of the various pre-
cautions that are necessary to secure the best results the method
is capable of; it can only be staled generally that in all cases
of using angles from the ship under weigh, several assistants
are necessary, so that the principal angles may be taken simul-
taneously, the remainder being connected immediately after-
wards with zeros involving the smallest possible error due to
the ship not being absolutely stationary, these seros being
included amongst the primary angles. When close to a beacon,
if lis bearing is noted and the distance in feel obtained from its
elevation, the angles are readily reduced to the beacon itself.
Astronomical positions by twili^t stars keep a check upon the
work.
Sketch Surveys by Compass Bearings and Vertical Angles.— In
the case of an island culminating in a high, well-defined summit
visible from all directions, a useful and accurate method is to
flteam^ round it at a suHicicnt distance to obtain a true horizon.
stO)}ptng to make as many stations as may t>e desirable, and fixing
by compass bearing of tne summit and its vertical angle. The
height is roughly obtained by shooting in the summit, Trom two
positions on a f>atent log base whilst approaching it. With this
approximate height and Lecky'a vertical danger angle tables,
each station may be plotted on its bearing of the summit. From
these stations the island is shot in by angles between its tangents
and the summit, and angles to any other natural features, plotting
the work as we go on any convenient scale which roust be con-
sidered only as provisional. On completing the circuit of the
island, the true scale is found by measuring the total distance in
inches on the pk>ttinf{-sheet from the first to the last station, and
dividing it by the distance in miles between them as shown by
patent log. The final height of the suvimlt bears to the rough
height used in plotting the direct proportion of the provisional
scale to the true scale. This method may be utilized for the sketch
survey of a coast where there are welNdefincd peaks of sufficient
height at convenient intervals, and would be superior to art ordinary
running survey. From positions of the ship fixed by bearinq^s and
elevations of one peak, another farther along the coast is shot in and
Its height determined ; this second peak is then used in its tuni to
fix a third, and so on. The smaller the vertical ancle the more
liability there is to error, but a glance at Lccky's tables will show
what effect an error of say i' in altitude will produce for any given
height and distance, ana the limits of distance must depend u{X)n
thU consideration.
Surveys oj Banks pul of Sight of Land.^-On striking slioal soundings
unejmectedly. the ship may either be anchored ct once and the
shoal sounded by boats starring round her, oshw priamatfe oom-
paM and masthead angle; or if the shoal is of brige extent and
may be prudently crossed in the ship, it is a good plan^to get two
beacons laid down on a bearing from one anotner ana patent
log distance of 4 or 5 m. With another beacon (or mark-boat,
carrying a large black flag on a bamboo 30 ft. ht^h) fixed on this
base, forming an equilateral triangle, and the ship anchored as a
fourth point, so<indings tnay be carried out by the boats fixing by
station-pointer. The ship's portion Is determined by observatKMis
of twilight stars.
In 9 detailed survey the coast is sketched in by walking ak>ng
it, fixing by theodolite or sextant angles, and plotting by tracing-
paper or station-pointer. A sufficient number of ^^_^
fixed marks along the shore afford a constant check SHj
on the minor coast-line stations, which should be
plotted on, or checked by, lines from one to the other wherever
possible to do so. When impracticable to fix in the ordinary
way, the ten-foot pole may be used to traverse from one fixed
point to another. With a coast fronted by broad drying, coral
reef or flats over which it is possible to walk, the distance between
any two coast-line stations may be found by measuring at one
of them the angle subtended by a known length placed at right
angles to the line joining the stations. There is far leu liability
to error if the work is plotted at once on the spot on field board
with the fixed points pricked through and circled in upon it; bul '
if circumstances render it necessary, the angles bemg registered
and sketches made of the biU of coast between the fixes on a
scale larger than that of the chart, they may be plotted after-
wards; to do this satisfactorily, however, requires the surveyor
to appreciate instinctively exactly what angles are necessary
at the time. It is with the high-water line that the coast-liner
is concerned, delineating its character according to the admiralty
symbols. The officer sounding off the coast is responsible for
the position of the dry line at low-water, and on large scales
this would be sketched in from a small boat at low-water springs.
Heights of cliiTs, rocks, islets, &c., mtist be inserted, either from
measurement or from the formula,
.... J ^ angle of clcvatfon in seconds X distance in railea.
and details of topography close to the coast, including roads,
houses and enclosures, must be shown by the coast-liner. Rocks
above water or breaking should be fixed on passing them. Coast-
line may be sketched from a boat pulling along the shore, fixing
and shooting up any natural objects on the beach from positions
at anchor.
The most important feature of a chart is the completeness
with which it is sounded. Small scale surveys on anything less
than one inch to the mile are apt to be very misleading; fp,,,^,.,
such a survey may appear to have been closely sounded, ^^'
but in reality the lines are so far apart that they often fail to
disclose indications of shoal-water. The work of sounding
may be proceeded with as soon as sufficient points for fixing
arc plotted; but off an intricate coast it is better to get the coast-
line done first. The lines of soundings are run by the boats
parallel to one another and perpendicular to the coast at a dis-
tance apart which is governed by the scale; five lines to the inch
is about as close as they can be run without overcrowding; if
closer lines are required the scale -must generally be bcreascd.
The distance apart will vary with the depth of water and the
nature of the coast; a rocky coast with shallow water off it and
projecting points will need much closer examination than a
steep-to coast, for instance. The line of prolongation of a point
under water will require special care to ensure the fathom lines
being drawn correctly. If the soundings begin to decrease when
pulling off-shore It is evidence of something suspicioas, aiut
intermediate lines of soundings or Hnes at riglit angles to those
previously run should be obuined. Whenever possible lines
of soundings should be run on transit lines; these may often
be picked up by fixing when on the required line, noting the angle
on the protractor between the line and some fixed mark on the
field board, and then placing ihe angle on the sextant, reflecting
the mark and noting what objects are in line at that angle. On
NAOTICALt
SURVEYING
«55
obfecu beiog not le« than 30' or more tlian 140^ The amount
of the mnth between the middle and distant object is immaten&l.
(b) The tbiec objects nearly in a straight line, the angle between
any two being not less than 30*. (c) The observer's position
being inside the triangle formed by the objecU.
A fix OB the line of two points in transit, with an angle to a
third potnl, becomes more sensitive as. the distance between
the timnsit poinU increases relatively to the distance between
the Iraot transit point and the observer; the more nearly the
a^de to the third point appioacbcs a right angle, and the nearer
it is situated to the observer, the better the fix. If the third
point is at a long distance, small errors either of observation
or plotting affect the result largely. A good practical test for
a fix is afforded by noticing whether a very slight movement of
the centre ct the station-pointer will throw one or more of the
points away from the leg. If it can be moved without apprcd-
ably disturbing the coincidence of the leg and all three points,
the fix is bad.
Tradng-paper answers exactly the same purpose as the station-
pointer. The angles are laid off from a centre representing
the position, and the lines brought to pass through the points
as before. This entails more time, and the angles are not so
accorately measured with a small protractor. Nevertheless
thtf has often to be used, as when points are close together on
a small scale the central part of the station-pointer will often
hide them and prevent the use of the instrument. The use of
tradng-paper permits any number of angles to different points
to be laid down on it, which under cert§in conditions of fixing
is sometimes a great advanUge.
AkboBgh marine surveys are in reality founded upon triangula-
tion and measured bases of soifae description, yet when plotted
irregularly the system of triangles is not always
apparent. The triangulation ranges from the rough
_ > of a running survey to the carefully formed triangles
ci detailed surveys. The measured base for an extended survey
is provisional only, the scale resting ultimately mainly upon the
astxoDOcnical positions observed at its extremes. In. the case
of a phn the base is absolute. The main triangulation, of which
the first triangle contains the measured base as its known side,
establishes a series of points known as main stations, from
which and to which angles are taken to fix other stations. A
seiidency of secondary stations and marks enables the detail
of the chart to be filled in between them. The points embracing
the area to be worked on, having been plotted, arc transferred
to field boards, upon which the detail of the work in the field
ii plotted; ndien complete the work is traced and re-transferred
to the plotting-sheet, whidi is then inked in as the finished chart,
aad if of large extent it is graduated on the gnomonic projection
on the astrtmomical positions of two points situated near opposite
corners of the chart.
The kind of base ordinarily used is one measured by chain
on flat ground, of } to i) m. in length, between two points visible
from one another, and so situated that a triangulation can be
readily extended from them to embrace other points in the survey
fanning weH-condit toned triangles. The error of the chain is
•otcd before leaving the ship, and again on returning, by com-
paring its length with the standard length of 100 ft. marked
on the ship's deck. The correction so found is applied to obtain
the final result. If by reason of water intervening between the
laae stations it is impossible to measure the direct distance
between tbem, it is permiaaible to deduce it by traversing.
A MmsUiead ilsffe Base is useful for Bmall plans of liarix>urs.
Ac^ when cifcanutaacca do not permit of a base being measured
oo iiaoffe. The ship at anchor nearly midwav between two base
ttatioflw istbemost favourable condition for employing this method.
Tbeodoltte leading of the masthead, with its elevation by sextant
ofawtvcd aixaadoneously at each base station (the mean of several
•Enervations being employed) give the necessary data to calculate
dte dntance between thi> base stations from the two distances
irsultiitt from the elevation of the «nasthead and the simultaneous
rfKodolttc-anglcs between the masthead and the base stations.
The lM%bt CN the masthead may be temporarily increased by sccur-
tog a spar to extend^ ft. or so above it. and the exact height from [
mck to netting is found by tricing up the end of the measuring I
chain. The angle of elevatkm shouM not be dimuiiabed below about
I * from either station.
Bau by Sound,— Tht interval in seconds between the flash and
report 01 a gun. caiefully noted by counting the beats of a watch
or pocket chronometer, multiplied by the rate per second at which
sound travels (corrected for temperature) supplies a means of
obtaining a base which is sometimes of great use when other methods
are not available. Three miles is a suitable distance for such a
base, and guns or small brass Cohom mortars are fired altematdy
from dther end, and repeated aeveial times. The arithmetical
mean Is not strictly correct, owing to theretardation of the sound
against the wind eiceedhig the acceleration when tmvcUing with
it; the formula used Is therefore T •■ ^ra where T is the mean
interval required, I the interval observed one way, f ^e Interval the
other way. The method is not a very, accurate one, but is suffi-
ciently so when the scale is finally determined by astronomical
obseTvatbns, or for sketch surveys. The measurement should bo
across the wind if possible, especially if guns can only be fired from
one end of the base. Sound travels about 1090 ft. per second at a
temperature of 32^ F., and increases at the rate of x-i5 ft. for each
degree above that temperature, decroadng in the same proportion
for temperatures below 32 ^
Base hv Angle e^ Short Measured Leupk. — ^An angle measured by
sexunt between two wdl-defined marks at a carefully measured
distance apart, placed at right angles to the required base, will give
a base for a small plan.
Astronomical Base. — ^The difference of htitude between two
stations visible from each other and nearly in the tame merUian,
combined with their true bearings, gives an excellent base for an
extended triangulation; the only drawback to it is the effect of
local attracdon of masses of land in the vicinity on the jpendulum,
or, in other words, on the mercury in the artificial honron. The
base stations should be as far apart as possible, in order to minimism
the effect of any error in the astronomical observations.. The obser-
vation spots would not necessarily be actually at the base stations,
which would probably be situated on summits at some little distance
in order to command distant views. In such cases each observation
spot would be connected with its corresponding base station by a
subsidiary triangulation, a short base being measured for the pur-
pose. The ship at anchor off the observation spot frequently affords
a convenient means of effecting the connexion by a masthead angle
base and simultaneous angles. If posnble, the observation spots
shoukl be east or west of the jnountain stations from which the true
bearings are observed.
If the base stations A and B are so situated that by reason of
distance or of high land intervening they are invisible from one
another, but both visible from some main station C between them,
when the main triangulation is completed, the ratio of the sides
AC, BC can be determined. From this ratio and the observed
angle ACB, the angles ABC, BAC can be found. The true bearing
of the lines AC or BC being known, the true bearing of the base
stations A and B can be deduced.
Extension of Base. — ^A base of any description is seldom long
enough to plot from directly, and in order to dimini^ errors of
plotting it IS necessary to begin on the longest side possible so as
to work inwards. A short base measured on flat ground will give
a better result than a longer one measured over inequalities, provided
that the triangulation is carefully extended by means of judiciously
selected trian^cs. great care beinff taken to plumb the centre of each
station. To facilitate the extension of the base in as few triangles
as possible, the base should be placed so that there are two stations,
one on each side of it, subtendineadgk^at them of from 30" to 40*,
and the distances between whicn, on beln^ cakulatcd in the triangles
of the quadrflateral so foitncd, will constitute the first extcnswn of
the base. Similariy, two other stations placed one on each ade of
the last two will form another quadrihteral, giving a yet longer sule,
and soon.
The angles to be used in the main triangulation scheme must
be very carefully observed and the theodolite placed exactly
over the centre of the station. Main angles are
usually repeated several times by resetting the vernier ^[j*^*.]]!^
at intervals equidistant along the arc, in order to-
eliminate instrumental errors as well as errors of observation.
The selection of an object suitable for a xcro b important.
It should, if possible, be another main station at some
distance, but not so far or so high as to be easily obscured,
well defined, and likely to be permanent. Angles to secondary
stations and other marks need not be repeated so many times
as the more important angles, but it is well to check all angles
once at least. Rough sketches from all stations are of great
assistance in identifying objects from different poinu of view,
the angles being entered against each in the sketch.
Poise Statien.—VJhea the theodolite cannot for any reason be
placed over the centre of a station, if the distance be measured
_ i
i6o
SURVEYING
outer end on the uil of the rudder fits into the notches on the outer
ring o( the frame when the machine is locked and thus keeps the
rudder fixed, but when the fin»t messenger has started the machine
by pressing down B and opening the levers AA, this small lever is
raised and the rudder can revolve freely. EE are four small cones
which revolve on thdr axb in a vertical
-' '—■' -he
FlC. 12.
locked it is raised oflT its pivot by the inverted cup*piece K placed
inside the triple claws on the top of the Compass and screwed
to the lever, thus locking the needle without cnance of moving.
The compass bowl should be filled with fresh water before lowering
the instrument into the sea, and the top screwed home tightly.
The needle should be removed and carefully dried after use, to pre-
vent corrosion. The long arm G is to keep the machine steady in
one direction; it works up and down a iackstay which passes between
two sheaves at the extremity of the long arm. This also assists to
keep the machine in as upright a position as possible, and prevents
it from being drifted astern with the current. A weight of as much
as 8 or to cwt. is required at the bottom of the jackstay in a very
strong current. An elongated weight of from 60 to 80 lb must be
suspended from the eye at the bottom of the meter to help to keep
it as vertical as possible. On the outer part of the horizontal
notched ring forming the frame, and placed on the side of the machine
opposite to the projecting arm G, it has been found necessary to
bolt a short arm supported by stays from above, from which is sus-
pended a leaden counterpoise weight to assist in keeping the appara-
tus upright. This additional fitting b not shown in fig. I3. A |-in.
phosphor-bronze wire rope is used for lowering the machine; it is
rove through a metal sheave H and india-rubber washer, and spliced
round a heart which is attached to metal plate B. The messengers
are fitted with a hinged joint to enable them to be placed round the
w*ire rope, and secured with a screw bolt. To obtain the exact
value of a revolution of the small cones it is necessary to make
experiments when the actual speed of the current is known, by
immersing the meter just below the surface and taking careful
observations of the surface-current by means of a current log or
weighted pole. From the number of revolutions registered by the
meter in a certain number of minutes, and takinj^ the mean of several
observations, a very fair value for a revolution can be deduced.
On every occasion 01 using the meter for under<urrent observations
the value of a revolution ^nuld be re-determined, as it is apt to vary
owing to small differences in the friction caused by want of oil or
the presence of dust or grit: while the force of the current is probably
another important factor in influencing the number of revolutions
recorded.
'^*" ''^tures of the country should generally be delineated
IS the skyline viewed from seaward, in order to assist
? navigator to recognize the land. The summits
hills and conspicuous spurs are fixed either by
>y angles at them; their heights are determined
J elevations or depressions to or from stations
(NAUTICAL
whose height above high-water is known. As much of the
ground as poaaible is walked over, and its shape is delineated
by contour lines sketched by eye, assisted by an aneroid
barometer. In wooded country much of the topography may
have to be shot in from the ship; sketches made from difiTercnt
positions at anchor along the coast with aisles to all prominent
features, valleys, ravines, spurs of hills, &c., will give a very
fair idea of the general lie of the country.
Circum-meridixm altitudes of stars on opposite sides of the
zenith observed by sextant in the artificial horizon is the method
adopted wherever possible for obseWations for ^^
latitudes. Arranged in pairs of nearly the same *'*''™**'
altitude north and south of zenith, the mean of each pair should
give a result from which instrumental and personal errors and
errors due to atmospheric conditions are altogether eliminated.
The mean of several such pairs should have a probable error
of not more than * 1'. As a rule the observations of each star
should be confined to within 5 or 6 minutes on either side of
the meridian, which will allow of from fifteen to twenty obscrva^
tions. Two stars selected to " pair " should pass the meridian
within an hotnr of each other, and should not differ in alUtude
more than a* or 3*. Artificial horizon roof error is eliminated
by always keeping the same end of the roof towards the observer;
when observing a single object, as the sun, the roof must be
reversed when half way through the observations. The observa-
tions are reduced to the meridian by Raper's method. When
pairs of stars are not observed, drcum-mcridian altitudes of
the sun alone must be resorted to, but being observed on one
side of the zenith only, none of the errors to which all observa*
tions are liable can be eliminated.
Sets of equal altitudes of sun or stars by sextant and artificial
horizon are usually employed to discover chronometer errors.
Six sets of eleven observations, a.m. and pan.,
observing both limbs of the sun, should give a result
which, under favourable conditions of latitude and
declination, might be expected to vary leas than two-tenths
of a second from the normal personal equation of the observer.
Stars give equally good results. In high latitudes sextant
observations diminish in value owing to the slower movement
in altitude. In the case of the sun all the chronometers are
compared with the " standard " at apparent noon; the com-
parisons with the chronometer used for the observations on
each occasion of landing and returning to the ship are worked
up to noon. In the case of stars, the chronometer compari>
sons on leaving and again on returning are worked up to an
intermediate time. A convenient system, which retains the
advantage of the equal altitude method, whilst avoiding the
necessity of waiting some hours for the p.m. observation, is to
observe two stars at equal altittides on opposite sides of the
meridian, and, combining the observations, treat them as rela-
ting to an imaginary star having the mean R.A. and mean
declination of the two stars selected, which should have neariy
the same declination and should differ from 4* to 8^ in R.A.
The error of chronometer on mean time of place being obtained,
the local time is transferred from one observation spot to another
by the ship carrying usually eight box chronometers.
The best resulu are found by using travelling rates, jf^!^
which are deduced from the difference of the errors ^'*
found on leaving an observation spot and returning to it; from
this difference is eUminated that portion which may have
accumulated during an interval between two determinations
of error at the other, or any intermediate, observation spot.
A travelling rate may abo be obtained from observations at
two places, the meridian distance between which b known; this
rate may then be used for the meridian dbtance between places
observed at during the passage. Failing travelling rates, the
mean of the harbour rates at either end must be used. The
same observer, using the same instrument, must be employed
throughout the observations of a meridian dbtance.
If the telegraph is available, it should of course be used. The
error on local time at each end of the wire U obtained, and
a number of telegraphic signals are exchanged between tbe
SURVILLE, C DE— SUSA
i6i
hrz4 kawB sad the Iocs! taat «f as natpsxm beng abted, the
ti»e !■■■ ] ■ i t hy the cMWMliitgwgffigg «luMf. Ae wag is dgm»-
«trf W»p£agwgBiliMibBtt ^ fl UjtiB& . TbridEt^t^pesiaBa]
eq«£:ics of tbe oSaerres si ctiwr cad, bcc!k a tbdr obserra-
uacs Sor taae, and also i& apL Ptln e *Md tnaiwilirii^ agask.
ip» iii^ *i and iTpBn* to tSc i ^n l*^ On riai t^^gir*. t# »pi i^ soSax
lisK at «■£ cod cf tbe vne, «ad sadodl tine «i tke odber cDd,
Bstmafif iBcrene the tajMij ' vilk vlidh «^als en be
III' ■igjrJ.tiM'tbrCTi»rirWTmTlniT*^'*'»r«*^*»*«<**»^'**«»'*'*"'«^
£.-x±s at MM tkaavaxtrj sie made Utao^k ibe ihhIIimii ef a
( by seoa «C tie ntsM OB be a» MriiT
«f cnw, bv skaed
: fniji it »
tbeii praped^, the vifaK «f the
I ifl 1h^ lalitndes.
Tzw bcaai^ aic ofauioed im sbaf<e by obauw^g vitb tbB»-
do&ic tbe bonaoBtal ■mV b u w uj a tbe object BfltrtTd as tbe
aero aad tbe SBB, taJkiaK tbe bncr m each qndkuft
™- s defied by tte cnaa^nRS «f tbe tdkaoape. Tbe
afeiiade may be read «■ tbe iwxtical are «C tbe tbe»>
doutc; twotfft hi bs^ lilit«des» vbeve a aeooad obaover «icb
I of tbe cbRBoneieo are kamm, vbea thetniecaa
be ^■*'*-^""' by cm>iag a pocket ihw a wartfr to tbe atatioa.
The aoa Aoald be near tbe pane wctical and at a kv abitttde;
the tbewinBtr anat be very caRfcSy lefcOed. especially ia tbe
pfinw imilhtbe UJuKM f >c paintiagtowaidstbesa». ToeKaaa-
ale iaatraaaEBtal cEioca the ofaaervxiiaas sbonU be fcpeated vitb
tbe recaier aet at intcnnis equkfistaat along the aic, aad a.BU aad
pju. obaowatioBS iboald be takca at aba«i equal altitndea.
At aeatrae bearing are obtained by ai raw iiii g with a aettt
tbe a«sle between the saa and aotoe dntaot wU-defiaed object
-"^^^ aa «D^ of faoa loo* to i ao* and ofaaecving the ahitnde
of the ina at the aaaae tiaK. toBBtber vitb that of tbe tcncatnal
object. Iheaca'sahitodedboabibekMrtosettbebcttRaaha,
aad both infaa iboold be obeenwL Tbe sm's trae bearing is
^ir«i«*«^ fnn ha ahitade, tbe ktkude, and itt dedinatioa;
tbe haaaoBtai aade ii appiied ta obtain tbe ti«e bearing of tbe
woo. Qa Aore tbe t b wwWir c grrea the Iwi a Mlal an^ direct,
bat with acstaat abacrvatioBa k vast be deAaoed ieoto the
Itbe
were «r i9lh<ceatsrr date, aad tl»t t
and iaoB WBK dar to veMada!^ by SaxnnZke. ^m
of IL liac€ Imnmd kxal aaibqaaiiaB&. aad
ndenoe was pmdaeed that th? wiie of B^noger
I de SwiDe was Ma ig n ula. CfaaSs^ not Oocdde. and that tbe
' aBinage dated only ireaa if^S^ aaoeeonne Befm^cf, abase
I death at tbe aepe of Orieam aas aae of tbe fencing motives
of the book. Eved far rweaty ycais after that ^fte. F^nente
of IC de 9u%3e aha cSsdoaed the fact that the antfyius had
. Mg-jmenle ChdiS tf is iftrmde dr t^r."«ftf 6e S^-^^ r ,i?T5^ ; ara.i*»
i^ and ilxf 30^ 1S74V. br P^ Cottiv ir. tbe Btu^rUa dk Jft.<k5rf^iSr
O^^: £- K. Qujnben, Lunrnrr f^-^e ^ rs iii^i'; and i*:TX,\»tr
rcfsrences ia the Siitaopx-pkii ^Jemmcs ^^U-irt: C^tjm aai TAn^
1892. AcX
For factbcr fasrarantna see whaftoit By&nfutpiatM Swrwyt^
CLondoo. 1898); Sbordaad. Xmiiksl Smntjimt (Loadoa, i69(>>-
(A. M, F.*}
"SUEVIU^ GLOnWB Di;'* tbe aappoaed anther of
the PaCncs de CUHUe. The geaefaBy acoqited kgend gaive
tbe fafloaag acoant af bee Mufnerite lUoaoreClotikiede
Valba ChalliSfe daase de Sofvilkp vaa bom in tbe cariy yean
of tbe istb oeotaiy at VaUoa. In 1421 she Banaed Bixmget
de SairDle, who was kifled at the siege of Oileans in 1428^ Her
kaifaaail** abaeaoe at the war iaapind her benic vcnes and bis
death her elegiac pocns. The hst of her poems is a chaal rayal
addreasad to O^des Vm.
In itej Cbdes Vandftbowii pnHhhcd as tbe Pafrici de
Cttiidt wamtt farty poena deaisK «itb Vyve aad war. The
bistoiy gwen m the iau u da ctaoa of the d iiw f UjF of theiasna-
acripi waaendentJy a bble^ aad the poena were set donra by
anat sathnritirs as forBBdeSk espedafly as they contained aaany
aoacbraoisBM aad were written in acoordaaoe with nodcn kws
of pneodbr. Tbe maatooipt bad been in tbe yw s fwinn of
Jean FnnsQB liarie, Biarqins de SiaviUe, an teiprd who letanad
to Fiaaoe in 1798 to laito an nwmectioa in Ptovcnoe, and bad
paid tbe penalty with his tifc^ la 1863 Antonin UaoS nade
tmthcr in<|inrieft on tbe subject aad disoovcred letteis from
Vandexbonig to SoxviDe's widow. This imesp c ai dence makes it
dear that VaaderiMuig wasiaaocent of k^geiy aad believed that
a laiwiua of jambu a Meeocco, coct aa i n d tptadtn t
and stJB tan vanaly to be opened to Earopcaak wbo
have aeveiutcleas for ceatanes past asadc cwluis to acwv a
foothold. Its priafipal towas are TarcdBst, I£gk vihe aid
capkxlV aad Giain on tbe Wad Nm. Taradutt, tbe peesmt
oipttal, flL n uiiahtd n the 1 Ah ceBtmr on acnmct of tbe xtetph-
b^iCTsg cDpper4Bdse&. Sahpetre is »o» the oah- ijr^KHt.r.i
prodocL Parts ns|:bt be epesed at .\|:s.*Ir Ijr^-ir loncc oorji^k^i
by the f^ta^uta. for tfahty 3rcais b Su:tm Ctat\ Massa, ifr\
Aifcaas aad Aasdea at the anoth of the Wad Xea. As a cvnx^cd
(fistrid, al kaads of nataral riches are attrihotcd to Sea. bat
it may be a'^uumt that they are eaa g g n - ati d. £arepeaas Und
at thrir peri!, since tbe coast is by tsapaial oiidcT closed to trade,
no castoBa-hoose beng pnyvvled. Most of tbe barineaa of Sas
is carried on at great fairs lasting eight or fifteen dsA-s. dtiring
wbkh taae al nnds of approach are goanatecd saiie by tbe
tribesnen that trade nay be vnintcrmpted. Ckiarans fran
Sns laden wkb oepper-ware^ ofire oO, batter, saffron, wax, d^iia,
dales, dried loseSi ftc, are sent to Manakc^. four davs* jonrr^
fran TkradaiiL Snss are well knovn in tbe nonb of Morocco
as able tcadcanca and dever awtal vorkexs. Tbcy live fragatty,
aadareonhrpn>diG»Iinpoada>8adbcinaaiife. Their brpiage
is ahaoat exdosivcly Sbilbab, a dialect of Beriar. (KJLM.*)
SIB4 (BibhcaU Skmskam), tbe capital of Snsiaoa or £Ua
aad fran the tine of Darins L tbe chief readeaoe of tbe Acbae*
inenaan kii«k It had been the centre of the old aaoaaicby of
' Elan aad hnd a nd e tgm e aany vicassitades before k feH iato
: tbe beads of the l^aaiaBS (see Elui). The site, fixed by tbe
I rrrinratiwa of W. K. Loftas» hes in tbe plain, bat within sigbt
i of the noantna, between tbe oonaes of tbe Kerkha (Choaspes)
I and the Diifd, oae of the aflaeats of the P^tigm. Tbe
! Shaar, a anatt tdntary of the Diafal, washes the caatcm base
I of the aMonds of Shaih, aad aeeaa to be tbe xepeeaentative of
I the ancient Ulai or Balsi 111 Tbas tbe whole district was Icuit-
fal aad wdl watered; tbe soRonading riven with their canals
gave protectfon aad a waterway to tbe Fenian Galf; wbde
the poritioa of the town betweea the Scnidc aad Iraaiaa lands
of the finwe was oonvaoicat far ariMini%tiative pnpoano
Son therefan becaaa a mat and pnpnkat capital; Greek
The remains iadade four aaMads. of wbkh oae k the site
of the ckadel called Mfwao n in a by tbe Gieeka, wbik aaotber
(the Apadana to tbe east of it) represents the paboe of Darias L
and Artaimrt IL J^naaM. Tbis latter has been cacavatcd
by M. Dieakfoy aad the manrib^ bikks with wbkh iu walls
won adorned are BBW hi tbe Loavia. South of there two nouads
is the ate of the royal Rhmifrr city. Tbe foaitb mound, covering
the remains of the poorer bonres, a on tbe light bank of tbe riiver
between the Sbaar and the Keikha. J. de Moigaa*s cxcax-a-
tions (since 1897) haire been principaSy m tbe citadel moand,
wUcb meaancs roagMy 1500 ft. by 8*5 ft aad a las ft. bigh.
Tka two kvwcat stiaU bcfong to tbe atoae age, and tbe fixat
is cbaincterired by a fine thin pottery, with y^w paste decor>
ated with geometcical patteins and animal or vegrtabfe f
m black and browii'^ed. Sotae of it a wailar to the pre^
l62
SUSA— SUSO
pottery of Egypt The pottery of the second neolithic stntum
is much inferior. Above these strata come the remains of
Elamite and early Babylonian civilization with inscribed objects,
the oldest of which exhibit the pictorial characters out of which
the cundfonn were evolved. Under the foundations of the
temfde of In-Susinak (in the north-west part of the mound) a vast
quantity of bronze objects has been- discovered, for the most
part earlier than the loth century B.C. Among the monuments
brought to light in other parts of the mound are the obelisk
of Manistusu (see Babylonia), the stela of Naram-Sin and the
code of Rhammurabi, along with a great number of historically
valuable boundary-stones. The upper portions of ,the mounds
have yielded, b^des Persian remains, Greek pottery and
inscriptions of the 4th century B.C., numerous coins of the
Kamnaskires dynasty and other kings of Elymais in the Seleucid
era, and Parthian and Sassanian relics. In the Sassanian period
the dty was razed in consequence of a revolt, but rebuilt by
Sapor (Shapur) II.; the walls were again destroyed at the
time of the Mahoromedan conquest, but the site, which is now
d«wrted, was a seat of sugar manufacture in Ihe middle ages.
BiBLiocaAPHY.— W. K. LoftuB, Travels and Researches in CkaUaea
and Susiana (i 857) ; M. Dieulafoy, L'A rt antique dt la Perse ( 1 8«4-«5),
LAcrobcU'de Suse (1890) ; A. Billerb«ck, Sum (i«93); J. do Morgan,
Mhnmres de la dUigation en Perse, vols. L-viiL C'rom 1899). See
alao Persia : AncUut History, % v. 2. (A. H. S.)
SUSA (Fr. Somse), a dty of Tunisia, on the Gulf of Hammamet,
» 35* 49' N., 10" 39' E., 36 m. by rail E. by N. of Kairawan,
of which it is the port, and 93 m. S. by £. by rail of Tunis. Susa,
which occupies part of the site of the andent Hadrumetum, is
built on the side of a hill sloping seawards, and is surrounded
by a crenellated wall, strengthened by towers. Recesses in
the inner side of the wall are used as shops and warehouses.
The kasbah, or dtadd, built on the highest point within the
town, was thoroughly restored by the French after their occupa-
tion of the country in x88x, and-serves as military headquarters
for the district, the camp for the troops being outside the walls
west of the dtadeL The native town has been little changed
since the French occupation, but north of the port a European
quarter has been created, and here are public buildings such as
law courts, a museum and a town-halL The museum contains
many archaeological treasures, notable mosaics and sculptures.
The most interesting buildings in the old town are the Kasr-
er-Ribat and the Kahwat-d-Kubba. The Kasr-er-Ribat is a
square fortress with a high tower and seven bastions. Its date
is uncertain, but is not later than the 9th century. The Kahwat-
d-Kubba (Caf6 of the Dome) is a curious house, square at the
base, then cylindrical, and surmounted by a fluted dome. It
was probably a church during the Byzantine period. Another
domed building, now used as oil-mills, dates from Roman and
Byzantine times. In the Bab-d-Gharbi (West Gate) a Roman
sarcophagus of marble has been built into the wall, and serves
as a drinking fountam. The grand mosque is in the north-east
part of the town. The andent harbours are silted up, but
vestiges of the Roman breakwaters may be seen. The modem
port, completed in 190Z, enables steamers drawing i\ ft. to lie at
the quays. Exports are chiefly phosphates and other minerals,
olive oil, esparto and cereals; imports: cotton goods, building
material, &c The population, less than xo,ooo at the time
of the Frendi occupation, had increased in 1907 to over 15,000,
of whom 1500 were French and 4000 other Europeans, chiefly
Italians and Maltese.
Susa, the Arab town which succeeded Hadrumetum (f.v.),
was fortified by the Aghlabite rulers of Kairawan in the 9th
century a.d. It shared the general fortunes of Tunisia and
became a noted haunt of pirates, who raided the coast of Italy.
In 1537 it was unsuccessfully besieged by the marquis of Terra
Nova, in the service of Charles V., but in 1539 was captured for
the emperor by Andrea Doria. As soon as the imperial forces
were withdrawn it became again the seat of Turkish piracy.
The town was attacked by the French and the RnighU of
St John in 1770, and by the Venetians in 1764- It remained,
however, in the possession of the bey of Tunis.
Some 35 m. due south of Suta. and half way on the road to Sfaii
is £1 Jem, the site of the city of Thysdnis. Oi the ancient city there
are scarcely any remains save the amphitheatre — a magnificent ruin
scarcely inferior to that of the Colosseum in Rome. There is no
record of the building of the amphitheatre, which is usually assigned
to the rekn of Gordian ill. (a.d. 230-144). It is made ol limestone
brought from Sallecta. 20 m. distant, bniB evideoce of hasty con-
struction, and was probably never finished. It b of four store}'*—
three open arcades crowned by a fourth storey with windows. The
first and third arcades are Corinthian; the middle one Composite.
Each of these galleries has sixty-four columns and the same mimbnr
of arches. Constantly used as a fortress since the Arab invasion,
the amphitheatre suffered much, and in 1697 the bey of Tunis made
a great breach in its western end to prevent it being again used for
defence. But even in its present condition the amphitheatre-
standing soliury in a desolate district — is KrancUy imprewive. Its
maior axis is 486 ft., its minor axis 406 ft. (The ngum of the
Colosseum are 615 and 5x0} respectivdy.)
SUSA (anc. Segusio, q.v.), a dty and episcopal see of Piedmont,
Italy, in the province of Turin, from which it is 33 m. W. by
rail. Pop. (1901), 3607 (town); 5033 (commune). It Is situated
on the Dora Riparia, a tributary of the Po, X635 ft. abOT«
sea-level, and is protected from the northern winds by the
Rocdamelone. Among the medieval buildings of Susa the fiist
place belMigs to the church of San Giusto, founded in 1039 by
Olderico Manfredi II. and the countess Berta, and in 1772 raised
to be the cathedral. It has a fine brick campanile and brick
decorati<m, and contains a bronze triptych of 1358 in aieilo,
with the Virgin and Child. In the Valle dt Susa, about 14 m.
cast of it, towards Turin, near S. Ambrogio di Torino, is the
monastery of S. Michele with a Romanesque church, situated on
a rocky motmtain (998-1002).
After the time of Charlemagne a marquisate of Susa was
established ; and the town became in the xxth century the capital
of Adelaide countess of Savoy, who was mistress of the whole
of Piedmont. On his retreat from Legnano in X176 Barbarossa
set fire to Susa; but the town became more than ever important
when Emmanud Philibert fortified it at great expense in the i6th
century. It was, however, dismantled by Napoleon I. in 1796.
SUSARION, Greek comic poet, a native of Tripodiscus in
Megaris. About 580 B.C. he transplanted the M^garian comedy
(if the rude extempore jests and buffoonery deserve the name)
into the Attic deme of Icaria, the cradle also of Greek tragedy
and the oldest seat of the worship of Dionysus. According to
the Parian Chronide, there appears to have been a competition
on this occasion, in which the prize was a basket of figs and
an amphora of wine. Susarion's improvements in his native
farces did not indude a separate actor or a regular plot, but
probably consisted in substituting metrical compositions for the
old extempore effusions of the chorus. These were intended
for redtation, and not committed to writing: But such per-
formances did not suit the taste of the Athenians, and nothing
more is heard of them imtil eighty years after the time of Susarion.
U. von. Wilamowitz-MOUendorff (in Hermes, ix.) considers the
so-called Megarian comedy to have been an invention of the
Athenians themselves, intended as a satire on Megarian coarse-
ness and vulgarity. The lines attributed to Susarion (in MeinCke,
Poetarum comiccrum graeecrttm fragmente) are probably not
genuine.
SUSO [Seuse], HBtHRICH (X300-X366), Gennan mystic, was
bom of good family at Uberlingen on Lake Constance on the
2xst of March, in all probability in the year 1300; he assumed
the name of his mother, his father being a Herr von Berg. He
was educated for the Church, first at Consunce.then at Cologne,
where he came under the influence of the greatest of the German
mystics, Meistcr Eckart. He subsequently entered a monastery
in Constance, where he subjected himself to the severest ordeals
of asceticism. In 1335 he wanderMl through Swabia as a
preacher, and won all hearts by his gentle, persuasive eloquence;
the effusive lyricism of his language made him an espedal
favourite among the imns. About X348he seems to have settled
in Ulm, where he died on the 2Sth of January 1366. Suso's
first work, Das BOckUin der Wd&heit, was written in Cologne
about 1339; setting out from Eckart's doctrines, he presents
the mystic faith from iu speculative or theoretical side; whereas
SUSPENSUJIA— SUSSEX, EARLS OF
163
Ib Dms Biiddeim itr trnkm WeiskeU, wijttco some ytns Uur
im Constanoe, he diaai w es the practicKl fe«pecU of mystkisau
Hie latter wtak, which Soso aho translated into Latin under
the title of Harohgmm t^pientiae, has been called the finest
fnat ci Genoan mysticisffl. Suso is the poet of the eariy mystic
movontet, " the Minnesinger of GoUesminm." But his faith
is purely medieval in tone, insptied by the lomanticism of the
age of dttvalry; the individualism, the philosophic insight and
the and-Catholk tendencies which made the mystic movement
in its later manifestations so important a forertinner of the
Refoonation an absent.
Sam'u works were collected as early as 1182 and again in ijts;
fccent editioaa: Heinnch Suso'b Leben mm Schiiftoh ed. by M.
Diepenbrock (1829: 4th ed., X884); Suao's Deutsche Sckrjflen, by
F. H. S. Denifle (1878-1880, not completed), and Deutsche Schnften,
by K. BiUmeyer (s vols., 1907). dee also W. Pk«ger, Die Briffe
HeinHck Susos (1867); W. Preger, GesckicUe der deutschen MysHk
(188a). voC iL; J. Jiger, Hemrich Sens* am Sckwabw (1894).
tOSPmURA, the architectural term given by Vitruvins
(v. 10) to the hollow space under the floor of a Roman bath,
In which the smoke from the furnace passed to the vertical flues
in the wall (see Hyfocavst).
SiniBZ* SARIS OP. The early history of the earldom of
Sussex, a title that has been borne at different periods by several
English families, is involved in some obscurity, owing to the
fact that under the Nofman kings the titles of earls were often
indifferently derived from a county, from its chief town, or from
the earl's principal residence^ although the distinctive mark of
an esd was deemed to be his right to ** the third penny " of
the plos of a county (see Earl). Thus in the X2th century
the same person is soraetimss found described as earl of Sussex,
sometimes as earl of Chichester, and sometimes as earl of Arundel,
while the inclusion of the counties of Sussex and Surrey under
the jurisdiction of a single sheriff led at one time, as will be seen,
to a further confusion between the earldotns of those counties.
The difficulty is, again, increased by the Crown's admission
IB 1433 that the possession of the castle of Arundel carried with
it the right to the title of earl of Arundel, though later investign-
tion (see Lords* Reports on the Diinity of a Peur, i. 404'4^) has
proved the invalidity of the claim, and Mr J. H. Round and
other modem authorities maintain that inasmuch as Norman
earls were earls of counties, the earldom of Arundel was strictly
that ol Sussex.
On the other hand G. £. Codcayne {Complete Petroie, i. 138,
r39) bolds that Roger de Moatgosaery, who reodved grants
from William the Conqueror of a large psit of the coHnty of
Sussex, including the dty of Chichester and tht castle and honour
of Anmdel, besides hmds in Shropshire with the castles of
Shrewsbury and Montgomery, but who does not appear to have
had " the third penny ** of any county, " was an earl pure and
ample, and that, as was usual in those early times, his earldom
was indifferently styled either from the territories of Chichester
or of Shropshire, or from the castles of Anmdel, Shrewsbury
or hlontgomery." This Roger de Montgomery was considered
by Dug^Ue, a 17th-century authority, to have been earl of
Whatever Roger's titles may have been, they were forfeited
to the Crown when his son Robert was attainted in 1102, and
the forfeited estates were conferred by Henry I. on his second
wife Adelicia, who after Henry's death married William de Albini,
or d'Aubigny. The latter was created eari of Sussex hy King
Suphen, and ** the third penny " of that county was confirmed
to him by an instrument of the rdgn of Henry II., in which
however, he is styled earl of Arundd, a designation by which
he was more generally known. His grandson William, 3rd earl
of Sussex, was one of King John's sureties for the observance
of ICagna Carta; and the earldom remained in his family till
1243, ^"Hben it reverted lo the Crown on the death of Hugh de
Albini, sth earl of the line (see Akundcl, Eabls of). This Hugh
married Isabel, daughter of William de Warenne, earl of Surrey,
who survived him by ncariy forty years, during which time she
held the estates of the earldom of Sussex in dower; after her
death in ia82 her brother John de Warennc» earl of Surrey,
was in variiMis writs described as " earl of Surrey and Sussex,"
the same style being also used by his grandson and successor,
another John de Waienne (1286-1347), though it is not dear
that dther of these Warennes had any right to the Sussex title,
the confusion having perhaps arisen through both counties
being- under the jurisdiction of one sheriff. In any case the earl-
dom of Sussex, if vested in the younger Warenne, reverted to
the Crown on his death without legitimate issue in 1347, when
his estates devolved on his nephew Richard Fitsalan, earl of
Arundd. Since the death of the last earl of the de Albini line
in X243 the earldoms of Arundel and Sussex had been separate.
For ueaily two hundred years, from 1347 to 1529, the title of
earl of Sussex dki not exist in the English peerage. In 1529,
however, it was conferred on Robert Raddiffe,* Raddyffe or
Ratdyfle {c. 1483-1543), who had Wn made Viscount 'Fitxwaker
in 15SS. Radcliffe was a son of John Raddiffe, Baron Fitxwalter
{fi. 1452^1496), and a grandson of Sir John Raddiffe of Attle-
boiough in Norfolk, who became Baron Fitswalter hy right of
hia wife Elizabeth. The younger John Raddiffe shared in the
conspiracy of Perkin Warbeck and was beheaded for high treason
in 1496. The attamder bdng reversed in 1506, his son Robert
became Baron Fjtzwalter in 1506 and was soon a prominent
person at the court of Heniy VIII. In x 529 he was created eari
of Sussex and in 1540 he was appointed great chamberlain of
England. He died on the 26th of November 1542, when his
son Henry {e. 1506-1557) became the 2nd earL Henry's son,
Thomas Radcliffe (see bdow), became the 3rd carL Thomas was
succeeded in 1583 by his brother Henry (c. i530-k593) who served
EUsabeth in Ireland. His8onRobe^(c. 1569-16 29), the 5th earl,
was a soldier and a patron of men of letters. When Robert's
son, Edward, the 6th earl {c. 1552-1641), died, the title became
extinct, but the barony of FiUwalter passed to the family of
MUdmay, which held it until 1756, when it fell into abeyance.
In 1644 Thomas Savile (c. x59o-e. 1659), son of John Savile,
ist Baron Savile of Pontefract (1566-1630), was created earl of
Sussex. Having been elected to the House of Commons as
member for Yorkshire in 1624, Savile became an opponent of
Wentworth, afterwards ead of Strafiord, the rivaliy between
the Saviles and the Wentworths having long been a feature
of the history of Yorkshire, and attaching himself to the duhe
of Buckingham, he was created Viscount Savile of C^tlebar
in the peerage ol Ireland in 1698, and two years later fucceeded
to his father's English peerage. His growing enmity to. Straf-
ford led him into violent opposition to the government as the
earl's power increased, and in 1640 he entered into correspond
dence with tho Soots, to whom he sent a promise of support
to which he forged the signatures of six peers. He was appointed
lord president of the council of the north in succession to Straf-
ford, but after the fall of the latter he went over to the Royalist
party, in whose interest he exerted his influence in Yorkshire
in a manner that brought upon him the displeasure of the
parliament in 1642. His efforts to exonerate himself led to his
being suspected by the Royalists, and to his arrest, while his
residence, Howley Hall, was sackMl by Newcastle, the Royalist
genersL Having been pardoned by Charles, whom Savile attended
at Oxford, he was created earl of Sussex in 1644; but his efforts
to promote peace on terms distasteful to the king brought him
again into disfavour, and in 1645 he was imprisoned and accused
of high treason. Escaping from this charge on the ground of
his privilege as a peer, be went to London and again ingratiated
himself with the popular party. Intriguing simultaneously
with both parties, he conUnued to play a double game with
considenble skill, although he suffered imprisonment in 1645
for accusing HoUes and Whitdocke of treachery in negotiations
with the king, and was heavily fined. After this be retired
into private life at Howley Hall, where he died about 1659.
He was succeeded in thif'earidom of Sussex by hb son James,
on whose death without issue in 167 1 the title became extinct.
It was revived in 1684 in favour of Thomas Lennard, 15th
Baron Dacre, whose wife Ann (d. 1722) was a daughter of the
famous duchess of Cleveland by King Charles II., and again
became extinct at thb nobleman's death in 171 5. The title
164
SUSSEX, 311D EARL OF
was next conferred in 1717 on Talbot Yclverton, tnd Viscount
de Longueville and 16th Baron Grey de Ruthyn (c. x69»*i73i),
from whom it descended to his two sons successively, becoming
once more extinct on the death of the younger of these, Hcniy,
3rd earl of Sussex of this creation, in 1799.
In 180X Prince Augustus Frederick (i 773-1843) the sixth son
of George III., was created duke of Sussex. Spending his early
years abroad, the prince was married in Rome in 1793 to Lady
Augusta (d. 1830) daughter of John Murray, 4th earlof Dunmore.
The ceremony was repeated in London and two children were
bom, but imder the Royal Marriage Act of 1773^ the Court of
Arches declared the union illegal. The children took the name
of d'Este. The son. Sir Augustus Frederick d'Este (1794-1848)^
became a colonel in the Britis|i army. In 1843 he claimed his
father's honours, but the Hotfse of Lords decided against him.
He died unmarried. The daughter, Augusta Emma <i8oi-
1S66) married Sir Thomas Wilde, afterwards Lord Tniro.
Vnlike his brothers the duke of Sussex was a man of liberal
ideas; he favoured the abolition of the slave trade, the repeal
of the com laws, and the removal of the civil disabilities of
Roman Catholics, Dissenters and Jews. His second wife,
Cecilia, widow of Sir George Buggin, was created duchess of
Inverness in 1840. He died at Kensington Palace on the
3ist of April 1843.
The older title of earl of Sussex was revived In 1874 when
it was conferred upon Prince Albert, the third son of Queen
Victoria, who at the same time was created duke of Connaught
tnd Stratheam.
See G. E. C, Compute Peerage, s.v. " Suaaex." " Surrey,** ** Arun-
del." vols. L and viL (London, 1887-1896); Sir WHiiam Dugdale, The
Baronage oj Entfand (London, i67>j) . For the earls of the Radcliffe
family see alco John Strype, Memorials of Thomas Cranmer (London,
1694}, Annals oj the ReformtUion (London, 1725), and Ecclesiastical
Memorials U vols., London, I721J; P. F. Tytler, England under the
JUigHS of Edward VI. and Mary (a vols., London, 1839) ; Calendars of
State Papers: Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VI JL For
the ist earl of the Savile line see S. R. Gardiner, Hist, of England,
1603-1642 (10 vols., London, 1881-1884), and HisL of the Great Civil
War (3 vols.. London, I886-1B91K and John Rushworth, Historical
Collections (8 vols., London, 1659-1 701).
SUSSEX, TROKAS RADCLTFFB [or RATCLvm], 3x0 Easl
OP (c. 1 525-1583), lord-lieutenant of Ireland, eldest son of Henry,
2nd eari of Sussex (see Sussex, Eakls of), by his ^t wife,
Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas Howard, 2nd duke of Norfolk,
was bora -about 1525, and after liis father's succession to the
earidom in 1542 was styled Viscount Fitzwalter. After serving
in the army abroad, he was employed in xssi in negotiating a
marriage between Edward VI. and a daughter of Henry II.,
king of France. His prominence in the kingdom was shown by
his inclusion among the signatories to the letters patent of the
i6th of June 1553 settling the ciown on Lady Jane Grey;
but he nevertheless won favour with (^een Mary, who empkiyed
him in arranging her marriage with Philip of Spain, and who
raised him to the peerage as Baron Fitzwalter in August 1553.
Returning to England from a mission to the emperor Charles V.
in April 1556, Fitzwalter was appointed lord deputy of Ireland.
The prevailing anarchy in Ireland, a a>untry which, nominally
subject to the English Crown, was torn by feuds among its
practically independent native chieftains, rendered the task
of the lord deputy one of no ordinary difficulty; a difficulty
that was increased by the Ignorance of English statesmen con-
cerning Ireland and Irish conditions, and by their incapacity to
devise or to carry into execution any consistent and thorough'
going policy for bringing the half-conquered Island under an
orderly system of administration, llie measures enjoined
upon Fitzwalter by the government in London comprised the
reversal of the partial attempts that had been made during the
short reign of Edward VI. to promote Protestantism in Ireland,
and the ** plantation " by English settlers of that part of the
country then known as Offaly and Leix. But before Fitzwalter
could give his attention to such matters he found it necessary
to make an expedition into Uhier, which was being kept in a
constant state of disturbance by the Highland Scots from
Xiniytt and the Islands who were making letllementt ak>ng
the Antrim coast in the district known m the Gtynnw (glatu),
and by the efforts of Shane O'Neill to cx>nvert into effective
sovereignty the chieftainship of his dan which he had recently
wrested from his father, Conn, ist eari of Tyrone. Having
defeated O'Neill and his allies the MacDonnells,the lord deputy,
who by the death of his father in February 1557 became earl of
Sussex, returned to Dublin, where he summoned a parliament
in June of that year. Statutes were passed declaring the legiti-
macy of Qwen Mary, reviving the laws for the suppression of
heresy, forbidding the immigration of Soots, and vesting in the
Crown the territory comprised in what are now the King*s County
and Queen's County, which were then so named after Philip
and Mury respectively. Having carried this legislation, Sussex
endeavoured to give forcible effect to it, first by taking the field
against Donough O'Conor, whom he failed to capture, and
afterwards against Shane O'Neill, whose lands in Tyrone he
ravaged, restoring to their nominal ri^ts the earl of Tyrone
and his reputed son Matthew O'Neill, baxon of DoAgannon
(see O'Neili.). In June of the following year Sussex turned his
attention to the west, where the head of the O'Briens liad ousted
his nephew Conor O'Brien, earl of Thomond, from his possessions,
and refused to pay allegiance to the Crown; he forced limerick
to open its gates to him, restored Thomond, and proclaimed
The O'Brien a traitor. In the autumn of 1558 the continued
inroads of the Scottish islanders in the Antrim glens called
for drastic treatment by the lord deputy, Sussex laid waste
Kintyre and some of the southern Hebrideaa isles, and land'
ing .at Carrickfergus he fired and pltmdered tlie settlements oi
the Scots on the Antrim coast before retuzning to Dublin for
Christmas.
In the metropolis the news reached him of the queen's death.
Crossing to England, he took part in. the ceremonial of Quete
Elizabeth's coronation in January 1559; and in the following
July he returned to Ireland with a fresh commissioo, now as
lord lieutenant, from the new queen, whose polity required him
to come to terms if possible with the troublesome leaders of
the O'Neills and the MacDonnells. Shane O'Neill n^fused to
meet Sussex without security for his safety, and having eeub-
lished his power in Dlster he demanded terms of peace which
Elizabeth was unwilling to grant. Sussex failed in his efforts to
bring Shane to submission, either by open warfare or by a
shameful attempt to procure the Irish chief tain's asnssination.
He was preparing for a fresh attempt when lie was superseded
by the eari of Kildare, who was commissioned by Elizabeth to
open negotiations with O'Neill, the result of which was that
the latter repaired to London and made formal submission to
the queen. Shane's conduct on his return to Ireland was no
less rebellious than before, and cnngetic measures agaiast him
became more imperative than ever. Having obtained ESUza-
beth's sanction, Sussex conducted a campaifpi in the summer of
1563 with Armagh as his temporary headquarters; but except
for some indecisive skirmishing and the seizure of many of
O'Neill's cattle, the operations led to no result and Idft Shane
O^Neill with his power little diminished. His continued faflure
to effect & purpose for the accomplishment of which he possessed
inadequate resources led Sussex to pcay for bis recall from
Ireland; and his wish was granted in May 1564. His govenn
roent of Ireland had not, however, been wholly without fruit.
Sussex Was the first representative of the English Crown who
enforced authority to any considerable extent beyond the
limits of the Pale; the policy of planting English settlers in
Offaly and Leix was carried out by him in 1562 with a certain
measure of success; and although he fell far short of estab*
lishing English rule throughout any large part of Ireland, he
made its infhience felt in remote parts of the island, such as-
Thomond and the Glynnes of Antrim, where the independence
of the native septs had hitherto been subjected not even to
nominal interference. His letters from Ireland display, a just
conception of the problems with which he was cotafronted, and
of the methods by which their solution should be undertaken;
and his failure was due, not to lack of statesmanship or of
executive capacity on his own part, but tO the insufficiency
SUSSEX
*65
•f the i wo uiiCT placed at his eommand and want of insight and
penistenoe on the part of Elizabeth and her ministers.
On his return to England, Sussex, who before leaving Ireland
had to eaduie the indignity of an inquiry into hia administra-
tioo instigated by his enemies, threw himself into oppodtion to
the carl of Leicester, especially In regard to the suggested
marriage between that nobleman and the queen. He does
not appear to have on that account incurred Elizabeth's dis«
pleasure, for in x 566 and the following year she employed him in
negotiations for bringing about a different matrimonial alliance
which he warmly supported, namely, the proposal that she
ihookl bestow her hand on the archduke Charles. When this
project fell to the ground Sussex retomed from Vienna to
London in March 1568, and in July he was appointed lord
president of the north, a position which threw on him the
Rspooaibility of dealing with the rebellion of the earls of
Nc^umberiand and Westmorland in the following year. The
weakness of the force at his disposal rendered necessary at the
outset a caution which engendered some suspicion of his loyalty;
and this suspicion was increased by the counsel of moderation
which he ur|ed upon the queen; hut in 1570 he bid waste the
boKdcfr invaded Scotland, and raided the ooontry round Dum-
fries, reducing the rebel leaders to complete submission. In
July IS73 Sussex became bed chambeilain, and he was hence*
forth in frequent attendance on Queen Elizabeth, both in her
p rag r<nr s through the country and at court, unto hia death on
the 9th of June 1583.
The end of Suaaex was one of the great nobles of the Eliza-
bethan period. Though his loyalty was questioned by his
enemies, it was as unwAvering as his patiiotisnL He shone asa
courtier; he excelled in diplomacy; he was a man of cultivation
and even of scholarship, a patron of literature and of th^ drama
on the eve of its MoBBftming into the glory it became soon after
I his death. He was twice married: firat to Elizabeth, daughter
I of Thomas Wriothesley, earl of Southampton; and secondly
' to Frances, daughter of Sir William Sidney, ffis second wife
was the foundress of Sidney Sussex College at Cambridge,
which she endowed by her will, and whose name commemorates
the father and the husband of the countess. The earl left no
duldreD, and at his death his titles passed to his brother Henry
(see ScssEX, Eaais 01).
Sec P. F. Tytler, England under the Reitns ofEdvard VI. and Uary
(7 voLk, London, 1839) ; Richard Bagwdl, Irdand under the Tudert
Scr Cathbert Sharpe, Memoriait of the RebeUion of jkSq (London.
%SLM>)i John NichoU, Protresses and Public Processunt of Queen
EhaMh (t toIs., London, 1823) ; Sir William Dugdale, The Baronatft
oj Emt^amd Qj^uioaj 1675). (R. J. M.)
a southern county of England, bounded N. by
Surrey, NX. by Kent, a by the English Channel, and W. by
Haxnpdiire. The area is 1459*2 iq* m. The extreme length
from E. to W. is 78 m., while the breadth never exceeds a8 m.,
but the county is not wholly on the southward slope, for in the
middle northern district It contributes a small drainage area
to the Thaanes basin, and the river Medway rises in it. A line
ef hills known as the Forest Ridges forms the watershed. Its
direction fa E.S.E. from the northern part of the county to the
eoast at FairHght Down east of Hastings, and it reaches a height
ed aboot 800 ft In -the neighbourhood of Crowborough. The
aslient physical feature of the county, however, is the hill
range called the South Downs (fee Downs). Entering hi the
west, where its summit is about 10 m. from the sea. It runs eakt
for some so m-, graduslly approaching the coast, and terminating
I ja the bold promontory of Beachy Head near Eastbourne. The
L Ko^tm^ height is about 500 ft., though some summits exceed
700, aad Ditcfaling Beacon is over 800. The portion of the county
north of the South Downs is called the Weald (^.v.). It was
CooDesly covered with forest, and this part of the county is
still ^eiH wooded. About 1660 the total area under forest
to exceed 900,000 acres, but much wood was
cut to supply the furnaces of the ironwoihs which formed an
important industry in the county down to the 17th century,
and survived even until the eariy years of the 19th.
The rivers wholly within the county are smalL All rise in
the Forest Ridges, and all, except the Rother, which forms
part of the boundary witjli Kent, and falls into the sea bdow
Rye, breach the South Downs. From east to west they are the
Cuckmere, rising near Heathfield; the Ouse, Adur and Arun,
all rishig in the district of St Leonard's Forest, and having ait
their mouths the ports of Newhaven, Shoreham and Little-
hampton respectively. The natural trench known as the Devil's
Dike is a point greatly favoured by visitors from Brighton.
The coast-line is practically coextensive with the extreme breadth
of the county, and Its character greatly varies. The sea has
done great daznage by incuc&ion at some points, and has receded
in others, within historic timea. Thus what is now marsh-
land or "Levels" round Pevensey wss formeriy an island-
studded bay. In the east Wlnchelsea and Rye, members of
the Cinque Ports, and great medieval towns, are deprived of
their standing, the one wholly and the other in part, since a low
flat traa interposes between their elevated sites where formerly
'was a navigable inlet. Yet the total submergence of the site
of Old Wixichelsea was effected in the 13th century. The site
of the ancient cathedral of Selsey is a mile out at sea. Between
za93 and ^1340 upwards of 5500 acres were submerged. In
the eariy part of the 14th century Pagham Harbour was formed
by a sudden irruption of the sea, devastating 2700 acres, since
reclaimed. There Is reason to believe that the whole coast-
line has subsequently been slightly raised. These changes are
reflected in the numerous alterations recorded in the course of
certain of the rivers neax their mouths. Thus the Rother was
diverted by a great storm on the latb of October 1350, before
which date it entered the sea x a m. to the east. The out-
let 6f the Ouse was at Seaford untU 1S70J and that, of the
Adur formeriy shifted from year io year, ranging east and
west over a distance of a m. Submerged forests are found
off the shore at various points. Long stretches of firm sand,
and the mild, climate of the coast, sheltered by the hills from
north and east winds, have resulted in the growth of numerous
watering-places, of which the most popular are Brighton,
Hastings, Eastbourne, Bexhill, Seaford, Shoreham, Worthing,
Littlehaxnpton and Bognor.
{^eafofy.— The disposition of the rock formations of Sussex Is
simple. The South Downs consist of. chalk, which extends from
Beachy Head by Seaford, Brighton.' L.mrcs, Steyning and Goodwood
to the western border. The dip of the chalk is southeriy, while a
scarpment faces the nortfi. From the nimmit of the Downs
r country observed on the northern nde is occupied mainly
btronr escarpment faces the nortfi. From the nimmit of the Downs
hilly c , * ' ■ ■ " ■ _'"■",
by the Hastings Beds and the Weald Clay ; at the foot of the eacarp-
thei
ment He the Cault and Upper Greensand, while between those forma-
rions and the Wealden rocks there is an elevated ridge of ground
formed by the Lower Greensand. On the southern side, narrow at
Brighton but broadening westward, is a level tract, 8 m. wide in
the peninsula of Selsey^Which owes its level character to the action
of marine planation. This tract is occupied partly by Chalk and
partly by Tertiary rocks, both much obscured by more recent
deposits. On this side the chalk hills are deeply notched by dry
vallevB or coombs, whkh frequently end in cirques near the north.
ward escarpment. The pr e sent aspect of the strata has been
determined by the broad east and west fold with its subofdtnatc
members, known as the Wealden antkiine. Only the southern and
central portbna of this antidine are included in this country; at one
time there is no doubt that the Chalk, Greensand and Gault covered
the entire area in the form of an uplifted dome, but denudation has
removed the Chalk and moet of the other formations as far as the
North I>ownB, expoeiag thereby the uoderiylng Wealden Beda.
The oMest rocks thus brought ro light along the crest of the aotfeUne
are the Purbcck Beds, amall patches of shale and limestone, with
some important beds of gypsum, whkh lie north-west of Battk.
the north-eastern portion of the county from the coast at Bcahill and
Rye to Horsham, are sands and days of the Lower Wealden or
Hastings Bedsi. This include* the fcdiowinr kxal subdivisiona, in
aaoending order; the Fairiight Clay, Asfadown Sand, Wadhnnt
Clay, Lower Tunbridge Wdls Sand, Crinstead Clay and Upper
Tunbridge Weils Sand (with TUgate stone at the top and CuckAekl
Gay at the base). The Weald Clay occupies a belt of lower around
i66
SUSSEX
on the aouth and west of the KaicincB Sands, it oocisisu of blue and
mottled cUys with thin saad byera and beds of hard limestone,
the " Sussex marble" with the shells of Paludina. The Horsham Stbne
IS another local hard bed. Near Tilgate the remains of Igitanodon
have been found in this formation. Bordering the outcrop of the
Weald Clay is the Lower Greensand; it amMars a little north of
Eastbourne and passes thence through Rinsmer. Storrington.
Pulborough. Petworth, Midhurst and Lmchmere. It contains the
following divisions in ascending order-^he Ather6eki Clay. Hythe
Beds (sandy limestone, sandstone and chert). Sandgate Beds and
Folkestone Beds. The Eocene strau lying south of the Downs and
west xA Br^hton — with the exception of some outliers of Reading
Beds near Seaford— include the Woolwich and Reading . Beds,
London Clay (with hard " Bognor Rock"), the Bagshot and BiracUes-
ham Beds; the last-named formation is very foanliferous in the bay
of that name. As already mentioned. super6cial deposits cover
much of the low ground west of Brighton; these include gladal
deposits with large boulders, raised beaches, brick earth and gravels,
marine and estuarine, and the interesting Coombe rock or BrijEhton
Elephant Bed, a coarse rubble of chalk waste formed late m the
Glacial period, well exposed in the cliff at Black Rock east of
Brighton, where it rests on a raised beach. The natural gas of
Heathfidd comes from the Lower Wealden and Purbeck Beds. The
Wadhurst Clay was formerly an important source of iron ore.
GimaU and AtriaiUurt. — ^tlie climate of the coast district is
mild, equable and dry. while that of the Wealden^ shows greater
extremes of t e m perature, and u rather wetter. The mean daily
range of temperature in the Weald is about half as mudi again as
on the coast. The influence of the sea in modifying the temperature
<A the coast district is specially noticeable in the autumn months,
when the temperature is higher than in the Weakl and other jnrts
of England northwards. The coast di^rict is spedally swtable
for market gaixlens and for growing fruit trees. The fig gardena of
West Tarring are celebrated. About seven-tenths of the toul area
is under culuvation, and of this neariy three-fifths bin permanent
pasture. Sussex is still one of the best-wooded counties in Engbnd.
The acreage under grain crops shows a lane decrease; nearly the
whole of it is occupied by oats and wheat. The acreage under green
crops is mainly devoted to turnips and other food for cattle and to
the supply of vegetables for the London market. The growing of
hops has not kept pace with that in the neighbouring county of Kent.
Cattb are kept in increasing numbers both for breeding and for
dairy purposes. The South Downs afford excellent pasture for
sheep ami Sussex b famed for a special breed of black-faced sheep.
The numbers, however, show a steady decrease. Poultry fanning ts
brgely carried on in some parts. The custom of borough-English,
by which land descends to the youngest son, prevailed to an extra-
ordinary d^^reein Sussex, and no fewer than 140 manors have been
catalogued m which it was found. Gavelkind tenure existed in Rye.
in the bige masiocoi Biede, and in Coustard manor (in Brede parish).
(Xher imiustries. — ^The manufacturing industries are meagre.
The London. Brighton & South Coast Railway Company has bree
works at Brighton. At Heathfieki in 1901 the development of the
.field of natural gas was begun by a private company. The fisheries
are of great importance,' tncludtng cod. herring^ mackerel, sprats,
plaice, soles, turbot, iJirimps, crabs, lobsters, oysters, mussels,
cockks, whelks and periwinkles. Bcdo records that St Wilfrid,
when he visited'the county in 681, taught the people the art of net*
fishing. At the time of the Domesday survey the fisheries were
extensive, and no fewer than 285 salinae (saltworks) existed. The
customs of the Brighton fishermen were reduced to writing in 1^79.
CommunicaiioHS. — Communications arc provided by the London.
Brighton & South Coast railway by lines from the north to St
Leonards and Hastings, to Eastbourne, to Lewes and Newhaven.
to Brighton, to Shorehiam. and to Arundel and Chichester, with
numerous branches and a connecting line aloi^; the coast. The
South-Eastem & Chatham railway serves Bcxhill, St Leonards and
Hastings, with a coastal branch eastward by Rye. Light railways
run from Chichester to Selsey (SeUey railway) and from Roberts-
bridge U> Bodbm and Tentoden (Rother Valley railway). There
are no sood harbours, and none of the ports b of first importance.
From Newhaven, however, a brge trade b carried on with France,
and daily services of passenger steamers of the Br^hton Railway
Company ply to Dieppe.
Population and Adminisiniion.-^'The area of the ancient county
b 933.S87 acres, with a popubtion in 1891 of SSO.446 and in 1901 of
605,903. The earliest sutement as to the popubtion is made by
Bcde, who describes the county aa containing m the year 6S1 bnd
of 7000 families; alk>wing ten to a family (not an unreasonable
estimate at that date), the total popubtion would be 7o,oco. In
1693 tlw county is stated to have contained a 1.537 nouses. If
seven were altowed to a house at that date, the total popubtion
wouki be i^.759> It is curious, tbenefore, to observe that in 1801
the popubtion was only I59>3I(' The decline of the Sussex iron-
works nrobably accounts for the small increase of popubtion during
severu centunea. although after the massacre of St Bartholomew
upwards of 1500 HugueooU bnded at Rye, and in 1665, after the
revocation of the Edict of Nantes, many more refugees were added
to the county.
county court should be
[enry\
houkll
(1504) <firBcted that for ooavemeaoe tW
1 at Lewes as well as at Chichester, and
thb apparently gave rise to the division of Sussex Into east and 1 _ _
parts, each of which b an administrative county. East Sussex haa
an area of 528^07 acres and West Sussex of 403. 603 acres. Sussex
includes the county boroughs of Brighton and Hastings. East
Sussex contains the municipal boroughs of BexhiU (pop. 12,213).
Brighton (123478). Eastbourne (43.344)< Hastings (65.528). Hove
(36.535)> Lewes (1 1.249) and Rye (3900). The urban dutricts in
thbdivbion are Battle (2996). Bums Hill (4888), Cuckfieki (1813).
East Gtinst^ (6094), Haywards rieath (3717). Newhaven (677a),
Portsbde-by-Sea(52i7). Seafocd (3355) and Uckfield ^S). In
West Sussex the municipal boroughs are Arundel (2739), Chidhester,
a city (12,24a) and Worthing <20.oi{j). The urban districts are
Bognor (6180). Horsham (944^< Littbhampton (7363). Shoreham
(38^7) and Southwick (3364). The ancient county, which b almost
entirely in the diocese of Chichester, contains 377 ecclesiastical
parishes or districts, wholly or in ^rt. The total number of civil
parishes b 338. Sussex is divided into the folk>wing jparibmeotary
divisions: northern or East Grinstcad. eastern or Rye. southern
or Eastbourne, mid or Lewes, south-western or Chichester, north-
western or Horsham, each returning one member; and contains the
paribmentary boroughs of Brighton, returning two members, ami
Hastings, returning one.
Hislory.—'kpaxt from oondusions to be drawn from pre-
historic remains, the history of Sussex begiiis in 477. when the
Saxons landed in the west of the county under EUa Imd hb
three sons, and built up thei kingdom oC the South Saxons (see
Sussex, Kincooic or. below). They took the Roman dty of
Riegnum. which became Chichester, and drove the British
westward, into the forest of Andred. The Roman fwtiess of
Anderida, the site of the castle of Pevensey, also fell to the
Saxons. Ella became the most tnfiuentbl of the contemporary
Saxon chiefs, and was, according to Bede, the first Bretwaldi.
After hb time the kingdom of Sussex gnMluaHy declined, and
fell entirely under the dominion of Wessex in 823. Interest-
ing Saxon remains are found in numerous cemeteries, and
scattered burial places along the south slopes of the Downs.
The cemetery on High Down hill, where weapons, ornaments
and vesseb of various kinds were found, and the Chanctonbury
hoard of coins, are among the most notloeable relics. A coin
of Offa of Mercb, found at Beddingham, recaUs the charter
of Archbbhop Wilfred in 825, in which Offa's connexion with the
monastery in that place b recorded.. From 895 Sussex suffered
from constant raids by the Danes, till the accession of Canute,
after which arose the two great forces of the bouse of
Godwine and of the Normans. Godwine was probably a native
of Sussex, and by the end of the Confessor's reign' a third part
of the county was in the handsof hb family. Norman influence
was already strong in Sussex before the Conquest; the harboura
of Hastings, Rye, Winchclsea and Steyning being in the power
of the Norman abbey of F£camp, while the Norman chapbin
of Edward the Confessor, Osbem, afterwards bishop of Exeter,
held the estate of Bosham.
The county was of great importance to tne Normans; Hastings
and Pevensey being on the most direct route for Normandy.
William was accordingly careful to secure the lines of com*
munication with London by placing the lands in the hands of
men bound by dose tics to himself, such as hb half-brother,
the count of Mortain, who hdd Pevensey, and his ion-in>Iaw.
WiUbm de Warenne, who held Lewes. With the eiception
of lands held by the Church and the Crown, the five rapes of
Sussex were held by these and three other Norman tenants-in*
chief: William de Braose, the Count of En. and Roger, carl of
Montgomery, who held respectivdy Bramber, Hastings and
Anindel. The honour of Battle was afterwards made Into a
rape by the Conqueror, and provides one of the arguments in
favour of the theory of the Norman origin of these unique
divisions of the county. The county was divided into five
(afterwards six) strips, running north and south, and havtng
each a town of miliUry. commercial and maritime imponance.
These were the rapes, and each had fu sheriff, in addition to
the sheriff of the whole county. Whether the origin ol the
rapes, as dbtricts, b to be found in the Icelandic tcirilonal
division kreppr (rejected in the New English DicHonofy), or in
the Sanaa rmp, a rope, or b of Norman origin, aa lordshipe
SUSSEX
167
Ihey luidoabtcdly oiwd their exutence to the Monntiis. The
koMings— which bad been scattered under the Saxons, 10 that
one man't holding might be in more than one rape— were now
deterraiaed, not by the manofs in which they by, but by the
bofdcrs of the rape. Another peculiarity of the division of
iaad in Sussex is that, appaiently, each hide of land bad eight
instead of the usual four virgates.
The county boundary was long and somewhat indetermihate
on the north, owing to the dense forest of Andredsweald, which
was uninhabited till the xzth centuxy. Evidence of this is
seen in IXtmesday Book by the survey of Worth and Lodsworth
under Surrey, and also by the fact that as bte as 1854 the pre-
sent pariflhes of north and south Araersham in Sussex were part
of Hampshire. At the time of the Domesday Survey Sussex
contained sixty hundreds, which have been little altered since.
A few have been split up into two or three, making seventy-
three in all; and the names of some have changed, owing prob-
ably to the meeting-place of the hundred court having been
altered. These courts were in private hands in Sussex; cither
of the Church, or of great barons and local lords. The county
ooort was held at Lewes and Shoreham until the Great Inquest,
when it was moved to Chichester. After several changes the
aa of 1 504 arranged for it to be held alternately at Lewes and
Clttcliester. There was no gaol in the county until 1487; that
at Guildford being used in common by Surrey and Sussex,
whicfa were under one sheriff until 1567.
Private jurisdictions, both ecclesiastical and lay, played a
bfge part in the county. The chief ecclesiastical franchises
wtrt those of the archbishop of Canterbury, of the bishop of
Chkhcster, of the Saxon foundation of Bosham, where Bishop
Wilfred had found the only gleam of Christianity in the county,
and of the votive abbey of Battle, founded by the Cbnqueror.
Thb abbey possessed, besides land in many other cmmties, the
"Lowy of Battle," a district extending for 3 m. nmnd
tbe aibbey. The see of Chichester was co<«xtensive with the
county, and has altered little. It is one of the oldest bishoprics,
having been founded by Wilfred at Selsey; the seat was re-
moved to Chtckester by William I. Among the lay franchises,
the DMSt noticeable are those of the Cinque PorU and of the
honor of Pcvensey, named the honor of the Eagle from the
lords of L'Aigle or Aguila.
Susacx, from its position, wsa constantly tbe scene of pre-
psratiofis for invasion, and was often concerned in rebelh'ons.
Pcvensey and Arundel play a- grfcat part in rebellions and
furfeiture during the troubled times of the early Norman kings.
Is the barons' wars the county was a good centre for the king's
forces; Lewes being in the hands of the kbgls brother-in-hw,
John de Warenne, earl of Surrey, Pevensey and Hastings in
(hose of bis uncle, Peter of Savoy. The forces of the king and
of De Mootfort met at Lewes, where the famous battle and
** Mise of Lewes " took place. The corrupt and burdensome
idmlnistratlon of the county during the rjth and 14th centuries,
combined with the constant passage of troops for the French
van and the devastating plagues of the X4th century, were
the causes of such rebellions as the Peasants' Rising of xjSx and
Jsck Cade's Rebellion in 1450. In tbe former Lewes Castle
was taken, and in the latter we find such men engaged as the
sbbot of Battle and the prior of Lewes. During Elisabeth's
reign there was again constant levying of troops for warfare in
FbndefS and the Low Countries, and preparations for defence
tgzinst Spain. The sympathies of the county were divided
during the Civa War, Arundel and Chichester being held for the
king, Lewes and tbe Cinque Ports for the paritament. Chichester
isd Arundel were besieged by Waller, and the Roundheads
pined a strong hold on the county, in spite of the loyalty of
Sf Edward Ford, sheriff of Sussex. A royalist gathering in the
«€St of the county in 1645 caused preparations for resistance
a Cbacbester, of which Algernon Sidney was govenior. In
tbe same year the " Clubmen " rose and endeavoured to compel
ibe armies to come to terms. Little active part in the national
fcistory fefl to Sussex from that time till the French Revolution,
ehea oumbers of volunteers were raised In defence. At the
outbreak of war with FMnce fn 1793 a camp was formed at
Brighton; and at Eastbourne in X803, when the famous Martello
towers were erected.
The parliamentary history of the county began in 1290,
for which year we have the first extaat return of knighu of the
shire for tUs county, Henry Kussey and William de Etchlngham,
representatives of two well-known Sussex families, being elected.
Drastic reformation was effected by the Redistribution Act of
1832, when Bramber, East Grinsteadi Seaford, Steyning and
Winchelsea were disfranchised after returning two members
each, the first being classed among the worst of the " rotten "
boroughs. Before 1839 two members each had been returned
also by Arundel, Chichester, Hastings, Hoisham, Lewes, Mid-
hurst, New Shoreham (with the rape of Bramber) and Rye.
Arundel, Horsham, Midhurst and Rye were each deprived of a
member in 1832, Chichester and Lewes in 1867, and Hastings
in X885. Arundel was disfranchised In x868, and Chichester,
Horsham, Midhurst, New Shoreham and Rye in 1885. In
the i8th century the duke of Newcastle was all-powerful in the
county, where the PeUuun family had been settled from the time
of Edward I.; the earl of Chichester being the present repre-
sentative of the family. Among the oldest county families of
Sussex may be mentioned the Ashbnmhams of Ashbumham,
the Gages of Firle and the Barttelots of Stopham.
The industries of SusseK, now mainly agricultural, were once
varied. Among those noted in the Domesday Survey were the
herring fisheries, the salt pans of the coast and the wool trade;
the South Down sheep beiiig noted for their wool, at home
and abroad, aa early as the x3tb century. The iron mines of
the county, though not mentioned in Domesday, are known to
have been worked by the Romans; and the smelting and
forging of iron was the great industry of the Weald from the
13th to the x8th century, the first mention of the trade in the
county being in xa66. In the xsth century ordnance for the
government was made here. Some old banded guns with the
name of a Sussex maker on them may be seen at the Tower of
London. The first cast-iron cannon made in England came
from Buxtcd IQ Sussex, and were made by one Ralph Hogge,
whose device can be seen on a house in Buxted. The large
supply of wood in the cotmty made it a favourable centre for
the ^idustry, all smelting being done with charcoal till the
middle of the i8th century. In the time of Henry VIII. the
destruction of the forest for fuel began to arouse attention, and
enactments for the preservation of timber increased from this
time forward, till the use of pit-coal for smelting was periected,
when the industxy moved to districts where coal was to he
found. Camden, Thomas Fuller, and Drayton in his PdyoUriom
refer to the busy and noisy Weald district, and lament the
destruction of the trees. The glass-making industry, which
had flourished at Chiddingfold in Surrey, and at Wesboiough
Green, Loxwood and Petworth in Sussex, was destroyed by
the prohibition of the use of wood fuel in x6x5. The timber
trade had been one of tbe moat considerable in early times;
the Sussex oak being considered the finest shipbuilding timber.
Among the smaller industries weaving and fulling were also to
be found, Chichester having been noted for its doth, also for
malt and needles.
Antiquitiet.'^Vfom earty thnes castles guarded three import
tant entries from the coast throni^ the South Downs into the
interior provided by the valleys of the Ouse, the Adur and the
Arun. These are respectively at Lewes, Bramber and AmsdeL
The ruins of tbe first two» though Imposing, do not compare in
grandeur with the third, which is still the seat of the dukes of
Norfolk. More famous than these are the nuissive remains,
in part Norman but mainly of the X3th century, of the strong-
hold of Pevensey, within the walls of Roman Anderida. Other
ruins are those of the finely situated Hastings Castle; the
Norman remains at Knepp near West Grfnstead; the
picturesque and remarkably perfect moated fortress of Bodiam,
of the 14th centuryi and Hurstmonceaux Castle, a beautiful
iSth-century building of brick. Specimens of ancient domestic
architecture are fairly numerous; such are the remnants of oU
i68 SUSSEX, KINGDOM OF— SUTHERLAND, EARLS OF
paUoes of the aichbishops of CftntcriMtty at Mayfield and West
Tuning; Amberley Castle, a residence until the 26th century
of the bishops of Chichester; and the Elizabethan mansions of
Parham and of Danny at Hurstpierpoint. There are many
fine residences dating from the 18th century or later; Goodwood
is perhaps the most famous. Here and elsewhere are fine
collections of paintings, though the county suffered a loss in
this respect through the partial destruction by fire of the modem
castle of Kneppin 1904.
Monastic remains are few and generally slight. The ruins
of Bayham Abbey near Tunbridge Wells, and of Battle Abbey,
may be noticed. There are numerous churches, however,
of great interest and beauty. Of those in the towns may be
mentioned the cathedral of Chichester, the churches of Sboreham
and Rye, and the mother church of Worthing at Broadwater.
Construction of pre-Norman date is seen in the churches of
Bosham, Sompting and, most notably, Worth. There is
very rich Norman work of various dates in the church of St
Nicholas, Steyning. Several perfect specimens of small Early
English diurchea are found, as at West Tarring, and at Climping
near Littlehampton. Perhaps the most interesting church in
the county is the magnificent Decorated fragment at Winchelsea;
another noteworthy church of this period is at Etchingham,
near the eastern border. The church of St Denis, Midhurst,
is mainly Perpendicular; but this style is not otherwise pre-
dominant. The large church at Fletching, of various styles,
contains the tomb of Gibbon the historian. At Cowfold, south-
east of Horsham, is a great Carthusian monastery, founded in
1877. The iron memorial slabs occiirring in several churches
recall the period of the iron industry in Sussex.
DiakcU-^A. lar^ge number of Saxon words are retained and
pronounced in the old style; thus pt* becomes ge-at. The letter
a is very broad in all words, as if followed by u, and in fact con-
verts words of one syllable into words of two, as fails (face), taast
(taste). &c. Again, o before double d becomes ar, as order and
larder for adder And hdder; oi is like a long i, as spile (spoil), tTitment
(ointment); an e is substituted for a in such words as rag, flag, &c
The French refugees in the 16th and 17th centuries introduced many
words which are still in use. Thus a Sussex woman when unpre-
pared to receive insitors says she is in diskabitie (d^shabilld, undress) ;
if her child is unwell, it kwks pekid (piqu6). if fretful, is a little peter-
pievous (petit-ffrief ) ; she cooks with a broach (broche, a spit), and
talks of coasts (coste, O. Fr.), or ribs of meat, &c.
Authorities.— See T. W. Horsfield, History, Antiquities and
Topography of Sussex (Lewes, 1835); J. Dallaway, History of the
Western DtoistoH of Sussex (London, 1815-1832); M. A. Lower, /fu/orv
of Sussex (Lewes, 1870), Churches of Sussex (Brighton, 1872) ana
Worthies of Sussex (Lewes, 1865); Sussex Archaeological Society's
Collections; W. E. Baxter. Domesday Book for . . . Sussex (Lewes,
1876); Sawyer, Sussex Natural History and Folklore (Bngfiton,
iB8\i, Sussex Dialect (Brighton, 1884) and Sussex Songs and Music
(Bnghton, 1885); A. J. C. Hare, Sussex (London. 1894).
SUSSEX. EUfGDOM OP (549 Seaxc, i.e. the South Saxons),
one of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon Britain, the boundaries
of which coincided in general with those of the modern county
of Sussex. A large part of that district, however, was covered
in early times by the forest called Andred. According to the
traditional account given in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, it was
in 477 that a certain Ella (/Elle) led the invaders ashore at a
place called Cymenes ora and defeated the inhabitants. A
further battle at a place called Mearcredes burne is recorded
under the year 485, and in the annal for 491 we read that Ella
and Cissa his son sacked Anderida and slew all the inhabitants.
Ella is the first king of the invading race whom Bede describes
as exercising supremacy over his fellows, and we may probably
regard him as an historical person, though little weight can be
attached to the dates given by the Chronicle,
t Hie history of Sussex now becomes a blank until 607, in which
year Ceolwulf of Wessex is found fighting against the South
Saxons. In 681 Wilfrid of York, on his expulsion from North-
umbria by Ecgfrithy retired into Sussex, where he remained
until 686 converting its pagan tnhabiunts. According to
Bede, iEthelwald, king of Sussex, bad been previously baptized
in Merda at the suggestion of Wulfhere, who presented him
with the Isle of Wight and the district about the Mcon. After
Wilfrid's exertions in relieving a famine which occurred in
Sussex the king granted to him eighty-seven hides in and
near the peninsula of Selsey which, with a lapse until 709 after
Wilfrid's retirement, remained the seat of the South Saxon
bishopric until the Norman Conquest. Shortly afterwards,
however, ^Ethelwald was slain and his kingdom ravaged by
the exiled West Saxon prince Ceadwalla. The latter was
eventually expelled by two princes named Berhthun and
Andhun, who thereupon assumed the government of the king-
dom. In 686 the South Saxons attacked Hlothhere, king of
Kent, in support of his nephew Eadric, but soon afterwards
Berhthun was killed and the kingdom subjugated for a. time
by Ceadwalla, who had now become king of Wessex.
Of the h&ter ^uth Saxon kings we have little knowledge
except from occasional charters. In 69s a grant is made by
a king called Nothelm to his sister, which is witnessed by two
other kings called Nunna and " Uuattus." Nunna is probably
to be identified with Nun, described in the Chronicle as the
kinsman of Ine of Wessex who fought with him against Cerent,
king of the West Welsh, in 710. According to Bede, Sussex
was subject to Ine lor a number of years. A grant, daicd by
Birch about 725, is made by Nunna to Eadberht, bishop of
Selsey, and to this too " Uuattua" appears as a witness. In
723 we find Ine of Wessex at war ndth the South Saxons,
apparently because they were supporting a certain Aldbiyht,
probably an eidle from Wessex. An undated grant is made by
Nunna about this time, which is witnessed by a King £thclbexht.
After this we hear nothing more until shortly before 765, when a
grant of. land is made by a king named Aldwulf with two other
kings, Aelfwald and Oslac, as witnesses. In 765 and 770 grants
are made by a King Osmund, the latter of which is witnessed by
Offa of Mercia. Offa also appears as witness to two charters
of an iEthelberht.king of the South Saxons, and in 77 a he grants
land himself in Sussex, with Oswald, dwc of the South Saxons,
as a witness. It is probable that about this time Offa definitely
annexed the kingdom of Sussex, as several persons, Osmund,
iElfwald and Oslac, who had previously used the royal title,
now sign with that of dux. In has the South Saxons submitted
to Ecgberht, and from this time they remained subject to the
West Saxon dynasty. The earldom of Sussex seems later to
have been held sometimes with that of Kent.
Authorities. — Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, pp. 449, a77, 485, 491,
607. 792, 725. 823. 827 (ed. Earle and Plummer, Oxford, 1899) ; Bede,
Htstoria Ecclesiastica, i. 15. ii. 5, iv. 13, 15, 16, 26, v. 18, 19, 23
(ed. C. Plummer. Oxford, X896); W. de G. Birch. Cartularium
Saxonicum, Nos. 78. 144, 145, 197, 198. 206, 208, 211, 217, 1334
(London, 1885-1893). (F. G. M. BO
SUTHERLAND. EARLS AKD DUKES OP. The first earl of
Sutherland was a certain William (d. 1284), whose father, Hugh
Freskin (d. 1204), acquired the district of Sutherland about
1197. Probably ahout 1230 William was aeatcd earl of Suther-
land. His descendant WiUiam, the 4th eari (d. 1370), was a
person of some importance in the history of Scotland; he married
Margaret (d. 135S), daughter of King Robert Bruce. His
descendant John, the 9th earl, a man of weak intellect, died
unmarried in 1514.
John's sister Elizabeth (d. 1535) married Adam Gordon
(d* X537)t & younger son of George Gordon, 2nd earl of Huntly,
and a grandson of King James I., and before 1516 Gordon be-
came earl of Sutherland by right of his wife. He was succeeded
by his grandson John (c. 1526-1567), the 2nd carl of his line,
who played his part in the turbulent politics of the time and
was poisoned at the Instigation of George Sinclair, 4th earl of
Caithness. His great-grandson John, the 5th earl (i 609-1 663),
was a strong Covenanter, being called by his associates "the
good Eari John "; he fought against Montrose at Auldearn,
but afterwards he rendered good service to Charles II. John
Gordon (c. 1 660-1 733), who became the seventh earl in 1703,
supported the revolution of 1688 and was a commissioner for
the union of England and Scotland. He was a Scottish repre-
sentative peer in four parliaments, president of the board of
trade and manufactures, and lord-lieutenant of the eight northern
counties of Scotland. He, was active in puttix^ down the rising
SUTHERLANDSHIRE
169
tf 1715. This cftri, who took the name of Sutherland instead
of that of Gordon, was succeeded by his grandson WiUiam
{c. 1 708-1 750), a representative peer, who helped to suppress the
rebellion of 1745. William, the next earl, died without male
issue In 1766. This earl's daughter Elizabeth (1765-1839)
^laimj^ the peerage, and although her title thereto was con-
tested by Sir Robert Cordon, Bart., a descendant of the first
Gordoa earl, it was confirmed by the House of Lords in 1771.
Established in the possession of the title and the vast estates
of the earldom, the countess of Sutherland was married in 1785
to George Granville Lcvcson-Cower (i 758-1833), who succeeded
his father as second marquess of Stafford in 1803. In addition
to the estates of the marquessate of Stafford, Lcveson-Gower
inherited the Bridgewater Canal and estates from his maternal
uncle, Francis Egcrton, snd duke of Bridgewater, and these
properties, together with his wife's estates, which included
alniost the whole of the county of Sutherland, made him a
** leviathan of wealth," as he is called by Charles Greville.
In i8j3 he was created duke of Sutherland. Leveson-Gower
was a member of parliament from x 7 78 to 1784 and again from
17^7 to 1798 and was British ambassador in Paris from 1790
to 1793. From 1799 to x8io he was joint postmaster^generaL
He was a collector of paintings, and purchased Stafford House,
still the London residence of the dukes of Sutherland. As a
landlord he greatly improved his estates in Staffordshire and
Shropshire and then turned his attention to those of his wife in
Sutherlandshire. He was responsible for the construction of
aboot 450 m. of road and of many bridges, but his policy of
removing a large number of his tenants from the interior to the
coast aroused bitterness and criticism. However, he reduced
rents and brought thousands of acres into cultivation. He
died at Dunrobin Castle on the 5th of July 1833.
His elder son, George Granville (1786-1861), became the and
duke, but the valuable Bridgewater estates pa^ed to his younger
son. Lord Francis Leveson-Gower, who was created carl of
Ellesmere in 1846. The and duke's wife, Harriet Elizabeth
Ceorgiana (i 806-1 868), a daughter of Gc^orge Howard, 6th earl
of Carlisle, was one of Queen Victoria's most intimate friends.
She was mistress of the robes to the queen, whose refusal to
part with her in 1839 led to a ministerial crisis. Some of her
ktters arc published in Stajford House LcUers, edited by her son
Lord Ronald Gower (1891).
George Granville William, the 3rd duke (18^8-1893), spent
hrge sums in improving his estates. His wife Anne (1829-1888),
daughter of John Hay Mackenzie, was created countess of
Cromartie in 1861, and the earldom descended to her second son
Frands (1852-1893). When he died without sons the earldom
fcH into abeyance, but this was terminated in 1895 in favour of
his daughter Sibell Lilian (b. 1878), the author of Tb€ Days
of Fire and other books.
In 1892 Cromartie Leveson-Gower (b. 1851), who had been
M.P. for Stttherlandshire, became 4th duke of Sutherland.
His wife, Milh'cent Fanny, daughter of the 4th earl of Rosslyn,
became well known m literary as well as in social and philan-
thropic drdes.
See Sir Robert Gordon and George Cordon, Cenealogiad History
0f Ik* Bmrldom of Sutkeriand (Edinburgh, 1813) ; and also the article
STArroRO, Exai^s and Marquesses of.
SUTHSRLAVDSHIllBt « northern county of Scotland,
boonded N. and W. by the Atlantic, E. by Caithness, S.E. by
the North Sea and S. by the shire of Ross and Cromarty.
Ii has aa area of 1,297, 846 acres or 2,028 sq. m., being the fifth
bluest shire in ScxKland. The western and northern shores
are much indented and terminate at many points in precipices
and ragged headlands* The mountains are distinguished by
gnadcur of outline. Ben More (3273 ft.) in Assynt is the highest
ia the shire, and next to it in hcigbC is Ben Clibreck (3x54)-
Ben Hope (Icelandic Mp, haven, 3040), in the north, ?s noted
as the only place in Great Britain where the Alpine Alsime
rmbeUA ts fooAd, and also for its fauna, ptarmigan being common,
and cvea the iHld cat and golden eagle occurring at rare intervalsi
(Xhcr lofty hiUs indud« Foinaven (wart nouatain, 3980) in
the north-west; Ben Ree (2864), the highest point In Reay
Forest; the serrated ridge of Quinag (2653) and Glasven (2541)
north, and the cone of Canisp (2779) south of Loch Assynt;
the precipitous Cam Stackie (2630) in Durness, Ben Arkle
(2580) and Ben Stack (2364), frowning above Loch Stack;
the fantastic peaks of Ben Loyal (the hiU of the young calves,
or deer, 2504) in Tongue; and Suilven (2399). The greater
part of the mountainous region consists of wild and desolate
moorlands. The chief river is the Oykdl, which, rising in
Coniveall (3234), a peak of Ben More, Bows south and then
south-east for 33 m. to Dornoch Firth, forming the major part
of the southern boundary of the shire. Its principal left-hand
tributaries are the Shin and Cassley. Other rivets flowing to
Dornoch Firth are the Helmsdale (22 m.), issuing from Lodi
an Ruathair; the Brora (28 m.), rising in Mt Uaran and pie-
serving in its name (bridge river) the fact thkt its bridge was
once the only important one in the county; and the Fleet (17),
the head of the estuary of which was embanked for xooo yds.
in 18 1 3 by Thomas Telford, whereby a considerable tract of rich
alluvial bmd was reclaimed from the sea. The longest rivers flow-
ing to the north coast are the Dionard (14) to Kyle of Durness,
the Naver (17) to Torrisdalc Bay, and the Halladalc (22), rising
in Knockfin on the borders of Caithness and entering the aea io
the east of Portskeny. Much of the surface in the district of
Ass}mt is honeycombed with lakes and tarns, bnt the only
large Uike is Loch Ass3mt, which is 6} m. long, lies 3x5 ft. above
the sea, has a drainage area of 43 aq.m.,and a greatest depth
of 282 ft., and empties into the sea by the Inver. Other lakes
are Loch Crocach, little more than x m. long by \ m. wide, in
which the ratio of the area of islands to the total area of the loch
is greater than inany other British lake; Loch Shin {\j m. long);
Loch Loyal (4 m.); Loch Hope (6 m.); Loch Naver (6 m.);
and Loch More (4 m.). The principal inlets of the sea are,
on the north coast, Kyle of Tongue— on the east shore of
which stands Tongue House, once the property of the Reay
family, now 4 seat of the duke of Sutherland-— Loch Eriboll
and Kyle of Durness; on the west. Lochs Inchard, Laxford
(salmon fjord), Caimbawn, Glendhu, Glencoul, Eddrachills
Bay and Loch Inver; and, on the south-east, Loch Fleet. There
are many waterfalls in the county. Those of EscualKn, near
the head of Glencoul, are among the finest in Great Britain.
There are three principal capes— Strathy Point on the north;
Cape Wrath at the extreme north-west; and Ru Stoer, near
which is the Old Man of Stoer, a detached pillar of rock about
350 ft. high. On its seaward face Cape W^ath (a corruption of
the Icelandic hvarf, turning-point) rises in precipitous cliffs
to a height of 300 ft. The gneiss rocks are scored with pink
granite. Sunken reefs keep the sea almost always in tumult.
Of the larger islands Handa, usually visited from Scourie on
the west coast, has magnificent cliff scenery, distinguished for its
beautiful coloration, its caverns and the richness and variety
of the bird life, especially on the nprth-west, where the Torri-
doman sandstone rocks are 406 ft. high. The cave of SmoO
(Icelandic smuga, hole: same root as smuggle) on the north
coast, X m. east of Durness, is the most famous cavern in the
shire; it consists of three chambers hoitowed out of the lime-
stone; the entrance hall, 33 ft. high and 203 ft. long, is separated
from the mner chamber, 70 ft. long by 30 ft. wide, by a ledge of
rxk beneath which pours a stream that descends as a cataract
from a hole in the roof, 80 ft. above. Behind the waterfall is
the third chamber, 120 ft. long by 8 ft. wide, which can only be
seen by artificial light.
Cephgy.—A very irregular line from Loch Eriboll on the north
coast to the neighbourhood of Cromalt near the aouthem boundary
separates the two rock groups that form the foundatioo of the major
portion of the county. On the westecn aide of this line ace the
ancient gneisses and schists fthe Lewiuan gneus) ; these are pene-
trated by innumerable basic and acid dikes which ^ncrally have a
north-west to south-east trend. On the eastern side of the line,
occupying the whole of the reroaintng area escoept Che caitem fringe
of the county, is a younger leries of metaraorphic rocks, the Moine
schists^ Resting with marked unconformability upon the dd
gneiss near Cape Wrath, at Ru Stoer, Quinag, Conitp and Suilven are
the dark fed conglomerates, breociat and sandstones of Torridooiaa
I70
age. Cambrian rocka auocced the Tomdonian, i^tn with strong
unconformity: they are represented in ascending order by (i) false
bedded quartzite, (2) quartzite with annelid burrows, the " pioe
rock." (3) the fucoid beds with OleneUu* band, '(4) serpulite
grit, (5) Durneaa limestone and dolomite and their marmorixcd
equivalents. The white auartzite that has been left as a cap on
such dark Torridonian hills as Quinag and Canisp forms a striking
feature in the landscape. These Cambrian rocics occupy a very
irregular belt along the line above mentioned; the broadest tract
is in the neighbourhood of Loch Assynt. another large area lies
about the southern end of Loch Eriboll^nd the Durness limestone
is extensively developed near the loch of that name. Along the belt
of Cambrian rocks there is abundant evidence of crustal deformation
on the most extensive scale; one after another great slKes of rock,
often miles in extent, have been sheared off and pushed forward
by thrusts from a south-easterly direction, so that in several places
it b possible to find the Lewistan gneiss dragged up^ and carried
forward right on to the Cambrian; in the Durness district the eastern
schists have been so transported from a distance of 10 m. The most
striking of the planes of thrusting is that known as the Moine,
others, of great magnitude occur to the west of it, such as those by
Glencoul and Ben more. Masses of granite appear in the eastern
schists on the county boundary by Strath Halladale.at BenLaoghal,
Ben Stomino and east of Lairg. The Old Red Sandstone forms some
elevated ground around Dornoch and Golspie and patches occur at
Portskerra and elsewhere. A narrow strip of Mesoxok strata lies
along the coast from Golspie Bum to Ord. Triassic marls are seen
in the Golspie stream ; these are succeeded northwards, near Dun-
robin Castle, bv Lias, then by Great Oolite, with the Brora coal,
followed by Oxlordian, Coiallian and Kimeridgian beds. Evidence
of Ke action is everywhere apparent, the striations show that the
ke travelled towards the north-west and north, and from the eastern
part of the county, towards Mora)^ Firth.
aimaie and AgrienUiire. — ^The rainfall varies greatly, being lowest
on the south-east and highest in the mountainous hinteriand of the
west, with an annual mean of 44*7 in. The average temperature for
the year is 47* F-. 'or January ^S-k" F., for July sd-s* F. Only one-
fortteth of the total area is under cultivation, the shire ranking
lowest In Scotland in this respect. The great mass of the surface is
nazing ground and deer forest. The best land adjoins Dornoch
Pirth, where farming is in an advanced condition, but there are fer-
tile patches along the river valleys. At the beginning of the 19th
century the crofters occupied almost every cultivable spot, and
were more numerous than the soil could support. The first duke of
Sutherland (then marquis of Stafford) adopted a policy of wholesale
clourance. Between 181 1 and 1820 fifteen thousand peasants were
evicted from their holdings in the interior and transferred to the
coast. The duke incurred great obloquy^ but persisted in his re-
forms, which included reduction of rent, improvement in the well-
being of the people, reclamation of thousands of acres, and abplition
of the tacksman or middleman, so that tenants shoukl hold directly
of himself. He also did much to open up the shire generally. Be-
tween i8ia — when there was only one bridge and no road in Suther-
land— «nd 1832, he bore half the cost, the government contributing
the rest, of constructing 450 m. of n»d. 134 bridges, some of con-
siderable use, and the iron bridge at Bonar of 150 ft. span. Tlie
Ard duke (i 828-1 892) carried out a large plan of reclamation.
Attempts have been made to repeople some of the glens (Strath-
naver. for example) depopulated by the clearances. Crofters still
largely predominate, nearly two-thirds of the holdings being under
5 acres— the highest proportwn in Scotland. The chief grain crops
are oats and barley, the chief green crops' turnips (including swedes)
and potatoes. The raising of livestock is the staple business of the
county. The sheep are mostly Cheviots, the cattle West Highland,
shorthorn and crossbred. Horses— principally ponies, though
Qydesdales are used on the bigger farms—are almost wholly kept
for agricultural purposes, and pgs are also reared. The deer forests
belonging to the duke of Sutherland arc Reay, 64,(>oo acres; Ben
Armine and Coima-feam, 35.840; Glen Canisp. 34,490; and Dun-
robin, 12,180 — in all 147,110 acres, or more than one-ninth of the
whole area. Excepting the south-east coast, the valley of the Shin,
and a considerable portion of Strath OykcU, there are very few
districts under wood.
Other Industries.—tiext to agriculture, the deep-sea fishery and
the salmon fisheries in the rivers are the most important interest.
Helmsdale (pop. 1259) u the only port of any consequence. Hcr^
rings are the principal catch, but cod, ling and other hshcs are also
Uken. Whisky is distilled at Gyne and Brora; some woollens'
are manufactured at Rogart; coal is mined at Brora, marble quarried
in Assynt and limestone and sandstone in several districts. The
exceptional facilities offered by the deer forests, moore and the many
lochs and rivers attract large numbers of sportsmen whose custom is
valuable to the inhabitants; and Dornoch and Locbinver are in
growing kepute as holiday resorts. The Highland railway enters
the county at Invershin. goes northward to Lairg, then east to
Brora ana north-east to Ficlmsdale, whence it runs north-west to
Kihlonatt. and north to Forsinard, where it shortly afterwards leaves
iSbt share. The Glasgow steamers call at Lochinver once a week, and
mail-cars run periodically from Lairg to Lochinver and Scoarie in
the waai and to Durness and Tongue in the north; from Udmadale,
SUTLEJ
by the coast, to Berriedale. Dunbeath, Latheron and Lybstcr. and
from Tongue to Thurso. Considering its scanty and scattered
population and mountainous character, the county ^is well inter-
sected by roads, many of which were constructed by successive
dukes <rf Sutherland, who own four-fifths of the shire.
PopvJaiion and Administration. — ^In 1891 the population
amounted to 21,896, and in 190Z it was 21,440, or it persons to
the square mile, the least populous of Scottish counties. Several
islands lie off the west and north coast, but only Koan, at the
entrance to Kyle of Tongue, is inhabited (67). In 1901 there
were 469 persons speaking Gaelic only, 14,083 who spoke Gaelic
and English. The county returns a member to parliament,
and Dornoch, the county town, belongs to the Wick group of
pariiamentary burghs. Sutherland forms a joint sheriffdom
with Ross and Cromarty, and a sheriff-substitute presides at
Dornoch. The county is under school-board jurisdiction;
some of the schools earn the grant for higher education, and the
"residue" grant b expended in bursaries. The Sutherland
combination poorhouse is situated in Creich and thtre is a
hospital, the Lawson Memorial, in Golspie.
History and Antiquities, — Of the Picts, the original inhabi-
tants, there are considerable remains in the form of brocks (or
rdund towers), numerous and widely scattered, Picts' houses,
tumuli, cairns and hut circles. Dun Domadilla, in the parish
of Durness, 4 m. south of Loch Hope, is a tower, 150 ft. in
circumference, still in good preservation. The Norse jul
Thorfinn overran the country in 1034 and the Scandinavian
colonists called it, in relation to their settlements in the Orkneys
and Shetlands, Sudrland^ the " southern land," or Sutherland.
After the conquest of the district by the Scottish kings, Suther-
land was conferred on Hugh Freskin (a descendant of Freskin
of Moravia or Moray), whose son WiUiam was created eail of
Sutherland in 1228 by Alexander II. Assynt was peopled by
a branch of the Macleods of Lewis, till they were dispossessed by
the Mackenzlcs, who sold the territory to the earl of Sutherland
about the middle of the z8th century. The vast tract of the
Reay country, belonging to the Mackays, an ancient dan, also
fell piece by piece into the hands of the Sutherland family.
Killin, on the east bank of Loch Brora, was the site of an old
chapel dedicated to St Columba, an association commemorated
in the name of Kilcobnkill House, hard by. On the south shore
of Helmsdale creek stand the ruins of the castle in which the x ith
earl of Sutherland and his wife were poisoned by his uncle's
widow in 1567, with a view to securing the title for her only
child who was next of kin to the earl and his son. Ardvreck
Castle, now in ruins, at the east end of Loch Assynt, was the
prison of the marquis of Montrose after his defeat at Invercarron
(1650), whence he was delivered up by Neil Madeod of Assynt
for execution at Edinburgh. In the graveyard of the old
church of Durness is a monument to Robert Mackay, called Rob
Donn (the brown), the Gaelic poet (1714-1778).
Bibliography.— Sir Robert Gordon. History of the Earldom ef
Sutherland (1^13); K. Mackay, House and Cian of Uachay (1629):
C. W. G. St John, Tour in Sutherlandshir* (i849>; Hugh Miller.
Sutherland as tt v/as and is (1S43): D. W. Kemp. Bishop Pococke's
Tour in 1760 in Sutherland and Caithness (1888); Sir W. Frascr,
The Sutherland Booh (1893) ! A.Gunn and S. J. Mackay, Sutherland
and,tie Reay Country (1B97).
SUTtEJ, a river of India, one of the " Five Rivers " of the
Punjab. It rises E.S.E. of the Manasarowar lakes in Tibet, at
an elevation of about 15,200 ft., threads its way through the
gorges of the Himalayas with heights of ao.ooo ft. on eithn side,
crosses Bashahr and the Simla hiU states, and enters the British
district of Hoshiarpur. Thence it flows through the plains of
the Punjab, recdves the Beas in Kapurthala sute, and joins the
Chenab near Madwala. From that point the whole river bean
the name of Panjnad (" five rivers ") until it falls into thelndus
near Mithankot after a course of 900 m. In the time of
Ranjit Singh the Sutlej formed the boundary lino'betwcen the
Sikh and British dominions, and the Sikh sUtcs touth of the
river still bear the title of Cii^utlej.
The Sutlej supplies two systems of Irrigation works: the Sir«
hind canal, which draws off the whole of the cold season supply
oC the Sutlej at Rupar, too m. above iu junction with the
SUTLBR—SUTTON, T.
Bcm; and tbe inndatioa ctBilft «f t&e ITpper and Lonrar Sttlkl,
F c uMcp w r aod Bahawalpnr, which oomc bdow the joncUoo*
fDTLBB* ft cunp-Mhmcr who scUs piovisioiis, liquor and
other duB^ to an army in the field, in camp or in quarterB.
The worI waa one of Uie nitmcroui naval and militaiy tenns
adapted in English irom the Dutch, where it appears aa soetetaar
or atirfrfaer. It meant originally one who docs dirty work» a
dnidge, a acnUioo; and ia derived from soetden, to foul, auUy,
a woni cognate with " suds»" hot soapy water, " seethe," to
hod, and *'aodde&."
fOTSI (anc. StOrimm), a town and epboopal see of Italy, in
the pcQivince of Rome, 4 m. ViJS.Vf. of the railway station of
Capranica, wfakh ia 56 m. from R6me; 9$$ ft. ahove sea^levd.
Pope (1901)1 9701. The town is picturesquely situated on a
narrow hiU, sunounded by ravines, a nairow neck on the west
alone connecting it with the surrounding country. There are
some rcraaina of the ancient dty walls of rectangular blocka of
tufa on the aoothem aide of the town, and some rocfc^ut sewera
in the diffa below them. The cathedral ia modem, but the
crypt, with twenty oohimws, is old, and the campanile dates
from the 13th century. In the difh opposite the town on the
south is the rock-cut durtch of the Madonna dd Parto, dcvebped,
DO doubt, out of aa Etruscan tomb, of which there are many
here; and doae by b a rock-hewn amphitheatre of the Roman
period, with axesof 5s and 44 yda., now most picturesque.
The position of Sntri was important, commanding aa it did
the load into Etruria, the later Via Caana; and it is spoken of by
Uvy as one of the keys of Etruria, Nepet being the other. It
came into the hands of Rome after the fall of Veil, and a Latin
colony was founded there; it was lost again in 386, but was
recovered and reookmiaed in 383 (?). It was Ixsieged by the
Etruscans in 311*10 b,c., but not taken. With Nepet and ten
other Latin oohndes it refused further help in the Hannibalic
War in 909 B.a Its importance aa a fortress explains, according
to Fcatua, the proverb Sulrium we, of one who goes on important
bttsneaa, as it occurs in Fkutus. It is mentioned in the war of
41 B.C:, and received a colony of veterans under the triiunviri
(OlMria t^nhttuts lutia StUHna). Inscriptions show that it
was a place of some importance under the empire, and h ia
mentioned aa occupied by the Lombards. .
See G. DeHhis. CUiet and CmeUritt 0/ Btrmria, I 62 (London,
1M3). CT. As.)
ftUrfU (an English corruption of Sanskrit sati, "good
woman "* or true '* wife "), the rite of widow-sacrifice, i.0. the
humtng the living widow on the funeral pyre of her husband,
as practised among certain Hindu castes. As early as the
Aikwa Vtda the rite is mentioned aa an "old cuatom,"
but European scholars have shown that the text of the still
earlier Rig Veda had been corrupted, probably wiifuOy, by the
Rindii priesthood, and that there was no injunction that the rite
should be observed. The directfcMis of the Rig Veda seem to
have involved a merdy symbolic suttee: the widow taking her
place on the funeral pQe, but being recalled to " this world of
fife ** at the Um moment by her brother-in-law or adopted child.
The practice was sporadically observed in India when the Mace-
donians reached India late in the 4th century B.C. (Diod. Sic. xix.
3,)«34)f but the earlier Indian law books do not enjoin it,
and Manu simply commands the widow to lead a life of chastity
and asceticism. About the 6th century aji. a recrudescence
of the rite took place, and with the hdp of corrupted Vedic
texts it soon grew to have a full religious sanction. But even so
il was not general throughout India. It was rare in the Punjab;
and in Malabar, the most primitive part of southern India,
it waa forbidden. In its medieval form it was essentially a
Brahminic rit^, and it was where Brahminism was strongest, in
Bengal and along the Ganges valley and in Oudh and Rajputana,
that it was most usual.
The manner of the sacrifice differed according to the district.
In south India the widow jumped or was forced into the fire-pit;
m western India she was (rfaccd in a grass hut, supporting the
corpse's head with her right hand while her left held the tordi;
ia the Gaj^^es vaDcy she lay down upon the already lighted pBe;
171
whae in Nepal she was pboed beside the cmpae, and when the
pile was lighted the two bodies ware held in place by kmg poka
pressed down by reUtives. The earliest attempt to stop suttee
was made by Akhar (isi^-xtes), who forbade compulsion,
voluntary suttees akme bdng pmitted. Towards the end of
the 18th centuiy the British authorities, on the hutlative of
Sir C Malet and Jonathan Duncan hi Bombay , took up the
question, but nothing definite was ventured on till 1809 when
Lord William Bentinck, despite fierce opposition, carried io
councO on the 4th of December a legulation which declared
that all who abetted suttee were '*guflty of culpable homidde."
Though thus illegal, widow-buniing continued into modem days
in isokted parts of India. In 1903 those who aasiated at a suttee
m Behar were sentenced to penal servitude.
Widow sacrifice is not peculiar to India, and E. B. Tylor in his
PnmitiBe CuUure (ch. ll) has coOected eviclence to support a theory
that the rite existed among ail primitive Aryan Rationa. He thinks
that in enjoining it the medieval priesthood of India were making
no innovation, but were simply reviving an Aryan custom of a bar-
baric period long antedating the Vedas. See also Jakob Grimm,
Verbrennai d» Lacktn.
SUTTNER* BBRTHA, Baroness von (1843* ), Austrian
writer, was bom at Prague on the 9th of July 1843, the daughter
of Count Franz Rlnsky, Austrian fidd marshal, who died shortly
after her birth. On her mother's side she was descended from
the family of the German poet, Thcodor K5mer. After rccciv-
ing a cardul educatioif she travdied abroad and r^dedfor a
long period in Paris and in Italy. In 1876 she married the
novdist, Frdhcrr Arthur Gundaccar von Suttner (1850-X902),
and for the next nine years lived with him at Tiflis in the
Caucasus. After 1883 she resided at Schloss Harmansdorf,
near Eggenburg, in Lower Austria. The Baroness von Suttner.
a fertile writer, has produced numerous tales, books on sodal
sdence and romances, among which the best known are Itiven'
tarium emer Stele (1882), DU Wajen nieder (1889), Hanna
(1894), La Tranala (1898), Sehack der QiuU (1898), Martha's
Kinder (1903), a continuation of Die Wafen nieder. She was at
one time secretary to Alfred Nobd, and as a champion of the
'* brotherhood of nations," had teuch influence on him and
others^ and in this connexion has published Krieg und
Frieden (1896), Das MasckinethZeitalier, Zukunffs-Vorksungen
Hber uHsere Zeii (1899) and Die Haager FriedenskonferenM
X1900). In 1905 she was awarded a Nobd prize of £5000 for
her endeavours in the cause of peace.
Her Uemoiren, full of intefesting antobiographkral matter, were
published at Stuttgart in 1908.
StrrrOH, nil BICBARD (d. c. tsu)t the founder, with
William Smyth, bishop of Uncob, of Biasenose (College,
Oxford, and the first lay founder of any college, is said to
have come of a good north-country fanrily, the Buttons
of that ilk, near Macdesfidd, Cheshire. Little is known of his
IKe, but he was a barrister, and in 1497 a member of the privy
coundl. In 1513 he became steward of the monastery of Sion,
a house of Brigittine nuns at Isleworth. How Smyth ahd Sutton
came to plan a college is not known, but in 1 508 we find Edmund
Croston, or Crofton, bequeathing. £6, 135. 4d. towards the building
of ** a college of Brasynnose " if the projects of '* the bishop of
Lincoln and master Sot ton " were carried into effect within a
stipulated period. In the same year Sutton obtained a ninety-
two year lease of Brasenose Hall and Little University Hall for
£3 per annum, and from that time until the end of his life waa
occupied in purchasing estates with which he might endow the
new college. He is thought to have contributed to the funds
of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, as well. He was knighted
so me yea rs before his death, which occurred about 1524.
SUTTON. THOMAS (c. 1532-16x1), founder of Charterhouse
school and hospital, was the son of an offidal of the dty of Lincoln,
and was educated at Eton College and probably at Cambridge.
He then spent some time travelling in Europe and appears to
have acted as secretary to two or three English nobl«nen. He
became a soldier, and in 1569 was with the troops engaged in
suppressing the rismg in the north of England; in iSTO he waa
172
SUTTON— SUVAROV
made Master and surveyor of the ordnance in the northern parts
of the reahn and in this capacity he took part in the siege of
Edinburgh Castle by the English in May 1573. Sutton obtained
great wc^th by the ownership of coal mines in Durham and also
by his marriage in 1583 with Elizabeth (d. 1602)^ widow of John
Ihidley of Stoke Newington. His wish to devote some of his
money to charitable purposes led him in x6zi to purchase for
£13,000 the Charterhouse (q.v.) from Thomas Howard, earl of
Suffolk. On this spot Sutton erected the hospital and school
which he had originally intended to build at HallingbUry in
Essex. Sutton died at Hackney on the lath of December 161 x
and was buried in the chapel in the Charterhouse. His wealth
was left for charitable uses, but in 1613 James I. ordered his
executors to make an allowance to his natural son, Roger
Sut ton.
SUTTON, an urban district in the Epsom parliamentary
division of Surrey, England, xx m. S. of London by the London
Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1891), X3,977; (1901)}
17,223. It is pleasantly situated at the edge of the Downs,
and is in favour as an outer residential district of London. The
manor, according to Domesday, belonged to the abbey of
Chertsey at the Conquest and continued so until the dissolution
of the m onasteries by Henry VIII.
SUTTON COLDFIELO, a municipal borough in the Tamworth
parliamentary division of Warwickshire, England, 7 m. N.E.
from Birmingham on branches of the London & North-Weslcrn
and Midland railways. Pop. (1901), 14,264. The town, which
lies high in a hilly situation, is the centre of a residential district
for persons having their business offices in Birmingham, Wal-
sall and other towns. The church of the Holy Trinity, Early
English and I^te Perpendicular, enlarged in X879, contains
a fine Norman font and the tomb of Bishop Vcsey. On the
picturesque park near the town, 2400 acres in extent, the
inhabitants have the right of grazing horses and'Cattle at a small
fee. This, with the Crystal Palace gardens, forms a recreation
ground for the people of Birmingham. In the vicinity are New.
HaQ, an interesting mansion of the X3th century, with a hall
of the x6th, used as a boys' school; and Peddimore Hall, a
moated mansion of the ancient family of Arden, of which
there are ^Jight remains. The town is governed by a mayor,
6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, x 3,828 acres.
Sutton Coldfield {Svlone, Sutton in Colcfeud, Sutton Cdfttd,
King*s Sutton) is mentioned in the Domesday Survey as n
possession pf the Conqueror and as having been held before that
time by Edwin, earl of Mercia. Henry I. exchanged it with
Roger de Newburgh, carl of Warwick, whose descendant,
William de Bcauchamp, in the reign of Edward X, claimed by
prescription a court leet with assize of bread and ale and other
liberties here, which were allowed him, as it was found that his
ancestors had held the same. By the time of Henry VIII.
the town had fallen " into much ruin," according to Leland,
and would never have reached its present position but for the
Interest of John Vesey, bishop of Exeter, a native of the place,
who procured for it a charter of incorporation in 1529 under the
title of the " Warden and Society of the Royal Town of Sutton
Coldfield." The charter also appointed a warden and twenty-
two fellows to be the common hall, and granted the town and
park to the corporation at a yearly rent of £58. Another
charter, dated 1664, appointed two capital burgesses to be
justices of the peace with the warden. In 1855 Sutton was
divided into six wards, with an alderman and three councillors
for each. Markets granted in X300, 1353 and 1529 have been
discontinued. Fairs were granted in 1300, 1353 and X529, to
be held at the feasts of Trinity, Michaelmas and St Simon and
St Jude, and are now held on Trinity Monday, the 14th of March,
the 19th of September and the 8tb of November. Vesey set
up here a cloth trade which, however, soon became neglected.
SUTTON-IN-ASHFIELD, an urban district m the Mansfield
parliamentary division of Nottinghamshire, England, lying in
a picturesque district on the border of Sherwood Forest, on
branch lines of the Midland and Great Northern railways, 15 ro.
N. by W. of Nottingham. Pop. (1891), xo,s63; (1901), S4i86a.
The church of St Maiy Magdalene of the xsth and 14th cen*
turies was restored in x868. There are collieries and Umeworks
in the vicinity. Cotton hosiery and thread axe the principal
manufactures.
SUVArOV. Alexamdex Vasiuevicr, Count SuvAbov
RocNixsKY, PuNCE Italysky (1729-1800), Russiau field
marshal, was bom at Moscow on the ^th of November 1729,
the descendant of a Swede named Suvor who emigrated to
Russia in x633. He entered the army as a boy, served
against the Swedes in Finland and agdnst the Prussiand
during the Seven- Years' War. After repeatedly distinguishing
himself in battle he was made a colonel in 1762. He next
served in Poland, dispersed the Polish forces unider Pulawski,
stormed Cracow (X768) and was made a major-general. In his
first campaigns against the Turks in X7 73-74, and particularly
in the battle of Kosludscki in the latter year, he laid the
foundations of his reputation. In X775 he suppressed the rebel-
lion of Pugachev, who was decapitated at Moscow. From
X777-X783 he served in the Crimea and the Caucasus, becoming
a lieutenant-general in 1780, and general of infantxy in 1783,
on the conclusion of his work there. From 1787 to 1791 he
was again fighting the Turks and woninany victories; he was
wounded at Kinbum (1787), took part in the siege, of Ochakov,
and ini 788 won two great victories at Focsani and on the Rimnik.
For the latter victory, in which an Austrian corps under Prince
Josias of Saxe-Coburg participated, Catherine II. nuule him a
count with the name Rimniksky in addition to his own name,
and the emperor Joseph II. created him a count of the Holy
Roman Empire. On the 22nd of December X790 Suv&fov
stormed Ismail in Bessarabia, and the sack and the massacre
that followed the capture equals in horror such events as the
" Spanish Fury " and the fall of Magdeburg. He was next
placed at the head of the army which subdued the Pdes, and
repeated the triumph, and some of the cruelties, of Ismail
at Warsaw. He was now made a field marshal, and was retaiaed
in Poland till 1795, ^'hen he returned to St Petersburg. But
his sovereign and friend Catherine died in 1796, and her sue*
cessor Paul dismissed the veteran in disgrace. Suv&rov then
lived for some years in retirement on his estate of Koocbauskoy,
near Moscow. He criticized the new militaxy tactics and dress
introduced by the emperor, and some of his caustic verse
reached the ears of Paul. His conduct was therefore watched
aiKl his correspondence with his wife, who. had remained at
Moscow — for his marriage relations had not been happy^was
tampered witlu On Sundays he tolled the bell for church and
sang among the rustics in the village choir. On week days he
worked among them in a smock frock. But in February 1799
he was simimoned by the tsar to take the field again, this time
against the French Revolutionary armies in Italy.
The campaign (see French Revoluhonaky Wabs) opened
with a series of viaories (Cassano, Trebbia, NovO which reduced
the French government to desperate straits and drove every
French soldier from Italy, save for the handful under Moreau,
which maintained a foothold m the Maritime Alps and around
Genoa. Suv&rov himself was made a prince. But the later
events of the eventful year went uniformly against the allies.
Suv&rov's lieutenant Kors&kov was defeated by Messina at
Zurich, and the old field marshal, seeking to make his way over
the Swiss passes to the Upper Rhine, had to retreat to the
Vorariberg, where the army, much shattered and almost destitute
of horses and artillery, went into winter quarters. Early in 1800
Suv&rov returned to St Petersburg in disgrace. Paul refused
to give him an audience, and, worn out and ill, he died a few
days afterwards on the x8th of May iSoo at St Petersburg.
Lord Whitworth, the English ambassador, was the only person
of distinction present at the funeral. Suvilrav lies buried in the
church of the Annunciation in the Alexandro-Nevskii monastery,
the simple inscription on his grave being, according to his 01^n
direction, " Here lies Suv&rov." But within a year of his death
the tsar Alexander I. creeled a statue to his memory In tlie
Field of Mars, St Petersburg.
His son Arkadi (1783-1811) was a general officer in the
SUWAtKl^-SUZBRAINTy
173
I UBiy doring tbs Napoleonic tad TUkldah tms of tin
culy zgth ceatiiTy, tad wu dimmed In the river Riaanik ia
sSii. His gnodaon Alezaader Ackadievidi (i8o4->s888)
«as also a Russian geneiaL
AoMMgr tl» RoMiftns the m eraeryof Savirov is cherished to this
day. A graat captaiot viewed ffmsi the standpoint of any age of
militafy oistoiyt he is spccUUy the great captain of the Russian
oatiott, for the character of his leadership responded to the character
of the Russian soldier. In an age when .war had become an act of
<fipto ma cy he restored Its trae sigcuficance as an act of force. He was
icddeas of bumao life, bent otay on the achievement of the object
ia hand« and he spared his own soldiers asUttle as be showed mercy
to the population of a fallen city. He was a man of great simplicity
at manners, and while on a campaign lived as a private soldier,
sleeping on straw and contenting himself with the humUest fare.
Bat ha bad hjmaeftf passed thnmgh all the giadatioas of militai/
service; moreover, his education lad |>een of the rudest kiqcL His
gibes petgcured him many enemies. He had all the contempt of a
man w ability and action for knoiant favourites and ornamental
carpet-knights. But his drolleries served, sometimes to hide, more
oiten to eapiese, a soklierly genius, the «&ct of which the lUissiaa
army baa not outgrown, if the tactics of the Russians in the war
of iQoa-05 re0ected too literally some of the maxims of Sav&rov's
Turkish wars, the spirit of self-sacrifice, resolution and indifference
to losses there shown was a precious legacy from those wars. Drago-
mirov (f.a) avowed that his teaching was based on Suvfirov's
practice, which he held to be representative of the fundamental
trathsof war and of the military qualities of the Russian nation.
See Aathing, VgrsucH einer AriegsasckickU dts Crofen Stcworow
(Gotba, 1796-1799); F. von Smitt, Smoorows Leben und HecrtUge
(Vilna, 1633-1814) and Stiw&r«w •nd Pokns Untergang (Leipztr,
1858}: Von Reding-Bibercgg, Der Z»t Swwonms durch ate Sthweu
(Z&nch, 1896): Lieut-Cblonel Spalding, 5us^r^ (London, 1890) s
G. vxm Fuchsj Snworows Karrufxmdent, 17^ (GT^u, 18351;
Soufmv en ItdU^ by Gachot, Massdna's biographer (I%ris, 1903);
wad the standard Russian biogiaphies of Polevoi (1853; Ger.
trans., Mitau, 1853); Rybkin (Moscow, 1874) and Vasiliev
(V3na. 1899).
SUWAUU* a government of Russian Poland^ of -which it
oocupia the N.£. corner, extendhig to the N. between East
Ptnsata and the Russian governments of Vilna and Grodno, with
tke govcnuBcnt of Rovbo on the N. Its area is 4846 sq. m. It
iocliKlcs the east of the tow Baltic swelling (800 to xooo ft. abov«
the sea) and is studded with lakes. lu northern slopes descend
to the waQey of the Niemen, while in the south it falls away gently
to the manhy tract of the Biebrz. The riven flow there in
deep-cut gcMTges and hollows, diversifying the surface. The
Niemen fonnS its eastern and northern boundary and has many
affluents from both slopes of the swelling. The Augustowo canal
connects the navigable Hanrsa, a tributaryoftheKtemen,witha
tributary of the Biebra, which belongs to the basfai of the Vistula,
and an active traffic is carried on by this canal. Forests cover
about one-fourth of the area. Tertiary and cretaceous strata
occupy large areas, and the entire surface Is covered with Post-
Tertiary deposits. The bottom moraine of the great ice-sheet
of north Germany, containing scratched boulders and furrowed
hy depressioos having a direction N.N.E. and S.S.W., ex>
tended over immense tracts of the ridge of the hike-districts
and its slopes, nHiile fimited spaces ore covered with well-
washed ^dal sands and gravel. On the northern slopes of the
coast-ridge, the boulder-day being covered with lacustrine
deposits, there are in many places areas of fertile soil; and in
tike southern parts of the province the boulder-clay is stony,
and sometimes covered with graviel. Still, neariy nine^enths
of the surface are suitable for cultivation.
The population in 1906 was estimated at 633,900. • The
majority (s«*a%) are Lithuanians, mostly m the north;theit
arc ai-s% Poles (and Mazurs), chiefly in the towns; 16-7%
Jews; 5-3% Germans and 4*2^ Russians. The chief towns of
the seven districts into which the government is dhrided are
Sttwniki, Augustowo, Ralwarys, Msriampol, Seiny, WilkowissW
(orVoIkovyshki)andWtadislawow. The principal ctopsarerye,
wheat, data, baricy and potatoes, which are largely exported to
Prussia for use in the distilleries. Bee-keeping is widely spread,
and about 40,000 lb of honey are obtained every year. The
weaving of linen, woollen cloth and fishing-nets is extensively
carried on in the villages as a domestic industry, and in small
factories. A large number of the inhabitants are compelled to
XXVI 4
aeck work in winter in other puts of the empiie. Tliefd^of
timber, which is floated down the Niemen, gives occupation
to many.
SUWALKI* a town of Russian Poland, capital of the govern-
ment of the same name, situated at the source of the Hancza, a
tributary of the Niemen, 6$ m. by rail N.W. of Grsdno. Pop.
17 ,165. In the 1 5th century it was a small village amid forests,
peopled by Lithuanians. Its trade is chiefly in timber, grain,
wo ollcndo th and other manufactured goods.
SUTOTI [Aba-1 Fadhl'Abd ur-Rahmftn ibn Abl Bakr JaUl
nd-Dln us-Suyfltl] («44S-X5os)i Arabian encyclopaedic writer,
wtLS the son of a Turkish iJave woman. His father, who was
of Persian descent, had been cadi hi SuyQt (Upper Egypt) and
professor in Cairo, but died before his son was six years old. The
boy^ training was taken in hand by a Sufi friend of the father.
He was precocious and is said to have known the Koran by heart
before he was eight years old. In 1461 he was already a teacher ;
in 1464 he made the pilgrimage to Mecca; in r47S he became a
professor, and in i486 was promoted to a chair in the mosque of
Bibars. Here, however, he provoked a revolt among the students
and ia 1501 was discharged for maladministration of trust funds.
Two years later he was offered the same post again, but dedincd,
and worked in sedusion at Rauda, an island of the NHe, and
there died in 1505. He was one of the most proh'fic writers of
the East, though many of his works are only pamphlets and
some are mere abridgments of the work of others.
We know of 561 separate titles of his works, and over 3x6 exist
in manuscript. A list of these is given in C. Brockelmanirs Gtsck.
d^ Aroiriscken, UUeralur, ii. 144-158 (Berlin, l()02). They deal
with almost every branch of Moslem science and literature. Among
the best known are the ll^n ft *Ulum ul-Qur&n ( on the exegetic
sciences of the Koran), puolisned with an analysis by A. Sprenger
(Cafcutta, iB$2^i6$A) and often in Cairo; the conjmentaiy on the
ICor<ia, known as the Tafslr vt-Jalaiaiu^ begun by Jalii od-Din
ul-Maballi (1389-1459) and finished by Suyuti, published often in
the East; and the htstory of the cahphs, published at Calcutta
(1858) and elsewhere. (G. W. T.)
SUZERAIMTf . ** Suxerain," a term of feudal law, is now tised
to describe persons or states in positions of superiority to others.
Its etymology, according to Professor W. W. Skcat
{Etymological DictUmary), is as follows: "A coined
word; made from French sus, Latin sustim or svrsum, above, in
the same way as sovereign is made from Latin super] it corre-
sponds to a Low Latin type suseranus?* Another form of the
word is souseran (F. (Sodcfroy, De PAncienne languefran^aise).
Suzerain has been defined as " Qui possede un fief dont d'autres
fiefs rclivent" {Liliri und Didionnaire de Vacadimie frartfoise).
C. Loyseau, in his TraiU dts seigneuries (3rd cd., 1610, p. 14),
explains that there are two kinds of public seigneuries, that
is, sovereign seigneurs, possessing summum impaiumt and
suzerains, "Les suzeraincs sont celles qui ont puissance
sup€rieure mals non supreme." Elsewhere he says ' that
suzerainty is a form of public seigneuries which has been
" U8urp*e par les particuUers pour laquelle exprimer il nous a
fallu forger un mot ezprCs, et TappeUer suzerainet^, mot qui
est iussi Strange comme ceUe espdce de seigneuries est
absurde " (p. 11). Loyseau adds, " Seigneurie suzeraine est
dignity d'un fief ayant justice " (p. 38). Bousquet {Nomean
dktionnaire de droU) defines suzerain as ** sup6rieur, cehxi dont
un fief relevait "; Rogulau {Glossaire du droit fran^ots), " sup*-
rieur en quelque charge ou dignit* autre que Ic roy.** TTxc nama
does not occur in the Consuetudines feudcrum, or in Hotoman's
De verbis feudalibits commentarius. It was rare in feudal times
in England. But it was' used in France to describe a feudal
lord, the supreme suzerain being the king. Merlin, under
siaeraineti, shoWs that the word was not used by all feudal
writers in the same sense. (See also Chas. Butler's note to Coke
CH Liu. 19X a.)
In modem times the term has come to be used as descriptive
of relations, ill-defined and vague, which exist between powerful
and dependent states; its very indefinlteness being its Moduv
recommendation. According to feudal law the vassal c;x««.
owed certain duties to the lord; he promised fidelity and service;
and the lord was bound to perform reciprocal duties, not very
2a
«74
SUZERAINTY
deariy defined, to Uie vassal— XImumiu vatsatto conjux et amieits
dkilur. The relation between a k>rd and his vassals, implied in
the oath of fealty, has been extended to states of unequal power;
it has been found convenient to designate certain states as vassal
states, and their superiors as suzerains. Originally and properly
applicable to a sUtus recognized by feudalism, the term vassal
state has been used to describe the subordinate position of certain
states once parts of the Ottoman Empire, and still loosely con-
nected therewith. Such are Egypt and Bulgaria. Rumania,
Servia and Montenegro, once vassal states, may now be regarded
as independent The relations of these states to the Ottoman
Porte are ytry varied. Egypt has been variously described as a
vassal state or as a protectorate. But all of these pay tribute
to the sultan, or in some way acknowledge his supremacy
(Emanuel Ulimann, Vdlkerreckt, § x6); M. de Martens iJraiUdt
droit inUnkUimudy 1883, i. 333 n.) thus defines the term: " Ia
suzerainet£ est la souverainet6 limit£e exerc^ par le pouvoir
supreme d'un £tat sur un gouvemment mi-souverain," a
definition applicable to protectorates, with which it is often
confounded. Thus Mommsen {History of Rome) indiscriminately
describes the supremacy of Rome over Armenia as " suzerainty "
or " protectorate." To illustrate the vague use of the word in
modem diplomacy may be quoted the description of suzerainty
given by Lord Kimberley, which Mr Chamberlain in the
correspondence as to South Africa mentioned with approval:
''Superiority over a state possessing independent rights oi
government subject to reservations with reference to certain
specified matters " (1899 [C. 9057!. P- 28).
M. Gairal {Le Protectorat international) distinguishes suzerainty
•from protectorate in these respects: (o) suzerainty proceeds
P^rfrif ^rom a concession on the part of the suzerain
rmfmmt (p. 112); {h) the vassal sUte is bound to perform
SuwateOr.gp^jjg^ services; and (c) the vassal state has larger
powers of action than those belonging to a protected state;
{(S) there is reciprocity of obligation. According to M. F.
Despagnet the term suzerain is applicable to a case in which a
state conches a fief; in virtue of its sovereignly {Essai sur U
protectorat international, p. 46), reserving to itself certain rights
as the author of this concession.
Another writer draws these distinctions: (a) a state connected
by protectorship with another previously enjoyed autonomy; the
vassal state did not; {h) the protected state retains its nationality
and its internal administration; the vassal state acquires a dis-
tinct nationality; {c) the establishment of a protectorate nunlifies
few of the institutions of the protectorate state except as to
foreign relations; the establishment of a suzerainty chainges the
institutions of the vassal state; (i) the protected state exercises
its internal sovereignty A peu pris pleinement; the .vassal state
remains subordinate in several respects; (e) while the protected
state has the right to be assisted in case of war by the protecting
SUte, but is not bound to defend the latter, the vassal state is
bound to aid its suzerain (Tchomacoff, De la Soweraineti, p. 53).
See also Hachenburger, De la Nature juridique du protatorat.
W. £. Hall thus defines vassal sUtes: " States Under the
suzerainty of others are portions of the latter which during a
process of gradual disruption or by the grace of the sovereign
have acquired certain of the powers of an independent com-
munity, such as that of making commercial conventions, or of
conferring their exequatur on foreign consuls. Their position
differs from that of the foregoing varieties of states (protectorates,
&c.)> in that a presumption exists against the possession by
them of any given international capacity {International Law,
4th ed., p. 31).
Another suggested distinction is this: Suzerainty is title with-
out corresponding power; protectorate is power without cor-
responding title (Profeasdr Freund, Political Science Quarterly,
1899, p. 28).
On the whole, usage seems to favour this distinction: while a
protectorate flows from, or is a reduction of, the sovereignty
of the protected state, suzerainty is conceived as derived from,
and ft ttductioB of, the sovereignty of the dominant state.
JM|ftte|Wirer «{ making treaties, a vassal state cannot, as a
nde, oooclude them; soch power doec not etist anfeM it is
specially given. On the other band, a protected state, unkaa
the contrary is stipulated, retains the power of condudiof
treaties (Bry, p. 294).
It is sometimes said that a protected state, unlike a vassal state,
has the right of sending representatives to foreign states. But
such distinctions are of doubtful value: the facts of each case
must be considered (UUmann, § 26).
There is one practical difference between the two relations:
while the protecting and protected states tend to draw nearer,
the reverse is true of the suzerain and vassal states; a protectorate
is generally the preliminary to incorporation, suzerainty to
separation. Sometimes it is said that the territory of the vassal
state forms part of the territory <rf the suzerain; a pn^xiaition
which is true for some purposes, but not for alL
All definitions of suzerainty are of little use. Each instru-
ment in which the word is used must be studied in order to ascer-
tain its significance. Even in feudal times suzerainty might
be merely nominal, an instance in point being the suzerainty or
over-lordship of the papacy over Naples. In some cases it may
be said that suzerainty brings no practical advantages and implies
no serious obligations. Among the instances in which the term
is actually used in treaties are these: the General
Treaty, Peace of Paris, 1856 (arts. 21 and 22), recog-^
nized the suzerainty of Turkey over the Danublan*
principalities Moldavia and Wallachia, modifying the " sove-
Kcignty " of Turkey recognised by the Treaty of Adrianople.
** Les prindpautis de Valachie et de Moldavia continueront i
jouir, sous la suzeiainet6 de la Porte et sous la gvantie des
Puissances contractantes, des privileges et dcs immunity dont
elles sont en possession." The convention of the 19th of August
1858 (Hertslet x. X052) organized the then principalities " under
the suzerainty of the sultan " (art. x). The internal govern-
ment was to be exercised by a bospodar, who reodved his
investiture from the sultan, the sign of vaasalship, it has been
uid (Tchomacoff p. 45)* The autonomy of these vassal states
has been fully recognized by the Treaty of BerUn of 1878 (art. x ).
In the InterpreUtion Act, 1889, s. x8 (5), " suserainty " is used
to describe the authority of the soverdgn over native princes.
The word suzerain is used in the Pretoria convention of the 3rd
of August x88x between the British government and the late South
African Republic The convention (by its preamble) granted
to the inhabitants complete self-government, " subject to the
suzerainty of her Majesty," and this luzerainty was reaffirmed
in the arUdes. Even when the convention waa being negotiated
doubts arose as to its meaning, and legal authorities were
divided as to its effect (see speech of Lord Cairns, Hansard, 269,
p. 26x; Lord Selbome, 260, p. 309; answer of attorney-general
2<^t Z534)> It was doubtful whether territory could be ceded by
the Crown of its own authority; and if the power existed the
cession could, it was said, be made only by virtue of dear words.
From the artides substituted in the London convention of the
27th of February 1884 for those of x88x, the word " suzerainty "
was omitted. Fresh doubts arose as to the effect of this omission;
and a correspondence on the subject took place between the
British government and the govcmxnent of the republic before
the outbreak of hostilities in South Africa, the former main-
taining that the preamble of x88x, by which alone any self-
government was granted, was still in force, and therefore that the
suzerainty — ^whatever it involved — ^remained; the Tpansvaal
government, on the other hand, contending that the suzerainty
had been abolished by the sttl»titution of the 1884 convention for
that of x88x. Writers on international law differ greatly as to the
ekact position of the South African republic under the later con-
ventioxu Some considered it an independent sovereign state.
Mr Taylor {A Treatise of International Public Lav, p. 174) treats
the Transvaal after the convention of x 884 as a " neutralized state
only part soverdgn." Other writers describe the relation aa that
of a protectorate (see Professor J. Westlake, Re9ue de droit inter*
national, 1896, p. s68 seq.; International Law, pt. i, p. 27).
Professor de Louter defines it as " une servitude du droit dca
gens (servitus juris gentium), et qui difi^ de la servitude da
SwTmo) DTF.Vonli8rt(D«V«fc«^^ 1^ sovereign I- ^
SUth Alrican republic as an mm^c ot p^bably ti^ *
-f*; M Gairal describes il sa a vwsal»t»^;^ ^^ ^^^
^^o^ fe that the BritUh C'^^^!^ aC 1884-
"?rS*?S^ expiry stated in the «>ny*5^tie« of Saaenii„
with ^iM». ton SItUngiv In t$45> Tnchacn* Um
'ain» aided by ihe forces of Trier and the pslatinate,
c rebel peaiaau of Kfinigsbofen on the Tauber and
&S*^Pro.'^?S«ti*r»ah^ ..^teaman
SvS« lor SvANiHOl, HAMS ^^^l^^'u^^^^inor^ns,
JT^tic^asbomon^he^^ mother
rtete his «^^»«^;«*?,J^^/oSiH^Svaning, whose name,
Anne was a daughter of the historwiina^ Copenhagen
Xquently altered to Svane^^^^^^ languages a„d
Svane devoted himself to the siuay 01 ^^cation abroad, at
^^^ x6a8 and 163590^^^ M and Paris. After
Fianete in Friedand, W^«^|;,e^tumed to occupy the
jpven years' residence »^"»*^jy^!j^tv of Copenhagen. In
SL ^Oriental ^^f^ow heTu^ 'o^^^^^^^^ ^^^ ™
,646, finding promotion sfo^.'/f,:" „ Tcsoer Brochmand, now
- ickted " DT theol. by his old P*^J^P^ f^e metropoUlan
fchop of Sjaelland, whom he «^*^^f ^ atheSogian
^^jF n-miMrk on the 26th of January JosS- ^ , "JT.
■?<»PtM. S^ '
^aa»h ChSIi'"-
the king Uj^t j^-i
1754). ^^*^2*^^'
Caucasus, immediatelJrSS* *•'-
of the middle of thr^'^-. '.
of the Rion, Ingur and TskwlTi.'' '*
modem government of KutalT^Jit***' .'
Geor^anrace. (See Caxjcasu a2^*"«^
SVENDBORG, a seaport^ ^^*^* ^t
(county) of its name, on the south rt^'
h had been several times renewed, expired
■uary 1534, iti' dissolution being due to
- wding the tefonaationu Futile attempts
>f> 1535 by the Bavaoaja chaaoelliMr,
rlcs V.
• dfs schwdbiseken Bimits <|GittBen,
he Bund " (in Hist. Tasdrntbrnk,
'■ nt£ dst sdtwdbischen Bundes
(A. B. Go.)
southern parliamentary
' S S.W. of Derby, and
AC Midland railway.
e district, 18,014.
.c, Church Gres-
form a large
nufacture of
ries in the
n parlla-
'. from
istrict
rict.
nd-
•le
i
:*y
yy.s,»^„j, v» IL9 uo.ui^t wu inc south •hot.TL -*v .
Pop. (X901), xi,S43- The situation U^^ ^^^ - • /
Svendborg Sund separates Flinen frointv^'^ "i
Taasinge and Turb, of whidi the former tW ^» "
from the town there is also elevated groundtw *^i »^
harbour is accessible to vessels drawing jq li t?^***^^-
»nd earthenware manufactories, boat-buain.Tf" »'«>./'
n Iffleries. Butter is the principal export, and tStJ^u**' W"*''
in iron the imports. Neighbouringtothetownatethen^''<*>»M
lishop ol bjaeuana, — -. •" ---- j y^j atheologian iron ine impons. «c«uwmmg iuinciownatetheMi^'M
«oe Denmark on the jWh of I^'^ Jf,JL_,„ Khool. His of Oikil, the watering-place Chnstiansminde, and JS^"»'>W
te Won^to the «verdy prthodM Lutten^ »chooi ^ ^ ^^^ Hestehave, where wiile fa ^*^4
t^SS^ despite the f™*""".'".*^ ""t^l^^i^^Me. SVB.DSDI._ JOHAIW SEVERIM (,84.>- )T^^:^_
fci, Junenl oraUon. » '^^^'X ^^660 he displayed
""••^'"^rES'of X^oKd pUyrf an important poUticd
So^hy t»n,^'7'«l,»"i"S'S^d,rSel4«esses
d^riaa deputies followed ^ « *^^^ of the meeting-
fdIow«d Nauen, «»? ''^*?^'!^,^he absolutist designs
^S^S^ra^^u^^^he'^S^o: S^ was chairman
of Fredenck Ul. ' "°"8"„'t . . ^^^^^ „pon the nobihty,
■^7^ T^^^ toCtton (Oct. 8) that the Commons
""J^Jf^'.ol^lHto^^ty the crown as an hereditary crown,'
*^^^ l^oS^ A?w*iBty ««ded, under severe presme.
r-.'S.liCr'^^^heUtheUi^-tat^^^^^
n;2:cS^-w5r,»^^t<K?.yusuT.,..«yau^tc^^
of the clergy. wnicii» -ttemot of the more Uberal mmded
2^,rS;2SSfo oSLST^ t^Som the king of some sorted
of the deputies to ooiaxi ^ ^ ^^^^ nobody
• ^^T,:^D^SSa/S^^^ of absolutism into
eootnbuted «^J^^™^;°(i^„hagen. He was raised to the
^^l^znt^^^i<^ the academic co^story of the
•"^l^fkXwWch was Inventedfor and died jidthhm^^^^
SS'^eSceonhe rector magnificus. He was al«» created a
^^^t^^^ an assessor of the supreme court and a member
IS^^M^^^^^o^^'^^'' His elevation «ems to
t, ^.f^ te h^d The university suffered the most from his
have turned ^«^- * ^„ ^ i^j, ^^^^els with all the professors
S'SSd^^* ^<1»^ '"^''^^ ^""^ ^'^ to interfere per.
S^y TbiSop who was at the »une timea privy coundUor.
SVENDSEH. JOHAim SEVBRIH (1840- ")T* No^^' .
composer, was bom in Christiania on the 30th of ScptemW i»
He learnt the elements of music and violin-playing fromhi8ia\b£'
and after servmg for some time in the army, and later touring ai
violinist with a troup of instrumentalists, he entered the conscrva-
torium at Leipzig through the aid of the king of Sweden. Alter
another tour, which extended to the British Isles, Svendsen
spent a year m Paris, and in 1871-1872 was leader of the once
famous Euterpe concerts in Leipzig. In 1871 he married an
American, and from 1872 to 1877 he conducted the ChristUnia
Musical Society, while in 1877-1879 he lived in Rome, London
and Paris. In 1883 Svendsen became court kapellmeister at
Cooenhagcn. Probably we have to go back to Schubert to find
a composer whose Opus i has attained tie wide popularity of
Svendsen's A minor string quartet, while his beautiful octet.
Opus 3. added to his fame. Though Svendsen was at one time
intimate with Waghcr, the latter does not seem to have influenced
his music, which includes two symphonies, a viohn concerto, and
a romanci for violin, as weU as a number of Norwegian rhapsodies
^%VhSrUp' JOHAH (1816-1892), Norwepan statwman, was
born at Jarlsberg on the 30lh of July 1816. His father Jakob
S^«dmp. was a Und steward, and the founder of the first
school of agriculture in Norway. Jot^^^^^J'^^.J^ e?^?^,^?
S 18S0. sitting first for Laurvik, and then for the dis net of
Ake«hus, and'was its president from 1871 to ^m^-^ the
whole of the dispute over the prerogative of the Crown. ±ie
?iS up a strong poUUcal party, which, relying for support
cWefly on the Norwegian peasantry, was detenmned to secure
strirt^constitutional govermnent and practically to destroy the
DOi^r^The king. Under his leadership the opposition, in 1872,
^J the pas^ng of a bill for the admission of the numsters
tTthe StortWng. which was a step to the establishment of he
deoendencc of the cabinet on a majority m that assembly. King
aSS« XV refused his sanction to this bill, and on its third
SSn^ in 1880 Oscar Xl. opposed his veto, at the same time
Eiing hU right to the absolute veto. Sverdrup then P«>PWf <»
Uie pJSamaiSi of the Uw in defiance of the king's action. The
176
SWABfA—SWABIAN LEAGUE
zedtement of Ftedeiik Staog temoved Sverdnip's cbief political
of>ponent from the field. He was aided in his campaign by
BjOnistjerne BjlimsoQ, and after a series of political crises he
became prime minister in June 1884. But when be became prime
ninister he soon found himself at issue with Bjdmson cm church
matters. Inspired chiefly by his nephew Johan he secured the
refusal of a pension to the novelist Kielland because of his anti-
clerical views, and he further wished to give the parish councils
the right to strike off the voting list persons who had broken
away from church discipKoe. Therefore, although during his
term of oi&ce no fewer than eighty-nine measures, many of them
involving useful reforms, became law, he failed to satisfy the
extremists among his supporters, and was driven to rely on the
moderate Liberals. He was compelled to retire in 1889, and died
on the X7th of February 1892 at Christiania.
8WABIA* SuA3U or Suzvia (Cer. Sckwaben), one of the
stem-duchies of medieval Germany, taking its name from the
Suevi, a tribe who inhabited the district in the first century of
the Christian era. Dwelling in the angle formed by the Rhine
and the Danube, they were joined by other tribes, and were
called Alamanni, whilst the district was called Alamannia,
until about the nth century, when the form Swabia began to
prevail In 496 the Alamanni were defeated by Clovis, king of
the Franks, brou^t under Frankish rule, and governed by dukes
who were dependent on the Frankish kings. Li the 7th century
the people were converted to Christianity, bishoprics were
founded at Augsburg and Constance, and in the 8th century
abbeys at Reicbenau and St GaU. The Alamanni had gradually
thrown off the Frankish yoke, but in 730 Charles Martel
again reduced them to dependence, and his son Pippin the
Short abolished the tribal duke and ruled the duchy by two
counts palatine, or Kammerboten.
The duchy, which was divided into gaus or counties, took about
this time the extent which it retained throughout the middle
ages, and was bounded by the Rhine, the lake of Constance,
the Lech and Franconia. The Lech, separating Alamannia from
Bavaria, did not form, either ethnologically or geographically,
a very strong boundary, and there was a good deal of inter-
communion between the two. races. During the later and
weaker years of the Carolingian rule the counts became almost
independent, and a struggle for supremacy took place between
them and the bishops of Constance. The chief family in Ala-
mannia was that of the counts of Raetia, who were sometimes
called margraves, and one of whom, Burkhard, was called dule
of the Alaminnia, Burkhard was killed in 911, and two counts
palatine, Bertold and Erchanger, were accused of treason, and
put to death by order of the German king Conrad I. In 917,
Burkhard, count in Raetia, took the title of duke, and was
recognized as such by King Henry L, the Fowler, in 919. His
position was virtually independent, and when he died in 926 he
was succeeded by Hermann, a Franconian noble, who married
his widow. When Hermann died in 948 Otto the Great gave
the duchy to his own son Ludolf, who had married Hermann's
daughter Ida; but he reduced the ducal privileges and
appointed counts palatine to watch the royal interests. Ludolf
revolted, and W^as deposed, and other dukes followed in quick
succession. Burkhard II., son of Burkhard L, ruled from 954 to
973, Ludolf*s son, Otto, afterwards duke of Bavaria, to 982, and
Conrad I., a relative of Duke Hermann I., until 997. Hermann II.,
possibly a son of Conrad, succeeded, and, dying in 1005, was
followed by his son Hermann III. During these years the
Swabians were loyal to the kings of the Saxon house, probably
owing to the influence of the bishops. Hermann III. had no
children, and the succession passed to Ernest, son of his eldest
sister Gisela and Ernest I., margrave of Austria. Ernest held
the duchy for his son until his own death in X015, when Gisela
undertook the government, and was married a second time, to
Conrad, duke of Franconia, who was afterwards the German
king Q>nrad 11. ^lien Ernest came of age he quarrelled
with his step-father, who deposed him, and, in 1030, gave the
duchy to Gisela's second son, Hermann IV. and, on his death
te 1038, to BcDxy, his own son by Gisela. In Z045 Henry,
who had bfcome Gennan king as Heavy UL, gamtad Alimiftnh
to Otto, grandson of the emperor Otto II. and count palttUM
of the Rhine, and, in X048, to Otto, count of Scfaweinfuit.
Rudolph, count of Rbeinfelden, was the next duke, and in 1077
he was chosen German king in opposition to the emperor
Henry IV., but found little support in Swabia, which was gjvea
by Henry to his faithful adherent, Frederick I., count of Hohen-
staufen. Frederick had to fight for his position with Bertold,
son of Duke Rudolph, and the duke's son-in-law, Bertold II.,
duke of Zahringen, to whom fae ceded the Breisgau in X096.
Frederick II. succeeded his father In XX05, and was followed
by Frederick III., afterwards the emperor Frederick I. The
earlier Hohenstaufen increased the imperial domain in Swabia,
where they received steady support, although ecclesiastical
influences were very strong. In 1x53 Frederick I. gave the
duchy to his kinsman, Frederick, count of Rothenburg and duke
of Franconia, after whose death in 1x67 it was held succcssiTdy
by three sons of the emperor, the yoimgest of whom, Philip,
was chosen German king in XX98. During his struggle for the
throne Philip purchased support by large cessions of Swabian
lands, and the duchy remained in the royal hands during the
reign of Otto IV., and came to Frederick U. in 12x4. Frederick
granted Swabia to his son. Henry, and, after his rebelU<ui in
X235, to his son Conrad, whose son Conradin, setting out in 1266
to take possession of Sicily, pledged his Swabian inheritance
to ULrich II. count of Wiirttemberg. The -duchy was ripe for
dissolution and, after Conradin's death, in xa68, the chief
authority in Swabia fell to the counts of Wiirttemberg, the mar-
graves of Baden, the counts palatine of Tttbingen, the counts
of HohenzoUem and others.
When the emperor Maximilian I. divided Germany into drdes
in X512, one, which was practically coterminous with the duchy,
was called the Swabian circle. The area, which was formerly
Swabia, is now covered by the kingdom of Wiirttemberg, the
grand-duchy of Hesse and the western part of the kingdom
of Bavaria. Although the name Swabia is occasionally used
in a general way to denote the district formerly occupied by the
duchy, the exact use of the name is now confined to 4 Bavarian
province, with Its capital at Augsburg.
See J. Leicfatlen, Schtoalxn unUr den RSnum (Fretburr* 1825) ;
LC. v. Pfister, Prapnatische CesckkhU von Sckwaben (Hcilbronn,
t part, 1603, continuation to 1496, X837).
SWABIAN LEAGUE, an association of German cities, prin-
cipally in the territory which had formed the old duchy of
Swabia. The name, though usually given to the great federa-
tion of X488, is applicable also to several earlier leagues (e.;.
those of X33X, 1376). The Swabian cities had attained great
prosperity under the protection of the Hohenstaufen emperors,
but the extinction of that house in X268 was followed by dis-
integration. Cities and nobles alike, now owing allegiance to
none but the emperor, who was seldom able to defend them,
were exposed to the aggression of ambitious princes.
In 1 331, twenty-two Swabian cities, including Ulm, Augsburg,
Reutlingen and Heilbronn, formed a league at the instance of
the emperor Louis the Bavarian, who in return for their support
promised not to mortgage any of them to a vassal. The
count of Wiirttemberg was mduced to join in X34a Under
Charles IV. the lesser Swabian nobles began to combine against
the cities, and formed the SchUggierbund (from ScUegel, a maul).
Civil war ensuing in 1367,. the emperor, jealous of the growing
power of the cities, endeavoured to set up a league under hia
own control, for the maintenance of public peace {Landjricdens^
bund, 1370). The defeat of the city league by Ebcrhard II. of
Wiirttemberg in 1372, the murder of the captain of the league,
and the breach of his obligations by Charles IV., led to the
formation of a new league of fourteen Swabian cities led by
Ulm in X376. This league triumphed over the count of Wiirttem-
berg at Reutlingen in 1377, and the emperor having removed
bis ban, it assumed a permanent character, set up an arbitration
court, and was rapidly extended over the Rhineland, Bavaria,
and Franconia. In 1382 an alliance was made at Ehingen with
the archduke of Austria, and through his mediation with the
SWADUNOOTE—SWAHILI
177
three cbief knigktly ■wodationn of Swabta. The aew king,
Wcnccslaus, hoped at fim, like bis father 'Charles, to check th«
federal movement by associating all estates of the realm under
his own lead ia Landjri€deuuiniguni€n, but such a compact
made at Heidelberg in 1384, although renewed at Mergentheim
three years later, was a mere makeshift. The struggle between
buighecs and nobles was precipitated by the inclusion of the
urban mcmben of the Swiss confederation in the league in 1385
and the overthrow of Archduke Leopold of Austria by the latter
at Sempach in the following year. A quarrel between the duke
of Bavaria and the axchbishop of Sakburg gave the signal for a
general war in Swabia, in which the cities, weakened by their
isolation, mutual jealousies and internal conflicts, were defeated
by Count Eberhard II. at Dfii&ngen (Aug. 24, X38S), and
were sev«ally taken and devastated. Most of them quietly
acqmeaced when Wenceslaus proclaimed a Land/rkde at
Egcr in 1389 and prohibited all leagues between cities. The
professed aims of the cities which had formed this league of
X376 were the maintenance of their imperial status {Reich*'
uumitklbarkeit), security against sale or mortgage and against
excessive taxation, the protection of property, trade and traffic,
and the power to suppress disturbances of the peace. There is
no trace of co-operation with the Hansealic towns. The
league necessarily opposed the pretensions of the emperors
and the electoral princes, especially as set forth in the Golden
Bull, and in accordance with the growmg spirit of dvil freedom
demanded a share in the government, but that there was any
widespread conscious desire for a fundamental change in the
constitution, for the abolition of aristocratic privilege or for
a ' republic, as certain historians maintain, is improbable
(K. Kll^fel, Der sdneOhischc Bund).
For nearly a century there was no great effort at federation
among the Swabian cities, attention being diverted to the
ecclesiastical controversies of the time, but there were partial
and short-lived associations, e.g. the league of twelve Swabian
dties in defence of their liberties in 1392, the Marbach league in
1405 against the German king, Rupert, and in 1441 the union
of twenty-two cities (in 1446 thirty-one) headed by Ulm and
Nuremberg, for the suppression of highway robbery. This
latter union in 1449 formed a standing army and waged war on
a confederation of princes led by Albert Achilles, afterwards
dector of Brandenburg iq.v.).
The growing anarchy in Swabia, where the cities were violently
agitated by the constant infringement of their Hberties {e.g.
the annexation of Regcnsburg by Bavaria in i486), induced
Frederick HI., who required men and money for the Hungarian
War, to conciliate the dties by propounding a scheme of padfica-
tion and reform. His commissioner, Count Hugo of Werdenbcrg,
met the Swabian estates at Esslingen and laid before them a
plan probably drawn up by Bertold, elector of Mainz, and on the
r4th of February 1488 the Great Swabian League was con-
stituted. There were four constituent parties, the archduke
Sigismtrnd of Austria, Count Eberhard V. (afterwards duke)
of WOrttemberg, who became the first captain of the league,
the kn^tly league of St George, and lastly twenty-two Swabian
imperial dties. The league received a formal constitution
with a fedeeal council consisting of three colleges of nine coon*
dlloxs each, a captain and a federal court with judidal and
cucotlve power*. The armed force which was to police Swabia
ooosisted of 12,000 foot and 1200 horse, each party contributing
one-fourth. The league gained strength by the speedy accession
of Augsburg and other Swabian cities, the margraves of Branden-
bufg-Ansbach, Baireuth and Baden, the four Rhenish electors,
4c., and in 1490 of Maximilian, king of the Romans, whom the
Icacne had helped to rescue from the hands of the Netherianders
in 1488. It did not render him the support he expected in his
foreign policy, but it performed its primary work of restonnj^
and maintaining order with energy and effidency. In X49> it
CDrnpeOed Duke Albert of Bavaria to renounce Regensburg;
in 1 519 it expelled the turbulent duke, Ulrich of Warttemberg,
^tf>hnd aeiaed ReutUngen, and it sold his duchy to Charies V.;
and in 1523 it defMted the Fmconlaa knighte who had taken
up aroM with Frana von Sarkingpn> In 1515, Truchwm the
league captain, aided by the forces of Trier and the palatinate,
overthrew the rebd peaaaau of Kdnigshofen on the Tauber and
at Ingolstadt.
The league, which had been several times renewed, expired
on the and of February 1534, its dissolution being due to
internal dissensions regarding the refomatioa. Futile attempts
were made to lenew it, in 1535 by the Bavarian cfaanoeUor,
Eck, and in 1547 by Charles V.
See E. Oaann, Z$ir Cestkiekte its adnMisdien Bimieg (Gisaen,
i860: K. KlOpifd. " Der tehwibische Buud " (in Hist. TasckenbiKk,
1 883-1 884), Urhmden ntr GesckichU du sckwAHsehen. Bundes
(Stuttgart, i84fr-i853>. (A. B. Go.)
SWADLINCOTE, a town In the southern parliamentary
division of Derbyshire, England, 15 m, S.S.W. of Derby, and
4 m. S.E. of Burton-upon-Trcnt, on the Midland railway.
Pop. (1901), urban district of Swadlincote district, 18,014.
This includes the civH parishes of Swadlincote, Church Gres-
Icy and Stanton and Newhall, which together form a large
industrial township, mainly devoted to the manufacture of
earthenware and £reday goods. There are collieries in the
neighbourhood.
SWAFFHAM, a market town in the south-western parlia-
mentary division of Norfolk, England; mm. N.N.E. from
London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district
(^901)1 337X' The town lies high, in an open, healthy district.
The church of St Peter and St Paul is Perpendicular, a hand-
some cruciform structure with central tower, and has a fine
carved roof of wood. The town, which has a town-hall and
assembly rooms, possesses iron foundries and a considerable
agricultural trade, with cattle fairs. At Castle Acre, 4 m. N.,
are the picturesque nuns of a Clu^Iac priory, founded shortly
after the Conquest by WlUIapi de Warren. These comprise
portions of the church, indudlng the fine west front, arcaded,
with three Norman doors and a Perpendicular window, with the
chapter-house, cloisters and conventual buildings. The majority
of the remains are Norman or Perpendicular. The castle of the
same founder has left Utile but its foundations, but it was erected
within the protection of a remarkable series of earthworks,
which remain in good condition. These are apparently in part
Roman, in part earlier. The site, on which Roman coins,
potteiy and other remains have been discovered, was on an
andent trackway running north and south. It may be noted
that de Warren founded a simOar casUe and priory at Lewes
in Sussex. The church of St James, Caslle Acre, oontainis good
Early English and Perpendicular work.
SWAHIU {WaSwahili, i,e. coast people, from the Arabic
sahUt coast), a term commonly applied to the inhabitants of
Zanzibar and of the opposite mainland bctwjren the parallels
of 2" and 9* S., who speak the Kl-Swahfll language. The
Swahlli are essentially a mixed people, the result of long crossIn|t
between the negroes of the coast and the Arabs, with an ad-
mixture of slave blood from nearly all the East African tribes.
Among Swahlli are found every shade of colour and every type
of physique from the full-blooded negro to the pure Semite.
Usually they are a powerfully built, handsome people, inclined
to stoutness and with Semitic features. They nimiber about
a miDion. They figured largely in the history of African enter-
prise during the i9lh century. The energy and intelligence
derived from their Semitic blood have enabled them to take a
leading part in the development of trade and the industries,
as shown in the wide diffusion of their langtiage, which, like
the Hindustani in India and the Guarani in South America,
has become the principal medium of intercommunication in a
large area of Africa south of the equator. During his journey
from the Indian Ocean to the Atlantic (1873-1874) Commander
V. Lovett Cameron found tlMt a knowledge of this language
enabled him everywhere to diqiense with the aid of an inter-
preter, as it was understood by one or more persons in all the
tribes along the route. Owing to this circumstance the Swahlli
have been ktund invaluable assistants in every expedition from
I the eastern leaboanl to the interior after they befu to be
178
SWALLOW— SWAN, J. M.
employed by J. H. Speke aad Rkhtid Burton as porters and
caoorU in 1857. The language is somewhat' archaic Bantu,
much mixed with ArabiCi while Indian, Persian and even
English, Portuguese and German words have contributed to the
vocabulary. Grammatical treatises on it have been published,
and into it portions of the Bible have been translated by Bishop
Steere.^ The Swahiii are Mahommedans, but in disposition
are genuine negroes. Christian missions among them have met
with little success.
See Johann Lndwig KrapT, DtOunary cf SwakHi Langmge
(London, 1882); BUhop Steere, Handbook if the Swahiti Lanruaee
_^_ CoUeOion of SwakiU Folk-Tales (1869); i
Madaa, Emtltsk-Swakili Dictionary (Oxford,^ 1894) ; Delaunay,
(London, 1894);
Madaa, Enatsk-jwuinn lyjanntorj \\j»A\jtUf tt^^/ , jL/vi«uaiajr
Crammairf KiswakUi (Paris. 1898). See also Bantu Languages.
SWAUOW (A. S. swaUwe, IccL svala, Du. twaluWf Gcr.
Sckwalbi)t the bird which of all others is recognized as the
harbinger of summer in the northern hemisphere. The name
Hirundo rustica of Linnaeus is now employed for the common
chimney-swallow of Europe, which has been divided into four
or five races. In summer it ranges all over Europe, and in
Asia extends to Manchuria and China; in winter it migrates
south, reaching India, Burma, the Malay Peninsula and the
whole of Africa. The common swallow of North America,
usually called the barn-swallow, is H. eryUtrogastra, but in
summer it also reaches Alaska and Greenland and extends across
to Lake Baikal. The winter migration extends to Burma for the
Asiatic swallows and to South Brazil for those of America.
In all some Iwcnty-scvcn species of Hirundo are recognized, the
range of the genus being practically world-wide. Returning,
usually already paired, to its summer haunts, after its winter
sojourn in southern lands, and generally reaching England
about the first week in April, the English swallow at once
repairs to Its old quarters, nearly always around the abodes of
men; and, about a month later, the site of the nest is chosen,
resort being had in most cases to the very spot that has
formerly served the same purpose— the old structure, if still
remaining, being restored and refurnished. So trustful Is the
bird that it commonly establishes Itself in any of men's works that
will supply the necessary accommodation, and a shed, a bam,
or any building with an open roof, a chimney that affords a
support for the nest, or even the room of An inhabited house —
if chance should give free access thereto-^to say nothing of
extraordinary positions, may be the place of its choice. Where-
soever placed, the nest is formed of small lumps of moist earth,
which, carried .to the spot in the bird's bill, are duly arranged
and modelled, with the aid of short straws or slender sticks, into
the required shape. This is generally that of a half-saucer, but
it varies according to the exigencies of the site. The materials
dry quickly into a hard crust, which is lined with soft feathers,
and therein are laid from four to six white eggs, blotched and
speckled with grey and orange-brown deepening into black.
Two broods are usually reared in the season, and the yoimg on
leaving the nest soon make their way to some leafless bough,
whence they try their powers of flight, at first accompanying
their parents in short excursions on the wing, receiving from
them the food which they are as yet unable to capture, until able
to shift for themselves. They collect in flocks, often of many
hundreds, and finally leave the country about the end of August
or early in September, to be followed, after a few weeks, by
their progenitors. They moult their feathers in their winter
quarters, and this fact affords one of the strongest argiuncnts
against the popular belief (which, ctirious to say, is still partly
if not fully entertained by many who should know better) of
their becoming torpid in winter, for a state of torpidity would
suspend all animal action.* The chestnut forehead and throat,
» The language was first reduced to writing by the Arabs, who
•tni use the Anibtc character. But the European mtssionanes have
replaoed this by the Roman system, which is moce suited for the
transfitera^ion of roost African, and especially of the Bantu, toogues.
* See John Hunter's Essays and ObsemUums m Natural History,
edited by Sir R. Owen in 1861 (ti. 280). An excellent bibtiography
of the swallow-torpidity controversy, up to 1878, is riven by Professor
Coues (BiVrff of the Colorado VaOey, pp. 378-3?o), who teems sdU
tohaokvaf tor the ancient (aith ia "^ hibcrucioiw
the shining steel-blue upper plumage, and the dusky white
— ^in some cases reddening so as almost to vie with the frontal
and gular patches— of the lower parts are well known to every
person of observation, as is the markedly forked tail, which
is become proverbial of this bird.
Taking the word swallow in a more extended sense, it n used
for all the members of the family Hirundinidae,' excepting a few
to which the name martin {q.v,) has been applied, and this famOy
includes from 80 to 100 species, which have oeen placed in many
different genera. The true swallow has veiy many afllines, some ol
which range almost as widely as itself does, while others seem to
have curiously restricted limits, and much the same may be said
of several of its more distant relatives. But altogether the famcily
forms one of the most circumscribed and therefore one of the most
natural groups of Osdnes, having no near allies; for, though in
outward appearance and in some habits the swallows bear a con-
siderable resemblance to swifts (^.v.), the latter belong to a different
order, and are not Passerine birds at all, as their structure, both
internal and external, proves. It has been sometimes stated
that the Hirundinidac have their nearest relations in the flycatchers
(o.v.) ; but the assertion is very questionable, and the suppoation
that they are allied to the Ampelidae (cf . Wax wing), though possibly
better founded, has not been confirmed. An affinity to the Indian
and Australian Artamus (the species of which genus axe often
known as wood-swallows or swallow-shrikes) has also been suggested
but has not been accepted. (ATrl.)
SWALLOW-HOLE, in physical geography the name applied
to a cavity resulting from the solution of rock under the action
of water, and forming, or having at some period formed, the
entrance to a subterranean stream-dunneL Such holes are
common in calcareous (limestone or chalky) districts^ or along
the line of outcrop of a limestone belt among non-calcareous
strata. These cavities are also known as sinks, dolinas or
butter-tubs, and by other local names, and sometimes as pot-
holes; the last term, however, is also synonymous with Giant's
Kettle (q.v.). See Cave.
SWAMHBROAH, JAN (1637-1680), Dutch naturalist, was
bom on the X2th of February 1637 at Amsterdam, the son of
an apothecary and naturalist. He was destined for the Church;
but he preferred the profession of medicine, taking his doctor's
degree at Leiden in 1667. Having necessarily to interest
himself in human anatomy, he devoted much attention to the
preservation and better demonstration of the various structures,
and he devised the method of studying the circulatory system
by means of injections. He also spent much time in the study of
insects, investigating the subject of their metamorphosis, and
in this and other ways laying the beginnings of their natural
chissification, while his rcse&rdies on the anatomy of mayflies
and bees were also of great importance. His devotion to science
led to his neglect of practice; his father, resenting this, stopped
all supplies and thus Swammerdam experienced a pericd of
considerable privation, which had the most unfortunate con-
sequences to his health, both bodily and mental In 167 5 his
father died, leaving him an adequate fortune, but the mischief
was irreparable. He became a hypochondriac and mystic,
joined the followers of Antoinette Bourignon, and died at
Amsterdam on the xsth of February x68o.
His AUgemeene Verhanddin^ van Uoedeloou dierljens appeared
at Utbccht in 1669, and his BMia naturae, sive Historia tnsectorum
in certas dasses redaeta was published after his death by H. Bocr-
hacve in 1737-17^8. He was also the author of MincnUm naturae,
sen Uteri mtdiebru fabrica (Leiden, 1679).
IWAN. JOHN MACALLAN (1847^1910), English painter
and sculptor, received his art training first in England at the
Worcester and Lambeth schools of art and the Royal Academy
schools, and subsequently in Paris, in the studios of J. L.
G^rdroe and E. Fr^mlet. He began to exhibit at the Academy
in 1878, and was elected associate in 1894 and academician in
1905. He was appointed a member of the Dutch Water-Colour
Society hi 1885; and associate of the Royal Society of Painters
ia Water Colours m 1896 and full member in 1899. A master
of the oil,, water-colour and pastel mediums, an accomplished
* An enormous amount of labour has been bestowed upon the
Hirundinidae by R. B. Sharpe {Cat. B. Brit. Mns. x. 85-^10),
and ia the finely-illustrated Monograph which he and C W. WyaCt
hava published (a vols. 4tOk Loodoo. i88»-k894).
SWAN, SIR J. W;— SWAN
ptmter and a skilfut dttraghtsinattr ht ranks abo as a sculptor
of diatinguislied ability. He lias treated the bumaa figure with
BotaUe power, but it is by his rcpresenuiions of the larger
wQd ammals, mainly the fdidae, that he chiefly established his
repotatiott^ in this branch of practice he has scarcely a rival
ffis piauxe "The Prodigal Son/' bought for the Chantrey
ooOectioa in 1889, is in the National GalleTy of British Art.
He was awarded first class gold medals for painting and
iodptine in the Paris Eddbftion, 1900. He died on the T4th
of February 19x0.
See ScuLPTvas; " The Work of J. M. Swan." by A. L. Baldry,
fai Tkt Shidio, vol. xxiL; and Draminii 0/ Jckn if. Swan, RA,
(Geocve Newnet^ Ltd.).
SWAH. SIR JOSEPH VOSOK (1828- ), EngBsh physidst
and dectridan, was bom at Sunderland on the 31st of October
1898. After serving bis apprenticeship with a chemist in his
native town, he became first assistant and later partner in a
firm of manufacturing chemists In Newcastle. Among its
operations this firm included the manufacture of photographic
piates, and thus Swan was led to one of the advances in photo-
graphy with which his name is associated — the production of
extremely rapid dry plates, which were the outcome of an original
observation made by him on the effect of heat in increasing the
lensittvcBess of a gclatino^bromide of silver emulsion. In 1863
he patented the first commercially practicable process for carbon
printing in photography. This depended on the fact that when
getatine is exposed to light in the presence of bichromate salts
it is xeodered insoluble and non-absorbent of water. Swan took
a surface of gelatine, dusted over with lampblack and sensitised
with bichromate of ammonium^ and exposed it to light below a
photographic negative; the result was to hiake the gelatine
from the surface downwards insoluble to a depth depending
on the intensity, and therefore penetration, of the light which
had reached it through, the negative. In this operation the
surface of the gelatine was also rendered insoluble, and it therefore
became necessary to get at its back in order to be able to wash
away the portions that still remained soluble; this was effected
by cementing the insoluble surface to a fresh sheet of paper by
means of indiarubber solution, and then detaching the original
fs^iport. It thus became possible to reach the soluble portions
whh water and to obtain a representation of the picture, though
reversed as to right and left, in relief on the pigmented gelatine.
Una process has been simplified and improved by subsequent
workers, but in its essential features it forms the basis of some
of the methods of photographic leproduction most wklely used
at the present day. But Swan's name deserves remembrance
even more in connexion with the invention of the incandescent
dedric lamp than with improvements in photographic tech*
oique. He was one of the first to undertake the production of
aa electric lamp in which the light should be produced by the
passage of an electric current through a carbon filament, and
he was almost certainly far ahead, in point of time, of any other
worker in the same field in realizing the conditions to be met
and the diificulties to be overcome. So far back as x86o he
constructed an electric lamp with a carbon filament, which was
formed by packing pieces of paper or card with charcoal powder
in a crucible and subjecting the whole to a high temperature.
The carbonized paper thus obtained he mounted in the form of a
fine strip in a vacuous glass vessel and connected it with a battery
of Grove's ccDs, which though not strong enough to raise it to
eomplete incandescence, were sufficient to make it red«hct.
This was substantially the method adopted by Edison neariy
twenty years later, after various fruitless efforts to make a
practical lamp with i filament of platinum or a platinum alloy
had convhxced him of the unsuitability of that metal for the
parpoae^-a conclusion which Swan had reasoned out for himself
many years before. By the time Edison had hit upon the idea
of carbonizing paper or bamboo by beat to form the filament,
Swan had devised the further improvement of using cotton
Ihicad *' parchmentiaed *' by the action of sulphuric add, and
it was by the aid of such carbon filaments that on the 20th of f
October x88o be gave at Newcastle the first public exhibitioa I
179
on a hnvs seals of cleetiie BifiOaag by neana of glvw bimpt.
In another method devised by him for the manufacture of fi]»>
ments, collodion was squirted into a coagulating solution and
the tough threads thus obtained carbonized by heat. He also
devoted attention to q>paratus for measurirtg electric cuirenta,
to the improvement of acamndators and to the oonditiooB
govenimg the dectro-deposition of metals. He was elected a
fellow of the Royal Sodety in 1894, and served as president of
the Inrtitutlan of Electrical Rngiofiers in 1898-1899 and of the
Sodety of Chemical Industry in 190X. In the last-nasned
year he received the honorary degree of D.Sc from Durham
University, and be was knighted in 1904.
SWAX (A. S. jveii and swMs IceL snmr," Do.' sMafi,
Ger. Sckumm\ a large swiminlDg-bird, well known from being
kept in a hall-^kwiesticated condition throughout many parts
of Europe,' whence it has bcien carried to other countries. In
England it was far more abundant formeriy than at present, the
young, or cygnets,^ being highly esteemed for the table» and it
was under espedal enactments for iu pseservation, and regsided
as a " bird nyal " that no subject oouM possess without licence
from the Crown, the granting of which licence was accompanied
by the oondition that every bird in a '' game " (to use the old
legal term) of swans should bear a distinguishing mark of owncv-
ship (cyfuffutfo) rni the bill. Originally this privilege was
ooafeitcd on the larger freeholders only, but it was graduaD^
extended, so that in the reign of Elizabeth upwarda of 900 distinct
awan-ttarks, being those of private perMns or oorporations,
were recognised by the royal swanherd, n^ose jurisdictioD
extended over the whole kingdom. It is inqxissiblc heie to
enter into further details on this subject, interesting as it is
from various points of view.* It a eoou^ to remark that all
the legal protection afforded to the swan points oat that it was
not indigenous to the British Islands, and indeed it is stated
(though on uncertain authority) to have been introduced to
•England in the reign of Richard Cceur de laon; but it it now so
perfectly datutaliiwd that birds having the full power of ffight
remain in the country. There is no evidence to show that its
numbers are ever increased by immigration from abroad, though
it is known to breed as a wild bird not farther from the British
shores than the extreme south of Sweden and possibly in JDen-
mark, whence it may be traced, but with considerable vacuities,
in a south-easterly direction to the valley of the Danube and
the western part of Central Asia. In Europe, however, no
definite limits can be assigned (or its natural range, since birds
more or less reclaimed and at liberty consort with those t)iat are
tndy wild, and dther mduce them to settle in localities beyond
its boundary, or of themselves occupy such localities, so that
no difference is observable between them and their unUmed
brethren. From its breeding-grounds, whether they be in
TurkesUn, in south-eastern Europe or Scania, the swan migrates
southward towards winter, and at that season may be found
in north-wesfem India (though rardy), in Egypt, and on the
shores of the Mediterranean.
The swan just spoken of is by some naturalists named the
mute or tame swan, to distinguish it from one to be presently
mentioned, but it is the swan simply of the English language
> Here, as ia ao many other cases, we have what may be called
the " table-oame '* of an amroal derived from the Nonoan-Frencb,
while that which it bore wh«n alive was of Teutonic origin.
' The king and the Companies of Dyen and VIntnen still mafaitaio
their swans on the Thames, and a yearly expedition is made in the
month of August to take up the young b ir ds thence called " swan-
upping " and comiptfy " swan-hopping " — and mark them. The
largest swannery in Eingland, indeed the only one worthy of the
name, is that bcloneing to Lord llchester, on the water called the
Fleet, lying inside the Chesil Bank on the coast of Dorset, where
from TOO to double that number of birds may be kept— a stock
doubtless too great for the area, but very small' when compared
with the nufflben that used to be retained on various rivers m the
country. The swanpit at Norwich seems to be the only place now
einsting for fattening the cygnets for the Ubie— an expensix'e pro-
cess, but one fully app • ^* ■ • • - .r -.
The English swan-U
cess, but one fully appreciated by those who have tasted the results.
The English swan-laws and regulations haw been concisely
but admireblv treated by Serjeant Manning (/><wMy C^fchpauiia,
. S71. S72).
i8o
SWANAC^
And Utenture. SdentificaUy it b usually known as Cygmu olar.
Its large size, its spotless white plumage, its onuige-red bill,
surmounted by a black knob (tecbnkally the " berry ") Urger
in the male than in the female, its black 1^ and stately appear*
ancc on the water are familiar, either from figures innumerable or
fiom direct observation, to almost every one. When left to
itself its nest is a large mass of aquatic plants, often piled to the
height of a couple of feet and possibly some six feet in diameter.
In the midst of this is a hollow which contains the eggs, generally
fiom five to nine- in number, of « greiyish*Olive cofeur. The
period of incubation is between five and six weeks, and the
young when hatched are clothed in sooty-grey down, which is
succeeded by feathers of sooty-brown. This suit is gradually
replaced by white, but the young birds are more than a twelve-
month old before they lose all trace of colouring and become
wholly white.
It was, however, noticed by Plot iN.H, Stajfforishiret p. 3s8)
more Uum aoo years ago that certain swans on the Trent bad
white cygnets; and it was subsequently observed of such birds
that both parents and progeny had legs of a paler colour, while
the young had not the " blue bill " of ordinary swans at th«
same age that has in some parts of the country given them a
nsjne, besides offering a few other minor differences. These,
being examined by W. Yarrell led him to announce {Proc» Zed.
Society, 2838, p. 19) the birds presenting them as forming a
distinct species, C. immuiabilis, to which the English name of
" Polish " swan had already . been attadied by the London
poulterers,^ but which is now regarded merely as a variety, not
in any way specially associated with Poland but possibly a
dimorphic form.
The whooper, whistling or wild swan* of modem usage, Cyphu
mnsicus, whtch was douMleM always a winter-visitant to Britain,
though nearly as bulky and ouile as purely white in its adult
ElumaKC, is at once recognizable from the species which has been
alf domesticated by its wholly different but equally graceful
carriage, and its bill — which is black at the tip and lemon-yellow
for a great part of its base. This entixdy distinct species is a
native of Iceland, eastern Lapland and northern Russia, whesce
it wanders southward in autumn, and the musical tones it utters
(contrasting with the silence that has caused its relative to be
often called the mute swan) have been celebrated from the time
of Homer to our own. Otherwise in a general way there is little
difference between the habits of the two, and very ckisely alUed
to the whooper is a much smaller species, with very well marked
characteristics, known as Bewick's Swan, C, betncki. This was first
indicated as a variety of the last by P. S. Pallas, but its specific
validity is now fully established: Apart from sin, it may be
edtemally distinguished from the whooper by the bill having only
a small patch of ydlow, which inclines to an orange rather than
a lemon tint; while internally the difference of the vocal oivans
is well marked, and its cry, though melodious enough, is unlike.
It has a more eastcriy home in the north than the whooper, but
in winter not infrequently occurs in Britain.
Both the spedcs last mentioned have their representatives in
North America, and in each case the transatlantic bird is con-
siderably larger than that of the Old World. The first is the
trumpeter-swan, C. bucdnalatt which has the bill wholly black,
and the second the C cdumbianv * gwi tly resembling Bewick's
•wan, but with the oolourad patches on the bill of less extent and
deepening^ almost into scarlet. ' South America produces two very
distmct birds commonly regarded as swans, Cytnus mdanocoryphus,
the black-necked swan, and that which is coUed Coscoreha. This
last, C. Candida, which inhabits the southern extremit^r of the
continent to Cliile and the Argentine territory and visits the
Falkhind Islands, is the smalloft spectea known— pure white in
colour except the tip of its primaries, but having a red bill and
red feet.' The former, If not discovered by earlier navigato«». was
^ M. Gerbe, in his edition of Dcgtand's OmiPulogie EuropUnne
(tl 477), makes the aroosing mistake of attributing this name to
the faurrtws (furriers) of London, and of reading it Cygiu du p£k
(polar, and not Palish, swan)|
* In some districu it is called by wild-fowlers " elk,** which per-
haps may be cognate with the Icclandk: A^fi and the Old German
Bibs or Up* (ct. Gesner, OmiiMogia, pp. 358, 3S9)» though by
modem Germans £(b^hvuu seems to be used for the preoedmg
< Dr Stejncger iPr$c, U, 5. NaL Museum, 188a, pp. 177^179)
.jks been «t much pains to show that this is no swan at all. but
OMiely a lam Anatine form, further reseaich may prove that his
vicm SM veU fouadedi and that thm» with another very imperiectly
known species, C. davidi, described by Swinhoe (Proc Zoal, Sac^.
observed by Narbroqgh on the snd of August 1670 in the Stnit of
Magellan, as announced in 1694 in the nrst edition of hu voyage
(p. 52). It was subsequently found on the Falkland Islands during
the Trench settlement there in 1764-1765, as suted by Pcmetty
(Ko>af«, snd ed., ii. 26, 99). and was first techntcally described in
1782 by Molina {Saggio suUa star. noL dd Chile, pp. 3^ 344). Ita
range seems to be much the same as that of the Coscoroba, except
that it comes farther to the northward, to the coast of soinhem
Brazil on the east, and perhaps into Bolivia on the west. It is a
very handsome bird, of lane sise, with a bright red nasal knob, a
black neck and the rest of its plumage pure white. It has been
introduced into Europel and breeds freely in confinement.
A greater interest than attaches to the South American birds
Ust mentioned is that whkh invests the black swan of Austr^,
Chenopis atrals. Considered for so many centuries to be an im»
posability, the knowledge of its existence seems to have imprewed
(more perhaps than anything else) the popular mind with the notion
of the extreme divergence — not to say the contrariety — of the
organic products of that country. By a sinnilar stroke of fortune
we are aole to luune the precise day on whioi this unexpected dis-
covery was made. The Dutch navigator WiUem de Vlaming,
visiting the west coast of ^uidland (Southland), sent two of his boats
on the 6th of January 1697 to explore an estuary be had found.
There their crews saw at nrst two and then more block swans, of
which they caught four, taking two of them alive to Batavia; and
Valentyn, who several years later recounted this voyage, gives in
his work* a plate representing the ship, boats and birds, at the
mouth of what is now known from this circumstance as Swan
river, the most important stream of the thriving colony of West
Australia, which has adopted this very bird as its armorial symbol*
Valentyn, however, was not the first to publish this interesting
discovery. News of it soon reached Amsterdam, and the burgo-
master of that city, Witsen by name, himself a fellow of the Royal
Society, lost no time in (Communicating the chief facts ascertained,
and among them the finding of the black swans, to Martki Lister*
by whonA they were laid before that society in October 1698, and
printed in its Philosophical Transactions, xx. 361. Subsequent
voyagers. Cook and others, found that the range of the species
extended over the greater part of Australia, in many districts of
which it was abundant. It has since rapidly dficmaed in numbers,
but is not likely soon to cease to exist as a wild bird* while its
singular and ornamental appearance will probably preserve it as
a modiHcd captive in most civilized countries. The species scarcely
needs description: the sooty black of its general plumage is relieved
by the snowy white of its .Qight-feathera and its coral-liks bill
banded with ivory.
The Cygninae admittedly form a well-defined group of the family
Anatidac, and there is now no doubt as to its limits, except in the
case of the Coscoroba above mentioned. This bird would seem
to be, OS M ao often found an members of the South Americas
fauna, a more generaUxed iomw presenting several characterist^
of the Anatinae, while the rest, even its black-necked compatriot
and the almost wholly bbck swan of Austmlia. have a higher
morphological rank. Excluding from Consideration the little-
known C. dwridu of the five or ux species of the northern
hcausphere four present the curious character, somewhat anakjgoos
to that found in certain cranes (jf.v.)* of the penetration of the
sternum by the trachea nearly to the posterior end of the keel,
whence it returns forward and upward agatn to nrx-eft and enter
the lungs; but in the two larger of these species, when adnk. tiie loop
of the trachea between the walls of the keel takes a vertical direction*
while in the two smaller the bend is horizontal, thus affording an
easy mode of recognizing the respective species of each. Fossil
remains of more than one species of swan nave been found. The
most lemarkable is C. fakoneri, which was oeariy a third binr
than the mote swan, and was described from a Maltese cave«oy
W. K. Parker in the Zook^ical Society s TransactioHs, vi. 1 19-124:.
PL30. (A.N.)
8WANA6B» a watering-place and seaport in the eastern
parliamentary division of Dorsetshire, England, 9 m. S.S.W.
from Bournemouth by sea« and 132 m. S.W. by W. from London
by the London It South-Wcstem railway.' Fop. of urban
district (1901), 3408. It lies on the picturesque Swanage Bay,
on the east coast of the so-called Isle of Purbeck, the district
lymg south of Poole Harbour. The coast is wild and pro*
cipitous, and numerous caves occur in the cliffs. Inland are
open, high-lying downs. Swanage Bay has a beautiful sandy
beach affording excellent bathing. In the town, the church
1870, p. 430) from a single specimen in the Museum of PeUng,
ahould be removed from tne sub-family Cvgninoe. Of C eucoroM
Mr Gibson remarks (Ibis, 1880, pp. ^6. 37} that its " ndte is a loud
trumpet-call.^' and that it swims with " the neck curved and the
wings raised after the true swan model.*'
* Commonly <Hioted as Oud en nsrvw OmI Indieu. fAmstordanu
1726). The incidents nf the voyage are related m Detl iil Hoofdal*
iv. («Auch has for iu title Deseriptiqn of Banda). pp. 68-^».
SWANSEA
i8i
el 8t Muy lua a wurnhm toivtr poniKIsr «f fire^Koniiaii date;
there are a town-liaU, an institute whli libraiy and lecture hall,
and memorials to a victory gained by King Alfred over the
Danes in the bay in ^77, and to Albert, Prince Cooaort. A
IsTfe export trade is carried on in stone firotn the Ftebecfc
^IHUIieST
SWAiniA. a munldpai, county and parliamentary borough,
market town, and seaport of Glamorganahiie, South Walest
fiady situated in an angle between lofty hlUs, on the river
Taw£ or Tawy near its mouth m Swansea Bay, a beautiful
recess of the Bristol Channel, aox m. W. of Jjindon by rail and
45i m. W.N.W. of Cardi£L The Great Western main line has a
junction wiihtn the borough at Landore, whence a branch runs
into a more central part of the town. The Vale of Neath branch
of the same railway and the Rbondda & Swansea Bay railway
(now wodLed by the Great Western) have temunal stations near
the docks on the other (eaatem) side of the river, ss also has the
Midland railway from Hereford and Brecon. All these lines
approadi the town from the north and east through an un-
attractive industrial district, but the central Wales branch of
the Ijonden & North-Wesfiem railway from Craven Arms In
entering it on the west passes through some beautiful wood-
lands and then skirts the bay, having parallel to it for the last
3 m. the light (pasBenfer) railway vhioh runs bom Swansea to
Mumbles Pier. The older part of the town, being the whole
off the municipal borough previbus to 1836, occupies the west
bank of the Tawe near its mouth and is now wholly given up to
bittiness. Stretching inland to the north afang the river for
■Rne s m. through Landore to Morriston, and also eastwards
etong the sea margin towards Neath, is the industrial quarter,
wfaHe the residenttal part occupies the sea front and the slopes
of the Town Hill (s&> ft. high) to the west, stretching out to
the pleasant suburb of Sketty. The east lide of the river (known
as St Thomas's and Port Tennant) is approached from the west
by A mad carried over the North Dock Lock and the river by
tww girder drawbridges, each of which has a double line of
roadway (on which tramways are laid), two footpaths and a
line of railway. All the main thoroughfares are spacious, and
in two or three instances even imposmg, but most of the re^-
dcntial part consists of monotonous stuccoed terraces. The
dinate is mild and Tchudng and the rainfall averages about
4» in. annually.
PmbUc Bmldmtt, 6v.— The old castle, first buflt by Henry
de Newburgh about 1099, has entirely disappeared; but of the
new castle, which was probably intended only as a fortified
hoime, there remain the great and lesser halls, a tower and a
so-called keep with the cutain wall connecting them, iu chief
arehttectitnl feature being a fine embattled parapet with an
arcade of pointed arches m a style similar to that of the
fpifff^'y' palaces of St Davids and Lamphey buflt by Henry
Cower (d. 1347)* bishop of St Davids, to whom the building of
the new " castle ** is also ascribed. Part of it is now used as
the headquarters of the 4th Welsh (Howitser) Brigade R.F.A.
Feasibly some traces of St Davids Hospital, buflt by the same
pccUte in 1331 , are still to beseen at Cross Keys Inn. The parish
diurcb of St Mary was entirdy rebuflt in iSpS'iSgS. It pre-
viously consisted of a tower and diancd (with a fme Decorated
window) buflt by Bishop (k>wer, the piers of the chancd
arch bdng partly buflt on earlier Norman work, the Herbert
Chapd (originaUy St Aim*s) of about the same date ss the
diancd and rebuilt in the early part of the i6th century, and a
nave buflt in 1739. Of the earUer work there remains the door
of the rood k>ft (buflt into a wall), a rsth-century brass-inlaid
marble sUb with a representation of the resurrectkm, in memory
of Sir Hi^ Johnys (d. c. 1463) and his wife, «kd three canopied
aliar tombe— one with the efigy of a priest and another with
cfigies of Sir Matthew Cradock and bis wife. Within the parish
(rf St lilLtxf WW St John's, the cburch of a smaU parish of the
same name tying to the north of St Mary's and once owned by
the Knights HospitaUers. This church, which was entirely
icbuflt in i8ao, waa renamed St Matthew in 18S0, when a
new St John's was buflt within iu own parish. There are
96 other drardies and ro mission rooms bdonging to the Church
of England, besides a Roman Catholic churches, a synagogue
and 84 Nonconformist chapels (31 Wefeh and 53 English) and
so mission rooms, but aU are modem bufldings. There are
9 ecclesiastical parishes and parts of two or three others, all in the
diocese of St Davids. The Royal Institution of South Walcsv
founded in 1835, is housed in a handsome building in the Ionic
style erected in 1838-1839 and possesses a museum in which the
geology, ndnendogy, botany and antiquities of the district
are well represented, there bdng a fine collection of neolithic
remains from the Gower Caves and from MerthyrMawr. lu
library is rich in historical and sdentific works relating to
Wales and Wdsh industries and contains the collection of
historical MSS. made by Colond Gtant-Francia, some time its
honorary librarian, but one of its most valued possessions is
the original contract of affiance between Edward H. (when
prince of Wales) and Isabella. Its art gallery has many prints
and drawing of peat local interest and here the Swansea Art
Sodety holds its annual exhibition. The Swansea Sdentific
Sodety also meets here. In its eariy days the institution 'was
the chief centre of sdentific activity in South Wales, those asso^
dated with its work including L. W. DiUwyn, James Motley,
Dr Gntch and J. E. Bicheno, all botanists, J. Gwyn Jeffreys,
conchologist, Sfa- W. R. Grove and the ist JahA. Swansea,
the last three being natives of the town.
The free library and art gallery of the corporation, a foam
storeyed building in Italian style erected in rSSj, contains the
library of the Rev. Rowland ll^lliams (one of the authors of
Bfsays and Reriews), the rich Welsh collection of the Rev. Robert
Jones of Rotherhithe, a smaU Dci.'onian section (presented by
the Swansea Devonian Sodety), and about 8000 volumes and
S500 prints and engravings, intended to be mutuaUy illustra-
tive, given by the Swansea portrait-painter and art odtie,
John DeSett Francis, from 1876 to x88i, to recdve whose first
gift the library was established in 1876. It also contains a
complete set of the patent office publications.
The grammar school founded in x68a by Hugh Gore (,i6i3r
x69x), bbhop of Waterford, is now carried on by the town oouncfl
under the Wd&h Intermediate Education Act of 1889, and
there is a similar school for girls. The technical college is also
carried on by the town councfl, the dud features of its
curriculum b^ig chemistry, metallurgy and engineering. A
training college for school-mistresses, established by the British
and Foreign School Sodety in 1872, was transferred to the
town councfl in xqoS.
The other public buikiings of the town include the gildhall
and law cooits^ in the Italian style with Corinthian pfllart and
pilasters, built m 1847 and Intematly remodelled in 1901 : a prison
(1839); a ime market hall (1830). rebuilt in 1897; a cattle market
and abattoin (1869) ; the Albert Hall for concerts and public meet-
' -- - the Roval Metal Exehanee (1897); harbour trust
a oentrai ^ost office (1901) and two theatres. The
istitutlons indude the seneml hospital, founded in
1817, re m owd to the present site in 1867, extended by the addition
of two wings Hi 1878 and of an eye depattment in 1890; a con*
valescent home for twenty patients from the hospital only (1903) ;
the Royal Cambrian Institutioa for the Deaf and Dumb, estab-
lished in 1847 at Aberystwyth, removed to Swansea in 1850, and
seveial times enlarKcd. so as ro have at present accommodation
for ninety^ieht pupib; the Swansea add Sooth Wales Indtiturioo
the^ Blind, established in r863 and now under the Board of
fori
Edocation; the Swansea and South Wales Nursing Institute (1873),
providing a home for nurses in the intervals of their emplo^ent;
a nursing institurion (1902) for nursittg the rick poor in their own
homes, afliKated with the Queen's Jubilee Institute of L.ondon:
the Sailors' Home (1864): a Saflors' Rest (1883); and a Misaioo to
Seamen's Institute (1904)-
The town p o s s es s es 103 acres of parks and open spaces, the chief
bdnc Uewdyn Park of 4j acres In the north of the town near Morris-
ton. Victoria Park (16 acres) and recreation ground (8 acres) abutting
00 the sands In the west, with the privately owned football field
between them. Cwmdonkin (1^ acres) commanding a fine panoramic
view of the bay, and Brynmtll (9 acres) with a disused reservoir
cons t ructed in 1837 and now converted into an ornaroenul lake.
Other features of these parks are a small tK>tanicaI garden in
Cwmdonkin, a good collectioo of waterfowl in Brynmill, and a small
aviary of the rarer British birds in Victoria Park, which also has a
with the ineteorok)gk:al oKem
l82
SWANSEA
and a lUtue of Mr William Thomas of Lan erected in 190$ in appre-
ciation of the work done by him in preservine and obtainmg " open
spaces" for Swansea. In the town itselt there are statues of
1. Henry Vivian and of his son Sir Henry Hussey Vivian (crested
Lord Swansea in 1893) each in his turn the " copper lung." The
corporation owns about 645 acres of land within the limits of the
ancient borough. This consists mainly of land acquired under an
Indosure Act of 1 761, but a small part u surplus land acquired
in 1876-1879 in connexion with an improvement scheme for dearing
a large insaniury area in the centre 01 the town.
The town is lighted with eas supplied by a gas company first
incorporated in 1830 and by dectricitv supplied by the corporation.
There is a good system of electrically worked tramways, 5i m.
being owned by a company and nearly 6 m. by the corporation,
but the whole worked by the company. The town obtains its chief
supply of water from moorlands situated on the Old Red Sandstone
formation in the valley of the Cray, a tributary of the Usk in Brecon*
shire where a reservoir of 1,000,000,000 gallons capacity has been
constructed at a cost of £547,759, under parliamentary powers
obtained in 1893, 1902 and 1905. The water (s brought to the town
in a conduit consisting of 33I m. of iron pipes and 3 m. of tunnel
into a service reservoir of 3.000,000 eallons capacity made on
the Town Hill at an elevation of 580 ft. above sea-level. There
is a farther supply obtained from three reservoirs of a combined
capacity of 513.000,000, constructed in 1866, 1874 and 1889 reraec-
tively in the Lliw and adjoining valleys, in the aiainage area of the
Loughor, about 10 m. to the north of Swansea.
Harbour and Commerce. — ^Swansea owes its commercial prosperity
to its great natural advantages as a harbour and its situation
within the South Wales coal basin, for the anthracite portion of
which it is the natural port of shipment. It b the most westerly
port of the Bristol Channel and the nearest to the open sea, only
3S m* from the natural harbour of refuge at Lundy. and there u
sheltered anchorage under the Mumbles Head at all states of the
tide.
The modem development of the port dates from about the^mtddle
of the 18th century when coal began to be extensively worked at
Llansamlet and copper smelting (begun at Swansea in I717> though
at Neath it dated from 1584) assumed large proportions. The coal
was conveyed to the works and for shipment to a wharf on the cast
bank, on the backs of mules and somewhat later by means of a
private canaL The common c^uay was on the west bank ; all ships
coming in had to lie in the nver bed or in a natural tidal basin
known as Fabian's Bay, on the east. Under an aa of 1791 harbour
trustees were appointed who cleared and deepened the river bed
and built a long pier on either side of it; in 1706 the approach to
the port was miule safer by means of an improved li|:ht on Mumbles
Head. A canal connecting the tidal part of the nver Neath with
the mouth of the Taw^. made in 1789. was in 1834 connected with
the Vale of Neath canal by means of an aqueduct across the Neath
river, when also a small dock. Port Tennant (so named after its owner)
or Salthouse Dock, was made near the east pier, and this continued
to be used till i88a Meanwhile in 1708 the whole coalfield of the
Swansea Valley was connected with the port by a canal 16^ m.
long (acquired by the Great Western railway in 1872). In 1851
the river was diverted eastward into a new channel (called the New
Cut) and its old channel was locked and floated, thereby forming
the North Dock with an area of 11} acres and a half-tide basin
$00 yards long covering 2\ acres. The Swansea Valley canal has
a connecting lock with this dock, and on the island between the
dock and the New Cut are patent fuel works, copper ore yards and
other mineral sheds and large grain stores and flour mills. The
South Dock, begun in 1847 under powers obtained that year by
& private company, transtcrred in 1857 to the harbour trustees
490 opened in 1859, is mainly used for shipping ooal and for dis-
charging timber and fish. Lyme parallel to the sea front and to the
west 01 the entrance channel m>m which it runs at right analcs,
it has an area of 13 acres with a half-tide basin of 4 acres and a lock
300 ft. long by 60 ft. wide. The next development was on the
east side of the river where the natural inlet of Fabian's Bay, inside
the harbour mouth, was utilized for the construction of the Prince
of Wales's Dock (authorized 1874, opened October 1881, extension
opened March 1898). Its total area is 27 acres, its quays are nearly
7000 ft. long, and it is connected with the Tennant canal. The very
rapkl increase in the demand for anthracite coal (for the shipment
of which Swansea has practicalty a monopoly) soon necessitated
■till further accommodation and m July 1904 was begun the Kina a
Dock, which lies farther east and nas an entrance direct from the
bay. By means of the embankment made in connexion with it,
400 acres were reclaimed from the sea. It has an area of 68 acres,
iu lock measures 875 ft. by 90 ft. and its quays 10.550 ft. long,
and it has a depth of 32 ft. of water, or inner cifl. The total dock
area of Swansea has thus been increased to about 147 acres wKh
a total len^h of quays exceeding 3 m. The harbour docks and
adjacent railways (which exceed 20 m.) are owned and administered
by a harbour trust of 26 members, of whom one is the owner of the
Briton Ferry estate (Earl Jersey). 4 represent the lord of the seigniory
of 0>wer (the duke of B>eaufort). 12 are proprietary members and
9 are elected annu<*' * ion of Swansea. Thetrueteee
are conservators -of. the river Taw^ and parts of SwwMea Re|f*
and the pilotage and lighthouse authority of the district. Tbqr
were incorporated by the Harbour Act ol 1854. There are 9 private
graving docks.
The toul exports (foreign and coastwise) from Swansea during
1907 amounted to 4,825,898 tons, of which coal and coke made up
3>655>050 tons; patent fuel. 679,002 tons; tin. terne and black
plates. 348,240 tons; iron and steel and their manufactures, 38,438
tons; various chemicals (mostly the by-products of the metal
industries), ^7.100 tons; copper, zinc and silver, 22.633 tons. Its
Imports during the same year amounted to 899,201 tons, including
I72j|3i9 tons of grain ana other ajsricultural produce, 156,620 toot
of firewood, 145.25} tons of pig-iron and manufactured iron and
steel, 47.201 tons of iron ore, 121,168 tons of copper, silver, lead,
tin and nickel with their onss and alloys, 63.009 tons of zinc, its
ores and albys, 41.029 tons of sulphur ore. phoephates and other
raw material for the chemical trade. The town (which is often
called '^ the metallurgical capital of Wales '*)' Is the chief seat of
the copper, spelter, tm-plate and patent fuel industries, and has
within a compass of 4 m. over 100 different works of 36 varieties
(exclusive of collieries) for the treatment or manufacture of copper,
gold, silver, lead, sulphate of copper, spelter, tinplates, sted and
iron, nickel and cobalt, yellow metal, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric
acid, creosote, alkali, galvanized sheets, patent fuel as well as engin-
eering works, iron foundries, large flour and provender mills, fuse
works and brick works. Copper^ smelting, which during most of
th~ '^"*~ ~entury was the chief industry, has not mainuined its
re' portance, though Swansea b still the chief seat of the
trs three-fourths of the tinplatcs manufactured in Great
Bi 1 nineteen-twentieths ci the spelter or zinc are made in
th a district, and its tube works are also the largest in the
kl While the bulk of the c6al is sent to France and the
M lean ports, an increasing quantity of anthracite is shipped
to Ormany. and. in sailing vessels to the Pacific ports of America,
patent fuel is largely sent to South America, whence return cargoes
of mineral ores and grain 'are obtained, while <3ermany, France,
Italy. Rumania, the United Sutes and the Far East are the chief
customers for tinplates. Over one hundred fishing-smacks and
trawlers usually land their catches at the south dock, whoe there
is a flourishing fish-market. There b also a large i^ factory.
From 1535 to 183 a (with the exception of 1658-1659) Swaasea
was associated with the other boroughs of Glaraorgao in lending
one representative to Parliament. In 1658 Cromwell gave the
town the right of separately returning a member of its own,
but this right lapsed with the Restoration. In 1831 St John's,
St Thomas and parts of the parishes of LUnsamlet and Llangy-
fclach were added to the parliamentary borough of Swansea,
to which along with the boroughs of Neath, Aberavon, Keafig
and Loughor a separate representative was given. In 1836
the municipal borough was made coextensive with the par-
liamentary borough and continued so till 1868. when some
further small additions were made to the latter, with which the
municipal borough was once more made co-extensive in 1889.
Meanwhile in 1885 the pariiamentaiy constityency was'm»de
into two divisions with a member each, namely Swansea Tofwn
consisting of the original borough with St Thomas's, and Swan-
sea District consisting of the remainder of the borough with the
four contributory boroughs. In 1888 Swansea was made a
county borough and in 1900 the various parishes constituting
it were consolidated into the dvil parish of Swansea. Its
total area is s 194 acres. The corporation consists of 10 aldermen
and 30 councillors. The assizes and quarter sessions for Gla-
morgan are held at Swansea alternately with Cardiff. Th»
borough has a separate conunission o£ the peace, and, since
1 89 1, a court of quarter sessions.
The population of the old borough was 6099 in 1801 and
13,256 in 1831; after the fint extension it amounted to 24,604
in 1841. The population in 1901 was 94,537. Of those who were
three years of age and upwards, nearly 67% were returned as
speaking English only, 29% as speaking both English and Welsh»
sind 3I % as speaking Welsh only.
History.— lio traces of any Roman settlement have been
discovered at Swansea, though there seems to have been a
small one at Oystermouth, 5 m. to the sonth, and the Via
J.ulia from Nidum (Neath) to Loughor probably passc4 through
the northern part of the present borough where a large quantity
of Roman coins was found in 1835. Tlie name Swansea stands
for Sweyn's " ey " or inlet, and may have been derived from King
Sweyn Forkbeard, who certainly visited the Bristol Channel
SWANWICK.-^WARTZ
and may kftve esUbUslKd a small settlement at the estoary
of the Tawi. The earliest known lona of the name is Swey-
oesse, which occurs in a charter granted by William earl of
Warwick some time previous to 1x84; in Kin% John's charter
(121 5) it appears as Sweyneshe, and in the town seal, the origin
of which is supposed to date from about the same period, it
n given as " Sweyse." An attempt has been made to derive
the name from Scin Menydd, the Welsh name of a Cower castle
which has been plausibly identified with the first castle built
at Swansea, but that derivation is etymologically impossible.
The Welsh name, Aber Tawy, first appears in Welsh poems of
the beginning ol the xjth century. The town grew up round
the castle which Henry de Beauchamp (or ficaurooot) on his
conquest of Cower about Z099, built on the west bank of the
river. The castle passed with the lordship or seigniory of
Cower, of which it was the caput, into the hands oi the De
Braose family in 1203 (by grant from King John) and eventually
it came by marriage to the Somersets and is still held by the
iukes of Beaufort, whose title of barons de Cower dates from
1506. The castle was frequently attacked and on several
sccaskms more or less demolished, in the 12th and 13th cen-
turies by the Welsh under the princes of Dynevor. It was
visited by King Jcdm in 12x0 and probably by Edward II. in
1326, for, after Us capture, the chancery rolls were found de-
posited in the castle and were thence removed to Hereford.
It was finally destroyed by Clendower, was a " ruinous build*
ing " when seen by Leland (1536) and has since wholly disap-
peared. In the Civil War the town was royalist till the «autumn
ol 164s when Colonel Philip Jones, a native of the adjoining
pariah of Llangyfelach and subsequently a member of Crom-
well's upper bouse, was made its governor. Cromwell stayed
in the town in May x<48j uid July 1649, on his way to Pembroke
and Ireland respectively, and later showed it exceptional favour
by pving it a liberal charter and parliamentary representation.
The town claimed to be a borough by prescription, for its
only known charters of incorporation are those of Cromwell
and James II., which were never acted upon. It probably
received iu first grant of municipal privileges from William
3rd carl of Warwick some time before 1X&4. By' a charter of
1215 (confirmed by Henry II. in 1234, by Edward II. in 13x2
and Edward UI. in 1332), John himself granted the burgesses
the right of trading, free of all customs due, throughout the
whole kingdom (except m London), a right which was pre->
viously limited to the seigniory. By 1305 the burgesses had
become so poweriul as to wring a most liberal grant of privileges
from their then seigneur William de Braose (fourth in descent
from his namesake to whom. Cower was granted by King John
in iao3), and he bound himself to pay £500 to the king and 500
marks to any burgess in the event of his Infringing any of the
rights contained in it. By this charter the burgesses acquired
the ri^ of mminating annually two of their number for the
office of porueeve so that the lord's steward might select one
of tliem to exercise the office, an arrangement which continued
tin 183s; the baHiff's functions were defined and curtailed, and
the lord's chancery was to be continually kept open for all
requiring writs, and in Gowex^-not wherever the lord might
happen to be. A patent of murage and pavage-^from which
it may probably be inferred that Swansea was a waUed towit—
was granted by Edward U. In 1317 and another by Edward
in. in X338. Cromwell's charter of 1655, though reciting that
** time out of mind " Swansea had been " a town corporate,"
I n ui qwr a ted it anew, and changed the title of portreeve into
mayor, in whom, with twelve aldermen and twelve capital
bargcKes, it vested the government of the town. The mayor,
ea-mayor and one selected alderman were to be |nsUcos of the
peace with exclusive jurisdiction and the mayor was the coroner.
Four annual fairs were appointed, namely on the 8th of May,
md of July, 15th of August and 8ih of October— the first, how-
ever, being the only new one. In 1658 the protector by another
charter granted the town independent representation in par*
lament. At the Restoration, Cromweirs charters lapsed, but
ki 1685 James TI. granted another charier which contained the
arbitiary proviso that the king by ondor In ooundl might
remove any officer or iQembers of the corporation. This charter
was not adopted by the burgesses.
De Braose's charter of 1303 bean some evidence to the im»
portance of the shipping of Swansea even at that date, for
by it there was granted or confirmed to the burgesses the right
to take from the lord's woods sufficient timber to mdce four
great ships at a time and as many small veiseb as they wished.
Coal was even then worked in the district. Cromwell in his
charter of 165s recognised Swansea as " an ancient port town
and populous, situate on the sea coast towards France oonve*>
nieqt for shippmg and resisting foreign invasions." Its statna
was on^ that of a "creek" in the port of Cardiff till 16851
when it was made an independent port with jurisdiction over
Ne?rton (now Porthcawl), Neath or Briton Ferry and South
Buny, it| limits being defined in 1847 ** extending from Nash
Point on the east to Whitford Point on the west, but in 1904
Port Talbot, which waa included in this area, waa made into a
sqMurate port.
From about 1768 to 1850 Swansea had a somewhat famoua
pottery. Beginning with earthenware which twenty years
later was improved into "opaque china," it produced from
18x4 to 1823 si^erior porcelain which was beautifully decorated
with landscapes, birds, butterilies and flowers and is much prixed
by conno i sseurs. • During a short period (1845-1850) an imita-
tion of Etruscan wara was also produced with figures of rick
red cokNir over a body of Uack.
See Lewis W. Dillwyn. OnUnbutiam kmcfis BisttrypfSmautm
fl840); Coloael G. Graot-Fnocia, Ckarters GramUd U Smosses
(1867), and The SwuUint ^ Copper in Ike Swansea Distrid (and ed,
1681): S. C. Gamwell. A Gmie to Swatuea and District (1680):
Lieut^Colond W. IX Moigan, ILE., An Antipurion ^Wwv tf
EastGomtr, (D.LL.T.)
SWANWIGK, AKVA (18x3-1899), English writer and phihtn-
thropist, was the yotmgest daughter of John Swanwick. of
Liverpool, and waa bom on the 22nd of June 18x3. She wai
educated partly at home and partly at one of the ^shionahle
boarding-scboob of the day, where she received the usual edu-
cation of accomplishments. Dissatisfied with her own intel-
lectual attainments she went In 1839 to Berlin, where she took
lessons In German, Greek and Hebrew. On her return to
London she continued these pursuits, along frith the study of
mathematics. In X843 appealed her film volume of translations,
Selections from the Dramas of Goethe and Sddiler, In 1847 she
published a transition of Schiller's Junffrau son Orleans;
this was followed in 1850 by Foiuf, Tasso^ Iphigenie and Efmont.
In 1878 she published a complete translation of both parts of
Faust, which appeared with Retsch's illustrations. It passed
through several editions, was mduded In Bohn's series of trans-
lations, and ranks aa a standard work. It was at the sug-
gestion of Baron Bunsen that she first tried her hand at trans-
htion from the Greek. In 1865 she published a bUnk verse
translation of Aeschylus's TrUogjt and b 1873, a complete
edition of Aeschylus, whidi appored with Flazman's Ulus-
tntions. Miss Swanwick is chiefly known by her translations,
but she also published some original work. In 1886 appeared
Boohs, onr Best Friends and Deadliest Foes; In 1888, An Utopian
Dream and Bow it may be Xealised; in 1892, Foets^ Ote Inter-
preters of their Ate; and in 1894, EpolnHon and the Religion
of the Future. Miss Swanwick was Interested in many of the
soda] and philanthropic movements of her day. In t86x she
signed John Stuart Mill's pctltkm to parliament for the political
enfranchisement of women. She helped in the higher educatkm
movement, took part in the fonndatlon of Queen's and Bedford
Colleges, and continued to take a sympathetic interest in the
movement which led to the opening of the universities to women.
Her work was acknowledged by the unlveisity of. Aberdeen,
which bestowed on her (he degree of HLJ), She died itt
November 1899.
See Memoir, by Miss Bmce (1904). •
iWAB1Z» OLOP (1760-18x8), Swedfah botanist, was bom
in 176a He commcnoed his botanical studieain Upaala, under
s8^
SWAT-SWAZILAND
Linnaeus and T1ran!)erg, abd began cariy to make ezcuzsions.
He aiade a voyage to America in X7S3, visited England in 1788,
returned to Sweden in 1789, and was made jnofessorof natural
history in Stockholm. He was the author of many systematic
works, and largely extended our knowledge of both flowering
plants and cryptogams. He died in z8x8.
SWAT, a tract on the Peshawar border of the North-West
Frontier Province of India, consisting of the valley of the Swat
river above its confluence with the Panjkora. This valley is
some 70 m. long, varying from xo m. to a few hundred yards
in breadth; it is intersected by ravines and glens, which
bring down the drainage of the ranges on either side. Only
that portion of the valley which lies beyond the Peshawar
frontier hOls, and which is reached by the Malakand, the
Shahkot and other passes from the south, is Swat. To the east
are the independent hill tracts of Kohistan and Buner, all
bordering the Indus, and to the wes( are Dtr and Bajour.
' The 9wat river rises among snow mountains m the Kohistan,
not far from the source of the Gilgit river. After flowing due
south for nearly 70 m., it turns to the west and is joined by the
Panjkora. It then passes through the Mohmand country,
and on entering Peshawar district spreads out to the south-
east in many channels which ultimately fall into the Kabul
jriver. Total length about 400 m. In British territory its
waters have been utilised by a series of canals to irrigate an
area of about x6o,ooo acres; and the system is now. being extended
by means of a tunnel through the Malakand range, which will
Up the river much higher up.
Swat was better known to the ancients, and to the warriors of
Baber's time, than it was to us until the frontier risings of
1895-97 gave British surveyors the opportunity of visiting the
country. ' The ancient name of the river was Suastos, and that of
the Panjkora,.vas Ghoura, under whidi names they figure in the
history of Alexander's campaign. The site of the dty Massaga,
the capital of the Assakeoi, is supposed to be near the modem
Manglaur. But since the adoption of the Khyber as the main
hifh road from Kabul to India the Swat routes had passed
into oblivion. Only the lower portion of the Swat valley,
where the river intervenes between Malakand and the passes
leading to Dir from the Panjkora, is of military significance.
The upper valley is closely gripped between mountain spurs
stretching southwards from the Hincjiu Koh, rising to 15,000 ft.
on one side and 19,000 ft. on the other, leaving but a narrow
space between their rugged summits and the banks of the river.
The valley, narrow though it is, and traversed by the worst
conceivable type of bill tracks, contains ooany villages or hamlets,
and is pretty thickly populated. The district has come into
prominence of recent years, on account of its lying on Uie direa
road to ChitraL
The Swatis axe a daix of Yusafzai Pathans numbering
40,000 fighting men but are of weakly and thin physique, due to
the malaria with which the valley is saturated. They are
divided into three main clans, the Baizais, Ranizais and Khwaz-
ocais. They had not much name for valour, but they opposed a
stout resistauce to Sir Robert Low's advance over the Malakand
Pass in X895 to the relief of Chitral; and again in 1897, imder the
influence of fanaticism, they showed desperate bravexy in the
attack on the Malakand Fort and Chakdara. They ai« all Suni
Mahommedans, and have earned the reputation of being the
most bigoted of all the Afghan tribes. For many years they
were under the religious dominance of the Akbiud of Swat,
Abdul Gbalur,who, bom in 1794, obtained ascendancy by means
of bis axetic practices, ruled practically undisputed in Swat
for the last 30 years of his life, and died in 1S77. The Akhund,
after his experience of the British strength in the Umbeyla
Campaign^ol 1863, always exerted bis influence in favour of
peace witlT the British govcnmient, though in his earUer days
he was sometimes troublesome. He was succeeded by his
son. Mian Gul, who never possessed tba same influence as his
father.
^W (also Sjum^UHD), a port of China, xft the provfncc
ung, opobed to forHgn trade io 1869. The population
is upwards of 60,000. The town !s sfttiated at the wmCJH of
the main branch of the river Han, whidi 30 miles inland flows
past the great dty of Ch'aochow Fu or Tai-dm (Tle^u).
while the surrounding country is more populous and full of
towns and villages than any other part of the provmoe. The
climate is good, but being situated at the southern end of the
Formosa Strait the town is exposed to the full force of the
typhoons, and much destruction is occasionally wrought.
English merchants settled on Double Island in the river as early
as 1856; but the dty, whidi is built on ground but recently
recovered from the sea, was formerly a mere fishing village.
The trade of the port has rapidly incxtased. In 1869 the total
value of the trade was £4,^,000, in 1884 £5,5x9,772, and in
X904 £7t063,579. The surrounding country is a grtat sugar-
cane district piodudng aimually about 2,400,000 cwt. of sugar,
and there is an extensive refinexy in the town employing up-
wards of 600 workmen and possessing a reservoir for 7,000,000
gallons of water. Next in value comes the manufacture of
bean-cake, which is also imported in large quantities from Niu-
chwang, Chifu, Shanghai, Amoy and Hong-Kong. Among
the leading exports are tea (since about X872); grass-doth,
manufactured at Swatow from so-called Taiwan hemp (the
fibre of the Botkmeria nivea fxom Formosa); pine-apple doth,
manufactured in the villages about Chieh-Yang (a town 22 m.
distant); oranges, for whidi the district is famous; cheap fans;
and pewter, iron and tin wares. Swatow is also a great emi-
gration port and was the scene of many kidnapping adventures
on the part of foreigners in the early days. Their outrages
gave rise to much hostOe feelmg towards foreigners who were
not allowed to enter the dty of Ch'aochow Fu until the year
x86x. Of the whole foreign trade of the port upwards of 83%
is in British bottoms, the trade with Hong-Kong being of
espedal importance.
About X865 the whole Swatow district was still divided into a
number of " independent townships, each ruled by its own head-
men," and the population was described in the official gazetteer,
as "generally rebellious and wicked in the highest degree."
Mr Forrest, British consular agent, relates that in that year he
was witness to the preparations for a fight between the people
living on the opposite sides of the estuary, which was only pre-
vented by a British war-vessd. The Taipfngs swept over the
country, and by their ravages and plundexing did mudi to
tame the independence of the clans. The puni^ment hiflicted
in 1869 by Commander Jones on the inhabitants of Otingpui
(Ou-ting-pd), about 8 m. ftom Swatow, for the attack they
had made on the boats of H.M.S. "Cockchafer," showed the
Chinese authorities that such piratical villages were not so
strong as had been supposed. General Fang (a native of
Ch'aocbow Fu) was sent to reduce. the district to order, and he
carried out his instructions with remorseless rigour.
SWAZHiAND (native name Pungwane), a country of British
South Africa bounded S., W. and N. by the Transvaal, E. by
the Portuguese possessions at Ddagoa Bay and the Ingwavuma
division of Zululand. It lies between the Brakensberg and
Lebombo Mountams and is separated from the Indkn Ocean
by low land varying in width from 30 to 50 m. It has an
area of 6536 sq. m. (being somewhat larger than Yorkshire)
and a population (1904), of 85484, of whom 898 were whites.
The xiatives are nearly all Ama-Swazi Bantus, commonly called
Swazis, and are dosdy allied to the Zulus.
Spurs from the Drskenrixn occupy a large part of Che ooimtry,
wbkb mav be divided into ihrce parallel belts running north and
bouth. The western bdt has an average altitude' of about 4500 (t..
and IB known as the high veld. It is succeeded by the middle vdd
—not more than awo ft. above the sea, and that by the low veld—
teoo ft. high, whidi foaches to the foot of the Lebombo Mountains.
These are flat-topped, oowhare higher than aooo ft. The country
is well watered by numerous rivers, all of which diacbarge into
Ddagoa Bay. The central and aoutbem parts are drained by the
Usutu and other tributaries of the Maputa; the northern region
by the Koraati {qjB.) and the' Umbebri. The Umbelori has two
chief hcadstreams, the Black and the White Umbekm, the Whtu
bmnchbdng the more southeriy. Thedimatc is warm but healthy
save m some of the river valleys. The flora and fauna differ in no
SWAZILAND
185
J regions of tin TBMMTAiO.
Imot those avticlei).
Tammi and C«mmumkaiiims,—'thit aeat o( the administration
is Emtttbaan (MlM»t)aiie), a town on a northern tributary of the
Usutn 4300 ft. above the sea« 40 m. sonth of Barberton arid 160 m.
cast otJohaanedMirv. It veplaoed (1904) the fonner capital of
Bcemersdorp situated in the middle veld 33 m. south-east o(
Embabaan, and destroyed by Boer forcea during the war of 1899-
1903. Pigg's Peak and Forbes Reef are mining settlements in
nmthern Swaziland. Hlatikulu, the chief place in southern Swazi-
land, is built on a plateau about 3000 ft. ahove the sea. Zombodi.
the pnndpal native losal. Uea about 18 n. east of Embabaan.
A naway from U>uren90 Marques, 47 »• lonSt runs through
Portuguese territory to the Swaxiland border at Umbelozi Poort.
This Une is the eastern link in the direct railway connexion de-
■fned betwteen Johannesburg and OeiagDa Bay. From Johannes-
burg the line runs eastward past Springs arid had reached Breyten
(143 m.) in 1907. A number of guod roads have been constructed.
There is telegraphic oonneidon with the TransvaaL
Industries and Trade. — ^The soil is generalty fertile. On the high
veld, where green herbage is found all the year round, laige numbers
<ii sheep and cattk are pastaied. This region serves as a winter
giaain« ground for sheep from the Transvaal. The middle veld
u suitable for grain crops as wdl as bananas, sugar, coffee, tea and
other semi-tropical imxiuce. Millet, maize, pumpkins and ground-
nuts are extensively cultivated. On the low veld cotton b grown.
Some species of the cbCton plant are indigenous.
Besides agriculture the only considerable industries are gold,
tin and coal mining. The goldfields. ntuated in the north-western
part of the country, are a continuation of the De Kaap (Barberton)
Fslds. The auriferous region is stated to be about 25 sq. m. in
esteot. Uptotbeoutbreakof theAnido-BoerWarin i899tBevatu«
cf the gold exported from Swaziland was about £330.000^ Gold
(rioing re-started on a small scale in 1904. The output for IQ06-
1908 was valued at lAOfiOO. Alluvial 'tin mining u carried on
euocesafutly in the neignbourhood of Embadaan, casniterite to the
v^lue of £46.000 being exported in 1005-1907. The output for
1906-1909 was valued at £36.ooa Anthiaotp coal of a good
quality is found over a large area of the low vdd. Copper is also
found. All mining b earned on under concesdons. Imports are
dtiefly food-stnffs and cotton goods; they were valued in 1906 at
£38,000 and in 1909 at £47.000. Up to 1906 no statistics of the
trade of the country were kept. Trade b with the Transvaal and
Delagoa Bay. "the abolition of monopolies in 1904 (see below
Ristcry) gave an impetus to trade. Up to that date some £4,000.000
of fofcsgn capital had been sunk in the country with very little
A large number of Swaais find employment in the Rand
goldi
AdmiKtitrafum, fire— Swaziland forms a crown colony under the
govcmmeat of ibc Hieh Commissioner for South ATrica. It is
admiiustenBd by a resident commissioner. Legislation Is by ordin-
ance. Roman-Dutch common law prevaib except when modified by
statute, the laws of the Transvaal being in force as far as appUcafale
to the country. Native laws and customs are generally respected
and the chiefs exercise civil jurisdiction over their tribesmen,
subiect to appeal to the rcaocnt commissioner's court. There
m a special court to deal with serious civil and criminal cases in
which Eoropeans are concerned. Order b maintained by a special
potice force. Education b mainlj dependent on the efforts of
missionary societies, but the administration has a few schools.
Revenue b derived chiefly from a poll-tax on natives of £1 per
aaoam. coocea^on rents, royalties and customs. For the penod
19(^-1909 the rerenue-'apBrt from bans — was about £40,000 a
year, the normal expenditure being approximately the same amount.
Since 1904 considerable sums (e.g. £A9^ooo in 1909) have been spent
by the aoministration on the expropriation of monopolies. Swari-
faad is a member of .the South ^rican Customs Union (see South
AnucA).
Htftory'-^Amt-Swaci tribes are believtd to have occupied
the country now known as Swaaknd from the period of the
invaaon of South East Africa by the Bantu peoples^ They
were fonncriy called Ba-Rapuza or Barabuza after a chief
tmdcr whom in the i8th century they acquired boraogeDcity.
In ibc euly part of the X9tb century they fell under the dominion
of the newly constituted Zulu nation. In 1843, the year hi
which the British annexed Natal and with it a part of the country
hitherto ruled by the Zulus, the Barabuza, under a chief named
Swaxi, took advauta^ of the comparative weakness of the
Zulu power, achieved independence and founded the present
state. According to Kaffir custom they adopted the name of
their deliverer. The Boers of the Transvaal were then begin-
ning to occupy the regions adjacent to Swaziland and in 1855
the Swaris in order to get a strip of territoty between themselves
aad the ZuluS) whose power they still dreaded, ceded to the
Boers the narrow strip of land north of the Pongola river now
known as the Vki RetSef district. The Zuka under Cety wayo
claimed the ceded district as theirs and the Swazis as their
subjects and for over ten ytaas no .white farmers were able to
settle m the dbtrict. With the Boers the Swans remained on
friendly terms and- this frnndship was extended to the British
on the occupation of the Ttansvaal in 1877. In 1879 ^ty
joined the British m the attack on' the Bapedi chief Sikukuni,
whom they looked upon as an ally of the Zulus.
They captured from Sikukuni certain "rain medidne,"
the possession of which has since greatly increased the prestige
of the paAmount chief of the Swazis among the Kaffirs of South
Africa. On the retrocession of the Transvaal in x88i the in-
dependence of the Swaas was recognized by the Boers and the
Pretoria convention of that year defined the boundaries of the
country. By the London- convention of 1884 the Transvaal
again recognized the independence of Swaziland. Immediately
afterwards, however, the Boers began a series of efforts to obtain
control of the country. In x886 the governor of Natal received
a paper from tJmbandfne (Mbandini), the paramount chief
of the Swazis, stating that Piet Joubert had called on him and
requested hfan to sign a paper saying that " he and all the
Svzih agreed to go over and recognize the authority of the
Boer government, and have nothing more to do with the Eng-
ibh." On hb refusal the Boers replied to hun« "Why do yoii
refuse to siign the paper? You know we defeated the English
at Majuba." The Boers further added that if the Swazb were
relying on the British, they were leaning on a broken reed,
and would find themselves left in the lurch. Umbandine
followed up this communication with a request for British
protection, but without result. Later on, in 1887, both Boers
and gold prospectors of aO nationalities were overrunning his
cotmtry, and Umbandine asked for a British resident. This
request was also refused. The Boers now determined to adopt
towards Swaziknd the poh'cy which had proved so successful
in Zululand. A colony of Boers settled within the Swazi
territories and proclaimed "The Little Free Slate." Umban-
dine was then at length induced to ask the Transvaal for annex-
ation. The Transvaal applied in 1889 to Great Britain fot
permission to accede to this request, but the British government
replied that the only intervention to which they would consent
mtist be a dual one. Consequently a joint commission was
appointed to visit Swaziland and report on the condition of
things there. Sir Francis de Winton, the British commissioner,
who was accompanied by Generals Joubert and Smit on behalf
of the Transvaal, reported that Umbandine had already granted
concessions^ such as " postal, telegraphic, banking, customs/'&c,
to the Transvaal, and concessions of 'land mining and grazing
rights to various adventurers. Umbandine had in short granted
concessions of every conceivable character, including exemption
from taxation; A charter of self-government had also been
granted (1888) to the whites in the country. In the circum-
stances de Winton considered a British protectorate inadvisable
and impracticable. A dual control was arranged in 1890, but the.
convention then signed proved abortive owing to the objection
of the Transvaal to join the South African Customs Union.
In 1893 a further conference on the Swazi question took place
between Sir Henry Loch, high commissioner for South Africa,
and President Kruger, the result of which was that the admin-
istration of Swaziland, with certain reservations as to the rights
of the natives, was made over to the South African Republic.
In the following year six Swazi envoys visited England for the
purpose of asking Queen Victoria to take Swaziland under her
protection. In view, however, of the arrangement come to,
this petition had to be refused. In 1894 a convention was
signed between Great Britain and the TVansvaal, and the Boers.
in spite of the Swad opposition, assumed administration of
the country. ' The Boers' object in intriguing to acquire Swazi-
land was not merely that of obtaining that countiy. They
desired also to annex the coast lands to its east and thus obtain—
at Kosi Bay--a seaport of their own. This object they might
have attained if they had agreed to de Winton's proposals,
but Great Britain in view of the increasingly hostile attitude
iS6
SWEARING— SWEATING-SICKNESS
assumed by the Truisvaal goveiximent now intervened and by
unn^Ting in i8g5 Amalonga^nd, the region in question, blocked
the Boers' further progress towards the sea (see South Afuca;
History).
Swaziland sufiFered during the struggle between the Transvaal
and Great Britain as to its destiny. Umbandine died in 18S9
and had various successors. Ubanu, installed by the Boers
as paramount chief in 1894^ was a sanguinary despot and was
compelled to 'flee in 1898. The principal personage in the
country after Umbandine's death was, however, his widow Naba
Tsibeni, known to Europeans as the queen regent. •She more
than once appealed to the British to cause the Boers to respect
the terms of the conventions, and before the outbreak of the
Anglo-Boer war in 1899 she took the side of the British. On
the annexation of the IVansvaal in kgoi the queen regent asked
that Swaziland might be annexed also. On the cessation of
hostilities a British special commissioner was sent into the
country — then in a condition bordering on anarchy — and a pro-
visional administration established. In June 1903 an order in
council formally conferred the government of the country on the
governor of the Transvaal (then Lord Milner). Lord Alilncr
visited Swaziland in July 1904 and denounced " the abominable
network of concessions " in which the country was entangled.
On the 3rd of October following the governor issued a pro-
clamation providing further for the administration, and for the
expropriation of the concessions other than those relating to
land and minerals. In September 1906 Lord Selbome, who had
succeeded Lord Milner, conferred with the queen regent and
her councillors on questions specially affecting the natives.
A lad named Sobhuza, bom about 1898, was selected as para-
mount chief, Naba Tsibeni, his grandmother, being confirmed
as regent during his minority. In December 1906 the control
of Swaziland was severed from the governorship of the Transvaal
and transferred to the High Commissioner for South Africa,
and in March 1907 a resident commissioner was appointed.
When the Union of South Africa was established in 1910,
Swaziland, with other native territories, remained under direct
Imperial controL
See A. M. Miller. " Swaziland." in Jmn, Roy, Cel. Tnst. (1900).
vol. xxzi., and "Swaziland: its agricultural and pastoral future/'
in Transvaal Arricultural Journ., vol. iv. (1906); T. R. Jones,
"Notes on the Geoloey of West Swaziland" in Geol. Mag. (1899),
vol. vi. Colonial o&ce reports on the country have been issued
annually since 1908. Consult also the Cohniol Q/M List issued
yearly. In it are cited the Blue Books dealing with Swaziland.
For history see also Transvaal: BiUiogmphy.
tA.P.H.;F.R.C.)
8WEABIKG (0. Eng. swerian, to swear, originally to speak
aloud, cf. andsioaiant to answer, Ger. schwdren^ Dan. jMer^e,
&c., aU from root juvr-, to make a sound, cf. " swarm," pro-
periy the buzzing of bees, Lat. susurrus\ the affirmation or utter-
ing of a solemn declaration with an appeal to the Deity, somcr
holy personage or sacred object as 4X)nfirmation, hence the act
of declaring the truth of a statement upon oath (see Oath and
Evidence). The common use of the word is for the uttering
of profane oaths or curses. In English law, while blasphemy
iq.v.) was at common law an indictaUe offence, cursing or
swearing was left to the ecclesiastical courts. The Profane
Oaths Act 1745 inflicted a sliding scale of fines for the use of
profane oaths according to the rank of the offender, xs. for a
common labourer, soldier or seaman, as. for everyone below
the rank of gentleman and 5S. for those of or above that rank;
procedure under this act is regulated by the Summary Juris-
diction Acts. By & 8 of the Town Police Clauses Act 1847
the use of profane or obscene language is an offence punishable
on summary conviction by a fine not exceeding 408. or im-
prisonment not exceeding 14 days. The 6ffcnce must be com-
mitted in a street and the act is confined to urban sanitary
districts or to such rural districts to which s. 276 of the Public
Health Act 1875 has extended it. By s. 12 of the Metropolitan
Police Court Acts 1839 a similar offence is pimishable in the
metropolitan police area, and various districts have put in force
by-bws for punishing swearing, cursing, or causing annoyance
in public placets The Rstiiction as to the plan where the
offence must be committed to be UaUe to punishment has led
to the enforcement on occasions of the Profane Oaths Act,
which apphes to the whole of England and Wales and is not
bmited to cursing in the streets. It should not, however,
apply to obscene language.
SWEATING-SICKNESS. A remarkable form of disease,
not known in England before, attracted attention at the very
beginning of the reign of Henry VII. Jt was known indeed a
few days after the landing of Henry at Milford Haven on the
7th of August X485, as there is clear evidence of its being
spoken of before the battle of Bosworth on the 22nd of
August. Soon after the arrival of Henry in London on the
38th of August it broke out in th» capital, and caused
great mortality. This alarming malady soon became known
as the sweating-sickness. It was regarded as being quite
distinct from the plague, the pestilential fever or other
epidemics previously known, not only by the special symptoiq
which gave it its name, but also by its extremdy rapid and fata]
course.
From X485 nothing more was heard of it till 1507, when' the
second outbreak occurred, which was much less falsi than the
first. In X517 was a third and much more severe epidemic.
In Oxford and Cambridge it was very fatal, as well as in other
towns, where in some cases half the population are said to have
perished. There is evidence of the disease having q[>read to
Calais and Antwerp, but with these exceptions it was confined
to England.
In X528 the disease recurred for the fourth time, and with
great severity. It first showed itself in London at the end of
May, and speedily spread over the whole of England, though
not into Scotland or Ireland. In London the mortality was
very great; the court was broken up, and Henry VIII. left
London, frequently changing his residence. The moat remark-
able fact about this epidemic is that it spread over the
Continent, suddenly appearing at Hamburg, and spreading
so rapidly that in a few weeks more than a thousand persons
died. Thus was the terrible sweating-aickness started on a
destructive course, during which it caused fearful mortali^
throughout eastern Europe. France, Italy and the southern
countries were spared. It spread much in the same way as
cholera, passing, in one direction, from north to south, arriving
at Switzerland in December, in another northwards to Denmark,
Sweden and Norway, also eastwards to Lithuania, Poland and
Russia, and westwards to Flanders and Holland, unless indeed
the epidemic, which declared itself simultaneou^y at Antwerp
and Amsterdam on the morning of the 97th of Se pt ember,
came from England direct. In ^ch place which it affected H
prevailed for a short time only — generally not more than a
fortnight. By the end of the year it had entirely disappeared,
except in eastern Switzerland, where it lingered into the acKt
year;^ and the terrible " En^ish sweat " has never appeared
again, at least in the same form, on the Continent.
England was, however, destined to suffer from one more out-
break of the disease, which occurred in xS5x, and with regard
to this we have the great advantage of an account by an eye-
witness, John Kaye or Caius, the eminent physician.
Sym^oms. — ^The symptoms as described by Caius and others
were as follows. The disease b^pm very suddenly with a sense of
Efaension, followed by cold shivers (aoroetimes very violent),
less, head&che and severe pains in the neck, shoulders and
, with great prostration. After the cold staupe, which niight
last from half-«n-bour to three houfs, followed the sksfe of beat
and sweatine. The chancteristic sweat broke out suddenly, and.
as it seemed to those accustomed to the diiease, without any
obvious cause. With the sweat, or after tiiat was jsouttd out.
came a sense of heat, and with this headache and delirium, lapid
pulse and intense thirst. PalfMtation and pain in the heart were
frequent symptoms. No eruption of any kind on the skin waa
ccneratly observed; Caius maices no allusion to such a symptom.
In the later stages there was either general prostration and collapse,
or an irreststibw tendency to deep, which was thought to be fatal
if the patient were permitted to give way to it. Toe malady was
* Ouggenb&hl. Dv €Htliuh$ Sckmeiu im der SekmetM (lichtcnsteig^
1838)-
SWEATING SYSTEM
187
ttwMntXmy ispU in iCs coww* btiH y
its died
^ _ _ _ ^ * fcrtil wen ui two
or three lkoim,'and MMoe patinits died in km than that tine. More
cmnaualy it was pro te cted to a period of twelve to twenty-four
hours, beyond whkh it rarely bated. Thoee who survived for
tventy-four hours were considered safe.
The disease, tmltke the plam, was not especially fatal to the
poor, Imt rather, as Cains affirms, attBcloed the ncher sort and
those who were free livers accordiiw to the custom of England in
those days. **They which had this sweat sore with peril of death
vere citlier men of wealth, ease or welfare, or of the pooier sort,
such as were idle pemns, good ale drinkers and taveme haunters."
Cs«se&.— Some attributed the disease to the English dimate, its
Ddstnre and its foes, or to the intemperate habits of the English
people, and to the Irijiihtful want of cleanliness in their houses and
sorroondings which is noticed by Erasmus in a well-known passage,
and about wUch Cains b equally explicit But we must conclude
that dimate, season, and manner of life were not adequate, either
sepasately or oollectivdy, to produce the disease, thouch each may
haw acted sometimes as a predisposing cause. The sweating-
F^^Tf was in fact, to ose modem language, a specific infective
diaeaae. in the same sense as plMue, typhus, scarlatina 6r malaria.
The only disease of modem times wnich bears any resemblance
to the sweating-sickness is that known as titiUaryft»er (" Schweiss-
friesd." '* snette miliaiie " or the " Picasdy sweat '0, a malady which
ha* been repeatedly, obaervcd in France, Italy and southern
Germany, but not in the United Kingdom. It is characterised by
intense sweating, and occurs in Hmited efMderaics, not lasting in
each place more than a week or two (at least in an intense form).
On tae other hand, the attack huts longer than the sweating-sickness
did, is always accompanied by eruption of vesicles, and is not
usually fataL The first clearly described epidemic was in 17 18
(though probably it existed before), and the last fat 1861. Between
these dates some one hundred and seventy-five epidemics have been
counted in France alone.
AttmoMTiES.— For hlstonr see Bacon's Ijfr vf Hemry VII.,
afMl the chronicles of Grafton, Holinshed, Baker. Fabyan, Ac.
The only English medical account is that of John Calus, who wrote
b Bngfash A Boke or CounseUt Agoinsl the Disease commonly aUted
Hht Sweato, or SwaUint Sieknesu (London, 1552): and in Latin
peefkewiera brUaitnica (Louvain, 1^56; reprinted London, I7ai).
^abtngton's transbtion of Heckers
The bngUsh tract is reprinted in Babtngton' .
Epidemics of Ike Middle Ages (Syd. Soc.. 1814). Thb also contains
Hecker's valuable treatise on the Englisn sweat, published in
German (1834), and abo printed in hb Volkskronkheiien des Miltd-
clters, edited ^ Hirsdi (Beriin, 1865). GrQner's Scripiores de sudore
mrntlico QtoA, 1847), contains neariy all the original documents,
including the two treatises of Caius. See also Hirsch, Handbook
ej Ceograpkical and Historic^ Patkohgy, trans, by Crcighton (New
Syd> soc, 188^.
SWBATOIO Snm, a tenn loosdy vised in connexion with
oppressive industrial conditions in certain trades. Thb " system "
originated early in the xgth century, when it was known
as '^ the cootxact system." Contractors supplying the govem-
neat with dothing for the army and navy got the work done by
gmng it ont to sub-contractors, who in some cases made the
garments or boots themsdves, with the assistance of other work-
men, and in othen sublet their sub-contracts to men who carried
them oat with similar hdp. Afterwards thb plan was adopted
in the manufacture of ready-made clothing for dvilbn use, and
of " bespoke " garments (made to the order of the customer).
Preriously the practice had been for coats, &c., to be made up
hf workmen employed on the premises of the master tailor or
working togetherin common workshops, but in either case directly
employed by the master tailor. The new plan brought a large
Bumber of workpeople possessing little skiU and belonging to a
very needy dass into competition with the regubr craftsmen;
and in consequence a fall in wages took place, wUch affected, to a
greater or less extent, the whole body of workmen in the tailoring
trade. The watk was dorv in overcrowded and insanitary rooms,
and the earnings of the Workers were extrcmdy low. In 1850
a vigorous agitatum against " the sweating system " was com-
■lenced, baaed mainly upon a series of artides in the Morning
CArMtde, whkh were foUowed by a pamphlet, Ckeap Clothes and
Ifasiy, written by Charles Kingdey under the name of '* Parson
Lot," and by hb laoytl' Alton Locke. Kingsley and hb friends,
the Chcistiaa Sorialists, proposed to combat the evib of the
sweating system by promoting the formation of co-operative
worksh^; and seveial experiments of thb nature were made,
wrhich, however, met with little success. Except that in 1876-
|g77 the outcry against the sweating system was renewed
(prindpaJly on the ground of the risk of infcctlon from
made up io fosanitary surroundings), the natter attracted little
public notice until 1887, when the system again came into
prominence in connexion with the immigration of poor fordgners
into East London, where large numbers oi these people wen
employed in various trades, espedaUy In the tailoring, boot-
maiung, and cabinet-making industries, under conditions
generally simibr to those complained of in the earlier egitations.
In x888 a sdcct oommittee of the House of Lords was appointed to
inquire Into the subject; and after a lengthy investigation— in the
course of which evidence was given by 391 witnesses in rebtion
to tailoring, boot-making, furriery, shirt-making, manUe-making,
cabinet-making and upholstery, cuticiy and hardware manu-
facture, chain and nail-making, military accoutrements, saddlery
and harness-making, and dock Uboui^— thb committee presented
its final report in April 189a The committee found themsdves
unable to assign an exact meaning to the term " sweating," but
enumerated the following conditions as those to which that name
was applied: " (x) A rate of wages inadequate to the necessities
of the workers or dbproportionate to the work done; (a) excessive
hours of labour; (3) the.insanitary state of the houses in which
the work b carried on." They sUted that, "as a rule, the
observations made with respect to sweating apply, in the main,
to unskilled or only partially skilled workers, as the thoroughly
skilled workers can almost always obtain adequate wages."
With regard to the sweating system, the committee dedared that
thb cannot be regarded as responsible for the industrial conditions
described; for " the middleman b the consequence, not the cause
of the evil; the instrument, not the hand which gives motion to
the instrument, which does the misduef. Moreover, the middle-
man b found to be absent in many cases in which the evib
complained of abound." While, on the one hand, we find, as
poinied out by thb committee, that " sweating " exbts without
the pxcsenoe of the " middleman " (the fact bdng that many
grossly underpaid workpeople are in the direct employment of
large firms) , it b, on the other hand, no less true that the " middle-
man " (t.«. subordinate emptoyer) b common In numerous trades
in whidi there b no trace of any soch oppression of the work-
people employed by the subcontractors as b denoted by the
term ** sweating." Thus, for example, in shipbuilding in many
cases men work in squads, the leading workmen employing their
own helpen; in the cotton trade the mule^minders engage and
pay their own paecers, and the weavers their own tenters; in the
maaufactured-iron trade, in mining, &c, a good deal of work b
done under sub-employers employing their own assbtants, none
of these sub-contractors being alleged to " sweat " their bdpcrs.
There is, in short, no system of employment which can properly
be called " the sweating system." At the same time, wherever
workers possessing a .small degree of skill and dcfident in
organization are employed xader a number of small masters^
there " sweating " b likdy to obtaJn.
The common idea that the " sweater " b an unscrupulous
tyrant, who fulfib no useful function, and who makes enormous
profits, has no counterpart in fact. Whatever may have been
the case in earlier days, bdore the internecine competition of the
" middlemen " had time to produce its ineviuble effects upon the
podtion of these sub-employers, it may ix>w be considered to be
beyond dbpute that the small master (" sub-contractor," *' ganet
master," " fogger," &c.) usually works at least as hard as his
employ^, and that hb gains are, as a rule, no more than a fair
return for the work which he performs — work which in many
instances consists in doing some difficult part of the job, and in dl
cases in organizing the labour engaged. So far as concerns the
" manufacturer," by whom the " sweater " b employed, and who
b deariy the causa causans of " the sweating system," for him
the practice of getting hb woric done in outside workshops b
undoubtedly convenient, especially in k>calitics where rent b
high, because be b saved the expense of providing aa.'jmmodap
tion for those who do hb work. He b also free from restrictions
as to the subdivbion of labour and the employment of a certain
cbss of workpeople which the sentiment of the regular factory
workers would impose upon him. The regular tailor, for example,
thinks that no one who has not, by a lengthy period of tuitMn,
i88
SWEDEN
acquired tbe eapttctty to make a coat " right out " ought to be
allowed to enter the tailoring trade. But in the workshop of
the sulxontractor the work is split up into fnctions, each of
which is soon learned, so that it becomes possible to introduce
into the trade petsons possessing no previous training, and genera
ally willing to work for wages far lower than those to which the
regular tailors consider themselves entitled, and which, so long
as they are not exposed to the competition of these outsiders,
they are usually able to secure. On the other hand, while it
may suit the manufacturer, anxious to keep down the cost of
production, to give his work out to middlemen, it is beyond
question that any form 'of the " small master " system is neces-
sarily liable to abuse in many directions. Among these small
masters the eagerness to secure employmedt is usually so keen
that the work is often taken at a price too low for it to be possible
for these sub-employers to pay to their workpeople wages
adequate to provide the reasonable requirements of working-
dass life. The workshops of the middlemen are scattered over
large districts, and these little masters frequently move their
business from one house to another. Both of these are circum-
stances which tend strongly to make efficient regulation by the
factory and tbe sanitary inspectors very difficult. Not seldom,
especially when trade is brisk, these work-places are overcrowded
in a manner injurious to health, and in not a few cases their
sanitary condition is defective. It will readily be under-
stood that combination among the people employed in these
numerous small isolated work-phices is much less easy than among
the compact bodies of workers employed in large factories, so
that any attempt to resist oppressive conditions of employment
by trade-union organization meets with serious obstacles. But
perhaps the worst of all the features which this method of manu-
facture presents is the absence of motor power and machinery.
The fact that a manufacturer has laid out a huge sum in plant,
thus entailing a heavy expenditure in "standing charges,"
necessarily induces Mm to do his best to make emplosrroent
regular. In the little outside workshop, on the other hand,
lengthy spcUs of enforced idleness are followed by short periods
of most severe toll, during which the hours of daily hbour are
prolonged to an inhuman extent. At the same time, the work-
people employed in the iU-equipped workshop of the little master
are competing with the much more efficient production of the
factory provided with labour-saving machinery driven by steam
or other mechanical power; and in many cases their only chance of
retaining the work under these drcumstanoes is to take it at
starvation prices. But the progress of invention moves fast,
and antiquated methods of production are gradually being
abandoned. Already, in many of the trades in which the
sweating system has hitherto largely prevailed, especially
in the tailoring, the boot-making, the- cabinet-making and
the nail-making industries, the factory system is coming so
far to the front in the race for cheapness of production that,
although in certain industrial centres, in which the rents of
factories are high and a specially abundant supply of needy
and unskilled workpeople is available, a good deal of work
is still given out to small outside masters, the proportion of
the total output manufactured in this manner is day by day
diminishing. (D. Sen.)
An endeavour has been made in the United Kingdom to combat
le^ishtivclv the evils of sweating. The Trade Boards Act 1900
established trade boards for trades to which the act apphed.
The trades tpecifxed were ready-made and wholesale tailoring,
the making of paper or chip boxes, machinc-Iacc making and
-*--■ ' •■ut the board of trade was given power to apply
provisional order to any other trade in which
chain- ma king, but the board of trade was given power to apply
under a provisional order to any other trade in which
exceptionally low wages prevailed. The duties of the trade boards
the act
are to 6x, subject to certain restrictions, minimum rates of wages
for time-work for their trades, while they may also fix general
minimum rates of wages for piece-work, and these rates may apply
either universally to the trade, or to any special prcxxu in the
work of the trade or to any special dass oi workers, or to any
•pedal area. The rates so fixed become obligatory by order of
the board of trade upon the expiration of six months from the
date When made by a trade board, but they may, in the meantime,
have a limited operation (I) in the absence of a written agreement;
(^) wbeie an employer has givcA written uotkm to the boeid of
trade that he ht wfllii^ topty them; and (5) in theqMof eoatraeta
rith government departments and local authorities. If the mini-
mum rate of wages has been made obli^tory and an employer has
been summarily convicted of not paying nme, he is hable to a
penalty of not exceeding £20 in respect of each offence and to a
penalty of not exceeding ijs lor each day on which the offence is
continued after convicuon. He may also be ordered to pay, in
addition, a sum equal to the wages due. The trade boards connst
of an equal number of representative memben of employen and
workers, together with appointed membera whose number must
be less than half the total of rq>re9entative memben. Trade
boards may also establish district trade committees with a con-
stitution similar to their own and may del<^ate to them their powers
and duties under the act. Women are dibble for membership of
trade boards or district committees indeed, in case of a trade board
for a trade in which women are largdy empbyed, at least one of the
appointed memben must be a woman.
SWEDEN [Sverige], a kingdom of northern Europe, occupying
the eastern and larger part of the Scandinavian peninsula.
It is bounded N.E. by Finland (Rusuan Empire), £. by the
Gulf of Bothnia and the BalUc Sea, S.W. by the Cattegftt and
Skagerrack, and W. by Norway, It extends from 69° 3' 31'
to 55* a& 18' N., and from xx** 6' X9' E. on the south-west
coast to 24^ gf^ xx' E. on the Finnish frontier, the extrenae
length bdng about 990 m., the extreme breadth (mainland)
about 250 m., and the total area estimated at 173,547 *q* >&•
Out of a detailed total estimate of the boundaxy line at
6100 m., 4737 m. are coastal, the Norwegian frontier is 1030 m.,
and the Finnish 333 m.
Physical FetUurcs. — ^Thc backbone of the Scandinavian peninsula
is a range, or series of masses, of mountains (in Swedish lCil*»^ the
keel) extending through nearly the whole length of the peninsula
towards the western side. The eastern or Swedish flank has, there-
fore, the slighter slope. This range forms, in a measure, a natural
boundary between Sweden and Norway from the extreme north ta
the north of Svealand, the central ot the three main territorial
divisions of Sweden (Norrland. Svealand and Cdtaland) ; though this
boundarv is not so wc)! markd that the political frontier may follow
it throughout. Sweden itsdf may be considered in four main physical
divisions-~the mountains and nighland district, covering all Nocr«
land and the western part of Svealand ; tlie lowlands of central
Sweden; tbe so-called Sro&land highlands, in the south and south-
east; and the plains of Skilne, occupying the extreme southward
projection of the peninsula.
The firat district, thus defined, is much the largest, and indudea
the greatest devations in the country and the finest sccneiy. The
highest mountains are found in the north, the bold .
peak of Kebnekaise reaching 7003 ft., Sarjektjlcko, ^
6973 ft., being the loftiest point of a maenificent group '
including the Sarjcksfj^U, Alkasfjiill ana Partefjkll, which range
from 6500 ft. upwards: and, farther south, Sulltelma, 6158 ft.,
long considered the highest point in Scandinavia. Elevation then
decreases slightly, through Stuorevarre (5787 ft.) and Areskwaa
(4J656 ft.), to the south of which the railway from Trondhjem in
Norway into Sweden crosses the 6ne pass at Storlien. South of
this again, before the main chain passes into Norway, are such
heights as Hclagsfjatl (5896 ft.) and Storsylen (5781 ft.); and a group
of mountains in the northern part of the province of Dalecariia
(Du<arne) ranges from 3600 to 4500 ft. in height. The neighbour*
hood of Areskutan and the Dalarnc highlands, owing to the railway
and the development of communications by steamer on the numer-
ous lakes, are visited by considerable numbers of travdlerm both
Swedish and foreign, in summer: but the northern heights, crossed
only by a few unireouented tracks, are known to few, and to a con*
siderabic extent, indeed, have not been closely explored. From the
scenic standpoint the relatively small elevation of these mountains
finds compensation in the low snow-line, which ranges from about
3000 ft. in the north to 5500 ft. in the south of the region. All
the higher parts are thus saow-dad; and gladera, numerous in tbe
north, occur as far south as the Hetagsfjall. The outline of the
mountains is generally rounded, the rocks having been subjected
to erosion from a very early geological age, btit hard formations
cause bold peaks at aeverai points, as in Kebnekaiae and the
Sarjeksfjall.
1 In Swedish the definite article (masc and fern, m, aeut. cO la
added as a suffix to the substantive (when there is no epithet).
Geographical terms are smilarly suffixed to names, thus DaU^fven,
the river Dal. The commonest geop-aphical terms are : rff, slr^Mi
river; xjd, lake; 3, island: hoim, small Island: fjiill, mountain, graup
IT range: doA valley: Mil, bay. In Norriand the foUowiag ternu
tre common: d. river, often attached to the names of the hm
ivcn, as Tomci, Lulei (although properly it means a smaller
river than df); the names of towns at their mouths always following
this form; trisk (local, properly meaning marsh), jaur (Lapp).
afva, lake (provincial Swedish, property a kind of awk opcniiig
Isoaiarivcrl. A is pnaounced 4.
FHTSICAL FEATURES)
From the spini imnrauin »»■« a wrica oP Hrgt riven ran in
* aoudi-easterly direction co the Gulf of Bothnia* Ih thdr upper
j^ ^ pans tbvy drain great lakes which have Ksulted from
^yTV^ the formation of morainiit damft, and in some cases
cariUiJia. p^^^p^ f„o„, (||^ incidence of erratic upheaval of the
land. AH he at elevations b< t i>cen ^ and i^ ft. All an narrow
in comparfson with their length, whKh is not infrequently magnified
to view when two lakes are connected by a very short Stretch of
raaning water with a navigable fall of a few feet, such as those
between Homafvan, Uddj[aur and Storafvan on the Skellefte river.
Tbe following are the principal rivers from north to south: The
Tome, which with its tributary the Muonio, forms the boundary
whh Fmlavid. has a len^h of 377 m., and drains lake Tome (Torne-
trask). the area of which is 126 sq. m. The Kalix is 208 m. in
length. The Lute is formed of two branches. Stora and Lilla
(Great and Little) Lule; the length of the main strean " '"^- m.
Tbe Stora Lule branch drains the Langa^ and Stora
SWEDEN
1S9
.1
(Langa^ur, Luletrisk). which have a length togethc
«o m.. a fall between them of some 16 ft. and a total i
97 sq. m., as they are very narrow. Below Stora Lule U
forms the Harspriing (hare's leap; >}juonmefsaska of
tbe Urgest and one of the finest cataracts in Europe. T
is about too ft., and there is a further fall of 150 ft. ii
trrmeadoas rapids extending for t\ m. Farther up.
of Lanya^ur, is the Stora Sj6fali (great lake fall:
Moorki Kart je). a fall of 1 Ao ft. only le» grand than the
Bocb are situated in an almost uninhabited country an
vnifcd. Following the Pite river (191 m.). the Skellc . ^ n.;
drains Homafvan and Storafvan. with a fall of 30 ft., and an area
together of 375 9Cf. ra. Homafvan is a straight and sombre trough,
tanked bv high hills of unbroken slope, bat Storafvan and the inter-
vening LkSdjaur are broad, throwing off deep irregular inlets, and
picturesquely studded with numerous islets. The Ume (237 m.)
l e ni we a a tributary, the VindeK t^ almost equal length, on the
Donh bank some 20 m. from its mouth, and among several lakes
drains Stor Uman (64 sq. m.). The further principal rivers of this
region are the Angerman (243 m.). Indal (196 m.). draining the
b^ lakes Kallsjd and Storsjd. Ljusnan (250 m.). Dal and Klar. Of
these the two last rise in the southernmost part of the mountain region
dexribed. but do not as a whole belong to the region under considera-
tkm. The Angerman receives the watere 01 a wider system of
streanas and lakes than the rivers north of it. and has thus a drain*
Me area of 12.591 so. m., which is exceeded only by that of the
Torae (16.690 sq. m.), the average of the remaining rivers named
bdng abont 7700 sq. m.
Beyond the Harspr&ng and the Stora SjQfall the northem rfvere
do not generally form great falls, though many of the rapids are
grand. The Indal. by changing its courae in 1796 near Bispeirden
on the northem railway, has left bare the remarkable bed of a fall
called DAda (dead) Fall, in whkh many " eiant's caldrons " are
exposed. In the uplands above tbe chain 01 lakes called StrOms-
vattodal, which are within the drainage ar«i on the Angerman.
tbe Hilling stream forms the magnificent Haltingsi Fall. In the
aoiftbem mountain valleys of the region there are several beautiful
[alb. such as tbe Tinnfors, not far from Areskuun^ tbe Storbo,
HamMR and Rista.
Eastward from the mahi moimtain ranee the highland region
is divided into two belts: a middle belt of moraink: deposits and
, and a coastal bdt. The middle belt is gently undulating;
viewed from rare eminences the landscape over the boundl«s
forests resembles a dark green sea. through which the great rivers
Bow strugbt between steep. (lat-topped banks, with k>ng ooiet
reaches broken br occasional ' rapids. The few lakes they form
in this belt are ratner mere wideningsin their courses; but the tribu«
tary streams drain numerous small takes and peat-mosses. In
tbe extreme north this belt is almost flat, a few low hilts standing
iH>Iated and conspicuous: an<t the rivers have serpentine courses,
while steep t>anks are absent. The middle belt rneri^ Into the
coastal belt, covered liy gedogic a ny recent marine deposits, reaching
an extreme height of 700 to 800 ft., and extending inland some 60
to 60 ra. in the north and 40 m. in the south. Small fertile plains
are characteristic, and the riven have cut deep into the soft deposits
of sand and clay, leaving lofty and picturesque bluffs (n»^).
The orograpnkral diviskm of the central lowlands beare com-
parison la formation with tbe coastal belt of marine deposits to
^ . .. the north. Here are Hat /ertile plains of clay, well
P*".~ ^_ wooded, with innumerable bkes, including the four
risnsai ^^^^ lakn, Vener, Vetter, Mftlar and Hjelrtiar. These,
except the last, far exceed in area any of t^e northem lakes, and even
Hidmar (i8« sq. m.) is only exceeded by Honrtafvan-Storafvan.
Tbe areas of the other three lakes are respectively 2149. 7^% and
449 a^ ro, Vener, Vetter and Hjelmar are broad and open : Miliar is
very trregttlar In form, and of great length. Mfilar, Vener and Hjel-
mar contain many islands; in Vetter there are comparatively few.
ffbne of the lakes is of very great depth, the deepest sounding
occurring in Vetter, 300 f^ In Hjelmar, whkrh measures 38 m.
from cast to west, and is 12 m. io extreme width, the greatest
depth b only ^ ft., but a» its flat shores were formerly subject
to inundation its level was sunk 6 ft. by deepening the navig^
wUm cfaaaael throogh it and •clearing oat various waterways (the
Eskilstuna river. Hjdinar canal, Ac.) in 1878-1867. The scenery of
these lakes, though never grand, is always quietly beautiful, especi-
ally in the case of Milar. the wooded shores and ialaods of which
form a nouUe feature in the pleasant environs of the city of Stock-
holm. The elevation of the central lowlands seklom exceeds
300 ft., but a few isolated heights of Silurian rock appear, such as
Kinnekulle, rising 988 ft. above sea ' — ' — **■ th-eastera shore
of Vener. BilKngen (978 ft.) bets ind Vetter, and
Ombeig (863 ft.) on the eastern r. Noteworthy
local features in the landscape of tti is are the eskera
or gravel-ridfies (Asar), traversing directwn from
N.N.W. to S.S.E., from too to 200 ve the surround-
ing surface. Typkral insunces o( is of Stockholm
(Brunkebcrgsftscn) and Upsala (11
South of the central lowlands t iland highlands
extend over the old province of Si »uth-cast, and tie
roughly south of Lake Vetter i t>urg.
where they reach the south-west ^ncral ;
elevation of this region exceeds 300
part 600 ft. : the principal heights
Ekbacken (1175 lt.),about 75 m. l .
of the town of fdnkOping at the southern extremity of Lake Vetter.
- - - ^ • lulai ■ "" * * '
^ UlgUandM,
n (1237 ft.) and
h-east and west
CJcntle forest<Iad undulations, many small lakes and peat-i
are characteristic of the region; which, in fact, closely resembles
the middle belt of the nonhera highland recion. Tne Sm&land
highlands abut southward upon the plains 01 SkAne, the last of
the main orographical divisions, which coincides roughly with the
old province of Skane (Scania). Level plains, with rich open
meadows and cultivated lands, the monotony of which is in some
parts relieved by beech woods, are separated by slight ridges with
a general direction from N.W. to S.E.. such as Hallandsfcsen in the
north-west, with an extrcme'elevaiion of 741 ft.
The hydrographical survey may now be completed. The Dal
river, which entera the Gulf of Bothnia near OAe. is formed of the
union of eastern and westem branches (Oster Dal, ,>,/ .
Vester Dal) not far from the town of Falun. The eastern JJT c^^
branch drains various small lakes on the Norwegian *<"««•
frontier, and in its lower course passes through the beautiful Lake
Siljan. The length of the whole ri\-er including the eastern as the
main branch is 283 m. The Klar fiver (228 ra.) rises as the Faemund
river in Faemundsj6. a large lake in Norway close west of the sources
of the Dal. The Klar flows south into Lake Vener, which is drained
to the Cattegat by the short (30ta river, on which, not far below
the lake, are the celebrated falls of Trollhftttan. Lake Vetter
drains eastward by the Motala to the Baltic, Lake M&lar drains
in the same direction by a short channel at Stockholm, the normal
fall of which is so slight that the stream is sometimes reversed.
The Sm&land highlands are drained to the Baltk and Cattegat
by numerous riven of kas importance. Excepting Finbnd no
country is so full of lakes as Sweden. About 14,000 sq. m., neariy
one^twelfth of the toul area, are under water.
The coast of Sweden is not indientcd with so many or so deep
fiords as that of Norway, nor do the shores of the Gulf of Bothnia,
the Baltk and the Cattegat share in the peculiar commL
grandeur of the North Sea coast. All, however, have
a common feature in the fringe of islands which, throughout neariy
the entire length, shelters the coast of the mainland from the open
sea. This "skerry-fence" (in Swedish, skdrnifd) is only interrupted
for any considerable distance (in the case of Sweden) round the
southern shore off the flat coast of Sk&ne. between the towns of
Vari)erg on tbe west and Ahus on the cast. Between it and th«
mainland lies a connected series of navigable sounds of the greatest
advantage to coastwise trafix;, and also of no little importance as
a natural defence. The ik&rg&rd of the Cattegat, north of Varberg,
is bakl and rugged. The two largest islands are Orust and Ti6m,
north of Gothenbotf . Off the south-east coast the place of the
skfirgftni is in a measure taken by the long narrow island of Oland,
but north of this the skiiv&rd begins to widen, and the most con-
siderable fjords are found, such as Brivik, whkh penetrates the
land for 35 m. nearly up to the town of Norrkdping. Tbe island
belt is widest (some 45 m.) off the city of Stockholm, the approach
to whk:h from the sea is famous for its beauty. Farther north,
a narrow sound (Alands Haf) intervening on the Swedish side, tbe
vast Aland archipelago. bek>nging to Russia, extends across. to the
Finnish coast. The skirgird of the Gull of Bothnia is less fulljT
devek>ped than that of either the Baltic or the Cattegat. The
islands of tbe skinrird as a whole are rogsed and pkrturesquck
though never k)f ty Uke many of those off the Norwegian coast. In
the Baltic many are well wqoded, but the nmjority are bare or heath-
cUd, as are those of the Gutf of^Bothnia. (Jf the large islands
in the Baltic and Cattegat. besides Oland. only Gotland is Swedish.
Gculsry.— The fundamental rocks of Sweden belong to the Aaoie
or pre-(!ambrian formation, and consist of crysuUine rocks. Three
divisions are distinguished by some authors-^the grey gneiss, the
red iron gneiss and Uie granulite.
The grey gneiss predoratnates m the nocthcm and tMttm part*
of the country, from Vestemon-land down to the province of Kalmar.
The rock has a prevalent grey colour, and contains as charactemtic
mfinerals garnet and in some parts graphite.
Tbe tod iron gnaias prevails io western Sweden m tbe provinoea
190
SWEDEN
icuiiun
of VermhiMl. Skareboiirt Etfsboif. and down to •the province of
Kristianstad. The formation is very uniform in its character, the
gneiss kaving a red colour and containiof small granules of magnetite.
But, nevertheless, not a single iron mine belongs to this region. The
red gneiss contains in many places beds or masses of hy pente.
The granultte, also called eurite and hftlleflinu, is the most
important of the Pre^Cambrian formation, as it contains all the
metalliferous deposits of Sweden. It prevails in the middle part
of the country, in Kopparberg. Vcstmanland. Upsala and parts
of Vermland. It occurs also in OstergOtland. Kalmar and Krono*
berg. The rock is a very compact and fine-j{rained mixture of
felspar, quartz and mica, often graduating to mica schist, quartxite
and gneiss. With these are often associated limestones, dolomites
and marbles containing serpentine (Kolmirden). The metalliferous
deposits have generally the form of beds or layers between the
strata of granuUte and limestone. They are often highly con-
torted and dislocated.
The iron deposits occur in more or less fine-grained gneiss or
granulite (Cellivara, Gr^ngesberg. Norbergi Striberg), or separated
from the granulite by masses of augitic and amphibolous minerals
{tri^ttskarH), as in Persberg and Nordmark. Sometimes they are
mirrounded by halleflinta and limestone, as at Danneroora, L&ngban.
Pajsberg. and then carry manganiferous minerals. Argentiferous
nlena occurs at Sala in limestone, surrounded by granulite, and at
uuidsmedshytta (province of Orebro) in dark hiUleflinta. Copper
pyrites occur at Falun in mica-schists, surrounded by h^leflmta.
Zinc-blende occurs in lanw masses at Ammeberg, near the northern
end of Lake Vetter. The cobalt ore consists of cobalt -glance
aunaberg in the province of Sddermanland) and of linneite (at
sdhammar. near Vestervik). The nickel ore of Sweden is magnetic
pvrites, containing only a very small percentage of nickel, and gener-
ally occurs in diorite and greenstone Besides the crystalline
gneiss and halhsAinta there are also sedimentary deposits which arc
believed to be of pre-Cambrian. age. The most important of these
are the Data Sandstone (chiefly developed in Dalarne), the Almas-
9ikra and Visinead aeries (around Lake Vetter} and the Dalsland
formation (near Lake Vener).
Large masKs of granite are fo«nd in many parts of Sweden, in
Kronoberg, Orebro, (jdteborg. Stockholm, &c. Sometimes the
granite gndaates into gneiss; sometimes (as north of Stockholm) it
enckMes large angular pieces of gneiss. Intrusions of hyoeritei
gabbro (anorthite-gabbro at RAdmansd in the province of Stock-
Iiolm) and diorite are also abundant.
The Cambrian formation generally occurs along with the Ordovi-
cian, and consists of many divisions. The oldest is a sandstone,
in which are found traces of worms, impressions of Medusae, and
shells of MiekwUeia. The upper divisions consist of bituminous
limestones, clay-slates, alum-riate. and conuin numerous species
of trilobites of the genera Parcdcxides, Con^corypke, Agnostus,
Spkaero^tJulnuu, PeUura, &c. The Ordovkian formation occurs
in two distinct facies — the one shaley and containing graptolites;
the other cakaneous. with brachiopods, trilobites, &c. The most
oonstaiit of the calcareous divisions is the Orthoceras limestone, a
red or grey limestone with Megalaspis and Orthoceras. The sub-
divisions of the system may be grouped as folbws: (i) Ceratopyge
Limestone: (2} Lower Graptolite Shales and Orthoceras Limestone:
(3) Middle Graptolite Shales, Chasmops and other Limestones,
Trinucleus beds. The Cambrian and Ordoviciao strata occur in
isolated patches in Vesterbotten, Jemtiand (around Storsjd), Skaca*
borg. Ellsborg. Orebro, Oseergdtland and Kristianstad. The whole
of the island of Oland consists of these strata. The deposits are id
most places very little distusbed and form horiaonul or slightly
inclined layers. South of Uike Vener they are capped by thick
beds of eruptive diabase (called trapf). North of Lal^ Siljan (pro-
vince of Kopparberg), however, they nave been very much<iislocated.
The Silurian has in Sweden almost the same character as the WenUxk
and Ludlow formation of England and consists partly of graptolite
shales, partly of limestones and sandstones. The isbnd 01 Gotland
consists entirely of this formation, which occurs also in some parts
of the province of Krfetianstad. In the western and northern
alpine part of Sweden, near the boimdaries of Norway, the Silurian
strau are covered by ccysulluie rocks, mica schists, quartzites, &c..
of an enormous thkkness, which have been brought into their present
positioas upon a thrust-plane. These rocks form the mass of the
hiflii mountain of Aicskutan,&c.
The Tciasstc formation (^RhaetR division) ocean in the northern
part of Malmdhus. It consuts partly of sandstones with impressions
of jcjants (cycads, ferns. &c.), and putly of clay-beds with coaL
The Cretaoeoos formation occurs in the provinces of Malm6hus
and Kristianstad and a few small patches are found in the province
of Blekinge. Only the higher divisions (Scnonian and Danian) of
the system are represented. The deposits are marls, sandstones
sad limestones, and were evidently formed near the shore4ine.
The most recent deposits of Sweden dste from the Glacial and
Post-Glacial periods. At the beginning of the Gladal period the
iwilht of Scandinavia above the hrvd ofthe sea was greater than at
pmtfMi S w w l ott being then connected with Denmark and Germany
mmmaMm.mmatmm^im «nlcMli» nf tW» RaltM* with »»•«• .On tli#> wmt
downwards to the tower levtla. gave oriain 10 teige strsams and
rivers, the abundant deposits 01 which formed the 'diluvial sand
and the diluvial day. in most parts of Sweden these deposits
were swept away when the ice advanced, but in Sk&ne they often
form still, as in northern Germany, very thick beds. At its maximum
the inland ice not only covered Scandinavia but also passed over the
pr^ent boundaries of Russia and Germany. When the climata
|}eQame less severe the ice slowly receded, leaving its moraioes*
called in Sweden krcssUnsiera and krasitetngrta. Swedish geokigista
distinguish between kotungfus (bottom gravel, bottom monune)
and ordinary krasserus (terminal and side moraine). The fonner
generally consists ola hard and compact mass of rounded, scratched
and sometimes polished stones firmly embedded in a powder of
crushed rock. The latter is less compact and contains angular
boulders, often of a considerable size, but no powder. Of later origia
than the krosstensgrus is the ruUsunsgrut (gravel of rolled stones),
which often forms narrow ranges of hills, many miles in length,
called Aiar, During the disappearance of the great inland ice
large masses of mud and sand were carried by the rivers and
deposited in the sea. These deposits, known as glacial sand and
elacial clay, cover most parts of Sweden south of the provinces of
Kopparberg and Vermland. the more elevated portions of the pro-
vinces of Elfsbo^ and Kronoberg excepted. In the glacial clay
sheik of Yddxa arctica have been met witli in many places («.g. near
Stockholm). At this epoch the North Sea and the Baltk.wete
connected along the line of Vener, Vetter, Hjelmar and MAlar.
On the other side the White Sea was connected by Lake* Onega aod
Ladoga with the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic. In the depths of
the Baltic and of Lakes Vener and Vetter there actually exist
animals which belong to the arctic fauna and are remnants of the
ancient ice-sea. The glacial clay consists generally of alternate
darker and lighter coloured layers, which give ic a striped appearance*
for which reason it has often been called kvarfvtg Ura (striped clay).
The glacial clay of the Silurian re^ns is generally rich in lime and
is thus a marl of great fertility. .The deposits ol glacial sand and
clay are found in the southern pan of Sweden at a height ranging
from 70 to 150 ft. above the level of the sea. but in the interior of
the country at a height of 400 ft. above the sea.
On the coasts of the ancient ice-sea, in which the glacial clay
was deposited, there were heaped-up mauses of shells which bek>ng
to species still extant around Spitsbergen and Greenland. Most
renowned among these shell*deposits are the Kapellbackame near
Uddevalla. With the melting of the great ice-sheet the climate
became milder, and the southern part oT Sweden was covered with
shrubs and plants now found only in the northern and alpine parts
of the country (Salix pctaru^ Dryas octepeUUa, Betula nana, &c.).
The sea fauna also gradually changed, the arctic species migrating
northward and being succeeded by the species existing on the coasts
of Sweden. The Post-Glacial period now began. Sands \motan^
and clays {Akertera and fucuslera) continued to be deposited on the
lower parts of the country. They are generally of insignificant
thkkness. In the shallow lakes and enclosed bays of the sea these
began to be formed and still is in course of formatkm a deposit
knosm by the name gjftf/a, characterised by the diatonuceous
shells it contains. Sometimes the gyttja consists mainly of diatoms,
and b then called bertmjdl. The gyttja of the lakes is generally
covered over by peat ola later date. I n many of t he lakes 01 Swedeit
there is still in progress the formatk>n of an iron ore, called sjamatm^
ferric hydroxide, deposited in forms resembling peas, coins, Ac.
and used for the manufacture of iron. , (P. La.)
Climaie. — The climate of the Scandinavian peninsula as a whole
is so far tempered by the warm Atlantic drift from the south-west
as to be unique in comparison with other countries of so high 4
latitude. The mountains of the Keel are not so high as wholly
to destroy this effect over Sweden, and the maritime influence ^oJT
the Baltic system has also to be considered. Sweden thus occufMea
a clinutlc position between the purely coastal conditions of Norway
and the purely continental conditions of Russia; and in some years
the climate inclines to the one character, in others to the other.
As a result of the wide latitudinal extent of the country there are
also marked local variations to be contrasted. About one-seventh
of the whole country is north of the Arctic Circle. The mean annual
temperature ranges from a6-6* F. at Karesuando on the northern
frontier to 44-S at Gothenburg and 44*6* at Lund in the south
for 295* to 45* reduced to sea-level). Between these extremes the
following actual average temperatures have been obser\'ed at certain
stations from north to soutn which are appropriately grouped for
the purpose of comparison (heights above sea-level following eaeh
name) : —
Jockroock (850 ft.), at the (otA of the lake-chain on the Little Lule
River-^9-7*: and Haparanda (jo ft.), at the head of the Gulf of
Bothnia— 32 ^^
on the Gulf of Bothnia— 37 » . _
Karlstad (180 ft.) at the head of Lake Vener— >4a*3*; Orebro
f t02 ft.) at the w«st of Lak« Hiclmarw>Ai.^*: and Stockholm f laa ft.)
I
'i
nXAA AND FAUNAI SWEDEN
M tlir aootli of biK Vetlsr— 42-4*1 »od Vntcrrik (43 ft.) on tike
Baltic— 43-1*.
But the local varUrkms thus indictced are brought out more fully
by m coiuidention of teasonal, and ctpcdally winter, temperatures.
In Sw e d en July is generally the hottett month, the average tempera-
tore ranging from about si* to 62*. In January, however, it ranges
from 4* to 32* (February is generally a little colder). Moreover,
there are two well-marfced centres of very tow winter temperature
in the inland pans. The one is in the mountainous region of the
south ol Jenstland and the north of Dalame. extending into Norway
and thna lying in the middle of the peninsula about 6a* N. Here
the average temperature in January s 8*5*, whereas at Ostersund
ic is over 15*. The other and more strongly mailced centre b in
the far north, extending into Norway and Finland, where the
average b 3-8*. The effect of the spinal mountain range in modifying
oceanK conditions is thus illustrated. The same effect is well
shown by the linguiform isotherms. In January, for example, the
is ot he r m of 14*, after skirting the north coast of the Scandinavian
pennsula, turns southward along the Keel, crossing the upper part
m the district of the great northern lakes. It continues in thb
direction as far as the northern end of Lake Mjteen in Norway
(61* N.). then turns sharply north-north-eastward, runs west of
Lake Siljan and bends nortn-east to strike the Bothnia n coast near
Skdieftd. In July, on the other hand, the isotherms show an
ahMni constant tenperatui* all over the country, and the linguiform
cMTveewe wanting.
The relative length of the season* shows ccmtnasts similar to those
t9i
of temperature, fn the north spring bezins in May, summer in the
middle of June and autumn in the middle of August. In the south
aad aanth-wcst spring begins in March, summer in the middle of
May And autttsso in Oaobcr. At Kaiesuando the last frost of
spring occurs on an average on the 15th of June, and the first of
autumn on the 37th of August, though night frosts may occur
earlier: while at Stockholm 4) months are free of frost. Ice forms
aboHt Oaober in the north, in November or December in the
■sidlande asMl south, and bieiaks up in May or June and in April
respectively. Ice ooven the lakes for 100 to 115 days annually
in the loutn. 1 50 in the midlands and 300 to 220 in the north. A local
increase of the ice period naturally takes place in the upper parts of
the Smftland highlands; and in the case of the great lakes of Nortland,
the «e«em have a father shorter ice period than the eastern. As
to the seask the formation of ice on the west and south coasts is rare,
but in the central and northern parts of the Baltic drift -ice and a
fringe of solid ice alon^ the coast arrests navigation from the end
of December 10 the bennning of April. Navigation in the southern
part of the Gulf of Bothnia b impeoed from the end of November to
the beginning of May. and in the north the gulf is covered with ice
from November to the last half of May. Snow lies 47 days on an
average on the plains of Skine, while m the north it Ipes from 140
to 190 days.
The dorthem somners find oompenntion for brevity i« duration
«f sunshine and light. At Karesuando in 68* 26' N. and 1093 ft.
above sea-level the sua b seen continuously above the horizon from
the 26th of May to the f8th of July; at Vlaparanda for 23 hours,
aiSMckholmfori8|hoQffsandatLund fori?! hoarsat the summer
Bulnirr Atnaospherie cef raction caosea tbe 'sun to be visible for
periods vaiyiog fraoi south to north for a quarter to half an hour
after it has actually sunk below the horiaon, with the long twilight.
pertiapa the most exquuite period of a season which provides a
succession of beautiful atmospheric effects, daylight lasts without
iatemiption from the iGth to the 27th of June as far south as Hcrnd-
laod (62*38' N.).
The average annual tainfatl for Sweden is 19*72 in.. k>calfy iA-
cxeasiog on tlie whole frqm north to south, and reaching a maximum
towards tbe south-west, precipttatkni on this coast greatly exccedinc
that 00 the south-east. Thus the average in the north of Norr^nd
b 16-53 ti^x *f^ ^^ louth of Norrfand 22-6 in. At Boris, midway
between the south end of Lake Vetter and the Cattegat. the average
b 3S<iA in., and 4582 in. were registered in 1898. At Katmar,
. on the Baltk opposite Oland, the average a 14-6 in. This
b aa extreme instance for the kxralitv, but the minimum for all
Sweden b found at Karesuando, with 1232 in. The period of
esaximum b generally the Utter half of sumqter, and^he jninimum
in February and March; but the maximum occu^ in October at
coast stations in Skine and in the island of Gotland. The propor-
tion of total precipitatba which faUs as snow ranges from 36^ in
the north to 9 *>; in the south.
FUra. — In the preceding physkal description indications are given
of the vast extent of forest in Sweden. The alpine treeless regiott
oocunies only the upper flanks of the spinal mountain-range above
aa elevation vaiying from iSoD ft. in the north to ^000 ft. in the
It b belted by a sone of birch woods, with occasional
tain-ash and aspea, varying in width from about 20 m. in the
oortb to a fraction of a mile in the south. Below thb extends a
Cat region of firwood covering the whole country nonh-east of
ke Vener and north of the Dal River. The fir {Pinus sylvtsffis)
and pine (Pinut a^s) are the predominating trees Spruce b
common* and even predominates tn the higher parts (between the
cicat valley* and immedbtely bebsr the birch-belt) in the nonh
S Norfiaftd. South of the southern limit iodieated. m the mklland
district of the great labea, the oak USffcns pedmi€tiht9\ appears
aa well as pine aad fir ; and. as much 01 thb area b under cultivation,
many other trees have been introduced, as the ash. maple, ethi and
lime. South of a line running, roughly, from the foot 01^ Late Vener
n> Kalmar on the Baltic coast the beech begins to appear, and in
Skine and the aouthem part of the Cattegat seaboard becomes
predominant in the woods which break the wide cultivated places.
Of wild flowering plants only a very few arc endemic species (though
more are endemic varieties) ; the bulk are immigrants after tbe bst
glacial epoch. Of these most are common to arctic lands, or occur
as alpine plants in lower btitudes. The number of species decreases
according to geographkral dbtribution from south to north; thus
while upwardsof 1000 are found in Skine, there are only about 700
In the midlands, 500 in the lower paita of southern Nortland and
less than 200 in the e xt reme north.
fbaiia.-^The effects of the great latitudinal range of Sweden
on its climate and flora has its parallel to a modified extent in the
case of fauna. Only a few animals are common to the entire
country, such as the nare {Lep%a limidusi and the weasel ; although
certain others may be addca if the high mountain region be. left
out of consideration, such as the squirrel, fox and vanous shrews.
Among large animals, the common bear and the wolf have been
greatly reduced in numbers even within later historic times. These
and the lynx are now restricted to the solitary depths of the northern
forests. Characteristic of the high mountainous region are the arctk:
fox, the button and the lemmings whose singular intermittent
migrations to the lowlands have a considerable temporary influence
on the distribution of beasts and birds of prey. There may also be
mentioned the wild reindeer, which is rare, though large domesticated
herds are kept by the Lapps. The elk, carefully preserved, haunts
the lonely forests from the Arctic Circle even to the Smiland high-
lands. The roe-deer and red-deer are confined to the southern pans ;
though the first b found in the south of the midbad olains. In
these plains the fox is most abundant, and the badger ana hedgehog
are found. Martens and otters are to some extent hunted for their
skins. A white winter fur b charaicteristic of several <^ the smaller
animals, such as the hare, fox and weasel. The common and my
seals are met with in the neighbouring seas, and Pkocn foetiaa la
confined to the Baltic. Among birds t^ far the greater proportion
is migrant. Characteristic types common to the whole country are
the teal, snipe. )p>lden plover and wagtail. In the northern moun*
tains the ptarmigan b common, and like other creatures assumes a
white winter dress; ducks and other water-fowl frequent the lakes;
the golden eagje, certain buxzards and owls are found, and among
smaltet bjrds the Lappland bunting VPUetropkants laponicus)
nuy be mentioned. In the coniferous forests the black grouse,
hazel grouse and willow grouse, capercailzie and woodcock arc the
principal game birds; the crane is found in marshy clearings, birds
of prey are numerous, and the Siberian jay in the north and the
common jay in the south are often heard. But in the northern
forests small birds are 'few, and even in summer these wikls give a
strong general impression of lifelesaness* In the midlands the par«
tridge IS fairly common, though not readily enduring the harder
winters: and nng-dox'es and stock-doves occur. The Lakes are the
honies of a variety of aquatic birds. On the coasts- a number of
gulls and terns are found, also the eidernlack and the sea^eagle,
which, however, b also distributed far over the land. The spes:iee
of reptiles and amphibbns are few and chiefly confined to the
southern parts. There are three species of snake, including the
viper; three of lizard; and eirven of batrachians. The rivers and
lakes are generally well stocked with fish, such as salmon, trout
of varioM* species* gwyniad and veadaoe (e*pecbUy in the north),
pike, eeb, perch of various species, turbot. bream and roach. The
few sportsmen who have visited the hieher parts of the great northern
ifvers have found excellent trout-fishing, with pike, perth, char and
grayling, the char oocunmg in the upptmwst parts of the rivers,
aad the ^yling bekm them. The fisheries, both fresh-water and
sea. are important, and fall for consideration as an industnr. The
herring, cod. flatfish, mackerel and sprat are taken in the seas,
and also great numbers of a small herring called sirimmini. In
the brackbh waters of the east coast sea fish arc found, tocher with
pike, perch and other fresh-water forms. The crayfish is common
in many places in central and eouthern Sweden. Pearls are some>
times found in the fresh-water mussel {Mnrfanlana nMfsarrftfero) ;
thus a tributary of the Lilla Lole River takes its name. Perie i<iver.
from the pearH found in it. Among the lower marine animab a
few types of arctic origin are found, not only in the Baltic but even
in Latkes Vener and Vetter. ha^ng remained, and in the case of the
lakes survived the change to fresh water, after the disappearance
of the connexion with the Arctic seas across the region of the great
lakes, the Baltkr. afld north-ea« thereof. The molluscan fauna
is fairiy rich, and insert fauna riiuch more so.' even in the north.
In Bommer in the uplands and the north the mosquito is saf&deatly
common to cause some tittle annoyance.
Pro^.— Tbe population of Sweden in 1900 wis Sitj6>44t-
Tbe census b taken in an unusual manner, being drawn up from
the regbtrics of the dergSr according to parishes every \t^ -
AppTDximaic rctumi are made by the dergy umu'*
19^
SWEDEN
sj^onM
following Ubie shows the dUtribation of popalaUon in that year
through the Idn or administrative districts. The first column
shows the older divisions of the county into provinces, the names
and boundaries of which differ in many cases from the Idn.
These names, aa appears elsewhere in this article, remain in
common use. The distribution of provinces and /dii between
the three main territorial divisions, Norrland (northern),
Svealand (central) and C5taUnd (southern) is also indicated.
Old Provinces.
lAn.
Area
sq.m.
Pop.
1900.
iVorrfanrf—
Lappland,Norrbottcn .
Lappland, Vesterboitcn .
Norrbotten
40.867
I34.V69
Vcstcrbottcn .
22.771
M3.735
AngermanUnd,Medel.
pad
Vcstcmorrland
9.855
233.31 1
Jcratland. Herjedal . .
Hdsingland, Cestrik-
Jcmtland
19.675
1UJ91
UndT. .....
Ccflcborg . .
7.615
238.048
Svealand—
DaUrne (Daiecarlia) . .
Kopparbcre
11. 524
217.708
Vermland
VcrmUnd , .
7459
254-284
\^A
194.924
148.271
Vcstmaaland 1
VcsimanUnd
Nerike
Sodermanland .
2.631
167428
123.863
Sodermanland .» ,
Up*aU . .
2,051
Upplaod J
Stockholm dist.
3.o»5
172.852
Stockholm, city
13
300.624
Cdtaland-^ r
OsteriBOtland >
VevtergdtUnd . « * J
0itcrg5i]and
Skaraborg . .
Elfdx>rg . .
4.^64
3.273
4.9»i
279.449
241.069
279.514
BohusUn * 1
Cotcborg och
Bohus . .
1.948
?J?:ill
HalUnd r . • »
HalUnd . .
1.900
Sm&land • * • •
jOnkoDJng . .
Kronobcrg . .
\fi
203J036
159.124
Kalmar . .
4456
227.625
Blckinee . ^ • • .
BIckinge . .
1.164
?1S
146.302
SkAne . « • • . |
Kristianstad ,
Malmohus . .
219,166
409.304
CotUnd . . • . ;
CotUnd' . .
1.219
52.781
Oland»
—
—
Total . .
172,875'
5.136441
The population in 1908 was about 5,429,600. In 1751 it was
i,8oa,373, and in 1865, 4,114,141. The average annual increase
was 7*86 per thousand in the 19th century, reaching a maximum
of 10-39 in 1841-1860, before the period of extensive emigration
set in. Emigrants numbered 584,259 men and 424.566 women
between 1851 and 1900, these figures helping to account for the
considerable excess of niwmen over men in the resident popula>
tion, which in 1900 was as 1049 to looo. The periods of greatest
emigration were 1868-1873 and 1879-1893; the decline in later
years is regarded as a favourable sign. The United States of
America receive a large majority of the emigrants, and only a
very small percentage returns. The Swedish people belong
to the Scandinavian branch, but the population includes in
the north about ao,ooo Finns and 7000 Lapps. Other foreigners,
however, are few, and the population is as a whole homogeneous.
Immigrants in the period 1851-1900 numbered only 165,357.
Population is naturally denser in the south than in the north,
and oentest of all in the districts along the southern coasts: thus
Malmohus LAn has about 220 persons per sq. m., Goteborg och
Bohus \An 174 and Bleklnge 127. In NorrUnd as a whole, however.
there art lesa than 9 persons per to. m.. in Norrbottcns Lan kss
than 4, and in the uplands of this division and Vesterboctens Lan
much lew than thi& However, the annual increase per thousand
has been greater in NorrUnd than elscwhcie. The annual excess
of biahs over deaths is high, the proportmn being as i-68 to 1.
The birth-rate between 1876 and 1900 averaged 28-51 P^^** thousand;
the death«raie between 1891 and 1900 was 16-36 per thousand, the
lowest ever recorded over such a period for any buropean oountry.
The towest nortality is found in the districts about Lakes Vcner and
Vetter: the highlit io Norbocten. the east midUnd districts, SkAne.
and Goteborg och Bohus UUi.
The percentage of illegitimacy is rather high (though it d<rcrcascd
* The idafid and adjaceiit i«lets.
* Island incliided id Kalnar LA*.
> IvdUdiM Um four W9X Ukcs. Vcner, Vetter, Milar Hjelmar.
during the second half of the nineteenth century); one cause of this
may be found in the fact that the percentage of married persona
is lower than in most European countries. As regards social
evils generally, however, the low, thouch undoubtedly improving,
standard of Sweden has had one of its cnief reasons in the national
intemperance. In 1775 Gustavus III. made the sale of spirits
{brannvin) a government monopoly, and the drinkii\g habit was
actually fostered. About 1830 this evil reached its highest develop*
mcnt, and it is estinutcd that nine gallons ci spints were thea
consumed annually per head of the popuUtion. Mainly through
the efforts of Peter Wicsclgrcn. dean 01 Gothenburg (1800-1877).
a strong temperance reform movement set in, and in 1855 important
tiquor laws were passed to restrict both production and sale oi
intoxicating liquors. The so<allcd Gothenbuig System, providiM
for municipal control ci the sale of intoxicants (see Liquor Laws),
came into full operation in Gothenburg in 1865. The temperance
movcroeni has had its reward; the average of consumption of beer
and spirits in Sweden is considerably lower than in Europe aa
a whole, though the effect of intoxicants is sometimes very apparent.
A marked difference of temperament is noticeable between
the Swedes and Norwegians, the Swedes being the mote light-
hearted and vivacious. In some of the more remote parts of
the country old customs are maintained and picturesque iocal
costumes still worn, as in Dalecarlia (f jr.). The Lappa moreover
retain their distinctive dress. In other cases early costumes
are preserved only as a historical reminiscence at festivities.
Although the characteristic celebrations at weddings or periodical
festivals are, as elsewhere, decreasing in favour, there are ccrtaia
occasions which are observed as holidays with much ceremony.
Such are Christmas Day, and, not unnaturally in this northern
land. Midsummer (June 23 and 24). The food of the people
in the midlands and south is plentiful and good; in thetemoler
parts of the npith an unfavourable summer is followed by a
winter of scarcity or even famine; and in these p^rts meat is
little used. Rye is extensively employed in the rural districts
for the making of a hard bread in flat cakes {.knUckehibd). A
prevalent custom among the better classes is that of beginning
meals with a selection of such viauds as anchovies, smoked
salmon or slices of meat, of which a number of small dishes are
provided ism»ri^sbord). These ane taken with breod and butter
and a glass of spirits. The more characteristic Swedish sports
are naturally those of the winter. These include ski-running
{skidlopttin^, skating and sKate-saiUng, tobogganing and
sledging. Tlie numerous inland waters and sheltered channels
within the skdrgdrd have caused the high dcveiopmcBt of sailing
as a summer sport, the Royal Swedish Yacht Club having its
headquarters in Stockholm. Athletic sports are in h^h favour,
especially such winter sports as snow-shoeing (iAO. and, among
ball games, lawn-tennis, ai.d to some extent football, together
with the game of pdrk, peculiar to Gotland, are played.
Toums. — In the first half of the 19th century the percentage of
urban population remained nearly stationary at a little less than to.
In l8&> it was 15- 12, and in 1900 21-49. The towns with a popuU-
tion exceeding; 15,000 in 1900 are Stockhohn (300.62A). GothenOurg
(130.60Q). Malmo (60,857). Norrkoping (ai.oo8). Cef!e (29.5231
Hcisingborg (24.670). Karlskroni (23,055). jOnkoping (23<I4J)*
Up&ala (22.855). Orcbro (22.013). Lund (16.621). Boris (1&837),
Halmstad (15.362).
Swedish towns, though rarely of otiite modem foundation,
generally; appear so, for the use of brick in building is mainly of
modern introduction, and is still by nG means general,
so that the partial or total destruction of a town by
fire is now only less common than formerly. The
rectangular method of laying out streets is eencral, and legislation
has been directed against narrow streets ana buildinp of excessive
heicht. The common material of the characteristic domestic
architecture in rural districts is wood, except in Sk&ne, where stone
is available and has been used from early times. Some of ^e old
wooden farm-buildings, especially in DaUme, such as are pre-
served in Skansen Museum at Stockholm, are extremely plcturesaue.
Another notable form In old wooden building is the bcUry ikiok-
stap<t) of some village churches, examples of which are iccn at fiabo
near J6nk6ptne and HisjO in JemtUnd on the northern railway.
In the inidUnds and south fine castles and manor houses of tfie
16th and 17th centuries are fairly numerous, and there are a few
remains of previous date. The fortified dwelling-house at Glim*
mingehus in the extreme south near Simrishamn is a good rariy
example. Several of the southern ports have old citadels. That of
Kalmar. on its island, is specially fine, while those at Vestervik
(StAkeholm). MalmO. FalkenlKrg and Varberg may also be men-
tioncd. Among country palaces or mansions that of Cripsholm
IS notable, overlooking take M&Iar, the shores of which are special)^
ooMMumcATioif^ SWEDEN
rleh itt bwtoric dte* and fctnaim In •odainticL
Sw dk n nowCTuri tbe ooble cfttbednls oC Lund. UpnJa and Unk6-
ping: whtle that of Skara« near the flouthera shore oC Lake Vener,
datea originaUy from 1150, and that of Strenffnila on Laiqe M&lar
«as conaecrated in 1291. Tbctc b a reqiarlcably perfect Rotnan-
eiane church, with aiale^. eaac«m apee and ambulatory, at Vamhem
in bkanborg L&n. and there are a few vUlaee chuichea of the same
period in thi» district and in SIcine. The monaatic church at
VadAena 00 Lake Vetter is a beautiful example of Cothk: of the
14th and 15th centuries. But the richest kioUty as regards andeat
cocleaiaatical architecture is the Island of Gotland (f^.).
rraaef and Cammtan£atums.—'A» a Ksoct for foeeiKn tnveUers
and touristi Sweden lacks the remarkable popularity of Norway.
The Cfita canal route, however, is used by many; toe uplands of
DalecarUa (Dalame) are freouented; and the railway through the
Jemtland highlamfa to Trondhiem gives access to a beautiful reeion,
where nnmenMiB anatoria are m favour with tbe Swedes themselves.
The northern railway offers a land route to the Aecdc coast of Nor-
way. Along the southern ooasu there are many watering-plaoes.
Mantraod near Gothenburg is one of the moat fariiloaable; StrOm-
stad. Lysdcil and Varbeigon the same coast. Ronneby on the Baltic,
with its chalybeate springs, Vbby the capital oC Gotland, and sevco^
villages in the neighbourhood of Stockholm may also be noted.
The faeadooarceis of the Swedish Touring Club {Sveuska Turtst-
fSreusngn) are in Stockholm, but its organization extends through-
out thecountcy, and is of spedaT value to traveUers in the Car north.
The lint railway in Sweden was opened for trafBc in 1856, and the
system has developed extensiveljr; more so, in fact, in propor ti on
-- to population, than in any other European country.
***'^*^* About 8000 m. of laiiway ara open, but cactensiona are
constantly in progress. About two-thirda are private lines and one-
•hisd eovernment hnea. The central administration of the govern-
ment Itncft is in the hands of a board of railway directors, and there
are local administrative bodies for each of five districts. A railway
council, created in iQoa, acts as an advisory body on larae economical
qacstiooB and the like. Priywie railways are controlled by the nrgu-
kmooa of the board, while a joint tnfiic union ha» as its object
the provision of uiufonnity of administration, tariff, &c. The
government has made grants towards the construction of lome of
the private Hoes* and has in a few cases taken over such lines.
The railways form a network over the country aa far north as Gefle
and tbe district about Lake Siljan. The government works the trunk
fines from Stockholm to Malm6, to Gothenburg and to Chriatiania
aa far as tbe Norwegian froniitr, and other important through
routes in the soudi. The greet northern line is also worked by the
fDimnuaent. It runs north from Stockholm roughly paralld with
the cast coast, throwing off bnmches to the chief seanorts, and also
a brandi from Bricke to Ostersimd and Storiien. where it |oins a
line from Trondhiem in Norway. At Boden the main Unc joins a
line originallY built to connect the iron*mines of Gellivan with the
port of Luldi: the systemis continued past GelUvare to Narvik
00 the Ofoten Fund in Norway, this being far north of the Aretic
Circle, and the line the most northerly in the world. The gau|^
of all tbe government lines and about 66% of the private lines is
l>435 metres (a ft. 8| in.). Nearty all the lines are nwlek Passen-
ger travellinc is stow, but extremely comfortable. The prindphl
oonnemons nmh die sooth are made acroas the sound from MahnA
to Copenhagen, and from Tkvlleborg to Sassnitz in Germany.
The extensive sy^em of natural waterways, especially in central
Sweden, has been utiKred to the full m the development of internal
t^tmm^ navigation, just as the calm watere within the skftrg&rd
193
affoi^ opportunity Cor safe and economical coastwise
traffic. The earliest oonstructron of canals dates from
the tsth century, the patriot Engetbrekt and King Gustavus
Vaaa both foreseeing its importance. The theories of eonstrtietion
remained rudimentary until early in the 19th oentonr.
G6ta (9.9.) canal was opened. The total length of the canalised
water'system of Sweden is a little over 700 m., though wholly
artifictai waterways amount only to 1 15 m. out of this totaL A large
local traffic is carried on by steam launches on the lakes during
the season of open nav^tion ; and vessels have even been introdueed
on some of the lakes and rivers of the far north, pnndpally in con*
flexion with the timber trade. Posting, which is of iotportanoe
only in the highland districts and the valley roads of Norriand, is
carried on by posting-stations {skhOsOatioB) under government
regalations; nmilar reflations apply when, as in the upper vaUeys
of tbe great northern nvers, rowing boats on the lakes form the only
means of travel. The condition of the high roads is fair as a wIk^
and has been much improved by increased state grants towards
tbtir opkeep; but in Norriand they are naturally not of the best
dasa. The posul and telegraph system is efficaoioua, and the
telepbooe servfce, maintained partly by the state and partly by
companies, is very fully developed. About twenty telephones are
in use per thousand of population, and a svstem of trunk-lines
be tw ee n the important towns has been established sinoe 1889.
Atrictdture.—Of the total land area of Sweden only about 12% b
anbie or meadow land, but the percentage varies neatly in different
parts, as will be understood from a recotleetion oTthe main phj^slcal
" ' ' WIS. Thus in Skanc ncariy 60% of the hind is under cultiva>
in tfaa midlands about 3n%i i» the notth from 4-5% la
soathem Noffiand to 3% in
half the total area is under forest.
northern Kartttnd.
exactly half the total area is under forest, its proportion 1 _^
from 35% in Sk&ne to upwards of 70% in the inlana parts of Svea-
land and in the south of Norriand. Land which is neither cultivable
nor under forest (marsh land or. in the northern mountaioous
districts of the south reclamation of such lands is constantly pro-
ceeding.' Agricuhure and cattle-breeding empk^ over one-half
the whole population. The average me of (arms is 45 acres of
cultivated Una; only 1 % exceeds 250 acres, whereas 33% are of
g acres or less. The greater part of the land has always bren held
y small independent farmera (only about is % of the fanns are
worked b^ texuints), but until late in the 1 8th century a curiouB
method of parcelling the land resulted in each man s property
coosistiag of a number of detached plots or stripa, the divisions
often becoming so minute that dissension was inevitable. Early
in the t9th century various enactments made it possible for
each property to become a coherent whole. A legal parceUtng
(Aifo skijte) was introduced in 1827 and slowly carried out in the face
of cottuderable k>cal opposition; indeed, in the island 0I Gotland
the system could not be enforced until 1870*1880. Roughly
about 48-5% of the total cultivated area is under cereals, 33*8 under
fodder plants, 5*8 under root-crops, and 1 1*8 falkiw, this last showing
a steady decrease. Oats, rye, barley, mixed grain and wheat are the
grain-crops in order of importance. During the 19th century the
percentage under wheat snowed a general tendency to increase;
that under oats increased much in the later decades as livestock
farming became common, rye maintained a steady proportion, btiC
barley, formerly the inincipal grain-crop, decreased greatly. Thb
last is the staple crop in Norriand, becoming the only grain-crop in
the ex trem e north; in the richer agricultural lands of the midhuids
and south rye b predominant in tne east, oats in the west. The
high agricultural development of the plains of Sk&ne appean from
the (act that although that province occupies only one-fortieth of
the total area of Sweden, it produces 30% of the entire wheat
cn>Pf 33% of tbe barley, 18% of the rye and 13% of the oats.
A system of rotation (cereal, roots, grass) is conuiionly followed,
each divifton of land lying fallow one year as a rule; not more than
two ripe grain<rops are commonly taken consecutively. Potatoes
occupy 4^4% of the total area, and other toot-crops 1*4%.
These include the sugar-beet, the profitable growing of which u
confined to Skkat and the ulands of Oland and (jotlaiuL The augw
industry, however, is very important. 'Orchards and gardens oonipy
about I % of the cultivated area. Fruit-trees are grown, mainly
in the south and midlands; northward (as far as Hemdsand) they
flourish only in shelterod spots On the coast. Between 1850 and 1900
the total head of livestock increased from 4.soo,ooo ta 5,263,000^
and the great advaru:e of cattle-farming is evident from the follow*
ing fffoportions. Whereas in 1870-1875 imported cattle and cattle-
farming produce exceeded exports as 13 to 7, in 1900 the value of
exports was nearly double that of imports: and it may be added that
whereas as Ute as i870«i88o the exports of agricukuni produce
exceeded imports in value, in 1896-1900 they were less than one-
tenth. The principal breeds of cattle are the alpiiie in Norriand,
and Ayrshire, short-hom. and red-and-white Swedish in the midlands
and south. The Gothind, an old native light yellow breed, survives
in the island of Gotland. Oxen, formeriy the principal 'draught
animals, have been replaced by hones. Cattle, espeoally cows,
and pigs form the bulk of the hveatock, but sheep and goats have
Eitly decreased in numbers. The Lapps own upwards of 230.000
d of reindeer. Dairy-farming is prontable, England and Den-
mark being the prindpal foretKn consumers of produce, and the
industry is carefully fostered by the government. A board of
agriculture l»d been in operation for many years when in 1900 a
separate department of agriculture was foraied. There are one or
more agricultural societies in eadi l&n, and there are various state
educational establishments in agriculture, such as the agricultural
tnitncn cviaouMinicius. ruuuiy^, invrc sic nuinccous uunu^utiunu
societies; large nurseries and gardening schools at Stockholm, AInarp
and elsewbm. and botanical gardens attached to the univenities
of Lund and Upsala.
Ponsts and Foratry,-~-Oi the forests about one^hlrd are public;
the majority of these belong to the Crown, while a small proportion
belongs to hundreds and parishes. The remainder is u private
hands. The pnbUc (bresu are admimstered by the ofike of Crown
lands through a forest service^ which employs a large staff of foreat-
masten and rangers. The pnvate forests are protected from abuse
chieffy by the important fegidation of 1903, which prescribes
penalties tor excessive lumbering and any action liable to endanger
the rwrowth of wood. The administration of the law devolves
upon tocal forest conservancy boards. In the great fir forests of
the north the limit set in respect of cutting down living trees for
sawing and export is a diameter of the trunk, without bark, of
8| in. at 15I ft. from the base. Memben of the forest service
undergo a prefiminary course of instruction at a school of forestsy,
and a fuRfaer cnune it the institute of Forestry, Stockhol*" •t**^
194
dfttca from 1838. There are very numerous aawmHb, vnng 1
power, steam and elearicity; they are situated chie^y in the
districts of the Gulf of Bothnia, from Gefle northwards, especially
in the neighbourhood of Sundsvall and along the Angerman River,
and in the neighbourhood of all the ports as far north as Lule& and
Hapaianda. There are also upland mills in Dalarne and Vermland,
ana a oonriderable number in the neighbourhood of Gothenburg.
The wood-pulp industry centres in the districts west and north of
Lake Vener and south of Lake Vetter. In the north vast quantities
of timber are floated down the great rivere, and the lesser streams are
used as floating-ways by the provision of flumes and dams. The
miUowners either own forests, or lease the right of cutting, or buy
the timber when cut, in the Crown or private forests. Among the
special articles exported may be mentioned railway-sleepers, pit-
props, and wood-pulp.
Fisherus.— The sea-flsheries, which are prosecuted principally in
the calm waters within the skfirg&rd. are a variable source of wealth.
For exaifiple, in 1894 nearly 3,000,000 cwt. of fresh fish (principally
herring) were exported, but in subsequent yeare the fisheries were
much less prolific; in 1900 only 80,000 cwt. were exported, and in
1903 less than 150,000 cwt. As a rule each crew jomtly owns its
boat and tackle. The fishery is of ancient importance; at the old
towns of Falsterbo and Skandr, south of MalmO, thousands of fisher-
men were employed until the harbours became choked in 1631, and
the fish were a valuable item in the Hanseatic commerce. There are
rich salmon-fisheries in the tower Mrts of the great northern rivers,
especially the Tome, Kalix, Lule, Angerman and indat ; in the Dal,
the Klar and Gdta, and several of the lesser rivers of the south. - In
the majority of rivers no special necessity has been found to protect
the fishing. As a general rule the owner of the shore owns the river-
fishing. The chid inspector of fisheries is a member of the board
of agriculture.
Jtf«ii(ti|.— The tron-mining industry is of high importance, the
output of iron ore forming by far the largest item in the total output
of ores and minerals. Thus in 1902 the total output was nearly
3| million tons, of which 2,850,000 tons were iron ore. The output
of iron ore has greatly increased; in 1870-1880 it averaged annually
little more than one-quarter of the amount in 1907. The deposits
of iron ore are confined almost wholly to the extreme north of Norr-
land, and to a midland aone extendmg from the south of the Gulf
of Bothnia to a point north of Lake Vener. which includes the
Dannemora ore fields in the eastern part. In Norrland the deposits
•t Gellivara have long been worked, with the assistance of a railway
to the Bothnian port of Lule&,4)ut in 1903 the northern railway was
oimpleted across the NorwMiian frontier to Narvik on Ofoten Fjord,
and the vast deposits at the hills of Kirunavara and Luossavara
began to be woriced. These deposits aUone are estimated to have
an extent exceeding one-quarter of the total ore fields worked in the
oountry. The deposits are generally in pockets, and the thickness
of the beds ranges from 100 to nearly 500 ft. at Kirunavara, up to
330 ft. at Gellivara, and in the midland fields generally from 40 to
too ft., although at the great field of Gr&iwesberg, in Kopparbcrg
and Orebro L&n, a thickness of nearly 300 ft. is found. Ncariy aU
the ore is magnetite, and in the midlands it is almost wholly free of
phosphorus. The percentage of iron in the ore is high, as much as
66% in the Kirunavaxa-Luossavara ore; and little less in that of
Gr&ngesberg; this far exceeds other European ores, though it is
equalled by some in America. Sweden possesses little coal, and
pig-iron is produced with charcoal only; its quality is excellent,
but Sweden s proportion to the world's produce is hanlly more than
I %, whereas m tne I7th and i8th centuries, before the use of coal
dsewhere, it was much greater. As an industry, however, the pro-
duction both of pig-iron and of wrought iron and steel is increasingly
prosperous. The ironworks and Mast-furnaces are almost wholly
in the midland districts. Coiner has been mined at Falun since the
lAth centurj^; it is also produced at Atvidaberg in Ostergfttland.
The production, however, has greatly decfeascd. A little gold and
silver are extracted at Falun, and the silver mines at Sala in Vest-
manlands L&n have been worked at least since the 16th century,
but here again the output has decreased. Lead is produced at Sala
and Kafveitorp, and rinc ore at Ammebeiv. Coal is found in small
beds in Sk&ne, east and north of Helsingborg. at Billesholm, Bjuf
andHSganKs; but the amount raised, although increasing, is only
some 300,000 tons annually. M ining adminktration is in the charge
of a special bureau of the board of trade. The Iron Institute
iJamkontard) was established in 1748 as a financial institution, in
whfeh the chief iron-mining companies have shares, for the advance-
ment of advanti^geous loans and the promotion of the industry
Benecally. It maintains a special education and ittvesttgation fund.
There are schools of mining at Stockholm (the higher school),. Falun
and Fiiipstad in Vermland.
MaMtifaetMrei.—lt the total value of the output of the manufac-
turing industries in Sweden be taken as 100, the following are the
most important of those industries, according to the approximate
percentage of each to the whole : iron industries 1 8-3, and mechanical
works ^; saw-milling 13-5 and wood-pulp works 3*5; cloth-factories
and spmning-mills 8; flour-mills 6-4: sugar-refining and beet-sugar
works 6; spirit distilling and manufacture 4*7. and brewing 3-6;
dairy products 4*4 ; papermaking i-6; heaving a remainder of 39%
for other industries. The total annual value of the output b about
SWEDEN (INDUSTRIES; COMMERCE
/73.ooo,ooo. The great mechanical works are found at or near
Malmd, Stockholm, J6nk6ping, Trollhftttan, Motala on Lake Vetter,
Lund, Gothenburg. Karlstad, Falun and Eskilstuna, which is
especially noted for its cutlery. A few other establishments includ-
ing both mpchankal workshops and ore-extraction works may be
menttoned: Domnarivet, on the Dal River, near Falun; Sandviken,
near Gefle: and Bofors in Orebro L&n. The principal centres of the
textile industry are Norrkdping in Ostergdtland and Bor&s in Elf^
borg L&n, where there are weaving schools; and the industry is
spread over Elfsborg L&n and the vicinity of Gothenburg. There
is a linen industry in Sm&land and in the south of Norrland. One
of the most nouble special industries of Sweden is match-making,
for which there are large works at jCnkdping, Tidaholm in Skaraborg
L&n aiyl in the nekhbourhood of Kalmar. The centre of the beet-
sugar industry is Sk&ne, but it u also carried on in the island of
Gotland ; its great access of prosperity is chiefly owing to the existence
of a protective duty on imported sugar. Spisit distillation centres
in Kristianstad Lan. Among other industries may be mentioned
the earthenware works at H£^n&8 at the north end of the Sound,
the cement works of Lomma in this vicinity, and the pottery works
oi Rfirsttand in, and Gustafsberg near, Stockholm; where beautiful
waf^ is produced. Stone is worked chiefly in Gdteborg och Bohus
and Blekinge Lfin.
Commerce. — Exports approach £30,000,000 and imports £40,000,000
in average annual value.
Of the total exports that of timber, wrought and unwrought,
represents 50%; the other principal exports with approximate
percentage are: iron and steel 13*5. iron ore 3*6, machinery and
implements 3'2, and other iron and steel goods 3*7; butterio; paper
3*4; carpentry work 3; matches 3*3. The principal imports with
percentage to the whole are: ooal and coke 15, grain 8. coffee 4-6,
machinery ^, wool, yam, thread, cotton and woollen goods ^-4 ;
hides and skins 3'5. Oil and fish are also important. The prinnpal
countries trading -with Sweden are the United Kingdom (exports
from Sweden 38-2%, imports to Sweden 35'7), Germany (exporu
16%, imports 39) and Denmark (exports 14%, imports 12*5).
Other countries with which Sweden has mainly an export trade are
France, the Netherlands and Norway. With Russia on the other
hand the trade is principally import. In the case of the United
Kingdom. Germany, Denmark and Norway, the transit trade forma
an important proporrion of the whole. The coal imported (whkfa
forms over 90% of the whole consumed) comes mainly from Great
Britain; while most of the colonial produce, such as coffee and
tobacco, comes through Germany. The match and paper export
trade is principally with the United Kingdom. Between 1865 and
1888 Sweden employed a modified system of free trade, but various
etuctments in 1888 and 1803 reintroduced meChods of protection.
Skipping. — ^The total number of vesseb in the Swedish commercial
fleet IS about 3000 of 650.000 tons re^er; of which steamer*
represent about 380,000 tons. On an average about 73.000 vessels,
of an aggr^ate tonnage of 17,500^000, enter and clear the porta.
The principal ports of register are Gothenburg. Stockholm, Hetang*
borg and Gefle, in order: though the principal commercial ports are
Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malm6. Owing to the natural configura-
tion of the coast and the sk&rg&rd ^client natural harboure are
almost without number. Artificial harbours are consequently few,
but those at Helsingborg, Malmd, Halmstad, Vstad and Kalmar
may be mentioned, ihe principal docks are at Gothenburg, Stoclo*
holm. Malmd, Oskarshamn and Norrkdping. besides the naval docks
at Karlskrona; and the principal ports where large vessels can be
accommodated on slips are Malmd, Gothenburg. Stockholm, Karls-
krona and Gefle. A list of the chief ports may be conveniently
classified. On the west coast north of Gothenburg are StrSmstad,
near the Norwegian frontier, and Uddevalla, on a oeep inlet behind
the island of Orust, 35 m. from the open Cattegat. South of Gothen-
burg on the open coast are Varber^ and Halmstad : and on the Sound
are the three large ports of Helsingborg, Landskrona and MalmO.
Passing to the Baltic, Trelleborg and Vjtad lie on the southeramost
coast (M the country, and Simrisnamn, Ahus the outport of Kristian-
stad. Karlshamn. Konneby and Karlskrona on the wide Hand Bay.
On Kalmar Sound are Kalmar and Oskarshamn ; and continuing
northward, Vestervik, Sdderkdping at the head of the inlet Sl&t-
b&ken. Norrkdping, similarly situated on Br&viken, and Stockholm,
far within the sk&ig4rd. On the Bothnian coast there is a port at
or near the mouth of each great river, where the timber floated down
from the interior b both worked arid exported. The chief ports
here, from south to north, are: Gefle, Sflderhamn, Hudiksvall.
Sundsvall, Herndsand, Ornskdldsvik, Unie&, SkellefteA, Pitei and
Luleft. the last exporting the ore from the northern iron-mines.
Banks.^The first Swedish bank, called the Balmstruch bank
after its founder. Johan Palmstruch, was incorporated in 1656.
It began to issue notes in 1661 . It was shortly afterwards bankrupt,
and in 1668 the Bank of Sweden (Sveriees Jiiksbank) succeeded it.
This is managed by a board of seven delegates, the chairman being
elected by the government, while the Riksdag (pariiament) electa
the remamder. it began to issue notes in 1701. This ability was
shared by private banks with solidary responsibility until 1903.
but under a reform of 1897 the riksbank took over, from 1904,
the whole right of issuing paper currency, which is in wide use. The
capital of the riksbank la 50,000,000 krooor (£^,250,000). The
coNSTmmoNj SWEDEN
•dier boala ai« joint-stork banfci and Mvinga-bsaki, of wblch
the first was opened at Gothenbttig in iSkk The post office savings
bank was opened in 1884.
Commge^ — ^The connting unit in the Swedish coin^^ is the krtma,
equal to i-l shtUin;. The monetary unit is 10 kronor gold, and gold
pieces, not widely met with in circulation, are struck of 20, to and
5 kronor. The krona equab 100 6rt. Stiver pieces of 2 and x krona,
50. 25 end 10 Ore are struck, and bronxe pieces of S, 3, and i Ore.
Sweden. Norway and Denmark have the same monetanr system.
Finance. — In the budget for 1910 revenue and expenditure were
estimated at £12,674.300. The principal sources of income in the
ocdinary revenue are railways, forests, telegraphs and rent from Crown
lands; and those in the revenue voted {pmUningar), which is about
seven-eighths of the whole, customs, the taxes on spirits and beet-
sngar, and income from the post office The departments to which
the bulk of expenditure b devoted are those of the army, the interior,
the navy and education. A latge proportion of the army expendi-
ture was formeriy defrayed by a system of military tenure on ceruin
hnds. Land-taxes, however, were finally abolbhed in 1904, and
their place was uken by an increased taxation on real estate, revised
trtennially. and by an income tax arranged on a sliding scale, up to
4% of the income (9*6 pence in the jQ. settled according to individual
declaration. The national debt was practically nil until c. iBs^,
and the debt contracted thereafter owes its existence almost wholly
to railway construction. It increased from about £aMojooo in
i860 to £6,400,000 in X870 and £18,600,000 in 1900W In 1904 it
escoeded £19,000,000. The greater proportion of communal revenue
comes from income and property tax. the sale of spirits under the
Gothenburg System, and contributions from the treasury. Primary
education, poor relief, and Chureh purposes form the principal items
of expenditure.
»95
ConsSitudon and GMcniMeMl.— Sweden is a lioutcd moaicliy,
the conatitutkm xestiag primarily on a law (regfrirngt-ftrwien)
of the 6th of June 1809. The king ii trresponiible, and executive
posrer k vested in l:iiii alone. All his resolutions, however,
most be taken in the presence of the cabinet {statsrdd). The
cabinet councillors are appointed by the king and are responsifole
to the pacUament (Riksdag). They an eleven in nnmber, one
being prime minister, two others consuiutlve mimsters, and
the remainiag eight heads of the departments of administfmtion,
which are justice, foreign aflain, land defence, naval defence,
home affairs, finance, public works, agriculture. The coundilors
must be of Swedish Urtk and adberenu of the Luthexan
oonfesaioD. The appointment of the majority of puUf c officials
is vested in the king, who can himself dkmiss cabinet ministcn
and certain oChen, whereas In most cases a judicial inquiry is
necessary before dismissal. The king shares legislative poweis
with the Riksdag, (pariiament or diet}, possessing the rights of
initiation and absolute veto. He has also, in* certain adminis-
trative and economic matters, a special legislative right.
The Riksdag consists of two chambers. The members of the
first chamber are elected by the landsthing, or representative
bodies of the lUn, and by the municipal councils of some of the
hrger towns. They number 150, and are distributed among
the constituencies in proportion to population; the distribution
beifig revised every tenth year. Eligibility necessitates Swedish
birth, an age of at least 35 years, and the possesston, at the time
of election and for three years previously, either of real property
to the value of 80,000 kronor (£4400), of an annual income 00
which taxes have been paid of 4000 kionor (£220). Members
are unpaid. The members of the second chamber number 330,
of whom ISO are elected from rural constituencies and 80 from
towns. The members receive a salary of 1200 kronor (£66),
and are elected for a period of three years by dectois, or directly,
according to the resolution of the electoral district. If a member
retires during that period, or if the chamber is dissolved, suc-
ceeding members arc elected for the remainder of the three
years, and thus the honse is wholly renewed at regular intervals,
which is not the case with the first house. The franchise was
lor long extremely limited in comparison with other countries,
but in 1907 universal manhood suffrage was intfodueed, after
protracted dissension and negotiation between the two houses.
Eligibility to the lower house necessitates possession of the
drctive franchise, an age of at least 35 years, and residence
within the constituency. Both chambers have in theory equal
power. Before bills are discussed they may be prepared by
committees, which play an important part in the work of the
house. The agrwmeot of both chamben is &ecc«ary before
a biU hecomes Uw, but when they differ on budget questions
the matter is settled by a common vole of both, which arrange-
ment gives the second chamber a certain advantage from the
greater number of its members. By revisers elected annually
the Riksdag controb the finances of the kingdom, and by an
official ijustitieamlfudsman) elected in the same way the adminis-
tration of justice is controlled; he can indict any functionary
of the state who has abused his power. The bank of the kingdom
b superintended by trustees elected by the Riksdag, and m the
same way the pubUc debt b adminbtered through an office
ijriksgitidskvniant), whose head b appointed by the Riksdag.
Local GwemmenL — For the purposes of kx»i government Sweden
b divided into 2$ administrative districts called /dn, a list of which
b given ia the parajgraph dealing with {jopulation. The elected
representarive body in each b the tandslhing, which deliberates on
the affairs of the i&n and has a right to levy taxes. The chbf
official of the lAn b the landfkdfding, under whom are secretarial
and fiscal departments. Privileged towns, receiving their privileges
from the government (not necessarily on the basis of oopulation),
are under a mayor {borgmdslare) and aldermen (rAdmdn), the alder-
men being elected by the citizens, while the mayor b appointed
by the government from the first three aldermen on the poll, is paid,
and holds office for life. Gothenburg has two mayors, and the city
of Stockholm (^.v.), a ULn in itself, has a special form of govern-
ment. The major rural divisions are the fdgderitr, under hailiffs,
a subdivision of which is the Idnsmansdistrtkl under a l&nsman.
Justice. — ^Justice is adminbtered by tribunals of three instances,
(t) There are II9 rural judicial districts (domsa^or), which may be
subdivided into ludicial divbions {tmgsh^i. Each tittfstag has a
court ihdradsrdUu consisting of a judge and twelve unpaid assessors
(ltdmndemdn), 01 whom seven form a quorum, elected by the people.
These, if unanimously of a different opinion to the judge, can out-
vote him. The town-courts in the privileged towns are called
rddsnjvuratUr, and consist of the mayor and at least two aldermen.
(3) There are three higher courts {hofrdUer), in Stockholm, J6nk^
ing and Kristianstad. (3) The Supreme Court (Hdgsta DamsMen)
passes sentences in the name of the king, who is nominally the
highest judicial authority. . The court has a membership of 18
justuxs (justitierid), two of whom arc present in the council of state
when law questions are to be settled; while the body also gives
opinion upon all proposed changes of law.
i4rmy and Navy. — General military service b enforced. Every
Swedish man belongs to the^ conscripts {pdmpligtige) between
the age of 21 and 40, during which time he serves eight years in the
first fevy, four in the second, and eight in the reserves. The con-
scripts were formerly trained for 90 days, but according to the law
of 1901. the conscript b bound to serve in time of peace — in the
infantry, position artillery, fortress artillery, fortress engineers, and
the army service corps a total of 240 daytf ; and in the cavalry, field
artillery, field engineers, and field telegraph corps a total of 365 days.
The permanent cadres number about 22,000, and about 85,000 men
are annually trained as recruits or recalled for further training. The
ori^anikation of the army in time of peace is as follows: 82 battalions
of mfantrj^ (28 regiments). 50 squaorons of cavalry, 71 field artillery
and 7 position artillery batteries, 10 fortress artillery, 16 engineer,
and IB army service corps companies. There are six divisTons,
quartered at Helsingborg, Linkdping, SkOfde, Stockholm (two),
and Hemdsand; in addition to the Gotland troops quartered at
Visby. A division in time of ^r would probably consist of 2 batta-
lions of infantiy (4 regiment^ 12 battalions), with 4 squadrons of
cavalry, i artillery regiment, i company of engineers, &c. A
cavalry division would con^t of 2 bngaoes of 8 squadrons each,
and I brigade of horse artillery. It is estimated that 500,000 ntco
are available for service in the various capacities in case of war.
There are fortresses at Stockholm (Vaxholm and Oscar-Fredriks-
borg), Boden on the northern railway near the Russbn frontier,
Kansboig on Lake Vetter. and Karlskrona; and there are forts at
Gothenburg and on Gotland. The reforms of 100 1 abolbhed the
indella, a body including both, infantry and cavalry who lived in
various parts of the country, in some cases having their houses
provided^for them. This peculbr system of military tenure (tWrf-
ningsverket) originated in the 17th century, when certain bndowners
were exempt from other military objigations if they provided and
maintainca armed men. The navy is small, including li ironclads
of 3100 to 3650 tons. The personnel consists of a cadre, resen-e and
about 17.000 conscripts. It also includes two coast-artillery regi-
ments, with headquarters at Vaxholm and Karbkroip. The prin>
cipal naval station b Karbkrona. and there is another at Stockholm.
Religum.— More than 99% of the total population belong to the
Swedish Lutheran Church, of which the king is the supreme head.
Sweden is divided into 12 dioceses and 186 deaneries, the head
of the diocese of Upsala being archbishop. The parish is an
imponant unit in secular as well as ecclesiastka connexions.
The rector presides over the local school board, which b appointed
by the church assembly (kyrkosldmrnan), and thus an intimate
r^ation between the church and education has loiwheen maintained.
A peculiar duty of the dugy b found in the luufSrMr or meetings
196
SWEDEN
deugned to enable the priest to teet and develop the religious
knowledge of his parishioners by methods of catechism. It was
formeriy enjoined upon the clergy to visit parishioners for this
purpose, and the system is still maintained in the fonr ^' "'"j^
which have in some cases, however, acquired a cha ily
devotionaL The parishes number 2556, but one living de
more than -one parish. In the sparsely inhabited dj he
north the parish is sometimes of enormous extent, of
Gellivara has an area of about 6500 sq. m. In such a sst
often makes protracted joumejrs from farm to fam lis
parish, and on certain occasions the congregation at h riU
include many, both Swedes and Lapps, who have tra> ps
for several days in order to be present. Dissenters to
contribute to the maintenance of the Swedish Church, "a-
tion of the secular duties of the priests.
Education. — ^The connexion between the church and education
is so close that the control of both is vested in a single department
of the government. Primary education is carried on in common
schools of different S[radcs. under both local and sute inspec-
tion, the parish being the school district. Seminaries are
maintained for common school teachers, with a four years' course.
At Haisaranda and Mattisudden in Norbotten there are special
institutions for teachers for the Finnish and Lapp population
respectively. Wide attention was attracted to Swedish raucational
methods principally by the introduction of the system of Sloyd
(slojd), initiated at the Nsas seminary near Gothenburg, and con-
cerned with the teaching of manual occupations, both for boys and
for girls. The higher education of the people is provided by people's
high schools in the rural districts, especially for the peasantry,
maintained by the county councils, agricultural societies and the
state, and providing a two years' course both in general education
and in special practical subjects according to local needs. The
men's course is held in winter; and a women's course, in some in-
stances, in summer. The workmen's institutes in the towns have
a similar object. A system of university extension has 'been de-
veloped on tfie English pattern, summer courses being held at Upsala
and Lund. In connexion with the army reform 01 looi a system
of army high schools was proposed for conscripts while serving.
Technical education is provided in higher schools at Stockholm,
Gothenburg and certain other large industrial centres; and in lower
schools distributed throughout the country, in which special atten-
tion is given to the prevailing local industries. The agricultural
and forestry schools have been mentioned in the paragraphs on these
subjects. Public schools for boys are provideo by the state, each
bishop being superintendent {eforus) of those in his diocese. In the
three lowest classes (out of a total of nine) a single system of instruc-
tion is practised; thereafter there are classical and scientific sides.
Greek u taught only in a section of the upper classical classes. Of
modern langua^, German is taught throughout; English in all
classes of the saentific side, and the upper classical classes. Much
attention is paid to singing, drill and gymnastics. The school
terms together occupy 34 1 weeks in the year. At the schools
examinations are held for entrance to the universities and certain
higher special schools. Owing to the high development of state
fiuDJic schools, private schools for boys are few; but higher schools
or girls are all private, excepting the higher seminary for teachers
and the state normal school at Stockholm. The state universities
are at Upsala and Lund, and with these ranks the Caroline Medical
Institution at Stockholm. There are universities (founded by
Erivate individual benefactions, but under state control) at Stock-
olm and Gothenbui^. The faculties at Upsala and Lund are
theology, law, medicine and philosophy (including both art and
science). The courses are long, ranging trom six to nine years; and
the degrees are those of candidate, licentiate and doaor. The
students, who are distinguished bv their white caps, are divided for
social purposes into " nations " (landskap) of ancient origin, based
upon tne distinctions between natives of oifferent parts.
Scientific Institutions. — Among the scientific and literary societies
are to be noted the Swedish Academy, consisting of 18 memben,
which was instituted in 1786 by Gustavus III., after the
Sattern of the Academic Frangaise, for the cultivation of the
wedish language and literature: and the Academy of Science,
founded in 1739) by Linnaeus and others for the promotion
of the natural sciences. The first distributes one and tne second
two of the prizes of the Nobel Foundation. A fourth prize is distri-
buted by the Caroline Institution at Stockholm. There may be
mentioned further the Royal Academies of Literature, History and
Antiquities (1786), of Agriculture (1811). of Arts (1735) and of Music
(1771). Th<y)rincipal museums and art and other collections are
in StQckhoIdT Upsala and Lund, and Gothcnbuiv. The Royal
Library in the HumlegSrd Park at Stockholm, ana the university
libraries at Upsala and Lund are entitled to receive a copy of every
publication printed in the kingdom. Certain of the large towns have
excellent public libraries, and parish libraries are widely distributed.
See Sweden, Us People and its Industry, a government publication
(ed. G. Sundbarg) dealing with the land and people in every aspect
(Eng. vers., Stockholm, 1904); Bidrat ''' " ~ 't staiistik
(Stockholm. 1857 seq ): Slatulisk Tid 11 1862;
Publications (year-book, guides, &c.) mimgem
PfmoitY'
aub) Stockhotm: periodical BuOetiti of tiM
e of Upsala University, in which may be noted
le zur Kenntniss der Seenkettenrerion in Scksaedisck*
(IQOO): Also Dahlman, Inledning til Sveriitt
H (Stockholm. 1857); Statistiskl Lexicon ofref
1. 1859-1870): M. H6jer. Konungarikei Sverigo
1883) : C. Almqvist, La Suide, set progrh sociaut
; P. B. Du ChaiUu, The Land oj the Mtdnithl Sun
. M. Rosenberg. Geosrafiskl-statistiskt handlexicon
holm, i882>i883); W. W. Thomas, Sweden and the
id New York. 1891): Healey, Educational Systems
and Denmark (London. 1893) ; Nysir6m, Handbok
[Stockholm, 1805), and Sveriges rike (Stockholm,
n, Ceschichte der Vegetation Schxvedens (Leipzig,
, Sveriges j^eologi
it Sverige, geografisk, topotrqAsk, statistisk beskri}-
and for geology. A. G. Nathorst, Sveriges j^eologi
more detailed accounts of the various districts
I
La
e*
5n
I
ntf
(S(
sec MIS of the Sveriges Ceologiska Undersdkning,
an( roes of the Ceologiska Foreningens i Stockkolm
ForkoHdlingfir. (0. J. R. H.)
History
Remains dating from the Stone Age are found scattered over
the southern half of Sweden, but it is only along the south coast
and in the districts bordering. on the Cattegat that they occur
in any considerable quantity. The antiquities of the Bronze
Age are much more widely distributed and reach as far as the
north of Helsingland. It is evident that the country must at
this time have been fairly populous. So far as can be judged
from the human remains found the population in general in
both tbff Stone and Bronre Ages seems to have been similar
in t3rpe to that of the present day, and there Is no clear evidence
for the advent of a new race. The Iron Age probably bcgaa
in the south of Sweden at any rate some three or four centuries
before the beginning of the Christian era. (See further Scandi-
navian CiVIUZATlON.)
The first historical notice relating to Sweden is contained in
Tacitus, CermaniOf cap. 44. This book was probably published
in A.D. 98 or 99 and in the passage mentioned we find the
name of the chief people of the peninsula, the Barfy
Swedes proper, Sulones (O. N. Sviar, Swed. kmBmma4
Svear^ A. S. Sweon), who eventually gave their ^w^*»*«»
name to the whole country. According to Tacitus they were
governed by a king whose power was absolute and comprehen-
sive, and possessed a strong fleet which secured tJiem irom tbe
fear of hostile incursions. Hence arms were not bone in timet
of peace but stored away under charge of a slave, and Tadtus
suggests in explanation that the royal policy did not commit this
trust to noble, freeman or frcedman. Their original territories
lay on both sides of the M&lar, in the provinces later known as
Upland, Soderroanland and Westmanland. Tacitus raentioni
another tribe, the Sitones, which he places next to the Suiones,
but they, have not been identified, and it is not clear from his
description whether they lived within the peninsula or not.
The only information he gives about them is that they were
ruled over by a woman. Other early Roman writers, Mela and
Pliny, mention the country under the name Scandinavia
(Sk&ne), a name which in native records seems always to have
been confined to the southernmost district in the peninsula.
Little information, however, is given by ihese authorities
with regard to the inhabitants.
The people next in importance to the Sulones in the
peninsula (Swed. CSlar, O. N. GouUir, A. S. Ceaias) are first
mentioned by Ptolemy (tmder the form Goutai for Gautoi),
together with a number of other tribal names, most of which
unfortunately cannot be identified, owing to the corrupt state
of the text. Ptolemy puts the Gdtar in the southern part of
the country, and from the earliest historical times their name has
been given to the whole region between the Cattegat and the
Baltic, exclusive of the provinces of Halland and Sk&ne which
down Co the 17th century always belonged to Dejimark. The
coast of the Cattegat north of the GOta £lv was reckoned in
Norway. Gdtaland consisted of the provinces of VesiergGtland
and Ostergbtland divided from one another by Lake Vetler,
together with Sm&land. In early times Vesterg5lland seems
to have been by tar the most important.
Vennlaod, the district to the north of Lake Veoer and the
SWEDEN
'97
whole of Che covntiy to the nocth of Svtaltod teem to have
i of tOMjik impoctance. Jimtluid was always considered
, a part of Norway. After the time of Ptotemy we
hear no moie of Sweden until the 6th century, when
a sttiprisiiigiy full account of its peoples is pven
by the Gothic historian Jordaoes. He mentiona both the Svear
<S«cthaBs) and the G6tar together with other peoples, the
nasMS of sevcni of which can be recogniaed in the district-^
oaoes of later times, in spfte of the numerous oorroptions of the
text. He praises the horses of the Svear and speaks of their
great trade in fucs of arctic animals which were transferred
from merchant to merchant untU they reached Rome. About
the other peoples of Sweden he gives a few details, chiefly of
physical or moral chacactedstics, commenting upon the. warlike
nature of the Vislgauti, the mildness of the Finns, the bfty
stature of the Vinovii and the meat and egg diet of the Rere-
fcanae. Joidaoes's statement regarding the prevalence of trade
with Sweden is corroborated by the fad that many coins and
bcacteates of the period have been found in the country. 01
these the ooins are chiefly Roman and Byzantine gold pieces
of the 5th century, the brsctcatcs copies of Roman coins of
the same period.
Prooopins, the conteoipocaiy of Jordanes {Cakka^ iL i$)
likewise gives an accoont of Sweden, which he calls Thule,but
the only tribes irhich he names arc the Skrithephinnoi
(A. S. ScriOefinnas), a wiTd people of Finnish stockr
and the Gatar (Oantoi) whom he describes as a ''nation
abounding in men." For the same period we derive a oonsider-
abk amowit of informati6& with regard to Swedish affaim from
the AngiO'Sason poem BwmJf, The hero himself belonged
to the Gieatas («.«. in all probaUhty Qatar, though the Identifica-
tion is dispttted by some scholazs), his mother being the daughter
of their ling HretbeL Haethcyn, the son and auoccssor of this
Hrethck* U said to have perished in a disastnms battle against
the Svear, but his fall «aa avenged by his brsther Hygdsc in
a subseqaent cngB«ement in which the Swedish king Ongentheow
was killed. This Hygelac is dearly identicsl with that Cfaodd-
laicus wrongly deetribcd as a Danisb kinip by Gregory of Tours
(ill. 3) who made a piratical expedition to the lower Rhine which
ended in his defeat and death in a battle with the Franks under
Theodherht about an. 520. The poem oontsins several allusions
to thb disaster. We leim further that about the time of
Hyadac's death strife broke out si the royal family of the
Svear, between Onela, the son and successor of Ongentheow, and
Eammmd and Eadgib, the sons of his brother Ohthere. The
latter fled for protection to the GStar and the war which ensued
onsl the fives of Eaonrond and of Hearrired the son aadsucceiSBr
oi Hysdae. According to the poem Beowulf himself now be-
came king of the G6tar and assisted Eadgib in a campaign which
residtcd in the death of Onela and the acquisition of the throne
by his nephew. What is said in the poem with regard to the
end of Beowulf belongB to the realm of myth, and for three
centuries after this time we have no reference to Swedish affaiia
in English or other foreign authorities. Moreover after the time
of Beowulf and Jordanes there are very few references to the
kinffchmi of the G<Har and in Olaf Skdttkooung's time It was
merely an earldom. The kingdom must have come to an end
between the 6th and 10th centuries aj>., and probably quite
early in that period.
The YngKngatal, a poem said to have been composed by
Thioflolfr of Hvfn, cowt-poet of Harold Pairhair, king of Korway ,
j^ gives a genealogy of Harold's family, whkh it carries
rj^0HtaUM back to the early kingi of the Svear. Snorrf Stur*
Si/Sm. *"*"'* (1x78^1 «4i) the Icelandic author u^ng this
******* poem as a basis and amplifying It from other
soviroea, wrote the Ynglings Saga, which traces back the
history oi the family, generation by generation, to Its beginning.
In this saga AlKls (the Eadgila of Bt^midf), son of Ottarr is one
of the most prominent figures. The account gfven of him agrees
in general with the statements in Bemanift thoogh the nature
of his relations with Ali (Onela) has been misunderstood. The
decisive battk between the two kings is said to have taken place
on the froeen surface of Lake Wener. Ongentheow appears
to have been entirely forgotten In Norse tradition and his place
is taken by a ceruin Egill. The saga further sutes that Aoils
was an enthusiastic horse-breeder and that he met with bis death
throu^ a fall from his horse. This point is of interest b con-
aenon with the notice of Jordanes, mentioned above, with
regard to the horses of the Svear. Other northern authorities
such as Saao and the Hrolfs Saga Kraka represent ASils in a
very nnfavourable light as niggardly and addicted to sorcery.
The Ynglingatal and Ynglinga Saga enumerate A0il's ancestors
to no less than seventeen generations, with short accounts of
each. We have no means of checking the gen«ilogy from other
sources, and the majority of the characters are probably to be
regarded as mythical. The origin of the family is traced to
the god Frey, son of NiSrOr, who is said to have founded Upsala,
the ancient capital of Sweden. His reign is represented as a
golden age of peace and prosperity and the great wealth of the
sanctuary is said to have taken iu beginning from the offerings
at his tomb. His full name appears to have been Yngvifreyr
or Ingunar Freyr and his descendants are coUectlvdy termed
Ynghngar, thoogh we also occasionally meet with the name
Skilfingar, whkh corresponds with the name Sdlfingar borne
by the Swedish royal family in Beowulf.
After the time of Adils the YngUngar remained In posMssion
of Upsala for four generations according to the saga. UUimatdy
the treachery and the murderous dispodtion of Uie king named
Ingialdr led to his overthrow by a prince from Skine, called
Ivarr ViOfaOmi. His son Olafr Tritelgia withdrew to Vermland,
which be brought into a state of cultivation, though he was
subsequently sacrificed by his subjects in a time of famine. It
is stated in the saga that the Swedish kuigs were believed to
have control over the seasons like their ancestor, the god Frey,
and traces of this belief seem to have lingered In the country
down to the times of GustavusVasa. The sons of Olafr TMtdgia
moved westward into Norway, and if we may trust the saga^
the Swedish kingdom never again came into the possession of
their family.
The subsequent kings of Swcden'are sakl to have been descended
from Ivarr ViOfaAmi. The most prominent figures in this family
are Haraldr HUditdim Ivair's grandson and haiatma^
nephew Sigurflr Hringr. The story of the battle «»■ •'
between these two at Brftvik, in which Haraldr lost CMrtteaHr.
his life, is one of the most famous in northern literature. But
the position of these kings with regard to Sweden is far from
clear. Their home is probably to be placed on the Cattegat
rather than on the Baltic. The same is true also of Raiparr
LoObr6k, who is said to have been the son of Slgur5r Hringr.
About the year 830 the missionary bishop Ansgar made his
first expedition to Sweden. He made his way to Birca on the
Mllar. The king whom he found reigning there is called BjSm
(Bern) and is generally identified with the king Bj6m for whom
Bragi the Old coropraed the poem called Ragnarsdrdpa, On
his subsequent journeys to Sweden Ansgar encountered kings
called Olafr and Onundr. He appears to have met with oonskler-
able immediate success in his missionary enterprises, although
there Is no evidence to show that the churches he founded Icmg
survived his death, and no serious mission seems to have been
attempted for more than a century afterwards.
During the 9th century extensive Scandinavian settlements
were made on the east side of the Baltic, and even as early
as the fdgn of Louis I. we hear of piratical ezpedi- semad^
tions on the Black Sea and on the Caspian. The mvju
famous expMitions of Rurik and AskoW ^Wch J^«[[|J2J<«
resulted in the origin of the Russian monard^ uKmam.
appear to have taken place towards the middle of the 9th
century, but it has not been found possible to connect these
names with any families known to us from Swedish tradition.
Proofs of extensive Scandinavian settlement in Russia are to
be found partly in the Russian names assigned to the Dniepei
rapids by ConsUntine Porphyrogenitus, partly in references
to this people made fay foreign representatives at the court of
Byzanthim. The fact that aaa&y of the nas*'
igS
SWEDEN
IHtSTOSV
in Ruanan chronicles seem to be peculiarly Swediih suggests
that Sweden was the home of the settlers, and the best anthoritifcs
consider that the original Scandinavian conquerors were Swedes
who had settled on the east coast of the Baltic'
lo the time of Harold Fairhair, probably about the beginning
of the loth century, we hear of 'a king named Eric the son of
jCtagate Emund at Upsala, whose authority seems to have
iA«iv<* reached as far as Norway. Later in the century
c^mtary there is record of a king named Bjdm & Haugi
who is said to have been the son of Eric and to have reigned
fifty years. Bjflm's sons and successors were Olaf and Eric
the Victorious. Styrbidm Starki, the son of Olaf, being refused
his share of the government by Eric after his father's death,
made himself a stronghold at Jomsborg in Pomerania and spent
some years in piratical expeditions. Eventually he betook him-
self to Harold Bluetooth, then king of Denmark, and endea-
voured to secure his assistance in gaining the Swedish throne
by force of arms. Although he failed in this attempt he was
not deterred from attacking Eric, and a battle took place between
the two at the Fyrisi (close to Upsala) in which Styrbiom was
defeated and killed. Eric himself died ten years after this battle,
apparently about 995, According to the story he had obtained
victory from Odin in return for a promise to give himself up at
the end of ten years. Under his son and sucxessor Olaf, sumamed
mtahihhm Skdttkonung, Christianity was fully established in
■M0<*f Sweden. Olaf Tryggvason, the king of Norway,
Cftrkc^ bui married his sister IngibiOtg to Ragnvald, earl
'''^* of Vestergdtland, on condition that he should receive
baptism, and the Swedish king's wife was also a Christian, though
he himself was not baptized until 1008 by Sigfrid at Husaby.
A quarrel arose in the last years of the loth century between
Olaf Skottkonung and Olaf Tryggvason. The hitter had applied
for the hand of SigriO, the widow of Eric the Victorious, but had
insulted her on her refusal to become a Christian. In the year
xooo, when the Norwegian king was in Pomerania, a coalition
was formed between the king of Sweden, Sweyn Forkheaid,
king of Denmark, and earl Eric of Lade, and the alliea waylaid
their enemy off the coast near Rtigen abd overthrew him in
«»ftao# the great sea-battle of Svolder. Under Olaf Sk«ttr
oimtsuut' konung Sweden became the mightiest of the king-
^•■■m^ doms of the north, in spite of the king's own
inactivity. She lost her lands east of the Baltic, but received as.
compensation in Norway part of Trondhjem and the district
now called Bohttslan. These lands Olaf handed over to Earl
Sweyn, brother of Earl Eric (whose father Haakon had governed
Norway), as a marriage portion for his daughter HolmfriO.
Some years later we hear of hostilities between Olaf Skdttkonung
and another Norwegian prince, Olaf Haxaldsson (the Fat), who
raided Sweden and was besiei^ in the Millar by the Swedish
kmgf In 10X4, th^ year of Earl Eric's departure to England
with Canute, Olaf Haraldsson, returning to Norway as king, put
an end to the Swedish and Danish supremacy^ and in 10x5 he
forced Eidrl Sweyn to leave the country. Trifling border-quarrels
followed, but in xor? a truce was arranged between Norway
and Vestexgtttland, where Earl Ragnvald was stiU in power.
Olaf of Norway now sent his marshal Bjfim to Ragnvald to
arrange a peace. Ragnvald brought him to a great assembly
at Upsala in February xox8. At this meeting BjOrn, supported
by the earl, asked for peace, and Olaf was compelled by the
pressure of the lawman Thorgny to agree to this and also to
promise his daughter IngegerO in marriage to the Norse king.
The marriage, however, never got beyond the betrothal stage,
and at Earl Ragnvald's suggestion Astrid, her half-sister, was
substituted, contrary to the will of Olaf Skettkonung. Such was
the anger of the king that Ragnvald was forced to accompany
Ingegerd to Russia, where she was married to the grand^uke
Jaroslacv at Novgorod. - In Sweden, however, both the VesigStar
and the Uplind Sviar were discontented, the former on account
of the breaking of the king's promise to Olaf of Norway and the
latter on account' of the introduction of the new religion, and
thdr pasoons were further inflamed hv the lawman Anund of
Skara. A niiog m Upland •■ ibare his power
with his son Jacob, whose name was changed to Anund by tbt
leaders of the revolt. A meeting was then arranged between
the kings of Norway and Sweden at Kongelf in 10x9, and this
resulted in a treaty. The death of Olaf Skdttkonung b assigned
by Snoiri Sturiuson to the winter of xosi-ioss. His grave is
still shown at Husaby in VestergGtland.
Anund, now sole king, eariy in his reign allied himself with-
Olaf Haraldsson against Canute of Denmark, who |iad demanded
the restitution of the rights possessed by his father i
Sweyn in Norway. The allies took advantage of <^'<
the Danish king's absence to harry his land. On *" '^"^
his return an indecisive battle was fought at Helgi A,
and Anund returned to Sweden. Olaf was driven from
Norway by the Danes, but returning in xojo be raised a
small army in Sweden and marched through J&mtland to Trend*
h jem only to meet his death at the battle of Stiklestad. After
death he was worshipped in Sweden, especially in Gotland. We
hear from Adam of Bremen that Anund was young in yeais but
old in wisdom and cunning; he was called lOolbrannea because
he had the houses of evikioeis burnt. like Olaf Sk6ttkonung
he caused coins to be struck at Sigtuna, of which a few remain.
The moneyers' names are English. The coins of Ammd iuipass
all that were struck during the next two oeoCuries. He apptus
to have died about 1050^ according to Adam of Bremen. He
was succeeded by his brother Emund the Old* who Bama^iitt
had been prevk>ualy passed* over because his mother ou,n»'
was unfree, the daughter of a Sbv prince and "***
captured m war. This king had become a Christian, bat
soon quarrelled with Adalhard, archbishop of BresMO, and
endeavoured to secure the independence of the Swedish dnirch,
which was not obtained for another century. Emundi who was
given the name Slemme, had territorial disputes with Denmark in
the early part of his reign. These disputes, were settled. by a
rectification of boundaries which assignai BleUnge to Dennuuk.
.With the death of Emund, which took place in xo6q^ the old
family of Swedish kings dies out. The succenor of Emund tha
Old was a king named Steinkd who had married ^^^^^
the daughter of his predecessor. He was the aon ^f^g_
of a certain Ragnvald, perhaps connected with the
Vestergfithmd Ragnvald, of the reign of Qiaf Skdttkonuag.
Steinkd was botn in Vestergfitland aqd was mnafy attSched
to the Christian rdigioiL The Adalhard who had quarrelled
with Emund the Old now sent a bishop, Adalhard the younger,
to Scan. Christianity waa by this time firmly established
throughout most of Sweden, its chief strength being in Vcsteigfit-
hind. The Uplanders, however, stili hdd oat against it, and
Adalhard, though he suoceedbd in destroying the idols in his
own district VestergOtland, was unaUe to persuade Steinkd
to destroy the old sanctuary at Upsala. During his rdgn grants
of land in Vermland made by the king to the Narse eaxl Haakon
Ivarsaon led to a successful invasion of Gfltaland Iqr' Harold
Hardrada of Norway. Steinkd also had disputes with Denmark.
On his death in xo66 a dvil war broke out in which the leaders
were two obscure princes named Eric. Probably the division
of feelmg between VestergOtland and Upland in the tnatter of
religion was the real cause of this war, but nothing is known of
the details, though we hear that both kizigs as wdl as the chid
men of the land Idl in it.
A prince called Haakon the Red now appears as kiiag of
Sweden and is said to have' occupied the throne for thirteen
years. In the VestergOtland regnal lists he appears tumt&m <ie
bdore Steinkd and it is possible that th; authority «^ MM-
of that king waa not regukriy acknowledged in '*'"
the province. . In xo8x we find the sons of Stdakd, Inge
and Halstan, rdgaing in Sweden. Inge'a attachment to
Christianity caused him to be. expelled after a short time by
his brother-in-law Sweyn or Blotsw^ya» so called jMKm,
from his revival of the old sacrifices. Sweyn retained i^t»M4
the kingship only for three years. After that ™^"''^
interval Inge returned and slew him» and his fall macks the
final overthrow of the old religion.
Hie interesting account of Upsak preictved by Adam U
HBIOKyi
SWEDEN
199
Bromb ill Ut-flfifory <iv. *6) «|>piNBt]y dnUi ftom the poiod
iBBBcdiatdy preccdiqg these events. He describes the temple
w ene of great splendour and oovered with gildiog.
In it stood the statues of the three chief deities
Thor, Odin and Friooo (by whom he probacy means
FVey). Eveiy nine yean a great festival was held there to which
cnbttsiea were sent by all the peoples of Sweden. A large number
of ■iiiw^aU and even men. were sacrificed on such occasions. In
tJwndighboarhoodof the temple waa a grove of peculiar sanctity
in which the bodies of the victima were hung up. After the
intiodaoUon of Christianity tho importance of Upsahi began
steadily to decline^ and owing to iu intimate associations with
the old religion the kings no longer made it their residence.
Auraoaims fob Early History.—- Tadtus, Gt i matu t i t cap. 44;
Qaudiiu Ptofeoaem, Ceogmpkita iL 11 «^ fin,; Tocdanes. 2)ff
mitine acHbusgtu Cttarum cap. 3; Proco|^ius, De bale rMico, iL
1^: Beomdft Rimbertus, Vita S. Ansgarii tnmonumenta uenHaniag
insl0nca^ tL' 683*735 (kai
of Onska 1. i
1829):
Yntft
aad(
a. aiMv/i King Alfred's tranda-
Adam 01 Bremen. Gesia iwmmabwinuu
I iii. and iv.; Yngfrnga 5a|0, with the poem
led in the ffeimskrinela; (Xafs Sagan Trytgnsmar
OGis Saga Af IU Hdga, both conumed in Heimskrinpa and in
mna s9pir; Saxo erammaUetu, gesia Danonun;
cf later Swcdiih ChronioeB contained in Rtrum tuewanm scrip*
itra, vol. iiL (ed. Anaerttedt, Uptala, 1871 and 1876); Sverigts
kislorm, vol. I (Montelius & HOdebrand, Stockholm, 1875-1877):
Thomaen, Tkt Rdations between Ancient I^ussia and Seandtnana and
ike Origin ef Ike Russian Slate (Oxford and London, 1877).
(F.G.M.B.)
Under Blotsweyn's grandson. King SveHcer (1x34-1x55)^
who permanently amalgamated the Swedes and Goths (odi
Cig^i^^ of the two nationa supplying the common* king
mmai um alternately for the next hundred yean) Sweden
**^^*^ began to fed the advantage of a centxahaed mon-
archical government Eric IX. (1x50-1x60) organised the
Swedidi Gburch on the model prevalent ebewhere, and under-
took a crusade against the heathen Finlandersi iriiich marks the
beginning of Sweden'^ overseas dominion. Under Quoies VII./
the aichbisfaopric of Upsala waa founded (1^64). But the
greatest medieval statesman of Sweden was Eari Birger,
who pcacticaDy nded the land from 1348 to xi66. To him
is attributed the foundation of Stockhohn; but he is best
known aa a Icgishitor, and his wise reforms prepared the way
for the abolition of serfdom, 'the uuareased dignity which the
-nywl power owed to Earl Birger was still further extended by
King Magnua LaduUa (isys-xaQo). Both these mien, by
the institution of separate and almost independent duchies,
attempted to introduce into Sweden a feudal system similar
to that already established elsewhere in Europe; but the danger
of thua weakening the realm by partition was averted, though
not without violent and tragic oomplicationa. Finally, in 13 19,
the severed portioaa of Sweden were once more reunited. Mean-
jipai^aia while* the political devebpment of the state was
mtom Steadily proceeding. The formation of separate
9tiamm, orders, or estates, waa promoted by Magnus LaduUs,
who extended the privileges of the deigy and founded an here-
ditary nobility (Ordinance of Alsnfi, 1280). In oonneuon with
this institution we now hear of a heatily armed cavalry aa the
_, kernel of the national army. The knights too now
fJllSkMWL ''^c^Bi^ distinguishable froni the higher nobility.
To this* period belongs the rise of a prominent
bnfgcas dass, as the towna now began to acquire charters. At
the end of the 13th century, and the beginning of the X4th too,
pffovindal codes of laws appear'and the king and his council
cseatte lepalative functions.
The first union between Sweden and Norway occurred in 1319,
when the three-year-old Magnus, son of the Swedish roysl duke
, Eric and of the Norwegian princess Ingeborg,
who had inherited the thxone of Norway from his
grandfather Haakon V., was in the same year elected
king of Sweden (Convention of Odo). A k>ng minority weakened
the royal influence in both countries, and Magnus lost both his
* A legendary list of kings gives to this Charles six pr cd cceswan
«r rhe same name. Subsequent kings of Sweden have always given
this Chafica the title ol Charks Vll.
kmgdoma before his death. The Swedes, britatedhy his miffuh^
supe r seded him by his nephew, Albert of Meckle^mrg (1363).
In Sweden, Magnus's partialities and necessities led direcUy
to the rise of a powerful landed aristocracy, and, indirectly,
to the growth of popular liberties. Forced by the uflrulincss
of the magnates to lean upon the middle classes, the king sum-
moned (X359) the first Swedish Riksdag, on which occasion
representativca from the towns were invited to appear along
with the nobles and dcrgy. His successor, Albert, was forced
to go a step farther and, m 1371, to take the first coronation
oath. In 13S8, at the request of the Swedes themselves, Albert
was driven out by Margaret, regent of Denmark vnhmai
and Norway; and, at a convention of the repre- Jtataar, ;
sentatives dt the three Scandinavian kingdoms held ^'^^
at Kalmar (1397), Margaret's great-nephew, Eric of Pome-
rania, was dectcd the common king, but the liberties of each
of the three realina were expressly reserved and confirmed*
The union was to be a personal, not a political union. .
Ndther Margaret herself nor her successors observed the
stipulation that in each of the three kingdoms only natives
should hold land and high office, and the efforts pi^,^
of Denmark (at that time by far the strongest BtemOtat
member of the union) to impose her will on the *^Vmiaat
weaker kingdoms soon produced a rupture, or, /^^^
rather, a series of semi-ruptures. The Swedes first broke away
ficom it .in X434 under the popular leader Engdbrecht, and
after his murder they dected Karl Knutsson Bonde their
king under the title of. Charles Vm. (1436). In 1441
Chules VIII had to retire in favour of Christopher of
Bavaria, who was already king of Denmark and Norway; but,
on the death of Christopher (X448), a state of confusion ensued
in the course of which . Charles VIII. waa twice expdled and
twice reinstated. Finally, on his death in 1470, the three
kingdoms were reunited under Christian I. of Denmark, the
prelates and higher nobility of Sweden being fa<voorablft
to the union, though the great majority of the Swedish
people always detested it as a foreign usurpation. Tha
national party was represented by the three great RikS"
fdrestdndare, or presidents of the realm, of the Sture family (see
Sturz), who, with brief intervals, from X470 to 1520 successively
defended the independence of Sweden against the Danish kings
and kept the national spirit alive. But the presidentship
was too casual and anomalous an institution iog/geti^pf
rally the nations round it permanently, and when Onatavma
the tyranny of Christian II. {q.v.) became intoler- ^'^ *■**
able the Swedish people elected Gustavus Eriksson Vasa, who
aa president had already driven out the Danes (see Denmark:
History), king of Sweden at StrengnSs (June 6, 1533).
The extraordinary difficulties of Gustavus (see Gustavtts I.)
were directly responsible for the .eccentric development, both
political and religious, of the new kingdom which
his genius created. So precarious was the position SS^juMi
of the young king, that he was glad to make allies
wherever he could find them. Hence his desire to stand well
with the Holy See. Only three months after his accession,
he addressed letters to the pope begging him to appoint new
bishops " who would defend the rights of the Church without
detriment to the Crown." He was espedally urgent for the
confirmation of his nominee Johannes Magni as primate, in
the place of the rebellious archbishop Gustavus Trolle, who as
a convicted traitor had been formally deposed by the Riksdag
and was actually an outlawed exile. If the pope would confirm
the elections of his bishops, Gustavus promised to be an obedient
son of the Church. Scarcely had these letters been despatched
when the king recdved a papal bull ordering the immediate
rdnstatement of Gustavus Trolle. The action of the Oiria on
this occasion was due to its conviction of the imminent triumph
of Christian 11. and the instability of Gustavus's position. It
was a conviction shared by the rest of Europe; but, none the
less, it was another of the many blunders of the Oitin at this
difficult period. Its immediate effect was the loss of the Swedish
Chivdi. Gustavus could not accept as primate an open and
200
SWEDEN
fjBKSWKf
detcmincd traitor like TroUe. He pubHdy protested, in the
sharpest language, that unions Johannes Magni were recognized
at Rome as archbishop of Upsala, he was determined,
of liis own royal authority, henceforward to order
the affairs of the Church in hisreahn to the glory
of God and the satisfaction of all dristian men. But the Holy
See was immovable, and Gustavus broke definitely with Rome.
He began by protecting and promoting the Swedish reformers
Olavus and Laurentius Petri, and Laurentius Andreae. The
new teaching was allowed to spread, though at first unostenta*
tiously and gradually. A fresh step in the direction of Lutheran-
Pngn»*9i^^^ was the translation of the New Testament into
<**ffe/ar> .Swedish, which was published in 1526. Simul-
maOoa, tancously, a systematic attack was made upon the
religious bouses, beginning with the sequestration of the
monastery of Gripsholm in January 1526. But the affair
caused such general indignation that Gustavus felt obliged,
in May, to offer some justification of his conduct. A few months
later there was an open rupture between the king and his own
primate, who ultimately was frightened into exile by a sudden
accusation of treason. But the other bishops were also against
Gustavus, and, irritated by their conscientious opposition, the
king abandoned the no longer tenable position of a mode-
rator and came openly forward as an antagonist. In 1526 the
Catholic printing-presses were suppressed, and two-thirds of
the Church's tithes were appropriated to the payment of the
national debt. On the 18th of February 1327 two bishops,
the first martyrs of Catholicism in Sweden, were gibbeted at
Stockholm after a trial which was a parody of justice. This
act of violence, evidently designed- to terrorize the Church into
submission, was effectual enough, for at the subsequent Riksdag
of Vestcris (June, 1527), the bishops durst not even present
a protest which they had privately prepared, and the assembly
g^gg„ ^itself was bullied into an absolute submission to ihc
oSSomaei royal will. The result was the Vesteris Recess
ofVeMttnM, which transferred all ecclesiastical property to the
IStr. Crown. By the subsequent VcstcrSs Ordinance
the Swedish Church was absolutely severed from Rome. Never-
theless, the changes so made were mainly administrative.
There was no modification of doctrine, for the general resolution
that God's Word should be preached plainly and purely was not
contrary to the teaching of the ante-Tridentine Church. Even
at the synod of Orebro, summoned in February 1529, "for the
better regulation of church ceremonies and discipline according
to God's Word," there was no formal protest against Rome;
and the old ritual was retained for two years longer, though It
was to be explained as symbolical. Henceforth the work of the
Reformation continued uninterruptedly. In 1531 Laurentius
Petri was elected the first Protestant primate of Sweden. Subse-
quently matters were much complicated by the absolutist
tendencies of Gustavus. From 1539 onwards there was a breach
between him and his own prelates in consequence of his arbitrary
iq;>propriation of the Church's share of the tithes, in direct
violation of the Vester&s Recess. Then Gustavus so curtailed
the power of the bishops (ordinances of 1539 and 1540) that they
had little of the dignity left but the name, and even that he was
disposed to abolish, for after iS43 the prelates appointed by
him, without any pretence of previous election by the cathedral
chapters, were called ordinaries, or superintendents. Finally,
at the Riksdag of Vesteris. in 1544 though no definite con-
fession of faith was formulated, a final breach was made with
the traditions of the old religion.
Thus the Reformation in Sweden was practically the work
of one strong roan, acting (first from purely political and latteriy
from purely economical reasons) for the good of the state as
be. understood it. In this Gustavus acted contrary to the
religious instincts of the vast majority of the Swedish nation,
for there can be no doubt at all Ihal the Swedes at the beginning
o( the i6th century were not only still devoted to the old Church,
but wolently anti-Protestant. This popular Romanism was
the greatest el «U Cii^vi«'| ^i^ ' '<? U tended to
alienate ibe Swc&li'p«mAU
For the last fatin<fred yetn the peasants bad been a kaditig
factor in the political life of the land; and perhaps in no tabu
contemporary European state could so self-reliaBt n«
a class of yeomen have been found. Again and A«aaatt.
again they had defended their own and the national liberties
against foreign foes. In the national ttsemblies, too, their voice
had always been powerful, and not infrequently predominant.
In a word, they were the sound kernel of the still but partially
developed Swedish constitution, the democratic safeguard
against the monarchical tendency which was enveloping the
rest of Europe. Gustavus's necessities had compelled hhn to
break with the ecclesiastical traditions of Sweden; and they
also compelled him, contrary to his masterful disposition, to
accept constitutionalism, because without it his footing in his
own kingdom would have been insecure. The peasants there^
fore were his natural allies, but, from the nature of the case,
they tended to become his most formidable rivals. They prided
themselves on having " set King Gus in the high seat," bat they
were quite ready to unseat him if hb rule was not to their liking,
and there were many things with which they were by no moans
contented. This anomalous state of things was responsible
for the half-dozen peasant risings with which Gustavus had to
contend from 1525 to 1543. In all these rebellions the religious
difficulty figured largely, though the increasing fiscal biurdens
were undoubtedly grievous and the peasants had their particu*
lar grievances besides. The wholesale seizure and degradation
of Church property outraged them, and they formally protested
against the introduction of "Luthery." They threatened,
more than once, to nuuch upon and destroy Stockholm, because
the Reformers had made of H "a spiritual Sodom." They
insisted on the restoration of the andent Catholic customs, and
would have made neglect of fasting and other sina of oknitaion
penal offen«^es. Though he prersuled in the end, Oustavns waa
obliged to humour the people throughout And thus, though
he was strong enough to maintain what he had established and
finish what he had begun, he was not strong enough to tamper
seriously with the national liberties or to crush altogetlicr
Catholic aspirations. At the time of his death the R&adag
was already a power in the state, and a Catholic reaction in .
Sweden was by no means an impossibility, if only the CatboUcs
had been able to find capable leaders.
Gusuvus's foreign policy at first aimed at little more than
self-preservation. Only with the pecuniary assistance of the
wealthy merchants of Lfibeck had he been able to An^'
establish himself originally; and Lfibeck, in return, P^asrot
had exploited Sweden, as Spain at a later, day OuaUvm^
was to exptoit her American colonies. When, with the aid
of Denmark, Gustavus at hut freed himself from this greedy
incubus (see Demhaxx; Gustavvs I ; Ckrishah III.) by
the truce of the 38th of August z $37, Sweden lor the fitat time
in her history became the mistress of her own waters. Bui
even so she was but of subordinate importance in Scandi-
navian politics. The hegemony of Denmark was indjsptttabkti
and Gostavua regarded that power with an cver-increasing
suspicion which augured ill lor peace in the future. The chief
cause of dispute was the quartering by the Danish king of the
three crowns of Sweden on the Danfr-Norwcgiaa shield, which
was supposed to indicate a claim of sovereignty. Still more
offensive was theattitude of Sweden's saatcm ndgbbour Muscovy,
with whom the Swedish king was nervously anztous to stand
on good terms. Gustavus attributed to Ivan I V. , whose resources
he unduly magnified, the design of esublishing a universal
monarchy round the Baltic
Nevertheless events were already occurring which ultimately
compelled Sweden to depart from her neutrality and lay the
foundatk>ns of an ovciaeas empire. In the last
year of Gustavus's hfe (rs6o). the andent nUUtary ^sw,^l,
order of the Sword, amalgamated, since 1x37, with the
more powerful order of the Teutonic Knights, had by the seculari-
sation of the latter order into the dukedom of Prussia (1525)
become suddenly isokted in the midst of hostile Slavonians^
It needed but a jolt to bring down thecnay ) '
HBTORV)
SWEDEN
20t
the jolt OHM whctt» fat 155^^, <iooA M I l ute<w 4t< tt pMitd
ov«r tht l*nd, fhrcstenbig the whole f^rovinceiHth deRniciion.
tn Nsdcspatr the last muter of the order, GMthard von K«ttler»
appealed M all his more dvihsed nd^boitrs to save him, and
his dommions were quickly partitioned between Pbland,
Denmark aitd Sweden. Sweden's orfigiinal share of the spoil
was Rcval, which, driven to entremiiies, placed Itself beneath
the protection of the Swedish crown in March 1561. From the
moment that Sweden get a firm footmg in Esthonia by the
acquisiUon of Reval she was committed to a policy of combat
and aggrandisement. To have retreated woold have meant
the run of her Baltic trade, upon which the national prosperity
so modi depended. Her nextxioor neighbours, Poland and
Russia, were necessarily her competitors; fortunately they
were also each other's rivals; obvkMisly her best policy vna to
oDunterpoise them. To accomplish this effectually she required
to have her hands free, and the composition of her long-
ootstancfing differences with Denmark by the Treaty of Stettin
en the ijth of December 1570 (see DsMtAHIt; Hisiofy), wMch
pot an end to the Dano>Swedish war of 156^1570, the chief
political event of the reign of Eric XIV. (1566^1568), the eldest
son and successor of Gustavus Vasa, was therefore a judicious
act on the part of the new king of Sweden, John III. (1568-1591).
Equally jodidous was the antl^Ruasian league with Stephen
Batho^, king of Poland, concluded in 1578. The war between
Russia and Sweden for the possession of Esthonia and Livonia
(1571^7) had been uninterruptedly disastrous to the latter,
axkA^ in the beginning of 15771 a countless Russian host sat down
before Reval, Sweden's last stronghold in those parts. The
energetic intervention of Dathory, however, spe«lily turned
the scales in the opposite direction. Six months after his
homtiiating peace with the Polish monarch, Ivan IV. was glad
lo conclude a truce with Sweden also on a «<» fassidetis l»stS
at Ftiusa (Aug. s, 1582).
The amicable relations between Sweden and Poland promised,
at first, to be permanent. Sixteen years before his accession
^ ^ to the throne, John III., then duke of Finland, had
j^i^ff wedded Catherine JagicUonica, the sister of Sigis-
mund II., khig of Poland (Oct. 4, 1562). Duke
Sgismund, the fruit of this union, was brought up by Ids mother
in the CathoUc religion, and, on the i^tb of August 1587, he
was ekcted king of Poland. Sixteen days later the Articles
of Kalmar, signed by John and Sigismund* regulated the future
rdatioos between the two countries when, in process of time,
Sfgisniund should succeed his father as king of Sweden. The
ATOJB^mf two kingdoms were to be in perpetual alliance, but
ri M f t each of them was to retain its own laws and customs.
"■'• , Sweden was also to enjoy her religion, subject to
socfa duoiges as a general council might make; but neither
pope nor council was to daim or exercise the right of releas-
ing Sigismund from his obfigatfons to his Swedish subjects.
Thumg Sigismund*s absence from Sweden that realm was to
be ruled by seven Swedes, six elected by the king and one bv
bit uncle Duke Charles of Sudermania, the leader of the Swedish
jprotestants. No new tax was to be levied in Sweden during
tlie king's absescSf but Sweden was never to be administered
from Pbland. Any necessary alterations in these articles were
only to be made with the common consent of the kmg, Duke
Charies, the senate and the gentry of Sweden.
The endeavours of Swedish statesmen to bind the hands of
their futme king were due to their f^r of the rising flood of
3mti^mma ^^ Catholic reaction in Europe. Under Eric XIV.
A»caAi* the Reformation in Sweden had proceeded on much
*■■*■••• the same lines as during the reign of his father,
fvfainlfig all the old Catholic customs not considered con-
trary to Scripture. Naturally, after 1544, when the Council
of Treat had formally declared the Bible ond tradition to be
eqoally authoritative sources of all Christian doctrine, the
cDotfast between the old and the new teaching became more
elyvfoas; and in many countries a middle party arose which
aimed at a compromise by going back to the Church of the
Fathons; King John IIZ.^ the most learned of the Vasas. and
ittmewhat of a thedbgical expert, was largdy htflncMed by
iImm'' middle '*vie#s. As soon as he had mounted the throne
he took measures to bring the Swedish Chmch jotatm.mm^
back to " the primitive Apostolic Church and the iMSMtta
CAtfaoUc faith*'; and, in 1574, persuaded a synod ^^*'*^
assembled at Stockholm to adopt certain articlet framed by
himself on what we should call a High Church basis. In February
IS7S a new (Hiurch ordinance, approximaUng still more ckssely
to the patristic Church, was prMited to another synod, and
accepted thereat, but very unwillingly. In 1576 a new liturgy
was issued on the model of the Roman miiaal, but with consider*
able modifieationa. To a modem High Anglican these innova-
tions seem innocent enough, and, despite the opposition of
Duke Charles and the ultra-Protestants, they were adopted
by the Riksdag of 1577. Thicse measures greatly eneoeraged
the Catholic party In Europe, and John IIL was ultimately
pennaded to send an embassy to Rome to open negotiations
for the reunion of the Swedish Church with the Holy See. But
though the Jesuit Antonio Poasevino was sent to Stockholm
to complete Joho^ " conveition," John would only consent
to embrace Catholicism under certain conditions which were
never kept, and the only result of all these sabterraneous negotia-
tions was to incense the Protestants still more apdnst the new
liturgy, the use of which by every eongregntion in the resim
without exception was, nevertheless, decreed by the Riksdag
of 1 583. At this period Duke ChaHes and his Protestant friends
were clearly outnumbered by the promoters of the via nudia,
Neverthettta, Immediately after King John's death, a synod
Summoned to Upsala by Duke (Charles rejected the new liturgy
and drew up an-anti-C^tholic confession of faith (March 5, 1 593).
Holy Scripture and the three primitive creeds were decbrnd
to be the true foundations of Christian faith, and the Augsburg
Confession was adopted. That Sigismwid, now the lawful
king of Sweden, should regard the summoning <ii cm^Wmt.
the synod of UpsaUt without his previous knowledge es]M*iM«r
and consent as a direct infringement of his pre- ^fchwa**"
rogaiive was only natural On his arrival In Sweden, how-
ever, he tried to gain time by provisionally confirming what
had been done; but the aggressiveness of the Protestant
faction and the persistent usurpations of Duke Charles (the
Riksdag of 1595 proclaimed him regent thou|^ the king had
previotsly refused him that oflke) made a dvil war inevitable^
The battle of Stingilbro (Sept. 15, 1598) decided the struggle
in favour of Charies^-ond Protestantism. Sigismund fled
from Sweden, never to return, and on the xpth of March 1600
the Riksdag of Linktiping proclaimed the duke king Avcf«m«-
under the title of Charles IX. Sigismund and Yamhmoi
posterity were declared to have forfeited the Swedish JJj*****
crown which was to pass to the heirs male of Charies. '^^^
Not till the 6th of March I604, however, after Duke John, son
of John III., had formally renounced his hereditary right to
the throne, did Charles IX. begin to style himself king. At
the Riksdag of the same year, the estates committed „. j^^ ^
themselves irrevocably to Protestantism by excluding ^fcShSa!^
Catholics from the succession to the throne, and
prohibiting them from holding any office or dignity In Sweden.
Henceforth, too, every recusant was to be deprived of his estates
and banished the realm.
It was in the reign of (Tharles IX. that Sweden became not
only a predominantly Protestant, but also a predominant^
military monarchy. This momentous change, which BtOMM'
was to give a martial colouring to the whole poOcy mtatof
of Sweden for the next hundred and twenty years, ^^watar
dates from a decree of the Riksdag of Link5ping '^'^^^
establishing, at the urgent suggestion of Charles, a regular army;
each district in the country being henceforward liable to provide
and maintain a fixed number of infantry and cavalry for the
service of the state. The immediate enemy was war with
Pbland, now dynastically as well as territorially PoUadaad
opposed to Sweden. The struggle took the shape of a *■■'■•
contest for the possession of the northern Baltic provincw.
Esthonia was recovered by the. Swedes in '
202
SWEDEN
(HISTOItV
dctermiBcd effort! (i 601-9) ^ V^ta * foothold in Livonia
were frustrMed by the miliUry ability of the grand hetinan
ol Lithuania, Jon Kaiol Chodkiewica. In 1608 hostilities were
tcansfened to Russian territory. At the begUkning of that year
Charles had concluded an alliance with Tsar Basil IV. (qj9.)
against their common foe, the Polish king; but when, in 161 1,
Basil was deposed by his own subjects and the whole tsardom
seemed to be on the verge of dissolution, Sweden's policy towards
Russia changed its charaaer. Hitherto Charles had aimed
at supporting the weaker Slavonic power against the stronger,
but now that Musoovy seemed about to disappear from among
the nations of Europe, Swedish statesmen naturally sought some
compen^tion for the expenses of the war before Poland had had
time to absorb everything. A beginning was made by the siege
and capture of Kejdiolm in Russian Finland (March s, 161 1);
and, on the x6tb of July, Great Novgorod was occupied and
a convention concluded* with the magistrates of that wealthy
city whereby Charles IX.'s second son Philip was to be recognized
as tsar, unless, in the meantime, relief came to Great Novgorod
from Moscow. But now, when, everything depended on a
concentration of forces, Charles'^ imprudent assumption of
the title of ." King of the Lapps of Nordland,'' which |>eople
properly belonged to the Danish Crown, involved him in another
war with Denmark, a war known in Scandinavian history
as the war of Kalmar because the Swedish fortress
of Kalmar was the chief theatre of hostilities. Thus
the Swedish forces were diverted from their real
objective and transferred to another field where even victory
would have been comparatively usprofitable. But it was
disaster, not victory, which Charles IX. reaped from this fool-
hardy enterprise. Still worse, the war of Kalmar, prudently
lYtritf concluded by Charles's son, Gustavus Adolphus,
KmMn4, in the second year of his reign, by the peace of Kniired
MM. (jiiQ^ 20, x6ii)' imposed such onerous pecuniary
obligations and such intense suffering upon Sweden as to en-
kindle into a fire of hatred, which was to burn fiercely for the
next two centuries, the long smouldering antagonism between
the two sister nations of Souidinavia which dated back to the
bloody days of Christian II.
The Russian difficulty was more easily and more honourably
adjusted. When Great Novgorod submitted provisionally to
f^tm9t the.suaerainty of Sweden, Swedish statesmen had
J i«<io i >» believed, for a moment, in the creation of a Trans-
'"'• baltic dominion extending from Lake Umen north-
wards to Archangel and eastwards to Vologda. The rallying
of the Russian nation round the throne of the new tsar, Biichael
Romanov, dissipated, once for all, this ambitious dream. By
the beginning of 1616, GusUvus had become convinced of the
impoasArfUty of partitioning reunited Muscovy, while Muscovy
recopiised the necessity of buying off tbe invindbie Swedes
by some cession of territory. By the Peace of Stolbova
<Feb. 37,- 16x7), the tsar surrendered to the Swedish king the
provinces of Kexholm and Ingria, including the fortress of
N9teborg (the modem SchlOsselburg), the key of Finland.
Russia, furthermore, reitounoed all claims upon Esthonia and
Livonia, and paid a war indemnity of ao,ooo roubles. In return
for these concessions, Gustavus restored Great Novgorod and
acknowledged Michael Romanov as tsar of Muscovy.
The same period which saw tbe extension of the Swedish
Empire abroed, saw also the peaceful development o£ the Swedish
Ifgif^t oopstittttion at home. In this, as in every other
OmaiMrm matter, Gustavua .himself took the initiative.
AM^tm. Nominally the Senate still remained the dominant
power in the sUte; but gradually all real authority had
been transferred to the crown. The Riksrid speedily h)St iu
ancient character of a grand coundl representing the semi-
^ ruifHi feudal Unded axistociacy, and became a bureau-
tfMMf cracy holding the chief offices of state at the good
cuag^ pleasure of the kii«. The Riksdag also changed
its character at the same time. Whilst in — pean
country except England, the ancient 'ion
by estates was about . to disappear Icn
under Guitavus Adolphus it geaw into an intcgRil portion
of the ooDstitutioo. The Riksdag ordinance of 1617 first
converted a turbulent and haphazard mob of *' tikadagment'*
huddling together like a flock of sheep ".or drunken boors,"
into a dignified national assembly, meeting and deliberat-
ing according to nde and order. One of the iM>bility (first
called the Landimarskalk), or marshal of the Diet, in the Riksdag
ordinance of X5a6) was now legukrly appointed by the king
as the spokesman ^ the Biddarkus, or House of Nobles, while
the primate generally acted as the lolman or president, of the
three lower estates, the clergy, burgesses and peasants, though
at a later day each of the three lower estates elected its own
kUman. At the opening of every session, the king submitted
to the estates '^ royal propositions," or bills, upon which each
estate proceeded to deliberate in its own separate chamber.
The. replies of the estates were delivered to the king at a subse-
<)uent session in congress. Whenever the estates differed
amongst themselves, the king chose whatever opinion seemed
best to him. The righu of the Riksdag were secured by the
KvHumiafOrsHkrau^ or assurance given by every Swedish king
on his accession, guaranteeing the collaboration of tbe estates
in the work of legislation, and they were also to be consulted
on all questions of foreign policy. The king possessed the
initiative; but the estates had the right of objecting to the
measures of the government at the close of each session. It it
in Gustavus's reign, too, that we first hear of the HemliiB
UiskoU, or " secret committee " for the transaction of extra-
ordinary affairs, which was elected by the estates themselvca.
The eleven Riksdags held by Gustavus Adolphus were almost
exclusively occupied in finding ways and means for supporting
the ever-increasing burdens of the Polish and German wars.
And to the honour of the Swedish people be it said that, from
first to last, they showed a religious and patriotic seal which
shrank from no sacrifice. It was to this national devotion
quite as much as to his own qualities that GusUvua owed his
success as an empire-builder.
The wars with Denmark and Russia had been almost exclu-
sively Scandinavian wars; the Polish war was of worid-wide
significance. It was, in the first place, a struggle
for the Baltic littoral, and the stnig^e was intensified'
by the knowledge that the Polish Vasas denied the
right of Gustavus to the Swedish throne. In the eyes
of the Swedish king, moreover, the Polish War was a war
of religion. GusUvus regarded the Scandinavian kingdoms
as the two chief pillars on which the Evangelical rcligian reposed.
Their disunion, he argued, would open a door in the north to
the Catholic league and so bring about the destruction of Den-
mark and Sweden alike. Hence his alliance with Denmark to
defend Stralsund in X638. There is much of unconscious
exaggeration in all this. As a matUr of fact the Polish republic
was no danger whatever to Protestantism. Sigismund's obsti-
nate insistence upon his right to the Swedish crown was tbe
one impediment to- tbe conclusion of a war which the Polish
Diet heartily detested and very successfully impeded. Apart
from the semi-impotent Polish court, no jespoasible {Pole
dreamod of aggrandisement in Sweden. In faa, during, pie
subsequent reign of WladisUus IV. (x6ja-x648), the Poles pre-
vented that martial monarch from interfering in the Tk^y
Years' War on the Catholic side. GusUvus, whose lively
imagination waa easQy exdted by religious ardour« enonaovsly
ma^iified clerical influence in Poland and frequoitlly loettted
dangers where only difficulties existed.
For eight years (x6ax-9Q) the ohausting and expensive
Polish war dragged 00. By the beginning of i6a6 Livonia wts
conquered and the theatre of hostilities was transferred to the
Prussian provinces of Poland (see Gustaws II. Aoomros;
KonccpotSB [Stanxsmx's]). The fertile and easily defentittlc
delta of the Vistula was now occupied and Gustavus treated it
as a permanent conquest, makl;ig his great minister Axd Obien-
stjema its first governor-general. But this was the limit of the
Swedish advance. All Oustavus's further efforts were frustrated
by the superior strategy of the Polish grandhetman KoniecpokUL
SWEDEN
ao3
and, itt J«M 1639, tfte Ung gMly acMplcd the locative
truce of Altmark. By this truce Sweden wee, for mx ycan» to
Rtaia piMMMwn «f her Livoaian conqaeetey beiideft holding
Ettmg, the Vistula delu, Bimoubeig in West, and PfUan and
Memcl in East Prussia, with the ri^t to levy toUa at Pillau,
AIezDcl,I>aiisg,LabiattandWiiidatt. Fsom these tolls Qustavus
derived, in 1699 ahrne, 90O/)0o rix-doUan, a sum equivalent to
the whole of the eatnordiaary subsidies granted to bias hy the'
Khadng. Thus Sweden held, for a ttme, the coatiol of the
principal trade rautca of the Baltic up to the very ooiifines of
the empire; and the inciemept of revenue resulting from this
oefBaaaading position was of material sssJitsmw to her dving
the earlier stages of the war in Gennany, wfaithm Guatavus
cnasfened hia forcea in Jose 1639,
The motives of Gustavua In plangug into the Thirty Yean*
War mod the details of the straggle u regarda Sweden are else-
j»v*«aatf where set forth (see GiTtrAVUs II.; Oobimsxtibca
ttoTM^r IAxse]; Bioiis (JoBUf); Tcaamnamv (Lem-
ran' wmti „a„j). Here the only point to be hisbted upon
h the extreme piecarioasncm of the Swedish positioB from
hist to last-Hi precariousoeu due entirely to fnadequacy
ef autcrial resources. In 1632 all Genmmy lay at the
feet of Sweden; two yean hter a riagte disaster (N«rd<
lingen) brought her empire to the verge of ruin. For the
next seven years the German War aa regards Sweden waa
a struggle for existence. She triompibed hi the end, it is true,
but It was a triumph due entirely to a lucky acddent-^-the
peaseasion, during the criris, of the greatest statesman and tbe
greatcat captain of the age. It was the eiploiu of Oxenatjema
and Banfa* which alone enabled Sweden to obtain even what die
did obtain at the great Westphattan peace oongsem m 1640.
Her original demands were Silesia (she held most of the foxtressea
there), Pomerania (which had been in her pessessioD lor nearly
twenty yearn), and a war indemnity of 90,000,000 rix-
daOnfS. What she actually got was (s) Upper Pomennia,
with th$ islands of Kilgen and Utedom, and a strip of Lower
pyaemia on the right iide of the Oder, mdodihg the towns of
Stettin, (Sara, Damm and GoUnow, and the isle of WoUin, with
the ri^it of so axmio n to the rest of Lower Pomeraniil hi the
esse of tbe extinction of the Bmndenborg Hobenaollenis; (2)
the town of Wissoar with thtf distriets of Poel and Neukloster;
(3) the secularised Msboprics of Bremen and Verden; and. (4)
5^aoo,ooo rix-doUars. These German possessions were to be
held as fiefs of the empire; and In respect thereof Sweden was
10 have a vote hi tbe fanperial Diet apd to '* direct " the Lower
Saaoo Orde alternately with Brandenburg. Fmnce and Sweden,
Boreover, became joint guanntors of the treaty with the
e mp cpor, and were entrusted with tKe carrying out of iu pro-
visions, whidi was practically effected by the executive congress
sf NQrnnberg m 1650.
Sweden's reward for the exertions and sacrifices of eighteen,
years was meagre, almost paltry. Her newly won possenions
jyg^^ were both 'small and scattered, though, on the other
m^mm^ band, she had secured the practical, contrpl of the
^ i mt m ^t three principal rivers of north Germany—the Oder,
*" ■*■■ the Elbe and the Weser— and reaped the full
advantage of the tolls levied on those great comiherctal
aftcfMS. The Jealousy of France and the impatience of Queen
Gkristtna were the chief causes of the inadequacy o( her final
leoompcnse. Yet, though tbe immediate gain was small, sbe
ted not dissipated her blood and treasure altogether in vain.
Her vigorous intervention bad saved the cause of religious Mberty
Europe; and this remains, for dil time, her greatest political
tdrievctaent. Henceforth till ber coUapse, seventy years later,
die was tbe recognised leader of Conthiental Protestantism.
A more questionable benefit was her rapid elevation to the rank
•f an imperial power, an elevation which imposed tbe duty of
mwaining a military monarchy, armed cgp-i^pie for every
possible emergency. Every one recognizes now that the poverty
nd sparie population of Sweden unfitted her for such a
tn^nendotts destiny. But in the middle of the tyth century
ihe ncompatibility between her powers and ber pretenshms was
not •» ohvhMM. All her ncighbouta wwe-elthir decadent- or
fxhaiiilf d states; and France, the most powerful of tbe Western
powers, waa her firm ally.
Por the moment, however, Sweden held the field. Evevythhig
d e pended upon the policy of the next few years. Veiy caref «d
statesmanship might mean pennanent dondnlon ^j^mm
on the Baltic above, but there was not much margin GkHtma,
for bhmderfaig. Unfortunately the extravagance ^ ^^ - ^^f ^
of Gustavua Adolphus's two immediate successors, Christina^
and Charles X., ahook the fiimsy fabric of his empire
to ita very base. ChrisUaa's extravagance was finandaL
At the time of her abdication the state waa on the verge of bank*
ruptcy, and tbe financial dfflkulty had snperiuduosd a serious
polklGslagitation. The masaoftheSwedishpeople was penetrated
by a Justifiable fear that tbeextenml, attificml greatness of their
country might, in the long run, be pun^ased with the los of
their dvil ahd political liberties. la a word, the natural equili-
brium of Swedish society was seriously threatened by the pre-
ponderance of the nobility; and tbe people at Urge looked to
tbe new king to redress the balance. A better. ^^ . y
arbiter between the various estates than Charles X. uHSii'
it would have been dlflfetilt to find. It is true that,
primarily a soldier, his whole ambition wsa directed towards
military glory; but he was also an unusually sharp-sighted
politieian. He affected to beheve that only by force of
arms could Sweden retain the dominion which by force
of arms she had won; but he also gnuqied the fact that
there must be no disunlod.at home If she wore to continue
powetfal abroad. The most pressing question of the day,
the so-called RedukHon, or restitution of the alienated crown
lands, WM adjusted provisionally at the Riksdag of 1655. The
king p ro posed that the actual- noble holders of crown property
should either pay aa annual sum of soo,ooo civ-dollaia, to be
flowed for out of any further ciown lant^ subsequently failing
in to them, or should sumadcr a fourth of the coqiectant property
itself to tbe eulmated amount ^f 6oo,teo rix-doUars. The
nobility attempted to csespir taocatiofi as cheaply as possible by
stipuhtting that-the 6tb of November 1639, the day of Gustavui
Adolphus's death, should be the extreme limjt of any restrospec-
tlve action on the part of the crown in regard to alienated crown
property, and that the present sabsidy should be regarded as
"a perpetual onUnanee" unalterably to be observed by all
future so v ereign s ^ in other words, that there should be no
further restitution df alienated crown property. Agamst this
interpretation of the subsidy bOl the aheady over-4axed lower
estates protested so energetically that the Diet had to be sus-
pended. Then the king intervoied personally; not to quell the
commons, as the senate insisted, but to cotnpel the nobility to
give way. He proposed that the whole matter should be
thoroughly Investigated by a special committee before the
meeting of the next Riksdag, and that hi the meantime a coo*
tribution should be. levied on all i^hsaes proportionately. This
equitable arrangement was accepted by the estates forthwith*
Charles X. had done his best to obviate the effects of tbe
financial extravagance of Christina. It may weH be doubted,
however, whether his own extra^^igant desire for ^^;f ,
military glory was not equally injurious to hbn^'j^, *'
country. In three days he had succeeded in per-"
suading the Swedish esutes of the hicrarive expediency, of his
unnecessary and immoral attack on Poland (see Poland:
H%ittfy)\ but when he quitted Stockhohn for Warsaw, on the
loth of July 1654, he little hnagined that he had embarked on
an adventure which was to contribute far more to his glory than
to the advantage of Ins country. How 4he Pofish War^expanded
into a general European war; how Charles's mimculous audacity
again and again ravished favours from Fortune and Nature
{e.f. the passage of tbe Belts) when both those great powers
combined against fahn; how, finally, he emerged from all his
difficulties triumphant, indeed, hot only to die of sheer exhaustion
> Christina** reign dates, properly, from 1644 when she attained
her majority. From 163a to I644 Axd Oxcnst^
the rukr of S w i df.
204
SWEDEN
pnsiOBv
in his Uiiny-«ighth ycaf^-«]l Udft has dievbere been described
(see Ceasies X., king of Sweden; Czainizcu [Stsphen);
Fredeuck III., king of Denmark). Suffice it to say that,
immediately after his death, the regency appointed to govern
ctaituXL Sw^<^ during the minority of his only son and
successor^ Charles XI., a child four years old,
hastened to come to terms with Sweden's numerous enemies,
which now included Russia, Poland, Brandenburg and Denmark.
The Peace of Oliva (May 3. xWo). made under
oSniusa. French mediation, put an end to the long feud with
Pi^and and, at the same time, ended the quarrel
between Sweden on the one side, and the emperof and the
elector of Brandenburg on the other. By this peace, Sweden's
possession of Uvonia, and the elector of Brandenburg's
sovereignty over east Prussia, were alike confirmed; and the
king of Pbland renounced all claim to the Swedish crown. As
regards Denmark, tbo Peace of Oliva signified the desertion of
her three principal allies, PoUnd, Brandenburg and the emperor,
and thus compelled her to reopen negotiations with Sweden
direct. The differences between the two sUtes were finally
adjusted by the peace of Copenhagen (May 27, 1660), Denmark
ceding the three Scanian provinces to Sweden but receiving
back the Norwegian province of Trondhjem and the isle of
Bombohn which she had surrendered by the peace of RaskUde
two years previously. Denmark was also compelled to recog-
nise, practically, the independence of the dukes of Hobtetn-
Gottoipb. The Russian War was terminated by the Peace of
Kardis (July 9, 1661), eonfirmatory of the Peace of Stolbova,
whereby the tsar surrendered to Sweden all his Baltic provinces
•*-Ingria, Eslhonia and Rexholm.
Thus Sweden emeiged from the war not only a military power
of the first magnitude, but also one of the Ur^st sutes of
Sw^aMa Europe, possessing about twice as much territory
mOnmi as modem Sweden. Her area embraced 16,800
Poww, geographical square miles, a mass of land 7000
sq. m. larger than- the modem German Empire. Yet the
Swedish Empire was rather a geographical expression than a
state with natural and national boundaries. Modem Sweden
is bounded by the Baltic; during the xyth century the Baltic
was merely the bond between her various widely disposed
dbminions. Ail the islands in the Baltic, except the Danish
group, belonged to Sweden. The estuaries of all (he great
(German rivers (for the Niemen and Vistula are properly Polish
rivers) debouched in Swedbh territoiy, within which also lay
two-thirds of Lake Ladoga and one-half of Lake Peipus. Stock-
holm, the capital, lay in the very centre of the empire, whose
second greatest city was Riga, on the other side of the sea. Yet
this vast empire contained but half the population of modem
Sweden — being only 9,500,000, or about 140 souls to the square
mile. Further, Sweden's new boundaries were of the most
insecure description, inasmuch as they were anti-ethnographical,
parting asunder races which naturally went together, and behind
which stood powerful neighbours of the same stock ready, at
the first opportunity, to reunite them.
Moreover, the commanding political influence which Sweden
had now won was considerably neutralized by her loss of moral
prestige. On Charles X/s accession in 1655, Sweden's neigh-
bours, though suspicious and unea^, were at least not adver-
saries, and might have been converted into allies ol the new
great power who, if she had mulcted them of territory, had, any-
how, compensated them for the loss with the by no means con-
temptible douceur of religious liberty. At Charles X.'s death,
five years later, we find Sifireden, herself bled to exhaustion point,
surrounded by a broad belt of desolated territory and regarded
with ineradicable hatred by every adjacent sUte. To sink in
five years from the position of the champion of Protestantism
to that of the common enemy of every Protestant power was a
degradation not to be compensated by any amount of military
glory. Charles's subsequent endeavour, in stress of circum-
stances, to gain a friend by dividing his Polish conquests with
the aspiring elector !|$ff{^h$tel 9U a reversal of his original
policy and mijf i%wmiiriiiqgiMI>Wi<hmeat oa the southern
confines of Sweden of a new rivri afaBOit u dangerous ••
Denmark, her ancient rival in the wesL
In 1660, after five years of incessant warfare, Sweden had at
length obtained peace and witih it the opportunity of organising
and developing her newly won empire. Uitfor-
tunately, the regency whkh was to govern her during p'SrJnL
the next fifteen years waa unequal to the difficulties
of a situation .which mi^t have taxed the resourcea of the
wisest sUtesmen. Unity and vigour were scarcely to be exp
peaed from a many-headed administration composed of mtn
of mediocre talent whose contrary opinions speedily gKvt rise
to oontendlng factions. There was the high-aristocntic party
with a leaning towards martial adventure headed by Magnus de
la Gardie {q.v.)^ and the party of peace and economy wboae
ablest representative was the liberal and energetic Jelian
Gyllenstjema iq.v.). After a severe strug^e, de la Gwdie't
party prevailed; and its triumph was marked by that general
decline of personal and political morality which has given to*
this regency its unenviable notoriety. Sloth and carelessness
speedily invaded every branch of the administration, destroying
all discipline and leading to a general neglect of business.
Another characteristic of the de la Cardie government was its
gross corruption, whicSi made Sweden the obsequious hireling
of that foreign power which had the longest purse. This shame-
ful "subsidy policy" dates from the Treaty of Fontainebleau,
1661, by 'a secret paragraph of which Sweden, in exchange for a
considerable sum of money, undertook to support the French
candidate on the first vacancy of the Polish throne* The com*
plications ensuing from Louis XIV.'s designs on the Spanish
Netherlands led to a bid for the Swedish alliance, both from the
French king and his adversaries. After much hesitation on tlio
part of the Swedish government, the anti^French faction pro-
vailed; and in April x668 Sweden acceded Co the Triple Alliance*
which finally checkmated the French king by bringing about the
Peace of Aix-la-Chapclle. For the next four yeais Sweden
remained true to the principles of the Triple Alliance; but«
in 167a, Louis XIV. succeeded hi isolating the Dutch republic
and regaining his ancient ally, Sweden. By the Tkeaty of
Stockholm (April 14, 167 »), Sweden becSme, fw -nj^^^^
the next ten years, a "mcrcenarius Galliae," pledging ^^^ amhw
herself, in return for 400,000 crowns per annum in;
peace and 600,000 in war-time, to atuck, with x6^ooo men, any-
German princes who might be disposed to assist Holland. In
1674 Louis XIV« peremptorily called upon Sweden to fulfil
her obhgations by invading Brandenburg. In the course o£
May 1675 a Swedish army advanced into the Mark, but on th*
x8th of June was defeated at Fehrbellln, and hastily retreated
to Demmin. The Fehrbcllin affair was a mere skirmish, the actual
casualties amounting to less than 600 men, but it rudely divested
Sweden of her nimbus of invincibility and was the signal for a
general attack upon her, known as the Scam'an War.
In the course of the next three years her empire w^
seemed to be cmmbling away everywhere. In
1675 Pomerania and the bishopric of Bremen were overrun
by the Brandenburgers, Austrians and Danes. In December
r677 the elector of Brandenburg captured Stettin. Stralsund
fell on the isih of October 1678. Greifswald, Sweden's
last possession on the Continent, was hit on the $lh of
November A defensive alliance with Sobieski (August 4f
1677) was rendered inoperative by the annihilation of Sweden'a
sea-power (battle of Oland, June 17, 1676^ battle of Fehmain*
June 1677) and the difficulties of the PoUsh king.
Two accidents at this crisis alone saved Sweden from ruin — the
splendid courage of the young king who, resolutely and success*
fully, kept the Danish invaders at bay (see Chaales XI., king
of Sweden), and the diplomatic aaivity of Loub XIV. In
March 1677 a peace congress began its sessions at Nijmwegen;
and in the beginning of April 1678 the French king dictated
the terms of a general pacification. One of his chief conditiono
was the complete restitution of Sweden. A strong Sweden
was necessary to the accomplishment of his plana. He suggested*
however, that Sweden should rid hcrscU of her enemies by
nSRAVI
SW£DEN
ao5
M them. l!Us Chaiies XX.
lefuaed to do, wfaotoupoii Louis took it upon-UsneK to coacfatde
pcttce oa Sweden's aocoimt without ooDSttlting the wishes of
•t^w^ymi the Swedish king. By tfai» Tieaty of Nijmwegeii
tmmmt ^guh (Feb. 7) ftnd of St Gemuun <Jiine sg, 1679)
'*'*' Sweden virtually zeoei^Fed foU restitutioa of her
GcrattB territory. On the sod of September by the Ptesoe
of Fontainebkeu (confirmed by the subsequent Peace of Lund,
Oct. 4» 1679K Denmark was also foreed to ictiocede hex
cooqucsts. It is certain that Sweden herself could never have
extorted such favourable terms, yet " the insuflerabk tntelase "
of France on this oocasion hupiicd Charles XI. with a per*
sonal dislike of the mighty ruler of France and contributed
to reverse the traditional diplomacy of Sweden by giving it a
stnmg anti-Fiench bias (see Cbabixs XL; O^smaiji^kiia,
BsMEOicr).
The remainder of the reign of (Shades XL is remarltable for
a revolution which converted the government of Sweden into
q^ i,j ^ a semi-absolute monarcl^. The Idog emerged from
sm^ttm the war convinced that if Sweden were to retain her
Sw«rftt* position as a giaat power she mnst radically reform
S;;'^*^ her whdle economical system, and, above all, dr-
^^ cumsctibe the predominant and mischievoas in*
floence of an aristocracy whkh thought far more of its
privil^es than of its public dudes. He felt that he could
now draw upon the confidence and liberality of the lower
orders to an nnlhnited extent, and be proceeded to do so. The
Riksdag which assembled in Stoctiiobn in October 1680
begins a new era of Swedish history. On the motion of the
Estate of Peasants, which had a k>ag memory for aristocratic
aboses, the question of the recovery of the . alienated caewn
lands was bfought before the Riksdag, and, despite the stubborn
opposition of the magnates, a resolution of the Diet directed
that all oountships, baronies, domains, manors and other estates
producing an annual rent of more than £70 per annum should
levett to the Crown. The ssme Riksdag decided that the king
was not bound by any particular constitution, bat only bylaw
and the statutes. Nay, they added that he was not even
obliged to consult the council of state, but was to be regarded
as a sovereign k>rd, responsible to God alone for his actions,
and requiring no intermediary between himself and his people.
The ooundl thereupon acquiesced in its own humiliation by
meekly accepting a royal brief changing its official title from
RiksrU (council of slate) to Kun^garad (royal connca)— a
visible sign that the senators were no k>nger the Ung^s colleagues
but his servants.
Tbos Sweden, as well as Denmark, had become an absohite
monarchy, but with this important difference, that the right
oi the Swedish people, in parliament assembled, to be consulted
on all Important matters was recognized and acted upon. The
Riksdag, completely overshadowed by the throne, was during
the reign of Charles XI. to do little more than renter the royal
decrees; but nevertheless it continued to exist as an essential
part of the machinery of government. Moreover, this transfer
o^ authority was a voluntary act. The people, knowing the
king to be their best friend, trusted him impiidty and co-
opented* with tnm cheerfully. The Riksdag of 1682 proposed a
fresh Reduktion, and dedared that the whole question of how
far the king was empowered by the law of the land to bestow
firfs, or, in case of urgent national distress, take them' back
again, was exclusively his majesty's affair. In other words,
it made the king the disposer of his subjects' temporal property.
Presently this new prindple of autocracy was extended to the
king's legislative authority also, for, on tho 9th of December
xtidz, iJl four estates, by virtue of a common dedamtion, not
only confirmed htm in the possession of the legislative powers
enjoyed by his predecessors, but even conceded to him the right
of interpreting and amending the common law.
The recovery of the aUenated crown lands occupied CHiaries XL
for the rest of his life. It was conducted by a commission
which was ultimatdy converted into a permanent department
of sUte. It acted on the principle that the titles of all private
XXVI 4
IkBded ettAte tdgld be celled in question, inasmuch as at some
time or other it must have befeoged to the Crown; and the
burden of proof of ownership waa hdd not to lie with the Crown
which made thedalm, but with the actual owner of the property*
The amount of revenue accruing to the Crown from the whole
Bedukdon it is impoasibio to estimate even approximatdy;
but by these means, oonbined irith the most careful manage-
ment and the most rigid economyi Charles XI. oontrrved to
scduoe the national debt from £3,567,000 to £7oo,ooa
These opemtiens represent only a part of Charles XI.'s
gigantic activity. Here we have only space sufficient to ^ance
at his reorgsnisatkm of the national armaments. «toi|uto*
Charles XL re-establisbed on a broader basis the <ito«#
Uiddmmgsterk introduced by Charles IX.*-« system ^«»«"«»*
of military tenure wlitteby the national forces %ere bound
to the soiL Thus there was the rustMU tenure, under
which the tenants, instead of paying rent, were obliged
to equip and maintain a cavalry soldier and bone, while
the hnrktkUlanr supplied duly equipped foot soldiers. These
iaiddmng soldiers were provided with holdings on wfakh they
lived in times of peace. Formeriy, ordinary conscription had
existed akngside thla indditkig, or distribution system; but it
had proved inadequate as wdl as highly unpopdar; and, hi
1689, Charies XL came to an agreement with the peasantry
whereby an extended inielmng system waa to be susbsdtuted
for general coascriptioii. The navy, of even more importance
to Sweden if she were to maintain the dominion of the Baltic,
was entirely remodelled; and, the recent war having demon*
strated the unsuitability of Stockhofan as a naval station, the
oonstructi e n of a new arsenal on a gigantic scale was simul*
taneously begun at Xarlskroaa. After a seventeen yean' struggle
agsinst all maimer of finandal difficulties, the twofold enter*
prise was completed. At the death of Charles XL Sweden
could boast of a fleet of forty-three three^eckers (manned by
ix^ooomen md armed with 964B guns) and one of the finest
arsenals is the worid.
Charies XI. had'CarefuUy provided against the contingency
of his successor's minority; and the five .regents appcHnted by
him, if not great statieemen, were at leaat practical ^.^ j^j,
politicans vdio had not been trained in his austere tHr-tTts/**
school in vain. At home the Reduktion was
cautiously pursued, while abroad the successful condnsion of
the great peace tongiea s at Ryswick was jiatly regaided as a
signal triumph of Sweden's padfic diplomacy (see Oxxnstjerna
Family). The young king was full of promise, and had he
been permitted graduafly to gain experience and develop his
natur^y great talents beneath the guidance of his gaardtans,
as his father had intended, all might have been well for Sweden.
Unfortunately, the sudden, noiseiess revolution of the 6th of
November 1697, which sude Charles XIL absolute master of
his country's fate in his fifteenth year (see Ciuuis XII.),
and the loigue of Denmark, Saxony and Russia, formed two
yean later to partition Sweden (see Patxol, Johann Reimhoio;
Petex thb Gekat; Ceakizs XII.), predpitated Sweden into a
sea of troubles in which she was finally submerged.
From the very bcgmning of the Great Northern War Sweden
suffered from the inability of Charies XII. to view the situation
from anything but a purely personal point of view. <»«■«
His determination to avenge himself on enemies AfertSMv
overpowered every other consideration. Again and ^*^
again during these eighteen yean of warfare it was in his p6wer
to dictate an advantageous peace. After the dissipation of
the fint coalition against him by the peace of Itevendal
(Aug. 18, 1700) and the victory of Narva (Nov. so, i7«o)^
the Swedish chancellor, Benedict Oxenstjema, rightly regaled
the universal bidding for the favour of Sweden by Fra^ace
and the maritime powers, then on the eve of the War of
the Spanish Succession, as a golden opportunity of ''ending
this present lean war aiui making his majesty the arbiter, of
Europe." But Charles, intent on dethroning Augustus of
Poland, hdd hau^tHy alooL Subsequently in 170X b* rtA^tt^
a personal appeal from William UL to oondude
2o6
own tennt. Five yean later (Sept. 24, 1706) he did, indeed,
conclude tlie PoUah War by the peace of Altianstldt, but as
this treaty brought no advantage to Sweden, not even com-
penBation for the expenses of six yean of warfare, it was
poUticaUy coademnable. Moreover, two of Sweden's Baltic
provinces, Esthonia and Ingria, had been seized by the tsar,
and a tiiird, Livonia, had beoi well nigh ruined. Yet even now
Charles, by a stroke of the pen, could have recoveBed nearly
everything he had losL In 1707 Peter was ready to retnxrede
everything except St Petersburg and the line of the Neva, and
again Charles preferred risking the whole to saving the greater
part of his Baltic possessions (for details see Chaujb XII.;
Peter the Grbat). When at last, after the catastrophe of
Poltava (June 1709) and the flight into Turkey, be condescended
to use <hpU>matic methods, it was solely to prolong, not to
terminate, the war. Even now he could have made honourable
terms with his numerous enemies. The resources of Sweden
were still very far from being exhausted, and, during 17 10 and
1711, the gaUant Magnus Stenbock iq.v.) upheld her military
supremacy' in the north. But all the efforts of the Swedish
government were wrecked on the determination of Charles XII.
to surrender nothing. Thus he rejected advantageous offers of
mediation and alliance made to him, during 17x2, by the mari*
time powers and by Prussia; and, in 1714, he scouted the friendly
overtures of Louis XIV. and the emperor, so that when peace
was finally concluded between France and the Empire, at the
congress of Baden, Swedish affairs were, by common consent,
left out of consideration. When, on the X4th of September 17x4,
he suddenly returned to his dominions, Stralsund and Wisntor
were all that remained to him of his continental possessions;
while by the end of 1715 Sweden, now fast approaching the last
stage of exhaustion, was at open war with England, Hanover,
Russia, Prussia, Saxony and Denmark, who had formed a
coalition to partition her continental territory between them.
Neverthdeas, at this the deventh hour oC her opportunities,
Sweden might still have saved something from the wreck of her
empire if Chaxles had behaved like a reasonable being (see
Chablto Xn.; Peter ihb Great; («dRT2, Gboro Heinriox
von; Osterkak, Andrei); but he would only consent to
play off Russia against England, and h^ sudden death before
Frcdrikshald (Dec. xx, X7x8) left Sweden piactically at the end
of her resources aiKi at the mercy of her enemies. At the
beginning of 1719 padfic overtures were made to England,
Twmmtim » Hanover, Prussia and Dermiaxk. By the treaties of
^SS^ Stockholm (Feb. 30, 17x9, and Feb. x, x73o) Hanover
«Mi obtained the bishoprics of Bremen and Verden for
A »#w a* ' herself and Stettin for her confederate Prussia. '
uUhntL ^^ ^^ treaty of Frederiksboxg or Copenhagen
(July 3, t7so) peace was also signed between Den*
mark and Sweden, Denmaik retxoceding ROgen, Further
Pomerania as far as the Peene, and Wismar to Sweden,
in exchange for an indemnity of 600,000 rix-doUars, while
Sweden relinquished her exemption from the Sound tolls and
her protectorate over Holsteia-Gottotp. The ptospect of
coercing Russia by means of the Britirii fleet had akme induced
Sweden to consent to such sacrifices; but when the last demands
of England and her alliea had been complied with, Sweden
,, , waa left to come to teima as beat she could with
iifyttm^ the tsar. Negotiations wen reopened with Russia at
inn L—M Nystad, in May 1790, but peace was not conchided
mimi!!^ ^ ^® ^^^ ^ August ij»t, and then only under
ftoviMM. timiii^t pressure. By the pence of Nystad Sweden
ceded to Russia Inffria and Esthonia, Livonia, the Finnish
province of Kexholm and the fortress of ^^borg. Finland
west of Viborg and north of Kexholm waa restored to
Sweden. She also recdved an mdemnity of f '"' — of
thjkkrs and a solemn undertaking of nop ' r
dMMattc affairs.
U was not the least of Sweden's
Great Northern War that the new o
to compensate her for all her past sr
wKhlA it the eleaenU d ma^y tf"
SWEDEN pusronr
Early in 1720 Cbarics Xll.'b sister, Ulrica Leonon, who hnd
been elected queen of Sweden immediatdy after his death,
was permitted to abdicate in favour of her bus- nuMikAL,
band the prince of Hesse, who waa elected king f laa-i/w. *'
under the title of Frederick I.; and Sweden was, TimiJmMt4
at the saxne time, converted into the moat limited ^*"**^*
of monarchies. All power waa vested in the peopk ai
represented by the Riksdag, consisting, aa before, elf fiMir
distinct estates, nobles, priests, burgesses and peaaaata, nitiag
and deliberating apart. The conflicting intereata and mntoal
jealousies of these four independent assembliea made the work
of legislation exceptionally difficult. No meaaure oouki now
become law till it had obtained the assent of three at least of
the four eatates; but this provision, which seems to have bees-
designed to protect the lower orders against the nobility, pro-
duced evib far greater than those which it professed to core.
Thiis, measures nught be passed by a bare majority in three
estates, when a real and substantial majority of all four estates
in congreaa might be actually against it. Or, again, a dominant
action in any three of the estates might enact laws highly detri-
mental to the interests of the remaining estate— a danger the
more to be apprehended as in no other country in Europe were
class distinctions so sharply defined as in Swedien.
Each estate was ruled by its Idman, or speaker, who waa now
elected at the beginning of each Diet, but the archbishop waa,
ex cjicio, the talman of the deigy. The hndh rtmattm
matskalkj or speaker of the House of NoUes, pndded Mmi •#«*•
when the esutes met in congress, and also, by BttMiM,
virtue of his office, in the kemliga nUkoU^ or secret committee.
This famous body, which consisted of so nobles, 25 priests,
25 burgesses, and, very exceptionally, 25 peasants, possessed
daring the sesston of the Riksdag not only the aupxeme executive
but also the surpeme judicial and legislative functkms. It pre-
pared all biUs for the Rikadag, created and depoecd all ministries,
controlled the foreign poli^ of the nation, and claimed and
often ezerdscd the rif^t ol superseding the ordinary courts
of justice. During the parliamentary . recess, however, the
executive remained in the hands of the rod, or senate, which
was responsible to- the Rikadag alone.
It will be obvioua that there was no room in this republican
constitution ior a constitutional monarch in the modern sense
of the word. The crowned puppet who possessed a casting vote
in the fd^/, of which he was the iraminal president, and who was
allowed to create peers once in his life (at his coronation), was
rather a state decoration than a sovereignty.
At first this cumbrous and complicated instrument of govern-
ment worked tolerably well under the firm but cautious control
of the chancellor. Count Arvid Beemhard Horn r^mkm^
iq.9.). In his anxiety to avoid embroiling bis country #%/«*«.
abroad, Horn reversed the traditional policy of f'*'* a*'
Sweden by keeping France at a distance and chaw- ^^^^**
ing near to Great Britain, for whose liberal institutions he
professed the. highest admiration. Thus a twenty years'
war was succeeded by a twenty years' peace, during which
the nation recovered so rapidly from its wounds that it began
to forget them. A new race of politicians was springing up.
Since X7X9, when the influence of the few great ferritorial
families had been merged in a multitude of needy gentle-
men, the first estate had become the nursery and aiftcrwarda
the stronghold of an opposition at once noble and democratic
which found its natural leaders in such men as Count Carl
Gyllcnborg and Count Carl Gustaf Tessin (^.v.). These men and
their followers were never weary of ridiculing the timid caution
of the aged statesman who sacrificed everything to perpetuate
an inglorious peace and deriavdy nicknamed his adherents
" Night-caps " (a term subsequently softened into " Caps "),
themselves adoptmg the sobriquet " Hats," from the three-
cornered hat worn by officers and gentlemen, which was con-
sidered happily to hit off the manly self-assertion of the opposi-
tion. These epithets instantly caught the public fancy and had
already become party badgca when the estates met in 1738.
This Riksdag was to mark another turning-point in Swedish
MI4I.
iosraun SWEDEN
hiaiMy. Tlie Hati cviied everytiniig bifpM tbcm; ud Ite
a^ed Horn «b» finally compelled to retire from a acant wbere^
for Chaee and Uurty yeaiff he Jiad played a leading part.
Tbe policy of the Hata was ar return to the trndkional alliance
between Fzanoe and Sweden. When Sweden descended to
her natuial position aa a second-rate power the
jSSm, Fnnch alliance became' too oestly a luxuiy.
Horn had dear^ pecceived this; and his cantious
nentrality waa therefore the soundest statesmanship. But
the poKtidana who had ousted Horn thought differently. To
them prospcdty without gloiy was a worthkas p ossrseio n .
They aimed at restoring Sweden to her ionaer positioo as
a great power. France, natumlly, hailed with satirfaction
the rise «>f a faction which waa content to be her armour-
bearer in the north; and the golden streams which flowed
from Vcxsailles to Stockholm during the next two generations
were the political life-blood ol the Hat party.
The first bhmder of the Hats was the hasty and ill-advised
war with Russia. The European complications consequent
WmrwM^ apon the almost simultaneoua deaths>of the emperor
Charles VI. and Anne, empress of Russia, seemed
to favour their adventurous schemes; and, despite
the frantic protests of the Caps, a projea for the invasion of
Radian Finland was rushed through the premature Riksdag
of 1740. On the soth of July 1741 war was formally declared
agninst Russia; a month later the Diet was dissolved and the
Hat kuuUmarskalk set off to Finland to take command of the
army. The first blow was not struck till six months after the
declaration of war; and it was struck by the enemy, who routed
the Swedes at Villmanstrand and captured that frontier fortresa.
Kothing else was done on either side for six months more; and
then the Swedish generals made a " tacit truce " with the
f"^*"* through the mediation of the French ambassador at
St Petersburg. By the time that the " tacit truce *' had come
to aa end the Swedish farces were so demoralized that the mere
rasBoar of a hostile attack made them retire panic-stricken to
Bdsj^fbcs; and before the end of the year all Finland was in
the handa of the Russians. The fleet, disabled by an epidemic,
was, thsDughout the war, little more than a floating hospital.
To face the Riksdag with snch a war as this upon their
cooscieaces was a trial from which the Hats naturally shrank;
bttt, to do them justice, they showed themselves better parlia-
anentaiy than military strategists. A motion for an inquiry
into the conduct of the war was skilfully evaded by obtaining
pKccedence for the succession question (Queen Ulrica Leonora
had lately died rhildlfus and King Fredexick waa old); and nego*
^;y ^i«H^ were thus opened with the new Russian empress,
Efiabeth, who agreed to restore the greater part of Finland
if her csouain, Adolphus Frederick of Holsteio, were elected
ftrTT—***' to the Swedish crown. The Hats eagerly caught at
the opfMrtunity of recovering the grand duchy and their own
prestige abng with it. By the peace of Abo (May
ZHTtM, T* *7*J) ^ terms of the empress were accepted;
and only that small part of Finland which lay
htfood the Kymmene was retained by Russia.
In March 1751 old King Frederick died. His slender pre-
ro^Uivca had gradually dwindled down to -vanishing point
^i^^^^^P Adolphus Frederick {q.v.) would have given even less
mmth^ trouble than his predecessor but for the ambitious
ju#7S»- promptings of his masterful consort Louisa Ulrica,
*'''• Frederick the Great's sister, and the tyranny of the
estates, who seemed bent upon driving the meekest of
into rebellion. An attempted monarchical revolution,
by the queen and a few devoted young nobles in 1756, was
easily and remorselessly crushed; and, though the unhappy king
(fid not* as be anticipated, share the fate of Charles Stuart, he
was humiliated as never monarch was himiiliated before.
The same years which beheld this great domestic triumph
of the Hats saw also the utter collapse of their foreign "system."
AC the instigation of France they plunged reckhssly into the
Seven Years' War; and the result was ruinous. The French sub-
ulies. which mii^t have sufficed for a ux. weeks' demonstration
(it was gancoOy aisuflied that the king of Psussia would
give little. tronUe to a European coalition), proved quite in-
adequate; and, after five unsuccessful campaigns, the -^ «.
unhappy Hats were glad to make peace and ignomini- y^^^ k^
ously withdraw from a little war which had cost the
country 40,000 men and £2,500,000. When the Riksdag met
in r76o, the indignation against the Hat leaders was so violent
that an impeachment seemed inevitable; but once more the
superiority of their parliamentaiy tactics prevailed, and when,
after a session of twenty months, the Riksdag was brought to a
close by the mutual consent of both the exhausted factions,
the Hat government was bolstered up lor another four years.
But the day of rackoniog could not be postponed for ever;
and when the estates met in 1765 it brought the Caps into power
at last. Their leader, Ture Rudbeck, was elected marshal of
the Diet over Frederick Axel von Fersen (f .v.), the Hat candi-
date, by a large majority; and, out of the hundred seats in ths
secret committee, the Hats succeeded in getting only ten.
The Caps struck at once at the weak point of their opponents
by ordering a budget report to be made; and it was speedily
found that the whole financial system of the Hats ^^
had been based upon reckless improvidence and ^y.
wilful misrqMesentation, and that the only fruit
of their long rule was an enormous addition to the national
debt and a depreciation of the note circulation to onev
third of its face value. This, revelation led to an all-round
retrenchment, carried into effect with a drastic thoroughness
which has earned for this parliament the name of the ** Reduk-
tion Riksdag." The Caps succeeded in transferring £250,000
from the pockets of the rich to the empty exchequer, reducing
the national debt by £575,179, and establishing some sort of
equilibrium between revenue and expenditure. They also
introduced a few useful reforms, the most remarkable of which
was the liberty of the press. But their most important political
act was to throw their lot definitely in with Russia, so n^^^^
as to counterpoise the influence of France. Sweden was ^ y]?!?^
not ^en ss now quite outside the European ConcerL
Alghough no longer a great power, she still had many of the
reqxmsibiiities of a sreat power; and if the Swedish alliance
had considerably depredated in value, it was still a marketable
commodity. Sweden's peculiar geographical position made her
virtually invulnerable for six months out of the twelve, her
Pomeranian possessions afforded her an easy ingress into the
very heart of the moribund empire, while her Finnish frontier
was not many leagues from the Russian capivaL
A watchful neutrality, not venturing much beyond defensive
alliances and commercial treaties with the maritime powers,
was therefore Sweden's safest policy, and this the older Caps had
always followed out. But when the Hats became the armour-
bearers of France in the north, a protector strong enough to
counteract French influence became the cardinal exigency of
their opponents, the younger Caps, who now flung themselves
into the arms of Russia, overlooking the fact that even a pacific
union with Russia was more to be feared than a martial alliance
with France. For France was too distant to be dangerous.
She sought an ally in Sweden and it was her endeavour to make
that ally as strong as possible. But it was as a future prey,
not as a possible ally, that Russia regarded her ancient rival in
the north. In the treaty which partitioned Poland there was a
secret dause which engaged the contracting powers to uphold
the existing Swedish constitution as the swiftest means of sub-
verting Swedish independence; and an alliance with the credu-
lous Caps, " the Patriots " as they were called at St Petersburg,
guaranteeing their constitution, was the corollary to this secret
understanding. Thus, while the French alliance of the warlike
Hats had destroyed the prestige of Sweden, the Russian alliance
of the peaceful Caps threatened to destroy her very existence.
Fortunately, the domination of the Caps was not for long.
The general distress occasioned by their drastic reforms had
found expression in swarms of pamphlets which bit and stung
the Cap government, under the protection of »'
laws. The senate retaliated by an order in c
2o8
SWEDEN
{HISrORV
king refused to sign) declaring that all compIalBta against the
measures of the last Riksdag should be punished with fine and
imprisonment. The king, at the suggestion of the crown prince
(see GusTAVUs III.)> thereupon urged the senate to summon
an extraordinary Riksdag as the speediest method of relieving
the national distress, and, on their refusing to comply with his
wishes, abdicated. From the zsth of December to the 3ist of
December X768 Sweden was without a regular government.
Then the Cap senate gave way and the estates were convoked
for the 19th of April 1769.
On the eve of the contest there was a general assembly of
the Hats at the French embassy, where the Comte de Moddne
furnished them with 6,000,000 livres, but not tHI they had
sgned in his presence an undertaking to reform the constitution
in a monarchical sense. Still more energetic on the other side,
the Russian minister, Ivan Osterman, became the treasurer as
well as the counsellor of the Caps, and scattered the largesse
of the Russian empress with a lavish hand; and so lost to aU
feeling of patriotism were the Caps that they openly threatened
all who ventured to vote against them with the Muscovite
vengeance, and fixed Norrkdping, instead of Stockholm, as the
place of meeting for the Riksdag as being more accessible to the
Russian fleet. But it soon became evident that the Caps were
^^ playing a losing game; and, when the Riksdag met
StS!!* ^^ NorrkOping on the 19th of April, they found them-
selves in a minority in all four estates. In the
contest for the marshalate of the Diet the leaders of the two
parties were again pitted against each other, when the verdict
of the last Riksdag was exactly reversed, Fersen defeating
Rudbeck by 234, though Russia spent no less a sum than
£11,500 to secure the election of the latter.
The Caps had short shrift, and the joint note which the
Russian, Prussian and Danish ministers presented to the estates
protesting, in menacing terms, against any " reprisals " on the
part of the triumphant faction, only hastened the fall of the
government. The Cap senate leagned a% masse to escape
impeachment, and an exclusively Hat ministry took its place.
7)i9 On the xst of June the Reaction Riksdag, as it
i^tmOoa was generally cdled, removed to the capital; and
**■** it was now that the French ambassador and the
crown prince Gustavus called upon the new senators to redeem
their promise as to a reform of the constitution which they had
made before the elections. But when, at the fag-end of the
session, they half-heartedly brought the matter forward, the
Riksdag suddenly seemed to be stricken with paralysis. Im-
pediments multiplied at every step; the cry was raised: " The
constitution is in danger "; and on the 30th of January 1770
the Reaction Riksdag, after a barren ten months' session, rose
amidst chaotic confusion without accomplishing anything.
Adolphus Frederick died on the izth of February 1771.
The elections held on the demise of the Crown resulted in a
Oaatmraa partial victoiy for the Caps, especially among the
m.fini' lotv-cr orders; but in the estate of the peasants
""• their majority was merely nominal, while the mass
of the nobility was dead against them. Nothing could
be done, however, till the arrival of the new king (then at
Paris), and every one felt that with Gustavus III. an entirely
incalculable factor had entered into Swedish politics. Unknown
to the party leaders, he had already renewed the Swedish
alliance with France and had received solemn assurances of
assistance from Louis XV. in case he succeeded in re-establishing
monarchical rule in Sweden. Ftance undertook, moreover,
to pay the outstanding subsidies to Sweden, amounting to one
and a half millions of Uvres annually, beginning from January
1772; and Vergenncs, ohc of the great names of French diplo-
macy, was to be sent to drcumrvent the designs of Russia at
Stockholm as he had previously circumvented them at Con-
stantinople. Immediately after his return to Stockholm,
Gustavus endeavoured to reconcile the jarring factions by in-
ducing the leaders to form a composition committee to adjust
their differences. In thus mediatiia g^ fee w» tJUC ttc enough,
but all his pacific efforts were MmMMMMLWouV of
him and of each oth«r. Stfll wone, tiM fKttons now intrenched
still further on the prerogative. The new coronation oath cob-
tained three revolutionary clauses. The first aimed at making
abdications in the future impossible by binding the king to
reign unmtemiptedly. The aeoorid obliged him to abide, net
by the decision of all the csutes together, as heretofore, but
by that of the majority only, with the view of enabling the
actually dominant lower estates (in which was a large Cap
majority) to rule without, and even in spite of, the nobility.
The thml clause required him, in all cases of preferment, to be
guided not" principally," as heretofore, but " solely " by merit,
thus striking at the very root of aristocratic privilege. It was
dear Uiat the andent strife of Hats and Caps had become
merged in a conflict of classes; the situaUon was still further
complicated by the ominous fact that the non-noble majority
was also the Russian faction.
All through X771 the estates were wrangling over the dauses
of the coronation' oath. A second attempt of the king to medmte
between them foundered on the suspicions of the estate of
burgesses; and, on the S4th of February 1772, the nobility
yidded from sheer weariness. The non-noble Cap majority
now proceeded to attack the senate, the last stronghold of the
Hats, and, on the asth of April, succeeded in ousting their
opponents. It was now, for the first time, that Gustavus,
reduced to the condition of a roi fdiniani, began seriously to
consider the possibility of a revolution; of its necessity dtere
could be no doubt. Under the sway of the now dominant
faction, Sweden, already the vassal, could not fail speedily to
become the victim of Russia. She was on the point of being
absorbed in that Northern System, the invention of the Russian
minister of foreign affairs, NQcita Panin (q.t.), which that patient
statesman had made it the ambition of his life to realize. Only
a swift and sudden coup d'Hat could save the inde- Moauvtui
pendence of a country isolated from the rest of cm^«Am
Europe by a hostfle league.- The details of the •'"**•
famous revolution of the xQth of August 1772 are dsewhere
set forth (see Gustavus m.; Toll, Johan KjosiorfCit;
Spsekgtporten, Jakob Magnus). Here we can only dwell
upon its political importance and consequences. The new
constitution of the 30th of August 1772, which Gustavus
imposed upon the terrified estates at the bayonet's point,
converted a weak and disunited republic into a strong but
limited monarchy, in which the balance of power kidinedi
on the whole, to the side of the monarch. The estates could
only assemble when summoned by him; he could dismiaa
them whenever he thought fit; and their deliberations were to
be confined exdusivdy to the propositions which he might
think fit to lay before them. But these very extensive powers
were subjected to many important checks. Hius, without the
previous consent of the estates, no new law could be imposed,
no old law abolished, no offensive war undertaken, no extmordl-
nary war subsidy levied. The estates alone could tax thena-
sdves; they had the absolute control of the Bank of Sweden,
and the inalienable right of controlling the national expendi-
ture. Thus the parliament hdd the purse; and this seemed
a suffident guarantee both of its independence and its freqnent
convention. The senate, not the Riksdag, was the chief loser
by the change; and, inasmuch as henceforth the senators were
appointed by the king, and were to be responsible to him alime,
a senate in opposition to the Crown was barely conceivable.
Abroad the Swedish revolution made a great sensation.
Catherine XI. of Russia saw in it the triumph of her arch-enemy
France, with the prolongation of the costly Turkish War as its
immediate result. But the absence of troops on the Finnish
border, and the bad condition of the frontier fortresses, con*
strained the empress to listen to Gustavus's pacific assurances,
and suy her hand. She took the precaution, however, of
conduding a fresh secret alliance with Denmark, in which
the Swedish revolution was significantly described as '*an
act of violence" constituting a casus forderis, and justifying
both powers in seizing the first favourable opportunity for
intervention to restore the Swedish constitutioa of 1720.
HBrroiCTi SWEDEN
In BweStn iCieir flie ditt^t vts, «t f&at» mott popoltt.
Bttt GtiCUviB'a fifii RHemIbS) that of t77€,opeMd the eycsof
the deputitt to the fact that thefar political tapKBoacy had
depaxted. The king «aa now thdr aoverdgn lord; and, for all
hb oourteqr and gentkness, the jealousy with which he guarded
■sd the vigour with which he enforced the prerogative plahily
showed that he meant to remain lo. But it was not til! alter
dg^t yeazi more had ehqned that actual- trouble began. The
Riksdag of 1778 had been obsequious; the Riksdag of 1786 was
mnUnoua. It rejected nearly all theioyal measures outright,
or so modified them that Gustavus himself withdrew them.
When he dk^^*"*^ the estates, the speech from .the thtoae held
out no prospect of their speedy revocation.
Nevertheless, within three years, the libg was obliged to
summon another Riksdag, wliich met at Stockholm on the s6th
of January 1789. Hb attempt in the interval to rule without a
pxxliament had been disastrans. It was only by a breach of
Ibs own constitution that he luid been able to dedue war against
Russia (April 1788); the oonsphacy of AnfaUi (July) had pal**
lysed aU military operations at the very opening of the cam-
paign; and the sudden invasion of his western provinces by the
Danes, almost simultaneously (September), seemed to bring
him to the verge of ruin. But the contrast, at this crisis,
between his self -sacrificing patriotism and the treadiery of the
RunophO aristocracy was so striking that, when the Riksdag
sasmhled, GusUvus found that the three lower estates were
idtxa.-Toyafist, and with their aid he succeeded, not without
mnning great risks (see GtJSTAVUi m.; Noinm, Gostaf;
Wauxivist, Olaf), in cruslung the opposition of the nobility
iy a second coup d'iM (Feb. 16, 1789), and pasang the
j^xei0i famous Act of Union and Security which gave the
ihiiii 11- kbig an absolutely free hand as regards ' foceign
fiiiittb affairs and the command of the army, and made
'"*• further treason impossible. For this the nobility
new foigave him. It was impossible, indeed, to resist opeidy
ao highly gifted and so popular a sovereign; it was only by
the de^icable expedient of assasskatlon that the last great
nonarch of Sweden was finally removed, to the infinite
detriment of his country.
The ensuing period was a radancholy one The aristocratle
daiMS loudly tompfaUned that the young kmg, Gustavus' IV.,
Qmt%*nm stiH' a minor, was being brought up among crypte-
iv^nn- Jacobins; while the middle classes, deprived of
■ML the sthnulating leadership of the anti-aristocratic
* Prince Charmhig," and becoming more and more inoculated
wTtb French political ideas, drifted into an antagonism
aoc merely to hereditary nobility, but to hereditary monarchy
Gkewioe;. Everything was vacSlating and uncertain; and
the general histability was reflected even in foreign affaixi,
acnr that the master-hand of (justavus III. was withdrawn,
t mmt '^^ renewed efforts of Catherine II. to interfere
in Sweden's domestic affairs were, indeed, vigorously
repulsed, but without taict or discretion, so that the
good understanding between the two countries
wxs seriously impaired, especMy when the proclivities of
GosUf Reuterholm {q.v.)^ who then vfatually tulcd Sweden,
jBdoced him to adopt what was generally considered an
iiidecently friendly attitude towards the government at Paris.
Despite the execution of Louis XVI. (Jan« 31, 17^3) > Sweden,
In the hope of obtaining considerable subsidies, recognized
the BTW French republic; and secret negotiations for con-
tncting an alliance were actually begun in May of the same
y^ax, tSSt the menacing protests of Catherine, supported as
they were by all the other European powers, finally induced
Swede n to suspend them.
The negotiations with the French Jacobins exacerbated the
kstrvd which the Gustavians already felt for the Jacobin
nyundDora of the dukc-rcgcnt (see Charles XIII., king of
Sweden). Smarting beneath their grievances and seriously
bdievia^ that not only the young king's crown but his very life
was in danger, they formed a conspiracy, the soul of which was
Gimtji lAniriU Annfdt iq.t.), to overthrow the government.
269
with the aM of a Rttarfan fleet, supported by a rfsfeg of the
DakeaittUis. The conspiracy was discovered and vigorously
suppfessed.
The one bright side of this gloomy and sordid period was the
rafproehemaU between the Scandinavian kingdoms during the
revolutionazy wars. Thus, on the S7th of March AWum
1794, a neutrality compact was formed between w«*
Daimark and Sweden; and their united squadrons Ommuk,
patrolled the North Sea to protect then: merchantmen from the
British cruisers. This approximation between the two govern-
ments was happily followed by friendly fedings between the
two nations, under the pressure of a common danger. Presently
Renterhofan renewed his coquetry with the Frendi republic,
which was offidally reoogaxEed by the Swedish government on
the 13rd of April r795. In return, Sweden received a subsidy
of £56,000; and a treaty between the two powers was signed on
the 14th of September 1795. On the other hand, an attempt
to rqiain the friendship of Russia, whidi had broken off diplo-
matic rdationi with Sweden, was frustrated by the refusal of
the king to accept the bride, the grand duchess Alexandra,
Catherine 11.^ granddaughter, whom Reuterholm had provided
for him. This was Reuterholm's hut offidal act. On the ist
of November 1796, in accordance with the will of his father,
(kotavus IV., now hi ha eighteenth 3rear, took the government
into his own hands.
The government of Gustavus IV. {q.v.) was almost a pure
autocracy. At his very first Riksdag, held at Norrkftping in
March 1800, the nobility were compelled, at last, to ratify
Gustavus III.'s detested Act of Union and Security, whi^
hitherto they had steadily refused to do. Shortly after this
•Riksdag rose, a notable change took pUce in Sweden's foreign
policy. In December 1800 Denmark Sweden and fi4i8Bia
acceded to a second Armed'Neutrality of the North, directed
against Great Britain; and the arsenal of Karbkrona, in alt
probability, was only saved from the fate of (Copenhagen by the
aaaaashu^on of the empeior Fsul, whidi was fdlowed by another
change of system in the north. Hitherto Sweden had kept
aloof from oontihental complications; but the arrest (j^Hewn/K
and execution of the due d'Enghien in 1804 inspired /^toa ih9
Gustavus IV. with such a hatred of Napoleon that Danftm
when a general coalition was formed against the c^mi^a,
French emperor he was one of the first (0 jofai it '^^
(Dec. 3, 1804), pledging himself to send an army corps €0 co-
operate ^h the En^ish and Russians in driving the enemy out
of Holland and Hanover. But hb senseless quarrel with Frederick
William III. of Prussia deuined him in Fomerania; and when
at last (December 1805) he led hb 6000 men towards the Elbe
dbtrict the third coalition had already been dissipated by the
victories of Ulm and Austerlita. In 1806 a rupture between
Sweden and Prussia was only prevented by Napoleon's assault
upon the latter power. After Jena Napoleon attempted to win
over Sweden, but Gustavus rejected every overture. The result
was the total loss of Pomerania, and the Swedish army itsdf was
only saved from destruction by the ingenuity of J. K. Toll (f .v.).
At Tilsit the emperor Alexander I. had undertaken to compel
** Russia's geographical enemy," as Napoleon designated Sweden,
to accede to the newly esublished Continental ttma^m
System. Gustavus IV. naturally rejected all the Cornqmnii
proposab of Alexander to dose the Baltic against Ai'Mi^*
the English; but took no measures to defend Finland '^^
against Russia, though, during the autumn of 1807, it was
notorious that the tsar was preparing to attack this grand
duchy. On the 2ist of February 1808 a Russian army crossed
the Finnish border without any previous declaration of war.
On the and of April the king ojdered a general levy of 30,000
men; but while two army corps, under Armfelt and Toll,
together with a British contingent of xo,ooo men under
Moore, were stationed in Scania and on the Norwegian
border in antidpation of an attack from Denmark, wUch,
at the instigation of Napoleon, had sim "
dared war against Sweden, the little Flnr
altogether unsupported. The conquest •
2IO
SWEDEN
(HISTORY.
an heroic ttniggle against overwhelming odds, ia elsewhere
recorded (see Finiand: Bistory), Its immediate consequence
DepoaUlom m Sweden proper was the deposition of Gustavus
o/Ottaum IV. (March 13, 1809), who was dearly incapable of
iv„i809, governing. The nobility took advantage of this
opportunity to pay o£F old scores against Gustavus III. by
excluding not only his imhappy son but also that son's whole
family from the succession--an act of injustice which has never
been adequately defended. But indeed the whole of this inter-
mediate period is *fuU of dark subterranean plots and counter-
plots, still inexplicable, as^ for instance, the hideous Feraen
murder (June 20, zSio) (see Feksen, Hans Axel von)
evidently intended to terrorize the Gustavians, whose loyalty
to the ancient dynasty was notorious. As early as the 5th of
Chahto June 1809 the duke regent was proclaimed king,
X///.,lM»- under the title of Charles Xm. iq.v.), after accepting
''''' the new liberal constitution, which was r^tifie^ by
the Riksdag the same day.
The new king was, at best, a useful stopgap, in no way likely
to interfere with the liberal revolution which had placed him on
the throne. Peace was. what the exhausted nation now required;
and negotiations had already been opened at Fredriksjbjunn.
But the Russian demands were too humiliating, and the war
was resumed. But the defeats of Sivarsbruk and Ratan
(Aug. 19, 1809) broke the spirit of the Swedish army; and peace
was obtained by the sacrifice of Finland, the Aland islands,
" the fore>posts of Stockholm," as Napoleon rightly described
them, and Vesterbotten as far as the rivers Tomei and Muonio
(treaty of Fredrikshamn, Sq>t. 17, 1809).
The succession to the throne, for Charles Xm. was both
infirm and childless, was settled, after the mysterious death
pwmarttiri'g (^^y ^Sf i^^o) ^ ^® ^^ elected candidate,
cftAM«« Prince Charles Augustus of Augustenburg, by the
Crowa selection of the French marshal, Bemadotte (see
'^'^"^ Chables. Xiy.j king of Sweden), who was adopted
by Charles Xin. and received the homage of the estates on
the sth of November i8xa
The new crown prince was very soon the ooost popular and
the most powerful man in Sweden. The infirmity of the old
taiimmc0 king, and the dissensions in the council of state,
mB4Poikyi placed the government and especially the control of
Bunmduu^ foreign affairs almost entirely in his hands; and he
boldly adopted a policy which was antagonistic indeed to the
wishes and hopes of the old school of Swedish statesmen, but,
perhaps, the best adapted to the circumstances. Finland he
at once gave up for lost. He knew that Russia would never
voluntarily relinquish the grand duchy, while Sweden could not
l^pe to retain it permanently, even if she reconquered it But
the acquisition of Norway might make up for the loss of Finland;
and Bemadotte, now known as the crown prince Charles John,
argued that it might be an easy matter to persuade the anti-
Napoleonic powers to punish Denmark for her loyalty to France
by wresting Norway from her. Napoleon he ri^tly distrusted,
though at first he was obliged to submit to the emperor's dicta-
tion. Thus on the 13th of November x8io, the Swedish govern-
ment was forced to declare war against GreatBritain, though the
British government was privately informed at the same time that
Sweden was not a free agent and that the war would be a mere
demonstration. But the pressure of Napoleon became more
and more intolerable, cuhainating in the occupation of Pomerania
by French Uoops in i8ja. The Swedish government thereupon
concluded a secret convention with Russia (treaty of Petersburg,
April 5, 18x2), undertaking to send 30,000 men to operate
against Napoleon in Germany in return for a promise from
Alexander guaranteeing to Sweden the possession of Norway.
Too late Napoleon endeavoured to outbid Alexander by offering
to Sweden Finland, all Pomerania and Mecklenburg, in return for
Sweden's active co-operation against Russia.
The Orebro Riksdsg (April-August 181 2), remarkable besides
for iu partial repudiation of Sweden's national debt and its
reactionary press hkws, introduced general oonscripCaon into
Sweden, and thereby enabled the crown piiaGft tdi^B|mi|l ^
ambitious policy. In May 181 a he mediated a peace between
Russia and Turkey, so as to enable Russia to use all her forces
against France (peace of Bucharest); and on the x8th of Ju^,at
Orebro, peace was also concluded between Great Britain on one
side and Russia and Sweden on the other. These two treaties
were, in effect, the corner-stones of a fresh coalition against
Napoleon, and were confirmed on the outbreak of the Franco-
Russian War by a conference between Alexander and Qiarles
John at Abo on the 30th of August 181 2, when the tsar undertook
to place an army corps of 35,000 men at the disposal of the
Swedish crown prince for the conquest of Norway.
The treaty of Abo. and indeed the whole of Charles John's
foreign policy in 181 2, provoked violent and justifiable criticism
among the better class of politicians in Sweden. The immorality
of indemnifying Sweden at the expense of a weaker friendly
power was obvious; and, while Finland was now definitively
sacrificed, Norway had still to be won. Moreover, Great Britain
and Russia very properly insisted that Charles John's first duty
was to the anti-Napoleonic coalition, the former power vigorously
objecting to the expenditure of her subsidies on the nefarious
Norwegian adventure before the common enemy had been
crushed. Only on his very ungracious compliance did Great
Britian also promise to countensnce the union of Norway and
Sweden (treaty of Stockholm, March 3, 1813); &nd, on the
23rd of April, Russia gave her guarantee to the same effect. The
Swedish crown prince rendered several important services to the
allies during the campaign of 1813 (see Chaklss XIV., king of
Sweden); but, after Leipzig, he went his own way, determined
at all hazards to cripple Denmark and secure Norway.
How this " job " was managed contrary to the dearest wishes
of the Norwegians themselves, and how, finally (Nov. 14,
1814), Norway as a free and independent kingdom
was imited to Sweden under a common king, t^ n^nn^
elsewhere described (see Denmark; Nob way;
Chakles XIV., king of Sweden; Chbistian VIU., king of
Denmark).
Charles XIII. died on the 5th of February 181 8, and was
succeeded by Bemadotte under the title of Charles XIV. Joho.
The new king devoted himself to the promotion of ckMitm
the material. development of the country, the Gdta Xiv.,ssi&-
canal absorbing the greater portion of the twenty- '^^^
four millions of dalers voted for the purpose. The extemal,debt
of Sweden was gradually extinguished, the intimial debt consider-
ably reduced, and the budget showed an average annual surplus
of 700,000 dalers. With returning prosperity the necessity for
internal reform became urgent in Sweden. The antiquated
Riksdag, where the privileged estates predominated, while the
cultivated middle class was practically unrepresented, had
become an insuperable obstacle to all free devebpment; but,
though the Riksdag of 1840 itself raised the question, the king
and the aristocracy refused to entertain it. Vet the reign of
Charles XIV. was» on the whole, most beneficial to Sweden;
and, if there was much just cause for complaint, his great
services to his adopted country were generally acknowledged.
Abroad he maintained a poUcy of peace based mainly on a good
understanding with Russia. Charles XIV. 's son
and successor King Oscar L was much more liberally
inclined. Shortly after his accession (March 4, 1844)
he laid several projects of reform before the Riksdag; but the
estates would do little more than abolish the obsolete marriage
and inheritance laws and a few commercial monopolies. As the
financial situation necessitated a large increase of taxatiouj there
was much popular discontent, whi(^ culminated in riots in the
streets of Stockholm (March 1848). Yet, when fresh proposals
for parliamentary reform were laid before the Riksdag in 1849,
they w.ere again rejected by three out of the four estates. As
regards foreign politics, Otear I. was strongly anti-German.
On the outbreak of the Dano-Prussian War of 1848-49, Sweden
sympathized warmly with Denmark. Hundreds of Swedish
volunteers hastened to Schleswig-Holstein. The Riksdag voted
s,ooo,ooo dalers for additional armaments. It was Sweden, too,
who. mediated ihe truce of Malm5 (Aug. 26, 1848), wk|ich
HKTOKVI
SWEDEN
211
• XK.
MpedOnaMikoatofherdUficiiltieib Daring thBCklmeuiWtr
Snrden iwnaifrf aentnl, although public opinion win deddediy
anti'Euianat nnd tundiy poUtickns leg u dcd the ooqjuBctura
as favoonUe for regaining Finland.
Onnr L ivnaiuoceedad Only 8> 1859) by hia aon, Chailca XV.
ifjf.), who had already acted as regent during his father'a ill«
k He succeeded, with tlKinvahiable a«iitanrr
' of the minister of Justice, Baron Louis Geriiard- de
~ Geer<9.e.), inathataccoinpiiBhingthemuch*aeeded
fcfbim of the constitution. The nay had been prepared in i8do
by a sweeping measure of nnmicipal refom; and, in Janaary
1S63, tlw government brought in a refonn bill by the tenna of
which the Riksdag was henoeforth to consist of two
Cambers, the UpiMT House being a sort of aristo*
cimiic senate, widle the nembers of the Lower
House were to be «hctfed triennially by popular
The new oonsritution waa accepted by all four
in i66s and promulgated on the sand of January
1S66. On the 1st of September 1866* the first elections under
the new system were held; and on the 19th of January X867,
the new Riksdag met for the first time. With this one
gicat reform Charlca XV. had to be content; in all other
directions he was hampered, move or less, by his own creation.
The R&adag refused to sanction his favourite project of a refbrm
of the Swedish army on the Prussian models for which he laboured
bD has life, partly from motives of economy, part^ from an appre-
hettioa of the king's martial tendencies. In 1864 Charles XV.
hadendcnvoured to form an anti-Prussian league with Denasark;
aad alter the defeat of Denmark he projected a Scandinavian
union, in order, with the help of France, to oppose Prussian
predonittance in the north— « policy which naturally collapsed
with the owttrthrow of the French Empire in 1870. He died on
the i8th of September 187a, and was succeeded by his brother,
tlw duke of Gothland, who reigned as Oscar U. (R. N. B.)
The economic condition of Sweden, owing to the progress in
aiaterial prosperity which had taken place in the countiy as the
remit of the Franco-German War, was«t the accessiott
of Oecar n. to the throne on the i8th of September
187 2 fairly satisfactory. Politically, however, the out-
bok was not so favourable. In their results, the refocms
Buigvmted during the preceding reign did not answer expeda-
tioQSi. Within three years of the introduction of the new
ckctxal law* De Goer's ministry had forfeited much of its former
popatarity, and had been forced to resign. In the vital matter of
— iwM>«i defence no common understanding had b6en arrived at,
a^ durins Uie conflicU which had raged round this question, the
tvo cfaamben bad come into frequtot cOlUsion and paralysed the
aoion of ihtt government. The peasant proprietois, who, under
the name el the "Landtmanna" party,^ formed a compact
n&iority in the Second Chamber, pursued a consistent policy of
due interests in the matter of the taxes and burdens that had, as
c^ oryed, so long oppressed the Swedish peasantry; and conse-
qjeatly -mhtB a biU was introduced for supeneding the old system
of smy orsanizatioa by general compulsory service, they de-
mmded as a condition of its accq>tance that the military burdens
Avid be more evenly distributed in the country, and that the
'jia, which they regarded as a burden under which they had
•mgfully groaned for centuries, should be abolished. In
'i^se drcumstanccs, the " Landtmaona " party in the Riksdag,
«te desired the Ughtening of the military burden, joined those
*fao desired the abolition of landlordism, and formed a compact
M^ pfcdominant majority in the Second Chamber, while the
awzgber and Liberal parties were reduced to an impotent
" iatdligence " minority. This majority in the Lower Chamber
rfC.
* TVe Swedish " Laodtmanna '
party was formed in 1S67. It
•malle
I SMOtlv of the laifer and
ne of the okl " Sunders Riksdag *[ were always opposed to
ifer peasant proprietors, who
« — , -T— r — leg •"* always opposed to
tae aobiKry and the clergy* The object of the oarty was to bring
^a«i a fuaioa between the representatives 01 the large bnded
moftitton and the regular peasant proprietors, to support the
) dl laadad proprietors in general against those of the town
d loranat Crown interference in the adflainiatnition
was It once attidnd by sandier compact m^Joifty la tb» DjKker,
who on their side mahitained that the hated land taxes were only
a kind of rent-chaige on hmd, were incidental to it and ia no way
weighed upon the owners, and, nwreover, that ttsabolition would
be quite uawtrrsatable, as it waa one of the surest sources of
revenue to the state. On the other hand, the Ffaest Chamber
refused to listen to any abolition of the old militscy system, so
long as the defence of the country had not been placed upon a
secure basis by the adoptfon of general compulsoiy mililaiy
service. The government stood midway between these con-
flicting majorities ia the chambers, without support la either.
Such was the state of affairs when Oscar II., sunounded by his
late brother's adviaeis, began his reign. One ol his first casts
was to iacnase the strength of his navy, but inrtoAw^
eonsequence ol the continued aatsfoaism ol the n iii r iiwhi
political parties, he waa nnable to effect much.*'"'^
In the first Riksdag, however, the so-called " cosa pr omise,**
which afterwards played such an important part in Swedish
political life, came Into exisunce. It originated In the amsU
" Scania " party in the Upper House, and was devfaed to esubllsh
a modus moettii between the conflicting parties, Li, the champions
of natfonal defence and those who demanded a Ughtening of
the burdens of taxation. The king himself perceived in the com-
promise a means of solving the oonflicthig questions, and wnrmly
approved it. He penuaded his mhiisten to constitute a spedal
inquiry into the proposed abolition of land taxes, and in the
address with which he opened the Riksdsg ol 1875 hiid particuiar
strem upon the necessity of giving attention to the settlement ol
these two burning questions, and in 1880 again eaae forwaid
witha new proposal for increasingthe number of years of scrvlos
with the militia. TUs motion having been rejected, De Geer
r es ign e d , and was succeeded by Count Arvid Posse. The new
prime minister endeavoured to solve the question ol'defeace In
accordance with the views «f the " Landtmaima " party. Three
parliamentary committees had prepared schemes for a remlssioa
of the land taxes, for a new system of taxation, for a reorgaalsa*
tlon of the army based on a siammimpp (regukr aimy), by the
enlistment of hhned soldiers, and for naval reforms. In this last
connexion the most smtaUe types of vcsaeb foe cosst defence ss
for offence were detennined upon. But Count Fosse, deserted
by his own party over the ainsy bill, reaigBed, and was succeeded
on the t6th of May 1884 by Oscar Themptauder, who had been
minister of finance in the prevfous cabinet. The new premier
succeeded in perniading the lUksdag to pass a bill increasing
the period of service with the colours in the army to six years and
that in the nulitia to forty-two days, and as a set-off a remimfam
of 30% on the land taxes.
Influenced by the economic reaction which took piaoe in 1879
in consequence of the state of affairs in Germany, where Prince
Bismarck had introduced the protectionist system, a a aim
protectionist party had been formed, which tried to ^jf^'L^
gain adherenta in the Rikadag. It is true that in ^••^'■•■^
the Riksdag of i88a the commercial treaty with France waa
renewed, but since 1885 the protectionist party was prepared to
begin the combat, and a duty on com, which had been propo se d
in the lUkadag of the same year, was rejected by only a slight
majority. During the period of the unusually low price of com
of 1886, which greatly affected the Swedish farmers, protectioa
gained ground to such an extent that its final triumph was
considered as certain within a short time. During the Riksdag
of the same year, however, the premier, Themptauder, emphatl*
cally declared himself against the protectionist party, and while
the parties in the Second Chamber were equal in number, the
proposed tax on com was rejected in the First Chamber. In the
Riksdag of 1887 there was a majority for protection in the Second
Chamber, and in the first the majority against the tax was so
small that the tax on com would have triumphed In a combined
meeting of the two chambers. The government, availing itself
of its formal right not to dissolve the chamber in which it bad
the support of a majority, therefore dissolved on'*'
Chamber (Mareh 1887).
The new Riksdag assembled in May with afrea
212
SWEDEN
plISTORY
in Uie Second Oiamber, bul nothing in ooanodon with the great
question of customs was settled. In the meantime, the powerful
majority in the Second Chamber spUt into two groups — the
new " Landtmanna " party, which approved protection in the
interests of agricultural duses; and a somewhat smaller group,
the old ** Landtmanna " party, which favoured free trade.
The victory of the free traders was not, however, destined to
be of long duration, as the protectionists obtained a majority in
both chambers in the nett Riksdag (1888). To the First Chamber
protectionists were almost exclusively elected, and in the Second
all the twenty«two members for Stockholm were disqualified,
owing to one of their number not having paid his taxes a few
years previously, which prevented his being eligible. Instead,
then, of twenty-two free traders representing the majority of the
Stockholm electors, twenty-two protectionists, representing the
minority, were elected, and Stockholm was thus represented in
the Riksdag by the choice of a minority in the capital This
singular way of electing members for the principal dty in the
kingdom could not fail further to irritate the parties. One
result of the Stockholm election came at a convenient time for
the Themptauder ministry. The fins nasi affairs of the country
were found to be in a most unsatisfactory state. In spite of
reduced expenses, a highly estimated revenue, and the contem-
plated raising of .taxes, there was a deficit, for the payment or
discharge of which the government would be obliged to demand
supplementary supplies. The Themptauder ministry resigned.
The king retained, however, for a time several members of the
ministry, but it was difficult to find a premier who would be
able, during the transition from one system to another, to com-
mand sufficient authority to control the parties. At last Baron
Gillk Bildt. who, while Swedish ambassador in Berfin, had wit-
nessed the introduction by Prince Bismarck of the agrarian
protectionist system in Germany, accepted the premiership, and
it was under bis auspices that the two chambers imposed a series
of duties on necessaries of life. The new taxes, together with an
increase of the excise duty on spirits, soon brou^t a surplus into
the sUte coffers. At a councU of sute (Oct. is, 1888) the
king declared his wishes as to the way in which this surplus
should be used. He desired that it should be applied to a fund
for insurance and old age pensions for workmen and old people,
to the lightening of the municipal taxes by state contributions
to the schools and workhouses, to the aboliUon of the land taxes
and of the obligation of keeping a horse and man for military
service, and, lastly, to the improvement of the shipping trade;
but the Riksdag decided to devote it to other objects, such as
the payment of the deficit in the budget, the building of railways
and augmentation of their material, as well as to improvements in
the defences of the country.
Baron BOdt resigned as soon as the new system seemed settled,
making room for Baron GttstavAkerhjelm. The latter, however,
also soon resigned, and was succeeded on the lothof July 1891 by
Erik GusUv Bostrttm, a landed proprietor. The protectionist
system gained in favour on the expiry of the oommerdal treaty
with France in 1893, as it could now be extended to articles of
industry. The elections of 1890, when the metropolis returned
free traders and Liberals to the Second Chamber, certainly
effected a change in the latter, as the representatives of the towns
aiul the old " Landtmaima " party joined issue and establidied a
free-trade majority in the chamber, but in the combined meetings
of the two chambers the compaa protectionist majority in the
First Chamber turned the scale. The customs duties were,
however, altered several times in accordance with market prices
and ruling circumstances. Thus in 1893, when the import duty
on ungrouiMl com was reduced from 3s. lod. to is. sd., and that
on ground corn from 4s. pd. to ss. rod. for 100 kilogrammes, the
same duties were also retained for the following year. They were
also retained for 1894 at the request of the government, which
desired to keep faith with their promise that while the new
the necessaries of life should take place,
much dissatisfaction, and gave rise
nent, in consequence of which the |
This
of 189$, before the assembling of the Riksdag, made use of iu
right of raising the two duties on com just referred to, 38. yd.
anid 7S. 3d., which were afterwards somewhat reduced as far as
seed com for sowing purposes was concerned.'
The question of customs duties imw settled, that of national
defence was taken up afresh, and in the following year the
government produced a complete scheme for the tf^M^^
abolition of the land tax in the course of ten years, jMhoMb
in exchange for a compensation of ninety days' drill
for those liable to miliury service, proposed to retain the old
military ^rstem of the country and to strengthen the defences
of Norrland, and the government bill for a reorgaaixation of the
army was accepted by the Riksdag in an extraordinary sessioo.
But it was soon perceived that the new plan was unsatisfaaory
and required tecasting, upon whidi the minister of war. Baron
Rappe, resigned, and was soccwded by Colonel von Crustebjora,
who immediately set to work to prepare a complete reorganlsa^
tion of the army, with an inaease of the time of active service
on the lines of general compulsory service. The Riksdag of 1900^
in addition to grants for the fortifications at Boden, in the pro-
vince of Norrbotten, on the Russian border, and other military
objects, voted a considerable grant for an experimental mobiUxa*
tion, which fuUy exposed the defects^and faults of the old system.
In the Riksdag of 1901 E. G. Bostrttm resigned, and was succeeded
by Admiral F. W. von Otter, who introduced a new bill for the
army reorganization, the most important item of which wss the
increase of the period of training to 365 days. The cost in cob-
nexion with the new scheme was expected to amount to 3a millions
of kronor. The Riksdag, however, did not accept the new plaii
in its full extent. The time of driUing was reduced to 340 days
for the infantry, to 300 days for the navy, wh3e for the cavalry
and artillery the time fixed was 365 days. The plan, thus
modified, was then accepted by the govenmient.
After the elections in 1890, the alliance already mentioned
between the old " Landtmanna " party and the representativea
of the towns had the result that the Liberals in the
Second Chamber, to whom the representatives of the
towns mostly belonged, were now in a position to
dedde the policy which the two um'ted parties should follow. In
order to prevent this, it was proposed to readjust the number of
the members of the Riksdag. The question was only settled in
1894, when a bill was passed fixing the number of the members of
the Riksdag in the First Chamber at 150, and in the SccoikI at
330, of which 150 should represent the country districts and 80
the towns. The question of protection being now considered
settled, there was no longer any reason for the continued separa-
tion of the two " Landtmanna " parties, who at the beginning of
the Riksdag of r895 joined issue and became once more a compact
.majority in the SecoiKl Chamber, as they bad been up to tbe
Riksdag of May 1887. The influence of the country represent
tatives was thus re-established in the Second Chamber, but nowr
the demands for the extendon of the franchise came more and
more to the front, and the premier, BostrOm, at bst felt bound
to do something to meet these demands. He accordingly intro-
duced in the Riksdag of 1896 a very moderate bm for the exten-
sion of the franchise, which was, nevertheless, rejected by both
chambers, all similar proposals by private members meeting Ihe
same fate. When at last the bHI for the reorganization of tlie
army? together with a considerably increased taxation, 'waa
accepted by the Riksdag of r90i , it was generally acknowled^eti
that, In return for the increased taxation, it would only be just
to extend the right of taking part in the political life and tbe
legislative work of the country to those of the population ^vbo
hitherto had been exduded from if. The government eventually
laid a proposal for the extension of the franchise before t.lie
Riksdag of 1902, the chief feature of which was that the clect^or
should be twenty-five years of age, and that married men cwct
forty years should be entitled to two votes. The Riksdag, ho^r«
organization of the army was going on no increase of duties o ff4 ^;wr>,fa>allv agreed to a proposal by Bishop Billing, a member o£
-% Chamber, that an address should be presented to tj^«
*^ for a full inquiry into the question of extending ^li«
or the election of members to the Second Chamber.
HBItMtVl
SWEDEN
215
Ja, 1897 die RiksdRK luwl rtaand MmoAg iU raenbeks dtt
fint wwialtilic fcpcesentative in the penon of R. H. Brauting,
the Jeedtr of the Swedish Sodal Demecnts. The
I, SodalMtt, who had foniieriy confined their activity
' to questions sffrrting the ivorking cbsses and their
, took, however, in tQoa an active part in the agitation for
the extcBiion of the fianchiae. Processions pf many thousands
of workmen wore orguiaed, in Stockholm and fai other towns
of the kmykwi^ just before the Riksdag began the discussion
oa the above-mentioned bill of the government, and when
the bai was tatroduced in the chambers a general and woU>
oigaaised strike took place and oontmned during the three days
the defaote on the bill lasted. As this strike was of a& exclu>
wtvdy political kind, and was intended to put i>rcssupe on the
fhamh»TS» U was generally disapproved, and failed in its object.
The prime minister. Admiral von Otter, resigned shortly after the
cad of the Tfiiion, and was succeeded by Bostr5m, the ez-
premier, who at thereqoest of the king again asswmffid ofifice.
The reiations with Norway during King Oscar's reign had
great in&ience on poKtical life in Sweden, and more than oooe it
Aftttae seemed as tf the union between the two countries was
•<* «n the point of being wrecked. The dissensions
'f'rm'^, chieily had their origin in the demand by Norway
lor aepasate consuls and foreign ministcis, to which reference
B made under Nokway. At last, alter vain negotiations and
disrassiona, the SwecBsh goverament in 1895 gave notice to
Korway that the commerdal treaty which till then had existed
between the two countries and would lapse in July 1897 would,
accordion to a decision in the R&sdag, cease, and as Norway at
die time had raised the customs duties, a considerable diminution
la tbe exports of Sweden to Norway took place. The Swedish
of foreign affairs, Count Lewenhaupt, who was
d as too friendly disposed towards the Norwegians,
and was replaced by Count Ludvig Douglas, who
crpresent^ the oploion of the majority in the First Chamber.
llien, however, the Norwegian Storthing, for the third
tine, passed a bill for a national or "pure" flag, which
£iag Oscar eventually sanctioned. Count Douglas resigned
t his turn and was succeeded by the Swedish minister at
Beriia, Idgerheim, who managed to pilot the questions of the
Btkm into more quiet waters. He succeeded all ih.t better
85 the new elections to the Riksdag of 1900 showed dearly
xhii the Swedish people was not indined to follow the ultra-
asaervalive or so<aUed " patriotic " party, which resulted in
'i% resignation oi the two leaders of that party, Profesaor OKar
^IJD and Count Marschal Patrick Reutersvard as members of the
F ^ Chamber. On the other band, ex-Professor £. Carlson,
r the High Sdiool of Gothenburg, succeeded m forming a
pKty of Liberals and Radicals to the number of about 90
aeiBbeis, who, besides being in favour of the extension of the
^radiae, advocated the full equafity of Norway with Sweden
•T 'he management of foreign affairs. (O. H. D.)
The state of quietude which for some time prevailed with
^zM to the relations with Norway was not, however, to be of
^\([Mntk ***"* duration. The question of separate consuls
•v^ca* for Norway soon came op again. In 1902 the
^■• o* Swedish goverament proposed that negotiations in
*""*^ t*>tg niatter should be opened wHh the Norwegian
■ 1 i» wt, and that a joint committee, consisting of repre-
.^ESi*!ves from both countries, should be appointed to consider
-r <;aestion of a separate consular service without in any way
- ■ ■■a teihig with the existing administtation of the diplomatic
i£:iinof the two countries. The result of the negotiations was
7 *. ddsed in a so-called " communique," dated the 34th of March
- c?. a which, among other things. It was proposed that the
'"-t3c«s of the separate consuls to the joint ministry of foreign
.5ks and the embassies should be arranged by identical laws.
- Uch cooId'Bot be altered or repealed without the consent of
*x jsanrmaenU of the two countries. The proposd for these
^rssjal lawa, which the Norwegian government In May 1904
'-isttted, did ooC meet with the approval of the Swedish
Tbe latter m their reply proposed that' the
Swedidi fan
Norwe^aac
found MacceyuMeTall :Zr^ - ,
msbted upon, sH iJT*"*^^ *
TheynuSa^lC;*^;^-^^ -.^'
with the tovetdwiy Jlk.T*^ <^^^. .
Swede and the preiiTS?' •- ^ ... ^
wegian institution, coidd aei w «u,^ ^^
A new proposal by the SireAA ^"^ ' ^^-
and in February 1905 the Wwiiulil^*****'
Notwithstandmg this an smZmm* '**'''
the question. AU efforts tosSIiriL^ *^
had faaed,but it was considered twT!!
considered dit-r^
to establish separate consuls b <nim\. *"
the t w6 countries, and on the 5th of Apu: i* . *
and Norwegian council of state made a prouJLac!!*'*' '
of the administratwn of diplomatic affSnaMt^* *"' '* ^
service on the basis of full equality betweentii ** ''' '
with the express reservation, however, of a ^nM s,^^^^ **'"
—Swedish or Norwegian— as a condition for the «>4*'''' *
union. This proposal was approved of by the SwmJI!" '* '"
on the 3rd of May 1905. In order that 00 obstafuT It! ^ ''' *
placed In the way for renewed negotiations, Mr %$mu*^ "
prime minister, resigned and was succeeded by Mr lu^ **
The proposed negotiations were not, however, renewed '^^^^
On the a3rd of May the Norwegian Storthing vtn\%\ a,.
govenunent's proposal for the esublishment of separate ftT*
wegian consuls, and as King Oscar, who again had resumed tu
reins of government, made use of his constitutional right to svitt
the bill, the Norwegian ministry tendered their resignation. 'W^
king, however, declared he could not now accept their resignation
whereupon the mhnistry at a sitting of the Norwegian Storthing
on the 7th of June placed their resignation in its hands. The
Storthing thereupon unanimously adopted a resolution stating
that, as the king had declared himsdf unable to form a govern-
ment, the constitutional royal power " ceased to be operative,"
whereupon the ministers were requested, until further instruc-
tions, to exercise the power vested m the king, and as King Oscar
thus had ceased to act as *' the king of Norway," the union with
Sweden was in consequenoe diaolved.
In Sweden, where they were least of all prepared for the turn
things had Uken, the action of the Storthing created the greatest
surprise and resentment The king solemnly pro-
tested against what had taken place and summoned
an extraordinary se^n of the Riksdag for the loth
of June to consider what measures should be taken
with regard to the question of the union, which had '"^
arisen suddenly thiou^ the revolt of the Norwegians on the
7th of June. The Riksdag dedared that it was not opposed to
negotiations benig entered upon regarding the conditions for
the dissolution of the union if the Norwegian Storthing, alter
a new election, made a proposal for the repeal of the Act
of Union between the two countries, or, if a proposal to this
effect was made by Norway after the Norwegian people,
through a plebisdte, had declared in favour of the dissolution
of the union. Tbe Riksdag further resolved that roo million
kroner (about £555,000) should be hdd in readiness and be avail-
able as the Riksdag might dedde. On the resignation of the
Ramstedt ministry Mr Lundeberg formed a coalKion ministry
OMislsttng of members of the various parties in the Riksdag,
after which the Riksdag was prorogued on tbe 3rd of August.
After the plebisdte in Norway on the r3th of August had
dedded in favour of the dissolution of the union and after the
Storthing had requested the Swedish government to r> > *
co-operate with it for the repeal of the Act of Unioh. f '
a conference of delegates from both countries w
convened at Karlstad on- the 31st of August.
> For further details are Nokwat : Hxitoti
ThtPtat
wtlmary
214.
SWEDEN
ILtTfiimttfRB
of September tlie ddegates came to in asBBement, the
principal points of which weze: that such disputes between
the two coimtries which could not be settled by direct
diplomatic negotiations, aod 'which did not affect the vital
interests of either country, should be referred to the per-
manent court of arbitration at the Hague, that on either side
of the southern frontier a neutral zone of about fifteen kilometres
width should be established, and that within eight months the
fortifications within the Norwegian part of the zone shoula be
destroyed. Other clauses dealt with the rights of the Lai^anders
to graze their reindeer altemativety in either country, and
with the question of transport of goods across the frontier by
rail or other means of communication, so that the traffic should
not be hampered by any import or export prohibitions or
otherwise.
From the 2nd to the 19th of October the extraordinary
Kiksdag was again assembled, and eventually approved of the
^^^^^^^ arrangement come to by the delegates at Karlstad
Bmuw' with regard to the dissolution of the union as well
fMamry as the government proposal for the repeal of
kitMdMg* the Act of- Union and the recognition of Norway
as an independent state. An alteration in the Swedish flag
was also decided upon, by which the mark of union was
to be replaced by an azure-blue square. An offer from
the Norwegian Storthing to elect a prince of the Swedish
royal house as king in Norway was declined by King Oscar,
who now on behalf of himself and his successors renounced
the right to the Norw^lan crown. Mr Lundebeig, who had
accepted office only to settle the question of the dissolution of the
union, now resigned and was succeeded by a Liberal government
with Mr Karl Staaff as prime minister.
The question of the extension of the franchise, which was a
burning one, was to be the principal measure of the Staaff
Tto government. It brought in a bill for manhood
inntrnMae suffrage at elections for the Second Chamber,
Qattthu. tQgeij,^ ^th single member constituencies and
election on .the absolute majority principle. The bill was
passed by the Second Chamber on the xsth of May 1906,
by X34 to 94 votes, but it was rejected by the First
Chamber by 126 to 18. Hie latter chamber instead
passed a bill for manhood suffrage at elections for the Second
Chamber, on the condition that the elections for both chambers
should take place on the basis of proportional representation.
Both chambers thereupon decided to ask the opinion of the king
with regard to the simultaneous extension of the franchise to
women at elections for the Second Chamber. The government
bill having, however, been passed by the.Second Chamber, the
prime minister proposed to the king that the Riksdag should
be dissolved and new elections for the Second Chamber take
place in order to bear the opinion of the country, but as the king
did not approve of this Mr Staaff and his government resigned.
A Conservative government was then formed on the 29th of
May by Mr Lindman, whose principal task was to find a solution
of the suffrage question which both chambers could accept. A
government bill was introduced, proposing the settlement of the
question on the basis of the bill carried by the First Chamber in
the Riksdag of the preceding year. A compromise, approved of
by the government, was adopted by the First Chamber on the
14th of May 1907 by no votes against 29 and in the Second
Chamber by 1 28 agai(ist 98. By this act proportional representa-
tion was established tor both chambers, together with universal
manhood suffrage at elections for the Second Chamber, a reduc-
tion of the quidificatioos for eligibility for the First Chamber
and a reduction of the electoral term of this chamber from nine
to six years, and finally payment of members of the First
Chamber, who hitherto had not received any such emolument.
King Oscar II. died on the 9th of December 1907, sincerely
regr^ted by his people, and was succeeded as king of Sweden by
his eldest son, Prince Qustaf . During Ki- '^ * ^— many
important social reforms were carried 01 and
the country developed in all directions 884
a new patent law was adopted, the a* tld
be held to attain their majority was fixed at twenty-ooe years
and the barbarous prison punishment of " bread and water "
abolished. In order to meet the cost of the new army organiza-
tion the Riksdag of 1902 increased the revenue by prqgieasivc
taxation, but only for one year. Bills for the improvement of the
social conditions of the people and in the interests of the working
classes were also passed. During the five years 1884-1889 a
committee was occupied with the question of workmenls insur-
ance, and thrice the government made proposals for its settle-
ment, on the last occasion adopting the principle of invalidity
as a common basis for insurance against accidents, illness or
old age. The Riksdag, however, delayed coming to a decision,
and contented itself by earmarking money for an insurance
fund. At hut the Riksdag of 1901 accepted a Bill for insurance
against accidents which also extended to agricultural labourers,
in connexion with the estabh'shment of a state institution for
insurance. The biU for protection against Accidents, as well as
for the limitation of working hours for women and children, was
passed, together with one for the appointment of special factory
inspectors. When in 1897 King Oscar celebrateid his jubilee
of twenty-five years as king, the exhibition which had been
organized in Stockholm offered a convincing proof of the
progress the country had made in every direction.
AuTHORiTiBS.— ifuftfmAa handitniar rtrande Skaitihtatknt his-
toria (Stockholm. 1816-1^7, &cJ):S9enskaRiksda^saiaer,jS2i-t7tS
(ibid.. 1887); Sverigts kistoria (ibid.. 1883-1887); P. BackstrOm,
Svenska fioUans hiitoria (ibid., 1884); R. N. Bain, Scandinavia^
1513-1900 (Cambridge, 190s): Bidrag tit den store nardiske krigs
historie (Copenhagen, 1900); F. F. C^rison, Sverigfs kislorie under
A. Nystr6m.
ock Sotrime
9td Kurlamds
Leyal, 1895);
5): R, Teng-
S. Westman«
titt Soeriges
i. The Fitht
'leckHiug bfver
'\tt af svenska
aations'de la
c, La Constan"
- -^ndin, JnstilU'
St-'
Si
(•I
bi
C,
b€
St
m
kr
Fi
tu . . .. --
tions f^olUiqucs de VEurope conlemporaine (1909). tome tv. See also
the bibliographies attached to the articles Denmark: History i
Norway: Hiitory; Finland: History; as well as the special biblio- ^^.'^
graphics attached to the various biographies of Swedish iovereigna >.<v
and statesmen. >,^^'
Swedish Litexatttrs "-:r5|
Swedish literature, as distinguished from compositions in the V'*^
common norraena tunga of old Scandinavia, cannot be said to [*-'-\
exist earlier tlian the 13th century. Nor until the period of the '^^ '^
Reformation was its development in any degree rapid or copious. ^ '•^'^.
The oldest form in which Swedish exists as a written language ^ ^^*i z
(see ScANDiNA\aAN Language) is the series of manuscripts "^ (
known as Landskapslagame, or " The Common Laws." These ' ^^
are supposed to be the relics of a still earlier age, and it is hardly '^> :h
believed that we even possess the first that was put down in ' :i^I
writing. The most important and the most ancient of these codes ^l
is the " Elder West GCU Law," reduced to iu present form by -^j^
the law-man Eskil about 1230. Another of great interest is "'i^
Magnus Eriksson's " (jeneral Common Law," which was written ''ti, ^ '
in 1347. These andent codes have been collected and edited by >-^ ^
the learned jurist, K. J. Schlyter (i 795-1888) as Corpus juris - ^ '
Sveo-Co^orum anliqm (4 vols., 1827-1869). The chief ornament . > '
of medieval Swedish literature is Um ayrUse kununga ok i^^
MJdinga (" On the Conduct of Kings aod Princes "), first printed ^!A^ ^
by command of Gustavus IL Adolphus, in 1634. The writer , C^ '^
is not known; it has been conjecturally dated 1325. It is a hand- ;Ir "^
book of moral and political teaching, expressed in Urse and vigor- ^^
ous language. St Bridget, or BirgitU (i303-r373), an historical ^<» ^
figure of extraordiiuiry interest, has leift her name attached toV-rv
several important religious works, in particular to a collection of J '^^
Vpp€nh4 ni im (" Revelations "),in which her visions and ecstat ic '^^'^0
""^-^'^
< //
UTEKATUREl
6WEDEN
215
■ediutioiis are recorded, uid a version, the fiist Into Swedish,
9t the five books of Moses. This latter was undertaken, at her
desire, by her father-t»nfes8or Matttas (d. 1350), a priest at Lin-
kflpiog. The translation of the Bible was continued a centiuy
bter by a nonk named Johannes Budde (d. X484).
Id vefse the earliest Swedish productions were probably the
foik-aoB|.' The age of these, however, has been commonly
exaggerated. It is doubtful whether any still exist which are
H old, in their present form, as the t3th century. The bulk are
DOW attributed to the istb, and many are doubtless much later
stilL The last, such as " Ajtel och Valborg," " Liten Karin,"
" Kimpen Grimborg/' and " Habor och Sigcold," deal with the
adventures of romantic medieval romance. Almost the only
pofitive due we hold Uf the date of these poems » the fact that
one of the most characteristic of them, " Engclbrekt/' was
written by Thomas, hishop of StrengnSs, who died in 1443.
Thomas, who left other poetical pieces, is usoally calKd the
fint Swedish poet. There are three rhyming chronicles in
medieval Swedish, all anonymous. The earliest, Erikskroniltan^
n attributed to 1320; the romance of Karl Magnus, Nya Karls-
krinikan, describing the period between r387 and 1452, which is
aootetimes added to the earlier work, dates from the middle of
the xsth century; and the third, Stitrekrlfnikoma, was ptobably
written about 1500. The collection of rhymed romances which
bean the name of Queen Euphemvfs Songs mo3,\. have been
vriiten before the death of the Norwegian queen in 13 1 2. They
ce versions of three medieval stories taken from French and
Gmnan sources, and dealt with the Chevalier aulion, of Chrestien
de IVoyes, with Duke Frederick of Normandy, andwith Floies
lad BlBncheflor. They possess very slight poetic merit in their
Svediah form. A little later the romance of King Alexander*
«as translated by, or at the command of, Bo Jonsson Grip; this
B more meritorious. Bishop Thomas, who died in X443, wrote
way politica] songs; and a number of narrative poems date
hsn the dose of the century. A brilliant and pathetic relic
d the dose of the medieval period exists in the Love Letters
^dressed in 1498 by Ingrid Persdotter, a nim of Vadstena, to
tie yoang knight Axel Nilsson. The fost book printed in the
S«diah language appeared in 149$-
The t60k ceiktury added but little to Swedish literature, and
tut EttJe is mostly connected with the newly-founded university
jf Upsala. The Renaissance scarcely made itself felt In Scandi-
anr^. and even the Reformation failed to waken the genius of the
'SBstxy. Fsalms and didactic spiritual poems were the main
yviwct3 of Swedish letters in the 16th century. Two writers,
3e bioCliefS Petri, sons of a smith at Orebro, take an easy
•mrnnmfv in so barren a period. Olaus Petri (r4g3'X5S2) and
:^f^^f^ Laurentius Petri (1499-1573) were Carmelite monks
wlio adopted the Lutheran doctrine while studying
sKUtenberg, and came back to Sweden in X5x8 as the apostles
■i the new faith. Olaus, who is one of the noblest 6gures in
'-^vitsh anxxals, was of the executive rather than the meditative
-aft. He became chancellor to Gustavus Vasa, but his reform-
X sal soon btonght him into disgrace, and in 1540 he was
^tadesaacd to death. Two years later he was pardoned, and
.'«ved to lesuxne hb preaching in Stockholm. He found time,
^wvver. to write a Swedish Ckronide, which b the earliest prose
'"lory of Sweden, a mystery-play, Tobtae comedia, which b the
M S«c«fish drama, and three psalm-books, the best known
''^^ pttbSsbed in 1530 under the title of Ndgre gudkeiige
'sr (" Certain Divine Songs ")• His Ckronide was based on
- alKr of sources, in the treatment of which he showed a
wluch makes the work still usefuL Laurentius
V a man of c^mer temperament, was archbishop of
and edited or superintended the translation of the
.2b«jte jUBmisor^ edited by E. G. Geijer and A. A. Aheltus
'Jt.. Sco«Molm. 1879}.
W CcdoKhifild, Om Erihkrinikan (1899)-
•£^<Jo— of these chronicles «nd romances have been issued by
* ' k i Fomakrift SaUskapet " (Stockholm) ; Jvan Ujon-
^H^fn ted. Stephens). HerHgFredrik of Normandie (ed. Ahbtrand)
'^n wck Bl99ck^tar (ed. G. K. Klemming), Alexander (ed. Klem-
*%. Cart MagT** (ed. Kleroming. in Prosadikter fr&n wuddliden).
Bible published at Upsala In 1540. He also trrote many psalms.
Laurentius Andreae, 1552, had previously prepared a translation
of the New Testament, which appeared in 1526. He was a
polemical writer of prominence on the side of the Reformers.
Finally, Petrus Niger (Pedcr Svart), bishop of Vesteris (d. 1562),
wrote a chronicle of the life of Gustavus I. up to 1533, in excel-
lent prose. The same writer left unpublished a history of the
bishops of Vesteras, hb predecessors. The latter half of the
x6th century b a blank in Swedish literature.
With the accession of (Varies DC., and the consequent develop^
ment of Swedbh greatness, literature began to assert itself in
more vigorous forms. The long life of the royal ^-^^,
librarian, Johannes Buie or Buraeus (1568-1652), *■■•<*
formed a link between the age of the Petri and that of Stjem-
hjelm. Buraeus studied all the sciences then known to mankind,
and confounded them all in a sort of Rabbinical cultus of hb
own invention, a universal philosophy in a multitude of unread'
able volumes.^ But he was a patient antiquary, and advanced
the knowledge of andent Scandinavian mythology and language
very considerably. He awakened curiosity and roused a public
sympathy with letters; nor was it without significance that two
of the greatest Swedes of the century, Gustavus Adolphus and
the poet Stjemhjelm, were hb pupib. The reign of C!harles IX.
saw the rise of secular draina in Sweden. The first comedy was
the Tishe of Magnus Olai Asterophenis (d. 1647), a coarse but
witty piece on the story of Pyramus and Thbbe, acted by the
schoolboys of the college of Arboga in 1610. Thb play b the
Ralph Roister Doister of Swedbh literature. A greater dramatbt
was Johannes Messenius (1579-1636), who was the son of a
miller near Vadstena and had been carefully educated abroad by
the Jesuits. Being discovered plotting against the government
during the absence of Gustavus in Russia, he was condemned to
imprisonment for life— that b, for twenty years. Before this
disaster he had been professor of jurisprudence in Upsala, where
his first hbtorical comedy Disa was performed in x6xi and the
tragedy of SigniO in 161 2. The dcagn of Messenius was to write
the hbtory of hb country m fifty plays; he completed and pro-
duced six. These dramas' are not particulariy well arranged,
but they forth a little body of theatrical literature of singular
interest and value. Messenius was a genuine poet; the lyrics
he introduces have something of the charm of the old ballads.
He wrote abundantly in prison ; hb magnum opus was a history of
Sweden in Latin, but he has also left, in Swedbh, two important
rhyme-chronicles. Messenius was imitated by a little crowd
of playwrights. Nikolaus Holgeri Catonlus (d. r65s) wrote a fine
tragedy on the Trojan War, Troijenhorgk, in which he excelled
Messenius as a dramatist. Andreas Prytz, who died in 1655 as
bishop of Link&ping, produced several religious chronicle plays
from Swedish hbtory. Jacobus Ronddetius (d. r662) wrote a
curious " Christian tragi-comedy " of Judas redivivus, which
contains some amu^ng scenes from daily Swedbh life. Another
good play was an anonymous Hoiofernes and Judith (edited at
Upsala, 1895, by O. Sylwan). These pla>"s were all acted by
schoolboys and university youths, and when they went out of
fashibn among these classes the drama in Sweden almost entirely
ceased to enst. Two historians of the reign of Charles IX., Erik
Gdransson Tegcl (d. 1636) and Aegidius Girs (d. 1639), deserve
menrion. The chancellor Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie (r622-
1686) did much to promote the study of Swedbh antiquities.
He foimded the CoUege of Antiquities at Up&ala in 1667, and
bought back the Gothic Codex argenieus whXch he presented to the
uarvenuty library.
The reign of Gustavus Adolphus was adorned by one great
writer, the most considerable in all the early history of Sweden.
The title of " the Father of Swedbh poetry " has^^^,^^^^^^
been universally awarded to Gdran Lilja, better
known by his adopted name of Georg Stjemhjelm (^.v.; 15^^
1672). Stjemhjelm was a man of almost univcrs-"'
ment, but it is mainly in verse that he has left hb s'
* Selections from hb writings were edited by G. E.
883-1885).
for a learned society (Upsala. t886. ftc.) by H.
(U|^^.883-.885),
zi6
SWEDEN
ILITERATUHB
the litentttie of his ooantry. He found the hiniint rough
and haltingp and he moulded it into perfect smoothness and
elasticity. His master, Buraeus, had written a few Swedish
hexameters by way of e:q>eximenL Stjemhjelm took the form
and made it national
The claim of Stjemhjelm to be the first Swedish poet may
be contested by a younger man, but a slightly earlier writer,
- . Gustaf Rosenhane (1619-1684), who was a reformer
***'on quite other lines. If Stjemhjelm studied
Opitx, Rosenhane took the French poets of the Renaissance
for his models, and in 1650 wrote a cycle of one hundred
sonnets, the earliest in the language; these were published under
the title Venerid in i68a Rosenhane printed in 1658 a '* Com-
plaint of the Swedish Language " in thirteen hundred rattling
rhyming lines, and in 1682 a collection of eighty songs. He
was a metrist of the artistic order, skilful, learned and imim-
passioned. His zeal for the improvement of the literature
of his country was beyond question. Most of the young poets,
however, followed Sijemhjelm rather than Rosenhane. As
personal friends and pupils of the former, the brothers Colum-
bus deser\-e special attention. They were sons of a musician
and poet, Jonas Columbus (1586- 1663). Each wrote copiously
in verse, but Johan (1640-1684), who was professor of poetry
at Upsala, almost entirely in Latin, while Samuel (1643-2679),
especially in his Odae svetkae, showed himself an apt and
fervid imiutor of the Swedish hexameters of Stjemhjelm, to
whom he was at one time secretary, and whose Herctdes he
dramatized His works were included by P. Hanselli in vol. iL
of Samlade witierkets arbeten, &c
Of a rhyming family of Hj&me, it is enough to mention one
member. Urban Hj&me ( 1641-1 7?4), who introduced the new
form of classical tragedy from France, in a species of transition
from the masques of Stjemhjelm to the later regular rhymed
dramas. His best phty was a Ronnutnda. Lars Johansson
(1642-1674), who called himself " Luddor the Unfortunate,"
has been the subject of a whole tissue of romance, most of which
is fabulous. It is tme, however, that he was stabbed, like
Marlowe, in a midnight brawl at a tavern. His poems were
posthumously collected as Flowers of Helicon^ Plucked attd
Distributed on various ouasions by Lucidor the Unfortunate.
Stripped of the myth which had attracted so much attention
to his name, Luddor proves to be an occasional rhymester of
a very low order. Haquin Spegd (1645-17x4), the famous arch-
bishop of Upsala, wrote a long didactic epic in alexandrines,
Cod's Labour and Rest, with an introductory ode to the Ddty
in rhymed hexameters. He was also a good writer of hymns.
Another ecdesiastic, the bishop of Skara, Jesper Svedberg
(1653-1735), wrote sacred verses, but is better remembered as
the father of S wedenborg. Peter Lagerldf ( 1648-2699) cultivated
a pastoral vein in his ingenious lyrics Eiisandra and LyciUis;
he was professor of poetry, that is to say, of the art of writing
Latin verses, at Upsala. Olof Wexionius (1656-1690?) pub.
lished his Sinne-AJvd, a collection of graceful miscellaneous
pieces, in 1684, in an edition of only xoo copies. Its existence
was presently forgotten, and the name of Wexionius bad dropped
out of the history of literature, when Hanselli recovered a copy
and reprinted its contents in 1863.
We have hitherto considered only the followers of Stjemhjelm;
Ire have now to speak of an important writer who folbwed in
nmuurm* ^^^ footsteps of Rosenhane. Gunno Eurdius,
afterwards ennobled with the name of Dahlstjeroa
{q.v.\ 1661-1709), early showed an interest in the poetry
of Italy. In 1690 he Uanslated Cuarini's Pastor Fido, and
in or just after 1697 published, in a folio volume without
a date, his Kunga-Skald, the first original poem in ottaoa rima
produced in Swedish. This is a bombastic and vainglorious
epic in honour of Charies XL, whom Eurdius adored; it
is not, however, without great merits, richness of language,
flowing metre, and the breadth of a genuine poetic enthusiasm.
He published a little collection of lamentable sonnets when his
great master died. Joh»" »•"»•* — Viljenstedt (1655-1732),
a Flan, was a graceful ' ' and CuarioL Johan
Runiua (167971713)1 «&Ued the ** Prince of Poets," published a
collection entitled Dudaim, in which there is nothing to pranc»
and with him the generation of the 27th century doses. Talent
had been shown by certain individuals, but no healthy school
of Swedish poetry had been foimded, and the latest imitators
of Stjemhjelm had lost every vestige of taste and independence.
In prose the 17th century produced but little of importance
in Sweden. Gustavus Adolphus (1594-2632) was the most
polished writer of its earlier half, and his speeches - „ ^.
take an important place in the development of the
language. The most original mind of the next age was Olof
Rudbeck (1630-2702), the famous author of Atland. eUer
iiankem. He spent nearly all his life in Upsala, building
anatomical Uboratories, conducting musical oonccrts, laying
out botanical gardens* arranging medical lecture room*—
in a word, expending cesariess energy on the practical
improvement of the university. He was a genius in aU the
known branches of learning; at twenty-three his physiok>gical
discoveries had made him famous throughout Europe. His
Atland (or Atlantika) appdued in four folio volumes, in Latin and
Swedish, in 167 5- 1698; it was an attempt to summon all the
authority of the past, all the sages of Greece and the bards of
Iceland, to prove the inherent and indi4>utable greatness of the
Swedish nation, in which the fabulous Atlantis had been at last
discovered. It was the literary expression of the majesty of
Charies XI., and of his autocratical dreams for the destiny of
Sweden. From another point of view it is a monstrous hoard
or caim of rough-hewn antiquarian learning, now often praised,
sometimes quoted from, and never read. Olof Vcrdius (1618^
1682) had led the way for Rudbeck, by his translations of
Icdandic sagas, a work which was carried on with greater
intelligence by Johan Peringskjold (1654-1739), Uie editoi
of the Heimskringla (1697), and J. Hadorph (1630-1693). The
French philosopher Descartes, who died at Christina's court
at Stockholm in 1650, found his chief, though posthumous,
disdple in Andreas Rydelius (1671*1738), bishop of Land, who
was the master of Dalin, and thus connects us with the next
epoch. His chid work, NSdiga fdrnuftsd/ningar ... (5 vols.)
appeared in 1718. Charles XII., under whose special patronage
Rydelius wrote, was himself a metaphysician and physiologist
of merit.
A much more brilliant period followed the death of Charles
XII. The influence of France and England took the place of
that of Germany and Italy. The taste of Louis XIV., tempered
by the study of Addison and Pope, gave its tone to the
academical court of Queen Louise Ulrica, who founded in
1758 the academy of literature which developed later into the
academy of literature, history and anriquities.
Sweden became completdy a slave to the periwigs of literature,
to the unities and graces of classical France. Neverthdess
this was a period of great intdlectual stimulus and activity, and
Swedish literature took a solid shape for the fir^t time. This
Augustan period in Sweden dosed somewhat abmptly about
1765. Two writers in verse connect it with the sdiool of the
preceding century. Jacob Frese (1692?-! 728?), a Finn,
whose poems were published in 2736, was an degiacal writer
of much grace, who foreshadowed the idyllic maimer of Creuta.
Atterbom pronounces Frese the best Swedish poet between
Stjemhjelm and Dalin. Samud von Triewald (1688*1743)
played a very imperfea Dryden to Dalin's Pope. He was the
fitst Swedish satirist, and introduced Boileau to his country-
men. His Satire upon our Stupid Poets may still be read with
entertainment.^ Both in verse and prose Olof von Dalin
{g.v.; 1708-1763) takes a higher place than any ^^^
writer since Stjernhjdm. He was inspired by the
study of his great English contemporaries. His Swedish
Argus (1735-1754) was modelled on Addison's Spectator, his
Thoughts about Critics (1736) on Pope's Essay on Criticism,
his TaU of a Horse on Swift's Tate of a Tub. Dalin's style,
* Tlie works of the chief writers between Stemhidm and Delia
were edited by P. Hantdli (Upwla, 1856. &c.) at Samdade oiilerheiO'
arUten-aJ soenska JorJaUare.
UTERATUKE)
SWEDEN
ai7
whetbec in. prose or veise, wis q( a fioished ekguice. As *»
prose writer Dalin is chiefly memoiable Cor his HUUfry oj Uu
Swedish Kingdom (4 vols., 1746-1762). His |(reat epic, Swedish
Fretdom (1742) was writtea in alexaadrines of (ar greater
smoothness and vigour than bad previousj^jr been attempted.
When in 1737 the new Royal Swedish Theatre was opened,
Dalin led the way to a new school ot dramatists with his Bryn^
hiUa, a regular tragedy in the style of Cribilloa p^«. In his
comedy of The Envious Man he introduced the maimer of
Molicre* or more properly that of Holbexg. His songs, his satires,
his occasional pieces, without displaying any real originality,
show Dalin's tact and skill as a workman with the pen. He
stole from England and France, but with the plagiarism of a
man of genius; and his multifarious labours raised Sweden to a
level with the other literary countries of Europe. They formed
a basis upon which more national and more scrupulous writers
could build their various structures. A foreign critic, especially
an EngUsh one, will never be able to give 0alin so much credit
as the Swedes do; but he was certainly an unsurpassable master
of pastiche. His works were collected in 6 vols., 1767.
The only poet of importance who contested the laurels of
Dalin was a woman. Hedvig Cbarlotta Noidenflycht (1718*
_X76i) was the centre of a society which took the
"name of Tank€bygg4^$ Ordtn and ventured to rival
that which Queen Ix>ttise Ulrica created and Dalin
adorned. Both groups were classical in taste, both worshipped
the new lighu in England and France. Fro Noidenflycht
wrote with facility and gmce; her collection of lyrics, Th*
Sorrmring Turtledove (t743)> in spite of its affectation,
enjoyed and merited a great success; it was the expression of a
de^ and genuine sorrow-*the death of her husband after a
very brief and happy married life. It was in 1744 that she
settled in Stockholm and opened her famous literary salon.
She was called *' The Swedish Sappho." and scandal has been
needlessly busy in giving point to the allusion. It was to Fni
Nordenilycht's credit that she discovered and encouraged the
talent of two very distinguished poets younger than herself,
Creutz and Gyllenborg, who published volumes of poetry In
^^^ collaboration. Count GusUf Philip Creuta iq.v.',
^"■^ 1731-1785) was a Finlandcr who achieved an ex-
tiaondiaary success with his idyllic poems, and in partioilar
with the beautiful pastoral of Atis och CamiUat long the moat
popular of all Swedish poems. His friend Cotmt Gusuf Fredrik
Gyllcnborg (173 1-1808) was a less accomplished
^ ** poet, less dielicate and touching, more rhetorical
and artifidaL His epic TAget dfver BOU (" The Expedition
across the Belt ") (1785) is an imitatkm, in tweWe books, of
Voltaire's Hemriade^ axul deals with the prowess of Charles X.
He wrote fables, allegories, satires, and a successful comedy of
manners. The Swedish Fop. He outlived his chief contemporaries
so long that the new generation addressed him as "Father
Gyilenborg." AndersOdel (f7E8i'X773> wrote in 1739 thefamous
" Song 6i Malcolm Sinclair," the Sinctairniss, The writers of
vene in this period were also exceedingly numerous.
In prose, as was to be expected, the first half of the x8th
eentttiy was rich in Sweden as dsewhere. The first Swedish
novelist was Jakob Heniik MSrfc (17 14-1763). His
romances have some likeness to those of Richard-
son; they are moral. long'Winded, and slow in
evolution, but written in an exquisite style, and with much
knowledge of human nature. Adolrih och GdthUdOy which
wient on appearing from 174) to 1745, is the best known;
it was followed, between 1748 snd 1758, by Thtcla. Jakob
WallenbeTg (i746*r778) described a voyage he took to the
East Indies and China under the very odd title of Mm son
pi galejan (" My Son at the Galleys '*)» •■ work full of humour
and originality.
Joban Ihre (1707-T780), a professor at Upsala, edited the
Codex argenleus of Ullilas, and produced the valuable Svenskt
IHaiea lexicon (1766) based on an earlier learned work, the
Diaitetologia of Archbishop Erik Benzelius (d. 1743)* He
fettled for some time at Oxford. Ihre's masurpiece is the
aossaritm swtogolkietm (1769), a historical dictionaiy with
many valuable examples from the ancient ry^HMFB^nU of the
language. In doing this he was assisted by the labours of
two other grammarians, Sven Hof (d. 2786) and Abraham
Sahlstedt (d. 1776). The chief historians were Sven Lagerbriog
(1707-X787), author of a still valuable history of Sweden down
to X457 (SUa Rihes historia, 4 vols., 1769-178^); Ok>f Celsius
(17S6-X794), bishop of Lund, who wrote histories of GusUvus I,
(1746-1753) ud of Eric XIV. (1774); and Karl Gustaf Tessin
(1695-X770) who wrote on politics and on aesthetics. Tessin's
Oid Man's leUers to a young Prince were addressed to his pupil,
afterwards Gustavus III. Count Anders Johan von Hdpkea
(17x3-1789), the friend of Louise Ulrica, was a master of
riietorical compliment in addresses and funeral orations.
In spite of all the enoouiagement of the court, drama did
not flourish in Sweden. Among the tragic writers of the age
we may m e ntion Dalin, Gyllenborg> and Erik Wrangel (168^
1765). In comedy Reinhold Gustaf Modie (d. X75a) wroU
three good plays in rivalry of Holbeig.
In science Linnaeus, or Kari von Unn4 (1707-1778), waa
the name of greatest genius in the whole century; but he wrote
almost entirely in Latin. The two great Swedish chemists^
Torbem Olof Bergman (X735-1784) and Kari Vilheha Scheele
(x74a-x786), flourished at this time. In pathology a great
name was left by Nils Ros6n voa Rosenstein (1706-1773)1
in navigation by Admiral Fredrik Henrik af Chapman (d.
x8o8), in phik)logy by Karl AuriviUius (d. 1786). But these
and other distinguished savants whose names might be enumo>.
rated scarcely belong to the history of Swedish literature.
The same may be said about that marvellous and many-sided
genius, Emanud Swcdenborg (i688-x77a), who, tbo«^ the
son of a Swedish poeti preferred to prophesy to the wodd hi
Latin.
What is called the Gustavian peribdis supposed to com*
mettce with the reign of Gustavus IIL in X771 and to ckua
with the abdication of Gustavus IV. in 1809^ This n»
period of less than forty years was particularly Om^or iMn
rich in literary talent, and the taste of the people ****
in literary matteia widened to a remarkable extent Jour-
nalism b^gan to develop; the Swedish Academy was foimded;
the drama first learned to flourish in Stockholm; and literature
began to take a characteristically national shape. This fruitful
period naturally divides itself into two divisions, equivalent
to the reigns of the two kmgs. The royal personages of Sweden
have commonly been protectors of literature ; they have strangdy
often been able men <A letters themselves. Gustavus IIL
(1746-X791), the founder of the Swedish Academy and of the
Swedish theatre, was himself a playwright of no mean ability,
One of his prose dramas, Siri Brahe och Johan GyUens^ferna,
held the stage for many year^ But his best work was his
national drama of Gustaf Yasa (1783), written by the king ui
prose, and afterwards versified by KeUgren. In 1773 the
king opened the national theatn in Stockholm,^ and on that
occasion an opera of Thetis och Pdie waa performed, writtea by
himself. In 1786 GusUvus cxeated the Swedish Academy, oa
the lines of the French Academy, but with eighteen members
instead of forty. The first list of immortals, which included
the survivors of a previous age and such yoimg celebrities
as Kellgren and Le<^ld, embraced all that was most bril-
liant in the best society of Stockholm; the king himself pre-
sided, and won the first prize for an omtion. The worlu of
Gustavus m. hi six volumes were printed at Stockholm in
X802-1806.
The principal writers of the reign of Gustavus III. bear the
name of the academical school But Karl Mikael BeUman
{q.t.\ X740-X79S), the most original ami one of the
most able of all Swedish writers, an improvisators '"*
of the first order, had nothing academical in his comporitbn.
The riot of his dilthyrambic hymns sounded a sctangc note of
nature amid the conventional music of the Gustaviansl Of
the academical poets Johan Gabriel Oxenstferna (i 750-X8X8),
the nephew of Gylleoborg, was a descriptive idyllist of grace.
I
2l8
SWEDEN
lUTERATURE
He translated Paradise Lost. A writer of far more power and
versatility was Johan Henrik Kellgren iq.v.; 1751-1795)1 the
^ ^ leader of taste in his time. He was the first writer
^^'**' of the end of the century in Sweden, and the
tecond undoubtedly was Karl Gustaf af Leopold^ (i 756-1879),
"the blind seer Tircsias-Lcopold," who lived on to
**"^ represent the old school in the midst of romantic
times. Leopold attracted the notice of Gustavus III. by a
volume of Erotic Odes (1785). The king gave him a pension
and rooms in the palace, admitting him on intimate terms.
He was not equal to Kellgren Jn general poetical ability, but he
is great in didactic and satiric writing. He wrote a satire, the
Enebomiad, against a certain luckless Per Enebom, and a
classic tra^y of Virgirna. Gudmund G5ran Adlerbeth (1751-
t8i8) made translations from the classics and from the Norse,
and was the author of a successful tragic opera, Cora och Alonto
(1782). Anna Maria Lenngren (1754-1817) was a very pop\ilar
Sentimental writer of graceful domestic verse, chiefly between
1792 and 1798. She was less French and more national than
most of her contemporaries; she is a Swedish Mrs Hemans.
Much of her work appeared anonymously, and was generally
attributed to her contemporaries Kellgren and Leopold.
Two writers of the academic period, besides Bellman, and a
generation later than he, kept apart, and served to lead up to
^^ the romantic revival-. Bengt Lidner (1759-1793)1
^^'* a melancholy and professedly elegiacal writer, had
analogies with Novalis. He interrupted his studies at the
university by a voyage to the East Indies, and only returned to
Stockholm after many adventures. In spite of the patronage
of Gustavus III. he continued to lead a disordered, wandering
life, and died in poverty. A short narrative poem, The Death
of the Countess Spastara (1783), has retained iu popularity.
Lidner was a genuine poet, and his lack of durable success must
be set down to faults of character, not to lack of inspiration.
His poems appeared in 1788. Thomas Tfaorild (17 59-180*)
was a much stronger nature, and led the revolt against prevailing
taste with far more vigour. But he is an irregular
Tbwu, ^^ inartistic versifier, and it is mainly as a prose
writer, and especially as a very original and courageous critic,
that he is now mainly remembered. He settled m Germany
and died as a professor in Greifswald. Kari August Ehrensvftrd
(1745-1800) may be mentioned here as a critic whose aims
somewhat resembled those of Thorild. The creation of the
Academy led to a great production of aesthetic and philosophical
writing. Among critics of taste may be mentioned Nils Ros^n
von Rosenstein (1752-1824); the rhetorical bishop of Linkdping,
Magnus Lehtiberg (1758-1808); and Count Georg Adlersparre
(1760^1809). Ros6n von Rofienstein embraced the principles
of the encyclopaedists while he was attached to the Swedish
embassy in Paris. On his return to Sweden he became tutor
to the crown prince, and held in succession a. number of im»
portant offices. As the first secretary of the Swedish Academy
he exercised great influence over Swedish literature and thought.
His prose writings, which include prefaces to the works of
Kellgren and Udner, and an eloquent jsrgument against
Rousseau's theory of the injurious influence of art and letters,
rank with the bat of the period. KeUgren and Leopold were
both of them important prose writers.
The excellent lyrical poet Frana Mikael Franz£n (q.v.; 1772-
1847) and a belated academician Johan David Valerius (1776-
1852), fill up the space between the Gustavian period and the
domination of romantic ideas from Germany. It
^jffS"*^ was Lorenzo HammarskSld (1785-1827) who in
tSoj introduced the views of Tleck and Schelling
by founding the society in Upsala called ** Vitterhetens Vanner,"
and by numerous critical essays. His chief work was Svenska
vitterheten (18 18, &c.) a history of Swedish literature. Hommar-
akOld's society was succeeded in 1807 by the famous " Aurora
itfiriknm ***ttndet," founded by two youths of genius, Pet
^^ Daniel Amadeus Atterbom (i79»-i8ss) «nd VUhdm
Fredrik Palmblad (1788-1853); These young men had at
> His works wen edited by C. R. Nyfaftom (t vols*» 187^-
first to endure bitter opposition and ridicule from the academic
writers then in power, but they supported this with cheerfulness,
and answered back in their magazines Polyfem and Fpsforos
(1810-1813). They were named " Fosforistema " ("Phos-
phorists ") from the latter. Another principal member of the
school was Karl Frederik Dahlgren (9.9.; x 791-18x4), a
humorist who owed much to the example of Bdlman. Fru JuHa
Kyberg (1785-1854), under the title of Euphrosyne, was their
tenth Muse, and wrote agreeable lyrics. Among the Phos-
phorists Atterbom was the man of most genius. On the ^de
of the Academy they were vigorously attacked by Per Adam
Wallmark (i 777-1858), to whom they replied in a satire which
was the joint work of several of the romanticists, Markall'g
Sleepless Nights. One of the innovators, Atterbom, eventually
forced the doors of the Academy itself.
In 1811 certain young men in Stockholm founded a society
for the elevation of society by means of the study of Scandi-
navian antiquity. This was the Gothic Sodety, which
began to issue the magazine called Iduna as its
organ. Of its patriotic editors the most prominent
was Erik Gusuf Geijer (^.r.; 1783-1847), but be was presently
joined by a young man slightly older than himself,
Esaias Tegnfr iq.v.; 1782-1846), afterwards bishop of '^''
Vexid, the greatest of Swedish writers. Even more enthusi-
astic than either in pushing t» its last extreme the ^^^
worship of ancient myths and manners was Per '^*^^
Henrik Ling (1776-1839), now better remembered as the
father of gymnastic science than as a poet. The Gothic
Society eventually included certain >^»unger men than
these— Anrid August Afzelius (1785-1871), the first editor of
the Swedish folk-songs; Gustaf Vilhelm Gumaelius (178^
1877), who has been somewhat pretentiouBly styled "The
Swedish Walter Scott," author of the historical novdof Tord
Bonde; Baron Bernhard von Besioow (9.9.; 1796-1868), lyrist
and dramatist; and Karl August Nicander (1799-1839), a Isrric
poet who approached the Phosphorists in manner. The two
great lights of the Gothic school are Geijer, mainly in prose, and
Tegn^r, in his splendid and copious vexse. Johan Olof WalHa
(1779-1839) may be mentioned in the same category,
although he is really distinct from all the schools.
He was archbishop of Upsala, and in 1819 he published the
national hymn-book of Sweden; of the hymns in this collection,
1 26 are written by Wallin himself.
From 1810 to t84c^was the blossoming-time in Swedish poetry,
and there were several writers of distinguished merit who could
not be included in either of the groups enumerated __^ _
above. Second only to Tegn^r in genius, the brief *•*■•*■•
life and mysterious death of Erik Johan Stagnelius (1795-
1823) have given a romantic interest to all that is coh-
nected with his name. His first publication was the epic of
Vladimir the Great (1817); to this succeeded the romantic poem
Blanda. His singular dramas. The Bacchantes (1822), Sigurd
Ringt which was posthumous, and The Martyrs (182s), are
esteemed by many critics to be his most original productions.
His mystical lyrics, entitled Liyor i Saron (" Lilies in Sharon ";
1820), and his sonnets, which are the best in Swedish, may be
recommended as among the most delicate products of the
Scandinavian mind. Stagnelius has been compared, and not
improperly, to Shelley.* Erik Sjoberg, who called himself
•* Vilalis " (i794-i8?8), was another gifted poet ^
whose career was short and wretched. A volume j^»**m-
of his poems appeared in 1820, they are few in number and
ail brief. His work divides itself into two classes— the one
profoundly melancholy, the other witty or boisterous. T^o
humorous poets of the same period who deserve mention axe
Johan Anders Wadman (1777-1837), an improvisatore of the
same class as Bellman, and Christian Erik FahlaanU (f.v.;
1790-1866).
Among the poeu who have been mentioned above, the
*Hit collected works were edited by C. Eiefahom (a vole.,
Stockhoha, 1867-1868). Several of Stagndiiu* poems were t
lated into £niVah by Edmund GoMe 1886).
1JIEBA.TURI)
SWEDEN
219
majority dfertngoWwl th&amdwg ifao' io pvoMw But the
p^aod WIS aot OM In which Swedish pnae ihpiie with my
apccttl Inttie. The fim paonirt of the tfane wmS) without
qiKttiOB, tho noveUtt, Kul Jonis Lodvig Ahaqvist,
'^''**' (?•••; ir^s-^iStid), oxomid whose CBtraordfaiuy
pexaooal duuactcr and career a -Oijrthical roaumoe haa already
eoHectcd (lee Almqvut). He was eneydopcedic in his lange,
•IthoBgh his stories preserve most chaim; on- whatever subject
he wrote his style was ahrays izquiske. Frcdiik Cederbecgh
(x 784-1835) revived the oonric novel in his l/w son Trustnberg
mad Ottar TrdUn^, The historical novels d Gamaelios have
already been alloded to. Swedish hisioiy supplied themes
for the romances of Count Per Oeorg Spane (1790^871) and
of Gnstaf Hearik Mellin (1805*1876). .But sU these writers
sink before the sustained popularity of the Finnish
poet Fredrika Bremer {q.9,\ t8oi<»x865), whose
stories reached farther into the distant provinces
of the worid of letters than the writings of any -other Swede
eaccpt TcfD^r. She was preceded \^ Sofia Margarets Zelow,
afterwards Baroness von Knorring (x797»i848), vdio wrote a
long series of aristocratic novels.
A polemical writer of great talent was Magnus Jakob Ousen*
stople (1795-X865), of whose work it has been said that '* it is
not history and it is not fiction, but something brilliant between
the one and the other." As an historian of Swedish literature
Per Wieaelgren (1800*1877) composed a valuable work, and
mode other valuable contributions to history and bibliography.
In* liiatocy we meet again with the great name of Geljer, with
that of Jonas Hallenberg (1748^1834), and with that of Anders
Magnos Strinnholm (1786-1863), whose labours in the field of
Swedish history were extremely valuable. Geijer and Strinn-
holm prepared the way for the most popular of all Swedish
Instorians, Anders Fryxell (i79S-x88t), whose famous BeriU'
idstr w nemka ki$tarim appeared in parts during a space of
nearly sixty years, and awakened a great interest In Swedish
history and legend.
In 1850 the fiist poet of Sweden, without a rival, was Johan
Lodvig Runeberg (9.V.; 1804*1877), whose reputation rivals
that of Tegn6r. Bemhaid Elis MahnstriVra (i8i6-
"■ "* 1865), who was a professor of aesthetics at the uni-
versity of Upeala, was the author of many important books on
artistic and literary history, notably a monograph on Fransin.
His poetry, although small in volume, gives l^m a place beside
Rnneberg. A volume of elegies, Angelika (1840), established
his fane, and two volumes of poems published in 1845 and
1847 conuin a number of ballads, romances and lyrics which
keep their hold on Swedish Utcrature. He was an exact and
dlscrinu'nating critic, and inclined to severity in his strictures on
fhe romanticists. The other leading verse-writeis were Karl
VHbefan B6ttiger (1807*1878), the son-in-lsw and biogtapher
of Tegn^, who, in addition to his lyrical poetry, chiefly of the
smttmcntal kind, wrote an admirable series of monographs on
Swedish men of letters; Johan BGrjesson (1790-1866), the last
of the Phosphorists, authorof various romantic dramas; Vilhelm
August Detlof von Braun (1813-1860), a humorous lyrist;
** Talis Qualis," whose real name was Karl Vilhelm August
Strandberg (1818-1877); Oscar Patrick Stursen-Bccker (1811-*
1869), better known as " Orvar Odd,** a lyrical poet who was
also the author of a Series of amusing sketches of everyday
We; and August Teodor Blanche (1811-1868), the popular
dramatist. Blanche produced a iramber of farces and comedies
wtnch w«re announced as pictures fmm real life. His pieces
aboond in comic situations, and some of them, Magisler BUck"
atadius (1844). Ri^^^ Marbrof (i845)» Bn Irogedi i Vimmerby
(1848) and others, maintain their repntatkm. Fredrik August
Dahlgren (18 16-1 895) gained a great reputation as a dramatist
by Ins national opera, VermlSndingarne (1846). He is also the
aiitlior of translations from Shakespeare arid Calderon, and of
cmsderable historical works. Other notable plays of Che period
W9n the ^n Komedi of J. C. Jolln (1818-1884) and the Btetto-
ptt p^ Utflsa (186s) of Frans Hedberg O^^iQoS). But
Rnneberg is the only great poetic name of this period.
In prese there was not even a Rnneberg. The best novelist
of the time was Emilie Flygare-Carito (1807-1893). The
art was wistainrd by Kari Anton Wetterfoergh (x8o4-x889>,
who called himself **Onkel Adam," by August Blanche the
dramatist, and by Marie Sofie SchwaiU (1819-1893). FrU
Schwaru (n£e Birat) wrote novels demonstrating the righu of
the poor against the rich, of which The Man of Birth end ike
Woman 0/ tke Peopla (Eng. trans., x868) is a good example.
Lars Johan Hierta (1801-1872) was the leading journalist,
Johan Henrik Thomander, bishop of Lund (179^x865), the
greatest orator, Matthias Alexander Gastrin (1813-1853) a
prominent man of scienoe,and Kari Gustaf af Forsdl (1783-
^848), the principal sutistidan of this not very brilliant period.
Elias Ldnnrot (f .«.; X803-1884) is distinguished as the Finnish
professor who discovered and edited the KaUvala,
The most popular poet at the close of the X9th century waa
the patriotic Finn, Zakris Topelhis {q.t, ; 1818-1898) . Of less ite^
portance were Karl Herman Sitherberg (x8 13-1897), a romantic
poet who was also a practising physician of distinction; the
elegiac poet Johan Nybom (181 5-1889); and the poet, novelist,
and dramatist Frans Hedberg (d. 1908), who in his old age
made many ooncessioas to the modem taste. The posthumous
poems of the bishop of SttltngnAs, Adam Teodor Strttmberg
(1830-1889), ^v^c collected by Wirsin, and created some sensa-
tion. A typical academician was the poet, antiquary and con>
noisseur. Nils Fredrik Sander (x8i8-i9oo). The improvisator
of dmUarnet Gunnar Wennerberg (q-v.; 1817-1901) survived
as a romantic figure of the past. Still okler was the poetess
Wilhelmina NordstrOm (1815-1903), long a schoolmistress in
Finland. The aesthetic critic and poet, Carl Rupert Nyblora
(1833-1907), continued the studies, translations and original
pieces which had created him a reputation as one of the most
accomplished general writers of Sweden. His wife, Helene
Nyblom, was well known as a novdist. A. T. Gellerstedt
(b. 1836), an architea of positicm, was known as a poet
of small range but of very fine qoaUty. Among writers of
the earlier generation overe Achatius Johan Kahl (1794-1888),
the biographer of Tegn^; Per Erik Bergfalk (1798-1890), the
critic and supporter of Geijer; the distinguished historian and
academician, Karl Johan Schlyter (1795-1888) and the historical
Writers, Fredrik Ferdinand Carlson (181 1-1887), Vilhelm Erik
Svedclius (1816-1889), and Martin Weibull (1835-1902). The
woik of King Oscar II. {q.v.) himself had given him a worthy
place among the intellectuals of the country. But the interest
of such veteran reputations » eclipsed by the more modem
school.
The serenity of Swedish literature was rudely shaken about
1884 by an incursion of realism and by a stream of novel and vio*
lent imaginative impulse. The controversy between
the old and the new schools raged so fiercely, and m^vma
the victory has remained so obviously in the hands
of the latter, that it is difficult, especially for a foreigner,
to hold the balance perfectly even. It will therefore be best
in this brief sketch to say that the leader of the elder school
was Viktor Rydbcrg (q.v.; tii^i^s) and that he was ably
supported by Cari Snoilsky {q.v.\ 1841-1904) who at the
beginning of the 20th century was the principal living poet
of the bygone generation in Sweden. Snoilsky was prominent
for the richness of his lyrical style, his cosmop^tan interests and
his great width of culture. Cari David af Wirs^n (b. 1842)
distinguished himself, and made himself very unhappy, by his
dogged resistance to every species of renaissance in Swedish
thought, or art, or literature. A man of great talent, he was a
violent reacdonary, and suffered from the consequences of an
attitude so unpopular. He found a vehicle for his criticism
in the Pest ock Jnrtkes Tidningar, of which he was editor. He
published his Lyrical Poems in 1876; Ntw Lyrical Poems in
1880: Songs and Sketches in 1885.
Fonr influences may be mentioned as having acted upon
young Sweden, and as having combined to release its litenture
from the old hard-bound conventions. These are Enslish
idiiloSophy in the writings of Herbert Spencer
220 SWEDEN
in the practice and the pieachiiig of Zola, Nonregiaii drama
mainly through Ibsen, and Danish criticism in the easayi and
monographs o£ Georg Brandes. Unquestionably the greatest
name in recent Swedish literature is that of Johan August
Strindberg (7.0.; b. 1849). His drama at Master Olof in 1878
began the revolutionary movement. In 1879 the success of his
lealistic novel, The Red Room^ fixed universal attention upon
his talent. It was the sensation caused in 1884 by the lawsuit
brought against Strindberg's Married (a collection of short
stories dealing realistically with some of the seamy sides of
marriage) which brought to a head the rebellion agamst the ele-
gant and superficial conventions which were strangling Swedish
Hterature. He affronts every canon of taste, more by a radical
Absence, it would seem, of the sense of proportion tbsn by any
desire to shock. His diatribes against woman suagest a touch
of madness* and he was in fact at one time seised with an attack
of insanity. He writes like a man whose view is distorted by
physical or mental pain. His phraseology and his turns of
invention are too empirically pseudoscieniific for the simplicity
of nature. With all these faults, and in spite of a terrible
vulgarity of mind, an absence of humour, and a boundless
confidence in the philosophy of Nietzsche, Strindberg is a writer
of very remarkable power and unquestionable originality. His
mind underwent singular transformations. After devoting him*
self wholly to realism of the coarsest kind, he began in 1889 his
series of mystico-paihological novels about life in the archipelago
o( Stockholm. This led him to a cuUe du moi^ of which the
strangest result was an autobiography of crude invective) A
Fool's Confession (1893), the printing of which in Swedish was
forbidden. He rapidly passed on, through books like Inferno
(1897), the diary of a semi-lunatic, up into the sheer mysticism
of To Damauus (1898), where he reconciles himself at last to
Christianity. His best work is classic in iu breadth of style,
exquisite in local colonr and fidelity to the national character-
istics of Sweden.
A curious antidote to the harsh pessimism of Strindberg
was offered by the delicate and fantastic temperament of Ola
Hansson (b. i860), whose poems came prominently before the
public in 1884, and who, in Sensiliva amorosa (1887), preached
a gospel of austere self-restraint. Hansson has been as ardent
in the idolatry of woman as Strindberg has been in his hostility
to the sex. Of those who have worked side by side with Strind^
berg, the most prominent and active was Gusuf af Geijerstam
(b. 1858), in his curious and severely realistic studies of country
life in his Poor People (1884) and other books. In 1885 he pro-
duced a gloomy sketch of student life at Upsala, Erik Crane,
which made a great sensation. Since then Geijersum has
published more than forty volumes, and has become one of the
most popular writers of the north of Europe. A melancholy
interest surrounds the name of Victoria Benedictsson (Ernst
Ahlgren, 1 850-1889), who committed suicide in Copenhagen
after achieving marked success with her sketches of humble
life in FrAn Skdne, and rnxh the more ambitious works Money
and Marianne. She was perhaps the most original of the
many women writers of modem Sweden, and Money was hailed
by Swedish critics as the most important work of fiction since
Strindberg's Red Room, Her biography, a most a0ecling
narrative, was published by Ellen Key. and her autobiography
by Axd Lundeg&rd (b. i86t), who, after some miscellaneous
writing, produced in 1889 a curious novel of analysis called
The Red Prince, and who, becoming a devout clerical, published
a number of popular stories in a neo>romantic manner. In
1898^1900 he produced a historical trilogy, 5(nieiu«f, tracing
the career of the minister from his early yean as a doctor in
Altona to his final downfall. In 1904 appeared the first volume
of a second historical trilogy, The Story of Queen PhUippa*
Fru Alfhild Agrell {n/ht Martin), who was bom in 1849. produced
a series of plays dealinr rk question, Resened
(1883) and others. Shr liUty as a novelist,
among the best of her I Jteichea of country
life (x 884*1887). An lequal powers, but
great occuioBAl ntf^ 1 Kivw (U tM<),
(UIEBBATURE
whose lomanoe about Napoleon (1894) enjoyed a htige tncecMb
Tor Hedberg (b. i86x) also began as a decided xeaUst, and
turned to a more psychological and idealist treatmettt of life.
His most striking work was Judos (x886); he has written some
excellent dramas. Late successes in the nuvel has been those
of Hilma Angered-Strandberg (On lAe Prairie, 1698) and
Gustaf Janson {Paradise, 1900). The most remarkable of the
novelists of the latest group is Sdma Lagerldf (b. 1858), who
achieved a great success with Cista Berlings Sapa in 1891-
189a. She employs the Swedish language with an extraordinary
richness and variety, and stands in the front rank of Swedish
novelists. But perhaps the most cosmopolitan recent novelist
of Sweden is Per Hallstr6m (b. 1866), who spent much of his
youth in America, and appeared as an imaginative writer first
in 1891. He has published volumes of ballads, short stories
and sketches, fantastic and humoristic, all admirable in style.
His play, A Venetian Comedy, enjoyed a substantial success
in 1904.
Among the recent lyrical poets of Sweden, the first to adopt
the naturalistic manner was Albert XJlrik BAith (b. 2853),
whose earliest poems appeared in 1879. In his rebellion against
the sweetness of Swedish convention he proved himadf tODcwfaat
indifferent to beauty of form, returned to "early national"
types of versification, and concentrated his attention on dismal
and distressing conditions of hfe. He is a resolute, but, in his
eady volumes, harsh and rocky writer. From 188a onwards
BUth was steadily productive. Kari Alfred Melin (^ 1849)
has described in verse the life in the islands of the Stockholm
archipelago. Among lyrists who have attracted attention in
their various fields are Oskar Levertin <i86a>i9o6) and Emit
KXieax (1868-1898). Of these Levertin is the more highly
coloured and perfumed, with an almost Oriental richness;
K16en has not been surpassed in the velvety softness of his
language. But by far the most original and enjoyable lyrical
genius of the later period is that of Gustaf FrOding (b. i860),
whose collection of poems, called Guitar and Aceordion,
humorous, amatory and pathetic, produced a great sensation
in 1891. Three other volumes followed in 1894. i8os and
1897, each displaying to further advantage the veraatility and
sensuous splendour of FrOding*s talent, as well as its somewhat
scandalous recklessness. In 1897 he was struck down with
insanity, and after three months' confinement in the uylum
at Upsala, although he recovered his senses, all his joyousnesa
and wildness had left him. He became gkwmily relipous,
and in a new volume of poems be denounced all that be. valued
and enjoyed before his conversion. A younger puet is K. G.
Ossian-NUssen (b. 1875), the author of se\-eral volumes of
vigorous dramatic and satiric verse.
The writer who was exercising most influence in Sweden at
the opening of the aoth century was Vemer von Heidenstani
(b. 1859). He started authorship with a book of verse in i88S«
after which time he led a reaction against realism and pessimbm,
and has turned back to a rich romantic idealism in hia
novels of Endymion (1889) and Hans Alienus (1893). and in his
stories (1897) of the time of Charles XII. Heidenstam also
published interesting volumes of literary criticism, and he is a
lyrical poet of very high attainment. Miss Ellen Key (b. 1840),
a secularist lecturer of great fervour, became an author in
biographical and critical studies o( remarkable originality.
She is distinguished from Selma Lagerlof. who is simply an
artist, by her exercise of pure intellect; she is a moral leader;
she has been called *' the Pallas of Sweden." She published
in 1897 a biography of the Swedish author, Almqvist, in 1899
she c^lccted her finest essays in the volume called Tkoughi
Pictures; in 1900 appeared, under the title Human Bet$its,
studies of the Brownings and of Oiethe: but the finest ol EUen
Key's books is The Century of Childhood (1901), a philosophical
survey of the progress of elementary education in the last
hundred years. She exercises a very remarkable power over the
minds of the latest generation in Sweden. A polemical cssaytai
of elaborate delicacy of style is Hjabnar Soderberg (b. 1869).
who has been .influenced ..by.. Strindberg »and.. by. Aaatol*
SWEDENBORO
221
hsnce. Wm Intic nmtnce, MartUt Bkck's 7§utk, citated
ft tm—timi in 1901. JLmA Jofaan Wtrbuig (b. 185s) has dooe
food wock both as an essayist and as an histCHriaa oC literature^
But in tliis latter field by lar tiie most embwnt recent name in
Svediab litenture is that of Professor Jokan Uenrik Scfattck
(b. i8ss)> ^"^ ^^^^ made great discoveries in the x6th and X7th
cmtmirs» and who has published, besides a good book about
Shakespeare, studies in which a profound learning is relieved by
elegance of delivery. Warburg and Schiick have written an
euellettt history of Swedish literature down to 1888. The poet
Levcctin, who was also a distinguished critic, wrote a good book
about tlK Swedish theatre. Drama has rarefy flourished in
Sweden, but sevecal of the poets mentioned above have written
inportAnt plays, and, somenriiat earlier, the socialistic problenn
pieces of Anne Chariotte £dgren»Leffler, duchess of CajaneUo
(1849- 1895), posseased considerable draiamtic. talent, woiiung
nndier a direct impulse from Ibsen; but her greatest gift was as a
BOfvehat. The pkys of Harald Johan Molander (1858-1900) have
been popular in the theatres of Sweden and Finland since hia
first success with Rocoen in i88a Altogether n remarkable
revival of belles-lettres has taken pUce in Sweden after a long
period of inertness and conventionality. It is regrettable,
ior iu own sake, that the Swedish Academy, which in earlier
generatsoBS had identified itself with the manifestations of
erigfnal Uf 'as
with an all
Swedish :he
I7th centui ist
of the mov aes
and discoi tic
AnstoteBo] ri-
I7j8). an ind
a common 30-
Wolffi^A pi 4).
Towards tl ;an
to expound »e
<rf Ea^vih C.
af Leopold Lrd
''i74S-f8oc by
D. BoSthii eat
i^afistacs|. , , _ ,. ^h*
poet P. D. A. Attcrbom (i79<hi855}. a' followor o^ ^ciielling,'''and
J. I. Bordius (b. 182^). the great Swedish exponent of Hegeiianism.
Xn the above thinkers reflected the general development of
E gro pe a ji thought There exists^ however, a body 01 thought
vhicfa is the product of the pecuhar guntius of the Swedish peo^
■aiady, the aevelopa»ent of the individual soul in aceordance with
• coherent social onier and a strong relijnous spirit. This Personal
Pkilasapky owes its development to K. J. BostrSm iq.t.), and,
tboogh traceable ultimatelv to Schclling's idealism; received its
distinctive character from the investigations of N. F. Biberg (1776-
1527). S. Gnibbe (1786-1853) and E. G. Geijer (c.v.) (1783-1847).
til profeaaors at Upsala. BoetrSm's philosophy is logically expressed
ATtd baaed on the one ^reat conception of a spintual, eternal, immut-
able Being, whose existence is absolute, above and external to the
inite world of time and space. It has for a long time exercised
almost unquestioned authority over Swedish thought, religious
4ad phikMOf^cal. It .is strong in its unequivocal Insistence on
jrrsonal purity and responsibuity, and in the uncomproraiang
uiBp&dtv of Its fundamental pnnciple. BostrGm wrote little,
bae his views are to be found in the works of two groups of thinkers.
TlK older group includes S. Ribbing (18 16-1899), C. Y. Sahlin
Tx r8a4).^K- a«««>n (1827-1859). H. "" -^ ^ .he
"^la<
editoroc BostrSm's worlo, A. Nyblaeus
^'- Cb, i8ai); the younger writers, U
, but adhering in the main to the
Ox 1845). K. R. Geijer (b. 18
95), F. v. Schfclc (b. 1853), J. V. A
Gcihenborg* and P. E. Liljeqvist (b. iG
'995)
H.
tne
0.
n-
of
se.
:he
2
3m
I a
easentiallv religious spirit. V. Rj )$)
diom^y foDowea Bostrdm, and in his nun igs
fitA nuacb to crystallize and extend th< m.
k-a^i^tg DKomioent modem writers may als( on
okJ a. Hcrxlia at Lund, and A. Vannerus in Stockholm.
AsTYVOalTixS.— The Svecia liUeraUs ^1680) of J. Schefienis (162 1>
>&79> i* *^ ^"^ serious attempt at a bibliogFapay of Swedish liteni-
ta^ The SvensJta stare ock skalder (Upsala. 1841-1855) contains
a^ adflsicable aeries of portraits of Swedish writers up to the end of
i compnled a lucid account of Sw
^ ^rwning of the i8th century up to and in
PtcJas fiedira and Socratisaie Studien) sh
^aTT«*» is allied to Greek. P. Wikner (18,
:ae BootrOmian tradition and^ followed Oi
the retgn of Goa^vua III.; many of AtteH
reversea in the Crunddragen af Svenska nttei
1868) of B. E. MalmstrOm; and a body of ex<
anbsequent period was MippKed by G. Ljun
9iUerkeUms Ufdtr Mm Custaf did (1818-1819
Ili.'a. 18^. which remains a classic ejq»sitio
roroantictsts. The histcwy of Swedish letters a
the nation is dealt with by C. R. Nyblom, Es
holm, 1873-1884). Among general works
H. SchOck. Siensk ttUratmhistma (1885. Ac.) I
lUuslHrtd Sveu$k Uteralwr kisfria (1896); H
permaniscken Pkilalagie (new ed., Suassburg, u
handbook of Stoeden prepared by the Swedi
Sutisttca for the Paris Exhibition (English ei
Ph. Schweitaer, Gesekkku der skandit$a»iseke
voL viii. of Cesckickie dor WeU LH$§ntm' i
(Leipzig, 3 pts., 1886-1889); Oscar Levert
1904.
SWEDBMBORG (or Sweobuo), .EKANUEL (i688-t773)»
Swedish scientist, philoaopher and mystic, was bom at Stock-,
holm on the S9th of Januaiy t688. His father, Dtr Jesper
Swedberg, subsequently professor of theology at Upsala and
bishop of Skara, was a pious and learned man, who did not
escape the charge of heterodoxy, seeing that he placed mow
emphasis on the cardinal virtues of faith, love and communion
with God than on the current dogmas of the Lutheran Church:
Having completed his university course at Upsala, in 1710,
Swedenborg undertook a European tour, visiting England,
Holland, France and Germany, studying especially natural
philosophy and writing Latin verses, a collection of which he
published in 1710. In 17 15 he returned to Upsala, and devoted
himself to natural science and various engineering works.
From 17x6 to r7x8 he published a scientific periodical, cafled
Daedalus hyperhoreus^ a record of mechanical and mathematical
inventions and discoveries. In 1716 he was introduced to
Charles Xn., who appointed him assessor-extraordinaiy on the
Swedish board of mines. His reports on smelting and assaying
were remarkable for their detail and for the comparisons dnwn
between Swedish and other methods. Two years- later, he
distinguished himself at the king's siege of FrederikshaB by
the invention of machines for the transport of boats and galleys
overland from Stromstadt to Iddcfjord, a distance of 14 m.
The same year he published various mathematical and mechani-
cal works. At the death of Charles XIT (^ueen Ulrica elevated
him and his family to the rank of nobility, by which his name
was changed from Swcdberg to Swedenborg, the ''en" cor-
responding to the German " von." In the Swedish House of
Nobles his contributions to political discussion had great in-
fluence, and he dealt with such subjects as the currency, the
decimal system, the balance of trade and the U'quor laws (where
he was the pioneer of the Gothenburg system) with marked
ability. He strongly opposed a bill for increasing the power
of the crown. The next years were devoted to the duties and
studies connected with his office, which involved the visitation
of the Swedish, Saxon, Bohemian and Austrian mines. In
1734 he was offered the chair of mathematics in the university
of Upsala., which he declined, on the ground that it was a
mistake for mathematicians to be limited to theory. His in-
quiring and philosophical mind gradually led him to wider studies.
As early as 1721 he was seeking to lay the foundation of a
scientific explanation of the universe, when he published his
Prodromus principiorum rerum naiuralium, and had already
written his Principia in its first form. In 1734 appeared in
three volumes (Opera philosophica et mineralia, the first volume
of which (his Principia) contained his view of the first principles
of the universe, a curious mechanical and geometrical theory
of the origin of things. The other volumes dealt with (a) iron
and steel, (6) copper and brass, their smelting, conversion and
assaying, and diemical experiments thereon.
There is no doubt that Swedenborg anticipated many scientific
facts and positions that are usually regarded as of much mor9
modem date; It was only towards the end of the 19th century
that his voluminous writings began to be properly collected and
examined, with the result of proving that there was *-'-'*^
department U scientific activity in which he was ^
S22
8WEDENB0RG
hif time. His work on palaeontdogy shows him the predecessor
of sll the Scandinavian geologists, and his contributions in this
field alone would have been sufficient to perpetuate his fame He
was also a great physicist and bad arrived at the nebular hypo-
thesis theory of the formation of the pknets and the sun long
before Kant and Laplace. His theory of light and theoiy of the
cosmic atoms were equallyiastonishlng. He wrote a lucid account
of the phenomena of phosf^rescenoe, and adduced a molecular
magnetic theory whidi anticipated some of the chief features of
the hypothesis of to-day. The great French chemist, Dumas,
gives him the aedlt for the first attempt to establish a system
of crystallography. He was the first to employ mercury for the
air-pump, and devised a method of determining longitude at sea
by observations of the moon among the stars. He suggested
the use of experimental tanks for testing the powers of ship
models, invented an ear-trumpet for the deaf, improved the
common house-stove of his native land, cured smoky chimneys,
took & lively interest in machine-guns and even sketched a
flying machine.
This flying machine ^onntted of a light frame covered with
ttxom canyas and provided with two laige oars or wings moving
on a horizonul axis, and so arranged that the ujwtroke met with no
resbtance while the downstroke provided the lifting power. Sweden-
borg knew that the machine would not fly, but suggested it as a
•tart and was confident that the problem would be solved. He
said " it seems ea«er to talk of such a machine than to pot it into
actuality, for it reouires greater force and less weight than exists
in a human body. The science of mechanics might perhaps suggest
a means, namely, a strong spiral spring. If these advantages and
requisites are observed, perhaps in time to come some one mi^ht
know bow better to utuize our. sketch and cause some addition
to be made so as to accomplish that which we can only suggest. Yet
there are sufficient proofs and examples from nature that such
flights can take place without danger, although when the first trials
are made you may have to pay tor the experience, and not mind
an asm or Iqg."
In 1734 he also' published Prodromus fkUosopkiae ratio-
cinanlis de infinito et causa finali creaiionis, which treats
of the relation of the finite to the infinite, and of the soul to
the body, seeking to establish a nexus in each case as a means
of overcoming the difficulty of their relation. From this time
he applied himself to the problem of discovering the nature of
soul and ^irit by means of anatomical studies. In all his
researches he acknowledged and contended for the existence
and the supremacy of the spiritual and the divine. He travelled
in Germany, France and Italy, in quest of the most emment
teachers and the best books dealing with the human frame,
and published, as the results of his inquiries among other worics,
his Oeconamia regni animaiis (London, 1740-1741) and Xegnum
animaU (the Hague, x744-x 745*' London, 1745)- l^ no field were
Swedenborg's researches more noteworthy than in those of physio-
logical science. In x 901, Professor Max Keuberger of Vienna
odled attention to certain anticipations of modem views made
by Swedenborg in relation to the functions of the brain. The
university of Vienna appealed to the Royal Swedish Academy
for a complete issue of the scTcntific treatises, and this resulted
in the formation of a committee of experts who have been
entrusted with the task. It is clear that Swedenborg showed
(150 years before any other scientist) that the motion of the
brain was s3mchn>nous with the respiration and not with the
action of the heart and the circulation of the blood, a discovery
the full bearings of which are still far from being realixed. He
had arrived at the modem conception of the activity of the
brain as the combined activity of its individual cells. The cere-
bral cortex, and, more definitely, the cortical elements (nerve
cells), formed the seat of the activity of the soul, and were ordered
bto departments according to various functions. His views
as to the physiological functions of the spinal cord are also
in agreement with recent re^barch, and he anticipated many
of the pre-eminent offices of the ductless glands which students
of the present time are only beginning to discover.
Up to middle age Swedenborg's position was that of a scholar,
A scientist, a practical adminfstwtor, a leglslator,and a man of
affaii9. But a tiwrf'tmad ctaie was coving over him, which
ledbltttotaJMNi^
psychical and spiritual inqulffy. Ndtker by t
physical, nor metaphysical principles had he succeedod in reach-
ing and grasping the infinite and the spiritual or in eJucidaring
their telatiott to man and man's organism, though he had caught
glimpses of facts and methods which he thought only required
confirmation and devetopment. Late in life he wrote to Oetinger
that " he was intioduced by the Lord first into the natural
sciences, and thus prepared, and, indeed, from the year 1710
to 1745, when heaven was opened to him.** This latter gneat
event is described by him in a letter to Thomas Hartley, rector
of Winwick, as *' the opening of his spiritual sight," *' the mani*
festation of the Lord to him in person," *'hls intsoductioo
into the spiritual worid." Before his illumination he had been
insthicted by dreams, and enjoyed cxtraotdinary visfams, and
heard mysterious conversations. According to his own account,
the Lord filled him with His spirit to teach the doctrines of the
New Church by the word from Himself; He commissioned him
to do this work, opened the sight of his spirit, and so let him
mto the spiritual world, permitting him to see the heavens and
the heUs, and to convene with angeb and spirits for years;
but he never received anything rriating to the doctrines of the
church from any angel but from the Lord alone whUe he. was
reading the word (Tnit CkrisUan Mtdigt^n, No. 779). He
elsewhere speaks of his office as principally an opening of the
spiritual sense of the vetd. His friend Robsahm reports, from
Swedenborg's own account to him, the drcnmstances of the
first extraordinary revelation of the Lord, when He appeared
to him and said, " I am God the Lord, the Creator and Redeemer
of the worid. I have chosen thee to unfold the spiritual sense
of the Holy Scripture. I will Myself dicUte to thee what thou
Shalt write." From that time he gave up all woridly leaning
and bboured solely to expound spiritual things. In the year
i747i to the great regret of his colleagues, he resigned his post of
assessor of the board of mines that he might devote himself
to his higher vocation, requesting only to be allowed to receive
as a pension the half of his salary. He took op afresh his study
of Hebrew, and began his voluminous works on the interpretation
of the Scriptures. His life from 1747 ^"^ sp^^t alternately in
Sweden, Holland and London, in the composition of his works
and their publication, till his death, which took place {9 London
on the 29th of March 1772. He was buried in the Swedish
dinrch in Princes Square, in the pariah of St GeoigeVinHhe-
East, and on the 7th of April 1908 hjs remains were removed
at the request of the Swedi^ government to Stockholm.
Swedenborg was a man who won the respect, confidence and love
of aO who came into contact with him. Though people might
disbelieve in his visions, they feared to ridicule them in his presence.
Those who talked with him felt that he was truth itself. He never
disputed on matters of religion, and if obliged to defend himaelf,
did it with gentleness and in a few words. His manner of life was
simple in the extreme; his diet consisted chiefly of bread and milk
and large quantities of coffee. He paid no attention to the distinc-
tion of day and night, and sometimes lay for davs together in a trance,
while his servants were often disturbed at night by hearing what he
called his conflicts with evil spirits. But his intercourse with
spirits was often perfectly calm, m broad daylight, and with all his
faculties awake. Three extraordinary instances are produced by
his friends and followers in proof of his' seership and admisdon
into the unseen worid. But there exists no account at first hand
of the exact facts, and Swedenbore's own reference to one of these
instances admits of another explanation than the sunernatural
one. Imnumu<d Kant was struck by them in 1763. but ip 1765*
after further inquiries, concluded that two of them bad ** no other
foundation than common report (fnfwtne SageV Sec Kehrbach's
edition of Kant's Tr&ume eihes Ceistersehers (Leipzig. I880).
As a theologian Swedenborg never attempted to preach or to
found a sect, lie believed that members of all the churches could
belong to the New Church without forming a separate oreanizatioii.
His theolo^cal writings roughly fall into four groups: (11 books of
spiritual philosophy, including The Divine Love and Wisdom,
The Dwme ProndeiuXt The Intercourse between the Sotd and tkm
Body, Conjupai Love; (3) Expository, including Arcana COestia
(giving the spiritual sense of Genesis and ExodusJ, The Afoeaiy^
Regaled, The Apocalypse Explained', (3) Doctrinal, mdudfins
The New Jerusalem and its Heavenly Doctrines, The Pour Cki^
Doctrines, The Doctrine of Charity, The True Christioft Reitgtem,
Canons of the New Church; (4) Eschatofogical. including Heav^m
and Hetl, and The Last Judpnent. About forty volumes nre
available in Eoglisfa. and many have been translated into mo«t
SWEETBREAD— SWEBT^SOP
rftk*
I well M into Aabic, Hindi ajw!
[apaM. - ' -
Swedenbor( t tliMMOchic ■ystem it moct briefly and conipcdM>
dvrir picaeated ia his ZTmm U»e end Wudomu The poiflt
of viev finm which God mu«t be regarded is th^ oT His
bdn{ the Divine Man. His esse is infinite love ; His manifestation,
form or body is infinite wisdom. Divine love is the self-subsistinff
fife of die universe. From God emanates a divine sphere, which
appeacs ia the spiritual world as a sun, and from this spiritaal sua
Main proceeds tlie sua of the aatural wqrid. The spiruml sun is
tbe source of love and inteiligenoe, or life, and tlie natural sun
- tbe source of nature or the receptacles of life; the first is alive,
tbe second dead. The two worlds of nature and spirit are perfectly
dutinct, but they are intinuliely related by analogous substances,
ls«« and forces. Each has its aunosohcres, waters and withsL
but in the one thev are natural aad in the other ^vituaL In Cod
there are three infinite and uncreated " degrees " of being, and in
man and all things corresponding three degrees, finite and created.
Tbey are love, wisdom, use; or end, cause and effect. The final
cads of all things are ia the Divine Mind« the causes of aU thints
io the spiritual world, and th^ effects ia the natural world. By
a love of each degree man comes into conjunction with them and
tbe worids of nature, s{nrit and God. The end of creation Is that
man may have this conjunction and become tbe image of his Creator
aad aeataoo. In maa are two receptacles for God-Hbe will
for divine love and the uaderstandiag for divine wisdom — that
la\T and wisdom flowing into both so that they become human.
Before the fall this influx was fire and unhindered, and the con-
janction of man with God and the creation complete, bat from
that tsne the oonncxiaa was interrupted and God bad to interpose
fav sooocasive diniensatioaa. At last the power aad influcace
cl the M)irits of darkness, with .whom roan associates himself by
his so. became so neat that the existence of the human race was
fhreatexied, and Jenovah was necessitated to descend into nature
to restore the connexion b et we en Himself aad man. He could
aot cosae in His oaveiled divinity, for the " hells " would have
then perished, whom he did not seek to destroy but only to subjugate.
As-
flf
reji
as
fea
did
K9
iia
nil
ofl
Chi
pen
tae
adn
<d "
€f *« tS-
B-ja fc,
tW^ of
P f uv idessoe. the origin of evil, the sanctity and perpetuity of marriage
tsd to have been a witness of the " Ian judgment," or the second
canine of the Lord, which is a contemporary event. " All religion,**
be caia. " baa rebtlon to Hfe, and the life m religion is to do ^ood.'*
* The kingdom of Heaven b a kingdom of uses." He exemsed a
over S. T. Coleridge. Robert and Elizabeth Browning.
, Fatmore, Henry Ward Beccher and Thomas Carlyle.
Asd the attention of modem psychokigists is now being drawn to
btf doctrine of the relation of the elements of the universe to the
■embranea of the body.
Swcdenborgianism, as pro f e s sed by Swedenboif 's folk>wers, is
baaed on tbe belief of Swedenborg's clainu to have witnessed the
«>t judgmctit, or the second advent of tbe Lord, with the inaugura-
Hbb altnc New Church, through tbe new system of doctrine promul-
psed by him and derived from tbe Scriptures, into the true sense of
r^kh be wras the first to be introduced. The " doctrines " of the
•^.-v Cburcb as pven in the Liturgy (which also contains the " Creed "
ud " Articles Ol Faith *') are as follows: —
t. That there is one God, in whom there is a Divine Trinity; and
6tt He is tbe Lord Jesus Christ.
3. That a aaving faith is to believe oa Hhn.
3 That evib are to be shunned, because they are of the dev3 and
aoB tbedeviL
4. That ffood actions are to be done, because they are of God and
ban God.
5. TbMZ these are to be done by a man as from himself; but that
7 oosbt to be believed that they are done from the Lo«d with him
»d by bim.
Woarlenborigians now constitute a widely sfiread and condderable
, <«rith a regubrlv constituted ecclesiastical organization and a
■■iiaainniir>r activity (see New Jerusalem Church).
R. L. Tafd. DocMments eanceming the Life and Characler ^
, collected, translated and annotated (3 vols.^Swedenbor|[
li75-i877); J. Hyde, A Bibliography of the Works tf
Smadmhtifg (743 Pp.. Swcdenborg ^oaety). Of Engfisb
lives the principal
E. Futon Hood
!n 1867 and Hi 18
SmeimUmrgt Uu Si
London, 1877). S
Heaven osufHeU fa
handbook of Swed
hiieal WriOngs of
" ' 1885). U«
Vnibim Whfte (1856, rewi^ten
(London, 1907): also Emamiei
a Sheteh, by U. S. £. (and cd.,
Sf .g. The Ditim Providence and
in popular editions. A useful
is the Compendium of the Tkeo-
ffg by the Rev. Samuel Warren
-!#■•«• >ystem and writinn are given in
all the above biogiaphies,- also ia bdmuad SwUuManmu of the
Doctrines of the New Church (London, 188^); and T. Parsons, Oul-
lines of Stoedenborg's Religion and Philosophy. Important, critiques
from independent points of view are "The Mystic," in R. W.
Emerson's RepresotUaUm Men (1890^; Kvifs T>dnnu ekm GeisUr*
s$h»s (1766; the best edition by Kdirbach. Leipaig, 1880); J. G.
Herder s " Emanuel Swedenboig," in his Adrastea {JVerke sur PlUl,
und Cesch., xii. 110-125); J. J. von Gocrres*s Emanuel Sv/edenborg,
seine Visionen wid sein VerMltniss wnr Kirehe (1827); A. DomerTi
Ceschiehle der preUstmiiuken Theohgie, pp.
See also TrauMOimu of Iho Jnltnuhom
(London, 1910), summariaed in Tha Nem
(August, 1910).
.1867).
. CsfifMsr
Church htngtufin^
(A. A.)
BWBETBRBAD, a popular tenn for certain glands of animab,
partictihirly when used as artickt of food; these are usually
the pancreas, the " stomach-sweetbread ** of butchers, and the
thymus, or "breast sweetbread." The term is also sometimes
used to include the salivary and lymphatic glands (see Ducr-
L ESS Glan ds, Pancseas and Lymphatic System).
SWEET POTATO. This plant, known botanically as Ipomaea
haiaias (formerly as Comohnlus batatas), and a member of
the natural order Convolvulaceae, is generally cultivated in
most tropical countries for the sake of its tuberous root, which is
an article of diet greatly in request. It is a climbing perennial
with entire or palmately-lobed leaves very variable in shape
borne on slender twining stems. Tbe flowers are borne on long
stalks in loose clusters or cymes, and have a white or rosy funnel-
shaped corolla 13te that of the common bindweed of English
hedges. The edible portion is the root, which dOates into
large dub-shaped masses filled ^th starch. It is iU suited
to the climate of the United Kihgdom, but in tropical countries
it is as valuable as the potato is in higher latitudes. The plant
is not known in a truly wild state, nor has its origin been ascer-
tained. A. de Candolle concludes that it is in all probability of
American origin, where it has been cultivated from pre-
historic times by the aborigines. It a mentioned by Gerard
as the "potfto," or "potatus" or "potadcs," in contra-
distinction to the " potatoes " of Virginia {Solanum tuberosum).
He grew it in his garden, but the climate was not warm enough
to allow it to flower, and in winter it perished and rotted. But
as the appellation *' common " h applied to them the roots must
have been introduced commonly. Gerard tells us he bought
those that he planted at " the Exchange in London," and he
pves an interesting account of the uses to which they were put,
the manner in which they were prepared as "sweetmeats,"
and the invigorating properties assigned to them. The
allusions in the Merry Wives of Windsor and other of Shake-
speare's plays in aU probability refer to this plant, and not td
what we now call the " potato.'* The plants require a warm
sunny climate, long season, and a Kberal supply of water during
the growing season. For an account of the cultivation in North
America, where large quantities are grown in the Southern
states, see L. H. BaOey, Cyclopaedia of American Horlicultmre
(1902). Sir George Watt, Dictionary of the Economic Products
of India (1890), gives an account of its cultivation in India, where
some confusion has arisen -by the use of the name batatas for
tbe yam (q.v.); the author suggests that the introduction of the
s weet pot ato mto India is comparatively recenL
6WBST-80P» or Sugar Apple, botanical name Anona squamosa,
a small tree or shrub with thin oblong-ovate leaves, solitary
greenish flowers and a yeDowish-green fruit, Kke a shortened pine
cone in shape with a tubercle corresponding to each of the
carpels from the aggregation of which it has been fonned. Tbe
fruit is 3 to 4 in. in diameter and contains a sweet creamy-
yellow cusUrd-like pulp. It is a native of the West Indies
and tropical America; it is much prised as a fniit, aod has been
widdy hitioduced into tbe eastern hemisphere.
SWELLENDAM— SWIFT, JONATHAN
224.
Another species, A. muHctia, is the sour-sop, < small ever-
Sreea tree bearing a larger dark-green fruit, 6 to 8 in. long
and X to 5 R) in weight, oblong or bluntly oonical in shape,
with a rough spiny skin and containing a soft white juicy sub-
add pulp with a flavour of turpentine. It is a popular fruit
in the West Indies, where it is native, and is grown with
special excellence in Porto Rico. A drink is made from the
juice. A. raiculala is the custard apple {g.t.) and A. palmstris
the alligator apple.
SWELLENDAM, a town of South Africa, Cape province,
in the valley of the Breede River, 192 ra. by rail E. by S. of Cape
Town. Pop. (1904), 2406, of whom 1x39 were white. Swellen-
dam is one of the older Dutch settlements in the Cape, dating
from 1745, and was named after Hendrik Swellengrebd (then
governor of the Cape) and his wife, whose maiden name was
Damme. Early in 1795 the burghers of the town and district
rose in revolt against the Dutch East India Company, pro-
claimed a "free republic," and elected a so-styled national
assembly. At the same time the burghers of Graaff Rcinet
also rebelled against the Cape authorities, who were powerless
to suppress the insurrectionary movement. One of the claims
of the " free republic " was " the absolute and unoonditionai
slavery of all Hottentots and Bushmen." In September of that
year Cape Town surrendernl to the British and the " National "
party at Swdlendam quietly accepted British rule.
The town isr a trading centre of some importance, and in the
surrounding district are large sheep and ostrich farms. The
neighbourhood is noted for its abundance of everlasting flowers.
SWETCHINB, MADAME (i 782-1857), Russian mystic, whose
maiden name was Soymanof, was born in Moscow, and under
the influence of Joseph de Maistre became a member of the
Roman Catholic Church in 1815. In the following year she
settled in Paris where, until her .death, she maintained a famous
salon remarkable no less for its high courte^ and intdlertual
briUianoe than for its religious atmosphere. Though not
physically beautiful she had c personality of rare spiritual
charm, nurtured in the private chapel of her house. Her hus-
band. General Swctchine, was as yean her senior. Her Life and
Works (of which the best known are " Old Age " and " Resigna-
tion ") were published by M. de Fallouz (a vols., x86o) and her
Letters by the same editor (a vols., x86x).
See Salnte-Beuve, Noupeaux lundis, voL L; aad £. Scberer,
Eludes sMf la titUrature cankmpvnune, voL L
. . 8WETN I.. Kii«o 07 Denmark ( -X014), son of Harold
Bluetooth, the christianiaer of Denmark, by his peasant mistress
Aesa, according to the Jomsvikinga Saga, though more probably
his mother was Queen Gunild, Harold's consort. The lad was
a born champion and buccaneer. His first military expedition,
in alliance with the celebrated Jomsborg Viking, Pahiatoke,
was against his own father, who perished during the struggle
{c, 986). Six years later he conducted a large fleet of warships
to England, which did infinite damage, but failed to captuse
London. During his absence, Denmark was temporarily occu-
pied by the Swedish king, Eric Sersel, on whose death (c. 994)
Sweyn recovered his patrimony. About the same time he
repudiated his first wife Gunild, daughter of duke Mieszko
of Poland, and married King Eric's widow, Sigrid. This lady
was a fanatical pagan of a disquieting strength of character.
Two viceroys, earlier wooers^ were burned to death by her
orders for their impertinence, and she refused the hand of Olaf
Trygvessfin, king of Norway, rather than submit to baptism,
whiereupon the indignant monarch struck her on the mouth with
his gauntlet and told her she was a worse pagan than any dog.
Shortly afterwards she married Sweyn, and easily persuaded her
warlike husband to unite with Olaf, king of Sweden, against
Olaf Trygvessfin, who fell in the famous sea-fight off Svolde
(1000) on the west coast of RUgen, after a heroic resistance
immortalised by the sagas, whereupon the confederates divided
his kingdom between them. After his first English expedition
Sweyn was content to blackmail England instead of ravagmg
it, till the ruthless n*assacre of the Danes on St Bricc's day,
the 3rd of Novembci looa. by Eibelrcd the Unready (SwQm'a
^er was among the victims) broogfat the Danish Ithg to Esrettt
(xooa). During each of the following eleven yean, the Danes,
materially assisted by the univecsal and shamcifss disk>y»lty
of the Saion eatdonnen, systematically rava^ England, and
from 991 to X0Z4 the wretched land is said to have paid its
invaders in ransoms alone £z 58,00a Sweyn died suddenly al
Gainsborough on the xjth of February 10x4. The datA idiiing
to his whole history are scanty and obscure, and his memory haa
suffered materially from the fact that the chief dnoniders of
his deeds and misdiyds were ccrlrsiastirs. It was certainly
unfortunate that he began life by attacking his own father.
It is undeniable that hia favourite wife waa the most stiffnieeked
pagan of her day. Ifis most remarkable exploit, Svolde, wa9
certainly won at the expense of Christianity, resulring, as it did,
in the death of the saintly Olaf. Small wonder, then, if Adaa
of Bremen, and the monldsh annalists who follow him, describe
Sweyn ss a grim and bloody semi-pagan, perpetually warting
against Christian states. But there is another side to Uie
picturOi Viking though he was, Sweyn was certainly a Christiaa
viking. We know that he built churches; that he invked
English bishops to settle in Denmark (notably Godibald, wIm
did good work in Scania); that on his death-bed he earnestly
commended the Christian cause to his son Canute. He waa
cruel to his enemies no doubt, but he never forgot a boiefit.
Thus he rewarded the patriotism of the Danish ladies who
sacrificed all their jewels to pay the heavy ransom exacted from
him by his captors, the Jomsborg pirates, by enacting a law
whereby women were henceforth to inherit landed property
in the same way as their male rebtives. Of his valour as a
captain and his capacity as an administrator there can be no
question. His comrades adored him for his liberality, and the
frequent visits Of Icelandieakalder to hia court testify to a love
of poetry on his part, Indeed one of his own strophes has come
down to us. As to his personal appearance we only know that
he had a long cleft beard, whence bis nickname of Tiugeskaeg or
Fork-Beard.
See Danmarhs Hms kist9ne. OldHden eg den eMre middelalder,
pp. 364-381 (Copenhagen, 1897-190S). ( R. N. B.)
SWIFT. JONATHAN (i667-r74S), dean of St Patrick's,
Dublin, British satirist, wss bom at No. 7 Hoey's Court, Dublin,
on the 30tb of November r667, a few months after the death of
his father, Jonathan Swift (1640-1667), who married about 1664
Abigaile Erick, of an old Leicestershire family. He was taken
over to England as an infant and'nursed at Whitehaven, whence
he returned to Ireland in his fourth year. His grandfather,
Thomas Swift, vicar of Goodrich near Ross, appears to have been
a doughty member of the church militant, who lost his possessions
by taking the losing side in the Civil War and died in 1658 before
the restoration ootdd bring him redress. He married Elizabeth,
niece of Sir Erasmus Dryden, the poet's grandfather. Hence
the familiarity of the poet's well-known " cooling-card ** to the
budding genius of his kinsman Jonathan: " Cousin Swift, yoit
will never be a poet." The yoimg Jonathan waa educated mainly
at the charges of his unde Godwin, a Tipperary official, who was
thought to dole out his help in a somewhat grudging manner.
In faa the apparently prosperous relative was the victim of
unfortunate speculations, and chose rather to be reproached with
avarice than with imprudence. The youth was resentful of
what he regarded as curmudgeonly treatment, a bitterness
became ingrained and began to corrode his whole nature; and
although he came in time to grasp the real state of the case he
never mentioned his unde with kindness or regard. At six he
went to Kilkenny School, where Congrcve was a KhoolfeUow; at
fourteen he entered pensioner at Trinity College, Dublin, whiere
he seems to have neglected his opportunities. He was referred
in natural philosophy, induding mathematics, and obtained his
degree only by a special but by no means infrequent act of indul*
gence. The patronage of his uncle galled him: he was dull and
unhappy. We find in Swift few signs of precodoua genius^
As with Goldsmith, and so many other men who have become
artists of the pen, coQege proved a stepmother to him.
In 1688 the rich unde. whose supposed riches had dwindled
SWIFT, JONATHAN
its
m nrodi tiist at fafs dtaih he was Almost iasoIvMt, died, having
decayed, it Vfould seein,.iiot less in mind than Inbedy add estate,
and Swilt sought counsel of his me^her at Leiioester. After a
brief residence with his mother, who was needlessly abnned at
the idea of her con falling a victim to some casual coquette,
Swift towards the dose of 1689 entered upon an togageraent as
secretaiy to Sir WiUiam Temple, whose wife (Dorothy Osborne)
was distantly rrbted to "Mjs Swift. It was at Moor Park, near
Famham, the residence to which Temple had retired to cultivate
apcioots after the rapid decline of his influence during the critical
period of Charles II.'s reign (1679-1681), that Swift's acquaint-
ance with Esther Johnson, the ** Stella " of the famooa Journal,
was begun. Stella's mother was living at Moor Park, as servant
or dame de wmpaprit of Temple's strong-minded sister. Lady
Giffard. Swift was twenty-two and Esther eight years old at the
time, and a curious friendship sprang up between them. He
taught the little girl how to write and gave her advice fai reading.
On his arrival at Moor Park, Swift was, in hisowm words, a raw,
ioczperjenced yeutht and hb duties were merely these of aecouht-
kecpcr and amanuensb: his ability gradually won hfm the con-
tAokot o( his employer, and he was entrusted with some hnpor*
tant missions. He was introduced to William UI. during that
BBOoarch's visit to Sir William's, and on one occasion accompanied
the king in his walks n>und the grounds. In r6gj Temple sent
him to try and convince the king of the inevitable necessity of
triennial parliaments. William remained unconvinced and Swift's
vanity received a useful lesson. The king had previously taught
him ** bow to cut asparagus after the Dutch fashion.'* Next
year, however, Swift (who had in the meantime obtained the
degree oC M.A. ad eundtm at Oxford) quitted Temple, who had, he
eoosidercd, delayed too long in obtaining him preferment. A
certificate of conduct while under Temple's roof was required by
all the Irish bishops he consulted before they would proceed
in the matter of hb ordination, and after five months' delay,
caused by wounded pride. Swift had to kiss the rod and solicit in
obsequious terms the favour of a testimonial from his discarded
patitm. Forgiveness was easy to a man of Temple's elevation and
temperament, and he not only despatched the necessary recom*
mcndation but added a personal request which obtained for Swift
the small prebend of Rilroot near Belfast (January 1605), where
the new incumbent carried on a premature flirtation with a Miss
Jane Waring, whom he called ** Varina." In the spring of
1696 he asked the reluctant Varina to wait until he was in a
postion to marry. Just four years later he wrote to her In terms
4d mch calculated harshness and imposed such conditions as to
make further intercourse virluaDy impossible.
In the meantime he had grown tired of Irish life and was glad
to accept Temple's proposal for his return to Moor Park, where
he continued until Temple's death in January 1699. During
this period he wrote much and hurried most of what he had written.
He read and learned even more than he wrote. Moor Park took
htm away from brooding and glooming in Ireland and brought
him into the corridor of contemporary history, an intimate
acquaintance with which became the chief passion of Swift's
fife. His Ptndarie Odes, written at this period or earlier, in the
manner of Cowley, indicate the rudiments Of a real satirist, but a
satirist strug^ing with a most uncongenial form of expression.
Of Boore importance was his first essay in satiric prose which
arose directly from the position which he occupied as domestic
author in the Temple household. Sir William had in 1692 pub-
fisfeed his Essay upon Ancient and Modem Learning, transplant-
ing to England a controversy begun m France by Fontenelle.
laddentally Temple had dted the letters of Phalaris as evidence
of the superiority of the Ancients over the Modems. Temple's
prsxse of Phalaris led to an Oxford edition of the Epistles nomin-
ally edited by Charles Boyle. While this was preparing, William
Wotton, in 1694, wrote his Refiections upon Ancient and Modem
Learning, traversing Temple's general conclusions. Swift's
BcJOe oj 4Me Books was written in 1697 expressly to refute this.
Boyle's Vindication and Bcntlcy's refutation of the authenticity
of Phalaris came later. Swift's aim was limited to co-operation
is what was then deemed the well-deserved putting down of
Btttley by Boyle, wftli a view to wMch he represented Bentley
and Wotton as the representatives of modem pedantry, trans-
fixed by Boyle in a suit of armotur given him by the gcids as the
representative of the ** two noblest of things, sweetness and
Hght." Th6 satire remahied unpublished untO 1704, when it
was bsued along with Tke Tale of a Tub. Next year Wotton
declared that Swift had borrowed his Comlwl des litres from the
Histoire poetique de la guerre nouodlement diclarie enire les
anciens et les modemes (Paris, 1688). He might have derived
the idea of a battle from the Frecch title, but the resemblances
and parallels between the two books are slight. Swift was
manifestly extremely imperfectly acquainted with the faas of
the case at issue. Such data as he displays may wcU have been
derived from no authority more recondite than Temple's own
essay:
In addition to £100, Temple left to Swift the trust and profit
of publishing his posthumous writings. Five volumes appeared
in 1700, 1703 and ^709. The resulting profit was small, and
Swift's editorial duties brought him into acrimonious rektiod
with Lady Gfflard. The dedication to Khig William was to have
procured Swift an English prebend, but this miscarried owing
to the negKgence or hidifference of Henry Sidney, cariof Romney,
Swift then accepted an offer from Lord Berkeley, who in the
summer of 1699 was appointed one of the lords justices of Ireland.
Swift was to be his chaplain and secretary, but upon reaching
Irehind Berkeley gave the secretaryship to a Mr Bushe, who had
persuaded him that it was an unfit post for a clergyman. The
rich deanery of Derry then became vacant and Swift applied
for it. The secretary had already accepted a bribe, but Swift
was informed that he might still have the place for £1000.
With bitter indignation Swift denounced the simony and threw
up his chaplahicy, but he was ultimately reconciled to Berkeley
by iht presentation to the rectory of Agher in Meath with the
united vicarages of Laracor and Rathbeggan, to which was
added the prebend 9f Dnnlavin m St Patrick'a-Hhe total value
being about £230 a jrear. He was now often in Dublin, at most
twenty miles distant, and throu^ Lady Berkeley and her
daughters he became the familiar and chartered satirist of the
fashionable sodety there. At Laracor, near Trim, Swift rebuilt
the parsonage, made a fish-pond, and planted a garden with
poplars and willows, bordering a canaL His congregatioii con-
sisted of about fifteen persons, " most of them gentle and all of
them simple." He read prayers on Wednesdays and Fridays
to himself and his clerk, beginning th$ exhortation "Dearly
beloved Roger, the Scripture moveth you and me in sundry
places." But he soon began to grow tired of Ireland again and
to pay visits in Leicester and London. The author of the
Tide of a Tub, which he had had by him since 1696 or 1698, must
have fdt conscious of powen capable of far more effective
exercise than reading-desk or pulpit at Laracor could supply;
and his resolution to exchange divinity for politics must appear
fully justified by the result. The Discourse on the Dissensions
in Athens and Rome (September 1701), written to repel the tactics
of the Tory commons in their atuck on the Partition Treaties
" without humour and without satire," and intended as a dissua-
sive from the pending impeachment of Somers, Orford, Halifax
and Portland, received the honour, extraordinary for the maiden
publication of a young politician, of being generally attributed
to Somers himself or to Burnet, the latter of whom found a public
disavowal necessaiy. In April or May 1704 appeared a more
remarkable work. Qeamess, cogency, masculine simplicity of
diction, are conspicuous in the pamphlet, but trae creative power
told the Tale of a Tub. " Good God ! what a genius I had when
I wrote that book ! " was his own exclamation in his latter years.
It is, indeed, if not the most amusing of Swiit's satirical works,
the most strikingly origmal, and the one in which the compass
of his powers is most fuBy displayed. In his kindred productions
he relies mainly upon a single clement of the humorous-^gical
sequence and unmfflcd gravity bridling in an otherwise frantic
absurdity, and investing it with an air of sense. In the Tale of a
Tub he lashes out in all directions. The humour, if less cogent
and cumulative, is richer and more varied; the invention, too;
226
SWIFT, JONATHAN
is more daringly origiaal and more completely out oC tlie reach
of ordinary faculties. The supernatural coats and the qointca-
sential Joaf may be paralleled but cannot be surpassed; and the
book is throughout a mine of suggestiveness, as, for example,
in the anticipation of Carlyle's clothes philosophy within the
compass of a few lines. At the same time it wants unity and
coherence, it attains no conclusion, and the author abuses his
digressive method of composition and his convenient fiaion of
hiatuses in the original manuscript. The charges it occasioned
of profanity and irreverence were natural, but groundless. There
is nothing in the book inconsistent with Swift's professed and
real character as a sturdy Church of England parson, who
accepted the doctrines of his Church as an essential constituent
of the social order around him, battled for them with the 6deUty
of a soldier defending his colours, and held it no part of his duty
to understand, interpret, or assimilate them.
In February 1701 Swift took his D.D. degree at Dublin, and
before the dose of the year he had taken a step destined to
exercise a most important influence on his life, by inviting two
ladies to Laracor. Esther, daughter of a merchant named Edward
Johnson, a dependant, and legatee to a small amount, of Sir
William Ttmplc's (born in March x68o), whose acquaintanpe he
had made at Moor Park In 1689, and whom he has immortalized
as "Stella,"* came over with her companion Rebecca Dingley,
a poor relative of the Temple family, and was soon permanently
domiciled in his neighbourhood. The melancholy tale of Swift's
attachment will be more conveniently narrated in another place,
and is only alluded to here for the sake of chronology. Mean-
while the sphere of his Intimacies was rapidly widening. He had
been in England for three years together, 1701 to 1704, and
coimted Pope, Steele and Addison among his friends. The
success of his pamphlet gained him ready access to all Whig
circles, but already his confidence in that party was shaken, and
be was beginning to meditate that change of sides which has
drawn down upon him so much but such unjustifiable obloquy.
The true state of the case may easily be collected from his next
publications — The Seniiments of a Church of England Man, and
Oh the Reasonableness of a Test (170S). The vital differences
among the friends of the Hanover succession were not political,
but ecclesiastical. From this point of view Swift's sympathies
were entirely with the Tories. As a minister of the Church he felt
his duty and his interest equally concerned in the support of her
cause; nor could he fail to discover the inevitable tendency of
Whig docUines, whatever caresses individual Whigs might
bestow on uidividual clergymen, to abase the Establishment as a
nrporation. He sincerely believed that the ultimate purpose
of freethinkers was to escape from moral restraints, and he had
an unreasoning antipathy lo Scotch Presbyterians and English
Dissenters. If Whiggism could be proved to entail Dissent, he
was prepared to abandon it. One of his pamphlets, written
about this time, contains his recipe for the promotion of religion,
and is of itself a sufficient testimony to the extreme materialism
of his views. Censorships and penalties are among the means
he recommends. His pen was exerted to better purpose in the
roost consummate example of his irony, the Argument to prove
thai the abdishing of Christianity in England may, as things now
stand, he attended uniA some incomeniencies (1708). About this
time, too (November 1707), he produced his best narrative poem,
Baucis and Phiiemon, while the next few months witnessed one
of the most amusing hoaxes ever perpetrated against the quackery
of astrologers. In his Almanac for 1707 a Protestant alarmist
and plot vatidnator styled John Partridge warned customers
against rivals and impostors. This notice attracted Swift's
attention, and in January 1708 he issued predictions for the
ensuing year by Isaac Bickersta£F, written to prevent the people
of En^nd being imposed upon by vulgar almanac makers.
In this brochure he predicts solemnly that on the 29th of March
* The nenoe " Stella " is simply a translation of Esther. Swift
may have learned that Esther means " star " from the EUmenta
linguae persicae of John Greaves or from some Persian scholar;
btit he is more likely to have seen the etymology in the form given
from Jewish sources in Buxtorf's Lexicon, where the ioteri9«tatioA
ta^ the — ~- -.—«««»;««. form •' Stella Veneris."
at II o'dock at night Partridge tlw almaiiac maker abouM
infallibly die of a raging fever. On the 30th of March he issued
a letter confirming Partridge's sad fate. Grub Street elegies
on the almanac maker were hawked about London. Partridge
was widely deplored in obituary ncAices and his name was struck
off the rolls at Stationers' UalL The poor man was obliged to
issue a ^pedal almanac to assure his clients and the public that
he was not dead: he was fatuous enough to add that he was not
only alive at the time of writing, but that he was also demonstrably
alive on the day when the knave Bickentaff (a name borrowed
by Swift from a sign in Long Acre) asserted that be died of fever.
This elicited Swift's most amusing Vindication of Isaac Bicker*
staff Esq, in April 1 709. The laughter thus provdted extinguished
the Predictions for three years, and in 1715 Partridge died in
fact; but the episode left a permanent trace in classic literature^
for when in 1709 Steele was to start the Tatler, A occurred to
him that he could secure the public ear in no surer way than by
adc^ting the name of Bickerstaff.
From February 1708 to April 1709 Swift was in London,
urging upon the Godolphin administration the claims of the
Irish clergy to the first-fruiu and twentieths ('* Queen Anne's
Bounty "), which brought in about £2500 a year, already granted
to their brethren in England.* His having been selected fot
such a commission shows that he was not yet regarded as a
deserter from the Whigs, although the ill success of his represen-
tations probably helped to make him one. By November 17 10
he was again domiciled in London, and writing his Journal to
SlcUa, that unique exemplar of a giant's i^yfulncss, "which was
written for one person's private pleasure and has had indestruc-
tible attractiveness for every one since." In the first pages of this
marvellously minute record of a busy life we find him depicting
the decline of Whig credit and complaining of the cold reception
accorded him by Godolphin, whose penetration had doubtless
detected the precariousness of his allegiance. Within a few
weeks he had become the lampooner of the fallen treasurer, the
bosom friend of Oxford and Boli^broke, and the writer of the
Examiner, a journal established as the exponent of Tory views
(November 17 10). He was now a power in the state, the intimate
friend and recognized equal of the first writers of the day, the
associate of ministers on a footing of perfect cordiality and
familiarity. " We were determined to have you," said Boling-
broke to him afterwards; " you were the only one we were afraid
of." He gained his point respecting the Irish endowments; and,
by his own account, his credit procured the fortune of more than
forty deserving or undeserving clients. The envious but graphic
description of his demeanour conveyed to us by Bishop Rennet
attests the real dignity of his position no less than the airs he
thought fit to assume in consequence. The cheerful, almost
jovial, tone of his letters to Stella evinces his full contentment,
nor was he one to be moved to gratitude for small merdcs. He
had it, in fact, fully in his own power to determine his relations
with the ministry, and he would be satisfied with nothing short
of familiar and ostentatious equality. His advent marks a new
era in English political life, the age of public opinion, created
indeed by the circumstances of the time, but powerfully fostered
and accelerated by him. By a strange but not infrequent irony
of fate the most imperious and despotic spirit of his day laboured
to enthrone a power which, bad he himself been in authority, he
would have utterly detested and demised. For a brief time he
seemed to resume the whole power of the English press in his
own pen and to guide public opinion as he would. His services
to his party as writer of the Examiner, which be quitted in July
171 1, were even surpassed by those which he rendered as the
author of telling pamphlets, among which The Conduct of the
Allies and of the Late Mini^, in beginning and carrying on the
Present War, and Remarks on the Barrier Treaty (Sovhmhcr and
December 1711) hold the first rank. In truth, however, he was
lifted by the wave he seemed to command. Surfeited with gloiy,
' The grsnt of the first-fruits was to be made contin^t on a
conccsnon from the Irish dcrgy in the shape of the. abolition of the
sacramental test. This Swift would not agree to. He ultimately
won his pdnt from Harlcy, and his success marks his open rupture
with the WhisBL
SWIFT, JONATHAN
wiDch it bcsfli, after MaipfaK|uet, to tUak niglit be puvchaied at
too heavy a cost, the oatien wanted a eonvenient excuse lor
iciinqttMiilag a burdeoaome war, which the great mititary geniua
of the ace waa •OQKCted of praiongiag to fill his pockeU. The
Whiga had bees long in office. The Hi|^ Chinch party had
derived great atrength from the Sachsverell trial. Swift did
not bring about the revolution with which, notwithstanding, he
TT***^*** his name. There seema no reason to suppoeetluit he
was coosoltcd respecting the great Tory strokes of the creation
of the twelve new peers and the dismisBal of Marlborough (Decern*
ber 1711), but they would hardly have been ventured upon if
Tke CmiAKi of ike AUUs and the Esamimers had not prepared the
way. . A scarcely less important service was rendered to the
ministry by his Letter to tko Oeiober Club, artfully composed to
soothe the impatience of Harley's extreme followers. He had
every claim to the highest preferment that minrrters coold
give hiai, but his own pride aiid prejudice in high pieces stood
in his way.
Geaetotts men like Oxford and Botingbroke cannot have been
unwilling to reward so serviceahte a friend, especially when their
own ittteicst lay in keeping him in England. Harley by this
ti»e was hising influence and was becoodng chronically incapable
of any aostaioed effort. Swift was naturally a little sore at seeing
the see of Hereford slipping through his fingers. He had aiready
lost Waterford owing to the prejudice against making the author
of the Taieofa Tub a bishop, and he still had formidable antagon-
ists in the archbishop of York, whom he had scandalised, and the
duchess of Somerset, whom hie had satirised. Anne was partioi-
laciy aaaenable to the influence of priestly and female favourites,
and it must be considered a proof of the strong Interest made for
Swift that she was eventually peisuaded to appoint him to the
deanery of St Patrick's, Dublin, vacant by the removal of Bishop
Sterne to Dromore. It it to his honour that he never speaks of
the «|aeen with resentment or bitterness. In June 17 13 he set
out to takeposaesfiion of his dignity, and encountered a vciy cold
reception from the Dublin public. The dissensions between the
chiefs of Us party speedily recalled him to England. He found
aHaiis in a de^>erate condition. The queen's demise was
evidently at hand, and the same Instinctive good sense which
had nnged'the nation on the side of the Tories, when Tories
alone could terminate a fatiguing war, rendered it Whig when
Tories manifestly oould not be trusted to maintain the Protestant
snccessfon. In any event the occupants of office could merely
hnve had the choice of risking their heads in an attempt to exclude
the elector of Hanover, or of waiting patiently till he should come
and eject them from thdr posts; yet they m^t have remained
farmidnble could they have remained united. To the indignation
with which be regarded Oxford*^ refusal to advnnce him in the
peerage the active St John added an old disgust at the treasurer's
pedantic and dilatory formalism, as well as his evident propensity,
while leaving bis colleague the fatigues, to engross for hiaoself the
chief credit of the adnnniatration. Thdr schemes of policy
diverged as widely as their characters: Bolingbroke's brain
teemed with the wildest plans, which Oxford mls^t have more
effectoaUy discountenanced had he been prepared with anjrthtng
in their place. Swift's endeavours after an accommodation
were as fruitless as unremitting. His mortification was little
hkely to temper the habitual viirulence of his pen, which rarely
produced ovytidng more acrimonious than the attacks he at thh
period directed agaimtt Burnet and his former friend Steele.
One of his pamphlets sgainst the latter (Tke Public Spirii of tke
Wkigs sei fortk in tkeir Generous Eneourageaieni of the Awtkor of
tke Crisit, 1714) was near involving him in a praaecution, some
invectives against the Scottish peers having proved so exasper-
ating to ArgyH and others that they repaired to the queen to
demand the punishment of the author, of whose identity there
could be no doubt, although, like all Swift's writings, except the
Froposoi for tke Extension of Religion, the pamphlet had been
published anonymously. The immediate withdrawal of the
ofienslve passage, and a sham prosecution instituted against
the printer, extricated Swift from his danger.
Meanwhile the crisis had arrived, and the disconi of Oxford
aa7
and BolingbPolDe had become patent to all the nation. Fore-
seeing, as is probable, the unpending fall of the former, Swift
retired to Upper Letcombe, in Berkshire, and there spent some
weeks in the strictest seclusion. This leisure was occupied in
the composition of his remarkable pamphlet. Some Free Tkougktt
OH tke Fresent State of Affairs, which indicates his complete
conversion to the bold policy of BoUngbroke. The utter exdu-
sion of Whigs as well aa Dissenters from office, the remodelling
of the army, the imposition of the most rigid restraints on the
heir to the throne— such were the measures which, by recom-
mending. Swift tacitly admitted to be necessary to the triumph
of his pMty. U he were serious, it can only be said that the
desperatioa of his circumstances had momentarily troubled the
lucidity of his understsnding; if the pamphlet were merely
intended as a feeler after public opinion, it is surprising that he
did not perceive how irretrievably he was ruining his friends in
the eyes of all moderate men. Bolingbroke's daring spirit,
however, recoiled from no extreme, and, fortunatdy for Swift,
he added so much of his own to the latter's MS. that the produc-
tion was first delayed and then, upon the news of Anne's death,
immediately suppressed. This incident but just anticipated
the revolution which, after BoUngbroke had enjoyed a three
days' triumph over Oxfbrd, drove him into exile and prostrated
his party, but enabled Swift to perform the noblest action of
his Ufe. Almost the first acts of Bolingbroke's ephemeral
premiership were to order him a thousand pounds from the
exchequer and despatch him the most flattering Invitational
The same post brought a letter from Oxford, solidting Swift's
company In his retirement; and, to the latter's immortal honour,
be hesitated not an instant in preferring the solace of his friend
to the offers of St John. When, a few days afterwards, Oxford
was in prison and in danger of his life, Swift begged to share his
captivity; and it was ordy on the offer bdng declined that he
finisUy directed his steps towards Ireland, where he was very ill
recdved. The draft on the exchequer was intercepted by- the
queen's death.
These four busy years of Swift^s London life had not been
eotirdy engrossed by politics. First as the associate of Steele,
with whom he> quarrelled, and of Addison, whose.cstcem for him
survived all differences, afterwards as the intimate comrade of
Pope and Arbuthnot, the friend of Congreve and Atterbury,
Parnell and Gay, he entered deeply intc the literary life of the
period. He was treasurer and a leading member of the Brothera,
a sodety of wits and statesmen which recalls the days of Horace
and Maecenas. He promoted the subscriptk>n for Pope's Horner^
contributed some numbers to the Tatter, Spectator, and InteUi^
gencer, and joined with Pope and Arbuthnot in establishing the
Scribleros Club, writing Martinus Seriblerus, his share In which
can have been but small, as well as Jokn Bull, where the chapter
recommending the education of all blue-eyed children in depravity
for the public good must surely be his. His miscellsnics, in
some of which Ms satire made the nearest approach perhaps ever
made to the methods of physical force, such as A Meditation upon
a Broomstick, and the poems Sid Hornet's Rod, Tke City Skower,
Tke Windsor Propkeey, Tke Prediction of Merlin, and Tke
History of VasArugk*s House, belong to this petfod. A more
labeored work, hb Proposal for Correcting, Improving and Aseer*
taining tke Engfisk Tongue (xyia), in a letter to Harley, suggest-
ing the reguhition of the English language by an academy, is
chiefly remarkable as a proof of the deference paid to French
taste by the most original English writer of his day. His History
of tke Pout Last Years of tke Reign of Queen A nne is not on a level
with his other political wrilingi. To sum up the inddents of
thn eventful period of his life, it was during it that he lost his
mother, always loved and dtftifuHy honowed, by death; his
sister had been estranged from him some years bdore by an
impfudent marriage, which. thou|^ making her a libenl allow-
ance, he never forgave.
The change from London to Dublin can seldom be an i^reeablc
one. To SwUt it meant for the time the fall from unique
authority to absolute insignificance. AH share in the adminis-
tsatiOB of even Iriah aibuit was denied him; every pshticias
228
SWIFT, JONATHAN
thnniied him; and his lodety bardly indoded a single author or
wit. He " continued in the greatest privacy " and " began to
tlUnk of death." At a later period he tallced of " dying of rage,
lOie a poisoned rat in a hole"; for some time, however, he was
buoyed up by feeble hopes of a restoration to England. So late
as 1726 be was in England making overtures to Walpole, but he
had no claim on ministerial goodwill, and as an opponent he bad
by that time done his worst. By an especial cruelty of fate,
what should have been the comfort became the bane of his
existence. We have already mentioned his invitation of Esther
Johnson and Mrs Dingley to Ireland. Both before and after his
elevation to the deanery of St Patrick's these ladies continued
to reside near him, and superintended his household during his
absence in London. He had offered no obstacle in 17011 to a
match proposed for Stella to Dr WUliam Tisdall of Dublin, and,
with his evident delight in the society of the dark-haired, bright*
eyed, witty beauty— a model, if we may take his word, of all that
woman should be*-it seemed unaccountable that he did not
secure it to himself by the expedient of matrimony. A consti-
tutional infirmity has been suggested as the reason, and the con-
jecture derives support £rom several peculiarities in his writings.
But, whatever the cause* his conduct proved none the less the
fatal embitterment of his life and Stella's and yet another's.
He had always been unlucky in his relations with the fair sex.
In 1695 he had idealized " Varina." Varina was avenged by
Vanessa, who pursued Swift to far other purpose. Esther
Vanhomrigh (b. February 14, 1690), the daughter of a
Dublin merchant of Dutch origin, who died in 1703 leaving
j^i6,ooo, had become known to Swift at the hcif^t of his political
influence. He lodged dose to her mother, was introduced to the
family by Sir A. Fountaine in 1708 and became an intimate of the
house. Vanessa insensibly became his pupil, and he insensibly
became the object of her impassioned affection. Her letters
itvetd a spirit fullof ardour and enthusiasm, and warped by that
perverse bent which leads so many women to prefer a tyrant to
a compam'on. Swift, on the other hand, was devoid o( passion.
Of friendship, even of tender regard, he was fully capable, but
not of love. The spiritual realm, whether in divine or earthly
things, was a region closed to him, where he had never set foot.
As a friend he must have greatly preferred Stdla to Vanessa.
Marriage was out of the question with him, and^ judged in the
light of Stella's dignity and womanliness, this ardent and un-
reasoning display of passion was beyond comprehension. But
Vanessa assailed him on a very weak side. The strongest of all
his instincts was the thirst for imperious domination. Vanessa
hugged the fetters to which StcUa merely submitted. Flattered to
excess by her surrender, yet conscious of his binding obligations
and his real preference, he could neither discard the one beauty
nor jdesert the other. It is humiliating to human strength and
consoling to human weakness to find the Titan behaviniB like
the least resolute of mortals, seeking refuge in temporizing, in
evasion, in fortuitious circumstance. He no doubt trusted that
his removal to Dublin would bring reh'ef, but here again his evil
star interposed. Vanessa's mother died (17M)* and she foUowed
him to Ireland, taking up her abode at Celbridge within ten miles
of Dublin. Unable to marry Stella without deatrojring Vanessa,
or to openly welcome Vanessa without destroying SteOa, he was
thus involved in the most miserable embarrassment; he continued
to temporixe. Had the solution of marriage been open StelU
would undoubtedly have been Swift's choice. Some mysterious
obstade intervened. It was rumoured at the time that Stella.
was the natural daughter of Temple, and Swift himself at times
seems to have been doubtful as to his own paternity. There is
naturally no evidence for such reports, which may have been
fabrications of the anti-deanery iaction in Dublin. From the
same source sprang the report of Swift's marriage to Stella by
Bishop Ashe in the deanery garden at Clogher in the summer
of 1 716. The ceremony, it is suggested, may have been extorted
by the jealousy of Stella and have been accompanied -by the
express condition on Swift's side that the marriage was never
to be avowed. The evidence is by no means complete and has
never been exhaustively reviewed. John Lyon, Swift's coutam
attendant from 173s ttiwrnrds, dlsbdfoMd the rt«y. It wm
accepted by the early biographers. Deane Swift, Orrery, Delany
and Sheridan: also by JohnMm, Scott» Dr Ganiett, Cnik» Dr
Bernard and others. The arguments against the marriage were
first marshalled by Moack Mason in his History ^fSt Patnck*t,
and the con jecture, though plausible, haa failed to convince
Forster, Stephen, Aitken, Hill, Lane FOole and Cfaurton Cellioa.
Never more than a nominal wile at moat, the unfortunate SleUa
commonly passed for his mistress till the day of her death (in her
will she writes hersell spinster)^ bearing her doom with uncom-
plaining resignation, and consoled in some degree by unquestion-
able proofs of the permanence of hb love, if his feeling for her
deserves the name. Meanwhile his eflkms were directed to soothe
Miss Vanhomrigh, to whom he addressed Cadenus [Decanus] imi
Vaaasa, the history of their attachment aiKl the best example
of his serious poetry, and for whoqi besought to provide honour-
ably in marriage, without dther succeeding in his immediate aim
or in thereby opening her eyes to the hopelessness of her pasaion.
In 1730, on what occasion is uncertain, he began to pay her
regular visits. Sir Walter Scott found the Abbey garden at
Celbridge still full of laureb, several of ^ich she was accustomed
to plant whenever she expected Swift, and the table at which they
had been used to sit was still shown. But the catastrophe oil
her tragedy was at hand. Worn out with his evasions, she at
last (1725) took the'desperate step of writing to Stella or, accord-
ing to another account, to Swift himself, demanding to know the
nature of the conncxk>n with him, and this terminated the melan-
choly history as with a dap of thunder. Stella sent her rival's
letter to Swift, and retired to a friend's house. Swift rode down
to Marley Abbey with a terrible countenance, petrified Vanessa
by his frown, and departed without a word, flinging down a
packet which only contained her own letter to Stella. Vanessa
died within a few weeks. She left the poetn and ooRespondence
for publication. The former appeared immediatci^, the latter
was suppressed until it was published by Sir Walter Scott.
Five years afterwards Stella foUowed Vanessa to the grave.
The grief which the gradual decay of her health evidently occa-
sioned Swift is suflkient proof of the sincerity of his allachroent,
as he understood it* It is a just remark of Thackeray's that he
everywhere half-oonsdously recognises her as his belter angel,
and dwells on her wit and hex tenderness with a fondness he
never exhibits for any other topic. On the 38th of January 1728,
she died, and her wretched lover sat down the same night to
record her virtues in language of unsurpassed aimi^city, but
to us who know the story more significantly for what it conceals
than for what it tells. A lock of her hair is preserved, with the
insoiption in Swift's handwriting, most affecting in its apparent
Qrnidsm, " Only a woman's hairl" *' Only a woman's hair,"
comments Thackeray; " only love, only fidelity, purity, inno-
cence, beauty, only the tenderest heart in the world stricken
and wounded^ and passed away out of reach of pangs of hope
deferred, love insulted and pitiless desertion; only that lock of
hak left, and memory, and remorse, for the guilty, londy wretch,
shuddering over the grave of his victim." The more unanswer-
;^e this tremendous indictment appears upon the evidence the
greater the probability that the evidence is incomplete. Taut
comprendre c'est tout pardonner.
Between the death of Vanessa and the death of Stdla came the
greatest political and the greatest literary triumph ri Swift'a
life. He had fled to Irehnd a broken man, to all appearance
politically extinct; a few years were to raise him once more to
the summit of popularity, though power was for ever denied
him. Consciously or unconsdously he first taught the Irish
to rdy upon themselves and for many generations his name was
the most unrversally popular in the country. With hb fierce
hatred of what he recognised as injustice, it was impossible that
he should not fed exasperated at the gross misgovemment of
Irdand lor the suppoeed benefit of England, the systematic
exdusion of Irishmen from places of honour and profit, the
spoliation ol the country by absentee landlords, the ddiberate
discouragement of Irish trade and manufactures. An Irish
patriot in the strict senae of the tesahe jvas not; he was proud
BWIFT, JONATHAN
^39
of haag an Knglfcliiniin, wb» had been aocideaUUy ** dropped
in Icdaad "; he looked upon the indigeaoas pepoUtion as
oomqaesed savaiga; bat hja pride and leOK of equity alike le-
valted a^Bmst the ttay^at-bome Engliabmeo'k coBtemptuoua
tnatment of their own garrisaa, and he ddighied in finding
a point in which the triumphant Caction was si HI vubwiable.
fiBs Proposal ftr Ike Unuatal Use of Irish Manufactures, pub-
iibed anoaymoudy in 1720^ uiging the Irish to disuse English
goods, became the subject of a prosecution, which at length bad
to be dropped. A greater opportunity was at hand. One of
the chief wants of Ireland in that day, and for many a day
afterwards, was that of small currency adapted to the daily
txansactioos of life. Questions of coinage occupy a large part
of the correspondence of the primate, Archbishop Boulter,
whose anxiecy to deal rightly with the matter is evidently very
real and consdentious. There is no reason to think that the
English ministry wished otherwise; but secret influences were
at mysk, and a patent for supplying Ireland with a coinage of
copper halfpence was accorded to William Wood on such terms
that the profit accrtiing from the difference between the incriasic
and the nondoal value of the coins, about 40%, was mainly
divided between him and Geof|^ L's Eavooiite duchess of Sendal,
by whose influence Wood had obtained the privilege. Swift
now had his opportunity, and the famous six letters signed
M. B. Drapler (April to Dec. 1734) aoon set Ireland in a flame.
Every effort was used to discover, or rather to obtain legal
evidence against, the author, whom, Walpole was assured, it
would tben have taken ten thousand men to apprehend. None
could be procured; the public passion swept ewrytbing before
it; the patent waa cancelled; Wood was compensated by a
penfiioa; Swift was raised to a height of populaxicy which he
retained for the rest of his life; and the only real sufferers were
the Irish people, who hut a convenience so badly needed that
they might well havie aflorr*;ad to connive at Wood's iilidt profits.
Pccfanps, however, it was worth while to teach the English
ministry that not everything could be done in Ireland. Swift's
pff0»piiU*«, written In a style moiu le«tl with the popular
intelligence thmi even his own ordinary maanery are models
alike to the cootnvenialist who aids a good cause and to him
who is burdened with a bad one* The former may profit by the
study of his marvelloos Inddity and vehemence, the ktter by
his noblime audacity in exaggeration and the sopblstiy with
which he involves thr innocent halfpence in the obloquy of the
nefarious patentee.
The noise of the Drapier Letters had hardly died away wheii
Swift acquired a more durable glory by the publication of Traoels
JmioSeoeral RmoU Nations of ike Warid^ in fourparts. By Lenuiel
Gulliver, first a surgeon and then a captain of several ships
(Benjamin Motto, October 1736). The first hint came to him
at the meetings of the Scriblerus Club in X7X4> and the work was
weU advanced, it would seem, by i7ao. Allusions show that
it was circulated privately for a considerable period before its
actual, (anonjrmous) publication, on the 28th of October 1726.
Pope arranged that Erasmus Lewis should act as literary agent
in lifgptiitinc the manuscript. Swift was afraid of the recep-
tion the book would meet with, especially in political circles.
The kecnnrs^ of the satire on courts, parties and statesmen cer-
tainly suggests that it was planned while Swift's disappoint-
ments as a public man were still rankling and recent. It is
Swift's peculiar good fortune that ha book can dispense with
the mterpretation of which it is nevertheless susceptible, and
msy be equally enjoyed whether its inner meaning is appre*
beaded or not. It is so true, so entirely based upon the facts* of
human nature, that the question what particular class of persons
supplied the author with his examples of folly or misdoing,
however interesting to the commentator, may be neglected by
the reader. It is also fortunate for him that in three parts out
of tlie four he shouhl have entirely missed " the chief end I
propose to myself, to vex the world rather than divert it.'* The
worid, which perhaps ought to have been vexed, chose rather
to be dtverted; and the great satirist literally strains bis power
Ml fmeru plaeeai. Few books have added so much to the
innoeent mirth of mnUnd of the first tim parts of OuOhrerrtte
miaanthropy Is quito everpowend by the fun. The third past,
equally masterly in eompositksn, b leas feltdtoas m invention;
nnd m the fourth Swift has faideed carried out his derign o(
vexhotg the world at his own cost. Human future fodignantly
rejeeu her portrait bi the Yahoo as a gross libel, and the protest
is fully warranted. An intelligence from a superior sphere,
bound on a voyage to the earth, might actually have obtained
a fair idea of avenge humanity by a prelimlnaxy caU at UIliptA
or Brobdhignag, but not from a visit to the Yahoos. While
CuU'mr is infinitely the most famous and popular of Swift's
works, it exhibits no greater powers of mfaid than many others.
The secret oi success, here as elsewhere, is the writer's marvel-
lous imperturbability in paradox, his* teeming imagination and
his rigid logic. Grant his pcenuses, and all the rest follows; his
world may be turned topsy-ttuvy, but the relative ^tuation of
its contents Is unchanged. The laborious attempts that have
been made, particularly in Germany, to affiliate the Tracts
only serve to bring Swift's essential originality into stronger
relief. He had naturally read Ludan and Rabelais^-possibfy
Crusoe and the Arabian Nigkts, He had read as a young man
the lunary adventure el Bishop Wilkina, Bishop Godwhi and
Cyrano de Bergerac. He had read contemporary accounts
of rtter the WUd Boy, the History of Setarambes by D'Alals
(1677) and Foligny's Journey of Jacques Sadeut to Australia
(1693). He may have read Joshua Barnes's description of a.
race of *' Pygmies" in his Gerania of 1675. He copied the
account of the storm in the second voyage ahnost literally from
Sturmy's Compteal htariuer. Traveliers' tales were delibecatdy
embalmed by Swift la the amber of his irony. Something
similar was attempted by Raspe in his Munckauten sixty yean
later.
Swift's grave humour and power of enforcing momentous
truth by ludicrous exaggenttion were next displayed in his
Uadat Proposal for PmenHnt Ike' Ckiidron ef Poor People
from besMg a Burden to Ikeir Parents or Ac CoutUry^ by fattening
and eating them (1739), a parallel to the Arpmont against
AboUsUnt CkrisHanity, and as great a masterpiece of tragit
is the latter is of comic irony. The DirtcUons la Sertanis
(first publiabed in 1745) in Kke manner derive their overpowering
oomic force from the imperturbable aolemmty with which all
the misdemeanours that domestics can commit are enjoined
upon them as duties. The power of minute observation dis*
played is most remarkable, as also in PotiieConoersaiion (wriue*
in 1731, published in 1738), a soipriamg assemblage of the
vulgarities and trivialities current in ordinary talk. As in
the Directionst the satire, though cutting, h> good>4iatnred, and
the piece shows more aiumal spirits than usual in Swift's latter
years. It was a last flash of gaiety. The attacks of giddiness
and deafness to which he had always been liable increased upon
him. Already in i7ar he complains that the buzzing in his ears
discontxrts amd confounds him. After the Directions he writes
little beyond occasional verses, not seldom indecmt and com*
nwnly triviaL He soi^t refuge from inferior sodety often
in nonsense, occasionally in obscenity. An exception must be
made in the case of the delightful Hamilton's Sown, and still
mote of the verses on his own death (i73r), one of the most
powerful and also one of the saddest of his poems. In Tke
Legion Gub of 1736 he composed the fiercest of all his verse
satires. He hated the Irish parliament for its lethargy and the
Irish bishops for their interference. He fiercely opposed Arch-
bishop Boulter's plans for the reform of the Irish currency, bet
admitted that his real objection was sentimental: the coins
should be struck as well asdrcnlated in Ireland. His eaertmns
in repreMung robbery and mendicancy were strenuous and
successful. His popularity remained as great as ever (he
received the freedom of Dublin in i7^q)i and, when be waa
menaced by the bully Bettesworth, Dublin rose as one man to
defend him. He governed his cathedral with great strictness
and consdentlousneas, and' for years after Stella's death con-
tinued to hold a miniature court at the deanery. But his
ddUn^i of mind were exacerbated by his bodily uifirmities; he
2Z0
grew more and more whinsicd and capcictousp morbidly sus-
pidooft and morbidly panimMiiut; old Iriends were eatianged
or removed by death, and new friends did not oome forward
in tiieir place. For many years, neverUieleu, be maintained
a concspondenoe with Pope and BoUngbroke, and with Arbuth-
not and Gay until their deaths, with such warmth as to prove
that an ill opinion of manJund bad not made him a misanthrope,
and that human a£fection and sympathy were still very necessary
to him. The letters become scarcer and scarcer with the decay
of his faculties; at last, in 1740, comes one to his kind niece,
Mrs Whiteway, of heartrending pathos.* —
" 1 have been very miaerable all night, and to-day extremely deaf
and full <^ pain. I am so stupid and confounded that I cannot
express the mortification I am under both of body and mind. All
I can ssy is that I am not in torture; but I daily and hourly expect
iL Pray let me know how ^ur health it and your family: I hardly
understand one word 1 write. I am wre my days will be very
few; few and miserable thcv must be. I am. for those few days,
yours entirely— -JoNATHAK swift.
" If I do not blunder, it is Saturday, July 26, 1740.
" If I live till Monday I shall hope to see you, perhaps for the
last time."
Account book entries continue until 1742.
In March 1742 it was necessary to appoint guardians of Swift's
penon and estate. In September of the same year his physical
nulady reached a crisis, from which he emerged a helpless wreck,
with faculties paralysed rather than destroyed*-" He never
talked nonsense or said a foolish thing." The particulars of
his case have been investigated by Dr fiucknill and Sir William
Wilde, who have proved that he suffered from nothing that could
be called mental derangement until the " labyrinthine vertigo "
from which he had suffered all his life, and which he erroneously
attributed to a surfeit of fnrit, produced paralysis, " a symptom
of which was the not uncommon one of aphasia, or the auto-
matic utterance of words ungovemed by intention. As a con-
sequence of that paralysis, but not before, the brain, already
weakened by senile decay, at length gave way, and Swift sank
into the dementia which preceded his death." In other words
he retained his reason until in his 74th year he was struck down
by a new disease in the form of a localised left-sided apoplexy or
cerebral softening. Aphasia due to the local trouble and general
decay then progressed rapidly together, and even then at 76, two
more years were still to elapse before " he exchanged the sleep
of idiocy for the sleep of death." The scene closed on the lotis
of October 1745. With what he himself described as a satiric
touch, his fortune was bequeathed to found a hospital for idiots
and lunatics, now an important institution, as it was in many
respects a pioneer bequest. He was interred in his cathedral
at midnight on the 32nd of October, in the same coffin as Stella,
with the epitaph, written by himself, " Hie depositum est
corpus Jonathan Swift, S.T.P., hujus eodesiae cathedralis
decani; ubi saeva indignatio cor ulterius lacerare nequit. Abi,
viator, et imitare, si potcris, strenuum pro virili libertatis
vindicem."
The stress which Swift thus laid upon his character as an
assertor of liberty has hardly been ratified by posurity. which
has apparently negleaed the patriot for the genius and the wit.
Not unreasonably; for if half his patriotism sprang from an
instinctive hatred of oppression, the other half was disappointed
egotism. He utterly lacked the ideal aspiration which the
patriot should possess: his hatred of villany was far more intense
than his love of virtue. The same cramping realism clings to
him everywhere beyond the domain of politic9--in his religion,
in his fancies, in his affections. At the same time, it is the secret
of his wonderful concentration of power: be realises eveiything
with such intensity that he cannot fail to be impressive. Except
in his unauooessful essay in history, he never, after the mistake
of his first Pindaric attempts, strays beyond his sphere, never
attempts what he is not qualified to do, and never fails to do
it. His writings have not one literary fault except their occa-
sional loosenem of grammar and their frequent indfcency. Within
certajo limits, hb imagination and invention are as active as
those of the most creativo poets. As a master of humour,
kopy and iavactive be baa no supenoc; his reaaoning powtn
SWIFT, JONATHAN
are no leas remarkable within their range, but he never gels
beyond the range of an advocate. Few men of so much mental
force have had so little genius for speculation, and he is con^
stantly dominated by fierce instincts which he mistakes for
reasons. As a man the leading note of his character is the same
—strength without elevation. His master passion is imperious
pride — ^the lust of despotic dominion. He would have his
superiority acknowledged, and cared little for the rest. Place
and profit were comparatively indifferent to him; he dedaies
that he never received a farthing for any of his works except
CuUi9er*i Trateis, and that only by Pope's management; and
he had so little regard for literary fame thai he put his name to
only one of his writings. Contemptuous of the opinion of his
fellows, he hid his virtues, paraded his faults, affected some
failings from which he was really exempt, and, since his munifi-
cent charity could not be concealed from the recipients,
laboured to spoil it by gratuitous surliness. Judged by some
pasaages of his life he would appear a heartless egotist, and yet
he was capable of the sincerest friendship and could never
disp e nse with human sympathy. Thus an object of pity as wdU
as awe, he is the most tragic figure in our literature^the only
man of his age who could be conceived as affording a groundwork
for one of the creations of Shakespeare. " To think of him,"
says Thackeray, " is like thinking of the ruin of a great cmpixe."
Nothing finer or truer could be said.
Swift inoculated the Scriblerus Club with his own hatred ci
pedantry, cant and circumlocution. His own prase is the acme
of incisive force and directness. He uses the vernacular with
an economy which no other English writer has availed. There
is a masculinity about his phrases which makes him as clear
to the humblest capacity as they are capable of being made to
anyone. Ironist as he is, there is no writer tliat ever wrote
whose meaning is more absolutely unmistakable. He is the
grand master of the order of pkun speech. His influence, which
grew during the tSth century in spite of the depreciatwn of
Dr Johnson, has shared in the eclipse of the Queen Anne wits
which began about the time of Jeffrey. Yet as the author of
CttUiwer he is still read all over the world, while in England
discipleship to Swift is recognized as one of the surest passports
to a prose styles Among those upon whom Swift's influence
has been most discernible may be mentioned Chesterfield,
Smollett, Cobbett, Haxlitt, Scott, Borrow, Newman, Belloc.
AUTHOarrifes.— Among the authorities for Swift's life the firu
place is still of course occupied by his own writings, cwecially the
fragment of autobiofpaphy now at Trinity College. Dublin, and his
Correspondence, whxh still awaits an authoritative annotated
edition. The roost important portion is contained in the Jemmal
to Stella. Twesty-five of theK letters on jSwif t's death became the
pro^rty of Dr Lyon. Hawkesworth bought them for his 1766
edition of the Works and eventually gave them to the British
Museum. Forty additional letters were published by Dean Swift
in 1768 (of these only No. i survives in the British Museum).
Shendan brought out the complete JounuU in 1784 in a mansM
form, but the text haa as far as possible been resrored by modera
editors such as Forster. Rylands and Ait ken. A full annouied
edition is in course of preparation by H. Spencer Scott. The Vanessa
correspondence was used by Shendan, out first published in full
by Sir Walter Scott, and Swift's letters to his friend Knfghtley
Chetwode of Woodbrook between 1714 and 1731. over fiity in
number, were first issued by Dr Birkbeck Hill in 1899. The mote
or less contemporary lives of Swift, most of which contain a certain
amount of apocrypha, are those of Lord Orrery (1751): Dr Delary's
ObservatwHS an Orrery (1754): Dean Swift's Btsay upom tkt Life
of Swifl (1755) : and Thomas Sherklan's Life (of 1785;. Dr. Hawkes-
worth, in the life prefixed to his edition df the Works in 1755. adda
little of importance. Dr Johnson's Life is marred by manifest
prejudk?e. Dr Barrett produced an Essay uton tke Early Lift
of some value (in 1808). Sue years later came the useful biomphy
of Sir Walter Scott, and (in 1819) appeared the elaborate Life by
W. Monck Mason in the form of an appendix to his pondcroua
History of St Patrick's. A new epoch of investigation was inaugu-
rated by John Forsrer, who bcnin a new scrutiny of the accumulated
inateriiJ and published his nrst volume in 1875. Invaluable in
maov iMpects, it exhibited the process as well as the result of bk»>
fraphy, and never got beyond 171 1. The Life by Sir Henry Craik
1882 and reissues) now holds the field. Valuable monogiarhs
have been produced by Sir Lc*'e Stephen (Men of Letters and the
Memoirs, in the DicL Nat. Biog.). by Thackeray, in bis Engiisk
HwmumtU, by W. R. WiUe. in his Oomig Yaan of Dealt Sarifl'4
SWIFT— SWIMMING
231
Mpmrty,
enriette Cordelet
anecdotes of Swift
l4fo by l^fap, i«i hi* £«a^j ^ MUe OfMfM. bv G. R
J. CkurtoQ Colliiw (1803), Max Simon (1 803). Henrietta
(1907) and Sophie Shillcto Smith (1910). The anecdote ,
reUted in Speace. LaeHHa PUkington, Wilaon't Swiftiona, DeUny't
Amtoki^i^mfhjh Ac., though often amuaing, cao hanlly b« aootpted
as authentic
The collective editions of Dr Hawkesworth (various issues* IJSS'
«779). T. Sheridan (1785), John Nichols (1801, 1804, 1808), Scott
(i8f 4 and 1821) and Roscoe (2 vols., 1849) have been m most
tcapecu superseded by the editkm in JSoho's Standard Libnuy in
fourteen volumes Occluding the two subsequently issued voluines
of Patau) (1897-1010): arranged as follows: L Bio^ Intvoduction
by W. E, H. Lecky: TaU of a TubiBatOe qf Ou Books: Critical
pen liu Facidties of *«-... . -- -f-
oJOu Ifind-Jrhe Biekerstaff Pampkets, Ac,
or-
tt.
!d.
Essay upon
edL Tenif
tzahsof !
ed. Temj
ed. Temi
Temple !
VHL an
G.R. Dc
tMM tke £
Caaracter
ed. Tefflj
Spectator,
the Four
t
nt.
Btbliograj ar-
traits of : its
of Scdla W,
Eftist Browning.
TfitnaUtionsand editions of CuUitar's Traads have been numerous.
** Valuable Notes for a Bibliography of Swift " were published by
Dr S. Lane Poole in The Bibliographer (November 1884).
(R.G.;T. Sb.)
gWIFT, a bird so called from tbe extreme speed of its flight,
whicfa apparently exceeds that of any other British species,
the Hirunda apus of Linnaeus and Cypsdus apus or fnnrarius
of modem omitfaologbts. Swifts were formeriy associated
with swallows iq.v.) in classification, but whilst the latter are
true Passeres, it is now established that swifts are Coradiform
birds (see Birds) and the sab-order Cypseli has been formed
to inchide them and their nearest allies, the humming-birds.
The four toes axe all directed forwards, whereas in the Passeres
the halhix is directed backwards and by opposing the other
three makes the foot a grasping organ. In the swifts, moreover,
the middie and outer digits have only three joints and the
metatarsi and even the toes may be feathered. Swifts are
divided into three sub-families: Macroplayginae, the true
swifts, of tropical Asia, which form a nest gummed by saliva
to branches of trees; Ckachirinae, building in rocks or houses,
and with an almost world-wide range: it includes Ckaeiura
paUgica, the " chimney-swallow " of the United States, CMo'
calia fucipkaga which obtained its specific name from the
erroneotis idea that its edible nests were formed by partly
digested seaweed; Cypselinae, alsof world-wide and containing
Cypsdus apus, the common European swift. All the swifts are
migratory. Well known as a summer visitor throughout the
greater part of Europe, the swift is one of the latest to return
from Africa, and its stay in the country of its birth b of the
shortest, for it generally disappears from England very early in
August, though occasionally to be seen for even two months
later.
The swift commonly chooses its nestfng-place in holes under
the caves of buildings, but a crevice in the face of a quarry, or
even a hollow tree, mH serve it with the accommodation it
requires. This, indeed, is not much, since every natural function
except sleep, oviposition and incubation, Is performed on the
wing, and the easy evolutions of this bird in the air, -where it
remains for hours together, are the admiration of all who witness
them. Though considerably larger than a swallow, it can be
reoogxuzed at a distance less by its si^e than by its peculiar
sfaape. The head scarcely projects from the anterior outline of
the pointed wings, which form an almost continuoxis curve, at
right angles to which extend the body and tail, resembling the
handle of the crescentlc cutting-knife used in several trades,
while tbe irings represent the blade. The mode of flight of the
two birds is also unlike, that of the swift being much more
gteady, and, rapid as it is, ordinarily free from jerks. The whole
plumage, ttKcq;>t a greyish wUte patch under th0 cfafa, isasooty
black, but glossy above. Though its actual breeding-places
are by no means numerous, its extraordinaxy q>eed and discur-
sive habiu make the swift widely distiibuted; and throughout
England icaicdy a summer's day passes without iu being seen
in most places. A krger spedes, C. melba or C alpinus, with
the lower paits dusky white, whkh has its home in many of the
mountainous parts oil central and aootheni Europe, has several
times been observed in Britam, and two examples of a spedet
of a very distiact genus Ckaetma, which has its home in nonh«ra
Asia, but regularly emigrates. thence to Australia, have been
obtained in England {Ffcc ZooL Soc,, 1880^ p. i).
Among other peculiarities the swifts, as long ago described
(probably from John Hunter's notes) by Sir E. Home {PkU. Trans,
i8i7« pp. A32 et sot., pL xvi.), are remailBable for tbe development
of their saCvaiy glands, the secretions of which nerve in most species
to glue together the materials of which the nests are composed,
and in the njccies of the genus CoUocalia form almost the whole
substance 01^ the structure. These are the "edible" nests so
cageriv sought by Chinese cpk»res as an ingredient for soup. These
remarkable nesU consist essentially of mucus^ secreted by the sali-
vary glands above mentioned, which dries and looks like isinglass.
Their maricetable value depends on their colour and purity, for they
are crften intermixed with feathers and other foreign substances.
The swifts that coastnict these " edible " nesU form a genus Cotfff-
eaUa, with many species; but they inhabit chiefly the islands of the
Indian Ocean from the north of Madajgascar eastward, as well as
many of the tropical islands of the Pacific so far as the Maroueaas —
one species occurring in the hill<ountry of India. They breed in
caves, to which they resort in great numbers, and occupy them
e' >intly and yet alternately with bats— the mammalB being the lodnrs
y day and the birds by nighL (A.N^
SWIMMING (from " swim," A.S. swimman^ the root bemg
common in Teutonic languages), the action of self-support and
sdf-propulsion on or in water; though used by analogy of
inanimate objects, the term is generally connected with animal
progression and specially with the art of self-propulsion on
water as practised by man. Natation (the synonym derived
from Lat. natare) is one of the most useful of the physical
acquirements of man. There have been cases in which beghmers
have demonstrated some ability in the art upon their first
immersion in deep water, but generally speaking it is an art
which has to be acquired. For many years Great Britain held
the supremacy in this particular form of athletics, but conti-
nental, Australian and American swimmers have so much
improved and have developed such speedy strokes, that the
claim can no longer be maintained. English swimmers have,
however, the satisfaction of knowing that in a great measure
through them has come about the very great interest which is
now taken in the teaching of swimming throughout the world,
and more particularly on the continent of Eiuxjpe, where they
have made frequent tours and given instructive disph&ys of
swimming, life-saving (see Dhowninc), and water polo {q.v.)\
the latter a water game entirely British in its origin.
The teaching of swimming has been taken up in schools, and
where the work is well done it is customary to use a form of
land drill so as to impress upon the pupils some idea of tbe motions
which have to be made in order to progress through the water.
This driH is the preliminary practice to the teaching of the
breast stroke. This stroke is about the most useful of all the
known forms of swimming, more particularly when any one is
thrown overboard in dothes; and though speed swimmers look
upon it as obsolete, it is undoubtedly the best for a long-distance
swim, such as across the English CHiattnel, or other similar feats.
A knowledge of it, as well as of the back stroke, is essential to the
effective saving of life.
When learning the breast stroke, the first thing to avoid is
undue haste and rapidity in the movements. It is this fault,
probably bom of nervousness, which causes many to aver that
though eager to do so, they have never been able to learn to swim.^
Rapid action of the arms only exhausts the learner, whose breath-
ing then becomes hurried ^d hrcgular, and as a consequence
he fails to preserve the buoyancy necessary for carrying him
along the surface. When starting for the first stroke the be-
gimier should draw the elbows nearly to the nde, at the same
iZ»
SWIMMING
time bringiog up tlie foieum and hands to the firont of the chest
with the pains of the hands downwards near to the surface
of the water, the fingers being extended and dosed and the
forefingers and thumbs nearly touching. The hands are then
pitted forward in front of the body to the full extent of the
arms, the pahns of the hands are turned slightly outwards,
and theanns swept round until ina right angle with the shoulders,
when the elbows are dropped and the hands come up in front
of the chest for the next stroke. The arms should not be kept
ngid, but allowed to work gracefully. As the arms are swept
backwards the legs are drawn up, the knees being turned out-
ward to the right and left and the heels nearly touching. The legs
are then kicked outward and swept round as the arms are being
pushed forward to their fullest extent, a " flip ** being given with
each of the feet, which must be kept loose at the ankles and in the
same position as when standing. All beginners have the great
fault of trying to make the limbs too rigid, thereby causing stiff-
ness and possibly cramp. Another difficulty with them is
the question of breathing, but if the learner wHl remember to
inhale when making each backward sweep of the arms, much of
the difficulty usually experienced at the start will be overcome.
Expiration should be carried out during the other portion of each
stroke. The important thing is to keep the body as level along
the surface as possible, and at the same time get regular and
natural breathing. The holding of the breath for two or three
strokes will exhaust the beginner more than anything else.
A knowledge of the back stroke can easily be acquind by those
who are able to swim on the breast, for the leg action is very
similar and the principles reUtitag to the use of the arms are
almost the same. The arms, instead of bciog moved through
the water, arc lifted in the air and carried out to beyond the head
with the palms upwards. The palms are then sli^tly turned
and the arms swept round. Just as this action is being made
the legs are drawn up as in the breast stroke, the body being
allowed to travel on with the force of the kick as the arms are
extended beyond the head. The great difficulty that a back
swimmer has to contend with in open water is that of steering,
and the best way to overc6me it is to take an object for a guide
before starting and hold the head slightly to the side so as to
steer by it.
At one time the side stroke was the great cadng stroke; the
body being placed on the side, the upper arm worked from the
head to the upper side of the body, the lower arm taken down-
wards through the water to the underside of the body and a
sdssor-like kick made with the legs; but this has now been
generally given up in favour of the (ner-arm, trudgen and craud
strokes^
In the cveT'Orm stroke the body is usually turned on the right
nde. At the start the lower arm is pulled downwards
towards the hips, the fingers being kept dosed and the hand
flat, so as to present a large surface to the water. When the
stroke is finished the band is turned quick^ palm upwards,
so that together with the lower part of the arm it cuts the water
sideways, the arm being almost bent double. Then, as it is shot
forward, the hand is gradually turned from palm upwards to
palm downwards, untij^ when it arrives at its position beyond
the head, it is ready for the next stroke. The recovery and the
pull ought to be effected as quickly as possible. The upper
arm stroke is started when the downward stroke of the under
or light arm is finished. It is started in front of the forehead,
the arm bang slightly bent and the fingers pointing downwards.
The hand is pulled past the face and chest with the arm bent at
right angles and swept back in front of the body, the arm gradu-
ally straightening as it leaves the water opposite the hip. When
the hand is opposite the hip it should be brought quickly out
of the water and sent forward for the next stroke. When the
upper arm is opposite the shoulder in its pull through the water
the Ic^ are. kicked wide apart and closed again at the moment
wheo^ Chft hand leaves the water. The kick is completed and
I before the left hand is replaced ready for
As the kp are opened the upper leg is kicked
PlUl ^19^ il^^Oly bent, and the foot kept in its
ordmary position.' The lower leg fs bent double uitUl the heel
approaches the thigh, which is brought backwards sUj^tly.
In the actual kick the upper leg is sent forward, and as it is
straightened vigorously the under leg from the knee downward
comes forward to meet it with a vidous kick; the swirl of the
feet and dosing of the legs drives the body forward. Ihis is
what has come to be known in Great Britain as the " Northern
Kick," by reason of its fiirst being introduced by Lancashire
The trudgen stroke^ more commonly known as the trudgeon
stroke, and on the continent of Europe as Spanish swimming,
was first made prominent in England in 1873 by a swimmer
named J. Ttudgen, who stated that he had acquired a knowledge
of it while in South America. It was, however, known to Clias,
a writer on swimming, who described it in i8a^ as ** The Hurust."
Trudgen's speed was so great for his time that swimmers quickly
copied his style, and it is from this stroke that the crawl stroke
has been developed. When swimming Trudgen kept on the
chest and lifted the upper part of his body at each stroke out
of the water, andat each swingof thearma pulled.himself forward,
a considerable swirl of the water occurring as each movement
was finished. The arms were brought forward sideways, each
completing a drde on each side of the body, and the head kept
completely above water. Those who ct^ed Trudgen soon
found it was less laborious and equally as fast to use a double
over-arm stroke with the head and chest well down, and thus
have the body supported by the water, using the ordinary over-
arm leg kick. At first it was considered a stroke only useful
for short distances and for water pok> where speed is essential,
but the idea was quickly dispelled, and several men, as well as
women, have swum as far as fifteen miles with this strdoe.
The croud stroke is, like the trudgen, an adaptation from native
swimmers. It was not generally known in Great Britain until
tgoa, when Mr Richard Cavill came from Australia to compete
in the English championships, but it is said to be common with
natives of the South Sea Islands, and from there introduced
into Australia about the year 1900. From thence it came to
Europe, and there Mr C. M. Daniels, the American amateur
champion, made so excellent a study of it that he not only so
greatly increased his own pace as to be able to win the English
championship, and beat the world's record for a hundred yards, '
but also introduced various improvements upon it. This
stroke is distind from any other form of swimming: the legs '
from the knee upwards are kept in line with the body and almost '
closed; there is no opening of the legs or dra«ing up of the knees
as for the breast, back and side strokes. The swimmer lies
flat upon his breast on the surface, the lower part of the legs '
from the knee downward are alternately lifted above the surface
up to the middle of the calf and then they are struck down '
upon the water with the instep with all force possible. This '
striking is done from an upward to a downward direction, one ^
leg at a time. The arms are used somewhat similarly as in the '
trudgen stroke, they are bent at the dbows, dipped in just '
beyond the head and drawn smartly backwards till they come ^
out of the water at the hips. The right arm is dipped in when *
the left foot strikes downward and. vice versa. The result of ^
this movement is that when one or the other of the limbs is I
pulling or propelling the body through the water at the same
moment another limb is being recovered for the next stroke, ^
most of the limbs are recovered through the air, fewer dead or 1
retarding points are produced than in any other stroke, and less ^
resistance is caused in the line of progress. Jo performing any ^
other stroke most of the limbs are recovered through the water. ^
One of the most useful accomplishments for a swimmer is '
that of fioalingt but curiously enough many of them cannot
acquire a knowledge of iL It is purely a matter of buoyancy, '
and requires constant practice before one can become perfect
in it. In learning to float the beginner experiences great diffi* >
culty in overcoming the tendency of the legs to sink, and if after 1
frequent trials they are still found to sink he ^ould get some one ^
to hcJd them up or else place them on the steps or behind the ^
rail of the bath, and thus assisted learn to balance the body oq
SWIMMING
233
Ae toffatt. Before dofaig so he should completely 611 his liuigs,
spread hb legs wide; and then lie backwards with the arms
extended in a line with the body and beyond the head, with
the palms upwards, care being iak«n to throw as much weight
beyond the head as possible. Furthermore he must lie perfectly
still and take care not to hollow the back or raise the abdomeo
above water. One may sink for an Instant, but if the breath
be held the lips will come above the surtace, when easy breathing
Bsay be indulged in. Only the face, chest and toes should
appear above the surface of the water. If the feet still have a
teadeacy to sink after they have been gently released from the
step or rail, mora weight should be thrown beyond the head by
turning it well back and lifting the hands out of the water, which
will raise the feet. A knowledge of floating is of good service
to tboae attempting to save life and is abo essential to those
desiraos of making a study of the many tricks and sdentific feats
which are performed by swimmen.
The umal method of entering the water is by what is
known as dsmna some think that it should be termed
" springing." The best method of learning to dive is to stand
en the side of the bath or on the bank of the river, and then
stoop down until the body is nearly double, stretch out the
arms in front of the head, sink the head between them and
gradually fall over into the water. The ability to enter the
water head first will then soon be acquired. To bcgio, the
fesi should be placed together and the body kept erect, then
a few abort inspirations should be made and the lungs cleared
and inflated, the arms should be swung from the front and
a gyring made from the diving base. As the feet leave
the base they shonld be thrown upwards, the body straightened
and the head placed between the arms, which should be
kept at full stretch beyond the head, with the hands palm
dow u w aid s and the thumbs touchiog so as to act as a cut-
water. Inunediately the body has entered the water, the
hands should be tuined upwards and the body will then come
to the wrface at once. In frig^ diviug a leap is made into mid-'
ak, the body straightened almost to horizontal level, the arms
and head then declined towards the water and the legs brought
■p. This action causes the body to shoot towards the water at
a proper ang^e sAd the dive is thereby made clean and effective.
A umIuI accomplishment is that known as surface dhingt be-
canae it enables yon to find and bring an object to the surface.
The oomct method of performing it is to first swim a few yards
on the smface with the breaA stroke, take a breath, then
9oddcnly depress the head, look downwaids, elevate the body
at the hips, and at the same time maiie a powerful stroke with
the legs and an upward stroke with the hands. The impetus
than ohtained will su£Gu:e to take the swimmer to the bottom in
Bo ft. of water. Once under the surface it is only necessary to
keep the head depressed and swim bymeansof the breast stroke
moctler to find the object of seareh. When about to rise to the
T^«^"*> the head should be turned backwards with the eyrs
apwtaids, and a vigorous stroke made whh arms and legs.
^amgimg h not very geaecally practised, though there is a
dBBpioosbip for it. A plun^ ia a standing dive made head
fost from a firm take off, free from spring. The body most be
kept sBOdoidess face .downwards, no progressive movement
■■■t he imparted other than the action of the. dive. The
plnn^ teffninates when the plungtf laiscs his face above the
flarface of the water. With the klea of preventing long tests
vithout beeatUng, It was deemed in 189^ advisable by the
■ B ininif"g aaiodation to impose a time limit d one minute in
mM oosDpetitiona. Yet even with this time limit, over 80 ft. has
been plnaffcd. In Sweden and Germany skilled forma of
aoEobotJc and gjrmnastic diving have been more laig^ pnctised
tltts in Snfiand, and as a consequence diving in those countries
^ in a tomh higher state of perfection than in En^and, though
even i0 England great haprovoncat has been made owing to a
^■^ infloz of Swedish leachetSb
liooK of the principal races arte decided in ftolfts, but there has
been a tendency of late years to revert to open water in the
wir-"— *- nad aho to encourage k>o«Hiialaaoe i«iaiiBiiig._The
fi^ public baths in Great Britain were opened by the corpora-
lion of Liverpool in 1828 and the Baths and Washhouses Act
was passed in 1846, the first of the I/indon parishes to adopt the
act being St Martin's in the Fields, who opened baths in Green
Street, Leicester Square in 1846. Since then public baths
have been erected all over Great Britain and Ireland, and bath
swimming has become, by reason of the lack of reasonable open
water accommodation, the principal means of the teaching of
the young. But open water swimming, and more particiiUrly
swimming in the sea, is the best training and practice for those
who really love the art, because they are able to swim under
normal climatic conditions, instead of in tepid water. Many
persons in England bathe in the open all the year round, noUbly
in the Serpentine in London, on the sea-coast end in various
inland waters.
When bathing in the open, care has to be taken to avoid weeds
or undercurrents. In the event of acddentally getting hold of
a bed of weeds, the swimmer should cease kicking and work
with the arms, and the current will then take him through. If
he tries to swim the weeds will^ entangle bis legs and put hhn in
an awkward plight. If he be carried away by a current in a
river, he should select a spot en either bank and swim diagonally
towards it, never minding where he has left his clothes. When
in the sea, the conditions are not always the same, though the
general rule of swimming diagonally for shore also applies.
For sea bathing, however, it is far better, no matter how good
a swimmer one may be, to have a boat in attendance. Before
bathing in any strange place, the swimmer should make himself
acquainted with the currents and the direction of the tide.
When the tide is going out the course should be made along the
coast, close in shore. In a rough sea the swimmer should not
attempt to breast the waves, but as each wave rises he should
swim through, thereby saving himself from buffeting, which if
long continued would cause insensibility or else great waste of
physical power. When using a boat for bathing the best way
is to dive from the stern, to which some steps or a rope ladder
should be fixed, in order to aid the swimmer when getting in
again. Failing these being at hand, the best way is to lay hoki
of the stem with both hands and then, making a bard rising kick,
raise the body till it rests on the edge of the hips. Then smartly
slip the hands a littk forward, turn to a silting position and enter
the boat^
Speed swimming r€Cords are so frequently altered, that students
had best obtain the Amateur Swimming Association's Afuual
Handbook, in which are detailed the accepted records up to
date. The improvement in speed has been most remarkable.
In 1877 the mile amateur record was 39 m. 25I sees.; and that
stood until i8gs. The record in 1007 was 24 m. 4^1 sees, made
by Mr D. BiUington. The hundred yards record has been
similariy reduced. In 1878 it was x m. x6| sees.; in 1888 it
had been lowered by Mr J. NuttaU to x m. 6^ sees.*, and in
1907 Mr C M. Daniels, of America, created a world's record
of 55I secfc The neoords over intermediate distances have
also been considerably lowered and many long-distance swimming,
records have from time to time been created. One of the most
remarkable of these fong-distance swims is the race which is
known as the " Swim through London," from Richmond lock
and weir to Blackfriars, which was instituted in 1907 and woo
by Mr J. A. Jaxvia of Leicester, in 3 hours 24 minutes 6| sees.
In thb event 34 started, and n finished the distance which
goes to show that much attention is being devoted to long^
distance trials; in this event Miss Lilian M. Smith finished
fourteenth. Much intercM. has centred in attempts to 9wim
acTOtt the English Channel; Captain Webb, D. Dahon and F.
CaviU, all clahn to have done it, but only the swim of Captain
Webb has been accepted as gcaoine. The first recorded attempt
was made oa the 24th oi August 187a by J. B. Johnson, who
started fiODi Dover, but remained in the water only 65 minutes.
It WM on the tsth of August 1875 that Captain Matthew Webb
made his first attempt. He started from Dover and remahied
in the water 6 houn 49 m., when the weather became too rough
for him U. caaUnM^^lt is etliniatfd that he was shout ijt n^
234
SWINBURNE
across when be had to gfve op. On the 34t!i-3Sth of August
1875, he swam across the English Channd, diving from the
Admiralty Pier, Dover, and touching Calais sands, France,
after swimming for 3x hours 45 ra. It is the greatest swim ever
recorded, and at the time of the accomplishment created a great
sensation in England/ Since this great achievement, numerous
unsuccessful attempts have been made, the best being those of
Montague Holbein, Jabez Wolff and T. W. Burges«^ and their
efforts created an interest in long-distance swimming in all parts
of the world, which has resulted in the accompUshment of trials
and tests once thought impossible.
BiBLiOGHAPHV.— The literature of the subject of swimming b
considerable; the most useful work of general reierence b Stmmmmg,
by Ral|^ Thomas (London, 1904^, with biblioKraphy. Other chief
works on the technic of swimming that may be mentraned are:
Thevenot. The Art o/Swimmini (London, 1789); Steedman, Manual
ofSwimmini (Melbourne. 1867;; W. Wilson, The Swimming Instruc-
tor (London. iSBi); A. Sinclair and W. Henry. Swimming (Badmin-
ton Library. London. 1893): C. M. Daniels, Haw to Swim and Save
Life (Spalding's Library, London. 1907). (W. Hy.)
SWINBUBNE, ALGERNON CHARLES (1837-1909), EngEsh
poet and critic, was bom in London on the sth of April 1837.
He was the son of Admiral Charles Henry Swinburne (of an old
Northumbrian family) and of Lady Jane Henrietta, a daughter
of George, 3rd earl of Ashburnham. It may almost be said to
have been by accident that Swinburne owned London for his
Mrthplace, since he was removed from it immediately, and always
felt a cordial dislike for the surroundings and influences of life
in the heart of a great city. His own childhood was spent in a
very different environment. His grandfather. Sir John Edward
Swinburne, bart., owned an estate in Northumberland, and his
father, the admiral, bought a beautiful spot between Ventnor
and Niton in the Isle of Wi^t, called East Dene, together with
a strip of underdiff known as the Landslip. The two homes
were in a sense amalgamated. Sir Edward used to spend half
the year in the Isle of Wight, and the admiral's family shared
His northern home for the other half; so that the poet's earliest
recollections took the form of strangely contrasted emotions,
inspired on the one hand by the bleak north, and on the other
by the luxuriant and tepid south. Of the two, the influences of
the island are, perhaps naturally, the stronger in his poetry;
and many of his most beautiful pieces were actually written at
the Orchard, an exquisite spot by Niton Bay, which belonged
to rebtives of the poet, and at which he was a constant visitor.
After some years of private tuition, Swinburne was. sent to
Eton, where he remained for five years, proceeding to Balliol
College, Oxford, in 1857. He was three years at the UniversKy,
but left without taking a degree. Clearly he must have culti-
vated whfle there his passionate and altogether unacademic love
for the literature of Greece; but his undergraduate career was
unattended by university successes, beyond the Taylorian prize
lor French and Italian,, which he gained in 1858. He contributed
to the " Undergraduate Papers," published during his first year,
under the editorship of John NichoI,and he wrote a good deal
of poetry from time to time, but his name was probably regarded
without much favour by the college authorities. He took a
second class in classical moderations in 1858, but his name does
not occur in any of the '* Final " honour schools. He left
Oxford in i860, and in the same y«ar published those remark-
able dramas, The Queen Mother and Rotam&ndf which, despite
a certain rigidity of style, must be considered a wonderful per>
formance for so young a poet, being fuller of dramatic energy
than most of his later plays, arid rich in really magnificent blank
verse. The volume was scarcely noticed at the time, but it
attracted the attention of one or two literary Judges, and was
by them regarded as a first appearance of unoonunon promise.
It is a mktake to say, as most biographers do, that SwizA>iinie,
after kaving Oxford, spent some time in Italy with Walter
Savage Landor. The facts are quite otherwise. The Swin-*
' ipcnt lor a few weeks to Italy, where the poet's
f Jtoti had been educated, and among other places
^ t Landor was then living in the house
r Um iqr the Jciiidjie««f tfaft BnnmiDgs.
Swinburne was a great admirer of Landor, and, knowing that
he was Gkely to be in the same town with him, had provided
himself with an introduction from his friend, Richard Monckton
Mifaies. Landor and Swinburne met and conversed, with great
interest and mutual esteem; but the meetings were not for more
than an hour at a time, nor did they exceed four or five in number.
Swinburne never lived in Italy for any length of time. In i86s
appeared the lyrfcal tragedy of Alahnta in Calydon, followed
in the next year by the famous Poems and Ballads, and with
them the poet took the public gaae, and began to enjoy at once
a vogue that may almost be likened to the vogue of Byron.
His sudden and imperative attraction did not, it is true, extend,
like Byron's, to the unliterary; but among lovers of poetry it
was sweepiiig, permeating and sincere. The Poems and Balhds
were vehemently attacked, but Dolores -and Fausltne weie on
everyone's lips: as a poet of the time has said, *' We all went
abotit chanting to one another these new, astonishing melodies.**
Chasfdofd, which appeared between Atalania and Poems and
Ballads, enjoyed perhaps less unstinted attention; but it is not
too much to say that by the dose of his thirtieth year, in spite
of hostility and detraction, Swinburne had not only placed
himself in the highest rank of contemporary poets, but had
even established himself as leader of a choir of singers to whom
he was at once master and prophet.
Meanwhile, his private life was disturbed by troubknis
influences. A favourite sister died at East Dene, and was
buried in the little shady churchyard of Bonchurch. Her loss
overwhelmed the poet's father with grief, and he could no longer
tolerate the house that was so full of tender memories. So the
family moved to Holmwood, in the Thames Valley, near Read-
ing, and the poet, being now within sound of the London Uteraiy
world, grew anxious to mix in the company of the small body o(F
men who shared his sympathies and tastes. Rooms were found
for him in North Crescent, off Oxford Street, and he was dkawn
into the vortex of London life. The Pre-Raphaelite movonent
was in full swing, and for the next few years he was involved in
a rush of fresh emotions and rapidly changing loyalties. It is
indeed necessary to any appreciation of Swinburne's geniui
that one should understand that his inspiration was almost
invariably derivative. His first book is deliberately Shake-
spearian in design and expression; the AUdanta, of course, is
equally dcUberate in its pursuit of the Hellenic spirit. Then,
with a wider swing of the pendulum, he recedes, in Poems and
Ballads, to the example of Baudelaire and of the Pie-Raphaelites
themselves; with the Song of Italy (1867) he is drawing towards
the revolt of Maazini; by the time Songs before Sunrise are com-
pleted (in 1871) he is altogether under the influence of Victor
Hugo, while Rome has become to him " first nam« of the world's
names." But, if Swinburne's inspiration was derivative, hit
manner was in no sense Imitative; he brought to poetry a spirit
entirely his own, and a method even more individual than his
spirit. In sunmiing up his work we shall seek to indicate wherein
his originality and his service to poetry has Iain; meanwhile,
it is well to distinguish clearly betweeir the Influences which
touched him and the original, personal fashion in which he
assumed those influences, and made them his own. The spirit
of Swinburne's muse was always a spirit of revolution. In
Poems and Ballads the revolt is against moral conventions and
restraints; in Songs b^on Sunrise the arena of the contest is no
longer the sensual sphere, but the political and the ecdesiasticaL
The detestation of\ings and priests, Krhich mariced so much
of the work of his maturity, is now in full swing, and Swin-
burne's language Is sometimes tinged with extravagance aiul an
almost virulent animosity. With Botkwell (1874) be returned
to drama and the story, of Mary Stuart. The play has fine
scenes and is burning with poetry, but Its length not only
precludes patient enjoyment, but transcends all possibilities
of harmonious unity. Ereddheus (1876) was a return to the
Greek inspiration of Atalania; and then In the second scries
of Poems and Ballads (1878) the Froich influoioe is seen to
be at work, and Victor Hugo begins to hold alone the place
pnwesicd, at difiesnt times, by Bauddairs and MaasJaL At
SWINDON
235
tVb time Swinlnirne^s oiergy was at fever hdght; in 1879 he
published his eloquent Study 0/ Skakcspearet and in 1880 no
fever than three volumes* The Modern Heptalo§uif a brilliant
aaonsrmous essay in parody. Songs of the Springtides, and
Studies in Song. It was shortly after this date that Swinburne's
friendalnp for Theodore Watts-Dunton (then Theodore Watts)
grew into cue of almost naore than brotherly intimacy. After
i8&> Swinburne's life remained without disturbing event,
devoted entirely to the pursuit of literature in peace and leisure
The conclusion of the Elizabethan trilogy, Ifary Stuart, was
fmblished in 1881, and in the following year Tristram o/Lyonesse,
a wonderfully individual contribution to the modem treatment
of the Arthurian legend, in which the heroic couplet is made to
assume opulent, romantic cadences of whidi it had hitherto
seemed incapable. Among the publications of the next few
years must be mentioned A Century of R/mndHs, 1883; A Mid-
smmmer Holiday, 1884; and Miscellanies, 1886. The current
of his poetry, indeed, continued unchecked; and though it
woidd be vain to pretend that he added greatly either to the
lange of his subjects or to the fecundity of his versification,
it is at least true that his melody was unbroken, and his mag-
nificent torrent of words inexhaustible. His Marino Faiicro
(2885) andLocrine (1887) have passages of power and intensity
^iny*p**"^ in any of his earlier work, and the rich metrical
effects of Astrophd (1894) and The Tale of Balin (1896) are
inferior in music and range to none but his own masterpieces.
la 1899 appeared. hb Rosamund, Queen of the Lombards; in
190ft Ids Duite of Gardia', and in* 1904 was bqgun the publication
of a collected edition of hia Poems and Dramas in eleven
voiunea.
Besides this wealth of poetry, Swinburne was active as a critic,
and several volumes of fine impassioned prose testify to the variety
and fluctuation of his h'terary allegiances. His Note on Charlotte
Brimtd (1877) must be read by every student of its subject; the
Sktdy of Shakespeare (x88o)— followed in 1909 by The Age of
Shakespeare-^ full of vigorous and anesting thought, and many
of his scattered essays are rich in suggestion and appreciation.
His studies of Elizabethan h'terature are, indeed, full of " the
aoble tribute of praise," and no contemporary critic did so
much to revive an interest in that wonderful period of dramatic
recrudescence, the side-issues of which have been generally
somewhat obscured by the pervading and dominating genius
«f Shakeq)eare. Where his enthusiasm was heart-whole, Swin-
barne's appreciation was stimulating and infectious, but the
very qualities which give his poetry its unique charm and
^aracter were antipathetic to his success as a critic He had
very little capadty for cool and reasoned judgment, and his
criticism is often a tangled thicket of prejudices and predilec-
tions. He was, of course, a master of the phrase; and it never
kxppencd that he touched a subject without illuminating it
witli some lightning-flash of genius, some vivid penetrating
saggestion that outilames its shadowy and confused environ-
iBcnt. But no one of his studies is satisfactory as a whole;
tJhe faculty for sustained exercise of the judgment was denied
han, and even his best appredaUons arc disfigured by error in
taste and proportion. Oo. the other hand, when he is aroused
t0 Kterary indignation the avalanche of his invective sweeps
fadDre it judgment, taste and dignity. His dislikes have all the
SHperlsiive violence of his affectwns, and while both alike present
poiais of great interest to the ana^^st, revealing as they do a
nciiv varied and fearless individuality, the criticism which his
katreds evoke is seldom a safe guide. His prose work also
iBclodes an early novel of some interest, Looe*s Cross*currents,
cfisatcned from a defunct weekly, the TaiUr, and revised for
avblicatioiik in 1905.
Whatever may be said in criticism of Swinburne's prose,
f^oe is at least no question of the quahty of his poetry, or of
its ioiportant position in the evolution of English literary form.
T9 treat first of its technique, it may safely be said to have
cevabttieniaed the whole ^rstem of metrical expression. It
Umm ad Eagiish poetry bound in the bondage of the taasbic; it
fmf* it revelling in the freedom of the cbotianibui» the dactyl
and- the aaapAest' Entirely new effects; a richness of orchestitr
tion resembling the harmony of a band of many instruments;
the thunder of the waves, and the lisp of leaves ia the wind;
these, and a score other astonishing poetic deveiopnients were
allied in his poetry to a masteiy of language and an overwhelm^
iag impulse towards beauty of form and exquisiteness of imagina*
tion. In Tristram ^ Lyonesse the heroic couplet underwent
a complete metamorphosis. No longer wedded to antitheiis and
a shaip caesura, it grew into a rich mekidioua measure, capable
of an infinite variety of notes and harmonies, palpitating,
intense. The service which Swinburne rendered to the English
language as a vehicle for lyrical effect is simply incalculable.
He revolutionized the entire scheme of English prosody.
Nor was his smgular vogue due only to this extraordinary
metrical ingenuity. The effect of his artistic personality was
in itsdf intoxicating, even delirious. He was the poet of youth
insurgent against aJl the restraints of conventionality sad
custom. The young lover of poetry, whea first he encounters
Swinburne's influence, is almost bound to be swept away by it;
the wild, extravagant heence, the apparent sincerity, the vigour
and the verve, cry directly to the aspirations of youth like a
daiion in the wilderness. But, while this is inevitable, it is
also true that the critical lover of poetry outgrows an unquotion*
ing allegiance to the Swinbumian mood more quickly than any
other of the diverse emotions aroioed by the study of the great
poets. It is not that what has been called his " paa-anthro-
pism" —his universal wordup of the holy spirit of man — is in
itself an nnsoimd philosophy; there have been many creeds
founded on such a basis which have impregnably withstood the
attacks of criticism. But the unsoundness of Swinburne's
philosophy lies in the fact that it celebrates the spirit of man
engaged in a defiant rebellion that leads nowhere; and that as
a '* critidsra of life " it has neither finality nor a sufficiently
high seriousness of purpose. Walt Whitman preaches very
much the same gospd of the ** body electric" and the gbry of
human nature; but Whitman's attitude is far saner, far more
satisfying than Swinburne's, for it is concerned with the human
spirit realizing itself in accordance with the unchangeable laws
of nature; while Swinburne's enthusiasm is, more often than
not, directed to a spiritual revolution which sets the laws of
nature at defiance^ It is impossible to acquit his poetry entirely
of the charge of an animalism which wars against the higher
issues of the spirit — an animalism sometimes of love, sometimes
of hatred, butj in both extremes, out of centre and harmony.
Yet, when everything has been said that can be said against
the unaesthetic violences of the poet's excesses, his soidce to
contemporary poetry outweighed all disadvantages. No one
did more to free En^ish literature from the shackles of formalism ;
no one, among his contemporaries, pursued the poetic calling
with so sincere and resplendent an allegiance to the claims of
absolute and unadulterated poetry. Some English poets have
turned preachers; others have beat seduced by the attractions
of philosophy; but Swinburne always remained an artist
absorbed in a lyrical ecstasy, a singer and not a seer. When
the histoiy of Victorian poetry comes to be written, it will be
found that his personality was, in iu due perspective, among the
most potent of his time; and as an artistic influence it will be
pronounced both inspiring and beneficent. The topics that he
touched were often ephemeral; the causes that he celebrated
will, many of them, wither and desiccate; but the magnificent
freed<Mn and lyrical resource which he introduced into the
language will enlarge its bordeii and extend its sway so long
as English poetry survives.
On the loth of April 1909, after a short attack of influenza
followed by pneumonia, the great poet died at the house on
Putney Hill, "The Pines," where with Mr Watts-Dunton he
had lived for many years. He was buried at Bonchurch, Isle
of Wight. (E. G.)
SWINDOK, a market town and municipal borough in the
Cricklade parliamentary diviaon of Wiltshire, England, 77I m.
W. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1891).
33,001; (1901), 45^006. It has two parts. New and Old. The
236
SWINE
new town grew up aroand the vast iocomotlve and wagon works
of the Great Western raihray, and is an important junction on
that system with a separate station on the Midland and South-
western Junction railway. It arose rapidly on a str^> of waste
land, and churches and chapels were built for the workmen,
whose numbers soon exctcdtd io,ooa Each man contributes
to a medical fund which maintains the fever, accident and general
hospitals, providing also laundries and baths. There are a
mechanics' institute, containing a large library, theatre, reading-
rooms and lecture-hall. The company owns a park with football
and cricket grounds. An aisle of St Saviour's Church, dedicated
in 1905, was built by the priest and congregation with their
own hands. The picturesque old town stands on a hill over-
looking the Gloucestershire borders, the White Horse Vale and
Lambouro Down in Berkshire, and the great chalk uplands of
Marlborough; while the camps of Blunsdon, Kingsbury, Barbury
and Badbury are all visible. Here the chief buildings are the
church, town-hall, market-ball and com exchange. Old Swindon
received the right of holding a fair from Charles I. Coate
Reservoir, less than 2 m. south-east, is a broad lake which supplies
a branch of the Berks and Wilts Canal. Its shores are beautifully
wooded, and it abounds with fish. Swindon is governed by
a mayor, 1 2 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area, 4265 acres.
SWIKE, a name property applicable to the domesticated
pig {Sus scrofa), but also including its wild relatives. As stated
in the article Artiodactyla, these animals typify the family
Suidae, which, with the Hippopotamidae, constitute the section
Suina, a: group of equal rank with the Pecora. The Suldac
are divisible into the true Old World swine (Suinae) and the
American peccaries (Dicotylinae). Of the former the leading
characteristics arc as follows: on elongated mobile snout, with
an expanded, truncated, nearly naked, flat, oval terminal surface
in which the nostrils are placed. Feet narrow, with four com-
pletely developed toes on each. Hoofs of the two middle toes
with their contiguous surfaces flattened. The outer toes not
reaching to the ground in the ordinary walking position. Teeth
variable in number, owing to the suppression in some forms
of an upper indsor and one or more premolars.
In the typical genus Sus. as exemplified by domesticated pigs
(see Pig) and the wild boar (see Boar), the dentition is i.|, c.\, p-i,
m.3; total 44t; the upper indaors diminishing rapidly in size from the
first to the tnird, and the lower incisors long, narrow, closely approxi-
mated, and almost horizontal in position, their tips inclining towards
the middle line, the second slightly larger than the first, the third
much smaller. The tusks or canines are strongly developed, with
^
Fig. I.— DeiJtition of Boar (Sks scrcfa),
persistent roots and a partial enamel covering, those of the upper
)aw not having the usual downward direction, but curving out-
wards, upwards and finally inwards, while those of the lower
jaw are directed upwards and outwards with a gentle backward
curv^ their hinder edgea working and wcArtng against the front
edgea of* the upper paur. The tusks appear externally to the
mouth, the form of the upper lip being modt6ed to allow of
thj^ pnlawion. but are much km de>^oped in females than
fPrHlMll) «I1k teeth of the molar ttriea ciadually '
•tie and complexity from first to last, and 'are ananged in contignoQa
series, except that Che first lower premolar is separated by an interval
from the second. First and second upper premolars with compressed
crowns and two roots: and the third and fourth with an inner lobo
of the crown, and an additional pair of roota The first and second
molars have quadrate crowns, with four principal obtuse conical
cusps, around which numerous accessory cusps are clustered. The
crown of the third molar is nearfjr as long as those of the first and
second together, having, in addition to the four principal lobes, a
Urge posterior hcd, composed cf clustered conical cusps, and sup-
ported by additional roota The lower molars resemble generally
those of the upper jaw, but are narrower. Milk dentition : ft.|, c.f , m.| :
total 28 — the first permanent premolar having no predecessor.
The third incisor in both upper and lower jaws is large, developed
before the others, with much the siae, form and direction of the
canine. Vertebrae: C 7, D. 13-14, L. 6. S. 4, Ca. 20-34. The hairy
covering of the body varies under different conditions of climate.
but when best developed, as in the European wild boar, consists of
long stiff bristles, abundant on the back and sides, and of a close
softer curling under-coat.
All the typical swine are further characterized fay the fact that
the young are long|itudinallv striped with bands of dark brown and
some paler tint: this striped coat disappearing in the course of a few
montha On the other oand, this peculiar marking is rarely seen
in domestk pigs in any part of the world, although it has been
occasionally observed. It is stated by Darwin that the pigs which
have run wild in Jamaica and New Granada have resumed this
aboriginal character, and produce lonj^itudinally striped young;
these being the descendants of domestic animals introduced from
Europe since the Spanish conquest, as before that time there vrerc
no true pigs in the New World. Another character by which the
European domesticated pig differs from any of the wild species b
the concave outline of the frontal region of the skulL.
In the wild boar {Sus scrofa) the upper or hinder surface of
the lower tusk, which has no enamel, inclines obliquely outwards
and is broader than the outer surface. The distributional area
Fic. 2.— Wild Boar and Young {Sus scrofa).
of this spedes includes northern Africa, Europe and central
and northern Asia as far as Amurland. Whether the Nubian
5. senarensis is really distinct, seems doubtful. To the same
group belongs the Indian S. cristatuSt distinguished by the move
pronounced devdopment of the crest of kmg haics on the nape
of the neck, and closely related to the next spedes. The third
species is the banded pig 5. wtfo/wj, of Sumatra* charactcrixed
by having a broad reddish or whitish band nmning from the
middle of the snout along the upper lip to disappear on the side
of the neck; the skull being short and high, with the facial
portion of the lachrymal bone smalL Races of this typo are
also met with in Java, Cochfi-China and Formosa; the pig
from the tatter isUnd having been named 5. UUoamms. Near
akin is the Japanese 5. leuecmystax and the small Andamanesc
5. andcwtanensis. Whether the New Guinea 5. papmnsis
and 5. m'fer are really indigenous members of this group or
modified doacendanU of European tame pigs is doubtful;
although the general character of the Papuan liraBa support*
the Idea Ihat thsy are intsoduced.
aWINEttU^JDE~SWING, Di
237
A seooiuf group is typified by, Ihe warty pig, .S, terruccsut,
ni Java, ia which the iunder or upper uaenaineUed surface of
the lower tusk is naxrower than the outer, concave, and set nearly
ta the iong axis of the skull. The skull itself is elongated, with
comparatively simple and primitive molars, the latter being
relatively short. There a^e also three small warts on each side
of the face, the largest of which is just below the eye and carries
long bristles. The small S. eeUbensis of Celebes and S. pkUip-
sinensis are probably only varieties of this sp«des. The
bearded pig S. barbaius (-Flonprosiris) of Borneo is a very
distinct member pf this group, distinguished by the great
elongation of the skull, and the presence of a tuft of long hair
near the muzzle. In Sumatra It is represented by the sub-
^>ecies S. b. A', and in south-west Borneo by S. b. gargantua.
Some doubt exists whether the pygmy hog of the Nepal
Terat, which is not much larger than a haze, is best regarded
as a member of the typical genus, under the name of Sus sahomus
or as representing a genus by itself, with the title Porctda
salvania, ^
Similar doubts have also been entertained with regard to
the African bush-pigs or river-bogs, but from geographical
considerations alone thcsp are but regarded as representing a
separate genus, PotamochoeruSf although they are nearly allied
to the verrucosus group of Sus* they are specially distinguished
by the great development of the anterior half of the zygomatic
arch of the skull, and by the presence in the boars of a homy
protuberance of the skin in front of each eye, which overlies a
tuberosity on the nasal bone ; the molars are also small and simple,
and the anterior premolars are generally shed at an early stage
of life. The group is represented in Madagascar, as well as in
Africa south of the Sahara. (See Rivek-Hog.)
The recently discovered JSylochoerus of the equatorial forest-
districts of Aftica comes nearest to the under-mentioned wart-
Ikogs, but the skull is of a much less specialized type, while the
upper tusks are much smaller although they have the same
general curvature and direction, and the cheek-teeth lack the
peculiar characteristics of those of Phacofftoerus, although they
present a certain approximation- thereto. On the other hand,
resemblance to that genus is shown by the reduction of the upper
indsors to a single pair. The skin is clothed with a thick coat
of coarse black hair of a bristly nature, but there are a few
whitish hairs on the face and in the groin.
In the Afrkan wart-hogs (Phaccchoerw), which take their name
from the large wartv lobes projecting from each side of the face, the
teeth are remarkably modmed. The milk-dentition, and even the
^rfy condition of the permanent dentition, is formed on the aame
ceneral tyfie as that of SuS, except that certain teeth are absent, the
formula being t'i c{, p|, m|. toul 34; but as age advances all the
. I - M ^. -^1^ canines and the
feceth have a tendency to disaj
ior molars, but these, wM
I the jaws, attain an extraordii
posterior molars, but these, whkb in some cases are the only teeth
left in the jaws, attain an extraordinary development. The upper
are of great size, and curve outwards, forwards
and upwards. Their enamel covering is confined to the apex, and
■oon wears away. The lower canines are much more slender, but
follow the same curve; except on the posterior surface, their crowns
are covered with enamd ; both pairs of canines are large in the two
aeae& The third or last molar tooth of both jaws is of great size,
afid presenu a structure at first sight unlike that of any other
mammal, being composed of numerous (23-^5) parallel cyliriders or
columns, each with po1p<avity, dentine and enamd*oovering, and
packed together with cement. Examination will, however, show
cliat a modification similar to that which has transformed the com-
paratively simple molar tooth of the mastodon into the extremdy
co mp le x grinder of the Indian elephant has served to change the
tooth of the common pig into that of Phacockoems, The tutocles
which cluster over the surface of the crown of the common pig are
elongated and drawn out into the columns of the wart-hog, as the
low tiansvene ridges of the mastodon's tooth become the leaf-Eke
plates of the elephant's molar. (See Wart-Hog.)
The last existing representative of the Suidae is the babirusa
of Celebes, alone representing^e genus of the same name,
and readily distinguished by the extraordinary size and form
of the tusks of the old males. (For the characteristics of this
animal see Babisusa.)
Extinct S'unne. — ^Species of Sus arc met with in Pliocene strata of
Europe and Asia, the Lower Pliocene 5. trymanthius of Greece and
& gigprnUus and 5. iitam of India being enormous animals; the lait
XXVI .5,
with compaiauvely simple molars. The European 5. palasochoerut
and the Indian S. hysudricus arc smaller forms; the first exhibiting
signs of relationship with Potamochoerus. In India also occurs
Ht^pokyus distinguished by the extremely complfcated structure
of Its molars. In the European Miocene we have Hyotkeriwn and
Palaeochoerus^ and in ^the Upper Oligocene Propaiasockoenu, which
have square molars without any tendency to a selenodont structure
in their cuspa. Curiously enough a selenodont type is, however,
ac ' -- **- f the imperfectly known Egyptian Geniokyus of
th the earliest species whkh can be included in the
fa lis the forward direction of the lower incisors is
nc Mamus is a European Oligocene genus with
btJ hich show a consfncuous basal cingulum in the
lo" e first premolar is absent. In tne European
M which also occurs in the Indian Tertiaries, the
m f transverK ridges, like those of the proboscidean
g( 1 but the genus Is believed to be related to the
01 „, 1« and. Choerothirium, in which these teeth show
a more normal type of structure.
For the genus Eloikerium, of the Ldwer Miocene and Upper
OUjsocene of both hemisphere^, which is often placed next the
Suidae, see Artiodactyla. ,The American Dicotylinae are noticed
under Peccary. (R. l.*)
SW;irEMONDVa^rt' and seaside resort of Germany, in
the Prussian province of Fomeraoia, situated at the east extremity
of the island of Usedom, and on the left bank of the river Swine
which connecu the Stettiner Haff with the Baltic. Pop. (1905),
13,272. It serves as the outer port of Stettin (,q.v.\ 42 m. distant
by water, with which, as with Heringsdnri, it has direct railway
commimication. Its broad unpaved streets and one-storey
houses built in the Dutch style give it an almost rustic appear-
ance, although its industries, .beyond some fishing, aie entirely
connected with its shipping. The entrance to the harbour, the
best on the Prussian Baltic coast, is protected by two long
breakwaters, and is strongly fortified. The grand lighthouse,
216 ft. high, rises beside the new docks on the island of Wollin,
on the otber side of the narrow Swine. In 1897 the river con-
tinuation of the Kaiseriahrt was opened to navigation, and,
further, the waterway between the Haff and the Baltic was
deepened to 34 ft. in 1900-1901 and in other ways improved.
The connexion between Swinemiindc and Stettin is kept open
in winter by ice breakers. Formerly ships of heavy burden
bound for Stettin discharged or lightened their cargo at Swine-
miinde, but since the recent deepening of the river Oder they
can proceed direct to the larger pm.
The Swine, the central and shortest passage between the
Stettiner Haff and the Baltic Sea, was formerly flanked
by the fishing villages of West and East Swine. Towards the
beginning of last century it was made navigable for large ships,
and Swinemiinde, which was founded on the site of West
Swine in 1748, was fortified and raised to the dignity of a
town by Frederick the Great in 1765.
See Wittenberg, SwinemHtide^ Ahlbeck und Hcriugsdotf (Una,
1893).
SWING, DAVID (1830-1894), Anufrican clergyman, wms bom
of Alsatian stock in Cincinnati, Ohio, on the 23rd of August
1S30. He spent most of his boyhood on a farm and earned his
schooling; graduated at Miami University in 1852; studied
theok)gy at Lane Seminary; and was principal of the preparatory
school at Miami in 1853-1866. He became pastor in 1866 of the
Westminster Presbyterian Church (after 1868 the Fourth Church)
in Chicago, which was de&Uoyed in the fire of 1871; be then
preached in McVickcr's theatre until 1874, when a new building
was completed. In April 1874 he was tried before the presbytery
of Chicago on charges of heresy preferred by Dr Francis
Landey Patton, who argued that Profcisor Swing preached
that men were saved by works, that he held a " modal" Trinity,
that he did not believe in plenary inspiration, that he unduly
countenanced Unitarianism, &c. The presbytery acquitted
Dr Swing, who resigned from the presbytery when he learned
that the case was to be appealed to the synod. As an action
was taken against the church, of which he had remained pastor,
he resigned the pastorate, again leased McVicker's theatre (and
after 1880 leased Central Music Hall, which was built for the
purpose), and ia 1875 founded the C^tral Church, to which
many of his former parishioners followed him, and in which he
2a
240
SWITZERLAND
rPHYSlCATtEATURES
permanently inhabited village in Switzerland is Juf (6998 ft.), at
the head of the Aveis valley (a tributary of the Hintcr Rhine,
Grisons), while the lowest is Ascona (^66 ft), on the Lago
Maggiore and just south-west of Locarno.
According to the most recent calculations, the total area of
Switzerland is 15,951 sq. m. (some 2500 sq. m. less than that
of Servia). Of this 11,927-5 sq. m. (or 74-8%) are reckoned
as " productive," forests occupying 3,390-9 sq. m. and vine-
yards 108-7 sq. m., the remainder, or 84.37-7 sq. m., consisting
of arable and pasture land. Of the " unproductive "** area of
4023-5 sq. m (or 25-2%) much consists of lakes and rivers,
while glaciers cover 709*7 sq. m. Approximately the Alps occupy
one-sixtieth of this area, the Jura about one-tenth, and the
" plateau " the rest. Of the entire area the great cantons of the
Orisons, Bern and the Valais take up 741 1 -8 sq. m., or nearly one-
half, while if to them be added Vaud, Ticino and St Gall the
extent of these six (out of twenty-two) cantons is 10,527-6
sq. m., or almost two-thirds of the area of the Confederation.
Not included in the total area of Switzerland are three small
" enclaves " (4 sq. m. in all), BQsingen and Vercnahof (both in
Schaffhausen) belonging to Baden, while Campione (opposite
Lugano) is Italian. Switzerland borders on many countries —
France west and south-west, Italy south, Austria east (Tirol
and Vorarlberg), and Germany north (Bavaria, Wilrttemberg,
Baden and Alsace). Switzerland sends its waters to four great
river basins (which drain to three different seas) in the following
proportions: Rhine basin, 11,159 sq. m.; Rhone basin, 2768
sq. m.; Po basin, 1361 sq. m.; and Inn basin, 663 sq. m.
The thirteen cantons which till 1798 formed the Confederation
arc all comprised in the Rhine basin, the ten oldest (t.e. all before
1500) being witKJn that of the Aar, and it was only after 1798 that
certain Romonsch-, French- and Italian-speakinz " allies " and
subject lands — ^with their river basins-^wcre tacked on to them.
. Most of the great Swiss rivers, being in their origin mere mountain
torrents, tend to overflow their banks, and hence much is required
and has been done to prevent this by embanking them, and regaining
arable land from them. So the Rhine (between Ragatz and the Lake
of Constance), the Rhone, the Aar, the Reufis: and in particular
we may mention the great work on the Linth (1807-1816) carried
out by Hans Konrad Escher, who earned by his success the surname.
of " \on der Linth," and on the Zihl near the lakes of Neuch&tel
and Btenne, while the diversion of the Kander from its function
with the Aar at Thierachem to a channel by which it flows-mto the
Lake of Thun was effected as early as 1714.
, There are very many lakes, large and small, in Switzerland. The
two most extensive, those of Geneva and of Constance, balance
each other, as it were, at the sonth-wcst and north-cast comers
of the land. . But neither of these is whollv Swiss, this distinction
being claimed by the next in size, that of Neuch&tel (92-4 sq. m'.),
the Lago Maggiore (partly Swiss only) coming next in the list, and
being tollowed by the wholly Swiss lakes of Lucerne and of Zurich.
Then come Lugano, Thun, Bienne, Zug, Brienz, Morat, the Walcnsee,
and Sempach isk sq* m.). These fourteen only are over 4 sq. m.
in extent. Eleven of ^ them are in the Rhine basin (also in that of
the Aar), two (Maggiore and Lugano) in that of the Po, and one
(Geneva) in that of the Rhone. There are no large lakes in the Swiss
portion of the Inn t»sin, the most extensive being that of Sils
Ui SQ< m.). Of the smaller lakes those best known to travellers are
the Daubensee (near the summit of the Gcmmi), the Ocschinensee
(at the foot of the BIQmlis Alp range) and the M&rjclensee, formed
by the damming up of the waters of the Great Atetsch glacier by
^ huge lateral moraine. Alpine tarns are innumerable.
Of the countless waterfalls in Switzerland those of the Rhine
(near Schaffhausen) have volume but not height, while the reverse
n the case in varying degrees with those of the Aar at the Handegg,
of the Reichrabach, of Pissevachc, and particularly of the Suubbach,
a mere thread of water falling clear of a cliff of great height.
There are said to be 1077 glaciers in Switzerland, but it is really
impossible to estimate the number accurately, as practically all
are now in retreat, and it is not easy to say whether an isolated
fragment of ice is or is not entitled to rank as an independent glacier.
From them flow all the more important Swiss rivers and streams.
Yet their distribution is verv unequal, for eleven cantons (just
one-half of the Confederation) have none. The Valais heads the
list with 375 sq. m., then come the Grisons (138-6), Bern (111-3),
Uri (44-3), Clams (13-9) and Ticino (i3*«). The five others (Unter-
walden. Vaud, St Gall, Schwyz and Appensell) boast of 13-3 all
together. The three longest glaciers in the Alps are all m the
great northern outlier (not in the main chain] — the Great Alctsch
(16^ m.), the Fieschcr and the Unteraar (each 10 m.). In the main
Cham the Gomer (9I m.) is the longest. Of glaciers covering an
area of over 6 aq. m. no fewer than 17 are in Switzerland, as against
two each in the French portion of the chain of Mont Blanc and in
the Eastern Alps.
Forests cover 21*3% (3390*99 sq. m.) of the toul aiea of
Switzerbnd. Of the six most extensive cantons five are also at the
head in the matter of forests: Bern (591 sq. m.). the Grisons (503),
Ticino (267-2). St Gall (157)
j8o*8) and Aareau (172), wfiflc
the only other cantons with over 100 sq. m. are Lucerne (120*4).
Vaud (320), the Valais (297-4) and Ticino (267-2).
ranks in this reelect after ZQrich (i8o*8) and Aaii
the only other cantons with over 100 sq. m. are 1 ,___ ,,.
Fribourg (119) and Soleufe (111*3), the lowest place being Uken
by Geneva (9-9). By far the greater jjart (67%)-. of the forest
area belongs to the communes or private corporations, while
28-5% is in the hands of private individuals (much of this having
become private property in the time of Napoleon L), but only 4*5%
is in the hands of the state, in consequence of the suppression
of many monasteries. The communes own 04-^% of the forest
area in the Valais, private individuals 78-8% in Lucerne, and the
state 16% in Schaffhausen. Schaffhausen and the Jura cantons
are the most wooded in proportion to their area, while at the other
end of the scale are the towns of Geneva and Basel, and tibe barren
canton of Uri. The great floods of 1834. 1852 and 1868 drew
attention to the hegligent administration of the forests, considered
specially as a protection against damage due to the forces of nature.
A forestiy department was created ui the polytechnic school in
ZQrich when it was opened in 1855. The Federal Constitution of
1874 (art. 24) handed over to the Confederation the overught of
the forests " m the high mountains.** this being interpreted to mean
the Alps with their spurs, but not to include the Jura, and a law of
1876 was enacted to carry out this task. In 1897 the limitation
mentioned above was struck out. so that the Confederation now has
oversight of all forests within its territory, a law of 1902 regulating
in detail the whole subject. Since 1876 much has been done,
either directly by the Confederation or indirectly by subudizing the
efforts of the cantons, to reafforest districts where the trees had
been recklessly cut down, and to ensure the proper administration
of forests generally.
Geology. — The greater part of Switzerland is occupied by the
belts ofiolded rock which constitute the Alps and the Jura (g.».).
The central plain, however, is covered by neariy undisturbed
deposits of Oligocene and Miocene age, concealed in many places
by glacial, alluvial aifd other accumulations of Later date. Bol^
the Oligocene and the Miocene beds are, for the most part, of fresh-
water or brackish-water origin, but the^ middle of the Miocene
scries is formed of marine deports. During this period an arm of
the Mediterranean spread up the valley of the Rhone. It reached
its maximum extension during the middle portion of the Miocene
period, when it appears to have stretched continuously along the
outer border of the Alps from the present Golfe du Lion into Austria ;
but at an earlier and a later date it was represented in Switzeriand
only by a series of bracki&h-water lagoons or fresh-water lakes.
Climate. — In Switzerland, where the height above sea-level ranges
from 581 ft. (Lago Maggiore) to 1^.217 ft. (Monte Rosa), we naturally
find very many climates, from the regions of olives, vines, oaks and
beeches, pines and firs, to those of the high mountain pastures,
rhododendrons, and of eternal snow. It has been reckoned that,
while in Italian Switzerland winter lasts only three months, at
Glarus (1578 ft.) it lasts four, in the Engadine (^45 to 3406 ft.) nx,
on the St Gotthard (6936 ft.) eight, on the Great St Bernard (81 1 1 ft.)
nine, and on the St Tn^odule Pass (10,899 ft.) practically always.
The hiffhest mean annual temjperature (S3* F.) in Switzerland is
naturally that.at Lugano (909 ft.), while at Bevers (5610 ft., Upper
Engadine) the lowest mean temperature in winter is -14* F.,
but the highest in summer is 77** F., an immense difference.
At Montrcux the annual mean is 50*, at Sion, Basel, Geneva and
Coire about 49*, at Zttrich 48*, at Bern and Lucerne 47*5*, at St
Gall 45*, at Davos 37-5*, at Sils-Maria 34-5*, and on the Great St
Bernard 29**. Of course many factors, sueh as the shape of the
ground, the sheltered position of the place, the degree of exposure
to sunshine, counterbalance thf mere height at wfiich the town is
situated.
The snow-clad Alps of course have, the heaviest rain- or snow-fall
in Switzerland, this being estimated at 89-7 in. per annum. ' The
Srcatest actually recorded rainfall (87-3 in.) was on the San Bernar-
ino Pass (6769 ft.), while the lowest (21-7 in.) was at Sicrre (1767 ft.,
Valais). At Lugano the average annual rainfall is 65-4 in., on the
Great St Bemaid 48-7 in., at Lucerne 45-6 in.i at Montreux 42-6 in.,
at Sils-Maria 17 in., at Bern and Davos 366 in., and at Basel, Coire
and Geneva about 32*7 in. It has been shown by careful observa-
tions that the rain- or anow>-£all is greatest as we approach the Alps,
whether from the north or the south, the flanks 01 the great ranges
and the valleys opening out towards the plains receiving much more
rain than the high Alpine valleys enckned on all sides by k>fty
ridgfli. Thunderstorms generally vary in frequency with the
amount of rainfall, being most common near the great ranges, and
often very kxal. The floods caused by excessive rainfall are some-
times very destrucrive, as in 1834. 1852 and 1868, while the same
cause leads to bndslips. of which the roost remarkable have been
those of the Rossberg above GoUau (1806). at Evionnas (183$) and
at Elm (1 88 1 ). The Fohn (q.v.) is the most remarkable local wind. |
For all these reasons Switzerland has many varieties of climate;
and, while, owing to the distribution of the rainfall, the Ticino and
n
U
n
of
ih,
»t
41 i
•5 c
i
lot
^"
PEOFLEI
Aar valleys are very fertile, the two gie^t trenches between the main
chain and ita north outlier, though warm, are less pcxxluctive, as the
water comes from the rivers anaoot from the skies.
J*eopU.—The first estimate of the population of Switxerbuid
with any pretence to accuracy was that of 1817, which put the
number at 1,687,900. The first regular census took place In
1836 to 1838, but was therefore not synchronous, while it wias
also not very systematic — the number was put at 2,190,258.
That of 1850 was better otsanized, while in i860 the census
was declared decennial, a sUght alteration being made as to
that of 1888 for practical reasons. The following was the
number of the population usually resident (the number of those
actually present was also taken, but all detailed subdivisions
refer o^y to the residents): in 1850, 2,393,740; in x86o, 2,510,494;
in 1870, 2*655,001; in 1880, 2,831,787; in x888, 2,9x7,754; and
in X900, 3,3 1 5,443- The density per square mile was as
follqws: X50 in 1850; 157 »« »86o; 159 in 1870; 177 in
x88o; 182 in 1888; and 207 in X900. The increase in the
whole of the co)untry from 1850 to 1900 was 39%. Thirteen
cantons showed an increase lower than this average, the lowest of
all being Aargau, Glanis and Lucerne; while in Bern the increase
of the towns did not co!4pterbalance the diminution in the
country districts. The nine cantons which increased above
the average rate did so cither owing to spiecial drcum'stances
{e.g. the construction of the Simplon railway in the Valais),
or because their industries were very flourishing (e.g. St Gall),
or because they contain great towns (e.g. Zurich). The highest
rates of increase were shown by Geneva (107% increase) and
the half canton of Urban Basel (378% increase). As to the
actual distribution of the population, the Alpine regions are
the sparsest generally (with the exception of the Outer Rhodes
of Appenzell), the Jum region has a much higher ratio, wUle
the densest region of all is the Swiss plateau. The strong
attraction of the towns-Is shown by the facts that between 1850
and Z900 the population of the nineteen largest nearly tripled,
while, in 1900, of the 187 " political districts " in SwiUserland
41 showed a decrease, and they were all exclusively rural.
The shifting of the popuhtton within the country is also proved
when we note that in looo but 38'5 % of the Swiss cittscns inhabited
their commune of birtn, though the proportion was 64% in 1850.
If we consider the different cantons, we find that in 190P 31*5%
(in 1850 but 26*4%) lived in another commune within their canton
of birth, while i8'4% (as aEatnst ^'6% in 1850) dwelt in a canton
other- than their canton of birth. To sum up, in 1850, out of the
as cantons and half cantons, no fewer than 21 had a majority of
citizens living in their commune of birth, while in 1900 the number
was but II, and those all rural cantons. Of the 316k cwmmunet (or
civil parishes) in Switrerland. only 21 in 1900 had a population
exceeding 10.000, while 20 had under 50 inhabitants. If we look
at the height of the communes above the sea-level, we find that there
were but 3 (with a populatkm of 463 souls) above 1900 metres
(2953 ft.), while 68 (with a total population of 188.394) were below
300 metres (984 ft.)* The number of inhabited houses rase from
347*3^7 in i860 (the number was not taken in 1850) to 434,084 irt
1900, while that of separate households mounted from 485,087
io 1850 (528. IQS ui i860) to 728,920 in 1900.
The wm-Stoiss element of the population increased from 3% in
{850 to ii'6% in IQ00, and its number from 7i>S70 In 1850 to
383,424 in IQOO. The Germans are the moet numerous, next in
order come Italians, French and Austrians. In 1900 there were
3535 British subjects resident to Switzerland, and 1559 citizens of
the United States. Of courae most of the non>SwisB are found in
the towns, or in rural distrieta wbere any great railway jine is being
constructed
The emigration of Swiss beyond seas was but 1691 in 1877. though
it rote in 1883 to 13,502 (the maximum as yet attained). Then the
number fdl pretty steadily till 1899 (2493), then rose agaui, and in
1906 was 5296. About 89% go to the United States, and about
6% to the Argentine Republic (mainly from the French-neaking
cantons). Bern, Zurich. Tidno, the town of Basd and St Gall are
the chief cantons which furnish emigrants.
In the matter of rdigioHt the ProtestanU formed 99*3% in i8^
and %7'S % in 1900, and the Roman Catholics (indwling the " Chris-
tian '^' or " Old " Catholks, who arose in 1874) ^6% and 41 '6%
respectively, while the Jews increased from 1 % m 1850 to 4% in
1900— the remainder (other religk>ns or none) being 2 % in i860
<not reckoned separately in 18^) and in 1900. Ten and a half
cantons have a majority of Protestants, while in the rest the
*' Catholics " have the upper hand. The same proportion prevailed
in 1850. save that then Geneva had a Protesunt majority, whereas
SWITZERLAND
241
in 1870 already the balance had diifted, ooiiag to the nnmber of
immigrants from France and luly.
As to laf^uages habitually spoken, Switzerland pccaents a very
vari<^ated picture. By the Federal Constitutions of 1848 (art. 109)
and 1874 (art. ti6), German, French and Italian are recognized as
" national lansuages," so that debates in the Federal parliament
may be carried on in any of the three, while Federal laws, decrees,
&C.. appear also in the three. The old historical dialects of Romonsch
and Ladin (nearly confined to the canton of the Orisons, q.v.) enjoy
no political recognition by the Confederation, are largely maintained
by artificial means in the shape of societies founded for their preserva-
tbrf, and are not even in the maiority (which b German) in the Ori-
sons. Of the other 2 1 cantons, all have a Germao-speakinf majority
save 6 — French prevails in Fribourg, Vaud, the Valais, Neuch&td
and Geneva, and Italian in Ticino. Since the census of 1880, when
detailed inquiries as to language were made for the first time, there
has been a certain amount of ahifting. as is shown by the following
figures. German was spoken by 71*3 of the population in 1880, by
71-4 in 1888 and by 69*8 in 190a; the figures for French are
respectively 2i'4, 21 '8 and 22, and for Italian 5-7. 5*3 and 67.
while Romonsch fell from 1*4 to 1-3 and x-2 %. *' Other languages "
were 2, 2 and 3 %. Thus in 1900 there were neariv 70% of German-
spealdng
the Rom
„ persons, a» against nearly 30% who spoke one or other of
the Romance tongues. The most interesting cases arc the cantons
of.Fribourg (q.v.) and the Valais (^.v.), in which French is advancing
at the expense of German.
Chief PolUical Divisions and Tifwns. — ^When considering
Switzerland it must never be forgotten that, strictly speaking,
the only political "divisions" are the 187 "districts" into
which the cantons are divided (Bern has 30, Vaud 19 and St
Gall 15, no others having over 15). These are administrative
districts, created for political purposes. The cantons themselves
are not " divisions " but sovereign states, which have formed an
alliance for certain purposes, while they are built up out of the
3164 " communes," which are really the political units. Of
the 22 cantons,^ 3 are subdivided — Unterwalden (from before
1291) into Obwalden and Nidwalden, and Appenzell (since
1597) into the Outer Rhodes and the Inner Rhodes, while Basel
(since 1S33) forms urban Basel (the city) and rural Basel (the
country districts). The Swiss political capital is Bern (by virtue
of a Federal law of 1848), while the Federal Supreme Tribunal
is (since its foundation in 1874) at Lausanne, and the Federal
Polytechnic School (since it was opened in 1855) at Zurich.
In 1900 there were 19 towns in Switzerland which had a population
exceeding 10,000 souls, all having increased very much within the
«> previous years. The following are the six largest, the figures
tor 1850 being enclosed within brackets: ZOrich, 150.703 (35<483):
Basel. 109,161 (27,844); Geneva, 104,796 (42.127), Bern, 64,227
(27.558) : Lausanne. 4^732 (17^108). and La Chaux de Fonds, 35.968
(;3*659>' Thus Geneva was first m 1850. but only third in 190a
Thirteen of these nineteen towns are cantonal capitals, though
La Chaux de Fonds, Winterthur. Bienne, Tablat (practically a
suburb of St Gall). Le Locle and Vevey are not, while no fewer than
twelve cantonal capitals (Sion, BelUnzona, Aarau, Altdorf, Schwyz,
Frauenfcld, Glarus. Uestal. Sameo, Stans, Appenzell and Ziig) are
below this limit. It is rockcmed that while the is| Swiss towns having
over 10.000 inhabitants had in 1850 a population of 255.722, that
number had swollen in 1900 to 742,205.
Commwiications. — ^Tbe carriage roads of Switzerland were
much improved and increased in number after a strong Federal
government was set up in 1848, for it largely subsidized
cantonal undertakings. In the course of the X9th century
many splendid roads were carried over the Alpine passes, whether
within or leading from Swiss territory; in the latter case with
financial aid from lUly (or till 1859 AusUia, as the mistress of
the Milanese).. The earliest in date was that over the Sim{don
( 1 800-1 807), while others were opened respectively over the
Furka (7992 ft.) in 1867, lo the lop of the Groat St Bernard
(81x1 ft.) in 1893, over the Grimsel (7100 ft.) in 1895, and over
the Klaunen Pass (6404 ft.) fax 1900. The highest caniage road
entirely within Switzerland is that over the Umbrail Pass
(8342 ft.), opened In X90X, and leading from the Swiss uppex
Manstcr valley to close to the Stelvio,
The first Swiss lake over which a steamer piled regularly was
that of Geneva (1823), followed by Constance (1824), Lago Mag-
giore (1826), NeuchAtel (X827), Thun (1835), Lucerne (x83s) and
<The cantons aie— Aatgau, Appenzell. Basel, Bern. Fribounc.
Geneva, Glarus, Orisons, Lucerne. NeuchAtel. St Gall, ScKal*^<
Schwyz. Soleure. Thurgau. Ttctno. Unterwalden, Uii, ^
Zuf . iikrkh (see separate artides).
242
SWITZERLAND
in this industry was rather over A 1,000,000 (as against £20.750,000
and £i2,7«>,ooo respectivdy). In 1905 there were in Switzerland
Brieos (i&i^). The first railway opened withb Switxerland waa
that (14 m. long) from Zurich to Baden in Aargau (1847), though
the S^ms bit of that from Basel to Strassburg had been opened
in 1844. From 1852 to 1872 the cantons granted concessions
for the building of railways to private companies, but from
Z872 onwards the conditions were other and the lines were con-
structed under Federal supervision. In the 'fifties and 'sixties
many lines were built, but not always according to sound finan-
cial principles, so that in 1878 the great " National Railway "
became bankrupt. Hence the idea of the state purchase of the
chief lines made considerable progress, so that in 1898 such a
scheme was accepted by the Swiss people. Accordingly in
1901 most of the great lines became Fedeml railways, and the
Jura-Simplon in 1903, while the Gotthard line became Federal
in 1909. This state ownership only applies to the main lines,
not to the secondary lines or to the mountain cog-wlieel railways
(of which the first was that from Viiznau up the Rigi, 1871)
now so widespread throughout the country. The highest point
as yet attained in Switzerland by a mountain railway is the
Eismeer station (10,371 ft.) of the line towards the Jungfrau.
Many tunnels have been pierced through the Swiss Aips» such
as the St Gotthard (1882), the Albula (1903) and the Simplon
(1906). The highest line carried over a Swiss pass is that over
the Little Scheidegg (6772 ft.).
Industries.— a. Of the Land.^ If we look ^t the annua! turnover
there is no doubt that the principal Swiss mdustiy is that of the
entertainment of foreign visitors, for its gross receipts are larger
than those of any other branch. It appears from the official statis-
tics that in 1905 its gross receipts amounted to rather over £7.500,000
(as against about M.500.000 m 1894, ^^ rather over £2,000.000 in
1S80), the net profit being nearly £1,500.000 (as against £656,000
and nearly £300,000 respectively), while in 1905 the capital invested
• -•• indi ' ' '
i92^''botelir (of which 402 were in 6cni and 358 in the Orisons)
specialty built for the accommodation of foreign visitors, containing
124.068 beds, and employing 33480 servants (the numbers for
1894 and 1880 are 1693 and ioos« 88,634 and 58,137, and 23,997
and r6,022 respectively). Part of diis increase b due to the fashion
of visiting Switzerland in winter for skating, tobogganing, skiing. &c.
Of the actual ** productive " 80U about two-thirds is devoted
to arable or pasturage purposes, but the latter branch is by far
the more important, occupying about 83% of this two-thirds,
for Switzerland b much more a pastoral than an agricultinad
country. In 1906 the number 01 'cattle ivas officially put at
1497,904 (as against i,340.375 in 1901 and 993.291 »n «866).
In summer thoy are supported on the numerous mountain pastures
or" alps" (see Alps, 2>, which number 4778, and are of an
estimated capital value of rather over £3.000,000, whfle in winter
they are fed on the hay mown on the tower meadows or purchased
from outside. Two main breeds of cattle are found in Switzer*
land, the dun race (best represented by the cattle of Schwyc)
and the dappled race (of which the Simme valley beasts are of the
red and white kind, and those of the Gniydre of the black and white
variety). Th6 best Swi*» cheeses are those of the Emmenthal and
of the Gruy^re, while the two principal condensed milk factories
(Nestii at Vevey and that at Cham) are now united. It shouM be
noted that the proportion of the land devoted to pastoral pursuits
increases, like the rainfall, from the west and north-west to the east
and north-cast, so that it is highest (nearly 90%) in Appcnzell and
St Gall. As regards other domemic animals, the number of swine
increased from 304428 in 1866 to 566,974 in 1896 (the maximum
recorded), but in 1906 fell to 548,355- The number of goats has
remained pretty steady (359.913 m 1906 to 375.482 in 1866, the
maximum, 416,323, being attained in 1886). but that of vheep has
decroaaed from 447,001 in 1866 to 209443 in tQ06.
It ts stated that but 14 % of the " productive 'area of Switzerland
b coro*growinfl, thb proportion lx»ng however doubled in Vaud.
Hence for its food supply the country is largely dependent on its
imports, the home supply sufficin^r for 153 days only. Tobacco is
grown to a certain extent, especially near IHiyerne in the Broye
valley (Vaud) and in Ticino, while more rocently bcetrocrt has been
cultivated for the purpose of manufacturing sugar. Fruit and
vegetables are made into jams and concentrated foods at Lenzburg
and Kemptthal. white kirscfavasser (cherry brandy) is made in Zug.
Forests cover about 28I % of the " productive " area of Switzerland.
They are now well cared for, and produce considerable piDfits.
Vineyards in Switzerland now cover 1087 m^. m., though the area
is steadily decreasing owing to the competition of foreign cheap
wines. The only cantons which have over 10% of their area thus
irianted are Vaud (25%), Ticino <30%). Zlirich (17 %) and the Valais
(to-7 %). Amon^ the best Swiss wines are those of La C6te. Lavaux
And Yvorne (all in Vaud), and Muscat. Fcndant and Vin du Glacier
Call in the Valais). Thosie grown near Neuchfttcl. at the nortbera
(INDUSTRIES
eod.of tbe' lake of Zaikh, near Baden (Aargau). and atong the Swisa
bank of the Rhine, are locally much esteemed*
Among the raw mineral products of Switzerland the most impor-
tant is asphalt, which b worked by an English company in the Val
de Travers ^Neuch&tel). Various metals (even inciudine gold and
silver) exbt m Switzerland, but are hardly worked at all, save iron
(Delimont), copper (Val d Annivicrs) and argentiferous lead (Lbts-
chenthal). True coal b wholly absent, but lignites occur here and
there, and are sometimes %'Orlced {e.g. at KJtpfnach. ZOrich). An-
thracite b found in the Valais, while peat b worked la many parts.
Salt waa first found at Bex (Vaud) in 1544. and the mines are still
worked. But far more important are the saline deposits along the
Rhine, from near Basel to Coblenz (at the junction of the Rhine and
the Aar), which were discovered at Schweiaerhall in the year 1836.
at Kaiscraugst in 1844, at Rheinfelden in 1845 and at Rybucg in
1848. Marble, sandstone and granite are worked in various spots
for building purposes.. Marl, clay and limestone are also found,
and are much used for the manufacture of various kinds of cement.
There are said to be 620 mineral q>rings in Switxerland, the best
known being those at Baden in Aargau and at Schinznacb (both
sulphur), Schuls-Tarasp and St Montz, Stachclberg, Ragatz and
Pf&fers, Leukerbad and Weissenbuig. The most important slate
quarries are those In the canton of Oiarus. The relative importance
of the Swiss industries conoemed with the bnd b best shown by the
census taken in 1900 as to the occupations of the inhabiunts. No
fewer than i,035.oro (about one-third of the total population) were
engaged in pastoral or agricultural pursuits, as against 19,334
employed in market gardening. i8,25i in various matters touching
the forests. 12.785 in the vineyards and 12,323 in extracting mtnerab
(of these 8004 were employed in stone or nurole quarries).
b. IfaHu/aciures. — ^The same census also shows the relative
importance of the chief branches of manufacture in Switzerland —
textile industries 270.114 (of which 88.457 were in the silk branch
and 63,853 in that of cotton), watchmaking 115,617, embroidery
89,558, boides 74.148 engaged in the manufacture of machinery.
Eastern Switzerland is the industrial portion of the land, though
watchmaking and some minor industries are carried on in the Jura.
The textile industries ^rc by far the most important in Switzerland,
ZQrich and its neighbourhood being the mam centre both for silk
(this branch was revived by the Protestant exiles from Italy in the
l6th century) and cotton, while St Gall. Appenzell and ThurKau
are mainly devoted to embroidery, and Basel to the silk ribbon and
floss silk departments. The watchmaking industry has been estab-
Ibhed in Geneva since the end of the 16th century, and spread in the
eariy i8th century to the Neuchfttel portion of the Jim (centre La
Chaux de Fonds and Le Locle). Musical boxes are chiefly made at
Ste Croix in the Vaud section of the Jura, while Geneva is famous for
its jewelry and goldsmiths' work. The growth of the manufacture
of machines b much mOTO recent, having originally been a mere
adjunct of the textUe industry, and developed in order to secure
its independence of imports from Eneland. Its centres are in and
around ZQricb. Wintorthur, Sc Call and BaseL Among other
products and industries are chocolate (Suchard, Cailler, Spranglt,
Tobler, Peter, Maestraoi, &c.). sboemaking (Schdnenwerd). straw
plaiting (Aargau and Gruy^re), wood carvins (Brienz in the Bernece
Oberland since 1825). concentrated soups and meats (M<iggt*s factory
is at Kemptthal near Winterthur), aniline dyea (Basel), aluminium
(Neuhauaen in Schalfhausen).
CMMiAVtf.x-Switzerland is naturally adapted for free trade
for it depends on the outside worid for much of ito food-ttuffs and
the raw materials of its manufactures. After the adoption of the
Federal Constitution of 1848, customs duties within the land were
abolished, while moderate duties only were levied on imports, the
sum increasing as the articles came more or less within the category
of luxuries, but being lowest qn necessaries of life. Down to 1670
Switzerland was all but entirely on the skie of free trade.. Since
that time it has been becoming more and more proteetionist. This
change was due in part to the increased tariffs levied in Germany
and France, and in part to the strong pressure exereised by certain
branches of the Striss manufacturing induslries, whUe treaties of
commerce have been made with divem countries. Hence in 1903
the Swiss people adopted the principle of a 'greatly increaiod scale
of duties, the detaileo tariff of the actual sums levied on the various
articles coming into force on the 1st of January 1906. These
higher duties were meant to serve as a weapon for obtauning better
terms itt future comraercbl treaties, but were .finally increased still
more at the instigation of certain of the great manufacturers, ao chat
Switzeriand became decidedly a protectionist country. In ipoi
the receipts from the customs duties were about £1,858.000, while
in J905 they were £2.541 .000, and in 1907 rather more (1^,894,000).
Excluding goods in transit, the totsu value of imports rose from
about £36,500.000 in 189c to about £55*000,000 ia 1905, while
between the same dates the. exports itise from about £26,500^000
to £^8.750,000— in other words, the unfavourable balance of trade
had increased from j[ro.ooo.6oo in iB^$ to £16,250,000 in 1905.
The increase during the same period in the caie of the four great
articles of export from Switzerland was as folbws: silk from nearly
£8.50O/KX> to rather over £10.000,000. embroideries from nearly
iLlxxXKOOo to isfioofioo, watches from £3.500.000 to is^y>jui»,
and machinery from rather under £1,000,000 to £2.2y>,ooo.
(
GOVERNMENT]
Gt^emmmtr^Thc Swbs Cimfederttioii moat be etrefully
distinguished from the 22 cantons of which it is composed, and
which are sovereign states, save in so far as they have given up
their rights to the Federal government. These cantons them-
sdvct are built up of many political communes, or Gemcinden,
or dvil parishes, which are the real political units of the country
(and not merely .local subdivisions); for any one desiring to
become naturalised a Swiss must first become (by purchase or
grant) a member of a commune, and then, if his burghership
of the commune is confirmed by the cantonal authorities, he
obtains also, simultaneously, both , cantonal and Federal
dtiaenship.
«. Now in Switserland there ^are 3164 pdUicai eomtmtnes
{munkipalUis or Eimaohntrgemdnden). Tliese are composed
of all xnak Swiss citizens over twenty years of age, of good
character.and resident in the commune for at least three months.
The meeting of these persons is ca&ed the assembUe ^iniralt or
Gemmidtvenammiung, while the executive council chosen by
it is the coiual municipal or Cemeiudaat, the chief person in
tbe oonunune (eleaed.by the larger meeting) being termed the
tjndic or moirtt the GmmndefrSsideni or the Gemeindeofitmann.
This kind of commune includes all Swiss residents (hence the
German name) within its territorial limits, and has practically
all powers of management of local affairs, including the carrying
•out of cantonal and Federal Uws or decrees, save and except
^batters relating to the pastures and forests held in common.
This class of commune dates only from the time of the Helvetic
republic (x 798^1803), and its duties were largely increased after
the Uberal movement of 1830; the care of the highways, the
police, the schoob, the administration of the poor law being
successively handed over to it, so that it became a political body.
A» icg^tfds Swiss citizens belonging to cantons other than that
in which they reside, the Federal Constitution of 1848 (art. 41)
gave them rights of voting there in cantonal and Federal matters,
but not in those relating exclusively to the commune itself.
The Federal Constitution of 1874 (art. 43) gives to such persons
as those named, above {isUUis or NiedergHasseuen—tha.t is,
permanent settlers) all voting rights, Federal, cantonal and
communal (save as below), the two last named after a stay of
three months. Temporary residents being Swiss citizens
(i.g. labourers, servants, students, ofllidals not being communal
officials) are called risidents or AufenthaUeTf and are in most
cantons considered to be as such incapable of voting in communal
natters until after a residence of three months, though some
cantons require a longer sojourn. Foreign residents are induded
under this class of Avfenthalter.'
The hur^lt€r commiaus (communes bourgeoises or BirurgtmeindeH),
DOW prinapally of ^ historical interestt naving for the most part
gradually merged with tbe other class of communes, were originally
simply uic communities that dealt with the management of the
"lands subject to common user" or AUmend (mainly summer
pastures and foresu)^ but gradually obtained, by purchase or other*
vise, the manorial rights, the bui^here then being theniselves the
lords of the manor (as at Brizham in Devonshire). But when after
tbe Reformation, owing to the supprcBsion of the monasteries, the
care of the poor was imposed bv the Federal Diet, in 1551, on the
several communes, these aaturally aided only their own members,
a course which gave rise to a " communal buighersh^ " a system
designed to prevent persons from gaining a ** settlement " in any
commune to which they did not properly belong. Thus all non-
burgher residents, pervaamnt or temporary, were excluded from
any share in the enjoyment of the lands subiect to common user,
or in their management, and remained corojpfetc outsiders, though
payins local rates. VVIch the increased (aciiiiies of communication
and the rise of a shifting industrial population such restrictions
became invidious and unfair, particubrly after the introduction,
under the Helvetic republic, of a FederM citijiens^ip. superidr to
cantonal citizenship, and after the communes became more and more
burdened with public duties, so that the amount of the rates equalled,
if it did not exceed, the sums produced by the " commcm lands."
To avoid some of these inconveniences "political communes"
were srt up. consisting practically of all Swiss permanent residents.
But tbe relation between these and the old Biirgergemeinden (the
burghers of which only have rights of user over tlw conmoo lands)
was very delicate, and has been settled (if settled at all) in various
fashions. In some cases the older communes simply mereed with
the newer, the ownership of the common lands thus pasttng from
one to the other dass. In other cases tbe BurgffgemeimiUm still
SWITZERLAND
eadst as distinet frm
purposes (enjoyment,
lands, and thus form a sort
»43
but soMy for
&c) fdaring to the common
privileged commumtv inside tbe larger
and now more generally important community, fn some cases Hie
Common lands have been oivided in varying proportions between
the two classes of communes, the Bi^gtrgemeinden thus continuing to
exist soldy as regards that part of the common lands which they have
reuined. In other cases toe common lands, whether before or after
1798. have passed into the possession of a small number of the
burghers, who form a close corporation, tbe revenues of which are
enioycd by the members as sudi, and not as citisens~in short are
subject to BO public obtiflatioas or burdens save rates and taxes.
b. The twenty-lwo cantons (three are subdivided—TTnter-
waklcn, Appenzel! and Basel — ^Into two halves) are divided into
" administrative districU " (187 in number), whkh are ruled by
prefects, in the French fashion, appointed by tbe cantonal autho-
rities. These are the true local divisions in the cotmtry. Each
camon has its own leg»1ature, executive and judictary. The
older cantonfr have in sohie cases (Uri, Unterwalden, Appenzell
and Glarua) preserved -thdr ancient democratk assemMies (or
Landesgemeinden), in which each burgher appears in person,
and which usually meet once a year, on the last Sunday in April
Of the first Sunday in May, always (weather permitting) in the
open air. These annual assemblies elect annually a sort of
standing committee, aiid also the chief ma^trate or Latidam"
mann, as well as the judiciary. In the other dghteen cantons
the legisUtture (Gross Xat or graiui cotutitj is composed of
representatives chosen by the cantonal voters in proportion,
varying in each canton, to the population. They are thus local
parhamcnts rather than mere county coimdla. The executive
(Regierwtgsrai or c^^isefl d'tM) {s elected everywhere (save
Fribourg, the Valais and Vaud) by a popular vote, this plan
having gradually superseded election by the cantonal legislature.
All the cantons (save Fiibourg) have the leferendum and
initiatfve, by which the ^ectois can cxeidse control over their
elected representatives. The cantonal judiciary is chosen by
the people.
«. In 1848 the Pedtrai gntmwieni was Tootganized according
to the plan adopted in the United States, at any rate so far as
regards the/r^'sio/ure {Bundesversammiung or assembliefidirale\.
This is composed of two houses: (x) the Stdnderal or cotueil
des UatSf to which each canton, gieat or small, sends two repre-
sentatives (generally cboseo for varying terms by the people,
but, in- 1007, still by the cantonal legislature in Bern, Fribourg,
Ncuch&tel, St Gall, the Valais and Vaud), this house bdng like
the American Senate; (2) the NaiiaHolrat or gonscU national^
composed of representatives (at present 167 in otmiber) elected
within the cantons in the proportion of i to every 20,000 (or
fraction over 10,000) of the population, and holdhig office for
three years, before the expiration of which it cannot bedissolved.
The two houses are on an abeolutdy equal footing, and bills
are introduced into one or the other simply because of reasons
of practical convenience. The Federal parliament meets, at
least, once a year, in Bern, the Federal capitaL The Federal
execuSivo (Bnndesrat or conseii fidiral) was set up in 1848 and
is composed of seven members, who are elected for three years
by the two houses of the Federal legislature, silling together
as a congress, but no two members may belong to the same canton.
The Federal parliament atmually names the pitsident iBundes*
prSzident or prisident de la eonfidiration) and the vice-president,
so that the former is really but the chairman of a committee,
and not in any way like the American president. The Federal
president always holds the fordgn portfolio (the "political
department "), the other portfoGcs being anntially redistributed
among the other members, but all decisions proceed from the
counck as • whole. The Federal councilloa cannot he at the
same time members of either hdose of the Federal parliament,
though they may speak or introduce motions (but not vote)
in either house. The Federal Supreme Court (Bundesgericbf
or tribunal Jid^al) was created by the Federal Constitution
of 1874 and is (since 1004) composed of 19 full members (plus
9 substitutes), all elected by the two houses of the Federal
parliament, sitting together and holding ofTicc fo' «•• «— «"
the Federal parliament also elects every two year
244
SWITZERLAND
and vice-president of the Federal tribunal. Its scat is at
Lausanne. Its jurisdiction extends to disputes between the
Confederation, the cantons, and private individuals, so far as
these differences refer to Federal matters. An appeal lies in
some cases (not too clearly distinguished) to the Federal council,
and in some to the two houses of the Federal legislature sitting
together. As to the referendum and initiative (whether as
to the revision of the constitution or as to bills) see REFESENDinc
It was natural that, as thelnembers of the Swiss 0>nfedera-
tion were drawn closer and doser together, there should arise
the idea of a Federal code as distinguished from .the manifold
cantonal legal systems. The Federal Constitution of 1874
conferred on the Federal authorities the power to legislate on
certain defined legal subjects, and advantage was taken of this
to revise and codify the Law of Obligations (iSSx) and the Law
of Bankruptqr (1889). The success of these attempts led to the
adoption by the Swiss people (1898) of new constitutional
articles, extending the powers of the Federal authorities to the
other departments of civil law and also to criminal law. Drafts
carefully prepared by commissions of specialists were slowly
considered during nearly two years by the two houses of the
Federal parliament, which finally adopted the civil code on
the loth of December 1907, and it was expected that by 19x3
both a complete Federal civil code and a complete Federal
criminal code would come into operation.
Before 1848 there was scarcclv such a thing as Federal finances
for there was no strong central Federal authority. As the power
of those authorities increased, so naturally did their expenditure
and receipts. In 18^9 the receipts were nearly £2^0.000, as against
an expenditure of u6o,QOO. By 187^ each had risen to rather
over £1.250.000. while in 1883 they just overtopped £2,000.000
sterling each, and in 1900 the receipts were just over 74,000.000
steriing, as against an expenditure of nearly £4,000,000. The figures
for 1907 are £5.750.000 as against just over £5.500,000, and arc the
highest yet recorded. The funded Federal debt rose from a modest
£150,000 in 1849 to rather over £3.000.000 in 1891, and rather over
£4.000,000 in 1903, standing in 1905 at £3^50,000.
By the Federal Constitution of 1848 the post office was made a
Federal attribute, and the first Federal law on the subject was
passed in 1849 (postage stamps within the country in 1850, for
foreign lands in 1854, and post-cards in 1870), while a Federal law
- * ■ 1 this ■ -^^ • •
of 1851 extended tltis privilege to the electric telegraph, so that in
1852 the first line was opened with thirty*four offices. In the
Federal Constitution of 1874 both branches are declared to fall
within the jurisdiction of the Confederation, while in 1878 this
privilege Was extended to the newly invented telephone. Inviol-
ability of communications in all three cases is guaranteed.
In 1891 the Swiss people accepted the principle of a Jtete lank
with a monopoly 01 note iscue. A first scheme was reicctcd
by a popular vote in 1897, but a secood was more successful in
1905. The " Swisa National Bank *' was actually opened on
the 20th of June 1907, its two chief seats being at ZQrich
and at Bern. It has a capital of £2,000,000 sterling, divid^ into
100.000 shares. Two-fifths of this capital is re^ryed to the cantons
in proportion to their population in 1900, and two-fifths were taken
up by public subscription in 1u
was reserved to the existing thii
une 1906. The remaining fifth
founded between 1834 and 1900). which have hitherto enjoyed the'
right of issuing notes. It was sttipulated that within three ytan
ofthe opening of the National Bank all notes issued by these thirty-
six banks must be withdrawn, and many had by 1907 taken this
course in anticipation.
There is no " established Swiss Church " recognized by the Federal
Constitution, but there may be one or more " established churches "
in any canton. The Federal Constitution of 1874 guarantees full
religious liberty and freedom of worship, not being contrary to morals
and the public peace, as well as exemption from any compulsory
church rates (arts. 40 and 50). But it repeats with fresh pricks (art.
51). the provision of the Constitution 01 1848 by which the Jesuits
and all affiliated religious orders are forbidden to settle in Switzerland*
extending this prohibition to any other orders that may endanger
the safety of the state or the public peace. It also introduces a new
article (No. 52) forbidding the erection of new rriigious orden or
new monasteries or the re-establishment of old ones, and also a
new clause Out part of art. 50) by which the erection of new bishop>
ricson Swiss soil is subject to the approval of the Federal authorities.
The Jesuit article was due to the " Sondcrbund " War of 1847, and
the rest of this exceptional legislatkMi to the *' Kulturkampf which
raged in Switaniano In 1872-1874. The Protestants form rather over
throe-fifths of the population, but have the majority in io| of the
22 cantons only. In the German-speaking cantons tney are Zwin^;-
ILins, and in the French-speaking cantons Cnlvinists, though in
neither case of the original and orthpdox shade. The Protcsunts
(EDUCATION
alone are " established " in the Outer Rhodes of AppenacU; while
the Romanists alone are " established " in jk cantons (Lucerne,
Uri. Schwyz. Unterwalden, Zug, Ticino, the Valais. and the Inner
Rhodes of Appentell), but only jmncly in the 3 other cantons
(Fribourg. St Gall and Soieure) in which they are in a majority.
In June 1907 Geneva decided 00 the complete separation of cbuKb
and state, and now stands alone in Switzerland m not having any
" established church " at all (previously it had two— Protestants
and Christian Catholics). In the other 21 cantons, the Protestants
and Romanists are jointly " esteblished " in 1 1). as arc the Protes-
tants and the ChnsUan Catholics in li, in whkii the Christian
Catholics take the place of the Romamsts. Thus out of the 2X
cantons with ** established churches" {Landeskirchen or igtises
nalumaks) the ProtesUnts are solely or jointly " established " to
13I. and the Romanists in 19 (not in Bern, l/rban Basel and the
Outer Rhodes of AppenzcU), while the Christian Catholics are
recognized in 7 cantons, in two of which (Basel and Neuch&ul) they
are also " endowed." The case of Neuchfttel is particularly strikuig,
as it has three " established churches " (Protestants, KomanisU
and Christian Catholics), while there the Jewish rabbis, as well as
the ^asUurs of the Free Evangelical Church, areexempt from military
service. Be«des a few parishes in Bern there are also three " Evan*
Slical Free Churches *^(Egiises libres), viz. in Vaud (sunce 1847). in
^neva (sinoe 1848) and in Neuchfttel (since 1873). The Romanists
have five diocesan bishops in Switzerland — ^Sion (foundml in the 41^
century^. Geneva (4thGentury), Basel (ath century. but reorganized in
1828), Coire (5th century). Lausanne (6th century), and St Gall (till
1 824 part of the bishopric of Constance, and a separate sec since 1 847).
There are besides the sees of Lugano (erected in 1888 for Italian
Switzerland— till then in Mikin or Como->but united for the present
to the see of Basel, though administered by a suffragan bishop)
and Bethlehem (a see in iartibus, annexed in 1840 to the abbacy
of St Maurice in the Valais). The Christian Catholics (who resemble
the Old Catholics in Germany) split off from the Romanists in 1874
on the question of papal infallibility (In Bern and Geneva politics
also played a great part), and since 1876 have bad a bishop Of their
own (consecrated by the German Old Catholic. BialMp Reinkens).
who resides in Bern, but bears no diocesan title. The Christian
Catholics (who in the census are counted with the Romanists) are
strongest in Bern. Soieure and Geneva, while their number in I006
was estimated variously at from twenty to thirty-four thousaiM—-
they have 38 parishes (10 being in French-speaking Switzerland)
and some ^7 pastors. There arc still a few monastenes in Switzer-
land which nave^ escaped suppression. The principal are the
Benedictine houses of Disentis (founded in the 7th century by the
Irish monk Sigisbert).Einsiedeln ($.».; loth century) and Engetberg
(o.v.; 12th century) as well as the houses of Austin Canons at St
Maurice (held by them since 1 128. though the house was founded by
Benedictines in the 6th century) and on the Great St Bernard
(nth century).
£rfai«a/»o».-'Education of all arsdes is well cared for in Switzeiv
land, and large sums are annually spent on it by the cantons and
the communes, with substantial grants from the Confederation
(these Ust in 1905 were about £224.000). so far as regards primary
and higher education. Four classes of educational establishmenta
exist.
a. In the case of the primary edvcalxon^ the Confederation has
the oversight (Federal Constitution of 1874, art. 27), but the cantons
the administration. It is laid down that in the case of the public
primary schools four principles must be observed by the cantons:
the instruction given must be sufficient, it must be under state
{i.e. lay) management (ecclesiastics as such can have no share In
it), attendance must be compulsory, and the instruction must be
gratuitous, while membere of all rcfigions must be able to frequent
the schools without offence to their belief or consciences (this is
interpreted to mean that the general instruction given must be
undenominational, while if any denominational instruction is given
attendance at It must not be made compulsory). By an amendment
to the Federal Constitution adopted in 1902 the Confederation is
empowered to make grants in aid in the case of primary schools.
whilea Federal law of 1903, regulating such grants to beappropriated
solely to certain specified purposes, provides that the term " primary
schools " shall include continuation schools il attendance is compul-
sory. The cantons organize primary education in their territories,
delegating local arrangements (under the control of a cantonal
inspector) to a committee {Sekuikommission) elected ad hoc in earh
commune, so that it is not a committee of the communal council.
The general principles laid down by the Confederation are elaborated
into laws by each canton, while the communal councils pass by-laws.
Hence there is a great variety in details between canton and canton.
The school age varies from 6 to 16 (for youns^er scholare there arc
voluntary kindergarten schools or icoUs enfanttnes), and attendance
during this period u compulsory, it not being possible to obtain
exemption by |»ssing a certain standard. Two-thirds of the schools
are *' mixed '; in the towns, however, boys are often separated from
girls. The tcachen (who must hold a cantonal certificate of cffi*
ciencyy are chosen by the Schulkommission from among the candi-
dates who apply for the vacant post, but are elected and paid by the
communal council. Religious tests prevail as to teachers, who must
declare the religion they profes». and are required to impart the
AftMYl
i u tke idiool, tkb bibv copi p i il wr y an the
_ _j the leligxm that if in the lor*"^- " '*-^-m^
tioilar ooiiimuii»— cofiMquently a Prototant te /er
beappoiatedinaRomanisracboolorviceveraa. ' 'Jb-
bff oocupiet an hour (always at the begtnnini; d rs)
thnoe a wttk, while raedal dogmatic inatructxm he
paflUir.out«detheichool-ho«MeasaniJe,or iaa let
apart therein. The paacor is «s ofieio president n-
mtaaion. while the reugions teaching in schod is ial
''school Bible," containing short versions of its
in Bible hisiory. The catact curriculum (code] by
the canton, and also the number ol hours durui( Mil
must he open annually, but the precise repartiti eft
to the local Schnlkommissioa. The attendai rpt
by the teachersare submitted to the S^ulkomm oes
t truant children or negligent par , ^i a
ng, foUowed (if need be) by a s n nu noiia baore a court.
J 01 the SchulkommisBion receives and distributes the
nwney contributions of the cantons (including the gnmt in aid from
the Confederation) and also of the communes, or of benevolent
orvvate individuals. The school houra are aa a ode four boon
(from 7 a.m. in sumnscr and 8 a.m. in winter) in the moraiag and
(in the winter) three hours in theLaftemoon. but on two afternoons
in the week there b a sewing school for the giris^ the boys being then
free. There are no regular half-hoUdaya. Private schools are
permitted, but receive no financial aid from the outside, while the
teacher must hold a certificate of cAdeaey aa in the state schools,
must adopt the same curriculum, and b subject to the by-laws made
by the SchulkommiMion. On the other hand he ia not bound by
any conscience clause and can charge fees. A cantonal. inspector
csamiaes each school (of either class) annually and reports to the
cantonal cducatioaal authorities, who point out any d efi ci e n ci es
to the bed Schulkommission, which must remedy them. There
is no payment by results, nor do the money contributions Otom any
source) depoKl on the number of attendances snade, tho
coarse they are more or less in pmportion to the number of s
attendiag tiat partidilar schooL ' Some favour the idea of i . .
the primary schools wholly dcpend<bt financially on the Confedera-
tion. This course hat obvious conveniences, but a first attempt was
defeated in 1882, and the scheme is still opposed^ mainly on the
ground that it would seriously impair the prinaple of cantonal
■oveftigttty, and immensely strengthen the power of the Ftdtni
edhcational authorities. By the law of im the quota of the
Federal subvention was fixed at sixpence per head of the resident
population of each canton, but in the case of 6| cantons (the poorer
ones) an extra twopence was added.
' b. The stcondary sekooU are meant on theone nde to help those
scholars of the prunary schooto who desire to increase their know-
ledge though without any idea of going on to higher studies, and on
the other to prepare oeitain students for entrance into the middle
school*. The attendance everywhere ia optional, save in die dty
of Basel, where it- Is compulsory. These schools vary very much
from canton to canton. The oouree of studies extends over two to
four yean, and students are admitted at ages from ten upwards.
The curriculum indudes the elements of the dsssiral and modem
languages, of mathematics, and of .the natural ed^nces. They
receive no Federal subvention, but are supported by the cantons
and the communes.- In 190s the cantons contributed f^ofitoo less
than the communes to the total cost of about £934.000.
e. Under the geneial name of middU sek0oi$ (Mitktukmltn or
mojmmea) Uie Swiss include a variety of educational estabtish-
K which fall roughly under two heads:~-
Technical fchools (like those at Bientte and Winterthur) and
scboob for instruction in various professions (commerce,
agriculture, forestry and the training colleges for teachers).
2.' Grammar schools, colleges and cantonal schools, which in
aome cases prepare for the univcrritiea and in somecasesdo
not.
•The expenses of both classes fall ma^Sy on the cantons (In 1905
about JL300.000 to £130,600 from the communes), who for the former
class (including certain departments of the second) receive a grant
in akl from the Confederation— in 1905. about £84,900.
d. As regards tbevAtcAer tducatiom the Federal Constitution of
1874 (art. 27) erapowered the (Confederation to erect and vuj
besides the exbting Federal Polytechnic School (dpened at
in 1855, having " ' • • -^ » - *
Constitution of
done) and other ^
above). Thb clause would seem to authorise the Confederation
to maloe giants in aid of the cantonal universities^ but as-yet thb has
not been done, while the cantons are in no hunry to give up their
local univenities. There are seven full univerutba in Switxenand^-
Basa (founded in 1460), ZOrich (18^). Bern (1834). Geneva (1873,
fbundol id i«9 as an acad^ie), Fnbouiv (International Catholic^
founded in I wo), Lausanne (1890, founded in 1S37 >• an aauKmie)
And Neochfitel (existed 1840-1848, lefounded in 1866, and raised from
the rank of an acad£mie to that of a university in 1909). There b
besides a law school at Sion (existed 1807-1810, refounded in 1834).
In general they each OnVe'Sion, of course) have four faculties—
tbeoibgy, nedksAe. law and philoeophy. Fribouig and Ncuchitd
SWITZERLAND
245
fvoe of coer
hb fini taMatm, i
Art. 14
246
SWITZERLAND
aiv 10 DC lonnca.oi men «ji uic vumuc «.AuuNit uui uic sbuisi
of these units and the maintctenbe of their ourabers, as wel
nominatioa and the promotion of the oAcen. belong to the c
providee thfttthe ConCrfewtfoa has conttwl of the Federnl amy and
of the war malirid, the cantons bebg only allovred certain defined
riehts vithin their respective territories. By art. ao the limits
of the jurisdictaon of the Confederation and ol the cantons are
defined. The Confederation has the sole right of legislation in
military matten, but the cacecution ol these hws is in the hands of
the cantons, though under Fedefal superviaion, while all branches
of military tiaininc and arming are handed over to the Confedetation :
on the ouer hand, the cantons supply and keep up the equipment
and the unifoma of the soldiers, though these expenses are retm-
buraed by the Confederation aooocding to a certam scale fixed by
Federal regulations to be made later on. Art. ai enacu that, where
military considerations do not stand in the way. the military units
are to be formed.of men of the same canton, but the actual raising
I well as the
. ^ . „ ecantons,
subject to certain general principles to be laid down t^ the Confedera*
tion. Finally, the Confederation has (art. aa) the right of using
or acquiring inilitary drill grounds, buildings, &c. belonging to the
cantons on payment of modente compensation according to •prin-
ciples to be laid down in & Federal law. It will thus be seen that
the Swiss army is by no means wholly in the hands of the Federal
authorities, the cantons still having a large share in its management,
though the military department of the Federal executive has the
ultimate control and pays most of the military expensea. In fact
it has been said in jest that the coat of a soldier Belongs to his canton
and his rifle to the Confederation.
h. After much discussion and careful consideration of 'the
opinions of many experts, the Federal law of 1907 was enacted,
by which more uniiormity wm introduced into admmistrative
matters and 'the whole system remodelled, of. course according to
the genual principles formulated fas the Federal Constitution of
1874 and summarixed under a.
The following Is a bird's-eye view of the actual organization
of the Swiss army. Eycry Swiss male dtiaen is bound to render
personal military senraoe between the agca of twenty and forty-
eight. Certain cfaases are exempt, such as hij^h Federal officials,
clerg>'men (not being military chaplains), ofiicials of hospitals and
prisons, as well . as . custom-house offioals and policemen and
oflkials of public means of communication, bat in the latter case
only those whose secvioea would be indispensable in time of war,
«.«. poet offioe^ telegraph, telephone, railway and steamer employ^
(all exempted before I907)---custom-house men, policemen and
the officials last n^med must have had a first period of training
before they are exempt. Those who are totally disqualified for any
reason must, till the age of forty, pay an extra tax gf 6 francs a head,
plus li francs 00 every 1000 franca of their net property, and if
francs on every too francs of their net income, the maximum tax
that can be levied in any particular case bdng jooo francs a year
(property under lopa francs and the first 600 francs of income
are free from this tax, which u only levied as to its half in case of
the men in thc^ Landwehr) : this tax la equally divided between
the Confederation and the cantons, its total yidd in 1905 being about
£171,000. The cantonal authorities muster in certam fixed centres
their young men of twenty years, who must appear persohally in
order to saomit themselves at the hands of the Federal offidab4o
a medical examination, a literary examination (reading, arithmetic,
elementary Swiss geography and history, and the composition of
a short wntten essay), as well as (since 1905) pass certain elementary
gymnastic tests (a long jump of at least 8 ft., lifting at least four
times a weight of about 37 m in both hands at once, and running
about 80 yds. in under 14 seconds), different marks being given
according to the degree of profidency m these literary and symniutic
departments. Those fallins below a certain standard— bodily , mental
or muscular — are exempted, but may be '* postponed " for hot more
than four year*, in hopes that before that date the detired standard
will be attained. If not totally disqualified (in that case they pay
a tax) they may be Incorporated not in the territorial army, but in
the auxiliary forces {e.g. pioneers, hos|Mtal. commissariat, intelligence
and transport departments). The cantons (under Federal super-
vision) see that the tads, while still at school, receive a gymnastic
training, while the Confederation makes money grants to societies
which aim at preparing lads after leaving school for their military
service^ whether by stimulating bodily training or the practice
of rifle shooting, in which case rifles, ammunition and equipment
are supplied f ree i n all these cases the attendance of the lads is
purely voluntary. In aorae cantons the young men, between the
ages of eighteen and twenty, are nqmrtd to attend a. night aphool
(m order to rub up their school knowledge) for sixty hours a winter
lor two winters, the .teacher being paid by the Confederation
and the lads being undttr military law. Naturally the' lads from the
large towns and tnttmore prouwroua cantons do oest In the literary
examination and those who odong to gymnastic s ocieties in the
gymnastic testa, though s^feer bodily untrained ' strength avails
much in the lifting of weights, In 1906 26^808 young men of twenty
years of age were examined (this is caduaive of ohkr aaen then firtt
mustered). Of this number 14.045 (52*4%) Were at onoe enrolled
as recruits, 3497 (13%) were '' postponed '^ for one or Xwo years,
and 9266 (34-6%) were exempted wholly^^hese ratios vary but
little, for the standard la kept rather high* partiy owing to 000*
[HisrroitY
alderationa of expense, an that a young fellow of twienty who beconiea
a " recruit " at once may be ukea to be distinctly above the average
in bodily and mental qualities. By the new bw of 1907 the army
is divided into three (not, as prevtoudy four) dasses^-che ^ausMf
or iUie (men from twenty to thirty-two), the Landwekr (men between
thirty-tnree and forty) and the Landslurm or tisene (men between
forty*one and forty-dght). The recruiu serve for different
periods during their first year according to the arm of the service
into which they are incorporated — infantrv and engineers sixty-five
days, artillery and fsaurrison troops seventy-five days and cavalry
ninety days, while those in the auxiliary troops serve but sixnr
days. Soldien m the Elite are called out seven times daring th«w
term of service for a period of ele\en days a year (fourteen days far
the artillery and garrnon troops), while the Landwdir is only called
out once for a training period of eleven days. Cavaby men serve
ten years in the Elite (no service in the Landwehr^. and during that
period are called out eight times for a training penod of eleven days
a year. Between the ages of twenty and forty each soldier must
attain a certain proficioicy in marksmanship (at least 30 points
out of 90 in 10 shots), while there b an annual inspection (by cantonal
oAdals) of arms uniform and equipmenl. The Confedention also
roakos money grants to rifle sodctics, which in 1906 numbered 373a,
\tf^ ' — '-'1 soldiers between twenty and forty must
be sd Federal granta to the amount 01 about
£r iform become the full property of the
•ol ipleted his full term of aervioe. (Mkera
ser ty-dgfat years of age, and in the Landwehr
till of ofiicers on the staff the service lasts till
for while they remain in the Landsturm till
fift rhe Swiss army is made up (according to
tlu a staff, composed of all tlie commandinji
off from the rank of major upwards (in this
as ses the actual number is to be fixed by a
Fe staff, the army service corps (post office,
tel ir cars, chaplains, police, couru of justice,
sec uxiliary services^, while the soldiers proper
on >er of classes — infantry (including sharp-
•1m Bvalry, artillery (induding the mountain
ba eluding sappers and railway Ubourers),
Sii lical. veterinary (veterinary surgeons and
I id transport services (drivers and leaders
of ). On the first of January 1907 (still under
th4 lersof the Swiss army were as follows: the
fell ,.« . . »>ch 104,263 were infantry, *i8a cavalry,
18.544 artillery and 55^7 engineers), and the Landwehr Q3>l^
iZ^^t^mAlmm^m dim s^mm anf^Mfr^v^ A^^ft ««A«»slwL# ■« 449 airl ill^nr tt«atf1 a«t4
(including 67,955 infantry. 437* cavalry. 13.332 artillery and 4313
engineefs)-— <naking thus a toul of 232.677 men between the S4;es
of twenty and forty-four years of age (i7»a2i infantry, 9561 cavalry.
31366 artillery and 9880 engineers). To this total must be added
44,294 men in the armed Landsturm (forty-five to fifty yesrs of
age) and 262,138 auxiliary troops (pbncers. workmen m miliury
establishments. medical..commi8sariat and transport departments,
police, firemen, clerks, and men at a military d£p6t). The toul of
the Landsturm and the auxiliary scrvkes is 306.432, so that a
grand total b 539.109 men (under the old system ofnccra served
m the Landwehr till forty-eight, and in the Landsturm till fifty-five).
The total expenses of the Swiss army rpse from £008.900 in 1896 to
£1400.000 in 1906. Rifles are manafactured in Bern, ammunition
at Thun and at Altdori. uniforms are made in Bern, and the cavalry
remount d^t b at Thun. which b also the chid artillery centre of
Switxerland. There b a department for military science at the Federal
Polytechnic School at ZOnch, one section being meant for students
in general, and the other specially for officers. (W. A. B. CO
History
The Swiss Confederaiion is made up of twoiiyrtwo small
states, differing from each other in nearly every point-
religious, political, socid, industrial, physical and lingubtic;
yet it forms a nation the palrioUsm of whose members b univers-
ally acknowledged. History alone con supply us with the key
\o thb puzzle; but Swiss hbtoiy, while thus essential if we ccmld
thoroughly grasp the nature of the ConfederaUon, is very
intricate and very local. A firm hold on a few guiding principles
b therdore most desirable, and of these there are three which
we must always bear iir mind, (i) The first to be mentioned
b the connexion cf Swiss history vith that of the Empire. Swiss
hbtory b larsdy the history o! the drawing together of bits of
each of. the imperial kingdoms (Germany, Italy and Burgundy)
for common <lefence against a common foe—the Habsburgs;
and, when thb family have secured to themselves the permanent
possession of the Empire, the Swiss League little by little wins
its independence of the Empire, practically in X499i formally
in X648. Originally a member of the Empire, the Confe4cration
becomes first an ally, then merely a friend. (») The second
is the Qerman /origin and. nature of the ConfcderatioH: Found
HISTORY)
a GcntB Midflii» <ilie three Fortst diilift*ls) tlcre gteAnBy
fftthcr otber Oennan districts; the G>nfedeiatioB » exduiively
GeraMB (save pMliaUy in the esse ef Fxf boiirir* in which after
its ■difrfssion te 1481 Teutenic influences gndually supphnted
the Romaoce qieech); and it k net tiU 1803 and 18x5 that its
Fkench- ^nd Italian-speaking " sabjects " are taiscd to political
equaUty witb their former masters, and thtX the Romonsch-
spfahing Leagues of Raetxa (Graub&nden) pass from the status
of an ally to that of a member of the Confederation. (3) Swiss
Mstoiy is a sUtdy in Jederdism, Based on the defensive
alliances of 1391 and 1515 between the three Forest cfistricts,
the Confederation is'^nlarged by the admission of other dislzfeta
and towns, all leagued with the original three member^ but noi
necessarily with each other. Hence great difficulties are. en-
countered in looking after common interests, In maintaining
any teal union; the t)iet was merely an assemb^ of ambassadors
with powers very strictly limited hy tfieir instructions, and there
was no central executiTe authority. The Confedetation is a
Slaaienbundy or permanent alliance of sevtial smaQ states.
After the break-up of the old system in 1798 we see the idea
of a Bmndasfoat, or an organized state with a central le^slative,
csecfttive and judiciary, work its way to the front, an idea which
is gradually realised in the Constitutions of 1848 and 1874. Th<i
whole constitutional history of the Confederation is summed up
in this transition to a federal state, Which, while a single state
in its foreign relations, in home matters maintains the more or
less absolute independence of its several members.
SwBS history falls natorally into five great divisions: (x) the
origins of the Confederation — up to 1391 (for the legendary
origin see Tfctx, WitUAif);* (3) the shaking off dependence
on the Habsburga— up to T394 (1474); (3) tiie shaking off
dependence on the Empire— tip to 1499 (1648); (4) the period
of religious divisions and French influence—up to 18x4; (5)
the construction of an independent state as embodied in the
Constitutions of 1848 and 1874.
I. On the 1st of August 1391 the men x)f the valley of Uri
(komnes vaUis Urama^t the free community of the valley of
Sdiwyz {mtivenUas vallis de Svit^i, and the association of the
men of the lower valley or Nidw^den (cffmmuniUa Mominum
uUramonUmorum vallis inferioris) — Obwalden or the upper
valley is not mentioned in the text, though it is named on the
ggg^ seal appended— formed an Everlasting League for
immy^f the purjpose of self-defence against all who should
^*TJ^ attack or trouble them, a league which is agfittssXy
stated to be a confirmation of a former one {antiqucm
ctmftierttiionisforwuimjuramento vatlctam fresentihu iiintnando).
This league was the foundation of the Swiss Confederation.
What were these districts? and why at this particular moment
was it neccsshry for them to form a defensive league? The
legal and political conditions of each were very different, '(a) In
853 Louis the German granted {intn alia) all his lands (and the
rights annexed to them) situated in the pagtttus Uraniae to the
convent of Sts Felix and Regula in ZOrich (the present Frau-
mOnster), of which his daughter Hildegard was the first abbess,
and gave to this district the privilege of exemption from ali
jurisdiction save that of the king (Hetchsfreiheit), so that though
locally within the ZQrichgau it was not subject to its count; the
king's deputy. The abbey thus became possessed of the greater
part of the valley of the Reuss between the present I>evil's
Bridge and the Lake of Lucerne, for the upper valley (Urseren)
belonged at that time to the abbey of Disentis in the Rhine
valley, and did not become permanently allied with Uri tiO r4io.
The privileged position of the abbey tenants gradually led the
other men of the valley to " commend " themselves to the abbey,
whether they were tenants of other lords or free men as in the
Scblkhcnthal. The meeting of all the inhabitants of the valley,
for purposes connected with the customary cultivation of the
son according to fixed rules and methods, served to prepare
them for the enjoyment of full political liberty in later days.
The important post of " protector ** {advocatus or voff) of iht
abbey was given to one family after another by the emperor
as a sign of trust; but when, on the extinction of the house
of Zftringcn in x'318, the office was granted to the Habsbuxgs,
SWITZERLAND
347
the protests of the abb^ teunts, wh« feared tfke rapidly ittlng
power of that family, and perhaps also the desire of the German
king to obtain command of the St Gotthard Pissa (of which
the first authentic mentilm occtss about 1336, when of- course
it could only be traversed on foot), led to the recall of the grant
in X331, the valley bdng thus restored to its original privileged
position, and depending immediatdy on the king. (6) In
Schwya (first mentioned in 973) we must distinguish between
the districts west and east of Steinen. In the former the land
was in the hands of many nobles, amongst w^iom were the
' Habsburgs; in the htter there' was, at the Foot of the Mythen,
a free conmranity of men governing themselves and cultivating
theit land in common; both, however, were politically subject
to the king^ delegates, the counts of the Zilrichgau,who after
1x73 were the ever-advandng Habsburgs. But in x 240 the free
oomitftmity of Schwya obtained from the emperor Frederick 11..
a duurter whidi remorved them from the jurisdiction of the
counts, placing them In Immediate dependence on the king, like
the abb^ mea of UrL In a few years, however, the Habsburgs
contrived to dispense with thn charter in practice. (0 In
Unterwalden thhigp were very different. The upper valley
(Obwalden or Samen), hie the lower (Nidwalden or Stans),
formed part of the Zfirichgau, while in both the SOS was owned
by many ecdesiastical and lay lords, among them being the
Habsburgs aftd the Alsatian abbey of Murbach. Hence in this
district there were privileged tenants, but no free community,
and no centre of unity, and this explains why Obwalden and
Nidwalden won their way upwards so much more slowly than
their ndghbouxa in tJri and Schwya. Thus the eaity^ history and
legal position of these three districts was very far from being the
same. In Uri theRabsburgs, save for a brief space, had absolutdy
no rights; while in Schwya, Obwalden and Nidwalden they were
also, a« counts of the Zttridt^u, the representatives of the king.
The Habsburgs had been steadily rising for many years from
the position of an unimportant family in the Aargau to that, of
a poweriul dan of large landed proprietors in Swabia and Alsace,
and had attuned a certain political importance as counts of
the ZQnchg^u and Aargau. In one or both qoaHttes the cadet
or Laufenburg line, to which the family estates In the Forest
districts round the Lake of Lucerne had fallen on the division
of the inheritance in 1233, seem to have exercised their legal
rights in a harsh manner. In X340 the free men of Schwyz
obtained protection from the emperor, and in 1344 we hear of
the castle of New Habsbuig, built by the Habsburgs
on a promontory jutting out into the lake not far^j^J/^*"
from Lucerne, with the object of enforcing their
real or pretended rights* It is therefore not a matter for sor*
prise that when, after the excommunication and deposition of
Frederick 11. by Innocent' IV. at the Council of Lyons in 1345,
the head of the cadet line of Habsburg sided with the pope,
some of the men of the Forest districts should rally rmmd the
emperor. Schwya joined Samen and Lucerne (though Vn
and Obwalden supported the pope); the castle of New tiabsbnrg
was reduced to its present ruined state; and in 1347 the men of
Schwyz, Samen and Lucerne were threatened by the pope
with excommunication if they persisted in upholding the emperor
and defying their hereditary lords the counts of Habsburg.
The rapid dedlne of Frederick's cause soon enabled the Habsburgs
to regain thdr authority In these districts. Yet these obscure
risings have an historical interest, lor they are the foundation
in fact (so far as they have any) of the legendaiy stories of
Habsburg oppression told of and by a later age. After this
•temporary check the power of the Habsburgs continued to increase
rapidly. In 1373 the head of the cadet line sold all his lands
and rights in the Forest districts to the head of the elder or
Alsatian Une, Rudolph, who a few months later was dected
to the Imperial throne, in virtue of which he acquired for his
family in 1383 the duchy of Austria, which now for the first
time became connected with the Habsbuigs. Rudolph lecog-
nixed the privileges of Uri but not those of Schwyz; and, as he
now united in hi^ own person the characteis of emperor, count
of the Ztlrirhgau. and landowner in the Forest distifeU (a name
occurring first in the X4th century), such a union of offices might
2^9
SWITZERLAND
pIISTORY
be. expected to lenilt ia a confusbm of rights. On the i6Ch of
April 1 29X Rudolph bought from the abbey of Murbach in Alsace,
(of which he was " advocate ") all its rights over the town of
Lucerne and the abbey estates in Untecwalden. It thus seemed
probable that the other Forest districts would be shut off from
their natural means ol communication with the outer world
by way of the Iak& Rudolph's death, on the 15th of July of
the same year, cleared the way, and a fortnight later (August i)
the l^verlasting League was made between the men of Uri,.
Schwyz and Nidwalden (the words a 9aUit superioris, ix,
Obwaiden, were inserted, perhaps between the time pf the draw-
ing up of the document, the text of which does not mention
Obwalden, and the moment of its sealing on the original seal
of Nidwalden) for the purpose of self-defence against a common
foe. We do not know the names of the delegates of each valley
who concluded the treaty, nor the place where it was made, nor
have we any account of the deliberations of which it was the
resulL The common seal — that great outward sign of the right
of a corporate body to act in its own name — appears first
in Uri in Z243, ia Schwyz In 1281, in Uhterwalden not till this
very document of 1291; yet, despite the great differences in
their political status, they all joined in concluding this League,
and confirmed it by their separate seals, thereby laying claim
on behalf of their union to an independent existence. Besides
promises of aid and assistance in the case of attack, they agree
to. punish great criminals by their own authority, but advise
that, in m^nor cases and in all civil cases, each man should
recognize the "judex" to whom he owes suit, engaging that
the Confederates will, in case of need, enforce the decisions of
the "judex.** At the same time they unanimously refuse to
recognize any " judex "^hohas bought his charge or is a stranger
to the valleys. All disputes between the parties to the treaty
are, as far as possible, to be settled by a reference to arbiters,
a principle .which remained in force for over six hundred y@K9.
" jfudex " is a general term for any local official, especially the
chief of the community, whether named by the lord or by the
community^ and, as earlier in the same year .'Rudolph had
promised the men of Schwyz not to force upon them a " judex *'
belonging to the class of serf^ we may conjecture from this very^
decided protest that the chief source of disagreement was in
the matter of the-jurisdictions of the lord and the free community,
and that some recent event in Schwyz led it to insist on the
insertion of this provision. It is stipulated also that every
man shall be bound to obey his own lord " convenicnter," or
so far as is fitting and right. The antiqua confoederatio mentioned
in this document was probably merely an ordinary agreement
to preserve the peace in that particular district, made probably
during the interregnum (1254^1273) in the Empire.
.2. In the struggle for the Empire, which extended over the
years following the conclusion of the League of 1291, we find
Mmgatim ^^^^ ^^^ Confederates supported without exception
mad tin the anti-Habsburg candidate. On the i6th of
'••««»••' October 1291 Uri aiid Schwyz allied themselves
"^^ with Ziirich, and joined the general rising in Swabia
against Albert, the new head of the house of Habsburg. It soon
failed, but hopes revived when in 1292 Adolf of Nassau was
chosen emperor. In 1297 he confirmed to the free men of
Schwyz their charter of 1240, and, strangely enough, confirmed
the- same charter to Uri, instead of their own of 1231. It is
in his reign that we have the first recorded meeting of (he
" Landsgemeinde " (or les^Iative assembly) of Schwyz (1294).
But in 1 298 Albert of Hahsburg hfmsclf was elected to the Empire.
His rule was strict and severe, though not oppressive. - He did
not indeed confirm the charters pf Uri or of Schwyz, but he
did not attack the ancient rights of the former, and in the
latter he exercised his rights as a landowner and did riot abuse
his political rights as emperor or as count. In Unterwalden we
find that in 1304 the two valleys were joined together under a
cPmmon administrator (the local deputy of the count) — a great
step forward to permanent union. The stories of Albert's
tyrannical actions in the Forest districts are not heard of tiO
two centuries later, though no doubt the union of offices in his
persoa was a permanent louroe of alaim to the Coafedention.
It was in his time too that the " terrier " (or list of manors and
estates, with enumeration of all quit rents, dues, &c., payable
by the tenants to their lords) of all the Habsburg possessions
in Upper Germany was begun, and it was on the point of being
extended to Schwyz and Unterwalden when Albert was muniered
(130S) and the election of Henry of Luxemburg roused the free
men to resist- the officials charged with the survey.. Despite
his promise to restore to the Habsburgs all rights enjoyed by
them under his three predecessors (or maintain them ia posses-
sion), Henry confirmeid,. on the 3rd of June 1309, to Uri and
Schwyz their charters of 1297, and, for some imknown reason,
confirmed to Unterwalden aJl the liberties granted by his pre-
decessor, though as a matter of faa none had been granted.
Thb charter, ami the nomination of one royal bailiff to administer
the three districts, had the effect of placing them all (despite
historical differences) in an identical political position, and that
the most privileged yet given to any of them— the freedom of
the free community of Schwyz. A few days later the Confeder-
ates made a fresh treaty of alliance with Zurich; and in 1310
the emperor placed certain other inhabitants of Schwyz on the
same privileged footing as the free community. The Habsburgs
were put off with promises; and, though their request (13x1) for
an inquiry into their precise rights in Alsace and in the Forest
districts was granted, no steps were taken to carry out this
investigation. Thus in Henry's time the struggle was between
the Empire and the Habsburgs as to the recognition of the rights
of the latter, not between the Habsburgs and those dependent
on them as landlords or counts. .
On Henry's death in 1313 the electors hesitated long between,
Frederick die Handsome of Habsburg and Louis of Bavaria.
The men of Schwyz seized this opportunity for making a wanton
attack on the great abbey of Einsiedeln, with which they had a
long-standing quarrel Ss to rights of pasture. The abbot caused
them to be excommunicated, and Frederick (the choice of the
minority of the electors), who was the hereditary " advocate "
of the abbey,- placed them under the ban of the Empire.
Louis, to whom they appealed, removed the ban; on which
FredericI^ issued a decree by which he restored to his familly
all their rights and possessions in the three valleys and Urseren,
and charged his brother Leopold with the execution of this order.
The Confederates hastily concluded . alliances with Glarus,'
Urseren, Arth and Interlaken to protect themselves from attack
on every side. Leopold collected a brilliant army at the Austrian
town of Zug in order to attack Schwyz, while a body of troops
was to take Unterwalden in the rear by way of the Brilnig Pass.
On the isth of November 1315, Leopold with from xSiOoo to
20,000 men moved forward along the shore of the Lake of Aegeri,
intending to assail the town of Schwyz by climbing the slopes
of MorgartAi above the south-eastern end of the lake. There
they were awaited by the valiant band of the Confederates
from 1300 to 1500 strong. The march up the rugged and slippery
slope threw the Austrian army into disarray, which became a
rout and mad flight when huge boulders and trunks of trees
were hurled from above by their foes, who charged down
and drove them into the lake. Leopold fled in hot haste
to Winterthur, and the attack by the Briinig was driven back
by the men of Unterwalden. On the 9th of December 1315
representatives of the victorious highlanders met at Brvnnen,
on the Lake of Lucerne, not iit from Schwy.z, and renewed the
Everlasting League of 1291. Jn their main lines the two docu-
ments arc very simil;ir, the later being chiefly an expansion of
the earlier. Tliat jof 1315 is in German (in contrast.to the 1291
League, which is In Latin), and has one or two striking clauses
largely indebted to a decree issued by Ziirich on the 24th of
July Z29r.. None of the three districts or their dependents is
to recognize a new lord without the consent and counsel of the
rest. (This is probably meant to provide for an interregnum in or
disputed election to the Empire, possibly for the chance of the
election of a Habsburg.) Strict obedience in all lawful matters
is to be rendered to the rightful lord in each case, unless he attacks
or wrongs any of the Confederates, in which case they are to be
HISTORY]
free from aUobligitioas. NbMfoiktioiiB,Mlosgafttlie
have no lord, are to be eoteied on with out^de poweis, lave
by common agreement of alL Louis solemnly reoogniaed and
confirmed the new league in 1316, and in 1318 a tnice waa
ccnduded. between the Confederatea and the Habebuig^ who
treat with them on equal terms. The lands and rights annered
belonging to the Habsburgs in the Forest districts are fully
recognised as they existed in the days of Henry of Luxembuig,
and freedom of commerce is granted. But there is not one word
aboat the poUlical rights of the Habsbucgs as oouato of the
ZCuichgau and Aargau. This distinction gives the key to the
whole history of the relations between the Confederates and
Habsburgs; the rights of the latter as landowneis are fidJiy
allowed, and till iter they po»ie8scd estates within the Coa-
fedecalion; it is their political rights which were always contested
by the Swiss, who desired to rule themselves.
As early as 1330 we find the name " Switserland " (^weia)
(derived from Schwyz, which had always been the leader in the
n* £^^19 struggle) applied to the three Forest cantons, and in
•#e4rM 135a extended to the Confederation as a whole.
««M i w» . But it was not till after Sempach (1386) that it
came into popular use, the historian J. von MUiler (17^5) fixing
the distinction between "Schweia" (for the country) and
" Schwya " (for the canton), and it did not form the official name
of the O>nfederation till xte3. (Officially in the middle ages and
later the (Confederation was named " les Ljgues de la Haute
AUemagne," or, as 0>mniines, late in the 15th century, puts it,
** les vieilles Ligues d'AUemagne qu'on appeUe Suisacs," while
from c. 1452 onwards the people weiecalled" Swisa "> This is in
itsdf a proof of the great renown which the League won by. its
viaory at Morgarten. Another is that as yean go by we find
other members admitted to the privileges of the original alliance
of the three Foccst districts. Fint to join the League< 1333) was
the neighbouring town of Lucerne, which had grown up round
the monastery of St Leodegar or Leger (whence the place took
iu name), perhaps a colony, certainly a cell of the great house of
Murbach in Alsaoe, under the rule of which the town remained
till iu sale in 1291 to the Habsburgs. This act of Lucerne waa
opposed by the house of Austria, but, deq>ite the. dednon of
certain chosen arbitrators in favovr of the Habsburg daims, the
town clung to the League with which it was connected by its
natural position, and thus brought a new element into the pastoral
a^odation of the Forest districts, which now sumninded the
entire Lake of Lucerne. Next, in i35i,came the ancient town of
ZOrich, which in laxS, on the extinction of the house of Ziringcn,
bad become a free imperial city in which the abbess of th»
Fmmnfinster (the lady of Uri) had great iafluenee, wldle in 1336
there had been a great civic revolntioai headed hy Rudolph Bnin,
which had raised the memben of the oaf t gikls to a position in
the municipal government of equal power with that of the
patricians> who, however, did not cease intriguing to regain their
hMt privileges, so that Brun, after long haitalion» decided lo
throw in the lot of the town with the League rather than with
Austria. In this way the League now advaacod from the hilly
country to the plains, though the terms of the treaty with Zurich
did not bmd it soclesdy to the Confederates as ia the other ctaea
(the right of maUogallianoes spart from theLeague being reserved
though the League waa to tank befoie these), end hence rendered
it possible for Ziirich now and again to incline towards Austria
in a fashion which did great hurt t0iu allies. In 135* the League
waa eahifcd by the admission of (Hanis and Zog. Olanis
belonged to the monastery of SMHiingni on the Rhine (founded
l>y the Irish monk Fridolm), of nHhich the Hahsburga were
" advocates," dahning therefove many rights over the valley,
which nfiaed to admit them, and j^rfnUy eecesred the Cdn-
fedcrites who came to its aid; bat It was placed on a lower footing
than the other members of the T^eagnr, being bound to obey their
oideia. Three weeks later the town and district of Zug, attacked
by the League and abandoned by their Habsburg masteis, joined
the Conlederatton, fqnning a transition Ifaik between the civic
and rwal mcmbeis of the League. The inunediate occasion qf
the unioa of thew two districts was the war began fay the
SWITZERLAND
249
Aostrian duke against Zimdi, wUch was ended by the BfUMleD-
buig peace of 1352, by wUch Ghras and Zug were to be restored
to the Habsburgs, who also regained their righta over Lucerne
Zog was won for good by a bold stroke of the men of Schwyt in
1364, but a was not till the day of Nlileh (S388) that Clams
recovered iU k»t freedom. These temporary loaaes and the
treaty made by Brun of Ziirich with Austria in 1356 were, how*
ever, far outweighed by the entiaace into the League in 1353 of
the Ismotts town of Bern, which, founded in 1191 by Berthold V.
of Zttringen, and endowed with great privileges, had become a
free haperial dty in istS 00 the extinction cf the Zftringen
dynasty. Founded for the purpose of bridling the turbulent
feudal noblea around, many of whom had become dtisens, Bern
beat them back at DonliOhl (1998), and madea treaty with the
Foseat districts as eariy as 13*3. In 1339, at the bloody fight of
Laupeo, she had broken the power of the nobles for ever, and hi
x3St had been foeced by a treaty with Austria to take part in the
war agamst Zurich, but soon after the conclusion of pesce entered
the Lesgue as the ally of the three Forest districts, being thw
only indirectly joined to Lucerne and Ziirich. The spedal
importance of the acc ea ifan of Bern waa that the League now
began toapiesd to the we8t,and wia thus brought intoconsexion'
for the first time with the French-spesking land of Savoy. Hie
Lesgue thus numbeced eight meabeis, the fruits of Moigarteo,
and no farther memben wero admitted till r4Bx, after the
Buigundian War. But, in order thoroughly to understand the
natnreof the Lesgue, it must be remembered that, whie each of
the five new members was allied with the original nudea»-4he
three Forest districtarHhese live were not directly allied to
one another: Lucerne was allied with ZOrich and Zug; ZOrich
with Lucerae, Zog and Gbras; Glarus with ZOrich, Zog with
Lttcene and Zurich, Berb with no one cxcqA the three original
members. The drcumstances under which each entered the
Lesgue can alone explain these very inttscate relations^
After a short interval of peace tlie quamda with Austria broke
out afresh; all the mcnbea of the Leiiigne, save the three F^^test
dittricU and Glarua, joined (1385) the geeat union c^_v
of the south German cities; but their attention was '
soon called, to events nearer home. Locene fretted much under
the Austrian rule, received many Austrian subjects ameng her
dtiaeas, sod refused to pay cualon duties to the Austrian bailiff
at Rothcnboig, on the ground that she had the ri^t of free
tmffic An attack on the custom-house at Rotbenburg, and the
gift of the privileges of bur^texship to the discontented inhabit
taats of the little town of Sempsch a short way off, so irritated
Leopokl UL (who then heU aU the poasesaions of his house out-
side Anstria) that he collected an army, with the intention of
croaking his sebellions town. Lucerne meanwhile had aosunoned
iheothermembers of the League to her aid, and, though Leonold's
femt of attackmg ZOrich caused the troops of the Lesgue to
march at first in that directkm, they discovered their mistake ia
time to tun bade and check his advance on Lncerae. Ftom
1500 to 1600 men of Uri, Schwya, Unterwalden, and Locerne
opposed the 6000 which made up the Austrian amy. The
decisive fight took place on the 9th of July 1386, near Sempach,
Qo a bit of sloping meadow-Isad, cut up l^ stresms and hedges,
which forced the Austrian kntghu to dismount. The great heat
of the day, which rendered it impossible to figfai in armour, and
the furious attacks of the Confederates, finally broke the Austrian
lino after more than one repulse and tuned the day (see Wm kbl-
RiEo). Leopold, with a huge number of his foUowcrs, .was slain,
and the Hafasbarg power within the borders of the Confederation
finally broken. Glacns at once rose in srms against Austria,
but it was not till the expiration of the truce made after Sempach
that Leopold*a brother, Albert of Austria, brought an army
against darns, and was defeated at Nftfels ivi>t fsr from Glsrus)
on the 9th of April 13^8, by a handful of Glarus and Schwya
men
In r389 a peace for seven years was made, the Confederatea
being seoued in all tfadr conquests; an attempt made id r393 by
Austria by means of SchOao, the chief msgistrate of ZOrich
and leader of the patrician party, to atir up a fresh attack
250
SWITZERLAND
failed owing to a riamg of the bwghen, who sympalhized with
the Coolederates, and on the 1 6th of July 1394 the
peace was prolonged for twenty years (and again in
14x2 for fifty years), various stipulations being made
gJJj?^J*» by which the long struggle of the League against the
Habsborgs was finally crowned with success.
By the peace of 1394 Glarus was freed on payment of £200
annually (in 1395 it bought up all the righu of Sickingen),
Zug too was reieiised from Austrian rule. Schwyz was given
the advocaiia of the great abbey of Einsiedeln^ Lucerne
got the Entlebuch (finally in 1405), Sempach and Rothenburg,
Bern and Soleure were confirmed in their conquests. Above all,
the Confederation as a whole was relieved from the overlordship
of the Habsburgs, to whom, however, all their rights and dues
as landed proprietors were expressly reserved, Bern, ZQrich
and Soleure guaranteeing the maintenance of these rights and
dues, with power in case of need to call on the other Confederates
to support them by arms. Though the house of Habsburg
entertained hopes of recovering its former rights, so that techni-
cally the treaties of 1389, 1394 and X41 2 were but truces, it finally
and for ever renounced ail its feudal rights and privileges within
the Confederation by the " Everlasting Compact " of 1474.
It is probable that Bern did not take any active share in the
Sempach War because she was bound by the treaty of peace made
with the Austrians in 136ft, and Sdeure, allied with Bern, was
doubtless a party to the treaty of 1394 (though not yet in the
league), because of its sufferings in 1382 at the hands of the
Ryburg line of the Habsborgs, who^ possessions (Thim,
Burgdorf, &c.) in 1384 fell into the hands of the two allies.
We may mention here Che foray (known as the English or
Gugler War) made in 13 7 5 by Enguerrand de Coucy (husband of
Isabella, daughter of Edward III. of EngUnd) and his freebooters
(many of them Englishmen and Welshmen), called " Gugler "
from their pointed steel caps, with the object of obtaining
po$sea5ion of certain towsi^ in the Aargau (including Sempach),
wUch he claimed as the dowry of his mother Catherine,
daughter of the Leopold who was defeated at Morgarten. He
was put to rout in the Entlebuch by the men of Bern, Lucerne,
Schwyz and Unterwakien in December 1375. This victory was
commemorated with great rejoicings in 1875.
3. The great victory at Sempach not merely vastly increased
the fame oi the Everlasting League but also enabled it to extend
5l^,Qi^j^both its influence and its territory. The 15th
Ap^tmnM, century is the period when both the League and
SitirnHMadixs several members took the aggressive, and the
tin VMiaiB, expansion of their power and bnds cannot be better
seen than by comparing the sute of things at the beginning
and at the end of this century. The pastoral highlands of
Appenzell' (Abbatis CeUa) and the town of St Gall had long been
trying, to throw off the rights exercised over them by the great
abbey of St Gall. The Appenzellers, especially, had offered a
stubborn resistance, and the abbot's troops had been beaten back
by them in 1403 on the heights of Vfigelinseck, and again in 1405
in the great fight on the Stoss Pass (which leads up into the high-
lands), in which the abbot was backed by the duke of Austria.
The tales of the heroic defence of Uri Rotach of Appenzell, and
of the appearance of a company of AppenzcU women disguised as
warriors which turned the battle, are told in connexion with this
fight, but do not appear till the 17th and i8th centuries, being
thus quite unhistorical, so far as our genuine evidence goes.
Schwyz had given them some help, and in 14x1 Appenzell was
placed under the protection of the League (save Bern), with
which in the next year the dty of St Gall made a similar treaty
to hist ten years. So too in 1416-X417 several of the " tithings "
of the Upper Vahus (tj. the upper stretch of the Rhone valley),
which in 1388 had Maten the bishop and the nobles in a great
fight at Visp, became dosdy associated with Lucerne, Uri and
Unterwalden. It required aid in its final struggle (14X8-X9)
against the gttat house of Raron, the count-bishop of Sitten (or
Sion), and the house of Savoy, which held the Lower Valais—the
Forest ^tricts, on the other hand, wishing to secure them-
selves against Raron and Savoy in their aUempt' to conquer
tHlSTORY
permanently the Val d*Ossola on the south side of the Simplon
Pass. Bern, however, supported its burgher, the lord of Raron,
and peace was made in 1420. Such were the first links which
bound these lands with the League, but they did not become
full members for a long time — Appenzell in X513, St Gall in 1803,
the Valais in 18x5.
Space wdl not allow us to enumerate all the small conquests
made in the first half of the xsth century by every member of
the League; suffice it to say that each increased and rounded
off its territory, but did not give the conquered lands any political
rights, governing them as " subject lands," often very harshly.
The same phenomenon of hnds which had won their own freedom
playing the part of tyrant over other lands which joined them
more or less by their voluntary action is seen on a larger scale in
the case of the conquest of the Aargau, and in the first attempts
to secure a footing south of the Alps.
In X412 the treaty of X394 between the League and the Habs-
burgs had been renewed for fifty years; but when in 14x5 Duke
Frederick of Austria helped Pope John XXII. to escape from
Constance, where the great oecumenical council was then sitting,
and the emperor Sigismund placed the duke under the ban of the
Empire, summoning all members of the Empire to arm against
him, the League hesitated, because of their treaty of 14x2, till
the emperor declared that all the rights and lands of Austria in
the League were forfeited, and that their compact did not release
them from their obligations to the Empire. In the name, there-
fore, of the emperor, and by his special command, the different
members of the League overran the extensive Habsburg posses-
sions in the Aargau. The chief share fell to Bern, but certain
districts (known as the Prete Aemier) were joined together and
governed as baih'wicks held in common by all the members of the
League (save Uri, busied in the south, and Bern, who had already
secured the lion's share of the spoil for herself) . This is the first
case in which the League as a whole took up the position of rulers
over districts which, though guaranteed in the enjoyment of
their old rights, were nevertheless politically unfree. As an
encouragement and a reward, Sigismund had granted in advance
to the League the right of criminal jurisdiction {haute justice
or Btutbamt), which points to the fact that they were soon
to become independent of the Empire, as they were of Austria.
As the natural policy of Bern was to seek to enlarge its borders
at the expense of Austria, and later of Savoy, so we find that Uri,
shut off by physical causes from extension in other directions,
as steadily turned its eyes towards the south. In 14x0 the
valley of Urseren was finally joined to Uri; though pmg
communications were difficult, and carried on only by AaAu
means of the " Stiebende Brficke," a wooden bridge Cn^amla,
suspended by chains over the Reuss, along the side of a great
rocky buttress (pierced In 1707 by the tunnel known as the
Urnerloch), yet this enlaigement of the territory <^ Uri gave ft
comi^ete command over the St (jotthard Pass, long commercially
important, and now to serve for purposes of war and conquest.
Already in 1403 Uri and Obwalden had taken advantage of a
quarrel with the duke of Milan as to custom dues at the market
of Varese to occupy the long narrow upper Ticino valley on the
south of the pass called the Val Leventina; in X4xx the men of
the same two lands, exasperated by the insults of the local lords,
called on the other members of the League, and all jointly (except
Bern) occupied the Val d'OssoU, on the south side of the Simplon
Pass. But in 14x4 they lost this to Savoy, and, with the object
of getting it back, obtained in X4t6-X4x7 the alliance of the men
of the Upper Valais, then fighting for freedom, and thus regained
(x4x6) the valley, despite the exertions of the great Milanese
general Carmagnoku In 1419 Uri and Obwalden bought from
its lord the town and district of BelKnzona. This rapid advance,
however, did not approve itself to the duke of Milan, and Car-
xnagnola reoccupied both vaU^fs; the Confederates were not at
one with regard to these southern conquests; a small body pressed
on in front of the rest, but was cut to pieces at Arbedo near
Beliiazona in 1422. A bold attempt in X425 by a Schwyzer,
Peter Rissi by name, to recover the Val d'Ossola caused the
Confederates to send a. force to rescue these adventurers; but
HBRHtV)
ttednke of MOui fatifgoed wilb die dhrided Cbnfedetatc^ and
finftUy in 1426, by a paymeat of a laige sam of monqr and the
grant of certain commercial privileges, the Val Leventina, the
Val d'OiMla and BclUnxona were formally restored to him.
Thus the fiist attempt of Uii to acquire a footing sooth of the
Alpa failed; bat a Uter attempt was successful, leading to the
ioduaon in the Confedenttion of what has been called "Itafian
Switzerland."
The orighial contiasts between the social condi t ion of the
different members of the Leagne became more mathed when the
period of conquest b«gan, and led to quaneb and ill-
a^M^, feeUng in the matter of the Aaigau and the Italian
conquests which a few yean later ripened into a dvil
war, brought about by the dispute as to the succession to the
hmds of Frederick, count of Toggenbug, the last male repceseoU*
tfve of his house. Count Frederick's predecessors had greatly
extended their domains, so that they took in not only the Toggen-
burg or upper valley of the Tbur, but Uanach, Saigans, the Rhine
valley between Feldkiich and Sargans> the Pitttigan and the
Davos valley. He himself, the last great feudal lord on the left
hank of the Rhine, had managed to secure his vast powcsaions
by making treaties with seven! members of the League, par-
ticularly ZOrich (1400) and Schwyt {1417}— (torn 1428 inclining
more and more to Schwys (then ruled by Ital Riding), as be was
disgusted with the arrogant behavionr of Stiissi, the burgomaster
of Zarich. His death (April 30, 1436) was the signal for the
breaking out of strife. The Piittigau and Davos valley formed
the League of the Ten Jurisdictioas in Raetia (see below), while
Frederick's widow sided with Zarich against Schwyz for different
portions of the great infaeritanoe which had been promised them.
After being twice defeated, ZOrich was forced in 1440 to buy peace
by certain cessions (the " Hdfe ") to Schwys, the general feeling
of the Confederates being opposed to Zilrich, so that several of
them went so far asto send men and arma to Schwys. Zarich,
however, was bitterly disappofaited at these defeats, and had
recoune to the policy which she had adopted in 1356 and 1393'-
an alliance with Austria (concluded in i442)» which now held the
nnperial throne m the person of Frederidc III. Though tech«
nicafly withfai her rights according to the terms on whkh she had
joined the League in Z35r, this act of ZOrich caused the greatest
irritation in the Confederation, and civil war at once broke out,
espedally when the Habsburg emperor had been solemnly received
and acknowledged in ZOrich. In 1443 the ZOrich troops were
completely defeated at St Jakob on the Sihl, dose under the walls
of thecity,SCOssi himself being slain. Neat year the dty itself was
long besieged. Frederick, unabfe to get hdp elsewhere, procured
from Charles VII. of France the despatch of a body of Armagnac
free lances (the ficorcheurs), who came, 30,000 strong, under
the dauphin Louis, plundering and harrying the hmd, tUl at the
vtry gstcs of the free imperial dty of Basel (which had made a
twenty years' alliance with Bern), by the leper house of St Jakob
on the Sirs (Aug. a6, 1444)* the desperate resistance of a small
body of Confederates (j 300 to 1500), tiU cut to pieces, checked
the advance of the freebooters, who sustained such tremendous
hMsea that, though the victory they hastily made peace, and
returned whence they had come. Several small engagemenU
ensoed, ZOrich long declining to make peace because the Con-
federates required, as the result of a solemn arbitration, the
abandonment of the Austrian alliance. At length it was
concluded in 1450, the Confederates restoring ahnost all the
lands they had won from ZOrich. Thus ended the third attempt
of Austria to conquer the League by means of ZOrich, which
used its position as an imperial free dty to the harm of the
League, and caused the first dvil war by which it was distracted.
These fresh proofs of the vak>ur of the Confederates, and of
the growing importance of the League, did not fail to produce
f^^j^^gi^ important results. In 1452 the "Confederates of
m/ut0 the Old League of Upper Germany" (as they styled
'•m n ^ tbemsdves) made their first treaty of alliance with
A 14/0, France, a connexion which was destined to exercise
so much influence on their history. Round the League therp
i to gather a new class of allies (known as " Ziigewandte
SWITZERLAND
«5»
Orte," or amodsted diibku), moce doadr Mied to it, or to
certain members of it, than l^^ a mere treaty of friendship, yet
not being admitted to the rank of a full member of the League.
Of these associates three, the abbot (1452) and town of St Gall
(1454), and the town of Bienne (Biel), through its alliance
(rasa) with Bern, were given seats and votes in the Diet, being
cafied jocm; while othets* known as cot^oederaU, were not sO
dosdy booiid to the Lesgue, such as the Valais (14x6-14x7),
Schaffhansen (x4S4)« RottweU (1463), MOhlhausen (1466), (to
the dasa of em^oeiUnUi bekmged in later times Neoch&td
1406-isox), the Three Leaguea of Raetia (i497-i49S)i Geneva
(iSX9->536), and the bbdmp of Basd (x579)* Appeuell, too,
in 145X, rose from the rank of a " proteacd distria " into the
dasa of associates, outside which were cettain placea ** protected "
by several membem of the League, such as Gersau (1359), the
abbey of Engelberg (c 1421), and the town of Rappenwil (1464).
The relation of the " associates " to the League may be eompeied
with the ancient pnurtioe of •*' commendation *': they were
bound to obey orden in derlsring war, making allianoes, ftc
In 1439 Sigisnnmd succeed e d his father Frederick in the
Habsburg lands in Alssce, the Thurgsii, and Tirol and, being
much irritated by the fwnnrsnf encroachments of the Confeder*
ates, m particular by the loss of Rappecswii (i4S8)» dedared war
affunst them, but fared very badly. In 1460 the Confederates
overran the Thmgau and oocapied Saxgans. Wtnterthnr was
only saved by an heroic defence. Hence in 1461 Slgbmund
had to give up Us damn on tbose lands and renew the peace for
fifteen years, while in 1467 he sold Wintherthur to ZOrich.
Thus the whole line of the Rhine was lost to the Habsburgs, who
retained (till 1801) hi the territories of the Confederates^ the
Frickthal only. The Thurgovian bailiwicks were govemc!d in
common as *' subject " lands by all the Confederates except Scsn.
The touchiness of the now rapidly advandng League was shown
by the eagerness with which in 146B its members took tip arms
agsinst certain small feudal nobles who were carrying on a
hsnissing guerrilla warfare with tbeir allies Schaffhansen and
MOhlhausen. They hdd siege to WaUshut, and to buy them off
Sigismund in August 1468 engaged to pay to,ooo gulden as
damages by the S4tli of June 1469; jn default of payment the
Confederates were to keep for ever the Black Forest, and WaUs*
hut,one of the Black Foicst towns on the Rhine. A short time
before '(X467) the League had made treaties of friendship with
Philip the Good, dnke of Burgundy*, and with the duke of Milan.
All was now pnpaxtd for the intricate series of intrigues which
led up to the Burgundian War~a great epoch in the history of
the League, as it created a common national feeling, enormously
raised its military reputation, and brought about the dose
connexion with certain parts of Savoy, which finally (1803-18x5)
were admitted into the League.
Sigisnnmd did not know where to obtain the sum he had
promised to pay. In this strait he turned to Charles the Bold
(properly the Rash), duke of Burgundy, .who was n*
then beginning his wonderful career, and aiming atfle^MMw
restoring the kingdom of Burgundy. For this purpose ^^»
Charles wished to marry his daughter and heiress to Maximilian,
son of the emperor, and first cousin of Sigismund, in order that
the emperor might be induced to give him the Burgundian crown.
Hence he was ready to meet Sigismund's advances. On the 9th
of May 1469 Charles promised to give Sigismund 50,000 florins,
reodving as security for repayment Upper Alsace, the Breisgau,
the Sundgsu, the Blade Forest, and the four Bhck Forest towns
on the Rhine (Rhdnfeklen, S&ckingen, Laufenburg and Wakls-
hut), and agreed to give Sigismund aid against the Swiss, if
he was attacked by them. It was not unnatural for Sigismund
to think of attacking the League, but Charles's engagement to
him is quite inconsistent with the friendly agreement made be«
tween Burgundy and the Leagne as late as X467. The emperor
then on his side annulled Sigismund's treaty of 1468 with the
Swiss, and placed them under the ban of the Empire. Charles
committed the mortgaged lands to Peter von Hagenbach, who
proceeded to try to establish his master's power there by such
harsh measures as to cause the people to rise against him.
252
SWITZERLAND
IHISIOBy
The Swlit ia theie dtcunutaiicM began to look towarcU
Louis XI. of Fnnce, who had confirmed the treaty of friendship
made with them by his father in 1453. Sigismund had applied
to him early in 146910 help him in his many troubles, and to give
him aid against the Swiss, but Louis had point-blank refused.
Anxious to secure their neutrality in case of his war with Charles,
be made a treaty with them on the xjth of August 1470 to this
e£fcct. All the evidence goes to show that Sigismund was not a
tool in the hands of Louis, and that Louis, at least at that time,
had no definite intention of involving Charles and the Swiss in a
war, but wished only to secure his own flank.
Sigismund in the next few jrears tried hard to get from Charles
the promised aid against the Swiss (the money was paid ptmctually
enough by Charles on his behalf), who put him ofl( with various
excuses. Charles on his side, in X47X-1472, tried to make an
alliance with the Swiss, his efforts being supported by a party in
Bern headed by Adrian von Bubenberg. Probably Charles wished
to use both Sigismund and the Swiss to further his own interests,
but his shifty pollcy'had the effect of alienating both from him.
Sigismund, disgusted with Charles, now inclined towards Louis,
whose ally he formally became in the summer of 147 J*— « change
which was the real cause of the emperor's flight from Treves in
November 1473, when he had come there expressly to crown
Charles. The Confederates on their side were greatly moved by
the oppression of their friends and allies in Alsace by Hagenbach,
and tried in vain (January 1474) to obtain some redress from his
master. Charles's too astute policy had thus k>st ium both
Sigismund and the Swiss. They now looked upon Louis, who,
thoroughly aware of Charles's ambition, and fearing that his
disappointment at Treves would soon lead to open war, aimed
at a master stroke-~-no less than the reconciliation of Sigismund
and the Swiss. This on the face of it seemed impracticable, but
common need and Louis's dexterous management brought it to
pass, so that on the 30th of March 1474 the Everlasting Compact
was signed at Constance, by which Sigismund finally renounced
all Austrian claims on the lands of the Confederates, and guaran-
teed them in quiet enjoyment to them; they, on the other hand,
agreed to support him if Charles did not give up the mortgaged
lands when the money was paid down. The next day the Swiss
joined the league of the Alsatian and Rhine cities, as also
did Sigismund. Charles was called on to receive the money
contributed by the Alsatian cities, and to restore his binds to
Sigismund. He, however, took no steps. Within a week the
oppressive bailiff Hagenbach was captured, and a month later
(May 9, 1474) he was put to death, Bern alone of the Confederates
being represented. On the 9th of October the emperor, acting
of course at the instance of Sigismund, ordered them to declare
war against Charles, which took place on the 25th of October.
Next day Louis formally ratified his alliance with the Con-
fed' rates, promising money and pensions, the latter to be increased
If he did not send men. Throughout these negotiations and later
Bern directs Swiss. policy, though all the Confederates are not
quite agreed. She was specially exposed to attack from Charies
and Charles's ally (since 1468) Savoy, and her best chance of
extending her territory lay towards the west and south. A
forward policy was thus distinctly the best for Bern, and this
was the line supported by the French party under Nicholas von
Diesbach, Adrian von Bubenberg opposing it, though not with
any idea of handing over Bern to Charies. The Forest districts,
however, were very suspldous of this movement to the west, by
which Bern alone could profit, though the League as a whole
might lose; then, too, Uri had in 1440 finally won the Val
Leventina, and she and her neighbours favoured a southerly
policy — a policy which was crowned with success after the gallant
victory won at Giomico in 1478 by a handful of men from Ziiricb,
Lucerne, Uri and Schwyx over xs.ooo Milanese troops. Thxis
Uri first gained a permanent footing south of the Alps, not
long before Bern won its first conquests from Savoy.
The war in the west was begun by Bern and her allies (Fribourg,
Soleure, &c.) by marauding expeditions across the Jura, in which
Hiricourt (November 1474) and Blamonl (.\ugust 1475) w^rc
taken, both towns being held of Charles by the " sires " de
Neuch&tel,acadetliiieo(tbecoaDtaofMaiitb£liard. It is said
that in the former expedition the white cross was borne (for the
first time) as the ensign of the Confederates, but not in the other.
Meanwhile Yolande, the duchess t>f Savoy, had, through fear
of her brother Louis XI. and hatred of Bern, finally joined
Charles and Milan (January 1475), the immediate result ai.
which was the capture, by the Bernese and friends (on the
way back from a foray on Pontarlier in the free county of Bur-
gundy or Fianche-Comt6), of several plaoes in Vaud, notably
Grandson and fichaUens, both held of Savoy by a member of
the house of Chabn, princes of Orange (April 1475), as well
as of Orbe and Jougne, held by the same, but under the
count of Burgundy. In the summer Bern seised on the
Savoyard district of Aigle. Soon after (October-November
X475) the same energetic policy won for her the Savoyard
towns of Morat, Avenches, Estavayer and Yverdon; while
(September) the Upper Vakis, which had conquered all
Lower or Savoyard Valais, entered into alliance with Bern
for the purpose of opposing Savoy by preventing the arrival of
Milanese troops. Alarmed at their success, the emperor and
Louis deserted (June-September) the Confederates, who thus,
by the influence of Louis and Bernese ambition, saw themselves
led on and then abandoned to the wrath of Charles, and very
likely to lose their new conquests. They had entered on the
war as " helpers " of the emperor, and now became principals
in the war against Charles, who raised the siege of Neuss, made
an alliance with Edward IV. of England, received the surrender
of Lorraine, and hastened across the Jura (Febroaiy 1476)
to the aid of his ally Yolande. On ih.e 3ist of February Charlet
laid siege to the castle of Grandson, and after a week's siege the
garrison of Bernese and Fribourgets had to surrender (Oct.
aS), while, by way of retaliation for the massacre of the garriaolt
of Estavayer in 1475, o^ ^^ 4xs men two only were spared la
order to act as executioners of their comrades. This hideout
news met a large body of the Confederates gathered together
in great haste to relieve the garrison,- and going to their
rendezvous at Neuch4tel, where both the count and town
had become allies of Bern in 1406. An advance body of
Bernese, Fribourgets and Schwyzers, in order to avoid the
castle of Vauxmarcus (seised by Charles), on the shore of
the Lake of Neuchitel, and on the direct road from Neuchitel
to Grandson, climbed over a wooded ^ur to the north, and
attacked (March 2) the Burgundian outposts. Charles drew
back his force in order to bring down the Swiss to the more
level ground where his cavalry could act, but his rear mis-
interpreted the order, and when the main Swiss force appeared
over the spur the Burgundian army was seized with a panic
and fled in disorder The Swiss had gained a glorious
victory, and regained their conquest of Grandson, besides
capturing very rich spoil in Charies's camp, parts of which are
preserved to the present day in various Swiss armouries. Such
was the famous battle of Grandson. Charies at once retired to
Lausanne, and set about reorganizing his army. He resolved
to advance on Bern by way of Morat (or Murten), which was
occupied by a Bernese garrison under Adrian von Bubenburg,
and laid siege to it on the 9th of June. The Confederates haul
imw put away all jealousy of Bern, and collected a large army.
The decisive battle took place on the afternoon of the ssnd of
June, after the arrival of the Zarich contingent under Hans
Waldmann. English archers were in Charles's army, while with
the Swiss was Ren£, the dispossessed duke of Lorraine. After
facing each other many hours in the driving lain, a.body of Swiss,
by outflanking Charies's van, stormed his palisaded camp,
and the Burgundians were soon hopelessly beaten, the losses on
both sides (a contrast to Grandson) being exceedingly heavy.
Vaud was reoccupied by the Swiss (Savoy having overrun
it on Charies's advance); but Louis now stej^d in and pror
cured the restoration of that region to Savoy, save Grand-
son. Morat, Orbe and ^hallens, which were to be held by
the Bernese jointly with the Fribourgers. Aigle by Bern alone
— Savoy at the same time renouncing all its clatms over Fri-
bourg. Thus French-speaking districts first became permanently
HISItXtYl
SWITZERLAND
aS3
eoooected with the Oonfedentlon, Utlieito patdy Cttnaa,
•ad th« wat had b^en one for the tnaintenanoe of recent
cooqiicsts, rather than purdy in defence of Swiss freedom.
Oiarlea tried in vain to raise a third army; Ren6 recovered
Lorvaine, and on the 5th of January 1477, under the walla of
Nancy, Charles's wide-reachinjg plans were ended by his defeat
and death, many Swiss being with Rent's troops. The wish of
the Bernese to overrun Franche-Comt£ was opposed by the older
m e m ber s of Che Confederation, and finally, in 1479, Louis, by
rtrj laqse payments, secured tlie abandonment of aJl daimaon
that province, which Was annexed to the French crown.
These glorious victories really laid the foundation of Swiss
jMtionality; but soon after them the long-standing jealousy
between the civic and rural elements in the Con-
Ok f mta tim federation neaily brok« it up. This had always
•■''•*'*• hindered common actfon'save in the case of certain
pressing questions. Xa 1370,. by the " Paxsons' ordinance "
(PfaflenbrieO, agreed on by all the. Confederates except Bern
and dams, all residents whether derics or Uynien, in the
Cottfedeiation who were bound by oath to the duke of
Austria were to swear faith to the Confiederation, and this
oath was to rank before any other; no appeal was to lie to
any court spiritual or lay (except in matrimonial and purdy
spiritual questions) outside the limits of the Confedera'tion,
and many regulations were laid down as to the suppression
of private wars and keeping of the peace on the high roads.
Further, in 1393, the '*Sempach ordmance" was accepted
by all the Confederated and Soleure; this was an attempt
U> enloroe police regulations atid to lay down "artides of
war '* for the organization and disdpline of the army of the
Confederates, minute regulations bdng made against plunder-
ing — women, monasteries and churches being in particular
protected and secured. But save these two doctunents common
action was limited to the meeting of two envoys from each
member of the Confederation and one from each of the " socii "
in the Diet, the powers of which were greatly limited by the
tnstnictions brought by each envoy, thus entailing frequent
lefercnce to his government, and induded foreign relations,
war and peace, and common arrangements as to police, pestilence,
customs duties, coinage, &c. The decisions of the majority did
not bind the minority save in the case of the affairs of the baili-
wicks ruled in common. Thus everything diepended on common
agreement and good win. But disputes as to the divisions of
the lands conquered in the Burgimdian War, and the proposal
to admit into the League the towns of Fribourg and Soleure,
which had rendered such good help in the war, caused the two
parties to form separate unions, for by the latt^ proposal the
number of towns would have been made the same as that of the
"L&nder," which these did not at all approve. Suspended a
moment by the campaign in the Val Leventina, these quarrels
broke out after (he victory of Giomico; and at the Diet of Suns
(December 1481), when it seemed probable that the failure of
an attempts to come to an understanding would result in the
disruption of the League, the mediation of Nicholas von der
FlOe (or Bruder Klaus), a holy hermit of Sachseln in Obwalden,
though he did not appear at the Diet in person, succeeded in
bringing both sides to reason, and the third great ordinance of
the League— the "compact of Stails''— was agreed on. By
this the promise of mutual aid and assistance was renewed,
tspedaSiy when one member attacked another, and stress was
laid on the duty of the several governments to maintain the
peace, and not to he^ the subjects of any other member in case
of a rising. The treasure and movables captured in the war
were to be equaUy di^^ded amongst the combatants, but the
territories and towns amongst the members of the League. As
a practical proof of the recondHation, on the same day the towns
of Fribourg and Soleure were received as fuU members of the
Confederation, muted* with aU the other members, though on
less favourable terras than usual, for they were forbidden to make
alliances, save with the consent of aU or of the greater part of
the other members. Both towns had long been allied with
Bern, whose influence was greatly increased by their admission.
Fribourg, founded In 11 78 by Berthold IV. of Z&ringen, had on
the extinction of Chat great dynasty (tstS) psssed sitcieeitfvely
by inheritance to Kyburg (xaiS), by purchase to Austria (1377),
and by commendation to Savoy (1452); when Savoy gave up iu
claims in 1477 Fribourg once more became a free imperial city:
She had become allied with Bern as early as 1143, bat in the
X4th and 15th centuries became Romance-speakmg, though from
1483 onwards German gained m strength and was the official
language tin 1798. Soleure (or Solothum) had been associated
with Bern from rs^s, but had m vain soui^t admission into>
the League in 1411. Both the new members had done much fbr
Bern in the Burgundian War, and it was for their good service
that she now procured them this splendid ieward» in hopes
perhaps of aid on other important and critical occasions.
The compact of Stans strengthened the bonds which joined
the members of the Confederation; and the same centrahxing ten-
dency is well seen in the attempt (i483-r489) oMIana Waldmann,
the burgomaster of ZOrich, to assert the rule of his dty over the
neighbouring country districts, to place aU power in the hands
of the gilds (whereas by Bran's constitution the patridan had
an equal share), to suppress all minor jurisdictions, and to raise
a uniform tax. But this idea of concentrating all powers in the
hands of the government aroused great resistance, and led to
his overthrow and-'execution. Peter Kistier succeeded (r470>
better at Bern in a reform on the .same lines, but less sweeiufig.
The esriy history of each member of the Confederation, and
of the Confederation itself, shows that they always professed 4o
belong toihe Empire, trying to become immediately dependent
on the emperor in order to prevent oppression by midAe-
lords, and to enjoy practical liberty. The Smpirfe itself had
now become very much of a shadow; dties and- princes
were graduaUy asserting their own independence, sometimes
breaking away from it altogether. Now, by the' p/^etkal
time of the Burgundian War, the Confederation t^tSom
stood in a position analogous to that of a powerful *^mi **»
free imperial dty. As long as the emperor's nomittal *"'*^
rights were not enforced, aU went weU; but, when Maitimilian^
in his attempt to reorganize the Empire, erected b 149$ at
Worms an imperial chamber which had jurisdiction in all
disputes between members of the Empire, the Confederates were
very unwiUing to obey it-~partly because they could m^tain
peace at home by their own authority, and partly because it
interfered with their practical independence. Again, thrir
refusal Co join the *' Swabian League," formed in 1488 by the
lords and dties of South Germany to keep the public peace,
gave further offence, as weU as thdr fresh alliances widi France.
Hence a struggle was inevitable, and the occasion by reason
of which it broke out was the seixure by the lyrolese authorities
in 1499 of the Mtlnsterthal, which bdonged to the " Gottet*
hausbund," one of the three leagues which had graduaUy arises
in Raetia. These were the " Gotteshausbund " in 1367 (taking
in aU the dependents of the cathedral church at Chur Uviog
in the Oberhalbstdn and Engadine); the "Ober" or " Grauer
Bund " in 1395 and 1424 (taking in the abbey of Disentis and
many counts and lords in the Vorder Rhdn vaUev, though its
name is not derived, as often stated, from the "grey coats "
of the first members, but from " grawen " or " grafen," as
so many counts formed part of it); and the *' League of the Ten
Jurisdictions " (Zehngerichtenbund), which arose in the Prftttt-
gau and Davos vaUey (1436) on the death of Count Frederick
of Toggenburg, but which, owing to certain Austrian claims in
it, was not quite so free as its ndghbours. The first and third
of these became aUied in 1450, but the formal union of the three
dates only from 1534, as documentary proof is wantiiig of the
aUeged meeting at Vazefol in i47r, though practicaUy before.
1524 they had very much in common. In 1497 the Ober Bund,
in 1498 the Gotteshausbtmd, made a treaty of alliance with the*
Everlasting League or Swiss Confederation, the Ten Jnrisdic
tions being unable to do more than show sympathy, owing to
Austrian claims, which were not bought up tffl 1649 and 1652.
Hence this attadc on the Mttnsterthal was an atuck on an
" associate " member of the Swiss Confederation, MaximiUan
being supported by the Swabian League; but its real historical
Importance ts the influence it had on the relations of the Swiss
35+
SWITZERLAND
fftlSVORY
to tbe Empire. Tke struggle hfited several mooths, the chief
fight being that in the Calveo gorge (above Mais; May 22, 1499),
in which Benedict Fontana, a leader of the Gottesbausbund
men, performed many heroic deeds before his death. But, both
sides beiiig exhausted, peace was made at Basel on the a 2nd of
September 1499, ^V ^^ ^ matters in dispute were referred
to arbitration, and the emperor annulled all tbe decisions of the
imperial chamber against the Confederation; but nothing was
1^ down as to ita future relations with the Empire. No further
real attempt, however, was made to enforce the righu of the
emperor, ajid the Confederation became a state allied with the
Empire, enjoying practical independence, though not formally
freed till 1648. Thus, 208 years after the origin of the Confedera^
tion in 129I1 it had got rid of all Austrian claims (1394 and 1474),
as well as all practical subjection to the emperor. But its further
advance towards tbe position of an independent state was long
checked by religious divisions within, and by the enormous
iilfluence of the French king on its foreign relations.
With the object of strengthening the northern border of the
Confederation, two more full members were admitted in 1 501 —
Basel and Schaffhausen— ^n the same terms as Fribourg a^^d
Soleure. The city of Basel had originally been ruled by i^s
bishop, but early in the X4th century it became a free imperial
city; before r 501 it had made no permanent alliance with the
Confederation, though it had been in continual relations with
iL Schaffhausen had grown up round the Benedictine monas-
tery of All Saints, and became in the early 13th century a free
ixnpcrial city, but was mortgaged to Austria from 1330 to 1415,
in which last year the emperor Sigismund declared all Duke
Fredei^ck's righu forfeited in consequence of his abetting
the Bight of Pope John XXII. It bought iu freedom in 1418
and became 4a '' associate " of the Confederation in 1454.
A few years later, in 1513, Appenzell, which in .1411 had
becoBic a ** proteaed " district, and in 1452 an '' associate "
n0L0aga0 member of the Confederation, was admitted as the
thirteenth full member; and this remained the
number till the fall of the old Confederation in 1798.
Round the three original members had gathered
first five others, united with the three, but not necessarily with
each other; and then gradually there grew up an outer circle,
cnnsisting of five more, allied with all the eight old members,
but tied down by certain stringent conditions. Constance, which
seemed called by nature to enter the League, kept aloof, owing
to a quarrel as to criminal jurisdiaion in the Thuigau, pledged
to it before the district was conquered by the Confederates.
In the first years of the i6th century the influence of the
Confederates south of the Alps was largely extended. The
system of giving pensions, in order to secure the
y*1 S right of enlisting tqen within the Confederation, and
of capitulations, Sy which the different members
supplied troops, was originated by Louis XI. in 1474, and later
followed by many other princes. Though a tribute to Swiss valour
and courage, this practice had very evil results, of which the first-
fruits were seen in tbe Milanese troubles (1500-1 5x6), of which the
following is a summary. Both Charles VIII. (1484) and Louis XII.
(1499 for ten years) reiiewed Louis XL's treaty. The French at-
tempts to gain Mihn were largely carried on by the help of Swiss
mercenaries, some of whom were on the opposite side; and, as
brotherly feeling was stiU too strong to make it possible for them
to fight against one another, Lodovico Sforjsa's Swiss troops
shamefully betrayed him to the French at No vara (1500). In
1500, too, the three Forest districts occupied Bellinzona (with
the Val Blenio) at the request of its inhabitants, and in 1503
Louis X^I. was forced to cede it to them. He, however, often
held back the pay of his Swiss troops, and treated them as
mere hirelings, so that when the ten years' treaty came to an
end Matthew Schinncr, bishop of Sitten (or Sion)i induced them
to join (1510) the pope, Julius U., then engaged in forming the
Holy League to expel the French from Italy. But when, after
the battle of Ravenna, Louis XII. became all-powerful in
Lombardy, 20,000 Swiss poured down into the Milanese and
occupied it, Felix Schmid, the burgomaster of Zurich, naming
Maximilian (Lodovico's son) duke of Milan, in return for which
he ceded to the Confederates Locarno, Val Maggia, Mcndrisio
and Lugano (1512), while the Raetian Leagues seiaed Chiaveima,
Bormio and tbe Valtellina. (The former districts, with Bellin*
zona, the Val Blenio and the Val Leveniina, were in 1803 made
into the canton of Ticino, the hotter were held by Raetia till
1797.) In 1 5 13 the Swiss completely defeated the French at
Novara, and in 1515 Pace was sent by Henry VIII. of England
to give pensions and get soldiers. Francis I. at once on hia
accession (151 5) began to prepare to win back the Milanese,
and, successfully evading the Swiss awaiting his descent from
the Alps, beat them in a pitched battle at 'Marignano near
Milan (Sept. 13, 1515), which broke the Swiss power in north
Italy, so that in 1516 a peace was made With France— the
Valais, the Three Raetian Leagues and both the abbot and town
of St Gall being included on the side of the Confederates. Pro-
vision was made for the neutrality of either party in case the
other became involved in war, and large pensions were.promised.
This treaty was extended by another in 1524 (to which ZOrich,
then under Zwingli's influence, would not agree, holding aloof
from the French alliance till 16x4), by which the French king
might, with the consent of the Confederation, enlist any number
of men between 6000 and 16,000, paying them fit wages, and the
pensions were raised to 3000 francs annually to each member
of the Confederation. These two treaties were the starting-
point of later French interference with Swiss affairs.
4. In 1499 the Swiss had practically renounced their allegi-
ance to the emperor, the temporal chief of the world according
to medieval theory; and in the x6lh century a great
number of tbcm did the same by the world's spiritual iijJJJ*^
chief, the pope. Tbe scene of the revolt was Ziirich,
and the leader Ulrich ZwingU (who settled in Zurich at the very
end of X518). But we cannot understand Zwingli's career unless
we remember that he was almost more a political reformer than
a religious one. In his former character his policy was threefold.
He bitterly opposed the French alliance and the pension and
mercenary system, for he had seen its evils with his own eyes
when serving as chaplain with the troops in the Milanese in
1512 and 151 5. Hence in i$2x his influence kept Zurich back
from joining in the treaty with Francis I. Then, too, at the
tixDC of the Peasant Revolt (1525), he did what he could to lighten
the harsh rule of the city over the neighl ouring rural districts,
and succeeded in getting serfage abolished. Again he had it
greatly at heart to secure for Zurich and Bern the chief power
in the Confederation, because of their importance and sixe; he
wished to give them extra votes in the Diet, and would have
given them two-thirds of the " common bailiwicks " when these
were divided. In his character as a religious reformer we must
remember that be was a humanist, and deeply read in classical
literature, which accounts for his turning the canonries of tbe
GrossmUnster into professorships, reviving the old school of the
Carolinum, and relying on the arm of the state to carry out
religious changes (see Zwincli). After succeeding at two public
disputations (both held in 1523} his views rapidly gained ground
at Zurich, which long, however, stood quite alone, the otJier
Confederates issuing an appeal to await the decision of the
asked-for general council, and proposing to carry out by the arm
of the state certain small reforms, while clinging to the <Ad
doctrines. Zwingli had to put down the extreme wing of the
Reformers— the Anabaptists— by force (1525-1526). Quarrels
soon arose as to allowing the new views in the " common baili-
wicks." The disputation at Baden (1526) was in favour of the
maintainers of the old faith; but that at Bern (1528) resulted
in securing for the new views the support of that great town,
and so matters began to take another aspect. In 1528 Bern
joined the union formed in December 1527 in favour of religious
freedom by Zurich and Constance {ChrisUichcs Burgrccht)^ and
her example was followed by Schaffhausen, St Gall, Basel,
Bicnnc and Muhlhausen (1528-1529). This attempt virtually to
break up the League was met in February x 5 29 by the offensive
and defensive alliance made with King Ferdinand of Hungary
(brother of the emperor) by the three Forest districts, with
Lucerne and Zug, followed (April 1529) by the " Christliche
Vereinigung," or union between these five mcmbers^of the
msTdty]
League. Ziiridi was greatly mcved by this, and, as ZwingU
held th&t for the honour of God war Wtas as necessary as icooo-
dasm, hostilities seemed inuninont ; hot Bern held back; and the
first peace of Kappel was concluded (June 1529), by which the
Hungarian alliance was annulled and the principle of " religious
parity " (or freedom) was admitted in the case of each member
of the League, while in the "common bailiwicks " the majority
in each parish was to dedde the religion of that parish. This was
at once a victory and a check for Zwingli. He tried to make
an alliance with the Protestants in Oennany, but failed at the
meeting at MaitMitg (October 1529) to come to an agreement
with Luther on the subject of the Eucharist, and the division
between the Swiss and the German Reformations was^terao-
typcd. Zwingli now developed his views as to the greater
wei^t which ZOrich and Bern ou|^t to have in the League.
Quarvds, too, went on in the " common bailiwicks," for the
members of the League who clung to the old faith had a majority
of votes ia matters relating to these districts. ZOrich tried to
cut off supplies of food from reaching the Romanist membciB
(contrary to the wishes of Zwingli), and, on the death of the
abbot of, St Gall, disregarding the rights of Lucerne, Schwyz and
GlaiiB, who shared with her since 1451 the office of protectors
of the abbey, suppressed the monastery, giving the rule of the
land and the people to her own officers. Bern in vain tried to
BBoderate this aggressive policy, and the Romanist membexs
of the League indignantly advanced from Zug towards Zflrich.
Near Kappel, on the nth of October 15^1, the ZOrich vanguard
under Gdldli was (perhapsr owing to his treachery) surprised, and
deifite reinforcements the men of ZOrich were beaten, among the
skin being ZwingU himself. Another defeat completed the
djaoasfiture of ZOrich, and by the second peace of Kapi)el
(November 1531) the principle of " parity " was recognized, not
mcxely ia the case oC each member of the League and of the
"oommon bailiwicks," but in the latter Romanist minorities
in every parish were to have a right to celebrate their own wor-
ship. Thus everywhere the rights of a minority were protected
from the encroadmients of the majority. The " ChristUches
Burgrecfat " was abohsfacd, and ZOrich was condemned to pay
heavy damages. BuUinger succeeded Zwingli, but this treaty
meant that neither side could now try t« convert the other
wholesale. The League was permanently split into two religious
camps: the Romanists, who met at Lucerne, numbered, besides
the five already mentioned, Fribourg, Soleure, Appenzell
(Inner Rhoden) and the abbot of St Gall (with the Vahus and
the bishop of Basel), thus commanding sateen votes (out of
twenty«iiine) in the Diet; the Evangelicak were ZOrich, Bern,
Srhafhanten, Appenaell (Ausser Rhoden), Glarus and the towiw
of Sc Gall, Basel and Bienne (with GraubOnden), who met at
Aann.
Been had her eyes always fixed upon the Savoyard lands to
the aontb-west, m which she had got a footing in 1475, *nd now
r«B|wif «# made zeal for religious reforms the excuse for resum-
*^^ ing. tier advance policy. In 1536 Guillaume Farcl,
**"■• a preacher from Dauphin^) had been sent to reform
Aigle, Mocat and NeuchAteL In 153 a he came to Geneva, an
andent <ity of which the rule had long been disputed by the
prinoe<biahop, the burgesses and the house of Savoy, the latter
holding the neighbouring districts. She had become in 1 519 the
ally of Fribourg, in 1526 that of Bern also; and in 1530, by their
influeaoe, a peace was made between the contending parties.
The religious changes introduced by Fazd greatly displeased
Fribourg, which abandoned the alliance (x534)y And iniS35 the
Reformation was firmly planted ia the city. The duke of
Savoy, however, took up arms against Bcm (1536), who overran
Gex, Vaud mid the independent bishopric of Lausanne, as well
as the ChaUais to .the south of the lake. Geneva was only
saved by the unwillingness of the dtiacns. Bern thus ruled
north and south of the lake, and carried matters with a high
hand. Shortly after this John Calvin, a refugee from Picardy,
was, when passing through (jeaeva, detained by Farel to aki him,
and, after an exile from i53&'iS4x, owing to opposition of the
papal party and of the buighen, who objected to Bernese rule,
he was recalled (1541) and set up his wonderful theocratic
SWITZERLAND
«55
government in the city, in 1553 burning Servctus, the UiiiUrian
(see Calvin and ScRvrnm), and In 153s expelling many who
upheld municipal liberty, repbdng them by French, English,
lulians and Spaniards as new burghen^ whose names are still
frequent in Geneva (e.g, CandoUe, Mallet, Diodati). His theo-
logical views led to disputes with the ZOrich Reformers, which
were partly settled by thie Consentus Tigunnus of 1549, and
more 'completely by the Hthtiie Confession of 15620x566, which
formed the basis of union between the two parties.
By the time of Calvin's death (1564) the old faith had begun
to take the offensive; the reforms made by the Coundl of Trent
urged OB the Romanists to make an attempt to recover lost
ground. Emmanud PhfUbert, duke of Savoy, the hero of St
CNientin (1557), and one of the greatest generals of the da^r, with
the support of the Romanist membetc of the League, deMUided
the restoration of the districts seised by Bern in 1536, add on the
30Ch of October 1564 the Treaty of- Lausaniie confinRed the
dedsbn of the other Confederates sittfaig as arbitrators (according
to the old constitutfonal custom). By this tteaty Gex, the
Genevois and the Chablais were to be given back, while Lausanne,
Vevey, Chlllon, Villeneuve, Nyon, Avenches and Yverdon were
to be kept by Bern, who engaged to maintain the old rights and
liberties of Vaud. Thus Bern lost the lands south of the lake,
hi which St Francis of Saks, the exikd prince>bishop of Geneva
(t6o2-i6Aa), at once proceeded to cany out the restoratkm of
the old faith. In X555 Been and Fribourg, as creditoia of the
debt-laden count, divided the county of Gruyfoe, thos gettilig
French-speaking subjects. In 1 558 Geneva renewed her aUianefe
with Benir and in 1584 she made one with ZOrich. Thi^ duke
of Savoy made several vain attempts to get hold of GchevS; the
hst (In x6o:>) bemg known as the '* escalade."
The decrees of the Council of Tkeat had been aecepied fully
by the Romanist members of the League, so far as rebttes to
dogma, but not as legards discipline or the nlatUinik j^^^^^^^
of cfaorch and state, the sofviveign righu and jurist 4to«raM- '
diction of each state behig always earcfully reserved.''*^
The counter-Refomiation, however, or reaction in favour of
the old faith, was making rapid progress in the Confederation,
mainly through the indefatigable exertions of Charles Borromeo,
from 1560 to 15S4 arehbiihop of Mlhoi (in which diocese
the Italian bailiwicks were included),, and nephew of Pius IV.,
supported at Lucerne by Ludwig Pfyffer, who, having
been (i56a-x57o) the chief of the Swiss metcenarics in the
French wars of religion, did so ouch till his death (1594) to
further the religious reaction at home that he was pOpuliufy
known as the " Swiss king." In 1574 the Jesuits, the great
order of the reaction, were established at Lucerne; in XS79 k
papal nuncio came to Lucerne; Charles Borromeo founded the
" Colleghim Helveticum " at Uilan for the education of foity*
two young Swiss, and the Catholic members of the League made
an alliance with the bishop of Basel; in X58X the Capuchins were
introduced to influence the more ignorant classes. Most impor>
Unt of all was the Oolden or Borronean League, condoded
(Oct. 5, 1586) between the seven Romanist memben of the
Confederation (Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Lucerne, Zug,
Fribourg and Soleure) for the twdntenance of the trae faith in
their territories, each engaging to punish backsUding msmbcfS
and to help each other if attacked by external enemies, notwith-
standing any other leagues, old or new. This league mark*
the final breaking up of the Confederation into two great parties,
which greatly hindered its progress. The Romanist members
had a majority in the Diet, and were therefore able to refuse
admittance to (kneva, Strassburg and MOhlhausen. .Aiiotber
result of these religious differences was the breaking up tA
Appenzell into two parts (1 597), each sending one representative
to the Diet—" Inner Rhoden " remaining Romanist, " Ausser
Rhoden " adopting the new views. We may compare vdth this
the actwn of ZOrich in 1555, when she received the Protestknt
exiles (bringing with them the nlk-weavhig Industry) from
Locarno and the Italian bailiwicks into her buzghership, tml
Itafian naitaes are found there to this day (e.^ Oivlli, Marsh).
In the Thirty Years* War the Confederatloa xemained aeutial,
being bound both to Austria (1474) and to France (1516), and
«56
SWITZERLAND
IHlSTORy
neither religious party wisliiiig to give the other an esocuse for
calliog in foreign armies. But the troubles in Raetia threatened
entanglements. Austria - wished to secure the MUnsterthal
(belonging to the League of the Ten Jurisdictions) » and S|>ain
wanted the command of the passes leading from the Vaitellina
(conquered by the leagues of Raetia in 151 a), the object being
to connect the Habsburg lands of Tirol anid Milan« In the
Vaitellina the rule of the Three Raetian Leagues was very harsh,
and Spanish intrigues easily brought about the massacre of
1620, by which the valley was won, the Romanist members of
the Confederation stopping the troops of Zilrich and Bern. In
1622 the Austrians conquered the Prilttigau, over which they
slIU had certain feudal rights. French tro<^ regained the
VaitelUna in 1634, but it was occupied once more in 1629 by
the imperial troops, and it was not till 1635 that the French,
imder Rohan, finally succeeded in holding it. The French,
however, wished to keep it permanently; hence new troubles
arose, and in 1637 the natives, under (jeorge Jenatsch, with
Spanish aid drove them out, the Spaniards themselves being
forced to resign it in 1639. It was only in 1649 and 1652 that
the Austrian rights in the PrSttigau were finally bought up by the
League of the Ten Jurisdictions, which thus gained its freedom.
In consequence of Ferdinand II. 's edict of restitution (1629),
by which the siaius quo of 1552 was re-established — ^the high>
water mark of the counter^Reformation— the abbot of St Gall
tried to make some religious changes in his territories, but the
protest of Zurich led to the Baden compromise of 1632, by- which,
in the case of disputes on religious matters arising in the " com-
mon bailiwicks, " the decision was to be, not by a majority of
the cantons, but by means of frieiidly discussion— a logical
application of the doctrine o£ religious parity-— or by arbitration.
But by far the most important event in Swiss history in this
age is the formal freeing of the Confedei»tion from the empire.
Basel had been admitted a member of the League
in 1 501, two years after the Confederation had been
'J^ practically freed from the jurisdiction of the imperial
chamber, though the dCy was included in the new
division of the empire into " circles " (x$2x), irhkh did not take
in the older members of the Confederation. Basel, however,
refused to admit this jurisdiction; the question was taken up by
France and Sweden at the congress of MOnstec, and formed the
subject of a special clause in both the treaties of Westphalia,
by which thedty of Basel and the other " Hdvetiorum cantones "
were declared to be " in the possession, or almost in the posses-
sion, of entire liberty and exemption from the empire, and
uuUiUenus subject to the imperial tribunals." This was intended
to mean fomuil exemption from aU obligations to the empire
(with which the Confederation was connected hereafter simply
as a friend)r and to be a definitive settlement of the question.
Thus by the events of 1499 and X64& the Confederation had
become an independent European state, which, by the treaty of
1516, stood as regards France in a relation of neutrality.
In 1668, in consequence of Louis XIV. 's temporary occupation
of the Franche Comt6, an old scheme for settling the number
of men to be sent by each member of the Confederation to the
joint army, and the appointment of a council of war in war
time, that is^ an attempt to create a common military organisa-
tion, was accepted by the Diet, which was to send two deputies
to the council, armed with full political powers. This agreement,
known as the Defensionak, is 'the oidy instance of joint and
unanimous action in this miserable period of Swiss histoiy, when
religious divisions crippled the energy of the Confederation.
Throughout the 17th and i8th centuries the Confederation
was practically a dependency of France. In 16x4 Zdrich foir
AMcsi the first time joined in the treaty, which was renewed
ir S t!!!!? ^ *^^ '"^** special provisions as regards the
SJJjJJJJ^ Protestant Swiss mercenaries in the king's pay and
amdPh9 9i ^ promise of French neutrality in case of civil war
MAfMa* in the League. The Swiss had to stand by while
c)*?'' Louis XIV. won Alsace (1648), Franche Comt£
(1678) and StrassbutK (i68x). But, as Louis inclined more
and more to an anti-Protestant policy, the Protestant members
of the League favoured t&e Dutch mllltaiy service; and it was
through their influence that in X707 the " states *' of the princi-
pality of Neuchitd, on the extinction of the Longueville line
of these princes, decided in favour of the king of Prussia (repre-
senting the overiords—the house of Chalon-Orangc) as against
the various French pretenders churning from the Longueville
dynasty by descent or by will. In 171 5 the Romanist members
of the League, in hopes of retrieving their defeat of 17x2 (see
below), agreed, while renewing the treaty and capitulations,
to put France in the position of the guarantor of their freedom,
with rights of interfering in case of attack from within or from
without, whether by counsel or ams, while she promised to
procufe restitution of the lands lost by them in 1712. This
last dause was simply the surrender of Swiss independence, and
was strongly objected to by the Protestant members of the
Confederation, so that in X777 it was dropped^ ^en all the
Confederates made a fresh defensive alliance, wherein their
Sovereignty and independence were expressly set fofth. Thus
France had succeeded to the position of the empire with
regard to the (Confederation, save that her claims were practically
asserted and voluntarily admitted.
Between 1648 and X798 the Confederation was distracted ,
by religious divisions and feelings ran very high. A scheme
to set up a central administration fell through in 1655, through
jealousy of Bern and Zurich, the proposers. In 1656 a question
as to certain religious refugees, who were driven from Schwyz
and took refuge at Zurich, brought about the first VtUemergen
War, in which the Romanists were successful, and procuxcd a
clause in the treaty asserting very strongly the absolute aove>
relgnty, in religious as well as in political matters, of each member
of the League within its own territories, while in the " common
bailiwicks " the Baden arrangement (1632) was to prevail.
Later, the atUmpt of the abbot of St Gall to enforce bis rights
in the Toggenbuxg swelled into the second Villemergen War
(17x2), which turned out very ill for the defeated Romanists.
Zurich and Bern were henceforth to hold in severalty Baden,
Rapperswil, and part of the ''common bailiwicks" of the
Aargau, both towns being given a share in the govenmtcnt
of the rest, and Bern in that of Thuigau and Rheinthal, from
which, as well as from that part of Aargau, she had been carefully
exduded in 14x5 and X460. The <»ily thing that prospered
was the prindple of " relipous parity," idiich was established
oompletdy, as regards both xeligions, within each parish in (he
" common bailiwick."
The Diet had few powers; the Romanists had the majority
there; the sovereign rights oJf each xnember of the League and
the limited mandate of the envoys effectually checked all pro-
gress. Zurich, as the leader of the League, managed matters
when the Diet was not sitting, but could not enforce her orders.
The Confederation was little more than a collection of separate
atoms, and it is really marvellous that it did not bicak up
through its own weakness.
In these same two centuries, the chief feature in domtttic
Swiss politics is the growth of an aristocracy: the pow^r of
voting and the power of ruling, are placed in the hands of a
small dtas. This is chiefly seen in Bern, Lucerne, Fribourg
and Soleure, where there were not the primitive democracies
of the Forest districts nor the govenmxent by gilds as at
Zurich, Basel and Schaflhausen. It was effected by refusing
to admit any new burgheis, a practice which dates from the
middle of the x6th century, and is connected (like the similar
movement in the smaller local units of the " commanes " in
the rural districts) with the question of poor relief after the
suppression of the monasteries. Outsiders (Hintersaase
or Niedeigehusene) had no political rights, however long they
might have resided, while the privileges of burghership were
strictly hereditary. Further, within the burghers, a small
class succeeded in securing the monopoly of all public offices,
which was kept up by the practice of co^ipting, and was known
as the " patriciate." So in Bern, out of 360 burgher families
69 only towards the dose of the x8th century formed the ruKng
ofiigarchy-Hind, though to foreignen the government seemed
msioRvi
SWITZERLAND
«57
admirably nmnacsd, yet the bat thing that eonld be aald of
it WIS that it was demociati& In 1749 Samuel Henci (dis-
gusted at being lefused the post of town librarian) made a
Iniitless attempt to oveithiow this oligarchy, like the lawyer,
Pierre Fatio at Geneva in X707. The hazsh character of Bernese
nik (and the same holds good with reference to Uri and the
Val Leventina) was shown in the great strictness with which
iu subject land Vaud was kept in hand: it was ruled as a
ooaquered land by a benevolent despot, and we can feel no
svfpcise that Major J. D. A. Davd in 1723 tried to free his
native land, or that it was in Vaud that the principles of the
French Revolution were most eageriy welcomed. Another
result of this aristocratic tendency was the way in which the
dries despised the netghbouring country districts* and managed
gradually to deprive them of their equal political rights and to
levy heavy taxes upon them. Tbese and other grievances
(the fall in the price of food after the dose of the Thirty Years'
War, the bwering of the vahie of the coin, ftc), combined with
the presence of many soldiers discharged after the great war,
led to the great Peasant Revolt (1653) In the territories of
Bern, Soleute, Lucerne and Basel, interesting historically as
being the first popular rising since the old days of the 13th and
Utb centuries, and because reminiscences of legends ooanccted
with those times led to the appeaianoe of the " three Tells,"
who greatly stirred up the people. The rising was put down at
the cost of much bloodshed, but the demands of the peasants
were not granted. Yet during this period of political powerless-
ness a Swiss literature first arises: Conrad Gesner and (Sites
Tschudi in the x6th century are succeeded by J. J, Scheuchzer,
A. von Haller, J. C Lavater, J. J. Bodmer, H. B. de Saussuie,
J. J. Rousseau, J. von MiUier; the taste for Swiss travel is
stimulated by the publication (ry^s) of the first teal Swiss
guide-book by J. G. Ebel (f.v.), based on the old Ddicias;
industry throve greatly. The residence of such* brilliant fordgn
writers as Gibbon and Voltaire within or dose to the territories
of the Cookda^tion helped on this remarkable intellectual
revivaL Folitical aspiratkms were not, however, -wholly
crushed, and found their centre in the Hdvetic Society,
founded in 2762 by F. U. Balthssar and others.
The Gonfederatioir and France had been dosely connected
for so long that the outbreak of the French Revolution could
gti^gtg^ not fail to affect the Swiss. The Hdvetian Club,
tktRmaet founded at Paris in 1790 by several eailed Vaudois
*» i >fc<*M and Fribourgers, was the centre from which the new
IkifHt^uT ^^*'' ^^"^ spi*cad in the western part of the Confedc-
'■ ration, and risings directed or stirred up. In 1790 the
Lower Valais rose sgainst the oppressive rule of the upper
dbtricts; in 1791 Porrentruy defied the princO'bishop of Basd,
deqpite the imperial troops he simimoned, and proclaimed
(November x79a> the " Rauradan republic," which three
months later (1793) became the ..French department of the
Mont Terrible; Geneva was only saved (1793) from Frsnce by
a force sent from Ztttich and 3em; while the massacre of the
Swiss guard at the TUilerics on the loth of August 179' aroused
intense indignation. The rulers, however, unable to enter
into the new ideas, contented themselves with suppresring
them by force, f.^ ZOrich in the case of StlUa (1795)- St Gall
mansgrd to free itself from its prince-abbot (i795^x797)t but the
Lesgncs of Raetia so oppressed their subjects in the ValtdUna
that in 1797 Bonaparte (after conquering the Milanese from the
Austrians) joined them to the Cbalpme republic The Diet
was distracted by party struggles and the fall of the tdd On-
fedoation was not far distant. The rumours of the vast
treasures stored up at Bern, and the desire of securing a bulwark
against Austrian attack, spedaUy turned the attention of the
directory towards the (federation; and this was utilised
by the heads of the Reform patty in the Confederation—Peter
Ochs (i7ss*tS3x), the burgomaster of Basel, and Fr^dMc
CCsar Laharpe (1754-1838; tutor, 1783-1794, to the later
tsar Akkaoder I.), who had left his nome in Vaud through
disgust at Bernese oppression, both now wishing for aid from
outside in ord« to free their land from the rule of the oligsrchy.
Renoe, when Laharpe, at the bead of some twenty eifles from
Vaud and Fribourg, called (Dec. 9, 1797) on the Directory
to protect the liberties of Vend, which, so he said (by a bii of
purely apocryphal history), France by the treaty of- 1565 was
bound to guarsntee, his appeal found a ready answer. In
February 1798 Ftench troops occupied MOhlhausen and Bienne
(Bid), as well as those parts of the lands of the prince-bishop
of Basel (St Imier and the Mfinsterthal) ss regards which he
had been since t579 the ally of the (>itholic members of the
Confedemtion. Another army entered Vaud (February 1798),
when the ** Lemanic republic " was proclaimed, and the Diet
broke up in dismay without taking any steps to avert the coming
storm. Brune and his army occuptod Fribourg and Soleure,
and, after fierce fighting at Ncuenegg, entered (March 5)
Bern, deserted by her allies and distracted by quarrels within.
With Bern, the stron^old of the aristocratic party, feU the
old Confederation. The revolution triumphed throughout
the country. Brane (March x6~r9) put forth a wonderful
scheme by which the Confederation with its "associates"
and " subjects " was to be split into three republics— the Tellgau
{Le. the Forest districts), the Rhodam'c (t.e. Vaud, the Valais,
the Bernese Oberhmd and the Italian bailiwicks), and the
Helvetic (t.e. the northern and eastern portions); but the direc-
tory disapproved of this (March 23), and on the 99th of March
the " Hdvetic republic, one and indivisible," was n*
proclaimed. This was accepted by ten cantons ^'• ^
only as well as (April i») the constitution drafted '**"*
by Ochs. By the new scheme the territories of the Everlasting
League were split up into twenty-three (later nineteen, Raetia
only coming in in 1799) administrative districu, called ** can-
tooif," a name now officially used in Switserland for the first
time, though it may be found employed by foreigners in the
French treaty of x4St, in Commynes and Machiavelli, and in
the treaties of Westphalia (1648); A central government was
set up, with its seat at Lucerne, comprising a senate and a great
council, together forming the legislature, and named by electors
chosen by the people in the proportion of x to every too dtirens,
with an executive of five directors chosen, by the legislature,
and having four ministers as subordinates or " chief secretaries."
A supreme court of justice was set up; a status of Swiss citizen-
ship was recognized; and absolute freedom to settle in any
canton was given, the political " communes " being now com-
posed of all residents, and iKyt merely of the burghers. For the
first time an attempt was made to organize the Confedemtion
as a single state, but the change was too sweeping to last, for
it largely ignored the local patriotism which had done so much
to create the Confederation, though more recently it had made
it politically powerless. The three Forest districts rose in
rebellion against the invaders and the new constitutions which
destroyed their ancient prerogatives; but the vaUant resistance
of the Schwyzers, under Alois Reding, on the hdghu of
Morgarten (April and May), and that of the Unterwaldners
(August and September), were put down by French armies. The
proceedings of the French, however, soon turned into disgust -
and hatred the joyful fedings with which they had been hailed
as liberators. Geneva was annexed to France (April 1^98);
Getsau, after an independent existence of over 400 years, was
made a mere district of Schwyz; immense fines were levied and
the treasury at Bern pillaged; the land was treated as if it had
been conquered. The new republic was compelled to make a
very dose offensive and ddensive alliance with France, and
its directon were practically nominated from Paris. In Juiie'
October 1799 ZOrich, the Foreftt cantons and Raetia became
the scene of the struggles of the Austrians (wdcomed yith joy)
against the French and Russians. The manner, too. In which
the reforms were carried out alienated many, and, soon after the
directory gave way to the consulate in Paris (r8 Brumaire or
Nov. xo, 1799), the Hdvetic directory (Jannaxy 1800) was
replaced by an executive committee.
The scheme of the Hdvetic republic bad gone too ftff in the
direction of centralization; but it was not easy to find the happy
mean, and vioktft discuasbnt went on between the " Unitary "
258
SWITZERLAND
IHtSTORV
(beaded by Oc}is and Lahafpe) and " Federalist " parties.
Many drafts were put forwatd and one actually submitted to
but rejected by a popular vote (June i8oa) In July iSo2 the
French troops ^ere withdrawn from Switzerland by Bonaparte,
ostensibly to comply with the treaty of Amiens, really to show
the Swiss that their best hopes lay in appealing to him. The
Helvetic government was gradually driven back by armed
force, and the Federalists seemed getting the best of it, when
(Oct. 4) Bonaparte offered himself as mediator, and summoned
ten of the chief Swiss statesmen to Paris to discuss
mImoSuL matters with him (the " Consulla "—December i8oa).
He had long taken a very special interest in Swiss
matters, and in 1802 had given to the Helvetic republic the
Frickthal (ceded to France in 1801 by Austria), the last Austrian
possession within the borders of the Confederation. On the
other hand, he had made (August xSos) the Valais into an
independent republic. In the discussions he pointed out that
Swiss needs required a federal constitution and a neutral posi-
tion guaranteed by France. Finally (Feb. xg, 1803) he laid
before the Consulta the Act of Mediation which he had elaborated
and which they had perforce to accept— a document which
Iwmed a new departure in Swiss history, ai|d the influence of
which is vbible in the present constitution.
Throughout, " Switzerland " is used for the first time as tne
official name of the Confederation. The thirteen members
of the old Confederation before 1798 are set up again, and to
them are added six new cantons — two (St Gall and Graubiinden
or Griaons) having been formerly " associates," and the four
others being made up of the subject lands conquered at different
times— Aargau (141 5), Thurgiau (1460), Ticino or Teasin (1440,
1500, 1512), and Vaud (1536). In the Diet, six cantons which
had a population of more than xoo,ooo (viz. Bern, ZUrich,
Vaud, St Gall, Graubtinden and Aaigau) were given two
votes, the others having but one apiece, and the deputies were
to vote freely within limits, though not against their tnstructions.
Meetings of the Diet were to be held alternately at Fiibouig,
Bern, Sokure, Basel, Ziliich and Lucerne — the chief magis-
trate of each of these cantons being named for that year the
"landamman o£ Switzerland." The " landsgemeinden/' or
popular assemblies, were restored in the democratic cantons,
the qantonal governments in other cases being in the hands
of a "great council" (legislative) and the "small council"
(executive) — ^a property qualification being required both for
voters and candidates. No canton was to form any political
alliances abroad or at home. The " communes " were given
Jarger political rights, the burghers who owned and Used the
common lands became more and more private aasociations.
There was no Swiss burghership, as in 1798, but perfect Hberty
of settlement in any canton. There were to be no privileged
classes or subject lands. A very close alUanoe with France
(on the basis of that of 1516) was concluded (Sept. 27,
1803). The whole constitution and organisation were far
better suited for the Swiss than the more symmetrical system
of the Helvetic republic; but, as it was guaranteed by Bonaparte,
and his influence was predominant, the whole fabric was dosely
bound up with him, and fell with him. Excellent in itself,
the constitution set forth in the Act of Mediation failed by reason
of iu setthig.
For ten years Switzerland enjoyed peace and prosperity
under the new coxkstitution. Pestalozzi and Fellenberg worked
out their educational theories; K. Escher of Zurich
otuu. embanked the Linth, and his family was thence
called "von der Linth"; the central government
prepared numy schemes for the common welfare. Oa (he other
hand, the mediator (who became emperor in 1804) lavishly
expended his Swiss troops, the number of which couM only be
kept up by a regular blood tax, while the " BerUa decrees "
raised the price of many articles. In 1806 the principality
of Neuch&td was given to Marshal Berthier; Tessin was occupied
by French troops from x8io to 18x3, and in x8xo the Valais
was made into the department of the Simplon, so as to secure
that pass. . At home, the liberty of moving if
another (though given by the constitution) was, by the Diet
in 1805, restricted by requiring ten years' residence, and then
not granting political rights in the canton or a right of profiting
by the cooununal property. As soon as Napoleon's power
began to wane (1812-1813), the position of Switzerland became
endangered. Despite the personal wishes of the tsar (a pupil of
Laharpe's), the Austrians, supported by the reactionary party
in Switzerland, and without aqy real resistance on the part of
the Diet, as well as the Russians troops, crossed the frontier
on the tist of December 18x3, and on the 29th of December
the Diet was induced to declare the abolition of the 1803 con-
stitution, guaranteed, like Swiss neutrality, by Napoleon. Bern
headed the party which wished to restore the old state of things,
but Zurich and the majority stood out for the nineteen cantons.
The powers exercised great pressure to bring about a meeting
of deputies from all the nineteen cantons at Zurich (April 6,
1814, " the bng Diet "); party strife was very bitter, but on the
X2th of September it decided that the Valais, Neucfa&tel and
Geneva should be raised from the rank of " associates " to that
of full members of the Confederation (thus making up the
familiar twenty-two). As compensation the congress of Viexma
(March 20, x8 1 5) gave Bern the town of Biexme (Biel), and all (save
a small part which went to Basel) of the territories of the prince-
bishop of Basel (" the Bernese Jura "); but the Valtellina was
granted to Austria, and MUhlhausen was not freed from France.
On the 7th of August 18x5 the new constitution was sworn
to by all the cantons save Nidwalden, the consent of which was
only obtained (Aug. 30) by armed force, a deUiy fhmPima
for which she paid by seeing Engelberg and the llnS!^
valley above (acquired by Nidwalden in 1798) given
to Obwalden. By the new constitution the sovereign rights of
each canton were fully recognized, and a return made to the
lines of the old constitution, though there were to be no subject
lands, and political rights were not to be the exclusive privilege
of any class of citizens. Each canton had one vote in the Diet,
where an absolute majority was to decide ail matters save
foreign affairs, when a majority of three-fourths was required.
The management of current business, &c., shifted eveiy two
years between the governments of Zurich, Bern and Lucerne
(the three '* Voxorte "). The monasteries were guaranteed in
their rights and privileges; and xk> canton was to make any
alliance contrary to the rights of the Confederation or of any
other canton. Provision was made for a Federal army.
Finally, the Congress, on the 20th of November 18x5,
placed Switzerland and parts of North Savoy (Chablais, Faudgny
and part of the (kncvois) under the guarantee of the Great
Powers, who engaged to maintain their neutrality, thus freeing
Switzerland from her 300 years' subservience to France, and
compensating in some degree for the reactionary nature of the
new Swiss constitution when compared with that of 1803.
5. The cities at once secured for themselves in the cantoxial
great councils an overwhelming representation over the neigh-
bouring country districts, and the agreement of
1805 as to migration from one canton to another was j^StamT
renewed (18x9) by twelve cantons. For some time
there Was little Ulk of reforms, but in 18x9 the Helvetic Society
definitely became a political society, and the foundation in 1824
of the Marksmen's Association enabled men from fdl cantons to
meet together. A few cantons (notably Tessin) were beginxiing
to make reforms, when the influence of the July revolution (2830)
in Paris and the sweeping chaxiges in Zurich led the Diet to declare
(Dec. 27) that it would not interfere with any refoims of cantonal
constitutions provided they were in agreement wkh the pact
of 18x5. Hence for the next few years great activity in this
direction was displayed, and most of the cantons reformed
themselves, save the most conservative («.f . Uri, Glanis) and
the advanced who needed no changes (e g. Geneva. GraubUnden).
Provision was always made for revismg these constitutions at
fixed intervals, for the changes were not felt to be final, aad seven
cantons— Zurich, Bern, Lucerne, Soleure, St Gall, Aargftu and
Thurgau— joined together to guarantee their new free constitu-
tions (Siebeoer Concordat of March 17* 1832). Soon after, th«
RBTORY)
SWITZERLAND
359
(loatioo of Kviaing the Fedetal pact wu brought forwud by a
luge majority of cantons in the Diet (July 17), wheieon, by the
league of Samen (Nov. 14), the three Forest cantons, with
NeuchAtd, the dty of Basel, and the Valais, agreed to maintain
the pact of 181 5 and to protest against the separation of Basel
in two hahres (for in the reform struggle Sdiwys and Basel had
been split np, though the si^t was permanent only In the latter
case). A draft constitution providing for a Federal administra-
tion distinct from the cantons could not secure a majority In
Its favour; a reaction against reform set in, and the Diet was
forced to sanction (1833) the divisibh of Basel into the "dty "
and ** country " divisions (each with half a vote in the Diet),
though fortunately in Sdswyz the quarrel was healed. Relligious
<]uaTreIs further stirred up strife in connexion with Aaigau,
which was a canton where religious parity prevailed, later in
others. In ZQrich the extreme pretensions of the Radicals
asul freethinkers (illustrated by offering a chair of theology in
the unrvefsity to D. F. Strauss of TObingen because of his Life of
Jtsus, then recently published) brought about a great reaction in
X839, when ZOrich was the " Vorort.** In Aargau the parties were
very evenly balanced, and, when in 1840, on occasion of the re-
vision of the constitution, the Radicals had a popiilar majority the
aggrieved denes stnred up a revolt (1840), which was put
down^ but which gave their opponents, heacied by Augustine
Kdler, an excuse for carrying a vote in the great council to
suppress the eight monasteries in the canton (Jan. 1841). This
was flatly opposed to the pact of 181 s, which the Diet by a small
majority dedded must be uphdd (April 1841), though after
many discussions it determined (Aug. 31, 1843) to accept the
compromise by which the men's convents only were to
be suppressed, and dedared that the matter was now settled.
On this the seven Romanist cantons— Uri, Schwyz, Untcr-
walden. Lucerne, Zug, Fribourg and the Valais—formed (Sept.
13, 1843) a " Sonderbund " or separate league, which (February
1844) issued a manifesto demanding the . reopening of
the^ question and the restoration of oB the monasteries.
Like the Radicals in former years the Romanists went
too far and too fast, for in October 1844 the clerical party
in Lucerne (in the majority since 1841, and favouring the
reaction in the Valais) officially invited in the Jesuits and
gave them high posts, an act which created all the more sensa-
tion because Lucerne was the "Vorort." Twice (December
1844 and March 1845) parties of free lances tried to capture
the dty. In December 1845 the Sonderbund turned itself into
an armed confederation, ready to appeal to war in defence of
the rights of each canton. The Radicals carried Zarich in
April 1845 and Bern in February 1846, but a majority could
not be secured in the Diet till Geneva (Oct 1 846) and St Gall (May
1847) were won by the same party. On the 20th of JuV 1847,
the Diet, by a small majority, declared that the Sonderbund was
oontrary to the Federal pact, which on the i6th of August it was
resolved to revise, while on the 3rd of September it was dedded
to invite each canton to expel the Jesuits. Most of the Great
Powers favoured the Sonderbund, but England took the con-
trary view, and the attempt of Mcttemich, supported by Louis
Philippe, to bring about European intervention, on the plea of
opholdmg the Ueaties of Vienna, was frustrated by the policy
of masterly inactivity pursued by Lord Palmerston, who delayed
giving an answer till the forces of the Sonderbund had been
defeated, a friendly act thai is still gratefully remembered in
the oountzy. On the 29th of CXrtober the deputies of the
unyielding cantons left the Diet, which ordered on the 4th of
November that its dcaec should be enforced by arms* The
war was short (Nov. zo-39), mainly ovnn$ to the abih'tyxif the
general, G. H. Dufour (1787-1875), and the loss of life trifling.
One after another the rebellious cantons were forced to surrender,
and, as the Paris revolution of February 1848, entailing the
retirement of Guizot (foUowcd three weeks later by that of
Mettemicfa), occupied all the attention of the Great Powers
(who by the constitution of 1S15 should have been consulted
b the revision of the pact), the Swiss were enabled to settle
their owb affairs riui<tly. Schwya and Zug abolished their
" landsgenebufeB,** and the teven wew oondemned to pay the
costs of the war (ultimately defrayed by subscription), which
had been waged rather on religious than on strict particularist
or states-rights grounds. The Diet meanwhile debated the
draft constitution drawn up by Johann Conrad Kern (tSo^
1888) of Thurgaa and Henri Druey (1799-1855) of Vaud, which
in the summer of 1848 was accepted by fifteen and a half cantons,
the minority consisting of the three Forest cantons, the Valais,
Zug, Tessin and Appenzell (Inner Rhoden>. and it was prodaimed
on the lath of September.
The new constitution Inclined father to the Act of Mediation
than to the system which prevailed before 1798. A status of
" Swiss dtieenship * was set up, dosdy joined to c^^^n^^^gg^
cantonal dtieenship; a man settlmg in a canton not JtSSl"
being his birthplace got cantonal dtizenship after
a rendence of at most two years, but was exduded from afl local
rfghts In the " commune '* where he might reside. A Federal
or central government was set up, to which the cantons gave up
a certain part of thdr soverdgn rights, retaining the rest. The
Federal Legislature (or assembly) was made up of two houses—
the Council of States (Sutnderaij, composed of two deputies
from each canton, whether small or great (44 in aH), and the
National Council {NatUmelr<U), made up of deputies dected
for three years, in the proportion of one for every 20,000 souls
or fraction over 10,000, the dectofs being all Swiss citizens.
The Federal council or executive (Bundesrat) consisted of
seven members dected by the Federal Assembly sitting as a
congress; they were jointly responsible for all business, though
fqr sake of convenience there were various departments, and their
chairman was called the president of the Confederation. The
Federal judidary {Bundcs^eriekl) wJas made up of eleven
members dected for three years by the Federal Assembly
sitting in congress; its jurisdiction was chiefly confined to dvtl
cases, in which the Confederation was a party (if a canton, the
Federal council may refer the case to the Federal tribunal), but
took in also great political crimes— all constitutional questions,
however, bdng reserved for the Federal Assembly. A Federal
university and a polytechnic school were to be founded. AH
military capitulations were forbidden In the future. Every
canton must treat Swiss dtizens who belong to one of the
Christian confessions like thdr own citizens, for the right of
free settlement is given to all such, though they acquired no
rights in the ** commune." All Chrfctians were guaranteed the
exercise of thdr religion, but the Jesuits and similar religious
orders were not to be recdved in any canton. German, French
and Italian were recognized as national languages.
The constitution as a whole marked a great step forvvard;
though very many rights were still reserved to the cantons^
yet there was a fully organized central government. Almost
the first act of the Federal Assembly was to exercise the power
given them of determining the home of the Federal authorities,
and on the 28th of November 1848 Bern was chosen, though
ZQrich still ranks as the first canton in the Confederation.
Soon after 1848 a beginning was made of organizing the different
public services, which had now been brought within the jurisdic-
tion of the central Federal authority. Thus in 1849 a uniform
letter post service was established, in 1850 a single coinage
replaced -the intricate cantonal currcndes, while all customs
duties between cantons were abolished, in 1851 the telegraph
service was organized, while all weights and measures were
unified (jai 1868 the metrical system was allowed, ahd in 187$
dedared obligatory and universal), in 1854 roads and canals
were taken in hand, while finally in 1855 the Federal Polytechnic
School at ZQrich was opened, though the Federal university
authorized by the new constitution has not yet been set up.
These were some of the non-political benefits of the. creation of
a Federal central executive. But in 1852 the Federal Assembly
decided to leave the construction of railways to private
enterprise and so had to buy them up in 1905 at a vastly
enhanced price.
By this early settlement of (fisputes Switzerland was protected
from the genoal rcvolutionaxy movement of 1848, and in later
26o
SWITZERLAND
IHIftTORy
years her political history has beca uneventful, though she has
felt the weight of the great European crises in industrial and
social matters. •
The position of Neuch&td, as a member of the Confederation
(as regards its government only) and as a principality ruled by
the lung of Prussia, whose rights had been expressly reoognized
by the congress of Vienna, was uncertain. She had not sent
troops in 1847, and, though in 1848 there waaa republican
revolution there, the prince did not recognize the changes.
Finally, a royalist conspiracy in September 1856 to undo the
work of 1848 caused great cxcitemoit and anger in Switzerland,
and it was only by the mediation of Napoleon IIL ^d the other
powers that the prince renounced (1857) all his rights, save his
title, which his successor (the German emperor) hasaJso dropped.
Since that time Neuch&tel has been an ordinary member of
the Confederation. In 1859-1860 the cession of Savoy (part of
it neutralized in 1815) to France aroused considerable indigna-
tion, and in 1862 the long-standing question of frontiers in the
Valine des Dappes was 6naUy arranged with France. In 187 1
many French refugees, especially Bourbaki's army, were most
hospitably received and sheltered. The growth of the Old
Catholics after the Vatican Council (1870) caused many disturb-
ances in western Switzerland, especially in the Bernese Jura.
The attack was led by Bishop Eugene Lachat (18x9-1886) of
Basel, whose see was suppressed by several cantons in 1873,
but was set up again in 1884 though still not recognized by Bern.
The appointment by the pope of the abb^ Gaspard Mermillod
(x824*z893) as " apostolic vicar " of Geneva, which was separated
from the diocese of Fribourg, led to Monseigneur Mermillod's
banishment from Switzerland (1873), but in 1883 he was raised
to the vacant see of Lausanne and Geneva and allowed by the
Federal authorities to return, but Geneva refused to recognize
him, though he was created a cardinal in xSga An event of
great importance to Switzerland was the opening of the St
Gotthard tuimel, which.was begun in 187 x and opened in i88a;
by it the Forest cantons seem likely to region the importance
which was theirs in the early days of the Confederation.
From 1848 onwards the cantons continually revised their
constitutions, always in a democratic sense, though after the
Sonderbund War Schwyz and Zug abolished their "lands-
gemeinden " (X848). The chief point was the introduction of
the referendum, by which laws made by the cantonal legislature
may (facultative referendum) or must (obligatory referendum) be
submitted to the people for their approval, and this has obtained
such general acceptance that Fribouig sdone does not possess
the referendum in either of its two forms. It was therefore
only natural that attempts should be made to revise the federal
constitution of X848 in a democratic and centralizing sense,
for it had been provided that the Federal Assembly, on its own
initiative or on the written request of 50,000 Swiss electors,
could submit the question of revision to a popular vote. In
x866 the restriction of certain rights (mentioned above) to
Christians only was swept away; but the attempt at final
revision in x 87 2 was defeated by a small majority, owing to
the efforts of the anti-centralizing party. Finally, however,
another draft was better liked, and on the 19th of AprQ 1874 the
Reriged new constitution was accepted by the people— 14I
Coa»tMati»a cantons against 7} (those of 1848 \vithout Tessin,
OH8T4, jjm ^^1, Fribourg and Lucerne) and 340,199 votes
as against x98,oi3. This constitution Is still in force, and
is mainly a revised edition of that of 1848, the Federal power
being still further strengthened. Among the more important
novelties three points may be mentioned. A system of free
elementary education was set up, under the superintendence
of the Confederation, but managed by the cantons. A man
settling in another canton was, after a residence of three months
only, given all cantonal and communal rights, save a share in
the common property (an arrangement which as far as possible
kept up the old principle that the "commune" is the true
unit out of which cantons and the Confederation are built), and
the membership of the commune carries with it cantonal and
federal ri^ts. The " Referendum " was introduced in its
" facultative " form; ».«. all federal laws must be submiUcd
to popular vote on the deooand of 30,000 Swiss citizens dc of
eight cantons. But the "Initiative" (kc, the right of com-
pelling the legislature to consider a certain subject or bill) was
not introduced into the Federal Constitution till 189X (when it
was given to 50,000 Swiss citizens) and then only as to a partial
(not a total) revision of that constitution. By the constitutions
of 1848 and X874 Switzerland has ceased to be a mere union of
independent states jointed by a treaty, and has become a single
state with a well-organized central government, to which have
been given certain of the rights of the independent cantons,
but increased centralization would destroy the whole character
of the Confederation, in which the cantons are not administrative
divisions but living political communities. Swiss history
teaches us, all the way through, that Swiss liberty has been won
by a close union of many small states, and we cannot doubt
that it will be best preserved by the same means, and. not by
obliterating all local peculiarities, nowhere so strikixvg and
nowhere so historically important as in Switzerland.
M. Numa Droz (who was for seventeen years— 1876 to X892— a
member of the Federal executive, and twice, in i88x and in
X887, president of the Swiss Confederation) expressed the opinion
shortly before his death in December 1899 (he was born in X844)
that white the dominant note of Swiss politics from 1848 to
X874 was the establishmeiit of a Federal state, that of the period
extending from 1874 to X899 (and this is true of a later period)
was the direct rule of the people, as distinguished from govern-
ment by elected representatives. Whether this distinction be
just or not, it is certain that this advance towards democracy
in its true sense b due indirectly to the monopoly of political
power in the Federal government enjoyed by the Radical party
from X848 onwards: many were willing to go with it some part
of the way, but its success in maintaining its close monopoly
has provoked a reaction against it on the part of those who
desire to see the Confederation remain a Confederation, and not
become a strongly centralized state, contrary to its past history
and genius. Hence after X874 we find that democratic measures
are not advocated as we should expect by the Radicals, but by
all the other political parties with a view of breaking down this
Radical monopoly, for it is a strange fact that the people elect
and retain Radical representatives, though they reject the
measures laid before them for their approval by the said Radical
representatives. For these reasons the struggle between Fede-
ralists and Centralists (the two permanent political parties
in Switzerland), which up to X874 resulted in favour of the
Centralists, has been turning gradually in favour of the Fede-
ralists, and that because of the adoption of such democratic
institutions as the Referendum and the Initiative.
The general lines on which Swiss politics have run since X874
may be most conveniently summarized under three headings —
the working of the political machincxy, the principal political
events, and then the chief economical and financial features of
the period. But it must be always borne in mind that all the
following remarks relate only to Federal politics, those of the
several cantons being much more intricate, and of course turning
more on purely local differences of opinion.
I. PolUical Machinery.— Tbt Federal Constitution of X848
set up a permanent Federal executive, legislature and tribunal,
each and all quite distinct from and independent of any cantonal
government. This system was a modified revival of the state
of things that had prevailed fronf X798 to 1803, and was an
imitation of the politic&l changes that had taken place in the
cantonal constitutions after X830. Both were victories of the
Centralist or Radical party, and it was therefore but natural
that this party should be called upon to undertake the Federal
government under the new constitution, a supremacy that it
has kept ever since. To the Centralists the CoitncU of States
(two members from each canton, however large or small) has
always been a stumbling-block, and they have mockingly nick-
named it " the fifth wheel of the coach." In the other house
of the Federal legislature, the National Council (one member per
20,000, or fraction of over 10,000 of the entire population), the
HISTORY}
SWITZERLAND
261
Radksls bavt always since its creation in 1848 had a majority;
Hence, in the Congress foraied by both houses sitting together^
the Radicab have had it oil their own way. Tliis is particolaily
important as regards the election of the seven members of the
Federal eiecutive which is made by such a Congress. Now the
Federal executive (Federal Council) is in no sense a cabinet, •'.«.
a committee of the party in the majority in the legislature for
the time being. In the Swiss Federal Constitution the cabinet
has no place at all. Each member of the Federal executive is
elected by a separate ballot, and holds oflS,ce for the fixed term
of three years, during which he cannot be turned out of office,
while as yet but a single instance has occurred of the rejection
of a Federal councillor who ofiEered himself for rejection.
Further, none of the members of the Federal executive can hold
a seat in either bouse of the Federal I^slature, though they may
appear and qxak (but not vote) in either, while the Fedetal
Council as such has not necessarily any common policy, and never
expresses its views on the general situation (though it does as
regards particular legislative and administrative measures) in
anything resembling the " speech from the Throne " in England.
Thus it seems dear that the Federal executive was intended by
the Federal Constitution of 1848 (and in this respect that of
1874 made no change) to be a standing committee of the legis-
lature as a whole, but lurf of a single party in the legislature, or
a " cabinet," even though it had the majority. Yet this rule
of a single political party is just what has taken {rfaoe. Between
1848 and the end of igo8, 38 Federal councillors were elected
(24 from German-speaking, 12 from French-speaking and a from
Italian-speaking Switzerland, the canton of Vaud heading the
list with 7). Now of these 58 three only were not Radicals,
viz. M Paul Ceresole (iS70-*i875) of Vaud, who was a Protestant
Liberal-Conservative, ■ Herren Josef Zemp (1891-1708) and
Josef Anton Schobinger (elected xqo8), both, of Lucerne and
Romanist Conservatives, yet the Conservative minority is a
large one, while the Romanists form about two-fifths of the
population of Switzerland. But despite this predominance .of
a single party in the Federal Council, no true cabmet system
has come into existence in Switzerland, as members of the council
do not resign even when their personal policy is condemned
by a popular vote, so that the resignation of Herr Welti (a
member of the Federal Council from 1867 to 1891), in conse^
quence of the rejection by the people of his railway policy,
caused the greatest amazement and consternation in Switzerland.
The chief political parties in the Federal legislature are the
Right, or Conservatives (whether Romanists or Protestants),
the Centre (now often called ** Liberals," but rather answering
to the Whtgs of English political language, the Left (or Radicab)
and the Extreme Left (or the Socialists of varying shades).
In the Council of States there is alwi^rs a Federalist majority,
since in this house the smaller cantons are on an equality with
the greater ones, each indifferently having two memben. But
in the National Council (167 elected members) there has always
(since 1848) been a considerable Radical nmjority over all other
parties. The Socialists long worked under the wing of the
Radicals, but now in every canton (save Geneva) the two parties
have quarrelled, the Socialist vote having larg^ increased,
e^)ecially in the town of ZOricli. In the country the anti^
Radical opposition 'is made up of the Conservatives, who are
strongest in the Romaiust, and espectalfy the Forest, cantons,
and of the " FederaUsts " of Frendr-speaking Switzerland.
There is no doubt that the people are really anti-Radical,
though occasionally led away by the experiments made recently
in the domain of State socialism: they dect. Indeed, a Radical
majority, but very frequently reject the bills laid before them
by their elected representatives.
2. ^o/ific*.— The cantons had fed the way before 1848, and
they continued to do so after that date, gradually tntrodudng
reforms all of which tended to give the direct rule to the people.
The Confederatiot) was bound to follow this example, though it
adopted a far more leisurely pace. Hence, in 187a a new
Federal Constitution was drafted, but was rejected on a popular
vote by a small majority, as it was thought to go too far in a
centfaliiiiig direetiODTaBd so encounteved the combmed oppo-
sition of the Conservatives and of the FederalisU of French-
speaking Switzerland. The last-named party was won over by
means of concessions as to military matters and the proposed
unificatioB of cantonal laws, dvil and criminal, and especially
by strong provisbos as to religious freedom, since the " Kultur-
kampf" was then raging in French-speaking Switzerland.
Hence a revised draft was accepted in 1874 by a considerable
popular majority, and this is the existing Federal Constitution.
But it bean marks of its origin as a compromise, and no one
party has ever been very eager to support it as a whole. At
first all went smoothly, and various very useful laws carrying
out in detail the new provisions of the oonstitution were drafted
and accepted. But divismns of opinion arose when it was
proposed to reform the military system at a very great expendi-
ture, and also as to the question of the limiution of the right
to issne bank-notes, while (as will be seen under 5 below) just
at this time grave financial difikulties arose with regard to the
Swiss railways, and in consequence of Prince Bismarck's anti-
free trade policy, which threatened the prosperity of Switzerland
as an exporting country. Further, the disturbed political state:
of the canton of Tidno (or Tessin) became naore or less acute
from-1873 onwards. There the Radicals and the Conservatives
are neatly equally balanced. In 1872 the Conservatives obtained
the majority in this canton, and tried to assure it by some
certainly questionable means. The Radicals repeatedly ap-
pealed to the Federal govenmient to obtain its armed inter*
vention, but in vain. In 1876 the Conservatives at a rifle match
at Stabio fired on the Radicals, but in 1880 the accused persons
were acquitted. The long-desired detachment of Ticino from
the jurisdiction of the foreign dioceaes of Como and Milan was
effected in 188S by the erection of a. see at Lugano, but this
event caused the Radicals to fear an increase of derical influence.
Growing impatient, they finally took mattera in their own
hands, and in September 1890 brought about a bloody revolu-
tion. The partial conduct of the Radical Federal commbsioner
was much blamed, but after a state trial at Ziarich in i8gi the
revolutionists were acquitted, although they loudly boasted of
thdr share in thb use of force in political matters.
From 188$ onwards Switzerland had some troubles with
foreign powers owing to hex defence of the right of asyliun for
fugitive Germaii Socialists, despite the thzcsts of Prince Bis*
march, who maintained a secret police in Switzerland, one
member of which, Wohlgemuth, was expelled in 1880, to the
prince's huge but useless indignation. From about i8go, as
the above troubles within and without gradually subsided, the
agitation in the country against the centralizing polky of the
Radicab became more and more strongly marked. By the united
exertions of all the opposition parties, and against the steady
resistance of the Radicab, an amendment was introduced in
1891 into the Federal Constitution, by which 50,000 Swiss citizens
can by the ** Initiative " compel the Federal legisbture and execu-
tive to take into consideration some point in the Federal Constitu-
tion which, in the opinion of the petitionera, requites rdorm,
and to prepare a bill dealing with it which must be submitted
to a popular vote. Great hopes and fears were entertained at
the time as to the working of thb new institution, but both have
been falsified, for the Initiative has as yet only succeeded in
inserting (in 1893) hi the Federal Constitution a provision by
which the Jewbh method of killing animab b forbidden, and
another (in 1908) prohibiting the manufacture or sale of abfdnthe
in the country. On the other hand, it has failed (in 1894) to
secure the adoption of a Socialist scheme by which the state was
bound to provide work for every able-bodied man in the oonntcy,
and (also in 1894) to carry a proposal to give to the cantons a
bonus of two francs per head of the population out of the rapidly
growing returns of the customs duties, similariy in 1900 an
attempt to introduce the election of the Federal executive by a
popular vote and proportional representation in the NcUonaluU
failed, as In 1903 did a proposal to make the elections to the
HationaUat depend on the Swiss population only, instead of the
total popubtioD of the country.
264
SWITZERtAND
( 1 760) and of the Economical Sodaty (ITTT). And author oC a treatiM
on the philosophy o( history enutied CesehuhU der Mensckhtit
(1764). and of another on id^ politics. Pkilosopktsche und patriO'
tM0 Traumt eimes Mauehatfreundes (1755), while nutny of his
1776-1782) under the general title of
At Bern Albrecht von Hallcr (9.*.)*
ts appeared (1776-^782)
though especially distin^ished as a 8cienti6c writer, yet by his poem
DieAlpen (1732) and his travels in bis native country did much to
excite and stimulate the love of mountain scenery. Another
Bernese. Charles Victor de Bonstetten iqjt.), is a type of the salUdzed
Liberal Bernese patrician, while Beat Ludwig von MuiaU (166^
1749) analysed the racial characteristics of other nations for the
instruction of his fellow-countrymen, his Lettra sur Us aitgfais et
Us fmnfais (1725) being his pnncipa] work. Samuel Wyttenbach
(1748-1830) devoted himself to making known the beauties of his
country to its natives, travelling much and writing much about his
travels. Gottlieb Simnund Gruner (^.v.) wrote the Eisgiebir^ des
Sckweiterlandes (1760), a woilc deacribmg the ice-dad mountaint of
Switserland, though itis rather a useful compilation than an original
contribution to knowledge, but a dedded advance on l^s fellow
Bernese Johann Georg Altmann's (1697-1758) VerstuJt timer kisfor-
iscktn und physiuiun Beschnibumg der heh e t is c ke* Eisgebirte
(I75l)' In another department of Knowledge a son of Albrecht
von Haller, Gottlieb Eramanud von Haller \i73&r^7^)\ compUcd
a most useful bibliography of writings relating toSwiss history, the
Bmiothek der SckweisergesckuhU (6 vols., 1 784-1 787)* that is still
indispensable to the historical student.
But in the 1 8th century Zdrich was undoiditedly the intellectual
and literary capital of Gernum-speakintr Switxerland, and gained the
title of " Athens on the Limmat." One of its earliest and most
famous cdebritiea was J. J. Scheuchzer (9.*.), who travelled ranch
in Switxerland, and wrote much (his travels are described in Latin)
as to its natural curiosities, being himself an F.R.S., and closely
associated with Newton and the other English scientific men of the
day. But in the purely literary domain the names tA J. J. Bodmer
(^.t.) and ol his friend Johann Jakob Brdtinger (1701-17^), are the
moat prominent. By their united exertions the antiquated tradi-
ticMiB of German literature were broken down to a large extent, while
great praise was bestowed on En^lidh poeu, Siakapeare. Milton
and others. Their views were violently opposed by (}ottscbed,
the leader of the Saxon school, and the controveny that arose forms
part of the history of German literature. I n 1 731-1 733 they published
jointly the Discourse der MaUr, a periodical whkh spread their
views, while more elaborate and systematic eux)sitions of their
critiosl doctrine as to poetiy are Bodmer's Kritiscke Abkandlun^ von
dem Wuuderbaren iu der Feesie (1740). and Brdtinger's Criiiuhe
Didakmusl (also in 1740). Their untiring efforu helped to pruiare
Che way for the later outburst of Orman literature besun by Klop-
atock. Wiekind and Lessing. Another famous ZOriiA writer was
Sobmoo (jesner (ojr.), the pastoral poet, and yet another was
J. K. Lavater (9.0.). now best remembered as a supporter of the
view that the face presents a perfect indication of character and
that physiognomy may therefore be treated as a science. Other
well-known Zarich names are those of I. H. Pestaloszi (1746-1837,
q.9.\ the educationalist, of Johann Caspar Hirael (i72S-i8<2?)>
another of the founders of the Hdvetic Society, and author of u%e
Wirthschaft ernes pkilesophiuhen Bauers (1761), and of Johann
Georg Sulcer (1730-1770), whose chief work is one on the laws of
art or aesthetics, entitled AUgemeiue Theorte der sckimeu Kiuste
(1771-1 774)*
Outside the three towns named above there were several writers
of German-spcaking Switaerland who must be mentioned. One
of the best known even now is Johaim Geoig Zimmermann (1728-
1795 9.V.). whose BeiraektuHfien uher dU Elnsamkeik (1756-1784-'
1 785) profoundly iropressed hu» contemporaries. He. like the fabulist
A. E. Frohlicb (9.o.)> was born at Brugg. Johannes vop Milller
{q.v.) of SchalThausen. was the first who attempted to write (1780)
a detailed history of Switaerland, which, though inspired rather by
his love of freedom than by any deep researdi. was very character*
istk: of his times. \. G. Ebel (^.v.) was a Swiss by adoption only,
but deserves mention as the author of the first detailed guide-
book to the country (i793). which hdd its ground till the days of
"' and "Baedeker."
'Murray" and "Baedeker." A later writer, Heinrich Zschbkke
(1771-18A8), also a Swiss by adoption only.
history 01 Switaerland written for the people.
produced (1823)
haa a great
which
voeue.
In the later literary history of German-speaking Switaecland three
names stand out above all others — Albrecht Bitaius (^.v.), known as
Jeremias GotthelT from the fir^t of his numerous tales of peasant life
in the Emmenthal, Gottfried Keller (9.V.). perhaps the most genuinely
Swiss poet and novdist of the century, and (Conrad Ferdinand
Meyer iq-v.), also a poet and novdist, but Of more cosmopolitan
leanings and tastes. Jakob Burckhardt (^.*.) was a famous
writer on Italian art. while Jakob Frey (1834-1875) continued
the work of Bitzius by his ttles of Swiss peaisant life. Ulrich
Hegner 11751^1840) 01 Winterthur wrote novels full of local
colour, as is also the case with David Hess (i770>i843)
in his description of a core at Baden in Aargau and various
Ules. Johann Martin Usteri (1763-1898) of ZOikb was one
(LITERATURS
of the earlite to write poems i4 his native dialect. Later wu
have a number of ZQrich poets or versifiers, some of whose
writings have become very well known. Such were Hdnrich Leut-
hold (1837-1879), August ConoAx (1826-1885) and Leonhard Widmer
(1808-1868). the author of Trittst im Mor^reidaker (i8a2). which,
set to music by the Cistercian monk Albenc Zwyssig (1808-1854). is
now known as the " Swiss PtaJm," of Es UU in jeder Sckweaerhrusl
it 843), and We Berge sick erkeben (1844). To the Bernese poet,
ohann Rudolf Wyss (1781-1830), whose father. J. D. Wyaa (1743-
1818). was the author of the Swiu Pamily Robimsam, we owe the
Swiss national anthem, RuSs* du mein VaterkMdf and the song.
Herz, myn Hert. warum so Irurigf — while Johann Georg Krauer
(1793-1845). of Lucerne, wrote the ROtlilied. Von feme set k^ick
tegriisset^ and Gottfried Keller himself was respondble for O meim
aeimaiittud. Gottlieb Jakob Kuhn (1775-1845) wrote many poema
in the Bernese dialect as to the Alps and tbur inhabitanta. Less
national in sentiment and more meuphysical are the lyrics of
"Otanmor.** the pen-name of the Bernese Ferdinand SchmkI
(1833-1888).
Among the chief contemporary Swim writefB in the department
of belles-lettres, novelists, poets, Ac. may be mentioned Emat
Zahn, Mdnrad Lienert. Arnold Ott. Carl bpitteler. Friu Marti,
Walther Siegfried. Adolf Prey. Hermann Hesse, J. C. Hetr. J. V.
Widmann, and Gk>ttfried Strasaer.
IsabeUa Kaiser, by her poems and aCories» upbolda die hdhour of
the fair sex. while the fame woo by Tohanna Spyn (d. 1891) for
her children s stories is still fresh. Of Historical writers in different
departments of their subject in the course of the 10th century some
075S~i^)> the historian of St Gah, of whkh he had been a monk,
E. Bltech (18^8-1000), the historian of the Protestant churches in
German-speaking Switaerland, J. J. Blumer (i 819-1875), and J. C.
of the prindpal were (in dpimbetiod pnler): Ikiefons von Anc
rotei
Bluntschli (180^1881), who bbtf devoted uieir energies to Swiss
constitutmnal matters. T. J. Hottinger (17B3-1860), the continuator
of J. von Mailer's Swiss history, J. E. Kopp (i79;3-i866), who
rewrote eariy Swiss history on the basis of authentic documents,
R. Maag (1866-1899). who began the publication of the invaluable
Habsburg terrier of the eariy 14th century, but had to leave the
completion of the work to other competent hands, P. C. von Planta
(i8i5;riQ03) and J. A. Pupikofer (i 797-1 88a), the historiana re>
spectively of the orisons and of the Thuivau, A. P. von Segeaser
(1817-1888). the historian and statesman of Luoene, A. F. Stettler
(1796-1840). A. von Tillier (1792-1854), E. von Wattenwyl (1815-
1890). and J. L. Wurstemberger (1783-1863) who all four wrote on
Bernese history, G. von Wyss (1816-1893). to whom weowe.amonff
many excellent works, an admirable account of all Swiss historians
and thdr works, his step-brother F. von Wyss (1818-1907), a great
authority on the legal and oonsritutional history of Switaerlan<C and
|. C Zdlweger (1768-185;!), the historian of AppenaeU. Amonc
contemporary historical wntera 01 C^erman-speakina Switaedand we
may mention (In alphabetical order), A. Buchi, J. L. Brandstetter,
W. Burckhardt, K. Dflndliker, J. Dicrauer. R. L>urrerr H. Esdier.
A. Heusler, R. Hoppeler. T. von Liebenau, >¥. Men, G. Meyer
yon Knonau, W. F. von MttUnen. W. OechsH, J. R. Rahn. L. R,
von Salis, P. Schweiaer, J. SchollenbeigjBr. J. btrickler, R. TliDaunen.
and H. Wartihann.
b. Fremck BrancA.— The knight Othon of Grandson b the earliest
fi|;upe in the literature <A the Suisse romMtde, He was kiUad in
• judidal dud in 1397* the last scion of hia andeot hattse, and left
some amatory poems behind him, while one is extant only in «
translation by Chaucer, who makes flattering mention of him. In
the tsth and i6th centuries many miracle plays in the local Romance
dialect were known. The Cknmique des ckastoines de Neudtdlei
was formerly supposed to date from the ijSth oentuiy, bat is dow
considered by nuny to be a forgny. More individaal and character-
istic are the romance about Cnarleraagne. entitled Fiera^as U
Giant (1478). by Jean Bagnyon, and the poem named CongU tris
du sikU siculUr (1480). by Jacoues de Bugntn. But the firal
really prominent perronage in tnis depatt^eat of literature in
Francois Bonivard iq.n.; d. 1570) who wrote the CknmiqueB dm
Centve that extend down to 1530 and were continued to 1563 by
Michd Roset (d. 1613). The nrst Protestant French translation
of the Bible was issued at Neuchitel in i<35, its principal authors
being Pierre Robert (nicknamed Olivfun} and Pienc de Vingla.
Asa sort of pendant to the Protestant Bonivard, we have the nun
Jeanne de Jusste who in her Levain du Cahintsme {e. 1545) recoimta
the establishment of Calvinism at Geneva, while the noble Pierre
de Pierrefleur in his kfhnotres does the same in a lighter and lesa
lachrymose style for Orbe. his native district. Naturally the
Reformen of the Suisse Romande used French much in their
theok>gical and polemical works. Of more general interest are the
writings of two Frenchmen who were driven by rdigious persec u *
tions to end thdr lives at Geneva — the memoirs and poems of
Thiodore Agrippa d*Aubign4 (i55>-l63o). and the historical
writings and poems of Simon Gouiart (fM3->698). The great
ddivefance of Geneva from the duke of Savoy, known as the
Escalade (1603), was described in prose by David Piacet (1580-
1644) in his nistoirt de Vescalade and celebrated in verse oy S^mud
Chappnaeau (1635-1701)10 hia Geuhe difivrfir, though the namttvcs
LnouwuM SWITZERLAND 265
«f Gookct and thct (puK'
bated to Icu Sussia (i
Gnht (1606), art more I
(1625-1697). of Vaud. wro
dt ta 5mitM(j€i66) in Frai
1703) ol Neuchltd wrote,
kUmoim of hia timet whic
But the ijtb century i
gloriea of the i8tb oenturj
a larse dqnce du« to tbc
tlMir (axBifica, flocked tbi
of Naatci (1685) and tettl
Sucb WM Louis Bowfuet
works, founded two perioi
to flcimalatc tbe intellect
were tbe BUlieMqiu iiaU{
man widely known tbe re
swias* wUdi. fint ianied i
names (^rom 1738 aawBid
Jwmrmai hOaitkpu), and sec
iflf writers of tbe Suisae
Abaosit (1679-1767). Abr
Rttchat is now best remem
of Gottlieb Kypsder) of
the DtiUa dc ta Smsst, 1
tbfough many editioas, tJ
Hia^vt de la RHormatioi
estee m e d in his day. Ai
was Charles GuiUaome Lo|
mtifuet sur diwers points i
1749) etill form a treasuit
Lausanne man was J. P.
dnced cben the philosoph
the master of Gibbon in
Jein Barbeyrac (1674-17^
Mtar* si dff fnM. a traa
striking preface of his owi
Roumeaa was Jean Jacques
da4r0iinatmrdeipdiUtn0
while the oelebcated intern
1767). tins a native of Neo
he spent moat of his life at
very kmg after the publica
The year i7M»»Bra^
Romnnde, for in that year
snd Voltaire established h
Ittd began his first restdea
The earlier writers menti
appeared, and a mora brill
(^^.). though a Genevese. I
Sterature, as do later JacqiM
de Scad (f 4k). Benjamin Coi
de Chamicc (1740-1805)
sativc of NeuchiteL Ann
U Man semtmmUal (178;
)i7&4|»both of whkh ha^
iTom her own experience, t
More oelefaiated by reason <
the manners of a Ottle pm
it La m ta mm (1871), and hei
the aeeood part of a sto
pnMished m 1788, for. aco
fow shndi't wiag of the more fi
P. H. Mallet (e.v.). a Gen
devoted himseifto making
and antiquities of Scancfini
were the efforts of a grouf
scaeace by personal invcstif
known. Possibly their inl
htcd by the soentific an
Bonnet (,qjf.). The chief
{qj».) one of the founders
Alpine ascents (undertakes
world even to non-edentifii
devoted them selv es maiali
while Senebier (9^.). the b
as a physiotogist than as
br anch e s of natoral science,
•pedaliaed. On the othei
tbe conteaspomv of these
inquiaitivc traveller than 1
even now by his senial sin
and gravity of tbe three
Cyriaqoe Bridel (1757-1814
cofi
CwmMir (1782). But he is bi
ttnd peopte among whom b
d'Oex. aind at Montreox su
266
SWITZERLAND
[BSBLtOGKAniY
NiotU represent the historical sdenoct, the btter coatntNitiBg nrnch
to the BcKUltino delta Saiaera JtaUana (from 1879 onwards), which,
though mainly historical, devotes much_space to literary and
historical matters relating t ' ' ' \ writing
does not flourish in Tidno number
of poets such as Pietro Peri ie Swiss
national anthem into Itall Giovanni
Airoldi (died before 1900) 9()-<he
two former were lyric ^ L Two
younger nngers are F. Chief
d, Komonsck and Ladin jne stiU
fingers a quaint Romance di f Fsencll
and Italian, and has therefoi I literary
activity. Indeed it would :ther by
this time had not certain c e or less
successfully tried to brin^ d. It is
distinguished into two maiE !)berland
or the valtey of the Vordi h, while
that spoken m the Engadin « known
as Ladin. Both took their n* lingua
rusttca Roroana in the dj eariiest
known monument of this i v«red in
1907, and consists of a few omonsch
diatect, of interlinear trao in text)
of a sermon attributed to it is said
to date from the early |2th ,. , idia was
one on the Musso War, written in 1527 by Johann von Travers
(1483-1963), though it was^not published till 1865. The first
book printed in it (at Poschiavo m issz) was the translation of
a German catechism, and the next a translation of the New
Testament, also at Poschiavo, but in 1560. Most of the works in
both these dialects are translations of books of a religious or educa-
tional nature. The principal writers in the Romonsch dialect
(the less literary of the two) of recent times are Theodor von
Castelberg (1748-1830), a poet and translator of poetry, and P. A.
de Latour (about 18 14) also a poet, while the best of all poets
in this diakct was Anton Huoiidcr, whose lyrics are considered
remarkable. Alexander Balletta (i 842-1 887) wrote prose romances
and sketches, while ). C. Muoth (i 844-1906), himself a most
typical and characteristic figure, wrote much in prose and verse
as regards bis native region. In Ladin one of the chief figures was
the poet Conradin von rlugi (1787-1874), who published volumes
of poems in 1845 and 1861, but the poems, novels and translations
of J. F. Caderas (i 830-1891) arc placed above them. ' Other Ladin
poets are Florin Valentin, O. P. Juvalu and S. Carattch (d. 189a),
while P> Lanscl represents a younger generation. Zaocaria Pallioppi
(1830-1873) also wrote poems, but the excellent Ladin dictionary
that be compiled was not published till 1895 by the care of his
aon. (W. A. B. C)
Bibliography.— 0. General.— The Indispensable work for any
one desiring to know what books have been written on any subject
relating to Switzerland is the officially published Btbliograpkie
def ukweiserischen Landeskunde, a series of detached parts, each
complete in itself, and issued scparatelv (Bern, from 189a onwards).
In particular may be^ mentioned : A. W&bcr's Landes- und Rtisebe-
J ' " '~ '' supplement, 1909), that deals with works
< see, too, the new edition. London, 1899,
c fotes for TraveOers in the Alps, pp. 140-
I \emueun (1896). which enumerates all the
I its various districts. Among the best
« (nay be mentbned those of A. von Bon-
I Qrst (1495). Sebastian MUnster (lS44)i
!(i574). M. Mcrian (164a), J. J. Scheuchzer
D), P. F. D. de Zurlauben (1777) and W.
em, but still useful in many ways, are
I Beschrcibutu und StatisUk der Schweiz
( O, and H. A. Berlepsch, Sckweizerkunde
(•uu wu.. wau>w>nk«.«k, *w/^). The roost complete and recent mono-
graph on the country from all points of view is the work (700 pp.)
entitled La Suisse (also in (}erman), with atlas of 48 maps, reprinted
from the Dictionnaire tjto^bkique de la Suisse (Neuch&tel, IQ09).
For a pretty complete detailed account of its chief towns, villages
and mountamk, by far the best work is the Dictionnaire fjtjograpkique
de ta Suisu (Neuch&tel, 190a, and following years; it is also issued
in (jerman). A complete account of the country in the 19th century
ii given fai tlie work entitled La Suisse au xix^ sihde (3 vols.,
Lausanne. 1 899-1900; also issued in (}frman). For sutistics see
the officjal census of 1900 (Bern, 3 vols., 1004-1907), as well as the
annual ofBdal publication StalisHsches Jakrhmck der Sckweie (from
1891, see specially the voL for I897, Atlas rraphi^ue et statistique de
la Suiiset with many diagrams), and another (appearing six times
a year at Bern, since 1865) the ZeitschriStJur sdnoetserische Slatistik.
For educational matters the annual official Jakrbuck fur UtUer-
richtswesen in der Schwei* (ZQrich, from 1894) »« very useful. For
mountaineers there is the Gimbers' Guides Series (London, from
1890, now comprising 11 vols, relating to Switzerland), and the
two works published by the Swiss Alpine Club, ClubfOhrer durfk
die Clamer Alpen (190a), and OubfUhrer durch die Urner Alpen
(; vols., 1903). Murray's Hattdbook for Tra»dlers in SwitterUmd
was thonmgUy revised (i^ edition) In 1904. ^I'hlle it ia not neces-
sary to do more than mention the guide-books of Biedeker and
Joanne, of which new editions often appear (that by Iwan von
Tschudi is no longer kept up to date).
The best maps of Switzerland are those published by the FederaT
Topographical Bureau at Bern. One, called from the director
of the survey (G. H- Dufour. 1787-1875) the Dufour Mat (seale
I : 100,000), was published in twenty-five sheets between 1845 and
1863 (see the detailed history of this map in the work entitled Dia
sckwetterische Landesvermessung, 1832-1964, Bern, 1806). It has
however, been practically suixraeoed by the issue ueviaed and
corrected) of the original survey (scale x : 25,000 for the plains and
I : 90,000 for the mountain districts) in 598 sheets, of which the
publication began in 1870 — this maf^nifioent map. one of the finest
ever executed, b named the Siegfrted Atlas, from the eueoessor of
Dufour at the head of the survc>', Hermann Siegfried (1819-1870).
The history of Swiss travel has been told by G. Ptoyer, Cesekukk
des Reisene in der Sckweit (Basel, 1885). and W. A. B. C^iolidge*
Svms Traael and Swiss Guide'Beoks (London, i8te). That of the
ewloration of the Swiss Alps is contained in oottlieb Studer's
Ober Eis und Scknee (Bern. 3 vols., new cd., 1896-1899), while
Bernard Studer's Geschichie der pkvaiscken Ceograpkie dir SckweiM
bis 181S (Bern. 1863) describes the ^dual examination of the
country from the scientific point of view. The last-named work
contains many short lives of eminent Swiss. These are narrated
more in detail in R. Wolfs BiograMeen tur KuthutesckiehU der
Sckweis (4 vols., ZSkrich, 1858-1862): E. Secretan's Galerie smissa
(3 vols., Lausanne. 1873-1880); and Sammlnng bemer Biograpkieen
(Bern, as yet 5 vols., X884-1006). (See also Alts and Glacibiis.)
As to lantuages in Switzerland the best general work is I. Sm-
merli's Die deutsck-fransisiseke Sprackfremze in der Sdheeia (t vols.,
Basel and Geneva, 1891-1899) ; while tor the SwissOeitnan dialocts
there Is the splendid Sckweixerisckes IdioUkon (ci whkh the paUica-
tion began at Frauenteki in 1881) ; and the Ciassaire des patois de la
Suisse romande. For one branch of the carious Ladin dialect,
see Z. and E. Pallioppi's Ditionari dels idioms romaumtxlu d'Engia-
dina, Ac. (Saroaden, 1895); «^ile for select extracts of all branches
of the Romonsch or Ladin literature conselt C. Decurtins, Rdto-
romaniscke Ckrestomatkie (8 vols., Erlangen, 1894-1907), ol which
the vols. i.. ii., iii. and iv. refer to the Romonsch dialect of the
BOndner Oberland, and the rest to the Ladin dialect of the Engadine.
F. J. Stalder's Vprsuck eines sekweizeriseken Jdiotikon (» vols.*
Aarau, 180^1812) is still useful, as is his later work Die Laatdes'
spracken der Sckweis (Aarau, 1819).
^- ._.... ^,_ ,,-,Y ...... _..t..j,^
1897), contains much that is
The Arckiv far Volhshmde published by the Sociiti Suisse des
%dilions populaires (Zurich, from 1897), contains much that is
iaterestinjE in the way of folk-k>re. while for Swiss teeends in general
consult E. JCohlntsch. Sekmeiserisckes Sapenbtuh Jjbcipaig. 1854);
A. LQtolf, Sagcn, Brduche, Legenden oms den Funf Orten (i^insemr,
i86a); M. Tscheinen and P. J. Ruppen. WaUiur-Sagen (Ston.
1873); A. C^rdsole. Ligendes des alpes vaudoises (Lausanne. 1885);
J. Kuoni, Sagen des Kantons St GaUen (St Call. 1903); T. Vema-
Teken. Alpensaten (Vienna, 1858); D. Gempclers ^agen und Sagen-
gtschickten aus dem Simmentkal (Thun, 1883-1 893) ; atuiWaltieer^^agcn
(a vols., Brieg, 1907). Another. feature of the life of the people in
Switzerland is treated in H. Herzog'a Sckweiaeriscke Volk^esle^
Silten, und Cebrduche (Aarau, 1884).
For educational matters the two following books (with the
Jakrbuck fUr Unterricklswesen in der Schoeis, already mentioned)
will be found specially useful: F. Eacali, V Instruction primaire
en Suisse (Paris. 1883) and the annual volume (Geneva, from
1904) entitled L Education en Suisse* For the Swiss universities
see the qiecial histories mentioned in the articles on the several
cantons, while for the Swiss Polytechnic School at Zikridi, consult
W. OechsU's Cesckickte der GrQndung des eidg. Polj^ecknicums
(Frauenfeld. 1905)-
As to the mouutain pastures, fiee Alp. where a list of books is
given.
Swbs carriage roads, especially across the Alpine passes, are
described in S. Bavier, Die Strasscn der Sckweix (Zikrich, 1878).
and the official book. Die sckweiuriscken AlUnpdsse (and ed.,
1893). For the history of the severel Swiss Alpine passes consult
in particular P. H. Sciicffel, VerkehrsresckickU der Alpen (Beriin.
1908-1909); R. ReinhaitL Pdsse una Strassen in den sckweiser
Alpen (Lucerne, 190^)1 which gives full references; and E. Ochl-
mann's articles " Uie Alpenpftsse im Mittelalter." published in
vols. iii. and iv. (Zurich, 1 878-1 879) of the Jakrbuck fOr sckweiaer-
iscke Cesckickte), Ths Simplon has a special history, F. Barbey.
La RouU du Simplon (Oneva. 1906), as has also the St Gotthard :
£. Motta, Dei Persona^ii celebri eke aarcarono U Cottardo uei tempi
aiUicki e modemi (Belhnaona, 1884; later continued in the BoUet-
tino delta Sviaera Italiana). As to Swiss railways in general, see
R. Hcrold, Der sckweiseriscke Bund und die Eisenbaknen bis aur
Jakrkundertwende (Munich. 1903): P. Weissenbach. Die Eiseui
bahnoerstaatUckuttg m der Sckweis (Berlin, 1905); and C. P. Wiede-
mann. Die gescktcktlicke Enlwicklung der sckweiser. EisenbakW'
gesetagebung (ZOrich. IQOS)* The St Gotthard railway and its history
are treatedof at length by M. Wanner in his two works— OssdWriur
der Begrundung des Gottkardunlemekmens (Lucerne. 1880); and
MBLtOGRAmVl
(ksdUtkU det Bmies der CoOhardBahH (Lucerne. 1885). For a
general efldmate of the commeirial importance of the Sim^lon
nHway, ace A. MOhring, Die Simplonbakn — eiru verkekrswirik'
ichMtelm Siuiie (Bern, 1907). For a technkal deflcription of the
woHks if the Simplon tunnd see an article (also issued separately)
by K. PccMd in vol. xlvii. of the Schfweherisehe BauMeitung (Zfikrich),
vhile flinular details, as well as more general notices, relating to
the ^(toeo tunnel are_glven in G. Bener and R. Herold, Stuiien
ntr OsiaiptmbakHfraie (ZQrlch, 1907); and A. Mettler, Der SplUgen
ds »tttckminri$ek« A^enbahn (ZOrich, 1907). As to the Jungfrau
railwav, see A. H. Guyer-Zdler. D<u Projekt der Junffraubahn
garich. 1896, with atlas of plates) ; and S. Herzog, Die Juugfmuhakn
(Zdrich. 1904). A special part of the BiUiopapkie der sekweiter.
Lamiesinmde is devoted to dwiss railways.
Ee s mm i cal: Trade and Commerce. — M to the general economical
state of Switzerland, the older VMsmrtkxkaftSrLexiion der Sckweiz.
by A. Fwrrer (Bern, 4 vol«., 1885-1892). may still be consulted
with advantage, while naturally more up to date is N. Reichesberg's
H am dm&r i eib m h der Sckweiz. Volkswtrthxha/t, Sdcialpolitik ttnd
Verwaltmmg (Bern, since 1903). A very useful and well-arranged
work is A. Le Cointe's Jnoenlaire des institutions tconomimus et
sociaUt de la Suisse dlafmdu xix** siicle ((Geneva, 1900). W. H.
Dawson's Social StBttzerland (London, 1897). deals with matters
father from the social than from the strictly economical standpoint,
bat contains a variety of interesting information, white fi. D.
Lloyd's Tke Swiss Democracy (London, 1908), is rather more political.
A very handy, trustworthy and admirable work of moderate size
on Switzerland genCTally from an economkal point of view is
T. Geering and K. Hotz s Economic f<Uitique de la Suisse (Zdrich,
1903. trans, of a German work issued in 1902) — the German only
has the deuiled bibliography. P. Clergct's La Suisse an xx*^
Slide (Paris. M08). is very useful. Other works relating to Swiss
indastries and commerce are T. Oering, Die Handdspolilik der
Sckweis am Ausgant des xix. Jakrnunderts (Berlin, 1902}:
E. Hofmann, Die Sdiweitals Industrie slaal (ZOrich, 1902); and
H. Wartmann, Industrie und Handd der Sckweiz im xix. Jahrkundert
(Bern. 1902). The following are historical monc^japhs as to some
of the principal Swiss industries: A. Bfirkli-Meyer, Die Ceschickte
der wSrichertscken Seidenindusirie (ZOrich. 1 894): H. Lehmann.
Die margfimscke Slroktndustrie (Aarau, 1896); and A. Steinmanh.
Die osUckweiteriscke Slickerei-Industrie fZarich, 190O; while the
f onowina deal I • •• • • *ndustry: H. Wartmann.
Jndmsiru mnd I auf t866 (St Gall, 1870.
besides many n 06 to 1890); T. Geering,
Handd und I* lel. 1886); A. Bachelin,
LHorioterie nt I; and A. Pfleghart, Die
sckweizeriacke 08). A full technical
and weli-illust of the chief industrial
establishments >ie induslrielle und komr
mertieUe SekuM krkundert fZQrich, since
1900): while B. continental et la Suisse,
iSoj-tStj (Lausanne, 1906) treats of an interesting period in Swiss
commcfctal history. Swiss mercantile law is expounded in
A. Curti's Sckweiterisches Handdsreckl (ZOrich, 1903). For purely
financial matters the Finam Jakrbuck (Bern, from 1899). contains
much information of the latest date; while H. Ernst's E%ne sckweixer-
iseke Bmtdesbank (Winterthur, 1904) sketches the foundation of
the Swiss National Bank that was successfully launched in 1907.
G. Schanz's Die Steuem der Sckweiz (5 vols., Stuttgart, 1890} is a
remaricSbly complete and instructive work; while the later book
by J. Steiger. Urundttige des Finanshauskaltes der Kantone und
Gemeinden (2 vols.. Bern, 1903), is specially devoted to taxes
levied by the cantons and the communes, and is of the greatest
vtility in studying a very complicated subjecL £. Naef's Tabak-
monopol lend Biersteuer (ZOrich, 1903), treatsof two special sources
of revenue in the Swiss financial system. Tlie history of the Swiss
coinage is admirably narrated, with many fine illustrations, by
L. Coraggk>ni. in hts MUnzgeukickle der Sckweiz (Geneva, 1896),
and b the chief authority on Swiss numismatics in general.
As to the fine arts, the best general work on medieval Swiss
architecture is J. R. Rahn's Gescnickte der bildenden KtLnste in der,
Sckweiz (ZOrich, 1876). The same author has also collected various
of his art essays in his Kunsl- und Wanderstudien in der Sckweiz
(Vienna. 1883), while he has describe (alone or with, the help of
ocben) the chief art monuments in the various Swiss cantons —
these notkes appeared in the Anzeiger fUr sckweiz. Alterthumskunde
(Zllrieb, from 1868). and for the cantons of Soleure, Tkino, Thurgau
and Unterwalden. form appendices which are really art monographs.
An alder and more nccial work on the same subject a J. D.
Btav%ttac's Histoire deParckitecture sacrie du fH^ au x*** sikJe dans
les anciens Mchis de Genhe, Lausanne, et Sion ((Geneva, 1853).
There are two general books 00 the special subject of Swiss castles—
Mrae de Montmolier's Les Ckdteaux suisus (1816-1823, new ed.,
later); and F. KQpfer's Burgen und Sckldsser der Sckweiz (n.d.).
Many have now special monographs; so Habsburt (1896) and Lens-
kurg (1904), both by W. Merz, whose later work Die miuddtterlicken
Burgamagen und Wekrbauten des Rontons Aargau (2 vols., Aarau,
1906) is a very complete treatise on the most castellated r»ion
of the country. For the B er nes e castles we have E. L. C Eden
SWtTZMRLAiW
267
268
SWITZERLAND
Lthrbuck fir den Cesckkhtstadenickt in dtr Sekunddrsehule (ZQrich,
1685), is very accurate and handy. Far more popular in style than
" z'b Sckweiur-CeschichU fur itu Volk
€rzdUl (La Chaux dc Fonds, 1899),
Suisse racmtie au peupU (Neuch&tel« ,1900).
any yet mentioned arc J. Sutx'
""" " "' * " ' " \ and A. Gobat* Hisloire de la
. . , td, 1900). A very attractive
summary Qnduding social and economical history) b given in H.
VuUi6ty s La Suisse d trovers les (Lges (Basel and Geneva, 1901).
J. Heierli's Urgesckichte der Sckweii (ZQrich, 1901) has superseded
an earlier works (such as Heer) on prehistoric Switzcrbnd. The
authentic early history of the Confederation (scealsoTsLL, Tschudi,
and WiNiiELRiBD) is admirably told in \V. Oechdi's Die Anfdno!
der sckweiaerischen Eidgenossensehafl (ZOrich, 1891, also in French},
as well as in the older work by A. Rilliet,L«f Origines de la conjtdira-
tion Suisse (2nd ed., (Geneva and Basel, i860). For the earlier
medieval history (1273-1^} J* E. Kopp's CeschichU der eidge-
n6ssiuhen BOnde (5 vols., Letpag. Lucerne and Basel, X845-1883)
is a perfect storehouse of information, while the medieval
political Swiss system * in relation to the empure has been
very clearly described by W. Oechsli in his article (published
in voL v., 1800, of Hilty's Poliiisches Jahrbiich) " Die Bezieh-
ungen der schweiz. Eidgenossenschaft zum Keiche bis sum
Schwabenkrieg, If99>'* wmle the same writer's article (pub-
lished in vol xiu., 1888, of the Jakrhuch JUr sckweixenscke
Cesckickte) " Orte und Zugewandte," gives an admirable account
of the relations of many small districts and towns to the Swiss Con-
federation, as " allies,'^ from the earliest tiroes to 1798. The two
following works trace certain phenomena throughout Swiss history
— P. Schweizer, Gesckickte der schmeizeriscken Neuiralitdt (Frauen-
feld, 1895), and J. SchoUenbergec, Cesckickte der sckweiter. Politik
(2 vols., Frauenfeld, 1906 and 1908). As to the more recent history
of Switzerland (unce^ 1798) see, besides various articles in Hilty s
Jakrbuck, C. Hilty. Offentlicke Vorlesungen Hber die Hehetik (Bern,
1878); W. Oechsli. Cesckickte der Schweiz im xix. Jakrkundert
(vol. i., Leipzig. 1903, extends from 1798 to 1813); F. Burckhardt,
Die ukweiteriuke Emigration, J798-1901 (Basel, 1908); B. van
Muyden, Za Suisse sous lepacte de 1815 (2 vols., <8i5-l838,
Lausanne, 1 890-1 891) ; G. H. Dufour. Der Sonderbunds-Kriee und die
Ereignisu von 1856 in Neuenburg (Basel, 1876: also in French, Paris,
1876); G. Grote, Seven Letters concerning Uie Politics of Switaerland
147, enlarged ed., London, 1876); T. Curti, Die sckweiaeriscken
' reekte, iSjfS-i 900 {Bern, 1900): J. SchoUenbcrger, Die Sckweix
*" •■ ^' and the blue-book (London. 1848) entitled
seit 1848 (Berlin, i<
Correspondenu
^ to tke Affairs of Swiixerland, with the
following volumes of memoirs by Swiss statesmen : A. P. Segesser,
Fanf und viertie. Jakre im luzemiscken Staatsdienst. 1841-1887
(Bern, 1887); J. CKem. Souvenirs polHiques, 1818-1883 (Bern, 1887) :
aad Nuroa Droz, Eludes et ^traits polittques (Geneva. 189O. as well
as lives of others. For the nistory of Switzerland in the loth century
see T. Curti, Cesckickte der Sckveeiz im xix, Jakrkundert (Neuch&ta,
1902). and the work entitled La Suisse au xix^ sikde (3 vols.,
Lausanne. 1899-1900; also' issued in Otrtazv).
The following works are very useful l<x various departments of
Swiss history: Cenealogisckes Handhuck tur sckweizer Cesckickte
On course of publication unce 1900 at Zilrich) ; P. Ganz, Cesckickte
der keraJduckin Kunst in der Sdnaeiz im xii, and xiii, Jakrkundert
(Frauenfeld, 1890): E. Schulthess. Die St&die- und Landes-Siegd
der Sckweis (ZQnch, 1853); P. KQpfer's Armorial des villes suisus
(120 shields, Basel. 1885) ; A. Gautier. Les Armoiries et les coukurs de
la confidtration et des cantons suisses (2nd ed., Geneva, and Basel,
1879); and L. Tobler*8 Sckioeixeriscke Volkslieder (2 vols., Frauen-
feld, 1882-1884; many historical ballads, texts with introductions).
The best historical atlas is the Historisck-geograpkiscker Atlas der
Sckweis by J. C. Vdgelin, G. Meyer von Knonau and G. von WyM
Oiew ed.. Zurich. 1870), while L. Pcirier-Delay and F. Mttllhaupt's
Bistoriscker Atlas der Sckweis (Bern, 1898), and J. S. Gerster's
small maps (ZQrich. 1886) are also usefuL There is a set of small
Swiss historical maps in one sheet (Na 25) in Droyscn's AUgemeiner
kistoriscker Atlas (Bielefeld. 1886), amd a single general one (No.
44)in R. L. Poole's Historical Atlas of Modem Europe (Oxford.1902).
For the pre- 1798 constitution of Switzerland see J. Simler, De
Belvetiae repuUtcd (ZQrich 1576; also in German and French),
and Abraham Stanyan's An Account ofSwitseHand (London, 1714).
The best and most recent works on the existing Swiss constitution
of 1874 and its history are the laree volume by W. Burckhardt,
Kommentar der ukweiz, Bundesverjassung von 1874 (Bern, 190^),
and the smaller one by J. Schollenberi^, Bundesurfassung der
Sckweix. Eidtfinossensckafi. Kommentar mit Einleitung (Berlin,
l5K>5h whil« the same author's Das Bundesstaatsreekt der sckweiz,
Cesckickte und System (Beriin, 1902) and his Crundriss der StaaU-
und Verwalttingsreckts der sckweis. Kantone (2 vols., ZQrich, 1898*
1899) are clear, and. eraecially the last-named, very useful as to
cantonal matters. In English there is nothing better than J. M.
Vincent's Covemment in Switzerland CSevr York and London. 1900).
for the work by F. O. Adams and C. D. Cunningham is not very
satisfactory, though better in its FrencJi edition (Basel and Geneva.
1890) than in its.orinnal English shape (London, 1889). The
decisions of the Swiss Tederal Tribunal as to Swiss constitutional
law are collected (up to the end of 1902) in L. R. von Salb's
Sckweiserisckes Bundesreckt (2nd ed., 5 voU, Bern, 1903-X904), while
iBlBUOGRAPHy
ecml sides
iDUM AKO
oosultiog,
>er(i86a-
175-1878),
. voL 1^
ul artklea
r's StaaU-
rtai,i850»
tons— On.
td tfl itia
ttitutiooal
tlatiflg to
lutions in
Us (Paris,
«dby the
1 in 1900;
teckamp's
bistory of
Si s abound.
an SckmeiMtf'
iu B Kirckeu-
gfi. It of date,
as w writtea
fn r „ — _ _- _- jleischlin's
Studien und Beitrige sur sckweiter, Kirckengesckickte (Lucerne,
1902-1903) includes the period 800 to 1520. but is written
from a strong Romanist point of view. As to the early
history consult E. Egli's Dte ckristlicken Ituckriften der Sckweta
von iv-ix. Jakrkundert (ZQrich, 1895), ^^^ ^ JCirckengesckiekte
der Sckweis bis auf Karl den Grossen (ZQrich, 1893); S. Guyer,
Die ckrisUicken Denkmdler des ersten Jakrtausends in der SckweiB
(Leipzig, 1907); A. LQtolf, Die Claubensboten der Sckwein
vor St Callus (Lucerne, 1871); and E. F. Olpke, Die ckrisUicke
Sagengesckickte der Sckweis (Bern. 1862). As to the medieval
saints in Switzerland see E. A. StQckelberg, Cesckickte der Religuiem
in der Sckweis (2 vols., 2Ulrich and Basel. 1902 and 1908), and his
Die sckweis. Heilieen des Mittelalters (ZQrich. 1903). and J. Genoud'»
Les Saints de la Suisse franfaiu (new ed., 2 vols., Fribourg, 1897).
For the documentary history of some of the medieval Swiss diooeaea
see Retesta episcoporum constantiensium, edited by P. Ladewig
and T. MQUer (2 vols., from 596 to 138%. as yet published, Innsbruck.
1895 and 1905): M. Besson, Reckerckes sur lis origines des iekkis
de Genhe, Lausanne, et Sion (Fribourg, 1906), and L. Stouff, Le
Pouvoir temporal des Mgues de BAle (2 vols., Paris, 1891). £. E.
von Mulinen's Helvetia sacra (2 vols., Bern, 1858 and 1861) gives
the succession of the various bishops, abbots, provosts, due., but
rcqmres bringing up to date. For tiie medieval Swiss monasteries
we have Die Regesten der Arckive in der sckweis. Eidgenossenscht^
(edited by T. von Mohr; 2 vols.. Coire, 1851-1854). thoush it refera
only to a few monasteries, for which it is indispensable, while Arnold
NQscheler's Die GotUsk&user der Sckweis (3 pts., ZQrich, 1864-1873.
continued by the author and others in the Cesckicktsfreund aJui
Argovia, complete index issued as an appendix to the Anaeigier fUr
sdnoeiteriscke Cesckickte, 1900) is roost valuable and usefuL Some
of the great roonasteries have histoi ' ' • * g^Q^ gu^ ^s Einsie-
ddn iq.v.), Eneelberg iq.v.), and M ry Pater M. Kiem.
Cesckickte der Benedictiner-Abtei Mu ns. 1888 and 18I91).
Two monographs may be mentioi indscbedler, Kirck'
lickes Asylreckt und Freistttten m di uttgait, 1906). and
Augusta Steinbe^, Studien tur Gei iden in der Sckweix
waArend des Mittelalters (ZQrich, i< e Rcforrqation and
later times consult (on the Protestai es biographies, &c..
of Calvin and Zwingli {qq. 0.), E. Blcv.i,w», w..^ U der sckweiserisch-
ridormierten Kircken (2 vob., Bern, 1898-1899): and W. Hadom.
Cesckickte des Pietismus in der ukweis. reform, Kircken (Constance,
1901), and the same author's Kirckeng^kickU der refomuerten
Sckweis (since 1906). F, Meyer's work. Die evongeliuke Cemeinds
in Locarno (2 vols., ZQrich, 1836), treats of an important event of
that period. The Romanist standpoint is presented in vols. iiL
and iv. (1904 sqq.) of Fleischlin's work mentioned above, and also
in T. G. Mayers Das Consil von Trient und die Cegair^ormatiom
in der Sckwets (2 vols., Suns, 1901 and 1903)*
For more modem days the bMt book, especialW from the consd-
tutional side, is C. Gareis and P. Zacn,Staat und liireke inder Sckweix
(2 vols.. ZQrich, 1877-1878). which tells the stoiy down to the date
of publication. Special subjects are treated of in M. Kothing. Dm
BistkumsverkandJungen der seJnoeiserisck-konstanaiscken Di^^esan*
st&nde von 1803-1862 (Schwyz, 1863): F. Troxlcr. Der KuUurkamff
von 1863-1888 (Bienne. 1889); Ch. Woeste. Hislotre du CuUurkampf
en Suisse, 1871-1886 (Brussels. 1887. Romanist work); and P.
Gschwind. Cesckickte der Entstekung der ckristkatkoliscken Kircke
der Sckweis (vol. L appeared at Basel in 1904). The work by A.
BQchi entitled Die katkoliscke Kircke in der Sckweis (Munich. 1902)
gives a full and authorized account of the present state ci tha
Roman Catholic Church ia Switzerland.
SWOLD, BATTLE OF— SWORD
269
£. liiavhnr.— 'For tbe Swiss medieval Minnesi^en ape Kari
Banich, Die sekwetzer Mtni^singer (Prauenfeld. 1887. texts, with
intreductiofis): and ffjr popular ballads, hwtorical or not, L. ToMer,
Sekmnzariseke Vdkdmitr it vols., Frauenfeld, 1882^1884, texts,
widi notes and introductions). In sencral consult J. Mchtold,
Ceichicktf der dtulschen LiUratur in der Sckweit (Fraucnfdd. 1892):
E. H. Gaulficur, Etudes sur Vhistotre liltiraire dt ta Suisse Jraniatse,
farHadikrement dans fo seamde moiHi du xvOi^ sOth (Paris, 1856);
P. Godet. Histain UtUnire dt la Suisst rvmand* (and cd.. NeuchAtd
and Paris, 1895); H. E. Jenny, Die Aifwdtfhlung 4*r deulxheu
Sekweiz CBem. 1905): J. C. Morikofer, Die sckwmenscke iMeraiur
des xoiii. JahrkundeHs (Leipzig. 186I): F. Rausch, Ceschifkle der
Liienttnr des rhdio-nmanischen Valkes (Frankfort -on-the-Main,
1870) ; Virgtle Rossd. Histaire liuhwe de laSuisse romande (2 vols.,
Geneva and Paris, 1889-1891); R. Weber. Die pottisthe /faiumct-
iiUralur der deutscken Sckwetz (3 vols., Glarus, 1866-1867^. For the
more recent Swiss writers sec the literary sections of the work
entitled La Suisse au xix^ silde, vol. ii. ch. 4 (Lausanne. 1880-
•900). and the biogiapbers of the seveval writers noted under the
sqnrate articles. (W.A.B.C.)
SWOLD (or Swdu>), BATTLE OF, the most iamous of the
sca-fighu of the ancient Norsemen. It took place on the 9th
oC September leoo. The place cannot now be identifiml, as the
formation of the Baltic coast has been much modified in the
cDuiie of aubaequent centuries, partly by the gradual silting up
of the sea, and partly by the storms of the X4th century. Swold
was an island probably on the North German coast, near Rikgcn.
The battle was fought between Olaf Trygvesson, king of Norway,
and a coalition of his enemies— Eric Hakonsoa, his cousin and
rival; Ohif, the lung of Sweden; and Swcyn Fcrkbeard, king of
Denmark. The poets, and the poetically minded aathan of the
sagas, who are the only authorities, have told the story with
many circumstances of romance. But when tbe picturesque
detads, which also have no doubt at least a foundation of truth,
are taken at their true value, the account of the battle still
presents a very trustworthy picture of the sea>fighting of the
Nonemen. Olaf had been during the summer in the eastern
Baltic, The allies lay in wait lor him at the island of Swold on
his way home. The Noise king had with him seventy-one
vessels, but part of them belonged to an asaodate, Sigwald, a
chief of the Jomsbuig vikings, who waa an agent of his enemies,
and who deserted him. Olaf 's own ships went past the anchor-
age of Eric Hakonson and his allies in a long oolomn without
Older, as no attack was expected. The king was in tbe rear of
the whole of his best vessels. The allies allowed the bulk of the
Norse ships to pass, and then stood out to attack Olaf. He
might have run past them by the use of sail and oar. to escape,
but with the true spirit of a Norse warrior he refused to flee,
and turned to give battle with the eleven .ships immediately
about him. The disposition adopted was qne which is found
lecurting ia many sea-fights of the middle ages where a fleet
had to fight on the defensive. OUif lashed his ships side toside,
his own — ^the "Long Serpent,'' tbe finest war>vessel as yet built
in the north— 4)eing in the middle of the line, where her bows
projected beyond the others. The advantage of this arrange-
ment was that it left all hands free to fight, a barrier oould be
fgnned witk the oais and yards, and the enemy's chance of
making use of his superior numbers to attadi on both sides
would be, as far as possible, limited--a great point when all
fighting was with the sword, or with such f eebk missile weapons
as bows and javdins. The Norse long ships were high in the
bulwark— or, as the Greeks woukl have said, " cataphract."
Olaf, in fact, tuned his eleven ships into a floating fort. The
Nocse writers, who are tbe only aathoiities, gave all the credit
to their own countrymen, and according to them all tbe intelli-
gence of Olafs enemies, aad most of their valour, were to be
found ia Eric Hakonson. They say that the Danes and Swedes
rasbed at the front of Olaf 's Une without success. Eric Hakon-
son attacked the flank. His vessel, the " Iron 'Ram^" was
** bearded," that is to say, strengthened across the bows by
bands of iron, and he foroed her between the last and last but
one of Olafs lineL In this way the Norse ships were carried one
by one, till the " Long Serpent " atone was left. At hut she
too was overpowered. Olaf leapt into the sea hoMing his
shield edgeways^ so that he sank at once and the weight of his
hauberk dragsed him down. A legend of later days has it that
XXVI ft»
at tbe last moment a sudden blaae of Ugbt tunounded the king,
and when it cleared away he had disappeaitd. i^jng Olaf is
one of the same company aa Charlemagne, King Arthur and
Sebastian of Pbrtugal— tbelegendacy heroic figurcsin whose death
the people would not believe, and whose return waa kioked for.
See the /7«iffu-£r<H£ia, in the Saga Libtary. trans, by W. Monis
and E. Magmusson (1893) and the Saga of King Qki TrytpaasoH,
trans, by J. Sephton (1895). * (K H.)
SWORD (O. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European
root meaning to wound), a general term for a hand weapon of
metal, characterized by a longish blade, and thus distinct from
all missOe weapons on tbe one hand, and on the other hand from
staff weapons— the pike, bill, halberd and the like— in which
the metal head or blade occupies only a fraction of the effective
length. The handle of a sword provides a grip for the hand that
wields it, or sometimes for two hands; it may add protection,,
and in most patterns does so to a greater or less extent.
Still it is altogether subordinate to the blade. For want of a
metal-headed lance or axe, which indeed were of later invention,
a sharpened pole or a thin-edged paddle will serve the turn.
But a sword-handle without a blade is naught; and no true sword-
blade can be made save of metal capabile of taking an edge or point.
I. Historical.— That are so-called swords of wood and even
stone to be found in collections of savage weapons. But these
are really flattened dubs; and the present writer Or^mtaad
agrees with the late General Pitt-Rivers in not Barfr
believing that such modifications of the dub have ''"'^■*
had any appreciable influence on the form or use of true swords.
On this last point, however, the opinions of competent archaeo-
togists have been much divided. We will only remark that the
occurrence in objects of human handiwork of a form, or even
a series of forms, intermediate between two types is not condu-
sive evidence that those forms are historical links betweai the
different t3rpcs, or that there is any historical connexion at all.
In the absence of dates fixed by external evidence this kind of
comparison will sddom take us beyond plausible conjecture.
A traveller who had never seen vdodpedes might naturally
suppose, on a first inspection, that the tricyde was a modificatk>ii
of the old four-wheeled vek>dpede, and tbe bicyde a still later
invention; but we know that in fact the order of devdopment
was quite different.
It is more difficult as a matter of verbal definition to distinguish
the sword from smaller hand weapons. Thus an ordinary
sword b four or five times as long as an ordinary dagger: but
there are long daggers and short swords; ndther will the form of
blade or handle afford any certain test. The real difference lies
m the intended use of the weapon; we assodate the sword with
open combat, the dagger with a secret attack or the sudden
defence opposed to it One might say that a weapon too luge
to be concealed about the person cannot be called a dagger.
Again, there are hrge knives, such as those used by the Afridis
and Afghans, which can be distinguished from swords onfy by
the greater breadth of the bUde as compared with it? length.
Again, there are spedal types of arms, of which the yataghan
is a good example, which in their usual forms do not look much
like swoeds, but in others that occur must be classed aa varieties
of tbe sword, unkss we keep them separate by a more or leas
artificial theory, referring the type as a whole to a different origin.
Of the actual origin of swords we have no direct evidence.
Neither does the English word nor, so far as we are aware, any
of the equivalent words in other languages, Aryan or otherwise,
throw any light on the matter. Daggers shaped from reindeer
antlers occur among the earliest rdics of man, and there are
flint daggers of the Neolithic period, which may be supposed
to have been the modd for the first hand weapons made of
copper. Bronze took the place cf copper about 2000 B.C., and
the transition from bronze to inm is assigned to tbe period from
1000 to 700 B.c* Whatever may be the further discoveries of
archaeologists^ we know that swords are found from the earliest
* As to the ovcilappiag of the bronce and iron ages in the
Homeric poems^ ace Burrows, The Discemries im Cme (1907),
p. a 14. As to Britain, O. Mootdius in Arckaetdepa^ 61, pp. 15$"^;
Cowper, Art cfAUaek, 124 sqq. (Ulvcnton, 1906).
270
SWORD
times of which we have any record among all people who have
acquired any slull in metal-work. There are two very ancient
types, which we may call the straighl-edged and the leaf-
shapol Assyrian monuments represent a straight and narrow
sword, better fitted for thrusting than cutting. Bronze swords
of this form liave been found in many parts of Europe, at
Mycenae, side by side with leaf-shaped specimens, and more
lately in Crete.' We have also from Mycenae some very curious
and elaborately wrought blades, so broad and short that they
must be called ornamental daggers rather man swords. The
leaf-shaped blade is common everywhere among the remains
of men in the " Bronze Period " of civilization, and this was the
shape used by the Greeks in historical times, and is the shape
familiar to us in Greek works of art. It is impossible, however,
to say whether the Homeric heroes were conceived by the poet
as wearing the leaf-shaped sword, as we see it, for example, on
the Mausoleum sculptures, or a narrow straight-edged blade of
the Minoan and Mycenaean pattern. In any case, the sword
holds & quite inferior position with Greek warriors of all times.
{f-i.tmaCvhud'iCritcUMchtVasaibtUtr: 6-is. from Lindemchnit , Tr^hl «Mi
BimSmmg its rtmiukm Eia$s wikrtmd dtr JUistruit, Brtuuwick, i88>.) •
Fig. I.
I-S, Greek Swords of the classical type; 6-15 Roman Swords.
6, So-called '* sword of Tiberius '• 9, Cavalry (monumentat Mainz) .
from Mainz (Brit. Mus.). 10, Cavalry (monument at
7, Bonn (private collection), Worms).
lengrth 765 mm. 13, 13, Sword handles (Kid and
8, Legionary (monument at Mainz).
W^baden). 1 1 , 1 4. 1 5, From Trajan's column.
The relation of the Minoan long sword to the Greek leaf-shaped
blade is obscure. It is conceivable that the leaf-shape was
modified from a longer straight blade for the sake of handiness
and cutting power, but not less so that the leaf -shape was
» The Cretan finds are fully described by Arthur T. Evans, " The
Prehistoric Tombs of Knossos," (Arckaeolcnia (1905), 59, pt. 2; also
separately published (1906). There are long (91-95 cm., 34 i in.-
J7I in.) and short (50-^1 cm., 20-24 -a •"'• •words, daggers and
oronae knives. A fine original specimen and seversi facsimiles
afycenaean as well as Minoan) may be seen in the Ashmolean
useujn at Oxford. Bronze dajggera preceded bo^h swonls and spear-
heads (Grcenwell and Brevis. jn ArdnuoUtgia, 61 , pp. 443, 453).
independently produced by imitation in metal of flint daggers.
Independence appears, on the whole, slightly more probable;
the existence of specimens which might bebng to an intermediate
type is only an ambiguous fact without a more exact chronology
than we have as yet, as it may be due to experiment or imitation
after both types were in use. Strange as it is to a modem
swordsman, representations in Minoan art seem to show that
not only the bronze daggers but the long swords were used with
an overhand stabbing action like a modern Asiatic dagger.* The
handles arc loo short for any but a rigid grip without finger-play.
Before about 1500 b.c. the rapier type was the prevailing one;
but there is no evidence of historical connexion between the
Assyrian and the Minoan rapiers. It is thought that the leaf-
shaped blade came to the Mediterranean countries from the
north. So far as we know from works of art, it was mostly used
with a downright cutting blow, regardless of the consequent
exposure of the swordsman's body; this, however, matters little
when defence is left to a shield or armour, or both. Attic vases
also show warriors giving point, though less often. The use
of the sword as a weapon of combined offence and defence —
swordsmanship as we now undcretand it — is quite modem. If
the sword was developed from a spearhead or dagger, it would
naturally have been (and it seems in fact to have been) a thrusting
weapon before it was a cutting one. But when we come to
historical times we find that uncivilized people use only the edge,
and that the effective use of the point is a mark of advanced
skill and superior civilization. The Romans paid special
attention to it, and Tacitus tells as how Agricola's legionaries
made short work of the clumsy and pointless arms of the Britons
when battle was fairly joined.* The tradition was preserved
at least as late as the time of Vegethis, who, as a technical
writer, gives details of the Roman soldier's sword exercise.
Asiatics to this day treat the sword merely as a cutting weapon,
and most Asiatic swords cannot be handled in any other way.
The normal types of swords which we meet with in historical
times, and from which all forms now in use among civilized nations
are derived, may be broadly classified as straight*
edged or curved. In the straight-edged type, in itself jnjSf*'
a very ancient one, either thrusting or cuttbg
qualities may predominate, and the blade may be double-edged or
single-edged. The double-edged form was prevalent in Europe
down to the 17th century. The single-edged blade, or back-
sword as it was called in Eng^d, is well exemplified among the
Scottish weapons commonly but improperly known as claymores
(the real claymore, i.e. great sword, daidkeamk mdr, is an earlier
medieval form), and is now all but exclusively employed for
military weapons. But these, with few exceptions, have been
more or less influenced by the curved Oriental sabre. Amoni
early double-edged swords the Roman pattem (ulcdius, the
thrusting sword, contrasted with the barbarian ensis) stands out
as a workmanhke and formidable weapon for dose fight. In
the middle ages the Roman tradition disappeared, and a new
start was made from the clumsy barbarian arm which the
Romans had despised. Gradually the brood and all but pointless
blade was lightened and tapered, and the thmst, although its
real power uras unknown, was more or less practised from the
i2th century onwards. St Louis anticipated Napoleon in
calling on his men to use the point; and the heroes of dismounted
combats in the Uortt d' Arthur are described as " foining " at
one another. In the first half of the i6th century a well-
proportioned and well-mounted cut-and-thrust sword was in
general use, and great artistic ingenuity was expended; for those
who could afford it, on the mounting and adornment. The
growth and variatioits of the different parts of the hilt, curiously
resembling those of a living species, would ak>ne be matter
enough for an aTchaeok>gical study. One peculiar form, that of
the Scottish basket-hilt, derived from the Venetian pattern
known as sekiawtu, has persisted irithout material change.
* As the tpear still was in historical times (Furtwitnglcr-Reichhotd,
Cr. VasemnaUrei, iii. 122).
^ Agric. 36: " Britannorum gladii sine mucrone complexum
armorum et In aperto pugnam non tolcrabant." The short Koman
infantry sword« fiowever, dates only Irom the Second Punic War*
SWORD
271
Quite diffcMBt fron the fiinopeui nodcb is the acKCQt-
ihaped Aaialic sabre« ootninonly called sdmitar. W0 ue not
arqnwnfcd with any distinct evidence as to the origin of this
in time or place. Dr R, Forrtr tbinla the whole family- of
curved swords was developed from bronze knives. The Prankish
XFttwusax wouki then represent an intermediate type, How>
ever that may be, the faime of the Damascus manufacture of
swoid-falades is of great antiquity, as is also that of Khorflsin,
still the centre of the best Eastern work of this kind. Wbo^
ever first made these blades had conceived a very definite idea
—that of gaining a maximum of cnttfaig power re^jacdles of
baa in other qoalitics-rand executed it in a manner not to be
improved upon. The action of the curved edge in delivering
a bknr is to present an obtique and therefore highly acute-angted
section of the blade to the object struck, so that in effect the
cot is given with a finer edge than could safely be put on the
blade in its direct transverse section. In a well-made sabre
the setting of the blade with regard to the handle (" leading
forward ") is likewise ocdercd with a view to this result. And
the cutting power of a weapon so shaped and mounted is un-
doubtedly very great. But the use of the point is abandoned,
! bf pMnaioa froa '
wdbythc liMiia Office, i8j
stoa's tlbutralti Bamibmk rf indiam Ami.
>, new cd. I J. iHdiam ami Otlemtal Amour, iSgfi.)
Fig. a.—Oricntal Swords.
1. 7, Decorated Persian arms. 6, Persian talwar.
3. Gauntlet sword. 8, Kukri (Nepal).
4. Common type of talwar (North- 7. 9* ■<>, Mahratta, showing trao-
West Provinces). Mtioa to gauntlet sword.
5. Yaughan type.
and the capacities of defensive use (to which Orientals pay little
or no attentioo) much diminished. These drawbacks have
cansed the sdmitar type, alter being in fashion for European
Kght cavalry dvring the period of Napoleon's wars and some-
what longer, to be discarded fai our own time. But, as long as
Eabtems adhcte'totheir rigkl uaap 0f a small handle and s#eep«
ing cut delivered from the shoulder, the Persian scimitar or
Indian talwar will remain the natural weapon of the eastern
horseman. Indian and Persian swords are often richly adorned;
but their apptopriaAe beauty is in the texture of the steel itself,
the "danuttceaing" or "watering" which distinguishes a
superior from a common specimen.
There are special Asiatic varieties of curved blades of whidi
the origin is more or less uncertain. Among these the most
remarkable Is perhaps the yatac^an, a weapon pretty much
coextensive with the Mahommedan worM, though it is reported
to be not conunoo in Persia^ It was imported from Africa,
through a French imitation, as the model of the aword-bayonets
which were common for about a generation in European armies;
probably the French authorities caught at it to s^tis|y. the
sentiment, which lingered in continental armies long after it
had disappeared in England, that even the infantry soldier after
the invention of the bayonet must have some kind of sword.
A compact and formidable hand weapon was thus turned into
a clumsy and top-heavy pike. If we try to make a bayonet
that will cut cabbages, we may or may not get a useful chopper,
but we shall certainly get a very bad bayonet. The modem
short sword-bayonet is a reversion to the original dagger type,
and. not open to this objection. The double curvt of the yata-
ghan is substantially identical with that of the (jurkha knife
(kukrt)f though the latter is so much broader as to be more like
a woodman's than a soldier's instrument. It is doubtful,
however, whether there is any historical connexion. Similar
needs arc often capable of giving rise to similar inventions
without imitation or communication. There are yet other
varieties, belonging to widely spread families of weapons, which
have acquired a strong individuality. Such are the swords
of Japan, which are the highly perfected working out of a general
Indo-Chinese type; they are powerful weapons and often
beautifully made, but a European swordsman would find them
ill-balanced, and the Japanese style of sword-play, being two-
handed, has little to teach us.
Other sorts of weapons, again, are so peculiar in form or
historical derivation, or both, as to refuse to be referred to any
of the normal divisions. The long straight gauntlet-hilted
sword (paidf fig. 3) found both among the Mahrattas in the
south of India and among the Sikhs and Rajputs in the north,
is an elongated form of the broad-bladcd dagger with a cross-bar
handle {kafdr^ figs. 9, 10), as is shown by a transitional form, much
resembling in shape and size of blade the medieval English
anlace, and furnished with a guard for the back of the hand.
This last-mentioned pattern seenui, however, to be limited to
a comparatively small tegion. When once the combination
of a long blade with the gauntlet hilt was arrived at, any straight
blade might be so mounted; and many appear on examination
to be of European workmanship — Qcrman, Spanish or Italian.
There are various other Oriental arms, notably in the Malay
group, as to which it is not easy to say whether they are properly
swords or not. The Malay " parang latok " is a kind of elongatMl
chopper sharpened by being bevelled off to an edge on one side,
and thus capable of cutting only in one direction. The anlace
incidentally mentioned above seems to be merely an overgrown
dagger; the name occurs only in English and Welsh; in whkb>
language first, or whence the name or tWng came, is unknown.
In the course of the j6th century the straight two-edged
sword of all work was lengthened, narrowed, and more finely
pointed, till it became the Italian and Spanish L«ftrfltar»-
rapier, a weapon still furnished with catting edges, f»y^
but used chiefly for thrusting. We cannot say how "*■'"■"'■•
far this transition was influenced by the esicc or PanzersUchtr}
a late medieval thrusting weapon carried by horsemen rather
as an auxiliary hince than as a sword. The Roman preference
of the pomt was redisoorered under new conditions, and f endng
became an art. Its progress was from pedantic complication
to lucidity and simplicity, and the fashion of the weapon waa
* Probably this was the kind of swotd called BroA in I4th<entury
Eaglisb (Eyn tf Kent, Sddcn Soc 1910, p. 100).
272
SWORD
simplified also. Early in the x8th century, the use of the edge
having been finally abandoned in lapier-play, the two^dg^
blade was supplanted by the bayonet-shaped French duelling
sword, on which no improvement has since been made except in
giving it a still simpler guard. The name oC rapier was oftea
but wrongly given to this by English writers. About the same
time, or a little earlier, the primacy of the art passc^d front Italy
to France. There is still a distinct Italian school, but the rest
of the world learns from French masters. It is unnecessary
here to consider the history of fencing {q.v.)\ Mr Egerton Castle's
book on the subject will be found a trustworthy guide, and almost
indispensable for those who wish really to understand the
passages relating to sword-play in our Eliaabethan literature,
of which the fencing scene in HamUi is the most famous and
obvious example.
N
OtflpraduoHl bar pcnaosioo fram Mr EcnUm Caotk't StJmth tmi Uukn tf Fmu.}
Fig. 3,— Typical European Swords, i6th-i8th centuries.
t. Early i6th century,
a, Gennan, c. 1550.
3, Italian rapier, third quarter
16th century.
Italian, same period.*
English, same period.
English mnsketeer'a
early 17th century.
8, Spanish broadsword, early
17th century.
9, Venetian, e. 155a
10^ Italian, late i6th century.
11, English, time of Common-
wealth.
12, French rapier, c. i6sa
13, Gennan flambcrg, ^y 17th
century.
14, 15, SmaJl-i
Il-swords, 1700-1750.
Meanwhile a stouter and broader pattern, with sundry minor
varieties, continued in use for military purposes, and gradually
the shiglo'edged form or broadsword prevailed. The well-
known name of Femra, peculiarly associated with Scottish
blades, appears to have orifiinaUy bdosged to ayoKtian maker.
or family ol oiakers; towards the end of the i6th century. The
Spanish blades made at Toledo had by that time, acquired a
renown which still continues. Somewhat later Oriental examples,
imported probably by way of Hungary, induced the cuivatuite
found in most recent military sabres, which, however, i^ now
kept within such bounds as not to interfere with the effective
use of the point. An eccentric specialized variety-^-^we may call
it & " sport **— of the sabre is the narrow and flexible ". ScUAger "•
with which German students fight their duels (for the most
part not arising out of any quarrel, but set trials of skiU), under
highly conventional rules almost identical with those of the old
English " backswording " practised within living memory, in
which, however, the swords were represented by sticks. These
" Schliger " duels cause much effusion of blood, but not often
serious danger to life or limb.
There axe plenty of modem books on sabre-play, but com-
paratively little attention has been given to its scientific tieal*
ment. It is said that the Italian school is better than the
French, and the modem German and Austrian the best of all.
Some of the English cavalry regiments have good traditions,
enriched by the application of a knowledge of fendng derived
from eminent French masters.
llie following description, written for the 9th edition of this
work from personal inH>ection, applies to the process used by the
best private makers till near the end of the iQtfa jUmomUKian
century, and is purposely left unchanged. The otSwtrdBtr
S resent method of making arniy swords is separately "«■*■'•'*•
escribed below. Mecham'cal invention has not been able
to supersede or equal hand-work in the production o( gocd
sword-blades. The swordsmith's craft is still, no less than it
was in the middle ages, essentially a handicraft, and it requires
a high order of skill. His rough material is a bar of cast and
hammered steel tapering from the centre to the ends; when this
b cut in two each half is made into a sword. The '*tang*'
which, fits into the handle is not part of the blade, but a piece
of wrought iron welded on to its base. From this first stage to
the finishing of the point it is all hammer and anvil work. Special
tools are used to form grooves in the blade according to the
regulation or other pattern desired, but the shape and weight
of the blade are fixed wholly by the skilled hand and eye of the
smith. [Machine forging in the early stages is now common, and
there is no difficulty in making the blade and tang of the same
metal.] Measuring tools are at hand, but are little used. Great
care b necessary to avoid overheating the metal, which would
produce a brittle crystaUine grain, and to keep the surface
free from oxide, which would be injurious if hammered jn.
In tempering the blade the workman judges of the proper heat
by the colour. Water is preferred to oil by the best makers,
notwithstanding that tempering in oil is much easier. With
oil there is not the same rbk of the blade coming out distorted
and having to be forged straight again (a risk, however, which the
expert swordsmith can generally avoid); but the steel is only
surface-hardened, and the blade therefore remains liable to bend.
[This is disputed.] Machinery comes into play only for grinding
and polishing, and to some extent in the manufacture of hilts and
appurtenances. I^he finished bbde is proved by being caused
to strike a violent blow on a solid block with the two sides flat,
with the edge, and lastly ^ith the back; after this the blade is
bent flatwise in both directions by hand, and finally the point is
driven through a steel plate about an eighth of an inch thick.
In spite of all the care that can be used both in choice of material
and in workmanship, about 40% of the blades thus tried [now
only about io%] fail to stand the proof, and are rejected. The
process we have briefly described is that of making a really good
sword; of course, plenty of cheaper and commoner weapons are
in the market, but th^ are hardly fit to trust a man's life to.
It is an interesting fact that the peculiar skill of the swordsmith
is in En^and so far hereditary that it can be traced bark in the
same families for several generations.
The best Eastern blades are justly celebrated, but th.ey are not
better than the best European ones; in fact, European swords are
often met with in Asiatic hands, remounted in Eastern fashion*
SWORD
273
Tbe "duoasceoiiig" or ''watering" of choke Pierrfaa and
Indiaa arms is not a secret of workmanship, but is due to the
p fn^liar manner of maJung the Indian steel itself, in which a
oyttaDizing {uocesa is set up; when metal of this textuxe is
fafged out, the vesult is a more or less regular wavy pattern
lunamg through it. There were early medieval damascened
(in German called wurmbunSe) blades. No difference is made by
this in the practical qualities of the blade. (F. Po.)
Fig, 6.
^=^
fit ,
ID-*
Fig. 7.
FkG.
? ?
Fig. 9.
(Fias.6.S,«.ileinWaiEi«ftCo. Flar.BJL War Office.)
Fig.
Length of
Blade from
hilt to point.
Weight
without
Scabbard.
Material
of
Scabbard.
French cavalry sword (men),
pattern 1898. ....
German cavalry sword (men),
pattern 1889
British cavalry raotd (oOctn)
British cavalry sword (mcn)t
pattern 1908 (two sins)
British infantry sword (oflScers)
Inches.
35
3*i
35
} 3Slft34f /
ni
B>. OS.
a 6
a 8)
a
a 3
I la
Seed
with
wood
lining.
2. Modem Military Swardt^—'the present militaiy swords
aie descended frttm the atiaigbt " backrsword " and the Eastern
adraitar or tahrar. The difoenoe between the curved " sabre "
and straight "sword" has been preserved abroad, not only
in fact bot in name (e.g. in German, D»gtf$ stands for the straight,
and Sahd for the curved, sword), though in English the sin^^e
word " sword ** coven both varieties. The shape of the sword
hu varied coniideiably at different times; this is due to the fsct
that it is practically impossible to decide by trial whether g
straight or a curved sword is the better under all circumstancei.
The trooper can use his sword in three different ways— to
cut, to guard and to point; and his success depends upon the
training of his hoise, his skill in horsemanship, and, above
all, upon the dexterity and methods of his adversary. Thus
the effect the cavalryman can produce in combat dq)enda
upon much besides his arm or arms, and those other con-
ditions cannot be reproduced accurately enough to
malu trustworthy tests. The result is that changes •
have often been made in cavalry annament under the
erroneous impression that the arm used has been the
main cause of success. The Ottoman cavafay up to
the end of the i8th century was regarded ss one ojf
the best in Europe, and so much was it dreaded that
the Austtians and Russians in their wars with Turkey
at that time often carried " chevauz-de-f rise '' to
protect their infantry against these redoubtable horse-
men. The curved European cavalry sabre so long in
use may undoubtedly be traced to this cause, the
superiority of the Turks being put down to their
curved scimitars, though there can be no doubt that
horsemanship and dash were really the dominating
factors.
The shape of the swofd to be chosen depends obviooaly
on the puipose for which it is mainly intended. If for
catting a curved blade, and for thrusting a straight and
pointed one, will be adopted. The question naturally
arises as to which is the better (dan to adopt, aixi it ts
improbable that a definite answer can ever be given to it.
The French, for instance, in iSaa ad<^>ted a curved blade
for a short time for all their cavalry, and in i88a again for
a short time a straight blade, and m 1898 agam a straight
blade. In this much-debated matter the facts appear to
be as fcAIows: A determined thrust, emeclally when
delivered by a horsenian at full 4>eed. is difficult to parrv;
if it gets home, it will probably leSl the recipieot outright
or disable him for the rest of the campaign. That this
u the case ia borne out by the very huge proportion of
killed as compared with wounded in the British cavalry
when engufed with that of the French in the I^ninsular
War, the French making much use of the point, and their
heaw cavalry being armed with a long straight sword.
On the other hand, to deliver a bold thrust, whfle dis-
regarding the uplifted sword of the adversary, and leaving
one's own body and head open to an impending blow,
demands complete confidence that the thrust will get
home before me Uo w can descend, or that the adversary's
cut will probably be weakened by a momentary imcer-
tainty as to whether it would not be better to convert the
intended cut iato a parry. Such confidence, itis argued
with much truth, can oiuy be the fruit of long training,
especially as it is the natural tendency of all men to cut
vnen esccited ; therefore, as the trooper m modem armies
will often bea reservist who has not been able to keep up
his swordsmanship, or a young soldier liable to lose his
head and fomt the lessons of peace in the eaccitement of
the mtUe, it is considered by many most unwise to adopt
a sword with which a powerful cut caimot be delivered
as well as an effective thrust. The swoids recently
adopted by most nations have represented a compromise.
They have blades which are neariy straight, but of suffi-
cient weight towards thdr points to enable an efficient
cut to be delivered with them. France, however, in iM
deckled on a long straight sword deagned wholly for
thrusting (see fig. i), practically klentical with that which
was in use about a centurv ago. Tbe foHowxng year
Great Britain introduced a su(riitiy curved weapon, but
in 1908 a new sword was aidopfed which has a long
straight blade and is faitended to be used chiefiy for
thrusting.
As regards the swords worn by oflicers and men of corpe
other tmn cavalry, no r e iu a i k s arc necessary. As long as
they are worn they should be efficient ; but with the officer
the sword is largely a badge of rank. From i^i to 1008 tiie sword
was worn only for ceremoiualpurixwBB by British infantry officers,
but in the latter year it was again ordered to be worn on active
servkre and at manceuvres. Mounted men in general wear cavalry
I swords, and swords are also worn by warrant omcera and by certain
staff-seigeants of dismounted arms and branchesi
A good sword should be elastic, so as to stand bending or a heavy
blow without breaking or permanent deforroatiooj and yet stiff
enough to deliver a powerful thrust without yieldmg too readily
from the straight; It must also be as light as is possibi •-*—
(
ftyi,u^,1 f>> ^7^ o^ tile ww^ '
tufn^tZ ^"9 that JT**^ la
5' P«?'5a;r:f^-»^^
"" tne back ..T "^ we li^.rr ■«« wrforiZr" '"
SWYNFORD— SYBEL
275
erected, aiid piojcctiiig out of die mter, end when quietly
floetmg on the luiface it can sail by the aid of the fin before the
wind, like a boat.
The food of the swordfishcs is the same as that of tunnies,
and consists of smaller fish, and probably *^ >n ffi^t measure
of pelagic cottle*fishes. It hsa been ascertained by actual
obsovation that swordfishes procure their food by dashing
into a school of fishes, piercing and killing a number of them with
thdr swords; and this kind of weapon would seem to be also
parttcuhriy serviceable in killing large cuttle-fish, like the saw
of sawfishes, which is used for the same puipose. But the
swords of the large species of Histicpkcnts and Tetraptmus are,
besides, most fonnidable weapons of aggression. These fishes
never hesitate to attack whales and other large cetaceans, and,
by repeatedly subbing them, geneially retire from the combat
victorious. That they combine in these attacks with the
thresher-shark is an often-repeated story which is discredited
by some naturalists on the ground that the dentition of the
thresher-shark is much too w^ to make an impression on the
skin of any cetacean. The cause which ezdtes swordfishes
to such attacks is unknown; but they follow the instinct so
blindly that they not tardy assail boaU and ships in a similar
manner, evidently mistaking them for cetaceans. They easily
pierce the light canoes of the natives of the Pacific isbinds and
the heavier boats of the professional swordfish fishermen, often
dangerously wounding the persons sitting in them. Attacks
by swordfishes on ocean-going ships are so common as to be
included among sea-risks: they are known to have driven their
weapon through copper-sheathing, oak-plank and timber to a
depth of nearly 10 in., part of the sword projecting into the inside
of tlie ship; and the force required to produce such an effect
has been described by Sir R. Owen in a court of ktw as equal
to " the accumuhfttcd force of fifteen double-handed hammers,"
and the velocity as " equal to that of a swivel-shot " and " as
dangerous in its eflecu as a heavy artillery projectile." Among
the specimens of planking pkrced by swordfishes which arc
preserved in the British Museum there is one less than a fool
square which encloses the broken ends of three swords, as if the
fishes had had the object of concentrating their attack on the
sane vulnerable point of their supposed enemy. The part of
the sword which penetrates a ship's side is almost always broken
off and remains in the wood, as the fish is unable to execute
suffidently powerful backward movements to free itself by
eatracting the sword.
'In the Mediterranean and on the Atlantic coasts of the United
Sutcs the capture of swordfishes forms a regular branch of the
fishing industiy. The object of the fishery in the Mediterranean
is the common European swordfish {Xipkias gkuUus), the aver-
age weight of which is about i cwt., and which is abundant
off the Sidliatt coasts and on the opposite coast of Calabria.
Two methods are empbyed— that by harpoons, chiefly used for
higec fish, and that by peculiarly constructed nets called
paiamitare. This fishery is very productive: a company of
fishermen frequently capture from twenty to fifty fish in a single
day, and the average annual catch in Sicily and Calabria is
Rpofted to be 140,000 kikgnunmes (138 tons). The products
of the fishery are consumed principsUy in a fresh state, but a
portion is preserved in salt or oil The flesh of the swordfish is
much preferred to that of the tunny, and always commands a high
price. This spedes is occasionally captured on the British coast.
On the coast of the United States a different spedes, Hisfio-
pkanu g^ius, occurs; it is a larger fish than the Mediterranean
swordfish, attaining to a length of from 7 to la ft. and an
avemce weight of 300 or 400 lb. It is captured only by the use
o( the harpoon. From forty to fifty vessels, schooners of some
SO tons, are annually engsged in this fishery, with an aggregate
catch amounting annually to about 3400 swordfishes, of a value
of $45,000. The flesh of this spedes is inferior in flavour to that
of the Mediterranean spedes, and is prindpaUy consumed after
having been preserved in salt or brine.
Useful and detailed information on fhe svoidfish fishery can be
obtained from A. T. Tozjetu, " La Pcaca net man d'ltalta e U
petca aU' esteio ese roh ata da Italian!." in Catahto cstemtMw
itUemanoHoie di pesca in Bertino (1880): also from La Pesca dd
pesc*-spada ndU Stretto di Messina (Mesuna, 1880), and from
G. Brown Goode, " Materials for a History oif the Sword-fish," in
Rtpart ^ Ihe Cmmmuimmt of Fisk and. Piskmes, at. viii.
Washington, X883). (A. C. G.)
SWTHFORD. GATHEBIHB (c 1350-1405), wife of John of
Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, was a daughter of Sir Payne Roelt,
a knight who came to England from Hainault in the train of
Edward III.'s queen, Philippa. About 1367 she married Sir
Hun^ Swynford (x340-i37a), a Linoobshire man, by whom she
had a son, Thomas (c 1368-1433), who woa a friend and com-
panion of Henry IV. both before and after he came to the English
throne. Soon after her husband's death in 1371 Catherine became
the mistress of John of Gaunt, and in 1396, nearly two years
after the duke had become a widower for the second time, sht
was married to him at Lincoln. She died at Lincoln on the xoth
of May X403. By John of Gaunt Catherine had four childxen,
all of whom were bom before their marriage. They were
declared legitimate in 1397 and took the name of Beaufort
from one of their father's castles in Anjou (see Beautort).
SYAGIUITS (d. 487), the last of the independent Roman
administrators of Gaul, was the son of Aegidius, who had seized
Gaul while Ridmer was master of Italy. Fh>m 464 to 486 he
governed that part of Gaul which lies between the Maas, the
Schddt and the Seine, and was termed " king of the Romans "
by the German invaders, Franks, Burgundians and Visigoths,
who already occupied the rest of GauL Defeated in 486 by
Clovis, king of the Salian Franks, at the battle of Soissons,
Syagrius fled, leaving his knd at the mercy of the Franks.
He sought refuge with Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, at
Toulouse, but Alaric imprisoned him instead of granting him
refuge, and delivered him up to Clovis. He was executed in
487, secretly and by the sword, according to Gregory of Tours.
SYBARIS, a dty of Magna Graeda, on the Gulf of Tarentum,
between the rivers Crathis (Crati) and Sybaris (Coedle), which
now meet 3 m. from the sea, but in andent times had independent
mouths, was the oldest Greek colony in this region. It was
an Achaean colony founded by Isus of Helioe (about 720 B.C.),
but had among its settlers many Troezcnians, who were ultimately
expelled. PUced in a very fertile, though now most unhealthy,
region, and following » liberal policy in the admission of dtizens
from all quarters, the dty becaune great and opulent, with a vast
subject territory and (Hvers daughter colonies even on the
Tyrrhenian Sea (Posidonia, Laus, Sddrus). For magnificence
and luxury the Sybarites were proverbial throughout Greece,
and in the 6th century probably no Hellenic dty could compare
with its wealth and splendour. At length oontesta between
the democrats and oligarchs, in which, many of the latter were
expelled and took refuge at Ctotona, led to a war with that
city, and the Crotoniats with very inferior forces were com-
pletely victorious. They raaed Sybaris to the ground and turned
the waters of Crathis to flow over its ruins (5x0 B.C.). Explora^
tions undertaken by the Italian government in 1879 and X887
failed to lead to a precise knowledge of the site. The only
discoveries made were (i) that of an extensive necropolis, some
8 m. to the west of the confluence of the two rivers, of the
end of the first Iron age, known as that of Torre Mordillo, the
contents of which are now preserved at Potensa; (2) that of
a necropolis of about 400 B.C. — the pctiod of the greatest
prosperity of Thurii (q.v.) — consisting of tombs covned by
tumuli (called locally iimpomi)^ in some of which were found
fine gold plates with mystic inscriptions in Greek characters;
one of these tumuli was over 90 ft. in diameter at the base
with a single burial in a sarcophagus in the centre.
See F. Lenonnant, La Gramdi-Crjtce, i. 395 leq. (^uh, t88i):
F. S. Cavallari. in Notitie dtgjli Scan (1879. pa$sim\ i860. 68, 15a) .
A. Pasqui. ibid. (1888). 339. 462. 57^. 648; P. Ond, vxAiU dd cou-
^csso di sdenu starscke, v. 195 sqq. (Rome, 1904) (T* As.)
STBEL. HEIHRICH VON (18 17-1895), German historian,
sprang from a Protestant family which had long been established
at So^t, in Westphalia. He was born on the and of December
X817 at DOsseldorf, where his father heM imporUnt posUin
276
SYCX)PHANT
the public service both tmdef the French and the Prussians;
in 1831 he had been raised to the hereditary nobility. His
home was one o£ the centres of the vigorous literary and artistic
life for which at that time Dilsseldod was renowned. Sybel
was educated at the gymnasium of his native town, and then
at the university of Berlin, where he came under the influence
of Savigny and of Ranke, whose most distinguished pupil he
was to become. After taking his degree, he settled down in
1841 as FrsvaidoMetU in history at the university of Bonn. He
had already made himself known by critical studies on the
faistoiy of the middle ages, of which the most important was his
GesckicUe des ersten Kreumuies (Dlisseldorf, X84X; new ed.,
Leipsig, x88x), a work which, besides its merit as a valuable
piece of historical investigation, according to the critics] methods
whidi he had kamt from Ranke, was also of some significance
as a protest against the vaguely enthusiastic attitude towards
the middle ages encouraged by the Romantic school. Lady
Duff-Gordon published in x86i an English tiansktion of part
of this book, to which are added lectures on the crusades
delivered in Mxmich in X858, under the title History and
IMeralure of ike Crusades. Tliis was followed by a study on
the growth of German kingship {Die ErUsieki$Mi des daOschen
KSnigtums, Frankfort, 1844, and again x88x), after which he was
appointed professor.
In the same year (1844) Sybel came forward prominently
as an exponent of the Ultramontane party. The exhibition
of the Holy Coat at Trier had attracted enormous numbers of
pilgrims, and so, indignant at what appeared to him an imposture,
he assisted to publish an investigation into the authenticity
of the celebrated relic From this time he began to take an
active part in contemporary politics and in controversy as a
strong though moderate Liberal. In X846 he was appointed
professor at Marburg, and though this snudi university offered
little scope for his activities as a teacher, a seat in the Hesaan
Landtag gave him his first experience of political affairs. In
1848 he was present at Frankfort, but he did not succeed in
winning a seat for the National Assembly. His opposition to
the extreme democratic and revolutionary party made him
unpopular with the mob, who broke his windows, as his liberalism
muie him suspected at court. He sat in the Erfurt parliament
of 1850, and was attached to the Gotha party, which hoped
for the regeneration of Germany thxou^ the ascendancy of
Prussia. During the years that followed all political activity
was impossible, but he was fully occupied with his great work
Gesddchle der RnolutionsMeU iSyg-tSoOt for which he had made
prolonged studies in the archives of Paris and other countries.
Tlie later editions of the earlier volumes are much enlarged and
altered, and a new edition was published at Stuttgart in 1882.
The fiivt three volumes have been translated into English by
W. C. Perry (X867-X869). In this work he for the first time
showed the comiexion between the internal and external histwy
of France; he was also the first, by a systematic study of the
records, to check and correct the traditional account of many
episodes in the internal history. His demonstration that
letters attributed to Marie Antoinette were not genuine roused
much interest in France. For the history of German thought
it was of the greatest importance that a Liberal from the Rhine,
by a systematic history of the Revolution, attempted to over-
throw the influence which the revolutionary legend, as expounded
by French writers, had acquired over the German mind; and
the book was an essential part of the influences which fed to
the foitaation of a National Liberal school of thought. Sybel
had been much influenced by Burke, on whom he had published
two essays. The work, was in fact the first attempt to substitute
for the popular representations of Thiers azKl Lamartlne the
critical investigation which has been carried oa with such
brilliance by Taine and SoreL
In 1856, on the recommendation of Ranke, Sybel accepted
the post of professor at Munich, where Ring Maximilian II.
of Bavaria, a wise and generous patron of learning, hoped to
establish a school of history. He found here a fruitful fieM for
his iflMiy* Biidw '' " ■* *" ' '' ■•* ^^ work on the Revolution
and on the middle ages,'he was oocnpied with the Btsiorieai
Seminar which he instituted; with the Historiseke ZeUsekrifl
which he founded, the original and model of the numerous
technical historical publications which now exist; and as
secretary of the new historical commission. Political differences
soon interfered ^th his work; as an adherent of Prussia
and a Protestant, especially as a militant champion against
the XJltramontanes, he was from the first an object of su*-
pidon to the Clerical party. In the political excitement wfaidi
followed the war of X859 he found that he could not hope for
the unreserved support of the king, and therefore in x86x he
accepted a professorship at Bonn, which he held til) 1875.
He was at once elected a member of the Prussian Lower House,
and during the next three years was one of the most active
members of that assembly: in several important ddiates he
led the attack on the government, and opposed the policy of
Bismarck, not only on financial but also on the Polish and
Danish affairs. In 1864 he did not stand for re-election, owing
to an affection of the eyes, but in x866 he was one of the first
to point out the way to a reconciliation between Bismarck
and his former opponents. He had a seat in the Constituent
Assembly of 1867, and while he joined the National Liberals he
distinguished himself by his opposition to the introduction of
universal suffrage, the effects of which he, as did many other
Liberals, much distrusted. In 1874 he again accepted a seat lA
the Prussian parliament, in order to support the government
in their conflict with the Clericals, axid after X878 with the
Socialists. In two pamphlets, by an analysis of the teadiing
of the Socialists and a survey of Clerical policy during the igth
century, he explained and justified his oiMni<«s. In x88o he
retired, like so many other Liberals, disheaztened by the change
in political life, which he attributed to universal suffirage.
In 187s he had been appomted by Bismarck to the post of
director of the Prussian archives. Under his superintendenoe
was begun the great series of publications, besides that of the
correspondence of Frederick the Great, in the editing of which he
himself took part. His last years were occupied on his great
work, Die Begrilndimg des detOsehen ReicMet dunk WUkdm /.
(Mimich, X889-X894), a work of great importance, for he was
allowed to use the Prussian state papers, and was therefore
enabled to write a history of the greatest events of his own
time with full access to the most secret sources of information.
As a history of Prussian policy from x66o to x866 it is therefore
of incomparable value. After the fall of Bismarck the paw
mission to use the secret papers was withdrawn, and therefore
vols. vi. and viL, which deal with the years 1866 to X870, are of
less importance. This work haS been translated into Engfisk
as Tke Founding of ike German Empiret by M. U Penin and
G. Bradford (New York, xSqo-xSqx). Sybd did not live to write
the account of the war with Fhmce, dying at Marburg on the
Tst of August 1895. His other writings indade Die d e tO se ke
Nation und das Kaisenekh (K86a) and a laige number of
historical articles.
Sybel left two sons, one of whom became an officer in the
Prussian army; the other, Ludwig von Sybel (b. 1846), pro-
fessor of archaeology in the university of Marburg, is the author
of several works dealing with Greek archaeology.
Some of Sybel's numerous historical and political essays have
been collected in Kieinc kistoriscke SehrifUn (3 vols., 1863, 1869.
1881; new ed., 1897); VartrOg^ und ificfitfte (Beriin, 1874): aiHl
VortrO^e und Abkandlungen, published after his death with a
biographical introduction by C. Vanentrapp (M unich, 1 897).
STOOPHAlfr (Gr. avKo^ttprrp), in ancient Greece the counter-
part of the Roman delator (9.9.), a public informer. Accordiog
to ancient authorities, the word (derived by them from tfCkor,
*' fig, "and ^yciy, *' to show ") meant one who infortted against
another for exporting figs (which was forbidden by law)
or for stealing the fruit of the sacred fig-trees, whether in time
of famine or on any other occasion. Another old ezplaaatioa
was that fines and taxes were at one time paid in figs, wine and
oU, and tlK>sc who collected such payments in kind were called
sycophanu because they " presented," publidy handed than
SYDENHAM, ist BARON— SYDENHAM, T.
277
over to tlic state. B8ckh suggested that the word signified one
who laid an information in reference to an object of trifling value,
sttch 19 a fig <d. " I don't care a fig about it "), but there seema
Bo authority for sodi a use of oCkot in Greek. According to
C. ^tl (Die Gebdrdat der Criechen und lUmer, Leiptig, 1890),
the word refers to an obscene gesture of phaDic significance
(see abo A. B. Cook in Classical Review, August 1907}, called
** aboiwing the fig " {/aire lafigHe^far lafica or leficke), originally
prophylactic in character. Such gesture, directed towards an
inoHensive person, became an insult, and the word sycophant
might imply one who insulted another by bringing a frivolous
or malicious accusation against him. According to S. Reinach
(Rente des itudes gfecques, xix., 1906), who draws spedal attention
to the similar formation " hicrophant, " the sycophant was an
official comiccted with the cult of the Phy talidae, whose epony-
mos Pbytalus was rewarded with a fig-tree bv the wandering
Bemctcr in return for hb hospitality. "Ihe final act of the cult,
the " exaltation " of the fig, with which Reinach compares the
" exaltation '* of the ear of com by the hierophant at the
Eleusinian mysteries, was performed by the sycophant.
Again, like the hicrophant, the sycophant publicly pronounced
the formula of exclusion of certain unworthy persons from the
celebration of the mysteries of the fig. As the cult of the
Phytalidae sank into insignificance beside the greater mysteries,
the term sycophant survived in popular language in the
sense of an informer or denouncer, whose charges deserved
but little consideration. L. Shadwell suggests that the real
meaning is " fig-diaooverer," not "fig-informer," referring to
the blackmaUer who discovers the " figs " (that is, the money)
of the rich man and forces him to hand it over by the threat
of bringing a criminal accusation against him. It must be
icmemberM thai any Athenian ciliaen was ai liberty to accuse
another of a public offence, and the danger of such a privilege
being abused b sufficiently obvious. The people naturally
kxtked upon all persons of wealth and position with suspicion,
and were ready to believe any charge brought against them.
Such prosecutions also put money into the pockets of the judges,
and, if successful, into the public treasury. In many cases the
acoised persons, in order to avoid the indignity of a public
trial, bought oil their accusers, who found in this a fruitfvd source
of revalue. Certain legal remedies, intended to prevent the
abuses of the tyttem, undoubtedly existed. Persons found
guilty of bringing false charges, of blackmail, or of suborning false
witnesses, were Uable to crinunal prosecution by the state and
a fine on conviction. Penalties were also inflicted if an accuser
failed to carry the prosecution through or to obtain a fifth part
of the votes. But these remedies were rather simple deterrents,
and inft^n^*** of informers being actually brought to trial are
me. Sycophants were an inseparable accompaniment of the
democney, and the profession, at least from a pcditical point of
view, was not regarded as in any way dishonourable. The idea
of cncMiraging the citiseos to assist in the detection of crime
or treaaoo against the state was commendable; it was not the
nae, tMil the abuse of the privilege that was so injurious. AIlu-
aioas to the sycoi^^ts are frequent in Aristophanes and the
Attic ocatoiB. The word is now generally used in the sense of
a cilD^ng flatterer of the great.
See Meier and SchOniann. DeraMUcke Process (td. J. H. LipMUS,
1883-^687); article fa^r C. R. Kennedy and U. Holden, in Smith's
Diaiamtn ^ AnUpaties (ard ed, 1891).
STraNHAH, CHARLES BDWABD M>in<BlT-TR0M80N,
ist BABON<i799-i84t), British statesman, was bom on the 13th
of September 1799, being the son of John Buncombe-Poulett-
Thomson, a London merchant. After some years spent fai his
lather's business in Russia and in London he was returned to
the House of Commons for Dover in 1826. In 1830 he joined
Lord Grey's ministry as vice-president of the board of trade
and treasurer of the navy. A free-trader and an expert in
financial natters fae was dected M.P. for Manchester in 1832,
a scAt wMch he occupied for many years. He was continuously
occupied with negotiations affecting international commerce
1 s8a9, when lie accepted the govemor-genersbhip of Canada,
where it fdl to hu lot to establish the union of Upper and Lower
Canada. Hb services in establishing the Canadian constitution
were recognized in 1840 by a K.C.B. and a peerage. He took
the title of Baron Sydenham of Sydenham in Kent and Toronto
in Canada. He died unmarried on the 4th of S^tember 184 1,
when hb peerage became extinct.
His Memoirs were published by his brother, G. J. Poulett Scrope,
in 1843.
STDENHAM. THOMAS (1624-1689). Englbh physician, was
bom on the roth of September 1624 at Wynford Eagle in Dorset,
where his father was a gentleman of property and good pedigree.
At the age of eighteen he was entered at Magdalen Hall, Oxford;
after a ^ort period hb college studies appear to have been
intenrupted, and he served for a time as an officer in the army
of the parliament. He completed hb Oxford course in 1648,
graduating as bachelor of medicine, and about the same time
he was elected a fellow of All Soub College. It was not until
neariy thirty years later (1676) that he graduated as M.D., not
at Oxford, but at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, where hb eldest
son was then an undergraduate. After 1648 be seems to have
spent some time studying medicine at Oxford, but he was soon
again engaged in military service, and in 1654 he received the
sum of £600, as a result of a petition he addressed to Cromwell,
setting forth that various arrears were due to two of hb brothers
who had been killed and that he himself had faithfully served
the parliament with the loss of much blood. In 1655 he resigned
hb fellowship at All Souls and married, and probably a few
years later went to study medicine at MontpeUier. In 1663 he
passed the examinations of the College of Physicians for their
licence to practice in Westminster and 6 m. round; but it b
probable that he had been settled in London for some time before
that. Thb minimum qualification to practise was the single
bond between Sydenham and the College of Physidans through*>
out the whole of hb career. He seems to have been dlstmsted
by some members of the faculty because he was an innovator
and something of a plain-dealer. In hb letter to John Mapktoft
he refers to a class of detractors " qui vitio statim vertunt st
qub novi aliquid,ab illb non prius dictum veletlam inauditum,
in medium proferat "; and in a letter to Robert Boyle, written
the year before hb death (and the only authentic specimen of
hb Englbh composition that remains), he says, "I have the
happiness of curing my patients, at least of having it said con*
ceming me that few mbcarry tmder me; but [I] cannot brag
of my correspondency with some other of my faculty ....
Though yet, in taken fire at my attempts to reduce practice
to a greater easmess, plainness, and in the meantime letting the
mountebank at Charing Cross pass unrailed at, they contradict
themselves, and would make the world believe I may prove
more considerable than they would have me." Sydoiham
attracted to him in warm friendship some of the most discriminat-
ing men of hb time, such as John Locke and Robert Boyle. Hb
first book, Methodus curandi febres, was published In t666;
a second editk>n, with an additional chapter on the plague,
in x668; and a third edition, much enlarged and bearing the
better-known title of Observationes medicae, in 1676. Hb next
publication was in x68o in the form of two Epistolae respoH-
soriae, the one, " On Epidemics, " addressed to Robert Brady,
regios professor of physic at Cambridge, and the other "On
the Lues venerea, " to Henry Paman, public orator at Cambridge
and Gresham professor in London. In 168 a he issued another
DisserUUio episUdaris, on the treatment of confluent small-pox
and on hysteria, addressed to Dr William Cole of Worcester.
The Tradaius depodcgra et hydro^ came out in 1683, and the
Schedula mtmitoria de novae febris ingrasu in 1 686. Hb last com-
pleted work. Processus itOegri, b an outline sketch of pathology
and practice; twenty copies of it were printed in 169a, and,
being a compendium, it has been more often republished both
in England and in other countries than any other of hb writing
separately. A fragment on pulmonary consumption was found
among hb papers. Hb collected writings occupy about 600
pages 8vo, in the Latin, though whether that or Englbh was the
I language in which they were originally written b dbr"***^
278
SYDENHAM— SYDNEY
Hardly anything is known of Sydenham's personal histoiy
in London. He died in London on the a9th of December 1689,
and was buried in the church of St James's, Piccadilly, where
a mural slab was put up by the College of Physicians in 1810.
Although Sydenham was a highly succesBful practitioner and
law, besides foreign reprints, more than one new edition of his
various tractates called lor in his lifetime, his fame as the father of
English medicine, or the English Hippocrates, was decidedly
posthumous. For a long time he was held in vague esteem for the
success of his cooling (or rather expectant) treatment of small^pox,
for his laudanum (the first form of a tincture of opium), and for his
advocacy of the use of Peruvian bark in quartan agues. There
were, however, those among his contemporaries who understood
something of Sydenham's imporUncc in larger matters than details
of treatment and pharmacy, chief among them being the talented
Richard Morton. But the atritude of the academical medicine of
the day is doubtless indicated in Martin Lister s use of the term
" sectaries " for Sydenham and his admirers, at a time (1694) when
the leader had been dead five years. If there were any doubt
that the opposition to him was quite other than political, it would
be set at rest by the testimony of Dr Andrew Brown,^ who went
from Scotland to inquire into Sydenham's practice and has
incidentally revealed what was commonly thought of it at the time,
m his Vindicatory Scfudtik concerning the New Cure of Fevers. In
the series of Harveian orations at the College of Physicians, Syden-
ham is first mentioned in the oration of Dr John Arbuthnot (4727).
who styles him " acmulus Hippocratis." H. Boerhaave, the Leyden
professor, was wont to speak of him in his class (which had alwayrs
some pupils from Enghind and Scotland) as " Angliae lu tis
Phoebum, veram Hippocratid viri tpeciem." A. voo h Iso
marked one of the epochs in his scheme of medical progres :he
name of Sydenham. He is indeed famous because he Sm :ed
a new method and a better ethics of practice, the worth an< ive
influence of which did not become obvious (except to t ho
were on the nme line with himself, such as Morton) un< od
many years afterwards. It remains to consider briefly bis
innovations were.
First and foremost he did the best he could for his patients, and
made as little as possible of the mysteries and traditional dogmas
of the craft. All the stories told of him are characteristic. Called
to a gentleman who had been subjected to the lowering treatment,
and finding him in a pitiful state of hysterical upset, he "conceived
that this was occasioned partly by his long illness, partly by the
previous evacuations, and partly by emptiness. I therefore ordered
him a roast chicken and a pint of canary.** A gentleman of
fortune who was a victim to hypochondria was at length told
by Sydenham that he could do no more for him, but that there
was living at Inverness a ceruin Dr Robertson who had great
skill in cases like his; the patient journeyed to Inverness full of
hope, and. finding no doctor of the name there, came back to London
full of rage, but cured withal of his complaint. Of a piece with
this is his famous advice to Sir Richard Blackmore. When Black-
more first engaged in the study of physic he inquired of Dr Sydenham
what authors he should read, and was directed by that physician to
Don Quixote, " which,'* said he. ** b a very good book; I read it
•till." There were cases, he tells us, in his practice where " I have
consulted my patient's safety and my own reputation most effectu-
ally by doing nothing at all/' It was in the treatment of small-
pox that hb startling innovations in that direction made most stir.
It would be a mistaioe, however, to suppose that Sydenham wrote
no long prescriptwns, after the fashion of the time, or was entirely
free from theoretkal bias. Doctrines of disease he had. as every
practitioner must have : but he was too much alive to the multi-
plldty of new facts and to the infinite variety of individual con-
stitutions to aim at symmetry in his theoretkal views or at con-
sistency between his practice and his doctrines; and his treatment
was what he found to answer best, whether it were secundum artem
or not. His fundamental idea was to take diseases as they pre-
sented themselves In nature and to draw up a complete pkrture
(" Krankheitsbild ** of the Germaaa) of the obiective characters of
each. Most forma of ill-health, he Insisted, fiad a definite type,
comparable to the types of animal and vegetable spedes. The con-
formity of type in the symptoms and course of a malady was due
to the uniformity of the cause. The causes that he dwdt upon
were the " evident and conjunct causesL** or, in other words, the
morbid phenomena; the remote causes he thooght it vain to seek
after. Acute diseases, such as fevers and inflammatkHia, he regarded
as a wholesome conservative effort or reaction of the organism to
meet the blow of some injurious influence operating from without;
in thb he followed the Hippocratk: teaching closely as wdl as the
Htppocratic practice of watching and aidinsr the natural crises.
Chronic diseases, on the other hand, were a depraved state of the
humours, mostly due to errors of diet and general manner of life, for
which we ourselves were directly accountable. Hence hb famous
dictum: **aeulos dico. qui ut plurimum Deum habent authotem.
1 See Dr John Brown's Bone mfci arwie , art. *' Dr Andrew Brown
and Sydeahaa."
sicut chrooid ipsoa* noe.'* Sydenham*0 nosological method U
essentblly the modem one. except that it wanted the morbid
anatomy part, which was first introduced into the " natural history
of disease " by Morgagni nearly a century later. In both depart-
menu of nosology, the acute and the chronic, Sydenham con-
tributed lar]|ely to the natural history by hb own accurate obaerva-
tion and i^itosophical comparison 01 case with casa and type with
type. ■ T^'e ObservaUones medicae and the first Epioola responsoria
contain evidence of a close study of the various fevers, fluxes and
other acute maladies of London over a series of years, their differ-
ences from year to year and from season to season, together with
references to the prevailing weather— the whole body of observa-
tions being used to illustrate the doctrine of the " epidemic con-
stitution " of the year or season, which he considered to depend
often upon inscrutable telluric causes. The type of the acute
disease varied, he found, according to the year and season, and
the right treatment could not be adopted until the type was known.
There had been nothing quite like this in medical bterature since
the Hippoqmtic treatise, II«pl Aipur, MArwv, tHu9; and there are
probably some germs of truth in it still undeveloped, although the
modern science of epidemblogy has introduced a whole new set ol
coMtderations. Among other things Sydenham b credited with
the first diagnosis of scarlatina and with the modem definition of
chorea (in Scked. monit.). After small-pox, the diseases to which
he refers most are hysteria and gout, his description of the latter
(from the symptoms in hb own person) heiag one of the classical
pieces of medical writing. While Sydenham^ " natural history **
method has doubtless been the chief ground of hb great -post-
humous fame, there can be no question that another reason for the
admiration of posterity was that which b indicated by R. G.
Latham, when he says. " I bdieve that the moral dement of a
liberal and candid spirit went hand in hand with the intdlectual
qualifications of observation, analysis and comparison.'*
Among the lives of Sydenham are one (anonymous) by Samuel
Johnson in John Swan's translation of his works (London, 1743).
another by C. G. KOhn in his edition of hb works (Leipdg, i8s7)i and
a third by Dr R. G. Latham in hb translation of hb works published
in London by the Sydenham Sodety in 1848. See also Fr£d6ric
Picard. Sydenham^ savie.ses etuvrts (Paris, 1889), and I. F. Payne,
r. Sydenham (London, 1900). Dr John Brown's ^ Locke and
Sydenham," in Horae subsedoae (Edinburgh, 1858), b of the nature
of eulogy. Many collected editions of hui works have been pub-
Ibhed, as well as translatrans into English. (German. French and
Italbn. Dr W. A. Greenhill's Latin text (London, 1844, Syd. Soc.)
b a model of editing and indexing. The most interesting summary
of doctrine and practice by the author himself is the introduction
to the 3rd edition of Ohserviliones medicae (1676),
SYDENHAM, a large rcsidentbl dbtrict in the south of
London, EngUnd, partly within the metropolitan borough of
Lewisham (q.v,). The CrysUl Palace iq.9.) b in thb dbtricU
SYDNEY, the capital of New South Wales, Australia, in
Cumberland county, on the east coast of the continent, situated
on the south shore of Port Jackson (q.9.), in 33^ is' 44' S., !$■*
xa' a3' E. Few capitab in the world can rival Sydney in natural
advantages and besuty of site. It stands on undulating and
easily drained ground, upon a bed of sandstone rock, on a
peninsula jutting into one of the deepest, safest and most
beautiful harbours in the worid; and in addition it lies in the
centre of a great carboniferous area. The metropolitan area of
Sydney consbts of a peninsula, about 13 n. in length, lyiic
between the Parramatta and George's rivers. The sea ftontafle
of thb area stretches for 12 m. from the South Head of Port
Jackson to the North Head of Botany Bay; it consisU of bold
diffs alternating with beautiful beaches, of which some are
connected with the dty by tramway, and fom favourite
places of resort. The dty proper occupies two indented- toogocs
of Und, having a water frontage on Port Jackson, and exteiKlhig
from Rushcutter's Bay on the east to Blackwattle Bay on the
west, a dbtance of 8 m., neariy two miks of which b occupied
by the Domain and the botanical gardens. The bnoiness
quarter b a limited area lying between Dariing Harbour and the
Domain. The streets are irt^Eular in width, some of them narrow
and close together, while those leading down to Dartii^ Harbour
have a steep incline. Sydney has in consequence more than
usually the appearance of an old-world town.
The main street of the dty, George Street, b s m. long,
running from north to south; it contains the town-hall, thepost
office and the Anglican cathedraL The post office b a hand-
some sandstone building in Renaissance style; it b coloanaded
on two sides with polished granite columns and surmounted by
a dock tower, containing a peal of bells. The town-hall, a lai^
SYDNEY
279
flond bdUhsof CliBic order, stands on an emiiMnce, sad Us
dockUmtr fonns > landnaik; it confsiiw f hn spadoos Cmtamial
HsM (eommemoimtiiig the fint Australian oolonizstion here in
17S7), and faaa one of the finest organs in the world. Opposite
are the Queen Victoria Markets, a striking Byaatine erection,
cspped by oumeious torrets and domes^ Adjoining the town hall
b the Anglican cathedral of St Andrew, in the Pexpendicular style ;
II has two towers at the west end and a low central tower above
the intcTMcttonof the nave and trsnscpts, with a very handsome
chapter house. Second in iaportance to Gcoige Street is Pitt
Street, which runs parallel to it from the Circular Quay to the rail-
way station; Macquarie Street runs alongside the Domain and
cxmtains a number of public buildings, including the treasury, the
oflBee of public works, the houses of parl i a me nt and the mint..
In Bridge Street, behind the office of public works, are the ex-
change and the crown lands office. All these government offices
are m classical style. The Roman Catholic Cathedral of St
Mary lies on the north-east side of Hyde Park; it is a splendid
Gothic structure, the finest in Australia. This cathedral has
been twice destroyed by fire, and the existing building, from the
designs of Mr W. W. Wardell, was consecrated in 1905. Govern-
ment House, the residence of the governor-general, an excellent
Tudor building erected in 1837, and severaJ times enlarged, is
delightfully situated in the Domain, overlooking Farm Cove.
The residence of the state governor is at Rose Bay, east of the
dty. At the top of King Street there is a statue of Queen
Victoria and dose by a statue of Prince Albert, at the
cntraiKe to Hyde Park, in which the most elevated spot
is occupied by a statue of Captain Cook. The university
stands hi its own grounds on the site of Gross Farm, the
scene of one of the earliest attempts at government farm-
ing, like most of the buildings at Sydney, the university is
built of the excellent sandstone from the quarries of Pyrmont;
it b rsth-century Gothic in style and stands at the top of a
gentle slope, surrounded by gardens. Around it lie three Gothic
colleges in the X4th-century style, affiliated to the tmiverslty
and known as St Paul's, St John's and St Andrew's. They are
residential colleges bdonging rcspectivdy to the Anglicans,
Roman Catholics and Presbyterians. The university provides
instruction and grants d^ees in arts, law, medidne, sdence
and engineering; instruction in theology, however, b given,
not by the university, but by the different affiliated collq^es^
To compensate for the narrowness of its streets and its lack
of fine promcAsdcs Sydney possesses a number of grand parks,
surpassed in few other capitals* Hyde Park b a plateau almost
in the centre of the dty, which in the early days of Sydney was
osed as a race-oourse. Adjoining are two smaller parks. Cook
Pirk and Philip Rurk, while north of these stretches the
Domain and the botanical gsrrlrns. The Domain embraces
I j8 acres, extending along one side of WooUoomooloo Bay and
surrounding Farm Cove, in which the warships bdonging to
the Australian station are usually anchored; in thb charming
rrjvin«» of park land are the governor's residence and the
National Art Galleiy, which houses a splendid collection of
pictures by modem artbts, sutuary, pottery and other objects
of art. The botanical gardens on the southern shores of Farm
Cove are the finest in (he Commonwealth and are distinguished
for their immense collection of exotics. On the south-east of
the dty lie Moore Park, 600 acres in extent, containing two
fine cricket grounds and the show grounds of the agricultural
sodety, and Centennial Parii, formerly a water reserve of 76S
acres. Adjoining Moore Park b the metropolitan nce<oarse
of Randwick. There are numerous other and smaller parks,
of which the chief are Wentworth Park laid out on the site
of Blackwattle Swamp, Prince Alfred Park, Bdmore Park and
Victoria Part adjoining the university grounds.
Sydney harbour b divided into a number of inlets by pro-
jecting hcadbnds. The head of WooDoomooloo Bay, Sydney
Cove, the shallow bay between Dawes and Millers Point, and
Darling Harbour, are lined whh wharves. The ClrcuUr Quay
at the head of Sydney Cdve b 1300 ft. long, and here sH the
great ocean linen inm Europe, Chma and Japan are berthed,
while to the great wharf in WooUoomooloo Bay, 3000 ft. fai length,
the American liners and the majority of the small coasting
vcsseb oome to dbeharge their cargoes. The whole of the eastern
side of Daiiing Harbour b occupied by a succession of wharves
and picn, thoe being in sH 4000 ft. of wharfage. Connected
with the main raQway tytUm of the colony b the Darling
Harbour Wharf 1260 ft. long and equipped with dectric light,
stationary and travelling hydraulic cranes, machinery for meat
freedng, and huge sheds for storing €om and wool. In addition
to these there are wharves at Pyrmont and Blackwattle Bay,
req>ectivdy 3500 ft. and r40o ft. long. These harbours on the
eastern side of Sydney are mainly frequented by cargo boats
trading in coal, com, frozen meat, wool, hides and various ores.
The total length of quays and wharves bdonging to the port
amounts to aome 83 m. The dock accommodation b extensive.
On Cockatoo Island, a few miles west of the dty, the government
have two large dry docks^ the Fitzroy dock, 450 ft. long, and the
Sutherland dock, 630 ft. Mort's dock, another large dry dock,
b at Mort's Bay, Balmain, while there are five floating docks
with a comMned lifting power of 3895 tons, and the three patent
slips in Mofft's Bay can raise between them 3040 tons. Prior to
X899 the jurisdiction of the port was in the hands of a marine
board, three mcasben of wUch were dected by the shipping
interest, and the remaining four nominated by the goverament,
but in that year the board was replaced by a smgle official,
known as the superintendent of the department of navigation
and responsible to the colonial secretary.
Sydney has a great number of learned, educational and charit-
able institutions; it pomessesaRosral Sodety, a Linnean Sodety
and a Geographical Sodety, a women's college affiliated to the
university, an astvsnomical observatory, a technical college, a
school of art with library attached, a bacteriologicsl institute
at Rose Bay, a museum and a free public library. Standing in
the centre of a great ooal-bearing bssin, Sydney b naturally
the seat of numerous manufactures, to the prosperity of whidi
the abundance and cheapness of coal has been highly condudve.
In addition to the industries coimected with the shipping, large
numben of hands are employed in the government railway
works, where the locomotives and rolling stock used by the state
raitwaya are manufsctuied. There are several large tobacco
factories, flour mills, boot factories, sugar refineries, Unneries,
tallow works, meat-preserving, glue and kerosene^H fsctories
and soap works. Clothing, csrriages, pottery, glass, paper and
furniture are made, and there are numerous minor industries.
Sydney b governed munidpally by a dty ooundl. The gas and
eleetik lighthig b in the hands of private firms. The adminb-
tratipn of the park, the dty improvements and the water and
sewerage departments have bean handed over to boards and
trusts. The control of the traffic b in the hands of the police,
who, with the wharves and the tramways, are directed by the
state govenunent. The whole district between Sydney and
Parramatta on each side of the railway b practically one con-
tinuous town, the more fashionable suburba lying on the east
of the dty while the business extension b to the westward and
the southern quartan are largely devoted to manufacturing.
The suburbs comprise the fdlowing dbttnct munidpalities,
Alexandrb, with a population in 1901 of 9341; Annandale,
8349; Ashfidd, r4,329; Balmain, 30,076; Beiley, 3079; Botany,
3383; North Botany, 377a; Burirood, 7531; Campcrdown, 7931;
Canterbury, 4226; Concord, 3818; Darlington, 3784; Drum-
moyne, 4144; Enfield, 2497; Erddneville, 6059; Glebe, 19,220;
Hunter's Hill, 4234; HutstvUIe, 4019; Kogarah, 3892; Lane
Cove, 1918; Ldchhardt, 17,454; Manly, 5035; Marrickville,
18,775; Eastwood, 713; Mosman, 5691; Newtown, 32,598;
North Sydney, 23,040; Paddington, 21,984; Petersham, 15,307;
Randwidc, 9753; Redfem, 24,2x9; Rockdale, 7857; Ryde, 3222;
St Peter's, 5906; Vauduse, 11 52; Waterloo, 9609; Waverley,
12,342; ^nOouighby, 6004; WooIUhra, 12,351. These suburbs
are connected with the dty, some by railway, some by steam,
cable and electric tramways, and othen by ferry across Port
Jackson. The tramway system b owned 1^ the government.
There are numerous places of resort for th**
884
SYLVESTER, J. Jl— SYMBOL
readfly ^tingotibed from calaverite (AuTei) by its peffect
cleavage in one diiection (paiaUel to the plane of symmetxy),
but in this character it resembles the vexy laie orthorhombic
mineral kiennerite ([Au, Ag]Tei). (L. J. S.)
SYLVESTER, JAMES JOSEPH (x8x4-i897}» English mathe-
matician, was born in London on the jrd of September 1814.
He went to school first at Highgate and then at Liverpool, and.
in 1831 entered St John's College, Cambridge. In his Tripos
examination, which through illness he was prevented from taking
tfll 1837, he was placed as second wranglerj but being a Jew and
unwilling to sign the Thiity-nine Articles, he could not compete
for one of the Smith's prizes and was ineligible for a fellowship,
nor could he even talce a degree: this last, however, he obtained
at Trinity College, Dublin, where religious restrictions wtn no
longer in force. After leaving Cambridge he was i^pointed
to the chair of natural philosophy at University College, London,
where his friend. A. I)ev.Moxg2n was one of his colleagues, but
he resigned in.1840 in order to become professor of mathematics
in the university of Virginia. There, however, he remained only
six months, for certain views on slavery, strongly held and
injudiciously expressed, entailed unpleasant consequences, axui
necessitated his return to England, where he obtained in 1844
the post of actuary to the Legal and Equiuble Life Assurance
Company. In the course of the ensuing ten years he published
a laqse amount of original work, much of it dealing with the
theory of invariants, which marked him as one of the foremost
mathematicians of the time. But he failed to obtain either of
two posts— the profesaoKshipB of mathematics at the Koyal
Military Academy and of geometry in Gresham College— ior
which he applied in 1854, though he was elected to the former in
the following year on the death of his successful competitor.
At Woolwich he remained until 1870, and although he was not
a great success as an elementary teacher, that period of his life
was vexy rich in mathematical work, which iiududed remarkable
advances in the theory of the partition of nimjbers and further
contributions to that of invariants, together with an important
research which yielded a proof, hitherto lacking, of Newton's
rule for the discovery of imaginary roots for algebraical equations
up to and including the fifth degree. In X874 he produced
several papers suggested by A. Peaucellier's discovery of the
straight line link motion associated with his name, and he also
invented the skew pentagraph. Three years later he was
appointed professor of mathematics in the Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity, Baltimore, stipulating for an axmual salary of $5000,
to be paid in gold. At Baltimore he gave an enormous impetus
to the study of the higher mathematics in America, and during
the time he was there he contributed to the American Journal
of liaUtemaiics, oi which he was the first editor, no less than
thirty pa[>ers, some of great length, dealing mainly with
modem algebra, the theory of numbers, theory of partitions
and universal algebra. In 1883 he was chosen to succeed Henry
Smith in the Savilian chair of geometry at Oxford, and there he
produced his theory of reciprocanis, laxgdy by the aid of his
" method of infinitesimal variation." In 1893 loss of health
and failing eyesight obliged him to give up the active duties of
bis chair, and a deputy professor being appointed, he went to
live in London, where he died on the x^ of March 1897.
Sylvester's work suffered from a certain lack of steadiness and
method in his character. For long periods he was mathemati-
cally unproductive, but then sudden fakspiratJon would come
upon him and his ideas and theories poured forth far more quickly
than he could record them. All the same his output of work
was as large as it was valuable. The scope of his nsearchcs was
described by Arthur Cayley, his friend and fdlow worker,
in the following words: ** They relate chiefly to finite analysis,
and cover by their subjects a large part of it^-algebra, deter-
minants, elimination, the theory of equations, partitions, tactic,
the theory of forms, matxkes, redpzocants, the Hamiltonian
numbers, &«.; analytical and pare geomeCfy occupy a less
prominent position; and mechanics, optics arid astronomy are
not absent." Sylvester wis & goodliaioiBt, and a diligent com-
poser of verae, both in £a^ialiM|Wf|ii^ kM tli»,<«MnioQ he
cbeiiihed that his poem- wen tta. a kvcl with Us f"itliTip***Ti1
achievements has not met with geaetal acceptance.
The first volume of his CaOeettd MaOmmatkal Papers, edited by
H. F. Baker, appeared in 1904.
SYLVESTER. JOSHUA (x 56^^6x8), English poet, the aott of
a Kentish clothier, was bom in 1563. In his tenth year hewaa
sent to school at Southampton, whoe he gained a knowledge of
French. After about three years at school he appears to have
been put to business^ and in 1591 the title-page of his Ytry stfltea
that he was in theaerviceof the Meidiant Adventuiezs' Company.
He was for a abort time a land steward, and in 1606 Prince
Henry gave him a small pension as a kind of court poet. In
16x3 he obtained a position as secretary to the Merchant Advea-
tuiers. He was stationed at Midddburg, in the Low Countries,
where he died on the 38th of September x6i8. He tranriated'
mto Engibfa heroic couplets the scriptasal epic of Guiilaume
duBartas. Bh Eisay of the Second Week ^irMspahbahtd In JS^i
and in 1604 The JHvkie Weeks of the World's Birth. The ornate
style of the original offered no difficulty to Sylvester, -who was
himsdf a disdple of the Euphuists and added many adornments
of his own xnventioiL The SepwuUnts of Du Bartas appealed
most to his Engliah and German co*religionists, and the trans-
lation was immenady popular. It has often been suggested that
Milton owed something in the oonoeption of Paradise Lost to
Sylvester's translation. His popularity ceased with the Restora-
tion, and Dryden called his verse " abominable fustian."
His works were reprinted by Dr A. B. Groart (j98o) in the
"Chcrtsey Worthies fUbcaiy." See also C» Punter's CennderahemM
on MUtoiCs early Reading (1800).
STLVITB» a mineral consisting of potasshim diloride (KCI)»
first observed in 1823, as aa encrustation on Vesuvian lav».
Well-lormed crystals were axhsequently found in the salt deposits
of Stassfurt in Prussia and KaJnss in Austrian Galida. It
crystallices in the cubic system whJi the form of cubes and cobo-
octahedra and possesses periect deavages paralld to the faces
of the cube Although the crystals are very similar in appear-
ance to crystals of common salt, they are proved by etching
experiments to possess a different degree of symmetry, namely
plagihedral-cubic, there being no planes of symmetry but tibe
full number of axes of symmetry. Crystals are colourless'
(sometimes bright blue) and transparent; the hardness is 2 and
the specific gravity x'98. Like salt, it is highly diathermanous.
The name sylvite or sylvine is from the old pharmaceutical
name, sal dlgestivus syhiif tot this sak. (]L J. SA
SYMBOL (Or. ffbupoKar, a sign), the term given to a visible
object representing to the mind the semblance of something
which is not shown but realized by association with iL This
is conveyed by the ideas usually associated with the symbol;
thus the palm brandi is the symbol of victory and the anchor
of hope. Much of early Chrbtian symbolism owes its origixi
to pagan sources, the interpretations of thfe symbols having a
different meaning; thus " the Good Shepherd with the lamb '*
is thought by some to have been derived from the figure of
Hermes (Mercury) carrying the goat to sacrifice, and " Orpheus
charming the wild beasts," which, when painted in the cats-
combs, was probably intended as the representation of a type
of Christ. One of the earliest symbols of the Saviour, the fish,
was derived from an acrostic of the Greek word fx^{«, the
component letters .of which were the im'tials of the five words
li^ffoGf Xptar6t, OfoG T26r, 2<i;»r9p, Jesns Christ, Son of God,
Saviour. The ship, another early symbol, represented the Church
in which the faithful are carried over the sea of life. Other
symbols are those which were represented by animals, real or
fabulous, and were derived from Scripture: thus the lamb
typified Christ from St John's Gospel (i. 29 and 36), and the lion
from the Book of Revelations, in which Christ is called the
" Lion of the tribe of Judah." The peacock stood for immoitaiity;
the phoenix for the Resurrection; the dragon or the serpent for
Satan: and th^ stag for the soul thirsting for baptism. The sacred
monogram Chi Rho, f supposed to have been the celestial
sien seen by -the emperor Constaotine on the eve of the defeat
of Maxentius, icpieaenta the two first letters of the Greek woid
SYME^-SYMMACmJS
285
lpu76s ^Addti CMsttntine figured on bis Utenim, or sUAdftird,
and Is found On tMx]y Christian corns, bearing also the favtorite
decoration of the Byzantine sarcophagL The four evangelical
symbols are t^Ken ffom the book of Ezekiel and from the Book
of RcvdatioDs; thus the winged man is St MsMbev, the winged
Kan St Mark, the vinged ox St Luke and the aagte St John;
and these four symbols became the favourite sebject for re|ir»>
seBtatkm in the Church. Beddes these the other erangelists
and the aainta carry emblems by whidi they may be recognised;
thus St Andrew by the crov, St Peter by the keyS) St Paul
by the swocd, St Edward fay a cop and dagger, St Maiy
Magdalene by a box or vase, St I^iwrenoe by a grMl ro n, St
F aith a bo by a gridiroa, &c.
fYM^ JAKES <i799>i87o), Scottii^ angeoa, wai born at
Edinbursfa on the 7th of November rjgg. His father was a
writer to the signet and.a landowner in Fife and Kinteas^ who
bst moot ci his fortune in attempting to develop the mineral
lesoarces of his property. James was sent to the high school
at the age of nine, and remained until he was fifteen, whea he
entered the univefsity. For-two years he fxequented the aits
dasses Ciacfaidtag botany), and in 18x7 began the medical cnxri-
cohuB, devoting himself with particttlar keemifwi to chemistry.
His cheniacal expeifanents led him to the discovery that "a
vahable sttbsUnce is obtainable from coal tar wUoh has the
propccty of dissolving india^raU»er/' and coold be used for
w at eipioofing silk and other textile fabrics— an idea which was
patented a few months afterwards by Charles Mackintosh, of
GiaseDwr. In the session 18x8^x619 Syrae became amistant and
demooatxator of the diMfctin^ room of Robert Listen, who had
stazted as an estta-oniral teacher of aaatomy in competition
with his old ntaster, Dr John Baxday; in those years he held
abo resident appointments in the iniinnaxy and the fever
hospital, and spent some time in Paxis practising dtssecUon and
operative surgexy. In 18x3 Liston handed over to him the whole
chaige of his anatomy classes, xetain&ig his interest in'the school
as a pecuniasy venture; the arrangement did not work smoothly,
and a feud with liston arose, which did not texminate until
twenty years ktcr, when the latter was settled in London. In
x824-x82S he started the Brown Square school of mcdidne, but
again disagreed with his partners in the venture. Announcing
his intcntiea to practise surgery only, Syme started a surgical
hospital of his own, Minto House bospital, which he carried on
from May xSxp to Sq>tember 1833, with gxeat success as a
mrgical chaxity and sduioi of clinical instra^on. It was beie
that he fixst pat Into pxactice his method of clinical teaching,
which consisted in having the patients to be opexated or pselectttl
spon broogfat from the waxd into a lectuxe^room or theatre
vfaexe tbe students were seated oonveniently for seeing and
takiof notes. Ba pxivate piacrioe had become very coMider-
able, his position having been assured ever since his amputation
at the hip joint in 1823, the first operation of the kind in Scotland,
la tBs3 he succeeded James Russell as professor of clinical
SBT^exy in the university. Syme's accession to the clinical
chair waa "»^»-i'<^ by two important changes in the conditions
of it: the fixst was that the professor should have the care of
sorgical patients in the infirmary in right of his professorship,
and the second, that attendance on his course should be obliga-
tory on all candidates for the nvdical degree. IVbcn Listen
removed to London in 1835 Syme became the leading consulting
surseoo in Scothmd. On Listen's death in 1847 Sjrme was
^excd his vacant chair of cEnical suigexy at University College,
LoodoD, and accepted it. He began practice in Ixmdoa in
February 1848; bat early in May the same year difficulties with
two of hia coBeagnes at Cower Street aad a desire to " escape
iron animosity and contention" led him to thxow up his
•ppojntnient. He returned to Edinburgh in July, and was
ceiasuted in his M chair, to which the Crown authority had
Beaawlule fbond a difficulty in appointing; The judgment of
hb friexMfs was that " he was always xif^t in the matter, but
often wrong in the manner, of his quarrels." In 1849 he
broadied the subject of medical reform in a letter to the tord
advocate; in 1854 and t8$7 he addiesBed open lettccs 00 the
aameaubfect to Lonl PalnerstOn; and hi 1858 a Medical Act
was passed which btgely fbUowed the fines laid down l^ hint-
self. As a member of the gcnexal medical coondl called into
existence by the act, he made oonsidexable stir in x868 by an
anoompmmising statement of doctrinca on medical education,
which were thought, by many to be reactkmary; they were,
however, merdy an attempt to reoonunend the methods that had
been diaractcristic of Edinburgh teaching since WilUam CuUen^
time*— namely, a constant refeicnce of facts to prindples, thb
subordiaation (bat not the sacrifice) of technical details to
geneialities, and the prefexcnce of large pvofessioaal dasses and
the " magnetism of numbers " to the tutorial system, which he
ideatified witb "oanumng." In Apiil 1869 he had a paralytic
seixnie, and at once sesigned his chair; he never recovered his
powers,, and died near Edinburs^ on the 26th of Jane 1870.
Syme's suiieical writings were numerous, although the terseness
of his atyle and directneas of hb method saved d&eia from beifiK
balky, in 1831 hepubUahed A TrMtise on the ExcUioH of Dum$m
Joints (the cdebiatea ajikle-joint amputation is known by his name).
His Principles of Surgery (often reprinted) came out a few months
later; Diseases of the Rtdum in 1838; Siricture of the Urethra and
Fisfida m Perineo in 1849; and Excision of the Seafuta in 1864.
In 18^ he collected into a voluste, under the title of ContrHnUionM
to the'Pathology and Practice of Surgery, thirty-oat original memdis
published in periodicals from rime to time; and in 186 1 he issued
another volume of Observations in Clinical Snrrery. Syme's
character is not inaptly summed up in the dedication to him fay
hia old pupil. Dr John fiiovn, of the series of essays Lock* mnd
Sydenham: V^iax, capax, pefspicax, sagax, efficax, tenax.**
See Memorials of the Life of James Syme, by R. JPaterson, M.D.,
with portraits (Edmburgh, 1874).
SYHEON UETAPHBASTES,> the most renowned of the
Byzantine hagiographcrs. Scholars have been very much
divided as to the period in which he lived, dates ranging from the
9th century to the 14th having been suggested; but it b
now generally agreed that he flourished in the second half
of the xoth century. Still greater divexgences of opinion have
existed as lo, the lives of saints coming from his pen, and here
again the solution of the problem has been attained by studying
the composition of the great Greek menologies. The menology
of Metaphrastes is a collection of lives of saints for the twelve
months of the year, easily recognizable among analogous
collections, and consisting of about X50 distina pieces, some of
which aro taken bodily from older coUecrions, while others have
been subjected to a new recension (Mer&^pa^ir). Among
other works attrib;uted (though with some uncertainty) to
Symeon arc a Ckronicle, a canonical collection, some letters and
poems, and other writings of less importance. Symeon's great
popularity is due more particularly to his collection of lives of
saints. About his life we know only very few details. The
Greeks honour him as a saint on the aSth of November, and an
office has been composed in his honour.
See L. Allatius, De Symeonwn scriplis diatriba (Paris, y66a^;
F. Hirsch, Byzaniinische Studien, pp. 303-355 (Leipzig, 1876);
A. Ehrhaird. Die Legendensamndung des Sfmeon Metapkrasks
(Rome, 1897): ' ' "- • • '^ - . . • ^---^» -_ - —
and&
and xvii. 448-452. ■ — (H.^Da.)
STMMACHUS, pope from 498 to 514, had Anastasius IL for
his predecessor and waa hiinseif followed by Hormisdas. He
was a native of Sardinia, apparently a convert from paganism,
and was in deacon's orders at the time of his election. Tbe
choice was not unanimous, another candidate, Lauxentita,
having the support of a strong Byzantine party; and both
oompetitois were ooosecrated by thdr friends, the one In the
Lateran Church and the other in that of St Maxy, on the ssnd
of November 498. A decision was not long afterwards obtained
in favour of Symmachus from Theodoric, to whom the dflq>ate
had been referred, but peace was not established until 505 or
506, when the Gothic king ordered the Lauxentian party to
surrender the churches of which they had taken *-
An important incident in the protracted confro'
*The surname is baaed on the title, Melapkn
his works.
ome, 1897): and in Rdmische Quartedschrin (1897), pp. 67-905
^ 551-553: H. Delehaye. La ViedeS. Paid le jeune et la drono-
ie de mtaphratU (1893); Analeda BoUandiana, xvi. 319^327
286
SYMMACHUS— SYMONDS, J. A.
deciiion of the "pftlmary synod." The remsiiukr of Uie pontifi-
cate of Symmachus was uneventful; history speaks of various
churches in Rome as having been built or beautified by him.
SYMIIACHUS, the name of a celebrated Roman family of the
4th to 6th centuries of our enu It belonged to the gens Aurelia
and can be traced back to Aurelius JnUanus Symmachus,
proconsul of Achaea (according to others, vicar or vice-prefect
of Macedonia) in the year 319. Lucius Aurelius Avianius
Symmachus, presumably his son, was prefect of Rome in the
year 364, and had also other important posts. He was cele-
brated for his virtues and the senate awarded him in 377 a
gilded sUtue.
QuiNTUS AoRELnn SyioiAaros (c. 345-4x0), son of the last-
named« was one of the moat brilliant represcnUtives in public
life and in the literature of 4th*century paganism in Rome. He
was educated in Gaul, and, having discharged the functions of
praetor and quaestor, rose to higher offices, and in 373 was pro-
consul of Africa (for his official career see CJ.L. vi. 1699). His
public dignities, which included that of pontifex maxirous, his
great wealth and high character, added to his reputation for
eloquence, marked him out as the champion of the pagan senate
against the measures which the Christian emperors directed
against the old state religion of Rome. In 382 he was banished
from Rome by Gratian for bis protest against the removal of the
statue and altar of Victory from the senate-house (see Gibbon,
Dedim end Patl^ ch. 38), and in 384, when he was prefect of the
city, he addrcssied to Vatentinian II. a letter praying for the
restoration of these symbols. This is the most interesting of his
literary remains,, and called forth two replies from St Ambrose,
as well as a poetical refutation from Prudentius. After this
Symmachus was involved in the rebellion of Mazimus, but
obtained his pardon from Theodosius, and appears to have
continued in public life up to his death. In 391 he was Consul
ordinarius. His honesty, tx>th in public and in private affairs,
and his amiability made him very popular. The only reproach
that could be made against this last valiant defender of paganism
is a certain aristocratic conservativeness, and an exaggerated
love of the past. As his letters do not extend beyond the year
403, he probably died soon after that date.
Of hb writtnn we possess: (ij Panegyrics, written in his youth in
a veiy artificialstyle, two on Valentinian I. and one on the youthful
Gntian. (a) Nine books of Epistki, and two from the tenth book,
published after his death by liis son. The model folknmi by the
writer is Pliny the Younser. and from a reference in the Saturnalia
of Macrobius (bk. v.. i. ( 7), in which Svnunachus is introduced as
one of the interiocutors, it appears that bis contemporaries deemed
him second to none of the ancients in tiie ** rich and florid " style.
We find them vapid and tedious, (x) Praiments of Complimtntary
Orttti4ms, 6ve from a paUmpsest (abo containing the Panetyriu),
of which part is at Milan and part in the Vatican, discovered by
Mai, who published the Milan fragments in iSiSt the Roman in
his Scriplonan vtUntm naoa calUcUo^ vol. i. (1825). and the whole
in i8a6. U) The /icfaltoiMr, which contain an interesting account
of public lue in Rome, composed for the emperor. In these official
writings (reports as prefect of the dty). Symmachus is not preoccu-
pied by style and becomes sometimes Moqueot; especially, so in his
remarkable report on the altar of Victory.
His son, QmNTUs Fabivs Memjous Syioiacsus, was pro-
consul of Africa (41s) ud prefect of the dty (418). He was
probably the father of the Sjrmmachos who waa consul in 446,
and whose son was Quintus Auxxuus Memmius Svmmaciius
(d. 5SS)t patridan, one of the most cultivated noblemen of Rome
of the bqpnning of the 6th oentnry, editor (e.f. of Macrobius,
SoamiMM Sdpiomis) and hjstoriaii, and cspedally cdebrated
for hh buiMiiig activity. He was cenaol in 485. Thaodoric
charged him with the restoration of the theatre of Pompey.
He was Caiber-in-Uw of BoCtiua (f.s.>, and was involved in
his fate, being diignoed and finally pnt to detth by Tlieodoric
in 5*5.
See E. Monn, JsMwf Mr
(1880-1899) vol. uL (on the Boltius'^conspirscy ") ; M.
CcKMdUk<br rAMscAen LiOtratm (1904), voL iv. pfe. t{ aik
Schwabe, HisL ^ Roman Likmtmn (Eflg. ti»^ — *-*^ ~* -«
Schans,
andTcuffd-
-^5.477.4-
All editions of the worlcs of Symmachus are now snperseded by that
of O. Seeck in MoHwnenla Cermaniae histarica, Auciorts anticuis-
simi (1883), vi. 1 , with introductions on his life, woilcS and chronology,
and a genealogical table of the family.
STMOHDS, iOHK ADDINOTON (1840-1893), En^^ critic
and poet, was bom at Bristol, on the 5th of October 1840. He
was the only son of John Addington Symonds, M.D. (1807-
1871), the author of an essay oa Criminal RupansifrilUy (1869),
Tka Principles of Beanly (1857) and Sleep and Dreams (sad ed.,
1837). His mother, Harriet Sjrmonds, was the eldest daughter
of James Sykes of Leathcrhead. He was a delicate boy,
and at Harrow, where he was entered in i8s4, took no part in
school games and showed no particular promise as a scholar.
In 1858 he proceeded to Balliol as a commoner, but was dected
to an exhibition in the following year. The Oxford training
and asMdation with the brilliant set of men then at BaUsol
called out the latent faculties in Symonds, and hia university
career was one ci continual distinction. In x86o he tocdi a
first in " Mods," and won the Newdigate with a poem on The
Esccfial; in 186a he was placed in the first dass in Literae
Humaniores, and hk the following year was winner of the Chan-
cellor's English Essay. In i86a he had been dected to an open
fellowship at Magdalen. The strain of study unfortunately
proved too great for him, and, immediatdy after his dection to a
fellowship, his health broke down, and he was obliged to seek
rest in Switserland. There he met Janet Catherine North,
whom, after a romantic betrothal in the monntains, he married
at Hastings on the 10th of November 1864. He then attempted
to settle in London and study law, but his health again broke
down and obliged him to travd. Returning to Clifton, he lectured
there, both at the college and to ladies' schools, and the fruiu
of his work in tliis direction remain in his Inlroductum to tka
Stndy of Dante (1872) and his admirably vivid Steidies of the
Greek Poets (1873-1876). Meanwhile he was occupied upon
the work to which his talents and sympathies were especially
attracted, his JUnaissasice in Italy, which appeared in seven
volumes at intervals between 1875 and 1886. The Renaissasiea
had been the subject of Symonds' prise essay at Oxford, and
the study which he had then given to the theme aroused in him
a desire to produce something like a complete picture of the
reawakening of art and literature in Europe. His work, liow«
ever, was again interrupted by illness, and this time in a more
serious form. In 1877 his life was in acute danger, and upon
his removal to Davos Plata and subsequent recovery there it
was fdt that this was the only place where he was likely to be
able to enjoy life. From that time onward he practically
made his home at Davos, and a charming picture of hb lif ie there
will be found in C>KrZ4/e«iilie5iMrsHffiUafufr (1891). Symonds,
indeed, became in no common sense a dtixen of the town; he
took part in its municipal business, made friends with the
peasants, and shared thdr interests. There he wrote most of his
books: biographies of Shelley (1878), Sir PhOip Sidney (t886).
Ben Jonson (1886), and Michelangelo (1893), several volumes of
poetry and of essays, and a fine translation of tlie AedMofrapky
of Benvenulo Cellini (1887). There, too, he completed his
study of the Rmaissanee, the work by which he will be longest
remembered. He waa assiduously, feverishly active .through-
out the whole of his life, md the amount of work which he
achieved was wonderful when the uncertainty of his health is
remembered. He had a passion for Italy, and for many years
resided during the antomn in the boose of his friend, Homtio
F. Brown, on the Zattare, in Venice. He died at Rome 00 the
t9th of April 1893, and waa hnried dose to Shelley.
He Idt his papea and his antobiography in the hands of Mr
Brown, who published in 1895 «n excellent and oomprdienaivo
biography. Two woiks from his pen, a vofaime of essays, /•
ike KeyefBlm, aad a monograph on irott ITAdnuM, were pub-
lished in the year of his death. Hia activity was unbroken to
the last. In life Symonds was moibidlyintnMpective, a Hamlet
among modem men of letters, but with a capadty for actton
which Hamlet waa denied. Robert Louis Stevenson described
him»iBth»OpalBleinof7dtttaiidr«Mirs,as''tbebcttoftalkera,
SYMONDS, W. S.— SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM
z9j
MBgiag the pnUses of the earth mad the wrOf floirari and jewcif,
wise and mask, in a moonlight, iOMaading BBaaoer, as to the
fight gtutar." But under his excellent good-fcUowahip lurked
a havBting nelaBcholy. FViH of ardovr and amhUten, sym-
pathy and desire, he was perpetuaDy tormented by the riddles
ef existenoe; through life he was always a seeker, ardent but
OBsatisfied. This side of his natuie stands revealed in his
gnomic poetry, and particularly in the sonnets of his Animi
Figmra (1882), where he has portrayed bis own eharacter with
great subtlety. His poetry is perhaps rather that of the student
than of the inspired singer, but it has moments of deep thought
and emotion. It is, indeed, in passages and extracts that
Symoods appears at his best. Rich in descripthm, full of
"* purple patches," his work has not that harmony and unity
that are essential to the conduct of philosophical argument.
He saw tbe part more clearly than the whole; bat hk view,
if partial, is always vivid and concentrated. His translations
•ze among the finest in the language; here his subject was
iooad for him, and he was able to lavish on it the wealth of
colotir and quick sympathy which were his characteristics.
He was n lover of beauty, a poet and a philosopher; but in his
Be and bis work alike he missed that absolute harmony of
convictkm and concentration under which alone the hi^iest
ki nd of literature is produced. (A. Wa.)
STHOHDSk WILUAII SAHUBL (18x8-1887), was born In
Hereford in 1818. He was educated at Cheltenham and Christ's
College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. hi 2842. Having
taken holy orders be was appointed curate of Offenham, near
Evesham in 1843, and two years later he was presented to the
living of Peodock m Worcestershire, where he remained until
1S77. While at Offenham he became acquainted with H. E.
Strickland and imbibed from him such an interest In natural
history and geology, that his leisure was henceforth devoted to
f>Mf^ sabjects. He was one of the founders of the Woolhope
N'atuzalisls' Field Club (1851) and of the Malvern Naturalists'
Fidd Club (1853), and was an active member of the Cottes-
vold Field Club and other local societies. In 1858 he edited
sa editioo of Hugh Miller's Cruise ef Ike *' Betsey." He was
the author of numerous essays on the geology of the Malvern
ooentry, notably of a paper ** On the passage-beds from the
Upper Silurian rocks into the Lower Old Red Sandstone at
Ledbury '* (Quart. Joum» Ged, Soc, x86o). His principal work
vas Records oj the Rocks (1872). He was author of St4mes of the
VeJUy (1857), OH Bones, or Notes for Young Naturalists (1859,
2Qd ed. X 864) . and other popular works. He died at Cheltenham
oaifae isth of September 1887.
See A Sieick of Ike Life efUhelUe.W. S. Symonds, by the Rev.
J. D. La Touchc.
gyVOBD'S TAT, one of the most famous view points on the
rirer Wye, En^^d. At a point 9 m. above Monmouth and 1 2 m.
b«low Roaa by water, the Wye makes a sweep of nearly 5 m.
rotfad a peninsula whose neck is only some 600 yds. across.
Tbe pcniasula is occupied by the limestone acclivity of Hunts-
k»i ff ?i- Caverns are seen in the limestone on botb precipitous
hanks of tbe river. Tbe Yat or GaU as situated on the west
side of the neck, which reaches an elevation over 500 ft., and a
nad from the east drops to a ferry, which was of early im-
poftaoce aa a highway between England and Wales. The
boaDdaiy between Herefordshire and Gloucestcxshire crosses
the aeck; the Yat b in the county first named, but the railway
station, «o the east aide (left buik) is in Gbuccstersbire. It
is cm ths Rbss-Monmouth line of the Great Western railway.
ThoDe are here groups of cottages and several inns on both
bo^o, wfaOe opposite tbe Yat itself is the hamlet of New Weir,
lad a Ifttie above it tbe village of Whitchuxcb. The river banks
SIC deoaeix wooded, eucpt where th^ become sheer cliffs,
as at the Goidwefl rocks above the sUtion. The auxrouoding
oootry k kmy and rich, and tbe views from the Yal are superb,
esbcadng the Fomt of Dean to the south and cast, and backed
by tbe nioyntidns of the Welsh border in the west.
Wrmtnm, kWrmOR (1865- ). EngUsh poet and cridc
was bom in Wales on the s8th of February 1865, of Cornish
paxcnts. He%naedBcatedpriVatdy«9Ciidiniiimcholhis time
in ftaaee and Italy. In x8ia4-x886 he edited four of Qoaritch'i
SMkspeof^ Quarto Faesimikt, aad in 1888-1889 Kven {days of
the " Henry Irvix«" Shakespeare. Be became a member of
the staff of the Alkeuaeum in 1891, and of the Saturday Eeoiem
in 1894* His fiist volume of vcne, Day» and NigfUs (i889)»
consisted of dramaticmonologucB. His later verse is influenced
by a close study of modem French wiitexs, of Bauddaire and
espcdaify of Veriaine. He reflects French tendencies both in
the subject-matter and style of his poems, in their eroticism
ami their vividness of descr^itiOD. His vohmaes of verse are!
SUkaueUes (189s), Loudmt NigfUs (1895), Amoris wktima (1897),
Images efGoed and EeU (1899), A Book of Tweuiy Sougs (1905).
In 190B he made a sdection from his earlier verM, published as
Poemt (s vols.). He iransbted from the Italian of Gabriele
d'Annunaio The Dead City (1900) and Tke Ckild ef Pleasure
(1898), and from the French of fimlle Verhaeren Tke Dawn
(1898). To Tke Poems ef Bmest Demm (1905) he prefixed an
essay on the deceased poet, who was a kind of English Veriaine
and had many attractions lor Mr Symons. Among his vdlmnes
of collected essays are: Studies im T^ LUeratures (1897),
Tke SymMist Sckeei in LUeraimn (X899), Cities (X903), woxd-
pictures of Rome, Venice, Naples, Seville, &c., Plays, Acting
and Music (1903), Studies in Pros* and Verse (1904), SpHmd
Adeeuheres (1905), Studies in Seeen Arts (1906).
SraONS, OBORGB JAMEB (x838-X9oe), English meteorologist,
was bom in PlmHco, London, on the 6th of August 1838. In
x86o he obtained a post in the meteorological department of
the Board of Trade under Admiral Robert Titsmy, who was
then deeply interested in the subject of storm-wandxigB, and in
the same year he published the first aimual volume of Br&isk
Rainfidlf which conUined records from 168 stations m Engfamd
and Wales, but none from Scotland or Ireland. Tlree yeais
later he resigned his appointment at the Board of Trade,
where his rainfall inquiries were not appreciated— at least
not as a prior study of storm-warnings— and devoted his vrbcit
energies to jlhe organization of a band of volunteer observers
for the collection of particulars of rainfall throughout the British
Isles. So successful was he in this object that by x866 he was
able to show results which gave a fair representation of the
distribution of rainfall, and the number of recorders gradually
increased until the last volume of Britisk Rainfall which he lived
to edit (that for X899) contained figures from 3598 stations—
3894 in England and Wales, 446 m Scotland, and x88 fax Irehnd.
Apart from their scientific interest, these annual reports are of
great practical importance, since they afford engineers and others
engaged in water supply much-needed data for their calculations,
the former absence of which had on some occasions given rise
to grave mistakes. Symons himself devoted special siaAy not
only to rainfall, but 1^ to the evaporation and percolation of
water as affecting underground streams, and his extensive
knowledge rendered him a valuable witness before parliamentary
committees. In other branches of meteorology also he took
a keen interest, and he was particularly indefatigable, though
consistently unsuccessful, in the quest of a genuine thunderbolt.
The history of tbe science too attracted his attention, and he
possessed a fine library of meteorological works, which passed
to the Meteorological Society at his death. Of that society he
became a member when only eighteen, and he retained his
coimexion with it in various official capacities up to the end of
his life. He served as its president in x88o, and in view of the
celebration of its jubilee was re-elected to that office in X900,' but
the illness that caused his death prevented him from acting.
He died in London o n the xoth of March 1900.
SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM, in physiology. By the "syxn-
pathetic system ** is undcntood a set of nerves and ganglia
more or lets sharply marked off from tbe cerebro-^mal, both
functionally and anatomically. (For anatomy see Nksvouk
System.) Formerly it was thought more indepcn^
rest of the general nervous system than recent di
found it actually to be. It used to be supposed tl
of tbe sympathetic system wexe aiukgous in fi
zSS
SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM
-.*-«J ii««^^^" ""■*» '<»«Jn« tJ» *wam and spinal cord,
--eat cc^^^r tOBSS^ as now becomes more and mon evident,
T^e ***TiLr structures m which occurs the work of transmuting
^^*^ - <»***2^ impulses mto effeienl-nerve impulse wUh™
"** iiJ>.^^t^J«^^ 'y^^^^^c gangUa. These last aie
'°***s^^HS*^^^ f :^<»*»«i««>mi^<iS'wiS othS
^» »x» ^u-f «^««»^ therefore, rr "' -
I, impulses an
s.;j»5?,trft«^ * "-'? "?•"- """•
"•^i--* d<?rr..*J so «» to affect manv. But tbe tympatbetic
KTd^*:: »^ the «at of rrfk, aitU»:--i^; 5»b«h5i
«nSc«- ^^cord""*^"?'."' on the other hand, away f»m
S^ -P , cco**^ JS..'^? cerebn«pinal nerves the pre-
?w «««* at *-^ a»d<«:Uon a toward the centra, in the
ffl»e.<^^ of the sympathetic syst^n^ from iu efferent
More i* ?^ ^^"^t!^^ we shaU consider the formerfiiSt.
STgrcat ^bose of the ordinary cerebro-spinal system is that
ihciortncr <'^^^ds, whereas the Utter convey them to muscle
t^ socretinglJ^y to musde of the striated kind. Another
oi^ly. ^"^ te that tbee^t p«h wlu^^
diSerence i» S, centnU i^ous^trcs to its muscles and glands
from the fif«*V, of ^ ^f^^ '*'' neurones, whereS^ the
consists *l^*S^rdcd by^he cerebro-spinal moulr nerves con-
efferent pato^^nc ^nly. The two neurones forming the
^^ ""^^^^ path are «> ^^^Jfed that one of them whose cell-
sympatbetic P gpjiial cord has a long axonc-proccss passing
^^ ^'^ L cord in the motor spinal root, aid this SSTdt
out i^^J^e Dcrve-ccUs. a sympatheUc gangUon, quite distant
to » «^Vl^ cord and somewhere on the way to the distant
Crom the sp^ to be ummrated. In this giglion the first
otg^ wh^b *^oiie ends forming funcuS connexion
tympatheuc ^ there. These ganglion cells extend each of
with «^}«f J process whxh attams the organ (muscular ceU
^ *; ^m wW it SlJ^^ ^'^^ of the sympathetic path to
«^iAuencc. TT»^ "one-process of Uie first'^rve
"5f^ *^lv^ted -nerve-fibre «tendmg from the spinal cord
*^f * °^^ it constitutes the pre-ganglionic fibre of the
to the gangUon,^ ^^^ axone-process of the second nerve-
«°*^*=^- "^"^ncuiin^ whose ceU-body ■u<i'lnlhrgan7lion;
-,,;ully non-myeUnate and constitute, the post-gangUonic
ce£L that is
the
^'^'' '^^don. characjenslic as it fa of the sympatheUc
^^ "^^^b^n found also m certain other effercMpalhs
' ^"^ ^tbetic P«>P<^' ^ ,1^ these other efferent
ar-crwr r^crs
-*" '^Ti^clscs to the same kind of organs and tissues
,.:, .y ^'j;.,^theuc Itself, it has been proposed to
"^ ,^r -CWtopatbetic under one name, the auto-
i--'* -^ i_ inrJudes all fhf ««r..^..«
^^jjs tenn *?.^"^^^*^. the efferent paths of
'~^ 'I . • irrcing only those leading to the voluntary
crrvjtnic system " fa not merely a conveni-
■ S'-' ' -ex^^"****ts a physiological entity,
J Zg ».^i«« of nicotin. This drug acts
- ":^ .lr_:=-'^ psgEa and not on the cerebro-
" ^ **^'- -arru'-srs the nexus bctwedi pre-
^^ fcy taking advantage
=« searches which have
mfafx . \axt been m*^"»«*^
Bar*t!seu»
an appendage of the cnafal and ^pioal roots, or lather of cotafa
ol them, lor with a oonsidtfable proportion of their number it
fa not connected.
The sympathetic fa that part of the autonomic system which
fa Gonnecled with the qunal coota from the flecond thoracic
to the aeoond lumbar inclusive (man). Its ganglia are divided
by anatomists into the vertebral, those which lie as a double
chain on the ventral face. of the vertebral column, and those i
which lie scattered at various dfatances among the viscera,
the pre>vertebraL Langley has shown that there is no essential
difference between these except that the vertebral send some
of their post-ganglionic fibres into the q;>inal nerves, whereas
the fatter send all their fibres to the viscera. The sympathetic
sends its post-ganglionic fibres —
X. To the muscufar coats of the whole of the alimentary
canal from the mouth to the rectum; to the glands opening into
the canal from the salivary glands in front back to the intes-
tinal glands; to the blood ve^efa of the whole cf the canal from
mouth to anus inclusive.
2. To the igenerative organs^ external and internal, and to
the muscular coats ol the urinary bladder.
3. • To the skin; (a) to its blood vessels, (6) to its cutaneous
gfands, (c) to unstziated musde in the skin, e^. the erectors ot
the hairs.
4. To the iris mnsdes and Ueod vessefa of the eyebaU.
The sympathetic nervous system fa sometimes called the
visceraL It will be seen from the above that this term fa not well
suited in some respects, because the sympathetic supplies many
structures which are not visceraL Another objection fa that
a great deal of important nerve-supply to the viscera fa fur«
nlshed by parts of the autonomic system other than sympathetic
That the sympathetic does, however, of itself constitute a more
or less homogeneous entity is indicated by a curious facL The
substance adrenalin, which fa the active constituent of extracts
of the adrenal g^d, has the property when introduced into
the circulation of exciting all over the bqdy just those actions
which stimulation of the efferent fibres of the sympathetic
causes, and no others. It fa possible- that when a nerve is
stimulated some body at the nerve ending fa set free, and thfa by
combining with another chemical substance induces activity
in the end organ (gland or muscle). It may be that when a
sympathetic nerve fa excited adrenalin fa set free and combines
with some substance which induces activity.
The rest of the autonomic system consfats of two portions,
a cranial and a sacral, so called from their proceeding from
cranial and sacral nerve-roots respectively. The cranial portion
fa subdivided into a part belonging to the mid-brain and a part
belonging to the hind-brain. The ciliary ganglion belonging to
the eyeball fa the ganglion of the former part, and its post-
ganglionic fibres innervate the iris and the dUaiy muscles.
The hind-brab portion gives pre-ganglionic fibres to the fadail
(intermedius) glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves; its post-
ganglionic dfauibution is to the blood vessefa of the mucous
membrane of the mouth and throat, to the muscuUture of the
digestive tube from the oesophagus to the colon, to the heart.
and to the musculature of the windpipe and lungs.
The sacral part of the autonomic system issues from the
spinal cord with the three foremost sacral nerves. Its ganglia
are scattered in the netghbonrhood of the pelvic organs, which
they innervate. The dfatributlon of its post-ganglbnic fibres
fa to the afteries of rectum, anus and external genitalia, to the
musculature of colon, rectum, anus and the urinary bladder,
and to that of the external genitaifa.
The part played by the sympathetic and the rest of tlse
autonomie system in the economy of the body fa best oosa*
'Hcred by fallowing broad divisions of organic functions.
^ofemmis &f the DigtsH^e Tube.— It b those movements of
oitatton not usuiSly within range of oor oonadoosness
^ the autonomic system regulates and controls. l>}or
^ control over them apparently essential or very complete.
instance, the pcndular and peristaltic movements of tli«
tine still go forward when all nerves readiing the visc^aa
SYMPHONIA--SYMPHONIC POEM
289
hive been aevcred. EzUrpttioa of Uie abdomtoal sympsihetk
!ws not led to obvious cU»turbaoce of (Ugestion or nuthtiOQ. m
the dog. It is noteworthy that the sym|>athetic inhibits con-
traction of the musculature of the stomach and intestine, while
the other, the vagus, portion of the autonomic system excites it.
The actions of these two components of the system aie, there'foie^
mutually opposed pn the viscera innervated by both.
Aaiom an Uu CircuUUi4m.— The blood supply of most ocgans
is tinder the cootrol of vaso-constrictor nerves. AU vaso-con-
scjktor nerves are sympathetic. Oigaiis to which vaso-con-
stricter nerves are supplied either poorly or not at all aie the
lujags. heart, Uver, brain and probably the skefetal muscles.
The blood vessels of certain parts of the body have, in addition
to vaso-constrictor nerves, nerves which relax their muscular
T&U, vaso-dilaiator nerves. The latter are never furnished by
the sympathetic, they are in the mucous membranes and glands
ii ihe oral end of the body furnished by the ^cxamal portion of
xhtt auiooocnic system. In regioos at the aboral end of the
\-oiY they are furnished by the sacral portion of the autonomic
•j-iicax. Elsewhere the vaso-dHatators when present are derived
izvm the nerve-cells of the spinal ganglia (Bayliss).
The control of the calibre of the blood vessels by the autonomic
9>3teai b of importance in several wcU-ascertained respects^
By constricting the blood vessels of the viscera the system is
2^Ue to favour an increase of blood supply to the brain. A
cotcworthy instance of such an action occurs when the erect
altitude is a^umed after a recumbent posture. Were it not for
vxao-constriction in the abdominal organs the blood would then,
ucier the action of gravity, sink into the more dependent parts
cf the body and the brain would be relatively emptied of its
f..;>ply, and fainting and unconsdousness result. Again, it is
"-< .itatial to the normal functioning of the organs o( warav<
.'.-.Aled animals that their temperature, except in the surface
ayer-of the skin, should be kept constant. Part of the regula*
t-ve mechanism for this lies in nervous control of the quantity
-f blood flowing through the surface sheet of the skin. That
±s«T a a cool xone through which a greater or smaller quantity
cf biood may, as required, be led and cooled. By the sym-
p^ibetic vaso-constriaocs the capacity of these vessels in the
r.ol aooe can be reduced, and thus the loss of heat from the body
:tr3ogh that channel lessened. In c^ld weather the vaso-
"r,sixictx>rs brace up these skin vessels and lessen the loss of
^ai from the body's surface. In hot weather the tonus of
':.'sc nerves is relied and the skin vessels dilate; a greater
;- portion of the blood then circulates through the compara-
-. -^.y cool skin-sone.
Tse heart itself is but a vpedaUzcd part of the blood-vascular
tc :^:& and Its musculature, like that of the arteries, receives
-yjbr nerves from the sympathetic. These nerves to the
tzart from the sympathetic arc known as the accelerators,- since
- -T quicken and augment the beating of the cardiac muscle.
The heart receives also nerves from the cranial part of the
:.^iPomic system, and the infiuence of these nerves is antago-
r^Sc to thai of the sympathetic supply. The cranial autonomic
-.mres to the heart pass via the vagus nerves and lessen the
yt.*iia^ of the heart both as to rate and force. These inhibitory
'trve% at the heart are analogous to the dilatator nerves to the
jTjd vessels, which, as mentioned above, come not from
^ lympathr^""! but from the ccanial and sacral portions of
^ a.atonoinic system.
.\iin^g^nds, — In close connexion with the temperature
'X'J-iting function of the sympathetu: stands its influence on
'-.e s««at secreting glands of the skin. Secretory nerves to
'j: smcai, f^ands are furnished apparently exclusively by the
.^-vai:faetic.
/ ikc^iutar ATener.-^The skin in many places contains muscle
-' t!ie unstripcd kind. Contraction of this cutaneous muscular
j:j.\js^ cavscs knotting of the skin as in "goose-skin," and
— crttpa of the hairs as in the cat, or of the quills as in
':jt bedc^boS *^ porcupine. The eiTerent nerve-fibres to the
.%'rtpc«i miiades oi the skin are always furnished by the sympa-
'^uc {^iJ^n^or nerves. &c.). In this case the sympathetic
contdbtttes to emotional reactions and perhaps further to the
regulation of temperature, as by ruffling the fur or feath^n in
animals exposed to the cold
The Rapiralory Tube ^The windpipe and the air pniMgPi of
the lungs contain in their walls much unstnped muscular tissue,
arranged so as to control the calibre of the lumen. The
nerve-supply to this muscular tissue is furnished by the cranial
autonomic system via the vagus nerves.
Ey<baU, — An insportant office of the sympathetic is the eon-
tffoUing of the brightness of the visual image by oontrolUng the
SLM of the pupil. The sympathetic sends efferent fibres to the
dUatator muscle of the pupil. In this case, as in othem noted
above, the cranial part of the autonomic system sends nerves of
antagonistic effect to those of the sympathetic, fitst thcough the
third cranial nerves from the efferent fibres to the constrictor
muscle of the pupiL This same part of the cranial autonomic
system supplies also motor fibres to the ciliary muscle, thus
effecting the accommodation of the lens for focusii^ dearly
objects within the range of what is termed near^vision.
Of the afferent fibres of the sympathetic little is known save
that they are, relatively to the efferent, few in number, and tha;t
they, like the afierents of the cerabro-spinal system, are axoncft
of nerve-cells seated in the spinal ganglia. (C S. S.)
SYHPHONIA (Cr. ^vyt^cdvia), a much discussed word, applied
at different tines (i) to the bagpipe, (2) to the drum, (3)
to the hurdy-gurdy, and finally <4) to a kind of davichoid.
The sixth of the musical instruments eaumeiated in Daa.
Ui* Sk xo, 15, ecroaeously translated " dukimcr," in all prob»<
bility refers to the bagpipe (q.v.). Symphonic^ signifying
dnui, occurs in the writings of Istdor of Seville. "Tym*
paoum est peUis vel oorium ligno ex una parte extentum..
Est enim pars media symphoniae in similitudinem ccibri.
Tympanum autem dictum quod medium est. Unde, et ratf-
garitum medium tympanum didtur, et ipsum ut symphonia
ad viigulam peicutitur/' The reference comparing the tympa^
num (kettledrum) to half a pearl is borrowed from Pliny (Not*
hist. IX* 35, 23). Symphonia or ChiJmU was applied during the
13th and 14th centuries, in the Latin countries more especially,
to the bur4y-gurdy. Symphmia is applied by Praetorius'^ to
an instrument which he classed with the clavichonJi spinet»
rcgats and virginal, but without giving any due to its distinctive
characteristics. (K. S.)
SYMPHONIC POEM {Sympkomsche DicJUung, Tandichtimg,
Fohne symplumiqtie, &c.). This term covcxa the experiments ift
a new style of instrumental music which first showed a co-
herent method in the twelve Symphonischc Dickiungtn of LiS£t»
The term at present implies a lazge orchestral composition which*
whatever its length and changes of tempo, is not broken up
into separate movements, and which, moreover, illustrates a
definite poetic train of thought that can be expressed in lilenr<
ture, whether it is actually so expressed or not. Thus the form of
the symphonic poem is the form dicutcd by its written pro^
gramme or unwritten poetic idea; and so it is not every piece of
" programme music " that can be called a symphonic poem«
-Beethoven's sonata Les Adktu, and his Postural Symphony,
are, for instance, works in which the poetic idea does not
interfere with the normal development ol sonata style required
by the musical nature of Beethoven's material.
Great disturbances in musical art have always been accom-
panied by constant appeals to external literary ideas; and there
is nothing peculiarly modem in the present tendency to attack
and defend the rising style of large Indivisible schemes of instru-
mental music by unprofitable metaphysical discussions as to
the daims of "absolute music" against "music embodying
poetic ideas." New art-focms are not bom mature, and in their
infancy their parent arts naturally invite other arts to stand
godfather. If the rise of the sonata style was not - *
by as much "programme music " as the new art
diUr (and as a matter of faU it was accompanied t
it at all evenU coindded with highly Wagner
' Sec " Syntagm. mas.** pt. ii., De organotropkia,
(Wotfenbattd^ 1616).
aq2
SYNAGOGUE, UNITED— SYNCRETISM
is OB the eastern sidei But this rule, too» is often ignored under
the itreis of architectural difficulties.
Jewish tradition has a great deal to say about a body called
"the great synagogue," which is supposed to have been the
supreme religious authority from the cessation of prophecy to
the time of the high priest Simeon the Just, and is even said to
have fixed the Old Testament canon (cf. v. 3 seq.). But
Kuenen in his essay " Over de Mannen der Groote Ssmagoge "
( Verstage» of the Amsterdam Academy, 1876) has powerfully
aijgued that these traditions are fiction, iuid that the name
keMCseikAagiiddla originally denoted, not a standing authority,
but the great, ooBVOcation of Neh. viiL-^z. Some mOre recent
schohuB are, however, more willing to attach credence to the
<rfdcr tnditi(Mi.
Compare, in general, ScbOrer, CeschkkU dts nidischen Volkes,
I 37, where the older literature is catalogued. For sooie uncon-
ventional views the reader may refer to M. Fricdl^der, Synago^
%md Khche in ihren Anfdngen (Berlin, lOoS). For the Usages of
the «ynagogue in more recent times, see Buxtorf, Synagoga judaic*
(Basel, 16^). On the history of synagogue aervicea the works of
2unz are the chief authorities; there is also a good article on Liturgy
in the Jewish Encyclopedia. Useful summaries in English are to
be found in Dembitz, Jewish Services in Synagogue and Home
(Philadelphia, 1898); and Oesterley and Box, The Religion and
Worship 0/ the Synagogue (London. 1 907). The article " Synagogue "
in tYkC Jewish Encyclopedia is illustxated with numerous pictures of
buildings and plans.
STNACxOGUE, UNITED, an organization of London Jews,
founded, with the sanction of an act of parliament, in 1870.
It is confined, in its direct work, to the metropolis, but it exer-
cises, indirectly, considerable influence over the Jews of the
British Empire. It is governed by an elected council represent-
ing the constituent congregations. In religious and ritual
matters it is under the jurisdiction of the chief rabbi, who is,
to a certain extent, recognized throughout the empire. The
president of the United Synagogue in 1910 was Lord Rothschild.
Besides providing the worship of some twenty congregations,
- the United Synagogue directs and supports educational and
charitable work. The title " chief rabbi " is not found in the
pre-expulsion records, though, before the Jews were banished'
in 1290, there was an official named " presbyter omnium Judae-
orum Angliae." The functions of this official cannot be proved
to have been ecclesiastical. The title "chief rabbi" has
become well known through the eminence of recent occupants
of the position such as Solomon Hirschell (i 762-1842). He
was succeeded by Dr Nathan Marcus Adier (1803-1890), who
was followed by his son, Hermann Adler, who raised the position
to one of much dignity and importance. Dr Hermann Adlcr
was bom in Hanover in 1839, graduated at Leipzig, and received
honorary degrees from Scotch and English universities, includ-
ing Oxford. In 1909 he received the order of M.V.O. Dr Adler
was elected chief rabbi in 1891. Besides several essays in
the Nineteenth Century, Dr Adlcr has written extensively on
topics of Anglo-Jewish History and published two volumes
of sermons. (I. A.)
SYNANTHT (Or. tr^, with, and &i>0oi, a flower), a botanical
term for the adhesion of two or more flowers.
SYNAXARIUM (Gr. ot/va^opiov, from cvv&yuv, to bring
together), the name given m the Greek Church to a compilation
corresponding very closely to the martyrology (q.v.) of the
Roman Church. There arc. two kinds of synaxaria— simple
synaxaria, which are merely lists of the saints arranged in
the order of their anniversaries, e.g. the calendar of Morcelli;
and historical synaxaria, which give biographical notices
besides, e.g. the menology of Basil and the synaxarium of
Sirraond. The notices given in the historical synaxaria are
summaries of those in the great menologies, or collections of
lives of saints, for the twelve months of the year. The oldest
historical synaxaria apparently go back to the tenth century.
The heterodox Eastern churches also have their synaxaria.
The publication of the Arabic text of t
of Alexandria was started simultanei
Corp. script, orient, and by R. Basse
and that of the Ethiopian synaxariun'
tbe Fmtrolat:ia orisnL The Axmetui
of Ter Israel was published at Coostantinopte U
s5i S. A. Morcelli. Kalendarium ecclesiae ConstantinopdUanae
(Rome, 1788); H. Delehayc, " LcSynaxairede Sirraond," in i4nai^fia
h<^ndiana, xiv. 396-434, where the terminology is explained;
idem. Synaxarimm ecclesiae Qmstantin^poHlamae e codiee Sirmondiano
(Brustek, 1908), forming the volume Propytaettm ad acta sanctorum
novembris, (H. De.)
8YNCBLLU8, a hybrid word (Gr. ciiv, Lat. cdh),^ meaning
literally " one who shares his cell with another.** In ecdesiast ical
usage it refers to the very early custom of a priest or deacon living
continually with a bishop, propter ksHmonium ecdesiast icum;
thus Leo III. speaks of Augustine tes having been the synceilus
of Gregory the Great. The term came into use in the Eastern
Church, where the syncelli were the chaplains of metropolitans
and patriarchs. At Omstantinople they formed a corporation.
and the protosyncettus took precedence of metropolitans and
ranked next to the patriarch, to whose office he generally
succeeded.
SYNCOPE (Gr. wywtif, a fitting up or short, from x^rrciv, to
cut), a term used in grammar for the di»on of a letter or syllable
in the middle of a word {e.g. " ne'er " for " never "); and in
medicine for the condition of fainting or shock {q.v.)\ and so
occasionally in a general sense for a suspension or cessation of
ftmction. " Syncopate " and " syncopation " are analogous
derivatives; and in music a syncopation is the rhythmic method
of tying C^) two beats of the same note into one tone in such
a way as to displace the accent.
SYNCRBTISII (Gr. ovYKpifri<r;i6s, from <r{v and lup&PWfU, mingle
or blend, or, according to Plutarch, from <r6y and ffpfp-irciv, to
comlMne against a common enemy aftor the manner of the cities
of Oete), the act or system of blending, combining or reconciling
inharmonious elements. The term is used technically in politics,
as by Plutarch, of those who agree to forget dissensions and
to unite in the face of common danger, as the Cretans were said
to have done; in philosophy, of the efforts of Cardinal Bessarion
and others in the i6th century to reconcile the philosophies of
Pbto and Aristotle; and in theology, of a plan to harmonize the
hostile factions of the Church in the 17th century, advocated by
Georg Calixtus, a Lutheran professor of theology at HelmstadlJ
Its most frequent us^ however, is in connexion with the religious
development of antiquity, when it denotes the tendency,
especially prominent from the 2nd to the 4th centuries of the
Christian era, to simplify and unify the various pagan religions.
During this period, as a result of the intimate knowledge of the
world's religions made possible by the gathering of every knov^n
cult of importance inio the religious system of the Roman Empire,
belief in the identity of many deities which resembled each other,
and indeed in the essential idoitity of all, received a special
impulse. Not oidy were various forms of the same deity, suet
as, for example, Jupiter Capitolinus and Jupiter Latiaris, recog
nixed as being really the same under different aspects, but evci
the gods of different nations were seen to be manifestations of i
single great being. Roman Jupiter, Greek Zeus, Persian Mithrai
and Phrygian Attis were one. The Great Mother, Isis, Ceres
Demeter, Ops, Rhea, Tellus, were the same great mother dett^
under different masks (see Gkeat Mother of the Gods)
Venus and Cupid, Aphrodite and Adonis, the Great Mother ar'
Attis, Astarteand Baal, Demeter and Dionysus, Isis and Serapu
were essentially the same pair. Syncretism even went so far a
to blend the deities of paganism and Christianity. Christ ^9
compared with Attis and Mithras, Isis with the Virgin Mary. &<
Isis, perhaps more than any other deity, came to be regartled 1
the great matemij goddess of the universe whose essence wj
worshipped under many different names. This fact, with tl
spirit of syncretism in general, is well illustrated by Apulcii
{Met^morph. xi. 3 and 5). Ludus invokes Isis: *' Queen i
Heaven, whether thou art the genial Ceres, the prune parent <
fmits. whn. iovoim at th«» discovery of thy daughter, didi
the ancient acorn, and, point ii
I the EleusinJan soil; or wheth
Q the 6rsl origin of thin^, did
te pure Latin term tonc^ms.
SYNDEJtESI3— 8YNECHISM
?93
assooaie tbe different atset, thnragb the creation of mtnillove,
Aod baviog propagated an eternal offspring in the human ntoe,
art now wonhipped in the sea-girt shrine n£ Papbos; or whether
thou art the sister of Phoebus, who, by relieving the pangs of
women in travail by soothing remedies, hast brought into the
world multitudes so innumerable, and art now venerated in the
far-funcd shrines of Ephesus; ox whether thou art Proserpine,
terrific with midni^t bowlings ... by whatever name, by
whatever ceremonies, and under wbatever form it is lawful tjo
invoke thee; do thou graciously, &c. " The goddess replies:
" Behold me . . » I, who am Nature, the parent of all things^
the mistress of all the elements, the primordial offspring of time,
the supreme among divinities, the queen of departed spirits, the
£rst of the celestials, and the uniform manUestation of the gods
znd goddesses; who govern by my nod the luminous heights of
beavea, the salubrious brceses.of the ocean, and the anguished
silent realms of the shades below; whose one sole divinity the
vbole orb of the earth venerates under a manifold form, with
di^ereot rites, and under a variety of appellations. Hence the
Phrygians, that primeval race, call me Pessinuntica, the Mother
of the Gods; the Aborigines of Attica, Cecropian Minerva; the
Cypriauis, in their sea-girt isle, Paphian Venus; the arrov-
bearinc Cretans, Diana Dictynna; the three-tongued Sicilians,.
>'.>gian Proserpine; and the Eleusinians, the ancient goddess
Ceres. Some call me Juno, others BeUona, others Hecate»
others Rhamnusia. But those who are illomined by the
euliest cajTS of that divinity, the Snn, when he xises^ the
.\ethopiann, the Arii, and the Egyptians, so skilled in ancient
.eanuag, worshipping me with ceremonies quite appropriate,
-xJ me by my true name, Queen lais. Behold, then, &c "
Trans. Bohn's Lib.).
Naturally, the m6uenoe of Gieek philosophy was very pro-
rovnced in the growth of syncretism. Plutarch and Maxhnus
cS Tyre affirmed that the gods of the different nations were only
dl^erent aspects of the same deity, a supreme inteUigeace and
pcwideDce which ruled the world. The Neoplatonista, how*
ever, were the first school to fonnulate the underlying philosophy
s: synczetisBi: *' There is only one real Cod, the dcWne, and the
tobordioate deities are nothing else than abstractions personified,
or cdesdal bodies with spirits; the traditional gods are only
deaoosy that is, being intermediate between God and man . . .
.\A, like every other created being, are emanationa from the
tbsolute God" (Jtaok lUville, La. Rtlighn d Rome 40ms ks
Si9iresy» Care must be taken, however, not to place too much
eapbasis upon syncretism as a conscioua system. The move-
•amt which it represented was not new in the and centtny ajx
The identification of Latin with Etruscan goda in the earliest
ixys of Rome, and then of Greek with Italian, and finally of
Oriental with the Graeco-Roman, were all alike syncrctistic
g v¥c tDents, though not all conscious and reasoned. The ideal
f the common people, who were unreflecting, as well as of
pj^nosophers who reflected, was " lo grasp the religious verity,
lar and constant, under the multiplex forms with which legend
tad traditioo had enveloped it " (R^ville). The advent of Greek
uriosophy only hastened the movement by conscious and
systematic effort.
Sywczetlc, being a movement toward monotheism, was the
" j g verse of the tendency, so prominent in the eariy history of
tdme, to increase the number of deities by wonJupping the
^ -*->*■ god under spedal aspects according to special activities.
^^ ihe hands of the Neopbitonists it was instrumental in retard-
^ somewhat the hdl of paganism for the tinle, but in the end
.^uibuted to the success of Christianity by familiarizing men
*ith the bcficf hi one supreme deity, llie triumph of Christi-
xitj kai^ sqpneaented a result of syncretism, the Chuicb being
" ImM the beUela and practices of t>oth the new and old
. <a., eapedally pages »04-»»7» »5?rl74.
examples of syncretism, cf. that of Buddhism
. the state rdigion of the Indo-Scytbiao king*
l^e Pbbsia: AneierU History, vit.; The Parthian
aiCides on alrooac all the feUgions ol the East,
(G.S11.)
SniIMBUBIS, a teim in sehdlaatic phfloM[4iy applied to the
inborn moral consciousness which distinguishes between good
and evil. The word is really synUresis (Gr. tfurH^pqvif , from
ovpnipfiv, to look after, take care of), but syndeiesis is the
commoner fom. Diogenes LaSrtius in hia account of the Stoios
(vii.«s,Ti|»Wirp6njr^M*»'*<t«rif^ UxBPMi^nipwitun^)
uses the phrase riump 4mn6 to describe the mstmet for
self-preservation, the inward harmony of ChiyBippus,therecog-
nitxin of which ia ovwjftfata The teem synderesU^ however,
is not found till Jerome, who in dealing with Eaek. i. 4-r5, says
the fourth of the " living creatures " of the vision is what the
Greeks call ouyr^mow, «.«. scitUilla cOHKie$Uiae the "spark of
conscience^" Here appaxently ^ynderesis and conscience
(«;w<it5qacf ) are equivalent. By the schoolmen, however, the-
terms were differentiated, conscience being the practical envisagw
ing of good and evil actions; synderesis being, so to speak, the
tendency toward good in thought and action. The exact relation
between the two was, however, a matter of controversy, Aquinas
and Duns Scotus holding that both are practical reason, while
Bonaventaia narrows syndeiesia to the volitional tendency to
good actions.
tnHDlCiUUlat.syndictu,GT, eMtaot, one who helps m a
pourt of justice, an advocate, zepresenurive, eiv, with, and Uai,
justice), a term applied in certain countries to an officerof govern-
ment with varying powers, and secondly to a representative or
delegate of a university, institution or other corporation, entrusted
with spedal functions or powen. The meaning which underiies.
both applications is that of representative or delegate. Dd
Cange (Gloss, i.v. SynMcu9\ after defining the word as d^enser,
poiroMHs, vhocalMS, proceeds "Sjndici maxime appeUaatur
Actores univeEutatum, eoUegiorum, sodetatum et aliorvm
coqMrum, per quos, tanquam in republica quod oommunitcr
agi fierive of>ortet, agitar et fit," and gives several examples from
the 13th century of the use of the term. The moat iamiliar
use of "ayndic " in the first sense is that of the Italian tindUo,
who b the head of the administration of a commune, answering
to a " mayor "; he is a government official but is elected by the
communal council from their own memben by secret baUot.
Neady all the companies, gilds, and the univemity of Paria
had representative bodies the members of which were termed
syndics Similariy in England, the senate of the nniversity of
Cambridge^ which is the legisladve body, ddegates ceitain
functions to special conunittees of its members, appointed from-
time to time by Grace, •.& a proposal offered to the senate and
confirmed by it; these committees are termed " syndicates " and
are permanent or occasional, and the membes are styled " the
syndics " of the particular committee or of the institution which
they adminbter; thns there are the syndics of the Fltawilliam
Museum, of the University Press, of the Observatory, of local
araminations and lectures, of the Antiquarian Conunittee, &c
SYNDICATBt a term originally meaning a body of syndics.
In this sense it is still sometimes used, as at the university of
Cambridge, for the body of members or committee responsible
for the management of the University Press. In commerce, a
syndicate is a body of peiaona who combine to cany through
some financial transaction, or who undertake a common adven-
ture. Syndicates are very often formed to acquire or take over
some undertaking, hdd it foe a short time, and then resell it to a
company. The profits are then distributed and the syndicate
dissolves. Sometimes syndicates are formed under agree*
meats which constitute them mere partnerships, the members
behv therefore individuaffy responsihie, but they ace now more
generally incorporated under the Companies Acts.
The more usual cases in which tyndifs^tes are commonly fermad
will be found in F. B. Palmer's Compomy PrecedeiUt, leth ed., voL i.
pp. U9 «q.
BTHBCHISM (from Gr. ffwcx^, oontinoous, fr
to hold together), a idiiknophical term proposed
{Monist, n. 534) to express the general theory tl
feature in philosophic speculation is continuity
directed to the question of hypothesis, and holds i
is justifiable only on the ground that it provider
«94
8YNEDRIUM— SYNOD
All nodefftUiKUng of facts oonrfBU ill generalizing coBcerning
them. The fact that aome things are ultimate may be recognized
by the qmechist without abandoning his standpoint, since
synechism b a normative or reguUtive principle, not a theory
erf existence; The adjective ** synedwlogical " Is used in the
same general sense; *' synechology " is a theory of continuity or
univenal causation; " synechfai " is a term in ophthalmology
for a morbid union of parts.
STMEDRIUll (cvpk&pioif), a Greek word which means
" assembly " and is especially used oi judicial or representative
assemblies, is the name by which (or by iu Hebrew transcription,
I^nvQS, tatthedrin, sanhedrim) that Jewish body is known which
in its origin was the municipal council of Jerusalem, but acquired
extended functions and no small authority and influence over
the Jews at large (see ziii. 424 seq.). In the Mishnah it is
called " the sanhedrin," " the great sanhedrin," " the sanhedrin
of seventy-one [members]" and *Hhe great court of justice"
{bah din hauOdhl). The oldest testimony to the existeQoe and
constitution of the synedrium of Jerusalem is probably to be
found in 2 Chron. six. 8; for the priests, Levites and hereditary
heads of houses there spoken of as sitting at Jerusalem as a court
of app«d from the load judicatories does not correspond with
anyUiing mentioned in the old history, and it is the practice of
the chronicler to refer the institutions of his own time to an
origin in ancient Israel And just such an aristocratic council
is what aefcms to be meant by the getousia or senate of ** elders "
repeatedly mentioned in the history of the Jews, both under the
Greeks from the time of Antiochus the Great (Jos. Ant. xil. 3, 3)
and under the Hasmonean high priests and princes. The hi|(h
priest as the head of the state was doubtless also the head of the
senate, which, according to Eastem usage, exercised both judlciai
and administrative or political functions (cL i Maoc. xii. 6, xhr.
so). The exact measure of its authority must have varied from
time to time at first with the measure of autonomy left to the
nation by its foreign lords and afterwards with the more or. less
autocratic power claimed by the native sovereigns.
The orif^nal aristocratic constitution of the senate began to
be modified tmder the later Hasmoneans by the inevitable intro-
duction of representatives of the rising party of the Pharisees,
and this new element gained strength under Herod the Great,
the bitter enemy of the priestly aristocracy. Finally under the
Roman procurators the synedrium was left under the presidency
of the chief priest as the highest native tribunal, though without
the power of life and death (John xviii. 31). The aristocratic
and Sadducean element now again preponderated, as appears
from Josephus and from the New Testament, in which " chief
priests " and ** rulers " are synonymous exprenions. But with
these there sat also "scribes" or trained legal doctora of the
Pharisees and other notables, who are simply called " elden "
(Ma rk XV. i) . The Jewish tradition which regards the synedrium
as entirdy composed of rabbins sitting imder the presidency and
vice-presidency of a pair of chief doctors, the tOst and Ob beth din,
is inconsistent with the evidence of Josephus and the New Testa-
ment. It is generally held that it was after the fall of the state
that a merely rabbinical bith din sat at Jabneh and afterwards at
Tiberias, and gave legal responses to those who chose to admit
a judicature not recognized by the dvil power. Dr A. BOcbler has
sought to reconcile the various accounts by the theory that there
were two great tribunab in Jerusalem, one widding religioos, the
other civil authority {Das Syn^drion in Jerusalem^ Vienna, 1902).
The council chamber (fiav\^) where the synedrium usually sat
was between the Xystus and the Temple, pnA)ably on the Temple-
hill, the Mishnah states that the meetkjgs were hdd within the
inner court. The meeting in the palace of the high priest which
condemned Jesus was exceptional The procMdings also on
this occasion were highly irregular, if measured by the rules
of procoduTQ which, according to Jewish traditaan, were laid
down to secure order and a fair trial for the accused.
Of the older literature of the Mibject it is enough to dtc Selden.
Dt synedriis* The most important critical discusiian htibmt at Kuenen
in the Vurdagen, &c., of the An
A good summary is given by Sc
4tbod., §33. Cf.AaoG.^Si
(«. 37S-<- 414)1 bbhop of Ptolemais in tbe Libyan
PenUpolis after 410, was bom of wealthy parents, who claimed
descent from Spartan kings, at Csrrene between 370 and 37 s.
While still a youth (393} he went with his brother Euoptius to
Alexandria, where he became an enthusiastic Ne<^)latonist and
disciple of Hypatia {q.v.). On returning to his native place about
the year 397 he was chosen to head an embassy from the dties
of the Ptentapplis to the imperial court to ask for remission of
taxation and other relief. His address to Arcadius {De regno)
is full of advice as to the studies of a wise ruler in such periloas
times. His three yeais' stay in Constantinople was wearisome
and otherwise disagreeable; the leisure it forced upon him he
devoted in part to literary composition. The Aeiy^us sive de
frffridentia is an allegory in which the good OsSris and the evil
Tsrphon, who represent Aurelian and the Goth Gainas (ministen
under Arcadhis), strive for masteiy; and the question of the
divine permission of evil is handled. After the successful Atxre-
lian had granted the petition of the embassy, S3mesius returned
to Cyrcne in 400, and spent thenext ten years putly in that dty,
when unavoidable bu^ess called him there, but chiefly on an
estate in the interior of the province, where in his own words
" books and the chase " made up his life. His marriage took
place at Alexandria in 403; in the previous year he had visited
Athens. In 409 or 410 Synesius, whose Christianity had until
then been by no means very pronounced, was popularly chosen
to be bishop of Ptolemais, and, after long hesitation on personal
and doctrinal grounds, he ultimatdy accepted the office thus
thrust upon him, being consecrated by Theopbilus at Alexandria.
One personal difficulty at least was obviated by hu bdng allowed
to retain his wife, to whom be was much attached; but as regarded
orthodoxy he expressly stipulated for personal freedom to dissent
on the questions of the soul's creation, a literal resurrection, and
the final destruction of the worid, while at the same time be
agreed to make some concession to popular views in his pubh'c
teaching (rA fUM etiooi ^iXotfo^MV, rk 5' f^ ^\oiu0&if). His
tentire of the bishopric was troubled not only by domestic bereave-
ments but also by barbaric invasions of the country (in repelling
which he proved himself a capable military organizer) and by
conflicu with the prefect Andronicus, whom he excommunicated
for interfering with the Church's right of asylum. The date
of his death is unknown; it Is usually given as e. 414. His
many-sided activity^ as shown especially in his letters, and
his loosdy mediating position between Neoplatonism and
Christianity, make him a subject of fascinating interest. His
sdentific interests are attested by his letter to Hypatia in which
occun the earliest known reference to areometiy, and by a work
on alchemy in the form of a commentary on pseudo-Democritus.
He was a man of the highest personal character.
His extant works are — (i) a speech bdore Arcadtus, De regiM;
(2) Dw, sive de sua ipsius instUuto, in which be signifies bis purpose
to devote himsdf to true philosophy: (3) Encomium cahttU (he was
himself bald); a literary >m d'esprit, suggested by Dio Chrysostom's
Praise of Hatri (4) De prooidentia, in two books; (5) De tnsomniis:
(6) 157 Epistolae; (7) la Hymni, ci a contemplauve, Neoplaconic
character; and several homiues and occasional speeches. The ediH»
princeps is that of Tumebus (Paris, 1553): it was followed by that
of Mordl, with Latin translation by Petovii
and improved^ 1633; reprinted, inaccurate^ . _, „ . -_^,-
EpisMae, which for the modem reader greatly exceed his other
works in interest, have been edited by Demetriades (Vienna, 1792)
*euviu8 (1612 ; greatly enlarged
reprinted, inaccurately, oyM^ne, I0S9). ^^^
(Tabiagen, 1875).
See Dausen, De Synesio pkilosopko (Cooenhagen, 1831): R.
Volkmann, Synesius von Cyrene (Bedin, 1860): A. Gardner ■ mono-
graph in " The Fathers for English Readers ''^ (Lxindoa. x886) ; and a
Ufe by W. S. Crawford (London. 1901).
SYNOD (Gr. aimiM), a term denoting an assembly of ecclesi-
astical officials legally convoked to discuss and deckle points of
faith, disdpline and morals. It is practically synonymom with
the word council {q.v.); concUium is used in the same technical
sense by TertulUan c 200, and ain^oiot a century or so later in the
*""*•*- inons. In time, however, the word coundl came to
1 to oecumenical gatherings, while synod was applied
> of the eastem or western branches of the Oiurch
SYNODIC PERIOD— SYRA
895
(the fint council of ConfltantiMple was originally a mare coundl
or synod of the £ast)r or to ooendls ol tlie Refonoed chuxcbes,
t.g, the Synod ol Dort. Provincial aynods were held in the and
centory, and were not completely oicuuaed before the advent of
occanenical ooandU. The two tenns are still used side by side;
thus there are patriarchal^ national and pcimatial ooundla, as
vtfl as provincial oonndls (under the metropolitan of a province)
«ad dioceaan aynods, ooaaisting of the dergy ol a diocese and
presided over by the bishop (or the vicar-genccd)* The
supreme governing body in the Russian branch of the Orthodox
Eastern Church (g.t .) is known as the Holy S3mod. In the Pres-
byteiian churches (see Pussbvtxbianisii) a synod is an aasembly
oMatainipg representatives of several presbyteries and inter-
Bicdiate between Uiese and the Genenl Assembly; sfanifarly in
the Weslcyan and other Methodist churches the synod is the
meetinc off the district which links the circuits with the conference.
The term is not in use in sell-governing churches like the C^ngre-
ptioaalists and Baptists, though these from time to time hold
councils or aaaemblics (nationad and international), for conference
lad fcflowafa ip wi thout any legislative power*
STIKMXIC PBRIOO* hi astronomy, the apparent period of a
pJanct or aatdlite when its revolution is refened to the line
pusinc through the earth or the sun. In the case of the planets
It is the period between successive conjunctions of the same kind,
irferior or superior, with the sun. In the case of the satellites
ii is the period relative to the radius vector from the sun.
STVTHBfIB (Gr. cMiatt, from <rvrn6l|pai, to put together),
A term used both generally and technically, with the fundamental
■caning of oomposition, opposed to analysis (q.v.), the breaking
ip of a whole into its component parts, hi teaching, for example,
viten a new fact is brought into connexion with already acquired
ksowledge and the learner puU them together (^' synthesizes ")>
die icsolt is " synthetic " and the process is " synthesis." The
reveese process is analysis, as in grammar when a child breaks
-p 1 sentence into sutiject, verb, object, &c. Thus aD faiductive
naaooiag is synthetic in dftracter. The term " synthesis " is
axch nsed in philosophy. Thus Kant makes a dtstmction,
{-fidaaentnl to bis theoiy of knowledge, between analytic and
sfathetic jadgments, the Utter being those judgmenu which
ire not derivable from the nature of the subject, but in which the
predicate is obtained rather by experience or by the operation
d the mmd (tbe " synthetic judgment a priori **; see Kant).
Fcihapa the most famous use of the term is in Herbert Spencer's
" Synthetic FhiloBopl«y," the name given to the several treatises
»tkh contain his philoaophic system— the '^ unification of
kaowiedge " from the data of the separate sciences.
MTttnPAM, the (Sreek fom^ of Sindibad or Sendabar, an Indian
pUoaopbcr supposed to have lived about loo B.C., and the re-
pared antJior of a collection of tales known generally in Europe
M the stoiy of the Seven Wise Masters. They enjoyed Immense
popaisriiy, and appeared in many Oriental and Western hmguages.
h Greek translation (probably from a Syriac venfen), the
eatest sfif^—^ of Romaic prose (nth century), is extant under
Ike titie of Tke aMil pUasini Story of $ynHpas Ike Fkilosopker.
1' is preceded by an introduction in iambic verse by a certain
Mkhad Aadreopuloe, who states that it was executed by wder
4 Micbael, probably the duke of Melitene m Armenia. The
eaaslator is evidently a Christian, although he has genaally
preserved tbe Oriental colouring. The main outline is the same
m the different venioos, althou^ they vary in detail and inchide
tfotcot atoaies. A certain prince^ who had taken a vow of
Mace for a time on the advice of his tutor, was tempted by his
flkpasotfacr. Her advances having been rejected, she accused
koB 10 lea father, who derided to put him to death. The device
4 the Arabiam Nights is introduced by the wise men of the court,
«6o ia torn rdale stories to dissuade the king from over-4iasty
f\?sfcnicat» cadi story being answered by the queen, who desires
asaat action to be taken. When the period of rilence is over,
he prince apeaks and establishes his innocence. In the Greek
'TaoQ the king b a king of Persia* named Cyrus, and Sjmtipas
Wa^r Is the prince^ tutor (text in A. Ebcihard, Fabtdat
itmMoues, 1., i87», " Teubner Series ").
For a diacnsHon of the whole tubiect, see D. Comparetti. RUorche
intorno al lihro ii Sindibad ii96q; Eng. trans, by H. C. Cootc, Folk-
lore Society, 1882); W. A. Clouston, Tke Book of Sindibad (from the
Peraan and Arabic, 1884; from the Syriac, by H. Gollancx, 1897) ,
I. C Dunlop, Hisk of Prose Fiction (new ed., 1888). vol. ii.; C
Krumbacher. Ceickickte der bytantiniscken LiU. (and ed.. 1807).
Sixty-two Aeaopic fables, also translated from Syriac into
Greek, are attributed to this same Syntipas (ed. C. F. Matth&i,
1781).
SYRA, or Sysos (anc. S^por, perhaps Homeric Svpti|), a
Greek island in the middle of the Cydades, which in the 19th
century became the conuneroal centre of the Aichipelago, and is
also the residence of the nomarch ol the CycUdes and the seat
of the central law courts. The length of the island is about
10 m., thebreadth 5, and the area is estimated at 42} sq. m. The
population rose to about 33,700, of whom about 20,500 were in
the chief town, Hermoupolis, but that of the town had in 1907
declined again to 18,132. Syra is also a province of the depart-
ment of the Cydades (pop. 1907, 31,939). The importance of
the island m prehistoric times is attofed by considerable remains
of early Aegean antiquities. In andent times it was remarkab^
fertile, as is to be gathered not only from the Homeric description
(Od. XV. 403), wUch might be of doubtful application, but alao
from the remains of olive presses and peculiarities in the local
nomenclature. The destruction of its forests has led to the loss
of all its alluvial soil, and now it is for the most part a brown
and barren rock, covered at best with scanty aromatic scrub,
pastured by sheep and goats.
Hermopolis (better Hermoupolis), the chief town, is built round
the harbour on the east side of the island. It is governed by an
active munldpality, whose revenue and expenditure have rapidly
increased. Among the public buHdings are a spadous town-hall
in the central square, a dub-house, an opera-house and a Credi
theatre. Old Syra, on a conical hill behind the port town, is
an interesting place, with its old Roman Catholic church of
St (}eorge's still crowning the summit. This was buiU by the
Capuchins, who in the middle ages diose Ssrra as the head-
quarters of a mission hi the East. Louis XIII., hearing of the
dangers to which the Syra |»riests were exposed, took the island
under his espedal protection, and since that time thfe Roman
Catholic biriiops of Syra have been dected by the pope. About
the beginning of the X9th century the inhabitants of Syra
ntmibered on^ about xooo; whenever a Turkish vessd appealed
they nude off to the interior and hid themsdves. On the out-
break of the war of Greek independence refugees from CHiios, after
bdng scattered throughout Tenos, Speria, Hydra, 8ec., and
rejected by the people of Ceos, took up their residence at Syra
under the protection of the French flag. Altogether about 40,000
had sought this asylum before the freedom of Greece was achieved.
The chief city was called Hermoupolis after the name of the ship
which brought the earlier settlers. Most of the immigrants
elected to stay, and, though they were long kept in alarm by
pirates, they continued to prosper. In 1875 1568 sailmg ships
and 698 steamers (with a total of 740,731 tons) entered and is88
sailing ships and 700 steamers (with a total of 756,807 tons)
dearnl this port; in 1883 3379 sailing and 1x26 steam vessel^
(with a total of 1,056,201 tons) entered juid 3276 sailing and
1 120 steam vessels (with a total of 960,229 tons) cleared. Most
of the sailing vessete were Greek and Turkish, and most of the
steamera were Austrian, French and Turkish.
But since the eneigetic development of Peiraeus, Sya has
ceased to be the chief commercial entrep6t and distributing centre
of this part of the Levant, and consequently iu trade has seriously
declined. Whereas in 1890 the foreign commerce was valued at
£x»3Z3»730, m 1900 it only amounted to £408,3501 Coal, textiles
and iron and sted goods figure promhientiy amonpt the ia^rts,
and emeiy, leather, leaaoos^ sponges, flour, valop*^
amongst the exports. Syra is the seat of se
shtp-buflding, tanneries, flour and cotton n
factories for confectionery (" Turkish ddaght "]
furniture, pottery and distilleries. The harbo«
tected by a breakwater 273 yds. long, has a
to 12 ft.
298
SYRACUSE
complete, and the Athenian fleet had at the same time entered
the Great Harbour. The citizens began to think of surrender,
and Nicias was so confident that he neglected to push his advan-
tages. He left a gap to the north of the circular fort which
formed the centre of the Athenian lines, the point where Epipolae
slopes down to the sea, and he omitted to occupy Euiydus.
The second act of the drama may be said to open with the
inetrievable blunder of Nicias in letting the Spartan Gylippus
first land in Sicily, and then march at the head of a small army,
partly levied on the spot, across the island, and enter Syracuse
by way of Epipolae, past Eurydus. Gylippus was felt to be
the representative of Sparta, and of the Peloponnesian Greeks
generally, and his arrival inspired the Syracusans with the fullest
confidence. Just before his arrival a few ships from Corinth
had made their way into the harbour with the news that a great
fleet was already on its way to the relief of the city. The tables
were now completely turned, and we hear of nothing but defeat
and disaster for the besiegers till their final overthrow. The
military skUl of Gyli(^us enabled the Syracusan militia to meet
the Athenian troops on equal terms, to wrest from them their
fortified position on Flemmyrium, which Nicias had occupied
as a naval station shortly after. Gylippus's arrival, and thus to
drive them to keep their ships on the low bea^ between their
double walls, to take Labdalum, an Athenian fort on the northern
edge of Epipolae, and make a third counter-work right along
Epipolae in a westerly direction, to the north of the circular
fort. The Athenians were thus reduced to such a plight that,
as Nicias said in his despatch towards the dote of 414, they were
themselves besieged rather than besi^ng. The naval prepara-
tions of the Syracusans, under the advice of Hermocrates, had
led them, too, to confidence in their powers of giving battle
to the Athenian fleet. In the first sea-fight, which took place
simultaneously with the capture of Flemmyrium, they had been
unsuccessful; but in the spring of 413 they actually won a
victory over the Athenians in their own dement.
On the very next day, however, a second Athenian fleet
arrived under Demosthenes and Eurymedon, with seventy-three
ships of war and a large force of heavy infantry and light troops.
The despatch of this expedition seems to prove an almost blind
confidence in Nidas, whose request to be superseded the Athenian
people rdused to grant. Demosthenes dedded at once to make
a grand attack on Epipolae, with a view to recovering the
Athenian blodcading lines and driving the Syracusans back
within the dty walls. The assault was made by night by way
of Eurydus under the uncertain light of the mcon, and this
circumstance turned what was very nearly a successful surprise
into a ruinous defeat. The affair seems to have been well
planned up to a certain point, and wdl executed; but the Athenian
van, flushed with a first success, their ranks broken and dis-
ordered by a pursuit of the enemy over rough ground, were
repulsed with great loss by a body of heavy-armed Boeotians,
and driven back in disorder. The confusion spread to the troop?
behind them, and the action ended in wild flight and slaughter.
The army was now thoroughly out of heaxt, and Demosthenes
was for at once breaking up the camp, embarking the troops,
and sailing back to Athens. (It must be remembered that the
Spartans were all this time in occupation of Decdcia; see Pelo-
lOsassuN Wax.) But Nidas could not bring himself to face the
A'Wmtan people at home, nor could he be prevailed on to retire
jaxspiXf to some position on the coast, such as Catania or
ru^sos. He dallied till the end of August, many weeks after
i^ *ff^t^ when the coming of Syracusan reinforcements decided
uj: jx d^art; but on the 27th of that month was an eclipse
t 2e -aaam, on the strength of which he insisted on a dday
jsaHL mths month. His fleet, too, lingered usdesdy In
r^^— ^ t2 after a defeat in which Eurymedon pe-' ' *
-a 2b smsliaaeous land attack was unsuccessT
. ..^^^ sv MBdud the mouth of the Great Ha
-•^ ^A, after a frantic. effort to break
— . •■dfazL -■» nUerly defeated and half
- ^aaaHxed army, its ranks
A ai^a iu hopdess
ranks thn
reach Catania by a drcuitoas route; but, harassed by the numer-
ous Syracusan cavahry and darters, after a few days of dreadful
suffering, it was forced to lay down its arms. The SyTacusaas
(Sullied the glory of their triumph by putting Nidas and Deinos-
thenes to death, and huddling their prisoners into their stone-
quarries— « living death, dragged out, for the allies from Greece
proper to the space of seventy days, for the Athenians therosdves
and the Greeks of Sidly and Italy for six months longer. Games
called Assinarian, from the name of the river at which the final
surrender occurred, were instituted 10 commemorate it.
Her great deliverance and victory naturally stirred up the
energies of Syracuse at home and abroad. Syracusan and
SeUnuntine ships under Hermocrates now play a distinguished
part in the warfare between Sparta and Athens on the coast
of Asia. Under the influence of Diodes the constitution became
a still more confirmed democracy, some at least of the magistracies
being filled by lot, as at Athens (Diod. xiil. si, 35; Arist. Pol. v.
3-6). Diodes appears also as the author of a code of laws
of great strictness, which was hdd in such esteem that later
lawgivers were deemed only its expounders. Under these
influences Hermocrates was banished in 409; he submitted to
the sentence, notwithstanding the wishes of his army. He went
back to Sicily, warred with Carthage on his own account, and
brought back the bones of the unburicd Syracusans from
Himera, but was still so dreaded that the people banished Diodes
without restoring him. In 407 he was slain in an attempt to
enter the city, and with him was woimdcd one who was presently
to outstrip both rivals.
This was Dionysius (the " Elder ")i son of another Hermocrates
and an adherent of the aristocratic party, but soon afterwards
a demagogue, though supported by some men of rank, among
them the historian Philistus (Diod. xiii. ^i, 92). By accusing
the generals engaged at Acragas in the war against Carthage,
by obtaining the restoratkni of exiles (no doubt others of the
partisans of Hermocrates), by high-handed proceedings at Gela,
he Secured his qwd election first as one of the generals, then as
sole general (or with a nominal colleague), with special powers.
He next, by another trick, procured from a military assembly
at Leontini a vote of a bodyguard; he hired mercenaries and
in 406-405 came back to Syracuse as tyrant of :he city (Diod.
xiii. 91-^). Dionysius kept his poorer till his death thirty^
eight years bter (367). But it was well-nigh overthrown bdorc
he had fully grasped it. His defeat bdore Gda and his cons^
quent decision that both Gela and Camaiina should be evacuated
and Idt for the Carthaginians to plunder, were no doubt du<
to previous arrangement with the latter. His enemies in i\h
army, chiefly the hc^semen, reached Syracuse before him
plundered lis house, and horribly maltreated his wife. H*
came and took his vengeance, slaying and driving out his enemies
who established themsdves at Aetna (Diod. xiii. x 13). Ii
397 Syracuse had to stand a siege from the Carthaginians unde
Himilco, uriio took up his quarters at the Olympieum, but hi
troops in the marshes below suffered from pestilence, and i
masterly combined attack by land and sea by Dionysius end«
in his utter defeat. Dionysius, however, allowed him to depai
without further pressing his advantage. This revolution an^
the peace with the Carthaginians. confirmed Dionysius in th
possession of Syracuse, but of no great territory beyond, a
Leontini was again a separate dty. It left Syracuse the on
great Hellenic dty of Sidly, which, however enslaved at hoin<
was at least independent of the barbarian.. Dionysius was abli
like Gelo, though with less success and less honour, to take 1^
the r6l6 oii the diampion of Hdlas.
During the long tyranny of Dionysius the dty grew great]
in size, population and grandeur. In fact the free Greek ciii<
""' ' '^^munltles, in both Sicily and southern Italy, were sact
Syncuse; there the greatness and glory of the Grd
the West were concentrated. The nutss of the populi
da and Camarina in the disastrous year 405 had i
ting of Dionysius, taken refuge at Syracuse. Gd
J previous year recdved the fugitive inhabitaii
. (Agrigentum), which had been sacked by t|
SYRACUSE
999
Ctrthagiiiuuis. Syracuse thus absorbed tbree of tbe chief Greek
dties of Sicily. It received large accessions from some of the
Greek dties of southern Italy, from Hipponium on its west and
Caulooia on its east coast, both of which Dionysius captured in
3^9 B.C. There had also been an infhix of free citizens from
Rhegium. At the time of the Athenian siege Syracuse consisted
of two quarters— the island and the *• outer city " of Thucydides,
generally known as Achradina, and bounded by the sea on the
corth and east, with the adjoining suburbs of ApoUo Temeiutes
farther inland at the foot of the southern slopes of Epipolae
isd Tyche west of the north«west comer of Achradina. Diony-
sius largely extended the fortificatiotiis. The island (Ortygia)
had been provided with its own defences, converted, in fact, into
a separate stronghold, with a fort to serve specially as a magazine
of com, and with a citadel or acropolis which stood apart and
might be held as a last refuge. Dionysius, to make himself
perfectly safe, drove out a number of the old inhabitants and
turned the place into a barracks, he himself living in the citadel.
For any unpopularity he may have thus incurred be seems to
have made up by his great works for the defence of the city.
Profiting by the experience gained during the Athenian siege,
he included in his new lines the whole plateau of Epipolae, with
1 strong fortress at Euryelus, its apex on the west; the total
length of the outer lines (excluding the fortifications of the island)
h^s been calculated at about 12 m. The material (limestone)
lu quarried on the spot. Each quarter of the city had its own
disiinct defences, and Syracuse was now the most splendid
izA the best fortified of ail Greek dties. Its naval power, too^
«^ vastly increased; the docks were enlarged; and 300 new
v^zships were buih. 3esides the triremes, or vessels with three
hztiks of oars, we hear of quadriremes and quinqueremes with
fcir and five banks of oars— larger and taller and more massive
ships than had yet been used in Greek sea warfare. The fleet
ci Dionysius was the most powerful in the Mediterranean. It
VIS doubtless fear and hatred of Carthage, from which dty the
G.'ceks of Sidly had su£fered so much, that urged the Syracusans
to f^}^*-^ in the enormous expenditure which they must have
.zxuned under the rule of Dionyshis. Much, too, was done for
the beauty of the dty as well as for its strength and defence.
Several new temples were built, and gymnasia erected outside
ihc walls near the banks of the Anapus (Diod. xv. 13).
" Fastened by chsuns of adamant " was the boastful phrase
13 which Dionysius descnbed his empire; but under hb son, the
>ouoger Dionysius — an easy, good-natured, unpractical man —
a reaction set in amongst the restless citizens of Syracuse, which,
« h its vast and mixed populations, must have been full of
r^emects of turbulence and factioiL But the burdensome expendi-
ture of the late reign would be enough to account for & good deal
'.f ^sconteot. A remarkable man now comes to the front— Dion,
'^s friend and disdple of Plato— and for a time the trusted
pOLldcd adviser of his nephew Dionysius. Dion's idea seems to
hj.ve been to make Dionysius something like a constitutional
, and with this view he brought him Into contact with
PlaXow Xn went well for a time; but Dionysius had Philistus
ar <l others about him, who were opposed to any kind of liberal
rcfcrm, and the result was the banishment of Dion from Syracuse
a a dangerous innovator. Ten years afterwards, in 357, the
rxkle entered Achradina a victor, welcomed by the dtizens as
ft deliverer both of themselves and of the Greeks of Sicily
ftatnOy. A siege and blockade, with confused fighting and
^.tenate victory and defeat, and all the horrors of fire and
J^a^tcr, folbwed, till Dion made himself finally master of
.&e rn-i*t\»nA dty. Ortygia, provisions failing, was also soon
Arrrftdered. Dion's rule lasted only three years, for he perished
a 354 by the hand of a Syracusan assassin. It was, in fact,
aiKT an his piolcssions, little better than a military despotism.
7T>e tyrant's stronghold in the island was left standing.
Off what took place in Syracuse during the next ten years we
' bat litiic. The younger Dionysius came back and from
Zsbnd fdftiess again oppressed the dtizens; the plight of the
torn by faction and conflicts and plundered by foreign
pa, was so utterly wretched that all Greek life seemed on the
verge of eztbction (Hato, BpisI, vBi.). Sicily, too, was again
menaced by Carthage. Syracuse, in its extremity, asked help
from the mother<ity, Corinth; and now appears on the scene
one of the noblest figures in Greek history, Timoleon (q.v.). To
him Syracuse owed her deliverance from the younger Dionysius
and from Hicetas, who held the rest of Syracuse, and to him
both Syracuse and the Sicilian Greeks owed a decisive triumph
over Carthage and the safe possession of Sicily west of the river
Halycus, the largest portion of the island. From 343 to 337
he was supreme at Syracuse, with the hearty good will of the
dtizens. The younger Dionysius had been allowed to retire
to Corinth; his island fortress was destroyed and replaced by
a court of justice. Syracuse rose again out of her desolation-^
grass, it is said, grew in her streets— and, with an influx of a
multitude of new colonists from Greece and from towns of Sidly
and Italy, once more became a prosperous dty. Timoleon,
having accomplished his work, accepted the position of a
private citizen, though, practically, to the end of his fife he
was the ruler of the Syracusan people. After his death (337) a
splendid monument, with porticoes and gynmasia surroundhag
it, known as the Timoleontetmi, was raised at the public cost
to his honour.
In the interval of twenty years between the death of Timoleon
and the rise of Agathodes iq.v.) to power another revolution
at Syracuse transferred the govenmient to an oligarchy of 600
leading dtizens. All we know is the bare fact. It was shortly
after this revolution, in 3x7, that Agathodes with a body of
mercenaries from Campaiiia and a host of exiles from the Creek
dties, backed up by the Carthag^ian Hamilcar, who was in
friendly relations with the Syracusan oligarchy, became a tyrant
or despot of the dty, assuming subsequently, on the strength
of his successes against Carthage, the title of king. Syracuse
passed through another reign of terror; the new despot pro-
claimed himself the champion of popular government, and had
the- seiuite and the heads of the oligarchical party massacred
wholesale. He seems to have had popular manners, for a
unanimous vote of the people gave him absolute control over
the fortunes of Syracuse. His wars in Sicily and Africa left
him time to do something for the relief of the poorer dtizens
at the exixnse of the rich, as well as to erect new fortifications
and public buildings; and under his strong government Syracuse
seems to have been at least quiet and orderly. After his death
in 289 comes another miserable and obscure period of revolution
and despotism, in which Greek life was dying cut ; and but for
the brief ihtervention of Pyrrhus In 278 Syracuse, and indeed
all Sidly, would have fallen a prey to the Carthaginians.
A better time began under Hiero II., who had fought under
Pyrrhus and who rose from the rank of general of the Syracusan
army to be tyrant- king, as he came to be soon styled— about
270. During his reIgn of over fifty years, ending probably
in 216, Syracuse enjoyed tranquillity, and seems to have grown
greatly in wealth and population. Hiero's rule was kindly and
enlightened, combining good order with a fair share of liberty
and self-government. His financial legislation was careful and
considerate; his laws* as to the customs and the com tithes
were accepted and maintained under the Roman government,
and one of the many bad acts of the notorious Verres, according
to Cicero, was to set them aside (Cic. In Verr. u. 13, iii. 8).
It was a time, too, for great public works— works for defence at
the entrance of the Lesser Harbour between the island and
Achradina, and temples and gymnasia. Hiero throuj^ his
long reign was the sunch friend and ally of Rome in her struggles
with Carthage; but his paternal despotism, under which Greek
life and dviUzation at Syracuse had greatly flourished, iras
unfortunately succeeded by the rule of a man *•»• ^AtrJi^v
reversed his policy.
Hieronymus, the grandson of Hiero, thougl
with Carthage; he did not Jive, however, to t
had done, for he fell in a conspiracy whidi
provoked by his arrogance and cruelty. 1
* The laws of Hiero are often mentioned m-ith
•pccches against Verres.
JOO
SYRACUSE.
popular outbreak and more bloodshed; the conipinton were
pat to death and Hiero's family was murdered; whilst the
Carthaginian faction, under the pretence of delivering the dty
from its tyrants, got the upper hand and drew the citizens into
open defiance of Rome. M. Claudius Marcellus was then in
command of the Roman army in Sidly, and he threatened the
^acusans with attack unless they would get rid of Epicydes
and Hippocrates, the heads of the anti-Roman faction. Epicydes
did his best to stir up the citizens of Leontini against Rome and
the Roman party at Syracuse. Marcellus, therefore, struck his
first blow at Leontini, which was quickly stormed; and the tale
of the horrors of the sack was at once carried to Syracuse and
roused the anger of its population, who could not but sympathize
with their near neighbours, Greeks like themselves. The general
feeling was now against any negotiations with the Roman
general, and, putting themselves under Epicydes and Hippocrates,
Uiey closed their gates on him. Marcellus, after an unsuccessful
attempt to negotiate, began the siege in regular form (214 B.C.)
by both land and sea, establishing a camp on PoUchne, where
stood the old temple of Olympian Zeus; but he made hils chief
assault on the northern side and on the defences of Tychc,
particularly at the Hezapylum, the entrance facing Megara and
Leontini. His assaidt seawards was made mainly on Achradina,^
but the city was defended by a numerous soldiery and by
what seems to hive been still more formidable, the ingenious
contrivances of Archimedes, whose engines dealt havoc among
the Roman ships, and frustrated the attack on the fortifications
on the northern sbpes of Epipolae (Li v. xxiv. 34). MarccUtis
had recoiirse to a blockade, but Carthaginian vessels from time
to time contrived to throw in supplies. At length treachery
b^an to work within. Information was given him. in the spring
of 3X2 (two years from the commencement of the siege) that
the Syracusans were celebrating a great festival to Artemis;
making use of this opportunity, he forced the Hexapylum
entrance by night and established himself in Tyche and on the
heights of Epipolae. The strong fortress of Eurydus held out
for a time, but, being now isolated, it soon had to surrender.
The " outer " and the " inner " city of Thucydides still held
out, whilst a Carthaginian fleet was moored off Achradina and
Carthaginian troops were encamped on the spot. But a pesti-
lence broke out in the autumn of 2x2, which swept them clean
away, and thinned the Roman ranks. The ships sailed away to
Carthage; on their way back to Syracuse with supplies they
could not get beyond Cape Pachynus owing to adverse winds,
and they were confronted by a Roman fleet. All hope for the city
being now at an end, the Syracusans threw themselves on the
mercy of Marcellus; but Achradina and the island siill held out
for a brief space under the Syracusan mercenaries, till one of
their officers, a Spaniard, betrayed the latter position to the
enemy, and at the same time Achradina was carried and
taken. Marcellus gave the city up to plunder (liv. zzv. 31),
and the art treasures in which it was so rich^many of the choicest
of them, no doubt — were conveyed to Rome. Archimedes
perished in the confusion of the sack while he was calmly
Dursuing his studies (Liv. xxv. 31).
Syracuse was now simply one of the provmdal cities of Rome's
empire, and its history is henceforward merged in that of Sicily.
It retained much of its Greek character and many of its finest
pubUc buildings, even after the havoc wrought by Marcellus.
Its importance and historic associations naturally marked it
out as the residence of the Roman praetor or governor of Sicily.
Cicero often speaks of it as a particularly splendid and beautiful
city, as still in his own day the seat of art and culture {Tusc.
v. 66; De deor. nat.m. 81; De rep. i. 3i), and in his speeches*
against Verres (iv. 52, 53) he gives an elaborate description
of its four quarters (Achradina, Neapolis, Tyche, the island).
It seems to have suffered in the civil wars at the hands of Sextus
Pompeius, the son of the triumvir, who for a short time was
master of Sicily; to repair the mischief, new settlers were sent
^ This statement made by Polyinus (viti. 5) it almost incredihle.
Livy'i account of the tiege. too. is full of topographical difficulties
(Lupus, 314 aqq.).
by Augustus in ai bx., aad established in the island and in
the immediately adjoining part of Achradina (Strabo vL 270).
It was he who probably constructed the amphitheatre. Tadtus,
in a passing piention of it {Ann. ziiL 49), says that permission
was granted to the Syracusans under. Nero to exceed the pre-
scribed ntunber of gladiators in their shows. Caligula restored
its decayed walls and some of its famous temples (Suetonius.
Caiig. a x). In the 4th century it is named by the poet Ausonius
in his Ordo nMUum Kr6tiiw, chiefly, perhaps, on the strength
of its historic memories. In 665 Heradius Constans fixed his
capital here, but owing to his oppressive government was
assassinated in 668. Syracuse has been a place of comparatively
little ixnportance since the year 878, when it was destroyed by
the Saracens under Ibrahim ibn Ahmad.
Archaeology. — The medieval and modem town of S>Tacuse
(with the exception of a new quarter which has sprung up since
the construction of the railway between the station and the
island) is confined to the island. This contains the remains
of two Doric temples. The older, belonging probably to the
beginning of the 6th century B.C., appears, from an inscription
on the uppermost step, to have been dedicated to Apollo. It
was a peripteral hexastyle, and must have had at least nineteen
columns at the sides; the portion excavated shows that its total
width is 74i ft., the width of the cella 38I ft., the lower diameter
of the columns 6^ ft. The other temple, into which the cathedral
was built in A.o. 640, is to be dated after 440 B.C. It was a
peripteral hexastyle of thirty-six columns, with a total length
of x6o| ft. and a total breadth of 72 ft.; the columns have a
lower diameter of 5 J ft., and the intcr-columniation is 13 1 ft.
It is generally regarded as the temple of Athena.
Near the west coast .of the island is thb famous fountain of
Arethusa.* According to the legend, the nymph Arethusa
was changed into the fountain by Artemis to deliver her from
the pursuit of the river-god Alpheus (9.9.); and the spring, which
was fresh until an earthquake broke the barrier and let in the
salt water, was supposed to be actually connected with the river.
There are interesting remains of medieval architecture in the
dosely built town with its narrow streets; the bcautiTul i4lh-
century windows of the Palazzo Montalto may be especially
noticed, and also the I3th-cent\u7 CastcOo Mainace at the
southern extremity of the island. The town also contains the
archaeological museum, which, under the direction of Pro-
fessor Orsi, is now the best arranged in the island. The dis-
coveries of recent years in the south-eastern portion ot Sicily,
including especially th? objects found in Sicel and Greek ceme-
teries, may be studied here. ""The isthmus connecting the island
with the mainland, which was defended by strong fortifications
erected by Charles Y. and Philip II. (now demolished), docs
not occupy the site of the molfc erected in the 6th or 7th century
B.C., which may be recognized as ha^og run due north from the
north point of the island to the mainland near the ferry ol
S. Lucia.' The Little Harbour was thus in origin merely a rccc-ss
of the Great Harbour; and it was probably Gelo who was
responsible for making it an independent port, by establishing
the crossing to the island in its present position. On the land*
ward side of the new isthmus was the Agora, in which remain!
of a Qolonnade of the Roman period have been found. To th<
west ate the remains of an extensive building of the Romai
period, probably a paUestra with a small Odeum attiichod
To the W.N.W. is the so-called Piano del Fusco, an cxtcn5>i\'«
necropolis, in which over six hundred tombs, mostly of ih(
7th and 6th centuries B.C., have been found/ This nccropoli!
was included within the defensive wall of Dionysius, a portioi
of which, no less than i8| ft. thick, was found in 1886 runninj
diagonally across the new cemetery, and in 1903 an outwori
m front of it was discovered (P. Orsi, in Kotizie degli s«n{
19031 5i7)> £»t of this point it probably followed the ed|
The name Is a widespread Greek name for a spring.
* Lupus, Topographie von Syrakus, 26, 88, 91, Near the fctrv aH
a row of long psninei cuttings in the rock, which must be remaii
of the andent docks, each beihi; intended to take a ship.
* It is remarkable that hardly any tombs of the 5th century ]i.|
have come to light.
SYKACUSB
30X
cf the low CBtaoe ftbovto the matsh (Ihd uddht LyriBMlda)/
while in the other direction It ran N.N.W., making straff
for the western edge of the gorge known as the Portella del
FuscOp which was thus included within the fortifications, as it
would otherwise have afforded a means of access to the enemy.
Here the wall gained the top of the diffii which mark the southern
edge of the plateau of Epipolae, which from this point onwardu
it followed as far as Euryelus. ' The south wall of Epipolae,
considerable remains of which exist, shows traces of different
perioda in its construction, and was probably often restored.*
It is built of rectangular blocks of limestone generallv quarried
on the spot, about si ft. long, 3 ft. high and si ft. deep. The
thickness of the wall averages xo ft., but taries 3 or 4 ft. each
way. The point wliere the terrace of Epipolae narrows down
to a ridge about 60 yds. !Rnde, which is its only link with the
hills to the west, had thrice proved during the Athenian siege
to be the key to Syracuse. It now bears the ruins of a mighty
fortress, finer than that which defends the entrance to the
acropohs of Selinus — the most imposing, indeed, that has come
down to us from the Greek period— which there is no doubt is
the wffrk of Dionysius. The total length of the works is about
440 yds. In front of the castle proper are three ditches, the
innermost of which can be reached from the interior of the
castle by a complicated system of underground passages. The
front of the castle is fonned by five massive towers: behind
it are two walled courtyards, to the north of the easternmost
of which is the wefl-guarded main entrance to the plateau of
Epipolae (narrower minor entrances are to be seen on both
the north and the south sides) communicating by a bng under-
ground passage with the inner ditch in front of the castle proper.
That this point is to b? identified with Euiyclus is now generally
admitted (see Lupus, rxs-xay; Freeman, iii. 661). Earlier
writers make this the site of Labdalum, and put Euryelus
farther west; but Labdalum must be sou^t somewhat farther
east, near the northern edge of the plateau; in a point not visible
from the Athenian central fort (kujcXos) with a view over Megara
—not therefore in the comms^iding position of Dionyslus^s fort,
with an uninterrupted view on all sdcs. On the north side of
Epipolae the cliffs are somewhat more abrupt; here the wall,
of a similar construction to that on the south, is also traceable:
but here it is apparently all of one period. It is, indeed,
recorded by Diodorus that Dionysius built the north wall from
Euryelus to the Hexapylon in twenty days for a length of a| m.,
employing 60,000 peasants and 6000 yoke of oxen for the
transport of the blocks. Several smaller entrances are to be
seen in it, as in the south wall: among them one with a series of
inclined pkmcs cut in the rock, which leads to an ancient road
running south-east to the neighbourhood of the theatre. The
Hexapylon plays an important part in the Roman uoge of Syra-
cuse. It was the main entrance on the north, and no doubt
is to be identified with the so-called Scala Greca, where the
modem highroad leaves the plateau.' This highroad, which
probably follows an ancient line, may be reasonably held to mark
the west boundary of Tyche. Five hundred yards to the cast
of it an interesting postern was discovered in 1895 (Qrsi, in
Noiizie degli scan, X893, x68), at the point where the waQ
leaves the edge of the plateau and begins to follow the sea-coast;
and half a mile farther on wc reach the deep gorge of S. Bonagia
(more correctly Panagia), which here forms the boundary be-
tween Tyche and Achradina. The west boundary of Achradlna
is marked farther south by a perpendicular cutting in the rock,
00 the top of which a wall must have run (see above) . To the east
of the gorge the wall still follows the edge of low cliffs of the
coast, and continues to do so all along the east side of Achradina
'The date of the franncnt of eity wall {mroedbtely to the
Dortk-tMt of th« so-eallca palaestra is unccruin; it is therefore
doabtftti whether it can belong to this system of defences (Lupus,
pp. 308,331).
' As to the question whether it was finished at the time of the
Carthagisian invasion o( 397 B.C.. sec Freeman, iv. 55. In any case
it nratt have been completed by 385 B.C.
' H^ are ounctous caves in the rack, used for the worehip of
JCXVI 6
SB far as the Little Harbour. On'thb aide titon of It m very
scanty, as the seSHspray has eaten away the stone.
The most important buildings of which we have any remains
an to be found in the lower part of Achradina and in NeapoUSr
a quarter of which we hear fiist. in the time of Dion3rsiu8, and
which at first was confined to the lower ground below Temenites,
biit in Roman times included it and the theatre also (Lupus,
x68), though It did not extend beyond the theatre to the upper-
most pert d the plateau. la bwer Athxadina xemains of
Roman private bouses have been found, and it is in this
district that the early Christians^ constructed their catacombs.
Those which axe entered from near the xath-centnry church of
S« Gravaimi, situated near an ancient temple, are extensive and
important, and include the andent crypt of S. Mardanos, and
the type is different from that of the Roman catacombs, the
galleries being far larger (partly owing to the hardness of the
limestone in which they are excavated), and having drculac
chambers at the points of junction. In Neapolis, on the other
hand, public buildings predominate. The temple of ApoQo
Temenites has entirely disappeared, but the theatre, entirely
hewn in the rock, is still to be seeiL It is the largest in Sicily,
bebig about X46 yds. in diaineter, and having about sixty rows
of seats; the eleven lower tlexs were originally covered with
marble. Each of the nine cunei bore a xume: the inscriptions of
five of them, still preserved on tho rock, are in honour of Zens,
Heracles, King Hiero II., his wife Fhilistis, and his daughter-
in-law Nereis. Of the stage nothing but cuttings in the rock
for foundations are visible. The situation is well chosen, com-
manding a splendid view, over the Great Harbour. Not far
off to the south-east is the amphitheatre, probably erected by
Augustus when he founded a colony at Syracuse; it is partly
cut in the rock and partly built. It is inferior in size only to
the Colosseum and the amphitheatres of Capua and Verona,
measuring about 153 by X30 yds. over all: the arena is 76 by
43 yds. To the west of the amphitheatre is the foundation of
the great altar erected by Hiero U. (Diod. xvi. 83), 217 yds.
long by 24 wide, and about 6 yds. in heighL To the iu»th-
west of the theatre a winding road ascends through the rock,
with comparatively late tomb chambers on each side of it. In
this district arc seen hundreds of small niches cut in the rock,
as a rule about 3 ft. sqxiare and a few inches deep, which served
for containing inscriptions or reliefs, sometimes of a sepulchral
character, but sometimes relating to the cult of a divinity.
Many of them are also found in the quarries (Orsi, in Notitie
dcgli scaitit 1904, 277). Both the districts just described also
contain huge quarries, the famous Lautumiae (from Gr. Xoar ,
stone, and rcfictr, to cut; hence XaroAila, quarry) of Syracuse,
over xoo ft. deep and of great extent (though through the
collapse of the pillars supporting the tmdermiacd rock they
have become still larger than they were in ancient times). They
are now overgrown witb liuutiant vegetatioxL The upper
plateau (Achradina, Tyche, Epipolae itaeU) is now largely
cultivated at the east exul, less ao at the west end. It is
traversed by the subterranean aqueducts by which the dty was
supplied* (see Aqueoucis), and by a few andent roads, but
contains ptactically no remains of andent buildingai Cuttings
in the rock for the foundations of such are xiumerous rovnd the
south edge of Temenites and Achradina, and are to be seen at
various points near the dty walL But otherwise the dis-
appearance of the edifices of andent Syracuse is most stiiking.
We have already seen that immediately outside Lower
Neapolis on the south the marshes of Lysimelda begin, which
proved fatal to more than one besieging force. They aie
traversed by the Anapus, with its tributary the Cyane, the
latter famous for the papyrus planted by the Arabs, which hexe
alone in Europe grows wild in the stream. To the south of the
Anapus is the hiU of Folichoe, on which stood the OlympidttiD,
attributed on stylistic grounds to 581 B.C. t* ^ .... .^
* St Paul tarried at Syracuse three days on
(Acts xxviii. 12).
• A lante Pcsenroir of the Creek period exist
railway tutioo (Nptitie de^i scavi, 1904. 980).
302
SYRACUSE
cohnnof, of which two ate sHD staadiag, ane ftbout >i ft. in
height and 6 f C in kywer diameter: its kngth is estimated at
197 Um its breadth at 66} ft. (Oxsi, in Monumtnti da Unui,
1903, jdiL 369). The hill was frequently occuined in attacks
on Syracuse by the besieging force. It b not, however^
defeasible in the rear: henc4 Dionysius's success against the
Carthaginians. The hill of Dascon is to be sought a trifle to
the sottthreast, to the aouth of the mouth of the Anapus, on the
edge of the Great Harbour, at the Punta CaderinL From this
point southwards the shore of the Great Harbour, previously
low and marshy, begins to rise, until the rocky promontory of
Piemmyrium is reached, which closes it on the south. Here
Sicel tombs have been found, in some of which it appears
that the Athenian dead were hastily buried (Freeman iii.
365, n. i), while a colossal tomb, attributable also to the time
of the Athenian invasion, was found there in 1899.
See A. Holm and F. S. and C. Cavallari, Topogirafia arektoUtgica
di Siracusa (Palermo. 1S83), or the more handy German tianslatioa
by B. L4Jpus, Topographic von Syrakus (Stiassbunr, 1887); P. Orsi.
in AUi del eongr<sso ai scieme sUrrickt, v. 181 (Rome* 1904). and
in Notme dedii scam, passim ; E. Mauccri, Siratusa (Palermo. 1904) ;
J. FQhrerand V.Schuluc, " DicaltchristlichenGrabst&ttenSianiens,'*
Jahrhuch des k. d. arch. JnsL; ErganzungsLeft, vii. 17 ^q*
(Berlin, 1907). In the hills to the west of Syracuse many Sicel
villages must have existed ; cemeteries of the second and third period
have been found at Pantalica 15 m. to the north-west, with the ruins
of the habiuiion of the chief of the tribe, and of the second at
Casfiibile, 10 m. S.SW. (see Orsi in Mmumenli del Lincei (1899)
be. 33. 146). (E.A.F.;T.Air
SYRACUSE,- a city and the county-scat of Onondaga county,
New York, U.S.A., situated at the southern end of Onondaga
Lake, about 75 m. E. of Rochester and about 150 m. W. of
Albany. Pop. (1880), 51,792; (1890), 88,143; (1900), 108,374,
of whom 23,757 were forclgn-bom (including 7865 German,
5717 Irish, 2393 English Canadian and 2383 English) and
1034 were negroes; (1910, census), 137.249- Area (1906),
16-62 sq. m. Syracuse is served by the New York Central &
Hudson River, the West Shore, and the Delaware, Lackawanna
& Western railways, by the Erie Canal and the Oswego Canal,
which joins the Erie within the city limits, and by several
electric inter-urban lines. The city is built on high ground in an
amphitheatre of hills surrounding the lake, which is a beautiful
body of clear water, 5 m. long by z) m. broad at its widest
point. Of the residential streets, James Street, in the north-
eastern part of the city, is the most attractive. Salina Street
is the principal business thoroughfare. The park system com-
prises more than fifty parks and squares, with a total area of
378 acres. The largest and most noteworthy are Burnet park
(about roo acres), on high land in the western part of the city,
Lincoln park, occupying a heavily wooded ridge in the east,
and Schiller, Kirk and Eraser parks. A boulevard runs along
the shore of the lake. A fine water-supply controlled by the
city is obtained from Skaneatcles Lake, 18 m. distant, by a
gravity system which cost $5,000,000; and the city has an
intercepting sewer system.
Among the most noteworthy churches of Sjrracuse" are the
Roman Catholic cathedral of the Immaculate Conception —
Syracuse became the see of a Roman Catholic bishop in 1887
— and St Paul's Protestant Episcopal, the first Presbyterian,
first Methodist Episcopal, Dutch Reformed and May Memorial
(Unitarian) churches, the last erected in memory of Samuel
Joseph May (i 797-1871), a famous anti-slavery leader, pastor
of the church in 1845-1868, and author of Some RecoUectums
€f Our AtUiSiaury Confiici (1873). Among the public btiild-
fngs are the Federal Building, the Onondaga county court-
house, costing $1,500,000 and containing a law library of
15,000 vols., the city-hall, the Central high school, a fine
building erected at a cost of $400,000, the North high school
($300,000), and the public library (Carnegie) with 60,000
volumes in 1908 and housing the Museum of Fine Arts (1897),
aho.
Among the hospitals and charitable institutions are the Syracuse
hospital (1873) for tnfectioui diseases, the Hospital of the Good
Shepherd (1873), ^^ Syracuse homoeopathic hospital (1805), the
"- - ■ • • 1 «ld chSidiea (tSSy), St Mary's infant
.Syracuse hospital for
ami natemity haephal (1900) nndcr tM Sislen of Charity. St
Joseph's hospital (1869) under Sistets of the Third Ofdcr <rf Sc
Francis, the Syracuse home for aged women (1852). Onondaga
county orphan asylum (private; 1841). and two other orphan
asylums controlled by the Sisters of Chanty, and the state institu-
tion for feeble-minded children (1896). The University block (an
oRk» building owned by Syracuae* University), the Union Buildine*
the Onondaga county savings bank and the Syracuse savings
bank ane among the most notable business structures; and the
Onondaga, the Vanderbilt House and the Yates and St Cloud
hotels are the principal hotels. In Jamesville, about 6 m. south, is
the Onondaga penitentiaiy. Adjacent to the city is Oa|c«ood
cemetery, overlooking the lake; and north-west of the city are the
state fair grounds, with extensive exhibition halts and bams, where
the anaualfairsof the New York State Agricultural Society are held.
Six miles aouth of the city is the Ononds»a Indian teseriratioa,
the present capital of the " Six Nations." The city has an annual
carnival and a musical festival.
Syracuse University, whose campus (of 100 acres) in the
south-east part of the city coounands a fine view of the lake, is
a co-educational institution largely under Methodist Episcopal
control, but not sectarian, which in 1908-1909 had 359 instruc-
tors and 3205 students (1336 in the college of liberal arts; 189
in the summer school; 62 in the library school; 933 in the college
of fine arts; 147 in the college of medicine; 179 in the college
of law; 401 in the college of applied science; and 78 in the
teachers* college). The university was opened in 187 1, when
the faculty and students of Genesee College (1850) removed
from Lima (New York) to Syracuse— a court-ruling made it
impossible for the corporation to remove; in 187a the Geneva
medical college (1835) removed to Syracuse and became a.
college of the university. The courses in library economy
(college of liberal arts) are particularly well known. The
university library (about 80,000 bound volumes and 40,000
pamphlets) includes (since 1887) the collection of the German
historian, Leopold von Ranke. There are seventeen buildings,
among which the Holden observatory, the John Crouse memorial
college (of fine arts), the hall of languages, the Lyman Smith
college of applied science, the Lyman hall of natural history,
the Bowne hall of chemistry, and the Carnegie library, are
the most notable. There are a large gymnasium and a stadium
of re-enforced concrete for athletic contests, capable of seating
20,000 people and one of the largest athletic fields in the world.
The plant of the university in 1909 was valued at $3,193,128,
and in 1908-1909 its productive funds amounted to alx>ut
$2,000,000 and its income from all sources was about $784,000.
Other educational institutions are the Syracuse Teachers*
training school, Christian Brothers' academy (Reman Catho-
lic), St John's Catholic academy, Travis preparatory school
(non-sectarian), and at Manlius (pop. 19x0, 13 14), a suburb,
St John's military academy (Protestant Episcopal, 1869).
The Onondaga Historical Association was organized in 1862,
and after 21 years of inactivity was reorganized in 1892; it
occupies its own building; its committee on natural science
developed (1896) into the Onondaga academy of science.
Several educational journals are published at Syracuse. There
are three daily newspapers, the Post-Standard {Standard^
1829; Post, 1894; consolidated, 1899, Republican), Journal
(1839; dkily since 1844, Republican, and Evening Herald (1877),
Independent).
The government is that of all cities of the second class in
New York s^ate, with an elective mayor and other important
officers and a single-chambered city council.
Power from Niagara Falls is used by factories in the city, and
the manufactures are extensive and greatly diversified. In 1905
the aggregate capital of the city's manufacturing industries was
$38,740,651, and the value of its factory products was $34,833,751,
31*3% more than in 1900. The principal products in 1905 were:
men's and women's clothing (8^,537.494. of which $3,082,052
represented men's clothing), loundiy and machine<shop products,
of which agricultural im^ements and machinery constituted the
im]>ortant products were automobiles and tewing machines,
hosiery and knit goods, candles, furniture, flour, crockery, and canned
goods (especially mince-meat).
Syracuse was long the principal seat of the salt industry in America.
SYR-DARYA
303
The Onoodaia nk depoilCfl were mendonbd In' the jMinial of th«^
French Jcwit Lemoyae u carty as 1653, and before the War of
Udependenoe the Indians marketed Onondaga salt at Albany and
Quebec. In 1788 the sute undertook, by treaty with the Ooondant
lodiaiis, to care for the aak sprinss and manage them for the benefit
of both the whites and the Indians. In 1795. by another treaty,
the «ace acquired for $1000, to be supplefnented by an annual
payment oC $700 and 150 bushels of salt, the salt springs and land
about them €Overii« about 10 sq. m. In 1797 the cute leased the
laads, the leseecs paying a royalty of 4 cents per bushel and being
forbidden to thun more than 60 cenu per bushel. The state sank
eeUs and built and ouintttned tanks from which brine was delivered
to ItseeM. During 161^1634 a royalty of 12^ penU was charged
to ruse funds for buikUnc canals (a rebate' being granted m the
last three years covering the entire amount of the royalty for these
years). During 1834-1&46 the royalty was 6 eenU, and between 1846
and iteS it femained stationaiy at one cent. In 1898 the sUte
ordered the sale of the aak lands, because the revenues were less than
the camenae of keeping up the works; but state ownership was main-
Uined until 1908, when the last of the'lands were sold and the office
of sopcrinicndent of salt lands, created in 179?. was abolished.
Until 1840 only boiled salt was manufaaured: in that year the solar
prxesa was introduced. The annual production, which amounted
to lootooo bushels in 1804, reached its h^hest point in 1862 (9.055.874
buthela, of which 1^3,022 bushels were solar.and 7.070.853 boiled).
The development of the Michigan salt deposits and (after 1880) of the
deposits in Wyoming. Genesee and Livingston counties in New York
caused a rapid decline in the Onondai^ product. In 1876 both
processes yielded together only S.391.677 busheb. and in 1896 only
2.806.600 bushels. The salt deposits at Syracuse had, however, laid
the basis for another industry, the manufacture of soda-ash, which
has grown to important proportions. At the village of Solvay
(pop. 190S. $196), adjoining Syracuse on the lake shore, are the
Utwtu works for the nroduction of Boda^aah in the world, giving
cnploynient to more tnan 3000 hands.
The Syractse region became known to Europeans through
h% salt deposits. Until several years after the close of the
War of Independence, however, there was no settlement.
Ephraim Wcbstler, who built a trading-post near the mouth
of Onondaga Creek in 1786, was the first white settler. About
1788-1789 small companies began to visit the place every
summer to work the salt deposits. In 1796-1797 there was a
permanent settlement known as Webster's Landing, and in
1797 a settlement was begun at Salina, a short disunce to the
north on the lake shore. Geddes, another "salt settlement/'
was founded in 1803. In 1800 " the landing " received the name
''Bogardus's Comers," from the proprietor of a local inn.
Between 1800 and 1805 a dozen families settled here, and in the
latter year a grist mill, the fhst manufacturing establishment,
was built on Onondaga Creek. A sawmill was built in the
foUowing year. In 1804 the state government, which had
assumed control of the saltfields, sold to Abraham Walton of
Albany, for $6550, some 250 acres, embracing the district now
occupied by Syracuse's business centre, to secure money for
the construction of a public road. During the succeeding years
the name of the place was frequently changed. It was called
Milan in 1809, South Salina in 1809-1814, Cossitt's Comers
in 1814-1817, and Cossitt in 1817-1824- In 1824 a post office
was established, and as there was another office of that same
name in the sute, the name was again changed, the present
name being adopted. The village was incorporated in 1825,
Salina being incorporated independently at the same time.
tn the meantime the settlement had been growing rapidly.
In 1818 Joshua Forman bought sn interest in the Walton tract,
had the village platted, and became the " founder " of the city.
The first newspaper, the Onondaga CatetU, was established in
1823; and in 1825 the completion of the Erie Canal opened a
new era of prosperity. In 1827 Syracuse became the county-
seat of Onondaga county. In 1847 Salina was united to
Syracuse, and the city was chartered. Gcddcs was annexed in
i836. Syracuse has been the meeting-place of some historically
important political conventions; that of 1847, in which occurred
the split between the " Bambumcr " and *' Hunker " factions of
the Democratic party, began the Free Soil movement in the
uate. The strong anti-slavery sentiment here manifested
itself in 1851 In the famous " Jerry rescue," one of the most
significant episodes foUowing the enactment of the Fugitive
Sbve Law of 1850; Samud J. May, pastor of the Unitarian
chuith, and acveMecn others, airested for assisting in the rescue,
were never. brought to trial, although May and two others
publicly admitted that thev had taken part in the rescue^ and
announced that they would contest the constitutionality ol the
Fugitive SUve Law, if they were tried.
See Carroll E. Smith, Pumeer Times in Onondaga County (Syracuse^
1904).
. STR-DARTA (Gr. and Lat. /«Mrl»; Arab. Sk^uk or Sikm),
a river of Asia, flowing into the Sea of Aral, ^d having a length
of 1500 m. and a drainage area of about 320,000 sq. ra. Its
beadstream is the Naryn, which rises in the heart of the Tian-
sban complex south of Lake Is^yk-kul, on the southern slope
(12,000 ft.) of the Terskei Ala-Un. After ite union with
another mountain stream, the Barskaun, it flows W.S.W.
at 11,000 to 10,000 ft. above the sea, in a barren longitudinal
valley between the Terskei Ala>tau and the foothills of the
Kokshal-tau. On entering a ^d narrow gorge in the south-
west continuation of the Terskei Ala-tau it receives the name
of Naryn. Within this gorge it descends some 4000 ft.; Fort
Narynsk, 20 m. below the confluence of the Great and the Little
Naryn, is only 6800 ft. above the sea. Here the river enters a
broad valley— formerly the bottom of an alpine lake — and flows
past the ruins of Fort Kurtka, for 90 m. westward, as a stream
some 50 yds. wide and from 3 to 11 ft. deep. Its waters are
utilized by the Kirghiz for irrigating their cornfields, which
contrast strangely with the barren aspect of the lofty treeless
mounuins. The At-bash, a large mountain stream, joins the
Naryn at the head of this valley and the Alabuga or Arpa at
its lower end, both from the left. Before reaching the low*
lands the Naryn cuts its way through three ridges which
separate the valley of Kurtka from that of Ferghana, and
docs so by a series of wild gorges and open valleys (170 in.)»
representing the bottoms of old lakes; the valleys of the Togua*
torau, 2000 ft. lower than Kurtka, and the Ketmen-tube are
both cultivated by the Kirghiz. Taking a wide sweep towards
the north, the river enters Ferghana— also the bottom of an
immense lake— where, after receiving the KaraKlarya (Black
River) near Namangan, it assumes the name of Syr-^arya.'
The Kani-darya is a large stream rising on the northern spurs
of the Alai Mountains. As it deflects the Naryn towards the
west, the natives look upon it as the chief branch of the Ssrr-
darya, but its volume is much smaller. At the confluence the
Syr is 1440 ft. above sea-leveL
The waters of the Syr-darya and its tributaries"are in this part of
its course laqcely drained away for irrigation. It is to the Sjt
that Ferghana is indebted for its high, if somewhat exa^f^tcdr
rq>utc in Central Asia as a rich garden and granary; atics like
Khokand, Marghilan and Namangan, and more than 800,000
inhabitants of the former khanate of Khokand. subsist by its water*.
Notwithstanding this drain upon it, the Syr could be easily navigated,
were it not for the Bigovat rapids at Iriar, at the lower end of the
valley, where the river pierces the Mogol-tau.
On issuing fnom this gorge the Syr enters the Aral depression, and
flows for 850 ra. in a nortn-westcriy and northerly direction Mort
reaching the Sea of Aral. On this section it is navigated by steamers.
Between the Irjar rapids and Baildyr-turgai (where it bends north)
the river flows along the base of the subsidiary ranges which flank
the Chotkal Mountains on the north-west, and receives from the
longitudinal valleys of these alpine tracts a series of tributaries
(the Angren. the Chirchik, the Ketes). which in their lo»*er courses
fertiHae the wide plains of teess on the right bank of the Syr.
Some 50 m. bekw Chinaz (770 ft. above sca-lcvcl) the SjT bends
northwards, but resumes its north-westerly course 150 m. farther
down, following with remarkable persistency the edge of the loess.
Its low banks, overgrown with reeds and rendered uninhabitable
in summer by clouds of mosquitoes, are inundated for 20 m. on both
sides when the snows begin to melt. These inundations prevent the
moving sands of the Kyzyl-kum desert from approaching the Syr;
below Perovsk. however, the steppe docs gain the upper hand. Down
to Perovsk the river rolls its muddy yellow waters, at the rate
of 3 to 5 m. an hour, in a channel 300 to 600 yds. wide and 3 to |
fathoms deep; at Perovsk iu vertical section is 8220 sq. ft., and
3 1 2.500 cub. ft. of water are discharged per second. The Arys and
the Bugun are the only tributaries worthy of notice along this part of
its course: the other streams which descend from the iCara-tau fad
to reach the river. The Kirghiz rear numerous herds of «'••*<• ""^
* Syr and darya both signify " river." In two difle
30+
SYR-DARYA
■beep in the valley of the Arys, while lower down, as far as Julek,
the leiQchis carry on agriculture. All this applies of course only to
the nght bank; on the left the moisture is absorbed by the hot winds
which cross tlw Kyzyl-kum sands towards the river. The dryness
of the atmosphere has a marked effect upon the Syr when it ^ts
below Julek, the Kara-kum sands beibg then on its right. Ten miles
below "movsk the river traverses a marshjr defiressioo (the bottom
of a lake not yet fully dried up), where it divides into two branches —
the Jaman-darya and the Kara-uzyak. The latter spreads out into
marshes and ponds, from which it again issues to jom the fonner at
Karamakchi, after a course of 80 m. The main arm, owing to its
shallowness and sinuosity, is very difficult to navigate, and the
difficulty is increased by the rapidity of the current and the want of
fuel. Between Kazalinsk and the Sea of Aral (158 ft.) navigation
becomes somewhat easier, except for the last 10 m., where the river
divides into three shalk>w branches before entering the " Blue Sea.'*
AU three have at their mouths sandy bars with only 3 ft. of
water.
Two former right-hand tributaries of the Syr— the Chu and the
Sary-su— now disappear in the sands some 60 m. before reaching it.
The Chu, which is 600 m. in length, rises in the Tian-shan south-west
of Lake Issyk-kul, and as the Kasbkar fk>ws towardsLake Is$yk<kul,
but a few miles before reaching that lake turns suddenly to the north-
west, enters under the name of Chu the narrow gorge of Buam, and,
piercing the snow clad Kunghei Ala-tau, emerges on its northern
slope, having descended from 5500 ft. to less than 2000 in a distance
of not more than 50 m. In thb part of its course it receives from the
right the Kebin, whose high valley eauals in size that of the upper
Rnone. It then flows north-westwards through the \a\\ey of Pish"
pek. and, avoiding the Muyun-kum sands, describes a wide curve
to the north before finally taking a western direction. Numberless
streams fiow towards it from the snow<lad Alexander Mountains,
but they are for the most part lost in the sands before reaching it.
The Taias, 170 m. long, formerly an affluent of the Chu, which rises
in the highest parts of that range, pierces the Cha-archa Mountains,
and, flowing past Aulie-ata on the south border of the Muyun-kum,
alters the ^t lake of Kara-kul 6q m. from the Chu. The Chu ter-
minates in the Sauroal-kul group of lakes, 60 m. from the Syr.
Another elongated grouj^ of lakes— the Uzun-kul— near the above,
receives the Sary-su, which has a length of nearly 570 m. and flows
ra.|Mdly in a narrow channel along the western edge of the northern
Famine Steppe (Bekpak-dala).
The delta of the Syr begins at Perovsk, whence it sends a branch
to the south-west, the Jany-darya (New River), which formerly
reached the south-eastern corner of the Sea of Aral, very near to
the mouth of the Amu-daiya. The Kirghiz affirm that a canal dug
for irrigation by the Kara-kalpaks gave origin to this river. It had,
however, but a temporary existence. A dam erected by the people
of Khokand at Ak-mechet (PeroVsk) caused its disappearance, and
the Russians found nothing but a dry bed in 1820. When the dam
was removed the Jany-darya a^ain reappeared, but it faikxl to reach
the Sea of Aral; in 1853 it terminated in Lake Kuchka-dcnghiz, after
a course of 250 m.jalT traces of its bed were then lost in the sand.
Five centuries ago, m the time of Timur, the Mongol prince of Samar-
kand, the Janyndarya brought the waters of the Syr to the Daukara
lakes, close by the present mouth of the Amu. The scries of old
river-beds in the Kyzyl-kum, which are still seen above Perovsk,
indicates that the Syr had a constant tendency to seek a channel
to the south-west, and that its present delta is but a vestige of what
it was once. At a still more remote period this delta probably
comprised all the space between the Kara-tau and the Nura-tau in
Samarkand ; and the scries of elongated lakes at the base of the Nura-
tau — the Tuz-kanch and Bogdan-ata lakes — represent an old branch
of the delta of the Syr which probably joined the Zarafdian before
reaching the Amu. The cause of this immense chai\ge is sim(>ly
the rapid desiccation of all the northern and central parts of Asia,
due to the fact that we are now living in the later phase of the
Laaistrine period, which has followed the Glacial period. The
extension of the Caspian Sea as far as the Sary-kam>'8h lakes during
the post-Pliocene period and the extcn^on of the Sea of Aral at least
100 m. to the cast of its present position are both proved by the
existence of post-Pliocene marine dcpoats. (P. A. K.; J. T. Bs.)
' STR-DARYA, or Sys-Dariinsk, a. province of Russian
Turkestan, lying on both sides of the Syr-dar>-a river, from
its embouchure in the Sea of Aral up to KJiojcnt, where it issues
from the mountain region of the Tian-shan. The province
IS bounded N. by the provinces of Turgai, Akroolinsk and
Semipalatinsk; E. by Scmiiyechcnsk; S. by Ferghana, Zarafshan,
Bokhara and Khiva; and W. by KJiiva and the Sea of Aral.
Its area (166,000 sq. m.), its population (over a million and a
half) and the city of Tashkent make it the most important
province of Russian Turkestan.
The south-eastern boundary runs along the Chotkal Mountains
(14.000 fL), which separate the river Chotkal from the river Naryn,
and )<Mn the Alexander Mountains on the cast. A scries of short
chains, such as the Talas-tau and Ala-tau, fringe the above
on the north-west^ and oocopy the soutiiFeast of the province.
The snow-clad summits of the Talas-tau reach 14.000 to 15.000 ft.
in altitude, and immense glaciers -occur about Manas Mountain.
This range seems to run from west-south-west to cast-
north-east; the other flanking chains have a doddedly south*
westeriy dir^on, and are much lower, the outlying ruigee
having rather the character of broad plateaus above aooo ft.
in altitude, niiere the Kirghiz find excellent pasture-grounds.
Some of them, such as the Kazyk-art, rise isolated from
the steppe. The Kara-tau is quite separate from the preceding
and runs at right angles to them— that is, from north-west to south-
east. It belongs therefore to another series of upheavals prevalent
in western Asia, to which Richthofcn has given the name of the
" Kara-tau series." Its length is about 270 m., and its averaze
altitude about 5000 ft., rising at some points to 6000 and 7000 ft.
It separates the river Syr*darya from the river Chu, and its gentle
south-western slope contains the sources of a multitude of streams
which water the oasis around the town <^ Turkestan.
The mountainous tracts occupy, however, only a small part of
Syr-darya, the rest is steppe. Three different areas must be dis-
tinguished — the Kyzyl-kum, the Muyun-kum or Ak-kum. and the
Kara-kum. The Kyzyl-kum (red sands) sands stretch between the
Amu and the Syr, and have a gradual ascent from 160 ft. at the Sea
of Aral to 1500 and 2000 ft. in the south-^ast. They are partly
shifting, partly stationary (see Kara-Kom). In the wesa the sur^
face is overlaid with remains of Aral-Caspian deposits. As the
Tian-shan is approached the steppe assumes another character :
a thick sheet 01 loess girdles the- foothills and forms the fertile soil
to which Turkestan is mdebted for its productive fields and gardens.
The Kara-kum sands, situated ttorth.cast of the Sea of Aral, are
manifestly a former bottom of the lake.
In the east the steppe yields »me vegetation and is visited by the
Kirghiz. The barkhans do not shift, being covered with CoUiiomtm,
Tamarix, H^oxyion anemodendfmt* The Muyun-kum or Ak-kum
steppe, between the Kara-tau Mountains and the Chu River, is Quite
unmhabited, except in the loess re^on at the northern base of the
mountains. (For the geological history of the western Tian-shan
ranges see Tian-SuanT) Throughout the Cretaceous and earlier
Tertiary periods the lowlands of Syr-darya were under the sea.
The character of the region during the post-Pliocene period remains
unsettled. A girdle of loos, varying m width from 30 to 50 m.,
endrdes all the mountain tracts, increasing. in extent in Bokhara
and at the k>wor end of the valley of Ferghana. It seems ccruin
that during the L.acustrine period the Caspian was connected by a
narrow gun uith the Aral basin, which was then much larger, while
another inland sea-of great dimensions covered the present Baikal
basin, and at an eariicr period may have been connected with the
Aral basin. Recent traces of these basins are found in the
Tnc chief river of the province Is the Syr-darya iq.v.). The frontier
touches the eastern shore of the Sea of Aral, and numerous small
lakes, mostly salt, are scattered over the sandy nbin& A few lakes
of alpine character occur in the valleys of the hilly tracts.
The climate of the province varies greatly in its different parts.
It is most severe in the mountain region; and in the lowlands it is
very hot and dry. As a whole, the westeni parts of the Tian-shan
receive but little precipitation, and are therefore very poor in forests.
In the lowlands the heat of the dry summer is almost insupportabh*.
the thermometer rising to iii* F. in the shade; the winter is severe
in the lower parts of the province, where the Syr remains frozen
for three months. The average ycariy temperature at Tashkent
and Kazalindc respectively is 58'3* and 46'4* (January, 29** and I2*;
July, 77*5'* a«<l 78")-
The terraces of loess mentioned above are alone available for
cultivation, and accordingly less than 1 % (o-8) of the total area of
the province is under crops, the remainder being either quite barren
(57 %) or pasture land (43 %). In the few cases where cultivaiioa
is pos»ble. it is carried to great perfection owing to a highly developed
lystem of irrigation — two crops being gathered every year. Wheat
and bariey come first, then peas, millet and lentils, which are grown
in the autumn. Rye and oats are grown only about Kazalinsk.
Cotton is cultivated. Gardening u gnatly developed. Sericidtura
is an important source of income. Livestock breeding is largely
pursued, not only by the nomads but by the settled population.
Fishing is prosecuted to some extent on the lower Syr. Timber and
firewood are exceedingly dear.
The population of the proyinee was estimated in 1906 as 1 .779.000.
It is comparatively dense in certain parts. The Kussians number
barely 8500, if the military be left out of account. Kirghiz ($0%)
and Sarts (q-8*/o) are the main elements of the population, with
Uzbegs (4\J%)f and a feir Jews, Tajiks. Tatars, Persians and
Hindus. The predominant occupatimis of the Sarts, Usbcgs.
Tajiks and settled Kirghiz are agriculture and rardening. but the
Kirghiz lead chiefly a nomadic pastoral life. Manufactures are
represented by cotton mills, tanneries and distilleries; but a great
variety of petty industries are practised in the towns and villages.
Syr-darya is divided into ux districts, the chief towns of
vhkh are Tashkent, Aulie-ata, Kazalin&k, Perovsk. Chimkent
and Amu^ary-a- (P. A. K. ; J. T. Bs.) ^
SYRIA.
30s
trUlU the name given generally to the land lying between
the easternmost shore of the Levantine Gulf and a natural
inland boundary formed in part by the Middle Euphrates and
in part by the western edge of the Hatndd or desert
steppe, llie northern limit is the Tauric system of
mountains, and the southern limit the edge of the Sinaitic
desert. This long strip extends, therefore^ for about 400 m.
between 38^ and 31° N. lat. with a mean breadth of about
ISO m. Since, however, the steppe edge on the *ast is
somewhat indefinite, some early Moslem and other geographers
have included all the Ham^ in Syria, making of the latter
a blunt'beaded triangle with a base some 7O0 m. h>ng zesting
00 the north Arabian Nefud. But Strabo, PUny and Ptolemy,
as well as the better Moslem geographers, drew the eastern
only under the Craeco-Roaian adminittration * th«t we
find a definite district known as Syria, and that was at first
restriaed tQ the Orootea baain. Later, all that we understand
by Syria came to be «o known oflSdally to the Romans. and
Byzantines; but the only ptovmce called simply Syria, without
qualification, remained in the Orontes valley. Under the
present Ottoman distribution " Syria " is the province of Sham
or Damascus, eidusive of the vilayeU of A]q>po and Beirut
and the sanjaks of Lebanon and Jerusalem, which all ffdl in
what' is called Syria is the wider geographical sense.
Taking Syria as the strip limited by the sea, the edge of the
Hamad, the Taurus and the Sinaitic desert, we have a remark-
ably homogeneous geographical area with very obvious natural
boundaries; but these, for various reasons,, have proved very
frontier obliquely from the Golf of Akeba to Rakka (Raqqa)
on Euphrates, and thus placed the Hamftd in Arabia.
TIrt name Syria is not found in the Hebrew original of the
Scriptures; but it was used by the %ptuagint to transbte Aram.
Homer knows only * Apipoi, but Herodotus speaks of " Syrians "
as identical with Assyrians, the latter being, he thinks, a " bar-
barian ** form, and he ap(^cs the name very widely to indude,
cf. north Cappadodans (" White Syrians " of Pteria). Syria,
however, is probably the Babylonian Suri, used of a north
Eophrateaa district, and a word distinct from Assyria.
GcoetaUy the ethnic term, Syrians, came to mean .in
antiquity the Semiti peoples domiciled outside the . Meso-
potamiAn and Arabian areas: but neither in pre^reek
nor In Greek times had the word Syria any very precise
geographical significance, various lands, which we include
WKkr it, retaining their distinctive status, e.g. Commagene
(Kummukh), Cyrrhestica, Phoenicia, Palestine, &c It is
ineffective in history, especially on the south and east. Syria
happens to lie on the line of least resistance for communication
between the early subtroplc seats of civilization in the Nile
and Euphrates valleys and the civilizations of Europe. Its
eastern boundary is in great part a steppe, which breeds popula*
tioUj but, unable to lunirish increase, sends it over its boundaries
in a constant stream of migratiotL Consequently south Palestine
has been continuously " Arabized "; and indeed the whole of
Syria has been characterized by racial and religious fusions, and
by civilisation of a nngulariy syncretic and derived kind, of
which the andent Phoenician is a sufBdent example.
The wfface configuntion of almost all the stria is remarkably
uniform. With the exception of the extreme north (Commagene)^
which b abut off by a barrier of hills and belongs toforetan hydro-
graphic systems, the whole country is rouehly a gaoie-ahapcd
plateau, falling north and south from a medial ridge, w^'^
Syria at about its central point. This gable is ti^
and its two king dopes are defined by bocdering n
3o6 SYRIA
which run acixMS k« medial ridge ; the main Syrian attvams are those
which follow those slopes between the chains, thus running: either
north or south for most of their courses, and only finding their way
to the western sea by making sharp elbows at the last. Syrian
orography, therefore, ts simple, being composed of nothing bat these
two parallel systems. That on the wn^ which rises behind the
Mediterranean littoral, springs from Taurus in the well-aiTorested
Mt Aroanus (Giaour Dagh), and is continued by Jebel Bereket and
J. Akhma, over the northern end of whkh runs a single easy pass
(Beiian) to the north-east angle of the Levant coast (AlexandretU),
while at the southern end is a ^ap through which the Orontes turns
sharply to the sea. South of this, with J. Akra (the Bald Mountain,
anc. Cdsius) begins a further section, rounded and fi^rassy, called
T. Ansariya, whkh presently springs up into a high cham ol^Jurassic
limestone with basaltk: intrusions, whose peaks rise to io,ooo ft.
and whose passes do not fall under 6000 ft. Here it is called J.
al-Gharbi or Libnan (see Lebanon)* Thereafter it broadens out
an^ becomes the hi^ table-land of Galilee, Samaria and Judaea,
and gradually sinks into the plateau of nortlLSinaL
f The eastern system springs from the Tauric offshoot (Kurd
fe
Dagh, &c.), whkh shuts off the Commagenian basins, and as the
triple chain of J. al Ala, it defines the Orontes valley on the east.
Like its western parallel it springs up presently into a higher chain
and is known as J. es-Sharki. or Anti-Libanus, which culminates
in a knot on the south, to which is given the name J. ea-Sheikh,
or Hermon (8000 ft.)* Thereafter it loses much of iu distinctive
character, but may be traced southwards in J. Ijauran and the
Moabitc hills to Horeb and the Midianite Mountains of the Hebrews,
(Which run into Arabia.
the main rivers;
!. in the lacustrine
opposite directions.
'Ast (see Orontes)
the sea, flow some
on the north. The
lUs to reach the sea.
It a smaller stream,
urse). whose source
of the Onontes on a
tain system to the
ese rivers and their
I to be considered
strip (the ancient
(2) The shut-off
district in the extreme north, ancient Commagcne, whkh consisu
of two basins divided by a low ridge ruiming from south to north.
These basins belong, one to the Ciucian river-system, and the other
to the Euphratean. In the first lay the ancient Germankta (mod.
Marash); m the second the ancient Samosata (mod. Samsat), whose
importance has now passed to Adiaman. The southern boundary
of both Ixuins is a low chain whkh leaves the Euphrates near the
mouth of the Sajur tributary, and runs west towards Mt Amanus,
to whkh it is linked by a sill whereon stopd the ancient fortified palace
of Samal (Sinjerii; see HiTxrfBs). (3) A succession of oases lying
east of the eastern mountain system on the edge of the steppe, and
ted by short local streams. Of these the most important are. from
north to south, (a) the Saltpan of Jcbeil, fed by the North al-Dahab :
(b) the oases of Kinnesrin and Aleppo, fed by the North Kuwaik ; and
(c) that of Sham or Damascus, fed by streams from Hermon, of whkh
the fiarada (Abana) and the Awaj (Pharpar) are the chief.
Since these streams had in no case onginaHy easy access to the
•ea, we naturally find lakes on their course, and several of them
terminate in tracts of more or less pemuincnt inundation. Those
whkh occur on the course of the principal rivers are described under
OiONTES and Jordan. The others, which terminate streanu, are
the Bahr cl-Ateiba. whkh receives the waters of Damascus: the Mat,
into whkh the Kuwaik fkxws bdow Kinnesrin; and the Ak DetAz,
or Bahrat Antakia. the ancient Lake of Antioch, whkh collects the
waters of the Kara Su and Afrio, the southward from the watershed
whkh shuts off Commaffene. The last-named lake has now been
almost entirely dried up by the cutting of a channel, whkh conducts
its feeders directly to the Orontes.
* Grafogy.^-Geoloffkally. Syria belongs to two distinct regions of
the eartn's crust, the northern and smaller portwn lying within the
great belt of folding of southern Europe and central Asia, and the
eouthem and larger portion belonging to the Indo-African area,
whkh, though often faulted, is usually free from crumpling.
According to M. Blanckenhorn the boundary between the two regions
runs from the Bay of Jebelc alonr the Afrin River to Aintab, and
thence to the Euphrates above Bir«ine. In the southern r^on.
whkh is by far the better known, the oldest rocks aregramtea,
crystalline schists and other rocks of Archean aspect. These are
overiakl by conglomerates, tuffs, sandstones and arkoees, whkh
perhapa dQ not all belong to the same period. In Palestine a lime-
stone containing Carboniferous 1**^ '* ' ' * '* the midst of the
sandstone series, and here thr '%tely auceecded
bv limestones with Hippurf 'longing to the
Upper Cretaceoua Farther : beds are met
with, bat of very limited e ai
sreater part of Pklesthie and rocks of the same period (atm Mt
Lebanon, the Casius Mons, Ac, farther north. NummulUk lime-
stone (Eocene) overiies the Cretaceous in Philistta, and north of
Lebanon Eocene and Miocene deposits cover the greater part of the
country. The Pliocene deixmts ar« not very widely spread «nd are
generally of fresh-water origin excepting near the coaat, but marine
Pliocene beds have been found at el Forklus in the Palmyra desert.
Tebel Hauran, east of the Jordan, is capped by a great sheet of
basalt; and many other basalt flows are found, especially in tlie
oountiy north of Lebanon. They are mostly true felspar basaltn,
but a few contain nepheline in addition to the felspar. In most
cases the eruptions appear to be of Pliocene or later oate, but in the
ex' "- ' '*-- '--raU seems to belong to the Miocene
nee of mud eruptions in some of the
dng feature in die structure of Syria
«. or narrow depressions formed by
these Graben is that of the Jordan,
tea lies in a similar depression, whkh
u. continuation of the Jordan-Acaba
tn formed the depressions is certainly
lai :he Cretaceous beds and probably
be r the Tertiary era. Little is known
of within the folded belt, and include*
th ains. The rocks do not appear to
dil , se farther south, but the Devooiaa
is believed to be represented. The fokls are approximately parallel
to, those of the Taurus, and geologically these mountains may bt
said to belong to that range.^
Qimaie. — ^Within historic times the climate, and with it the .pro*
ductivity of the country, cannot have greatly changed ; at most the
precipitation may have been greater, the area under wood having
been more extensive. Except for lerusakra, we have hardly
any accurate meteorological observations; there the mean annual
temperature isabout 63 'f.; in Beirut it is about 68^ The rainfall
in ferusalem is 36*22 in., in Beirut 21*66. The heat at Damascus
and Aleppo is great, the cooling winds being kept off by the moun*
tains. Frost and snow are occasionally experienced among the
mountains and on the inland plateausr bat never along the coasL
Even the steppe exhibits great contrasts of temperature; there tb*
rainfall is slight and the air exceedingly exhilarating and healthy.
The sky is continuously cloudless from the beginning of May toll
about toe end of October; during the summer months the nights at
a rule are dewy, except in the desert. Rain is brought by the west
wind ; the north-west wind, which blows often, moderates the heat.
On the other hand, an ozoneless east wind (sirocc<^ is occasionally
experienced— «spccially daring the second half of May and before
the beginning of the rainy season— ^whkh has a prejudicial influence
on both animal and vegetable life. On the whole the climate of
Syria— if the Jordan vaUey and the moister distrkts are excepted—
is not unhealthy, though mtermittent fevers are not uncommon ta
some places.
The general character of the country, resultant on these conditioni^
varies according to elevation and latitude. Owing to the h^h
barrier whkh shuts off almost all Syria from the sea. and precipiute*
vapours mainly on the western sloqpe, little of tne land is highly
productive without irrigation, except the narrow littoral strip whkB
was the ancient Phoenicia, and the small deltas, such as that of
Latakia (^Laodkoa). Palestine, being less shut in and enjoying •
comparatively large general rainfall, would be still a land *^ flowinf
with milk and honey " had its forests not been destroyed, and thS
terracing, whkh used to bold uf) soil on the highlands, been r^ain^
tained. As it is, it has veiy fertile patches of lowland, such as tbo
plains of Esdcaclon and Jaffa; apd the high levels, largely composed
of disintegrated igneous rcx:k, west of Jordan, over which the sea^
iwnd carries the rains, offer excellent corn-land. In the extreme
south Palestine begins to be affected by the Arabian dryness. For
the rest, Syria needs irrijpMio»; and since neither of its larger riwvfsk
Orontes or Jordan, flowing as these do in deep beds, is of much
use for this purpose, all ^lul-Syria. except the lacustrine t
region mainly occupied by pastures, and yielding only thin cereal
crops. Commagene. where not roeky, and the cHstrict lying iSomg
the southward drains from its <fivide (anc CyrrhesHco), is in better
case, enjoying perennial streams whkh can be utiliaed, and the
fringe of the Taurk rainfall. The latter dies away over the pbina
east and south-east of Aleppo, making them afford good sprin|^
pasture, whkh has attracted the nonuidt from farther south* but
bdow the laritude of Rakka-Homa thin steppe begins, and quickly
degenerates into sheer desert broken only by a chain of poor oasesL
south of a low ridge running from Anti-Lebanon to Euphrates. Of
these the principal are Kanetem and Tadmor (Palmyra), throogh
whkh passes the trade from Damascus to the east. In ancient timea,
■ See O. Fraas. A*s dem Orient, pt. ii. (Stuttgart. 1878): C. Diener,
IMnnmi (Vienna. 1886); M. Blanckenhom, BeHrdp wur GtoUtt*
Synetu (Cassd. 1890. &c.), and CrmuUOge det^ Gailotu m"^ ^>m-
luduchen Ceographte von Nord-Syrien (Beriin, i8qi). See also the
references under Palestine. A summary by M. Blanckenhora
win be found in lionatssekr. /. mrtxhafU. BrxhUetsung
pp. 189-101 (Berlin, 1904).
svria
307
Vp to the Arab invuien, tbt MrtlMro part of the caBteni ptetean,
between Ovootes and Euphmtet, «a« made habitable and even
fertile by atoiate of raiofali. It supported a large number of villages
and anvul towns, whose remains are remarkably well preserved, and
•tin serve to shelter a sparse pastoral popubtion.
Ficfa.—Two distinct floral regions meet in Syria, that of the
Mediterranean and that of the west Aaiaa stqipe-Und. The first,
to be aeen on the coast and the western slopes of tba highlands,
is characterized by a number of eveigreen ihrubs with small leathery
leawa, and by qaicUy-flowcring ^>ring plants. On the lowest
levcU the aoutWn forms, the P^cus sjcomonu and the date-palm,
appear, and incMaae in the direction of Egypt (sec Lvbamom and
PALBsnm). The steppe re^n, whoae flan begins to appear Mst
of the western ridge, is dtstmguished by the vanccy of its species,
the dry and thorny character of its shrubs, and great poverty in
trees. Betwwn these regions the gi«atly depressed valley of Jordan
shows a aubcropic vegetation. Anong cultivated treesi the olive
is at home throttghout Syria, except on the steppe: the mulberry is
planted extensively in the lower Lebanon; and all sorts of fruit-
trees flourish in irrigated gardens, especially on the Phoenician coast,
m the ndestinian pbin, in the oasis of Damascus, artd in the Buka^.
The BBaitt cereal legiona are the Hauran, and the plains of Antbch
•ad Cbnunasene; and the tower western slppes 01 the coast range
are lai«ly devoted to the culture, of tobacco On the northern
inhnd downs liquorice grows wild and m collected by the pcasanu
and sent down to Alexandretta.
/«nMi.<*-Th(e mammals of Syra are rather sharply to be dbtfai-
pushed into those whkh lanee only north of Mt Cacrocl, and
those whkh pass that limit. The firat class includes the isabelline
bear, badger, pole-cat, ermine, rob and fallow deer, wild ass, Syrian
•qairrd, poucned marmoset, gerbill and leopard The second class
win be found under Palbstinb; and it includes a sob-dafs which
is not fnttnd ontstde lUestine at all. In the latter are the coney,
jerboa, aeveral small rodents and the ibex. Only hi the Jordan
vaOcnr do Intniaona from the Ethiopk: region appear Elsewhere
the ujtms are Palaeaictic with intrusions from the cast: but the
hmgth of the Syrian strip and the variety of its surface relief admit
of conmdemble difference in the species inhabiting different districts.
The Lebanon and the hills of north Calilee offer die greatest number
of
Fofmtaiian,—T^ actual pgpulation of Syria is over 3,000,000,
qvead over a superficial area of about 600,000 sq. m., i.t. about
5} pcxsons to the square mile. But this poor average is largely
accounted for by the inclusion of the almost uninhabited northern
stcppeJand; and those parts of Syria, which are settled, show
a much higher rate. Phoenicia and the Lebanon have the
densest poptilation, over 70 to the square mile, while Palestine, the
north part of the western plateau east of Jordan, the oases of
Damascus and Aleppo, the Orontes valley, and pans of Com-
nageae, arc well peopled. The bulk of the population, so far
as nee goes, is of the Semitic family, and at bottom Anuna^n
with a large admixture of immignuit Arabian bloody which
is constantly being reinforced, and a comparatively small strain
of Hebrew blood. The latter appears mainly in Palestine, and
has of late been considerably strengthened by immigration of
European Jews, who have almost doubled the population of
Jentsalcm, and settled upon several fertile spots throughout
the Holy Land. But how far these, or the indigenous " Jews "
are of Hebvew rather than of Aramaean origin is impossible to
say. We only know that, as kmg ago as the xst centuiy B.c
true Hebrew bU>od was becoming rare, and that a vast propor-
tion of the Jews of Roman times were Hebraized Aramaeans,
whose assimilation into the Jewish oommunity did not date
much further bach than the Maccabaean age.
Among this Semitic folk is to be observed a great variety of
immigrant stocks, settled in isolated patches, which have (tone
much to contaminate the nusses about them. In the extreme
north (Commagene) the highlands are almost entirely held by
Kurds who entered from beyond Euphrates in comparatively
recent times. Kurds live upon the Commagenian pbiins here
and there, as also in the northern trans-Euphratean plains.
Among them in the Tauras and Amanus, and outnumbering
then on the plains, are Armenian communities, the remains of
the Rupenian invasion of the loth century a.d. (see Zeitum).
These are found as far south as the plain of Antioch and the
basin of the Sajur. To the north ol Aleppo and Antioch live
remnants of pre«Anunaean stocks, nuxed with many half-settled
and settled Turkomans (Yuruks, Avshars, &c.) who came in
before the Mahommedan era, and here and there colonies of
recently imported Circassiaas. The latter are also settled
numerously to the west of Jordan. Mid-Syria shows a medley
of populations of more or less mixed origm, in large part alien,
for which see Drxjses; Makonites and Lebanon. In the
Phoenician coast towns are many Greeks (to be distinguished
from Orthodox Syrians, called also Greeks on account of creed).
In the steppe-laiid and m the southern trans- Jordanic districts
are numbers of true Arabs, mostly belonging to the great Anazeh
family, which has been coming northwards from Nejd in detach-
ments since the 13th centuiy. These are mainly nomadic, and
include offshoots of the great tribes of Ruala, Walad Ali, B.
Sokhr, Adwan and Bishr, the first two roaming mainly in the
north, the last two in Moab and Ammon. Ottoman Turks,
scattered gipsy communities, German settlers in north Pales-
tine, and all sorts of Europeans make up a heterogeneous and
incompatible population.
Religion.— Iht religious types also are strongly divergent.
The bulk of the population is Mahommedan; the Bedouins
have not much religion of any kind, but they profess Islam.
Beadtt orthodox Moslems there are also Shf ite sects, as well
as a number of rellgioiis communities whose doctrine is the out-
come of the process of fermentation that characterised the first
centuries of Islam. To this last dass belong the Ismailitcs
(Assassins), 9.9., Metawali, Nosahis, Ansarieh, and especially the
Druses (9.V.). In many cases it is obvious that the political
antipathy of the natives to the Arabs has foimd expression in
the formation of such sects. The Ansarieh, for instance, and
no doubt the Dniscs also, were originally survivals of the Syrian
population. The Jews are foimd mainly in the larger centres
of population. The Christians are an important element,
constituting probably as much as a fifth of the whole population;
the majority of them belong to the Orthodox Greek Cburch,
which has two patriarchs in Syria, at Antioch and Jerusalem.
CathoUcs — United Greeks, United Syrians and Maronitcsr— are
numerous. The mission of the American Presbyterian Church,
whkh has had its centre in Beirut for the kist sixty years, has
done much for Syria, especially in the spread of popular educa-
tion; numerous publications issue from its press, and its medical
school has been extremely beneficial. Tlie Catholic mission
has done very good work in wjiat relates to schools, institutes
and the diffusion of literature. The Christians constitute the
educated portion of the Syrian people; but the spirit of rivalry
has produced stimulative effects on the Mahommedans, who had
greatly fallen away from that zeal for knowledge whidi charac-
terized the earlier centuries of their faith.
Language,— -lYit language throtij^out southern and middle
Syria as high as Killis is Arabicf which has entirely ousted
Aramaic and Hebrew from common use, and tends to prevail
even over the speech of recent immigrants like the Circassians.
The last survivals of Aramaic are to be sought in certain remote
villages of Anti-Lebanon, and in theSyriac known to the clergy.
From the upper Sajur northwards Turkish prevails, even among
the Armenians; but many Kurdish communities retain their
own tongue.
Gcvtrnmcnt. — ^The political status of the cotmtiy is controlled
by the Ottoman Empire, of which Syria makes part, divided into
the vilayets of Aleppo, Sham or Syria (Danuucus), the Lebanon
{q,v.). and Beirut, and the separate sanjaks or mutessarifliks of
Zor and Jerusalem. Ottoman control is imperfect in Lebanon,
the Houran, and over the Armenian mountain region of Zcitun
and over the eastern steppe^lands, whose nomadic populations
can withdraw themselves out of reach. But cmisiderable
success has been achieved in inducing the Syrian Arabs to settle
and in supplying a counteracting influence to their unrest by
the establishment of agricultural colonies, «j. those of the
Circassians in Basban, Ammon and Moab.
Ctmmtmklmns are still very imperfect, but have been greatly
impTDvcd of late years. Railways run from Beirut to noms,
Hamah, Aleppo and Damascus (French), and to the latter also
from Haifa (Turkish). From the termination of the Damascus*
Mserib railway a line (the " Mecca railway ") has b*"^ **^ *-*
Ottoman enterprise east of Jordan to the southern *
and beyond, twom JaBtk a short line runs to Jer
3IO
SYRIAC LITERATURE
nuking the so-called '* emphatic " state. In the older Aramaic
dialects this is used exactly as the noun with prefixed article
is used in other languages; but in Syriac the emphatic state
has lost this special function of making the noun definite, and
has become simply the normal state of the- noun. The main
grammatical distinction between Syriac and all the west
Aramaic dialects is that in Syriac the ird person of the imperfect
(singular and plural) of the verb begins with n, but in west
Aramaic, as in the other Semitic languages, it begins with y.
When, in the 5th century A.D., owing to theological differences
the Syriac-u^g Christians became divided into Nestotians or
East Syrians and Jacobites (Monophysites) or West Syrians,
certain differences of pronimciation, chiefly in the vowels, began
to develop themselves. The East Syrians in most cases kept
the more primitive pronimdation: e.g. the old Semitic J with
them remained d, but with the Jacobites passed into d. One
very tangible difference appears in the fact that the name Jesus
was by the East Syrians written and pronounced IM, by the
West Syrians YeshiL
The Syriac alphabet, which derived its letters from forms
ultimately akin to those of the Old Hebrew and Phoenician
alphabets, has the same twenty-two letters as the Hebrew. And
as in Hebrew, the six letters bgdkptBXc aspirated when Imme-
diately preceded by any vowel sound. On the other hand, the
guttural letters affect the vowels much less than in Hebrew: their
chief effect is when final to change the preceding vowel, if other
than o or 4, into a, but even this is pot always the case. * The
vowels, which are ten in number (i.aCeIidoflu),were, as usual
in the Semitic languages, indicated only partially by the use of
consonants as vowel-letters ' and by means of certain diacritical
points, so long as Syriac remained a living language. But
about the time when it began to be supplanted by Arabic, two
systems of vowel-signs were invented, one for the West Syrians,
who borrowed the forms of Greek vowels, and the other more
elaborate for the East Syrians, who used combinations of dots.
Neither system completely differentiates long and short vowels;
the Nestorian scheme is the more satisfactory, though more
cumbrous.
Where the same root exists in Arabic, Syriac and Hebrew, its
fundamental consonants are usually the same in all three
languages. But letters belonging to the same group occasionally
interchange. As regards the dentals and sibilants there are one
or two rules which govern the interchange, in the manner of
a Grimm's Law. (i) Where Arabic has an ordinary dental,
Syriac and Hebrew have the same; but where Arabic has an
aspirated dental {e.g. /A), Syriac has an ordinary dental /, but
Hebrew has a sibilant (sh). (a) Hebrew has one more sibilant
than Arabic or Syriac: thus, as corresponding to s {samekh),
s (Hn) sh in Hebrew, Arabic has only s (jtUi) sK while Syriac has
a different pair s (sdmekk) sk Hebrew simdik is represented
by Ar. sin and Syr. sitnekk\ but Heb. On (Syr. simekk) is repre-
sented by Ar. sk, while Hcb. and Syr. sk is represented by Ar.
sin. As regards this crossing of s and sk, Arabic has with it
the other south Semitic language, Ethiopic: the evidence as to
the other north Semitic langiULge, Assyrian, is conflicting.
In vowel-sounds Syriac is clearly more primitive than Hebrew
(as pointed by the Massoretes),less so than Arabic. Tlius Ar.
and Syr. a is often thinned in Hebrew into i {i when accented),
as in the first syllable of Ar. qaUah^Syr. qaffil'^Heh. qUfH.
But the second syllable of the same word shows Syriac siding
with Hebrew against Arabic Again the primitive 4 of Arabic is
in the older (Nestorian) pronunciation of Syriac maintained,
while in Jacobite Syriac and in Hebrew it passes into fi: thus Ar.
qdfU Nestorian fdfit* Jacobite and Hebrew qdfU, Again Syriac |
' It may Indeed be remarked that Syriac, whir*- -* "•• I
more primitive in its sounds than Hebrew, Ghow«>
stage of weakening as regards the ^tturals: Or
forms it has subeututed Okf for initial ki, and
for the pretence of two guttuials in the sa
one of tnem to dUf. A much more advanc
is seen in some of the other dialects.
' With regard to this, Syriac has one
Hebrew, via. that final d is indkated not b<
maintains the diphthongs at and am, which in Hebrew have
usually passed into i and d.
The accent plays much less part in lengthening and altering
the vowels in Syriac than in Hebrew, but there are well-marked
cases of lengthening from this cause.
A few words nuy now be said about the thne main parts of
speech— pronouns, nouns and verbs.
r. Prmwtmi.— At fai the other Semitic languages, these stand
almott entirely outside the system of triliteral roots, being mainly
derived from ceruin demonstrative letters or particles. Each 01
the personal pronouns (except the 3rd plur.) exists in a longer and
a shorter form: the one is used as a nominative and is a separate
word, the other is attached to verbs and (in a slightly different form)
to nount to express the accusative or genitive. These pfonominaJ
suffixes arc of much the same form as in Hebrew, but produce
less change in the vowels of the words to v/hich they are attached.
Demonstrative adjectives and adverbs are formed by prefixing the
syllable kd («ecce, "behold") to other pronominal elements,
and interrogatives similariy by prefixing the interrogative syllable
ay; but there are other inteiro^tive pronouns. The relative
consists only of the letter d Ondedinablc) prefixed to words.
s. Nouns and Adjectives.— Ihe Syriac noun hat three state*—
the absolute (used chiefly in adjectival or participial predkates,
but also with numerals and negative^ in afhTrbial phrases, &c),
the construct (whicht as in Hebrew, must be immediately followed
by a genitive), and the emphatic (see above). There arc only two
genders and two numbers: the neuter gender Is entirely wanting,
and the dual number is not recognised m Syriac grammar, thou^
there are plain traces of it in the language. The lem. sing, ending
is absolute d, construct ath. emphatic td or Uha: thus the fem.
jf — -L- .•- _i '-"itical in form with the masc. sing. cmph.
1 —masc abs. t», const at, emph. i; fem.
a ph. dtkd. Syriac is not. like Arabic and
i le use of the construct for the ordinary
c r'e or possessive relation: for it has a pce-
F nesses "of." *' beloneing to." The noun
f n may be In the em|}hatic state or may (as
f n the noun it definite) have a pleonastic
8 i>f the king " is more commonly expmaed
b rih d'malSd than by bar mathd^ whereaa
t alone be permissible in Hebrew. And a
g f does not require the governing noun to
p as must be the case when the construct
tt Jie many respects where Syriac has gained
greater flexibility in sj^ntax than Hebrew.
3. Verbs. — ^The Syriac verb is remarkable for having entirdy
lost the original passive forms, such at In T^bic can be formed in
cverv conju^tion and in Hebrew are rej>re8cnted by the Pual and
Hophal. For these Syriac hat tubsatuted middle or xcflexiv«
forms with prefixed dk and a change in the last vowel. The timple
active eftal makes its passive eihq'tel; 'the intensive oo/fl/ malces
ethqaflai; and the causative aq^ makes etlagfal. The inflexion
of the verbs is, on the whole, more regular than in Hebrew: thus.
to take one instance, the yd jAur. fem. impf. negftdn corresponds
better to 3rd plur. masc. ne^'fun than docs the equivalent Hebrew
form ligtSlnd to yiqJ'liL But the most important peculiarity of
Syriac verbs is again in the 8i)herc of syntax, and shows the 1
progress towards flexibilit)r which we found in the nouns. Whereat
the Hebrew verb is devoid of real tenses, and ooly^ expreaaet an
action at completed or as in process without indk:ating time past,
present or future, Syriac has by the help of an auxiliary verb
constructed a set of tenses. Thus we have —
Prcs. qafd, " he killa^" " he is killing " (sometimes " he it about
to kill ").
Impf. qOlel «*& " he was killing."
Fut. neg(di, " he will kill."
Pf. or Aor. q'tal " he has killed " " he kflled."
Pfup. or Aor. q'fal wd, " he had kfllcd," " he killed."
The same progrett towardt flexibility in syntax it teen in the
copious supply of conjunctions ootsessed by Syriac. No doubt
the tendency towards a more flowing construction of sentences
was helped by the influence of Greek, whkrh has also supplied a
large stock of words to the Syriac vocabulary. (N. M.)
STRLAC LITERATURE.' By Syriac Is denoted the dialect
of Aramaic which, during the early centuries of the Christian
era, prevailed in Mesopotamia and the adjoining regions. The
literary use of Syriac by Christians had its first centre in Edcssa
(Syr. Crhai, modem Urfa), where, in all probability, the chief
vriac versions of the Bible were made. The use of the same
alea appears in the earliest Christian literature connected
' The sketch of the history of Syriac literature here pretented
based On Wright's great article in the 9th edition of the Ency.
BrU„ which was afterwards published separately under the title of
A ^kort History </ Syriac Literature (London. 1894).
SYRIAC LITERATURB
3"
witli such McMpotamian cities as NIflUs, Amid, Matdin, TMh«-
iUk and Seleucia-Ctcsiphon, as vreU as w«st of tbc Euphrates
at such centres as Mabbogh (Hierapolis) and Aleppa» nonhivaids
at Malatiah and Maiperkat and in the districts of- Lake Van and
Lake Urmia, and to Uw east and soutb-east of the Tigris in
many places which from the 5th century onwards were centres
of Nestorian Christianity within the Sasanian Emphe. In
Eycattno nnd western Syria, the home of pre-Christiaa Aranaic
dialects, the vernacular Semitic speecli had under Roman
dominion been replaced by Greek for official and literary pur-
posts. Appafently this state of things lasted till after the
Mabommedan conquest, for Barbebraeus' tdls us that it was
the caliph Walld 1. (a.d. 705-715) who, out of hatred to
Chrisiianity, replaced Greek by Arabic as the language of official
docomcnU at Damascus. Probably (as Duval suggeiu) the use
of Syiiac in these regions went hand hi hand with the spimd of
the raoBophysite doctrine, for the liturgies and formuh» of the
Jaoofaite Church were OMaposed in Syriac. Similariy the fpvcad
oi Nestorian doctrines throughout the western and south-
western regkms of the Peisian Empire was accompanied by the
ecdesiastlcal itse of a form of Syri&c which differed very slightly
kidee<lfirom that employed farther west by the Jacobites.
So far we have spoken only of the Christian use of Synac
Oiihc pagan Syriac literature which issued mainly from ^^arrtn,
a dty about one day's journey south of Edessa, not a single
example appears to have survived. Fmn Christian writem we
learn that ](|antn continued to be a seat of pagan worship and
cultnre down to and even later than the Mahonunedan era.
A native of the dty, Thftbit ibn l^urra, in a passage from a
Syriac work of Ids (now fost) quoted by Barhebraeus, * speaks of
the paganism of Qarrfin as distinguished by its steadfast resist-
ance to Christian propaganda. '* When many were subdued to
error through persecution, ofp* fatheis through God were stead-
fast and stood out manfully, and this blessed dty has never been
ddiled hy the error of Nanreth. " He goes on to attribute
the worlds science and dvllisaition to pagan inventors; but it
is not ^^itBS nAiether in this he is alluding specially to the culture
ef his own dty. Anyhow, it !s much to be regretted that no
Syriac writing from 9antn has survived.*
Syriac Ktcrature continued in fife from the sid to the 14th
oentury A.D., but after the Arab conquest it became an Increas-
higly aitifidal product, for Arabic gradually killed the vemtcular
use of Syriac
In the Bterature as it survives many different branches of
writing are represented — homilies in prose and verse, hymns,
exposition and commentary, liturgy, apocryphal legends,
UstoricBl rofaiance, hagiography and martyrok>gy, monastic
histoiy and biography, general histoty, dogmatics, pbik)6ophy
and scsenoe, eccledastical law, &c But the whole is d6mi-
sated by the theological and ecclesiastical interest. All
chid writers were bidbops, inferior dergy or monks, and
thdr readen Monged to the same dasses. When we put
aside one or two exceptionally fine pieces, like the hymn of
the soul in the apocryphal Acts of Thomas, the highest degree
of exccBeooe in style is perhaps attained in staightfor-
waxd Ustorical narrative— 4uch as the account of the Perso-
Roman War at the beginning of the 6th century by the author
who passes under ihenameof Joshua the Stylite, or by romancen
Eke him who wrote the romance of Julian; by biographers like
some of those who have written lives of saints, martyrs and
eminent divines; and by some eariy writers of homilies such as
Phik)xenus (in prose) and Isaac of Antioch (in verse). Nearly
sfl the best writers are characterised by t certain nalVe and
earnest piety which is attractive, and not infrequently dispUy
a force of moral indignation wldch arrests attention. These
X Ckmn. tjr^ ed. Bnins, p. iso^ ed. Bedjan, pi 115: dted by
Duval. UU, tyr\ p. J.
• Ckrou, syr., ed. BntntL pw 176, ed. BecQao, a 168. Thftbit was
the author of about 16 Syriac works, of which the majority tur>
vived in the 13th omtury, but all are now lost. Of his i«> Arabk:
treataaes a few at least survive; see Brackdmann, G$sckichle der
§nbuekm Liatmnft L 217 aeq. ^
> On this sabjes^ we espssfaOly Ow d ss n 's Jaa W a r mi S taH mut *
latter qaalitiea are even nmn apparent in poetiy than ia proae.
There $n indeed but few spedniens of Syriac verse which
exnibit high poetic quality; exo^t for a fairly copious and
occasionally skilful use of simile and metaphor, there is little of
soaring fana^nation in Syriac poets. On the other band there
is much efioctive rhetoric, and much skilful play of language.^
As was to be expected, the better qualities of style were more
often shown during the early centuries when the hmguago was
still a liMng speech. After it had been supplanted by Afabic
in the ordinaxy intercourse of hit its literary use was more and
more affected by Arabic words and constructiona, and its lree>
dom as n vehicle of thought wss much impaired. Nevcstbeless*
so late as the i jth century it was still an cfiective instrument
fai the hands of the most many-etded of Syriac aiithorsi the
eminent Barhebraeus.
For the general histoiy of cukum the woik of Syriac writess
as irandaton is, peihapa^ as important as any of their original
contributions to literatune. Bq^nning with the earliest veaicMit
of the BtUe, which seem to date from the and century aj>.,
the series comprises a great maaa of translations from Greek
eriginals---theo1ogi€sl, philosophical, legendary, historical and
sdentific In a fair number of caaes the Syiiac version hat
preserved to us the substance of a lost origbal text. Often*
moreover, the Syriat txanshition became m turn the parent of a
later Arabic venion. This was notably the case with some of
the Aristotelian writings, so that m this iidd, as in some others,
the Syriac writers handed on the torch of Greek thought to the
Arabs, by whom it was hi turn transmitted to medieval Europe
The early Syriac translations sre ui many cases so literai as to
do violence to the idiom of their own language; but this makes
them all the more valuable when we have to depend on them
for reconstructmg the original texts. The hiter translators use
greater freedom.* It was not from (Sreek only that translations
were made into Syriac Of transitions from PaUavI we have
such examples as the verskm of pscudo-Callisthenes' History of
Alexander, made to the 7th oentury from a Pahlavl verdon of the
Greek originaK-that of KalUah and Dimnak executed in the
6th oentury by the periodeut€s BOdh— and that of 5MM,
wiach dates from the 8th century; and in the late period of
Syriac literatuie, books were translated from AzsJiic toto Syriac
as wdl as vice vena.
All our historical sources support the view taken above that
Edessa, the capital of the kingdom which the Gredcs and
Romans called Osrhoene, was the earliest seat of Christianity in
Mesopotamia and the cradle of Syriac Htetature. But as
to the date and drcumstanccs of its evangehxation we have
little rdiable mformation. The wdl-known legend of the
correspondence of Abgar UkkSmS, king of Edessa, with
Christ and the mission of Adda! to Edessa immediatdy
after the Ascension was accepted as true by the historian
Eusebius (t54o) on the faith of a Syriac document pre-
served in the offidal archives of the dty. An amplified form of
the same stoiy is furnished by the Doctrine ofAddoi, an original
Syriac work which survives complete to a St Petersbuig MS.
of the 6th centuiy, and is also represented by frsgments to other
MSS. of the 5th and 6th centuries. This work wss probably
written at Edessa about the end of the 4th century. It adda
many new features to the shorter form of the story as given by
Eusebhis, among which is the noteworthy promise of Christ
about the impregnability of the dty-^" Thy dty shall be blessed
and no enemy shall ever henceforth obtato dominion over it. **
This is probably a later addition made to the legend at a time
when such facU as the capture of Edessa by Lusius
Quietus to 116 and its second capture and the destructkm of iu
kingdom by the Ronums to 2x6 had faded from memory.*
«Qn the mechanism of Syriac v«w, see Duval's admirable
section on ta Msie tyriaqae {LiU, iyr.*, p. 10 sqq.).
» Cf. Duval, op, ciL pw 303 seq^ .
•Cf. Tueront, Ori&s 4e r&^ drAiessa, p. fT
op. ciL p. 99, The above view is moie probable -
by F. C. Boriritt (JBoHy Easlem CkrisHonily, p. i.
knew ef Christ's promise as part of the letter to
posdy suppceaaed it as insoasMftcnt wkh Uatodcal
S»5
SYRIAC LITERATURE
But -virbether in its longer or its shorter form, the whole sanative
must be pronounced unhistoricaL In all probabifity the first
king of Osrhocne to adopt Christianity was Abgar IX., son of
Ma'na, who reigned from aj>. 179 to 2x4 or ax6, and the Legend
has confounded him with an earlier Abgar, also son of Ma'nfl,
who reigned first from B.a 4 to aj>. 7 and again from aj>. xj
to $0.^ A contemporary of Abgar IX. at Edessa was the famous
Bardai^in, himself a convert from heathenism, who was of
noble birth and a habitui of the Edessene court. It was no doubt
partly under his influence— also possibiy in part throu^ im-
pressions received by Abgar during his vi^t to Rome about
A.D. 302 — that the king's conversion took place. But
Christbnity must have reached Edessa some thirty to fifty
years earlier. Our oldest native historical document in Syriac
— ^the account of a severe flood which visited Edessa in Nov.
A.D. 20i^~mentions " the temple of the church of the Christians "
as overthrown by the flood. The foan of this notice shows,
as von Gutschmid and others have remarked, that Christianity
was not yet the religion of the state; but it must for some time
have had a home in Edessa. The same thing o seen from the
fact that the heresy of the Mardonites was alnady showing
itself in this district, for (in Tixeront's words) " heresies, in the
first centuries at least, only> sp/ead in already constituted
Christian commimities." And by sL skilful piecing together of
the date furnished by the oldest Syriac versions of the Bible—
Auch as the derivation of the Old Testament version from the
Jews, and the almost exclusive use of Tatian's Diatessaron as the
gospel of the Syriac Church down to the beginning of the 5th
century — F. C. Burkitt has shown it tx> be probable that the
preaching of Christianity at Edessa reaches back to the middle
of the 2nd century or even to about the year 135.'
The Syriac versions of the Bible are treated elsewhere (see
Bible) and may here be dismissed with a brief summary of
facts and opinions. The received Syriac Bible or Vulgate
(called the PSshi(t2 or " simple " version iiom the 9th century
onwards^) contains all the canonical books of the Old Tesu-
ment/ In the New Testament, 3 Peter, a and 3 John, Jude
and the Apocalypse were originally left out,, but Syriac versions
were made at a later time. The Peshitta version of the Old
Testament must have been originally made mainly by Jews,
of whom we know there were colonies in Mesopotamia in the 2nd
century. The tranabtion was executed eatirely from the
Hebrew> but unddrwent later revision which brought it more
into oonformity with the LXXrHhis to a greater degree in
aome books than in others. The Peshitta New Testament^
according to the convincing theory which at present holds the
field^^is not the oldest form of the Syriac version, at least as
tegards the Gdspels. From the beginning of the 3rd to the
beginning of the 5th century Tatian's Harmony 4>r Diatessaron
•"-whether originally compiled in Syriac, or compiled in Greek
and tzanslaled into Syriac— was the current form of gospel
IB the Syriac Church. The text of the Gospels underlying it
" represents the Greek text as read in ^me about aj>. 170."
Slightly hter was made the Old Syriac version of the separate
GMpela,. -which- survives in two ^S&r^the Curetonian and the
SiiMitio-:-tn t^do diQeriiig forms: .but this never obtained much
currency.. Its text "n^rvsentSy -where it differs from the
Diatessaxan, the Greek text as read in Antioch about aj>. 200."
Then at the beginning of the 5th century, by the efforts of the
' *See es^iediaUy Lip»ius» Die edffttnische Ahgar-Sagt (18S0),
and the brilliant analysis of the legend by A von Gutschmid in
Mim. de I'acad. implr. des Sciences dt St Pitersbourg, tome xxxv.
No. r. The above dates for the kin^* reigns are taacn from von
Gutschmid.
■ ' Incorporated in tha Chrvmtk, nf SJeisa (Hauler's edition,
> Early Eastern Ckristiantty, Lecture IT.
* See the explanation in Burkitt, opt, cif
* The MSSl which contain the Syri'
the reading of the text pass over' Chr
aod ta thrcaae of the Nestorians alf
aie qpoced by Apluaates.
* that of F.C Burkitt. Seeespet
fnm tkt Go9pd (Carabridce. if
(Cambcidge^ I904),afld the- above
'on of
miah,
books
aiions
vretke
masterful RabbOlft, who was bishop of Edeaaa from 4is«4xs to
435, a new version or recension of the Gospels was made axMl
incorporated in the Peshitta or Vulgate, the tise of the Diates-
saron being henceforth proscribed. RabbGl&'s text of the
Gospds " represents the Greek text as read In Antiech about
AJ>. 400." The history of the Peshitta rendering of the Acts and
Epistles is less dear; apparently the earliest Syrian writers
used a text somewhat different from that which aftcrwatdt
became the standard.'
Of the large number of Apocryphal books existing in Syriac*
the majority have been translated from Greek, one or two
(stich as Bar Sird or EccUsiasiicus) from Hebrew, while some
(like the DoOrine of Addai above referred to) axe original S3rriac
documents. Special mention may be made here of the tale of
Aht^r^-Hhe wise and virtuous secretary of Seimacherib, king of
Assyria— and of his wicked nephew N&dhin. This is the Syriac
version of a narrative which has had an extnofdinary vogue
in the world's literature. It is now known to have existed io
Aranoaic as far back as the 5th century b.c.^ appearing on Jewish
papyri which were lately discovered by the German mission to
Elephantine.* It appears to be traceable in its Gceek dress in
writings of the philosopher Democritus and the dramatist
Menander; it was certainly known to the author of Tobit
and perhaps to the author of Daniel; some would trace its
influence in the New Testament, in the parable of the
wicked servant and elsewhere; it was known to Mahomet
and is referred to in the Koran; H has been included among
the tales in the Arabian Nights; and it survives in a good
many versions ancient and modem. The old Syriac version,
which is to be found in a ntunber of MSS., was probably made
from an early Aramaic version, if not from the original itself
(which must surely have been Semitic). The Syriac has in turn
become the parent of the Arabic* Armenian and Ethiopic—
possibly also of the Greek and Slavonic versions."^
Another deeply interesting Syriac Apocryphon is the Afts oj
Judas Thomas (>.e. Judas the Twin), which is includ«l in the
coUecrion ot Apocryphal Acts of the Apcstkf.. Tl»Aeta of Thomas
isjiow generally recognized to be an original Syriac work (or
"novel," as Burkitt calls it), although b Greek version also
dxists. It seems to have, arisen in Gnostic, cirdcs, and its ten*
dency is whoUy in favour of ascetidsm and celibacy. Among
Its peculiarities is the fact that Judas Thonsas is regnrded as
the twin brother of Christ. The author has incorporated in
it the finest poem to be found in all, Syriac literature, the
famous Hymn of the Sotd. This depicts the journey d
the soul from heaven to earth, its life in the body,
and its final return to ibe heavenly home, under the figure
of. a Parthian prince who is sent from the co\ift of his parents
to the land of Egypt to fetch the serpent-guarded pead;
after a time of sloth and foigetfulness he fulfils hi* quest,
and returns triumphant and again puts on the heavenly robe.
According to Burkitt, the hymn roust have been composed
before the fall of the Arsacids and the commencement of
the Sasanian Empire i^ 224. It is plainly Gnostic and
may perhaps have been composed by Bardai$fto or his son
Harmonius.**
Among recent editions of Apocrypha in Syiyac may, be men-
tioned those of the Apocalypse of Baruch, the Epistle of Baruck,
^ For the later Monophystte versions, none of iR^ich attained
much popularityi tee Wn^ht's Syr, LU^ pp. 1^-17, and for the single
Ncstorian attempt at revision, ibid. p. 19.
• See the lists in Wright, op. ctt. pp. 5 seq. 2^-27, and Duval,
Liit. SyrJ ch. viii.
•See F. Nau, JHstoire H sagesse d'Akikar VAssyrien (Paxia.
r909). p. «88 vera.
**See eqxcially The Story of Ahikar from the Syriac, Arabic,
Armenian, Ethiopk, Creek and Slavonk Versions, by F. C. Cony-
beare, J. K. Harris and A. S. Lewis ^Caoibridge, 189S): and Nau.
op. cit. The latter has a very full bibliography. »
«» Of the Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles there is the wdl-known
edition and translation by Wnght (London. 1871) ; the Ads ef Judas
were recited by Bedian in the 3rd volume of Ada martyntm et
sanctorum (Paris, 189'): of the Hynn ^ the Soul there is a fresh
edition and translation by A. A. Bevan (Cambridge. 1897). See
4lso LcptniT \U in Bockict's Eart» £a*(0n CkrisHauUy.
SYRIAC LITBRATUJIE
313
aad tkt Ttatameni ef Adam by M. Kmosko (Gnffin's Pairohpa
Sjriaca, ycH. iL).
Lives of Baints and martyrs form a laigv group among Syiiac
books. Among iQch documents connected with the early history
of Edessa w have, besides the Doctrine of Addai^ certain martyr*
doms, those of ShaibSl and Barsamyft assigned to the reign of
Trajan, and those of Guxyfl and SbftmOn§ and of the Deacon
HabUbh mider Diocletian and Lidnius. All these documents,
hkc Addsi, belong probabfy to the and half of the 4th century,
and axe quite unrriiable in detail for the historian,^ though they
may thnrr some light on the conditions ef life at. Edeata under
Romaa government. % There are also accounts of martyrdoms
at SaaostU (Assemani, Ada Mart. iL 135-147), including
thai of St AzBzail recently publtshed by Mader (Paris, 190a).
Bat tlie great bidk of the Sjrriac martyrdoms have their scene
farther east, within the Peesian dominions.^
The life and writings of Bardai^ftn, " the last of the gnostics,"
and In some sense the father of Syriac literature and espedaily
of Syriac poetry, have been treated in a sepaiate article. The
Book of tk§ lams of tke Countries , which embodies his teaching,
was re-edited in 1907 by F.^Nau (this aIso^in,the..2nd volume^ of
Graffin*8/*fl<r«fofw).' ^'"" \ ' .
An early Syriac document,' probably of the^and or '3rd century,'
is the Letter of Mart son ofSerapioa^ which was edited by Ciireton
in his Spicilegium Syriacum, it is almost the only exception to
the rule that all surviving Syiiac literature is Chiistian. The
author is in sympathy with Christianity, but is himself an ad-
herent of the stoic philosophy.,^ His home appears to have been
atSamosSta.'
By the beginning of the 4th century much progress had been
made with the organiaation of the Christian church not only
within the Romaa district of Mesopotamia, but also to the east
and south-east within the Sasanian Empire, round such centres as
SdendsrCteaiphon on the Tigris (near Baghdad), KarkA d6-Beth
Sadkh (biodem Rezkuk) and Beth LSpftt or GundeshabhSr (in
the modem province of Luristan).* The adoption of Christiaoity
by Constantine as the official religion of the Roman Empire had
an unfortunate effect on the position of the Christians in Persia.
They were naturally suspected of qrmpathizing with the Roman
enemies rather than with their own Persian rulers. Accordingly
when Sapor II. (3x0-379) dedaied war on Rome about 337, there
ensued almost immediately a somewhat violent persecution of
the Persian Christians, which continued in varying degrees for
about 40 years. One result d this and later persecutions of the
same kind has been to enrich Syriac literature with a long series
<^ Ads of Persum Martyrs^ wfaidi, although in their existing fonn
intemujaed with much legendary matter, nevertheless throw
valuable n^t on the history and geography of western Persia
under Sasanian rule.^ One c^ the earlier martyrs was Simeon bar
Sabbl'2, bishop (? cathollcus) of Seleuda from about 326 to 341
in succession to Papa, who hi the face of opposition from other
bishops had oiganized the church of Persia under the primacy of
Sdeuda. The Martyrdom of Simeon exists in two recensions
which have been separately edited by M. Kmosko.* Another
esxiy mazt3rr was Millfe, bbhop of Susa,.who had distinguished
hhnsdf in tSie opposition to Papa.*
* Burldtt {op. ciL p. 3i acq.) endeavours to clAim a higher value
for the narratives about Guryft, Shftmoni and Habbibh, on the
muod thatHhese have left more trace in the later literature; but
It ia to be feared that all five martyrdoms are turned out in the
same legendaxy nouid.
* CfTDuval. IML Syr.* p. 241 seq.
* On the oriein and early history of Bnsian Christianity see
eq)ecially J. L^ouit, U Ckristianisme dans f empire Perse (raris,
1904), cbapa i. and ii.
^See many of the texts in Bedjan's Acta martyrum d sanctorum
CParis. 1890-1806). The valuable gcographtcaJ results are ex-
hibited in G. Hoffmann** Anss&i^ aus synscken Akten persisckcr
* GnSMt Petrdoffa. H. 661-1045. Of the epistles, hymns, Ac.,
attributed to Simeon nothing appears to survive but one or two
h^ns (ibid. 1048-1055). The Martyrdom had been previously
edited by Asaetnani and by Bedjan.
* ffis history is in AMcmani, Ada mart. L 66 sqq.. and Bedjan,
ti. 360 SQq*
The two motk important 4t]K8Btiiiy writert— AphiaAtcs and
Ephnim— are dealt with in sepuate articles. The importance
of the former lies in the simple cast of his leUgious thought, bis
independence of theological formulas, his constant adherenoe
to the letter of Scripture, his <|uamt exc«eais, and the light fa«
throws on the drcumsUaoes of his time, especially (1) the feding
between Jews and Chriatisns, and (a) the position and sympathies
of the Christian subjects of Sapor H. The position and cfaanctec
of Ephreim are very different. He is the typical exponent in
Syriac of unbending Catholic orthodoisy. He impressed hji
countrymen more than any other single writer, partly no dcmbt
by his enormous fecundity in writing, but more by the stem piety
and uncompromising do^DBstism which pervade his works.
In the <and half of the 4th century lived the monk Gregory,
who wrote a treatise on the monastic life. He spent part of his
life in Cyprus, and was a friend of Epiphanius, bishop of Salamis.
To the information given by Astemani {BX>. L 170 seq.) we can'
DOW add the statements of Ishft'-dfonb' that he was a Peisian by
birth, and after being a merchant was led by a aeries of visions to
take monastic vows. After a training at Edessa, he lived for a
kmg time at Mt IxU in Mesopotamia, whence he proceeded to
Cyprus, but netuined to Mt lalft shortly before his death. His
book on the monastic life mentioned by *Abhdlsho^ is not known
to survive; but some dlsoounes and a letter of his are still
extant.
Before leaving the '4th century we may mention two other
writers who probably both lived on into the stb— Bahu and Cyril-
lonfl. The former was the author of a good many poems; tha
longest— ^hich is however by some attributed to Ephraim*— is
the work in x a books on the history of Joseph, of which a complete
edition was published by Bedjan in 190X. Other poems of his
were edited by Overbeck in .S. Ephraemi Syri, &c., opera sdeda,
pp. 951-336; and these have since been supplemented by
Zetterstfen's edition of a large number of his religious poems or
metrical prayers (BeitrUge Mur Kenntmss der tdipHsen Dichtung
Bahist Leipdg, xgoa). His favourite metre was the pentasylla-
ble. CyriUdni composed a poem on the invasion of the Huns in
505,* and is by some icgatded as identical with Ephraim's
nephew Abhsamyft, who in 4013-404 ** composed hymns and dis-
courses on the invaision of the Roman empire by the Huns." *" '
The 5th century was a timeof storm and conflict in the churches
of Mesopotamia and Peisia, as in other parts of the Christian
world. The teaching of Apollinarius that in Christ the Divine
Word took the place of the human rational soul, thus seeming to
do away with his possession of a true hunoanity, had led to
a reaction by Paul of Samos&ta, Diodore of Tarsus, Theodore of
Mopsuestia, and Nestoriusof Constantinople. Though with some
pointa of difference, they agreed in emphasising the perman-
ence of the two separate natures In Christ, united but not mingled
or confused, and laid stress on the reality of our Ix>rd's human
experience. One question on which great contention arose was
as to the propriety of applying to the Divine nature attributes
which belonged to the human nature— 7f.;. birth from a human
mother— and vice versa. Hence the great dispute about the
application to the Virgin Mary of the epithet 0for6«ot. It
seems to have been the objection of Nestorius to the use of this
expression which mainly led to his condemnation and deposition
at the Council of Ephesus (431) under the influence of Cyril,
when as patriarch of 0>Dstantinople (428-431) he had di^
tinguisbed himself by his seal for Nicene orthodoxy.*^
At Edessa the result of the conflict between the Nestoiians and
their opponenu was long doubtful. When RabbOU, the fierce
anti-Nestorian and friend of Cyril, died in 435, he was succeeded
in the bishopric by Ibas, who as head of. the famous ." Peruaa
» Book of Chastity, pari f a.
* It is in Ephraim's favourite metre,- the heptasjrUabicr and
aU the MSS. but one attribute it to hha. f
• Ckron. Edcss. par. 40.
» Ibid. par. 47.
" New light on the theologtcal position of Nestoitqy !• ♦* f»» oK.
tained from the long-lost Book of Heradidts, a
which has turned up in a Syriac version and has y
by Bedjaov
3H
SYRIAC LITERATURE
ichool " ia the dty had done m«ch to inculcate on his pupib the
doctrines of Theodore of Moptuestia. B ut the feeling against the
Neslorian party grew in strength, till on the death of Ibas in 457
the leading Nestopan teachers were driven out of Edessa. The
Penian school continued to exist for another 32 years, but was
finally closed and destroyed by order of the emperor Zcno in 489.
The Nestorian teachers then started a great school at Nidbis
(which had been under Persian rule since Jovian's humiliating
treaty of 363). By the energetic efforts of Bar^umA, bishop of
that dty, practically the whole church of Persia was won over
to the Nestorian creed. Western Syria, on the contrary, had
partaken with Alexandria in the reaction from Nestorianism
which finally crystallized in the Monophysite doctrine, that spread
so widely through Egypt and Western Asia towards the end of the
Sth century.
At the beginning of this century one of the most able and
influential men in the Syriac-speaking church was MirflthA,
bishop of Malper^t or Martyropolis. Without entering on the
details of his ecdesiastical activity,^ we may note that he was twice
assodated with embassies from the Roman emperor to Yaade*
gcrd I. (399-420); that along with Isaac, patriarch of Seleucia
(390-410), he obtained from the Persian monarch ii concordat
which secured a period of religious toleration; and that he
arranged for and presided at the Council of Seleucia in 4x0, which
adopted the full Nicene creed and organized the hierarchy of the
Persian Church. As a writer he is chiefly known as the reputed
author of a collection of martjrrologies which cover the rdgns of
Sapor II., Yazdegerd L and Bahram V.' By his history of the
Council of Nicaea he made a great contribution to the education
of the Persian Church in the development of Christian doctrine.
RabbQU, the powerful and energetic bishop of Edessa who
withstood the beginnings of Nestorianism, and who gave currency
to the Peshitta text of the four (jospels, abolbhlng the use of the
Diatessaron, is dealt with in a separate article.
The next bishop of Edessa, Ibas, who succeeded in 43 s at the
death of RabbQlI, proved himself a follower of the Nestorian
doctrine (see above). As a teacher in the Persian school of Edessa
he had translated, probably with the help of his pupils, certain
works of *' the Interpreter,'* ».«. Theodore of Mopsuestia. Among
these may have been the commentary on St John of which the
complete Syriac version was published by Chabot in 1897. He
may possibly have translated a work of Aristotle.* To the Ne»*
torian movement in Persia he rendered useful service by his
letter to Mftrf of B€ih HardashCr, in which he maintained the
tenets of Diodore and Theodore, while allowing that Nestoritis
had erred.^ On the ground of his writings he was condemned
and deposed by the ** robber synod " of Ephesus (449). but was
restored by the Council of Chalcedon (451), after he had anathe-
matized Nestorios. His death in 4S7 was followed by a strong
anti-Nestorian reaction at Edessa, which led to the expulsion
of many of the leading teachers.
On Isaac of Antioch, "one of the stars of Syriac literature," see
the spedal article. In spite of his ovcr-difftigenes», he is one of
the most readable of Syriac authors.
A Nestorian contemporary of Isaac, DftdhlshO*, who was
cathoHcus of Seleucia from 411 to 456, composed commentaries
on Daniel, Kings and Ecclesiasticus. His chief importance in the
history of the Persian Church lies in his having induced a synod
of bishops to dedare that church independent of the see of
Antioch and of the " Western Fathers " (Laboort, pw xsi sqq.)*
The most powerful missionary of Nestorianism during the
snd half of the sth century was Bar^ftumA of Nislbis, whom his
opponents called " the swimmer among the reeds," It. the wild
boar. Bom probably bett^gpen 41 5 and 420 he imbibed Nestorian
doctrine from Ibas at the Persian school of Edessa, but was driven
tnX ia 457 on the death of his master, and went to be bishop of
Nislbis. In a succession of missionary journeys be succeeded,
partly by persuasion and partly (if his enemies ate to be beUevcd)
I See Ubourt. op. tit., c^xciaUy pp. 87-90, 99-99.
' Some of these refer to events so late tnat tbey c
his pen.
» See Duval. Utt. syr*, p 247.
* Labourt, op. cU. p. 2^ iq<).
i that tbcy cannot be from
by violence, in attadung to Nestorianism nearly all the Chiistiaii
communities of Persia, with the exception of Taghrith, which
was always strongly Mooopbysite. He had many quarrels with
his e ccles iast ical superior the cathoUcus of Seleucia, but finally
made peace with Acadus soon after the accession of the latter
in 4&|. Among other severities towards the Monophysites. he
persuaded the Persian king PCrflz (457-484) to banish many of
them into the Roman dominions. One of his great aims was to
secure for the Nestorian clergy freedom to marry, and this was
finally sanctioned by a council at Seleucia in 486 (Labourt ,0^. cif ,
chap. vi.). Bai^iumft must have been bishop of Nislbis for
neariy 40 years, but was dead by 496. His writings seem to
have been chiefly liturgical: he gave the first set of statutes to
the ^hool of Nislbis, which was founded during his bishopric.
His fellow-worker Narsai, whom the Jacobites called " the
leper," but the Nestorians "the harp of the Holy Spirit,"
apparently accompanied Bar^iuml from Edessa to Nislbis,
where according to Barhebracus he lived for 50 years. Baryiumi
appointed him head of the new school, where he taught rigidly
Nestorian doctrine. He was a copious writer, especially in
verse. Many of his. poems have now beoi published.* Hia
theological position is clearly defined in a homily on the three
doctors^Diodore, Theodore and Nestorius^published by the
Abb£ Martin in the JounuU asialiqiu for July 1900.
On the less important companions of Bar^iumi and Narsai*
Blirl, Acadus and MikhA, see Wright {ep. cit. pp. 59 seq., 63
seq.). The M'ana who accompanied them and became bishop of
Rewardasher in Persia was not, as Barhebraeus supposed, the
catholicus of Seleucia who held office in 4M, but a much
younger man. Like Ibas he had been employed at Edessa in
translating the commentaries of Theodore.
Among the early Monophysites were two of the best of Syriac
writers— Jacob of S^hiigh and Philoxenus of MabbOgh, who have
been treated in special articles. The one wrote mainly in verse,
the other in prose. See also Joshua the Styute.
Another early Monophysitc was Simeon of B^h Atshim, who
by a series of journeys and disputations «i( hin the Persian empire
did all he could to prevent the triumph of Nestorianism among
the Persian Christians. He had considerable success at the time,
but the groimd he had won was soon reconquered by hisopponenta,
except at Taghrith and the surrounding district. It was after a
successful disputation in presence of the Nestorian catholicus
Bflbhai (497-502/3) that Simeon was made bishop of Bith
ArshAra, a town near Seleucia. He made several journeys to
Constantinople, where he enjoyed the favour of the cmpreia
Theodora. It was there he died, probably about 532-533. Hit
biography was written by John of Asia in the coUcctkm of lives
of eastern saints which hi* been edited by Land (Aneod, tyr.
voL ii.). His hterary productions consist only of a liturgy and
two exceedingly interesting letters. The one has for its subject
Bar^iumA and the other Nestorian leaders in Persia, and gives a
highly malicious account of their proceedings. The other, which
has been often edited,* is an account of a severe persecution whkh
the Himyarite Christians of Najrln in south-west Arabia under-
went in 5^3, at the hands of the king of Yemen. As Simeoo
had repeatedly visited al-^irah and was in touch with the
Arab kingdom which centred there, his letter is a document of
first-rate historical importance.
Mention should be made of tvro other early Monophysite
leaders who suffered persecution at the hands of the emperor
Justin I. (518-527). The one is John of TellA, author of 538
canons,' answers to questions by the priest Sergius, a creed and
an exposition of the Trisagion. His life was written by his disciple
Elias, and also by John of Asia. The other, John bar AphtAnyft,
was the founder of the famous monastery of l^cnneshrC, opposite
*See Feldmann, Syriscke WeckstUie^fr mm Narsts (Lcipiig,
1896): Mingana, Narsai, homiliae el carmitta (» vols., Mosul, 1905):
and other editions of which a list is given by Duval, p. 344 seq.
Four of the homilies which deal with liturakal matters have been
^ — - in English translatioii, ar -* ~-'*- —•-•-•
Connolly (Cambridec. 19
given iQ an English tran^ation, accompanied with valuable notesb
by R. H. Connolly (Cambridge. 1909).
* The best edition is Guidi's La UUera ii Simeama Vcsceee di
Bitk'Aridm sopra i martin emeriti (Rome, 1881).
' Edited by Kubeicxyk (Leipzig. 1901).
SYRIAC LITIRATURE
315
Jeiifab Oft the Eaphntet, «nd wrote a commentory on the Song
of Songs, a number of hymns and a biography of Srvtrus, the
Monophysite patriarch of Antioch (51^-519).
The l^e of the great missionary bishop Jacob BurdS'ftnJL*
or Baradaeus, from whom the Monophysite Church took its name
ol Jacobite, belongs rather to ecclesiastical than to literary his-
tory. A native of Telli in Mesopotamia, he obtained the favour
of the empress Theodora while on a mission to Constantinople,
and resided in that dty for fifteen years (528^543)- At the request
of the Arab king of Ghassftn he was sent on a mission to the East
after being consecrated bishop of Edessa; and the rest of bis
life was spent in organizing the Monophysite Church of eastern
Syria. We possess two liv^ of him— one by John of Asia in his
collection of biographies, and another which may have been
written by a priest of Jacob's original monastery of P£sl1t&.
Both are to be found in the 2nd volume of Laud's Anudola
syriaau An excellent modem biography and estimate of Jacob
has been written by Klcyn.' A Syriac account of the removal of
his remains from Alexandria, where he died in 578, to his old
monastery of Pesdti has been edited by Kugener in the Bibli^'
tkique kagiographique orierUaU^ pp. 1-26 (Paris, 1902). The
activity of his life left him little time for writing, but he was
the author of " an anaphora, sundry letters, a creed or confession
of faith, preserved In Arabic and a secondary Ethiopic trans-
lation, and a homily for the Feast of the Annunciation, also
extant only in an Arabic translation" (Wright).
A very different character from Jacob*s was that of Sergitis of
lUs'ain. one of the best Greek scholars and ablest translators
whom Syria has produced. Of his life little is known, and that
little not wholly creifitable. He wavered curioudy in his
ecclesiastical views, and ended by helping the persecutors of the
Monophysite Church, to which he himself had belonged. He
seems to have lived as a priest and physician at Ris'ain in Meso-
potamia roost of his life. About 535 he travelled on various
ecclesiastical missions, and finally made a journey to Rome and
thence to O>tistantinople (in this latter accompanied by the
pope Agapetus). Tht result was to bring about the deposition
and banishment of the Monophysitcs from the latter city.
Sergius died almost immediately afterwards, in 536. Among the
works which he translated into Synajc and of which his versions
sorvive are treatises of Aristotle, Porphyry and Galen,' the
Ars grammaiica of Dionysius Thrax, the works of Dionysius the
Areopagite, and possibly two or three treatises of Plutarch.*
His own original works are less important, but include a " treatise
on logic, addressed to Theodore (of Merv), which is unfortunately
imperfect, a tract on negation and afhrmation ; a treatise, likewise
addressed to Theodore, On the Causes of the Uftrvcrstt according
to ike Views of Arislotte, showing how it is a Circle; a tract On
Genus, Species and Indioiduality; and a third tract addressed
to Theodore, On Ike Action and Influence of the Moon, explanatory
and iUustrative of Galen's Hcpi Kpioifiuif ^fupSa', bk. iii., with a
short appendix ' On the Motion of the Sun ' " (Wright). Accord-
ing to the historical compilation which passes under the name
of Zacharias Rhetor, he also wrote a treatise on the faith.* Some
of his translations were revised at a later time by l^onain ibn
UhiX (t»73).
Another translator from Greek was Paul, Monophysite
bishop of Callinlciis or ar-RaW>h, who, being expelled from
his diocese in 519, retired to Edessa and there occupied himself
in translating into Syriac the works of Sevcrus, the Monophysite
* Soiled " because his dre«s consisted of a barda'thS, or coarse
horw-cloth, which he never changed till it became quite ragged "
(Wriebt).
* Jeecifus Baradasus, de Stickier der syrische monophysietiscKc
Kerk (Leiden. 1882).
*See the details in Wright, pp. 90 sqq.; and cf. especially A.
Baumsurk. Arislotd^.s bet den Syrern vom V.-VJII. Jakrhunderl
(Lrtpzig. 1900); and V. Rysscl. Vher den textkritiuhen Werth der
syrisehen Uebersettungen griechischer Klassiker (Leipzig. 18S0-1881).
Thfe latter singles out the version of the pseudo-Aristotelian II«p2
tj^ tt ait as a mooel of excellence in translation.
* On these last see Baumstark. Lmcubrationes syro-graecae pp. 40S
sqq (Leipzig. 1894): and Duval. Litt. syr.* pp. 266 seq.
' Land, Anecd. syr. iii. 289.
champioa who was patriarch of Antioch fiom 5x2 to 5x9. This
version appears to be quite distinct from that used by the
compiler of the chronicle of Zacharias,* and also from the version
of " the 6th book of the select letters of Severus " which was made
by Athanasius *' presbyter of Nislbis " in 669 and has been edited
by E. W. Brooks (London, 1902-1904).
That important legal work, The Laws of the Emperors Con*
stanline, Theodosius and Lto, which was composed in Greek about
475, and " which lies at the root of all subsequent Christian
Oriental legislation in ecdesisstical, judicial and private
matters" (Wright), must have been repeatedly translated into
Syriac. Tlte oldest form is contained in a British Mtiseum MS.
which dates from the earlier "part of the 6th century, and this
was edited by Land {Anecd. syr. i. 30-64). A latter (probably
Ncstorian) recension is contained in a Paris MS., which was used
along with the other by Bmns and Sachau in their exhaustive
edition {Syrisch^romisches, Rcchtsbuch, Leipxig, x88o). In
Notulae syriacae (privately printed 1887) Wri^t edited the
surviving fragment of a 3rd recension which is preserved in a
13th-century MS. at Cambridge. Finally Sachau has published
three new redactions of the treatise from a MS. foiud at Rome
in 1894 {Syrische Rechtsb^her, voL i., Leipzig, 1907).
The last sth-century author to be mentioned here is AbOdhem-
mCh, who was Jacobite metropolitan of Taghrfth from 559 till
he was martyred by Khosrau Anteharwin in 575. He wrote
various philosophical works, also a treatise on grammar which
is quoted by the later grammarian, John bar Z6*bi. A Syriac
life of him has been published by F. Nau, who appendix to it the
surviving fragment of his treatise on the composition of man as
oonsisting of soiil and body.'
We may here take note of three important anonymous works,
of which the first probably and the other two certainly belong to
the 6th century.
The Mtarrath gasMi or Cose of Treasures, translated and edited
by C. Beaold (Leipzig, 18S3-1888), is akin (as Duval remarks) to
the Book of Jubilees. It is an imaginary history of the patri-
archs and their descendants. The work derives its name from
the picturesque story of the cave where Adam deposited the
treasure of gold, myrrh and incense which he had brought away
from paradise: the cave was tised as a burying-place by him and
his descendants until the deluge. After the precious relict
together with the bones of Adam had been saved in the ark, they
were transported by Shem and Melduaedek to Golgotha under
the guidance of an angel.*
The tripartite narrative which is known as the Romance of
Julian (the AposUte) has no claim to be regarded as an historical
document. Its hero is Jovian, one of the feeblest of Roman
emperors, and Julian is everywhere exhibited in flaming colours
as the villain of the story. But as an example of Syriac prose
style it is of the best, and the author at times shows considerable
dramatic power.
A valuable historical sotirce, though of small dimensions, is the
Chronicle of Edessa, which gives a record of events from
i32-r3r B.C. to a.d. 540— at first exceedingly brief, but becoming
somewhat fuller for the later years. It appears to be thoroughly
reliable wherever it can be tested. It has been three times
edited— first by Assemani in the BiUiotheca orienlalis (i. 388-
4x7), secondly by L. Hallier (Lciprig, 1892) with a translation,
introduction and abundant notes, and thirdly by Guidi with a
Latin version (in Chrhnica minora, Paris, X903).
On John of Asia or Ephesus, the eminent Monophysite bishop
and earliest Syriac church historian, see the separate article.
An historical work of somewhat similar character to John's is
the compilation in 12 books which is generally known by the
xume of Zacharias Rhetor,* because the anonymous Syriac
compiler has incorporated the Syriac version or epitome of a lost
See Brooks and Hamilton's translation of the latter, p. 234.
' Palrologia orimtetis, iii. i (Paris. 1906).
• Bczotd's edition contains a"
also an Arabic version.
•This author has hitherto been identified with Zacharias Scholas-
ticus, who aftenvardi. became bishop of Mitylcnc. but accordinjj to
M. A. Kugener. La Com^htion historique de psendo-Zacharu le
Rkiteur (Paris, 1900). this identification is a mistake
3i6
SYRIAC LITERATURE
Greek bisiory written by that author. The SyriMc work exists
(not quite complete) in a British Museum MS. of about the begin-
ning of the 7th century: this can be in part supplemented by an
8th-oentury MS. at the Vatican. From the latter Guidi published
the interesting chapter (X. i6) which contains the description
of Rome. The entire text of the London MS. was published by
Land in the third volume of his Anecdola syriaca; and there is now
an English translation by Hamilton and Brooks (London, 1899),
and a German one by Ahrens and KrOger (Leipzig, 1899).
Of the other 6th-centu]y Jacobite writers we need mention
only Moses of Aggti (fi, c, 550-570) who translated into Syriac
some of the writings ot Cy^ and Peter of Odlinlcus, Jacobite
patriarch of Antiodi 578-591, who wrote a huge controversial
treatise in 4 books, each of 25 chapters, against Damian, patri-
arch of Alexandria, as well as other less important works.
The Nestorian writers of the 6th century were numerous,
but as yet we know little of their works, beyond what *AbhdI-
sho* tells us in his Catalogue, It will be suiffident to mention
one or two. Joseph HOz&yft (>.& of al-Ahwftz or Khfkzistan),
who came third in succession to Narsai as head of the school of
Nidbis, was the first Syriac grammarian and invented various
signs of intcrpunction. MiriUhft, who was Nestorian catho-
licus of Seleucia from about 540 to 552 ^ and a man of exceptional
energy, made the only known attempt, which was, however,
unstuicessful, to provide the Nestorians with a Bible veruon of
their own. He was the author of many commentaries, homilies,
epistles, canons and hymns. Paul the Persian, a courtier of
Kbosrau Anflsharw&n, dedicated to the king a treatise on
logic which has been published from a London MS. by Land
in the 4th volume of his Anecdola. Bddh the periodeutes is
credited with a philosophical work which has perished, but is
best known as the author of the old Syriac version of the col-
lection of Indian tales called KalUak and Dimnak. He made
it doubtless from a Pahlavl version. His translation, which
was edited by Bickell with an introduction by Benfey, must
be distinguished from the much later Syriac translation made
from the secondary Arabic veision and edited by Wright in
1884.' QannAnA of Qfdhaiyabh, who nearly produced a dis-
ruption of the Nestorian Church by his attempt to bridge over the
interval which separated the Nestorians from Catholic ortho-
doxy, was the author of many commentaries and other writ-
ings, in some of which he attacked the teaching of Hieodore of
Mopsuestia. An account of his theological position, derived
from the treatise of B&bhai De unione, will be found in Labourt,
op, cit. pp. 379 sqq. One of his foUowers, Joseph ^azsaya, was
also a prolific writer. ^ ^ .
. "With the 7th century," as Wright remarks, "begins the
slow decay of the native literature of the Syrians, to which
the frightftd sufferings of the people during the great war with
the Persians in its first quarter largely contribiUed." The same
process of decay was greatly promoted by the Arab conquest
of Persia, achieved through the victory of i^JkUsIya in 636-637.
The gradual replacement of Syriac by Arabic as the vernacular
language of Mesopotamia by degrees transformed the Syriac
from a living to a dead language. Apart from a few leading
writers— such as Jacob of Edessa, the anonymous historian
whose work has passed under the name of Dionysius of Tell-
MabrS. Thomas of Margi, Dionysius Bar §allb^ and Barhe-
braeus*— there are not enough names of interest to make it
worth while to continue our chronological catalogue. It will
be sufficient to group the more important contributors to each
of the chief branches of litttaturc, .J
I i.Thnloty^ — Here we may first mention Geoive, Bishop of
the Arabs (1724). who wrote commentaries on Scripture, and
tracts and homilies on church sacraments, and finished the Hexai-
merou of Jacob of Edessa.* BAbhai the Elder, a leading Nestorian
> See a full account of his career in Labourt, Le Ckristianiswu
dans I'imtnn perse, pp. 163-191.
■(X this there is an English translation by Keith Falconer
(Oxford. 1884).
- ■ These have all been dealt with in separate articles.
*Oorge*s part has been translated mto German by V. Ryssel
(Leipzig, 1891).
m the beginning of the 7th eeotory and a prafific author; wrotA
many commentaries and theological disdourses. Ishd'yabh IIL,
Nestorian cathoUcus from 647 to 657/8, wrote coatrovenial
tracts, religious discourses and liturgical works. EUas of Merv.
who belongs to the 2nd half of the 7th century, comfnled a Catena
patrum on the (xMpcls and wrote many commentaries. Timothy I.,
cathoUcus 779-833, wrote synocycal epistles and other works
bearing on church law.* Moees bar KSptUL (t903)f one of the roost
fertile of 9th-ccntury authors, wrote commentaries, theological
treatises and many liturgical works. Other important contributors
to this sphere of literature were Ish6* bar N6n (t827/8), John
bar Z5l>i (beginning of the 13th century), Jacob bar Shakkfi
(ti34i). and the great Nestorian scholar 'Abbdishft' (ti3i8).
2. History. — Besides the important writers treated in separate
articles, we need mention only four. Elias bar ShinAyi, who in
1008 became Nestorian bishop of Niabis, was the author 01 a valuable
Ciuronide, to which are prefix^ numerous chronological tabJea,
lists of popes, patriarchs, &c. and which covers by its narrative the
period from A.D. 25 to 1018. Of this work, which exists in only
one imperfect copy, the later portion was edited by Baethgen in
i88a, and the earlier by Lamy in 1888. Another Important Chronicle
is that of Michael Im who was Jacobite patriarch from 1166 to
1 199. Its range extends from the Creation to the author's own day,
and it was largely used by Barhebraeus in compiling his own
Chronicle. Till recently it was known only in an abridged Armenian
version which was translated into French by V. Langlois (\'enice.
1868) . but the Syriac text has now been found in a MS. bclannng
to the library of^ the church at Edessa. and is in course of pubuca>
ti< A work rather legendary than historical
is r Solomon of al-Ba$rah. who lived early in
th Btly, acknowledgment most be made of
th talogue of Nestorian writers, by *M>hdish6*
of ortant writer in Syriac It was edited by
A : of his Bibliotheca orientalist and has been
tr y Badger.
le History, &£.— Besides the important
wi arg& (gLf.) the following deserve special
m > was a monk in the Nestorian monastery
of to which Thomas of Marg& belonged two
ce rwards a bishop earijj in the 7th century,
WI a funeral sermon on his superior Mir Jacob
wl tery, and also a. long treatise in two parts
or which all that survives has been edited
b) [>2). Whilst accompanying the cathoUcus
Is _ , _^, on a mission to HeracUus, S&hd5n& was
converted, apparently to cathoUdsra,' and thereby caused much
scandal in the East. The chief events in his life are narrated by
Ishd'dinab.' Another, Nestorian who, a few years later, wrote
eccleaastical biographies and other theological works was Sabhrish5*
Rustam.-who Uved at Mount Izl& and other monasteries In the
beginning of the 8th century DavM of Uith Rabban, also a Nestorian
monk, wrote, besides a geographical work, " a monastic liistory.
caUed The Little Paradise^ which is frequently dted by Thomas of
MarBfL" A more important work is The Booh of Chastity, by
IshdMSnab. who according to *Abhdish6* ' was bishop of f^?rS—
but read Ba^rft — about the end of the 8th century. This work is
a collection of Uves of holy men who founded monasteries in the
East, and is a valuable hbtorical source. The work itself, or an
abridgment of it. was discovered and published for the first time
by J. B. Chabot (Rome. i896).» As the last under this head vre
may mention a late anonymous biography, that of the cathoUcus
Yabhal&hiL III. (1281-1317), which throws much light on the re-
lations of the early Mongol kings with the heads otthc church in
their dominions. Among. other interesting features it contains
information about the Nestorian Church of China in the 13th century
— ^Yabhal&ha was a native of Peking—an account 01 a journey
through Central Asia, and a description of a visit to Europe by
Rabban ^aurng, the friend of the cathoUcus."
4. Philosophy and Science. — ^Special mention may be made of
•AnanishS' of tf&ihaiyabh (middle of 7th century) well Imown as
the author of a new rccenrion of the Paradise of Palladius, and also
the author of a volume on phikMOphkal divisions and definitions;
Romanus the physician (t896). who wrote a medical compilation,
a commentary on the Book of Hierotbcus, a collection 01 Pytha-
gorean maxims and other works; Moses bar KCphft, the voluminous
writer above referred to; the famous physidan Uonain ibn 1$^^
•See O. Braun's article m Oriens christianus, i. 138-152; and
Labourt, Dt Timotheo I. Nestorianorum patriarcha (Paris, 1904).
•Text and translation, by E. A. W. Budge (Oxford. 1886).
' See H. Gouflsen, Martyrius-Sahdonas Uben nnd Werhe (Leipzig,
*Le tmt de fa chasteti (ed. Chabot, pp. 67 sqq.).
* A fresh edition by Bedjan forms an appendix to his edition of
Thomas of Margft (Paris, looi).
••The text has been twice edited by Bedian (Paris, i88« and
1895). and there is a French transbtion. with copious notes, by
Chabot (Paris, 1895); cf. also Joum. As. (1889), pp. 313 sqq., and
Eng. Hist. Rf. xiv. 299 sqq.
SYBIANUS-^YZYGY
317
(197^» who wiMe <JMcfly> in AnbiCi but dMtfve*
by on sei *
'rv L— --
I Syriac * and from Syriac
■ services to Syriac grammar and lexicography, and •till
by bis translations of Greek philosophical aad ■dentific
into Syriac* and from Syriac into Arabic, becoming ia a
tense tbe founder of a school of translaeora;aAd Jacob bar Sfaakkfi,
vhoae wock paUed the Dialopus treat* of grammar, xhelorici
poetry, logic, philosophy and science. < . .
5. Grammar and Lextcography.—SeyenH of the authofs in thu
departtient have already b<»n mentioned. The more important,
besides laoob of Edeasa and Batfaebfaeut. ara *AntoIsh6* of IjICd*
laiyabh. Ijlooain ibn IfWp. his Pdpil Bar 'All, Bar SarOshwai
(eariy loth century). Bar Bahlal (nuddle of loth century), Eltaa
of Tirhlbi (ti04Q). Elias bar Shin&yft (above), John Elar ZSIA
(begioninf of 13th century) and Jacob bar ShakkO.
Apart mim the niimerotts editions of Syriac %taH by M. Paul
ficdiao, mosC of which have been cited above, nearly all the teatii
recently edited are included in one or oth^ of three com^heosive
atries now running— viz. (i) Palrolopa syricca (Pans, 1894)*
i2) Corpus scn'ptorum chrisUanorum onenUUtum — uriptores syriact
Pims. 1907): (3) Palrotogia orientalis (Paris, 1907). (N. M.)
STRIAHVS, a Greek Ncoplatonist philosopber, and head of
the school at Athens in succession to Plutarch. He is iifi-
portant as the teacher of Pkodus, and, like Plutarcli and Produs,
as a oommenutor on Plato and Aristotle. Uis best-known
extant work !s a commentary on the Metaphysics of Aristotle.
He b said to have written also on the De coda and the De
inierpretaiione of Aristotle and on Plato's timaeus. A treatise
on the Staseis of Hermogenes was published under his name by
Walr in. 1833. His views were identical with those of Produs, ^
who regarded him with great affection and left orders that
he should be buried in the same tomb.
STB1N6B (Cr. cvpcy^, reed, pipe), a hydraulfc instrument,
based on the prindple of the pump, for the drawing up and
ejecting of liquids. Hie ordinary form is that of a glass or
metal tube ending in a pdnted nozzle and ifitted with an ur-
tight piston-rod and handle. The nozzle is inserted in the
tiquid, which enters the cylinder by atmospheric pressure
when the piston-rod is drawn up. On pushing back the piston
the fluid is ejected in a jet through the nozzle. In ^zes varying
from the needle-pointed hypodermic syringe to the abdominsd
syringe, it is a common surgical implement tiscd for the injection
of fluids into the body Or for the washing of wounds and cavities.
The smaller syringes are made of glass, the larger of metal;
the most common medical syringes consist of a length of india-
rubber tubing, one end terminating in a nozzle of ivory or other
easOy cleaned material, in the centre is a bulb or ball which
under pressure draws up the liquid through the free eiid of
the tube which is placed in the vessel containing it. There
are a very large number of different types of syringe used
in surgical practice. A larger syringe of metal, with a flat
perforated nozzle is used as a garden implement for watering
plants.
8TBIHX {avpiy^, the Greelc name for the pan-pipes. The
principle on which it works b that of the stopped pipe, but it is
bkmn in the same maimer as the ancient Egyptian nay or
obliqoci flute. The pipes composing it were stopped at one
cod* so that tiie sound waves bad to travel twice the length of
the pipe, giving out a note neariy an octave lower than that
produced by an open pipe of equal length. The breath
dlreaed horizontally across the open end, impinged against
the sharp inner edge of the pipes, creating the regular series
«f palses which generate the sound waves within the tubes.
The syrinx consisted of a varying number of reeds, having their
open ends or embouchures in a horizontal line and their stopped
ends, fonned by the knots in the reed, giaduaUy decreasing
ia length .from left to right. Each pipe gave out one note,
but by overblowing, ix. increased pressuve of bitatb and
leosioB of lipB, harmonics could be obtained.
The syrinx or pan pipes owes its double name to ancient
Greek tradition, ascribing iU invention to Pan in connection with
a well-kBown legend of the Arcadian water-nymph "Syrinx."*
The cancel iomr of the instrument and the number of pipes
(ic) at' the beginning of the third century B.C. is shown in one of
< The Syriac versions made by him and his saccetBors have nn-
fonvnately perished (see Wright, p. 3H3). ^ , ^
* See Scrv. ad Virgil, £cl0fa, ii. 31 ; and Ovid, Meiam, 1. 691. Ac.
the IdylKa figHmta,*-in ishich the legend Is repeated. Ilie pan-
dean pipes continued in favour with the rustic populations of
the West long after tbe organ evolved fzom it had eclipsed
this humble pflototype. The tyrinx wiain use during the middle
ages, and was knova in Frs&ce as/r«tf4{ otfrHiau, in medieval
LatSa as fiskda pamtt and in Germany as Fan^ah or Hirtm-
fjtije {now Pap^amojiSU), At the beginning of the 19th century
a revival of the popularity of this instnunent took place, and
qoartets wen played on fouz sets of' pipes of dlffotent itees and
pitch. The modem mouth-organ is the representative of the
^rrinx, although blown by means of a free reed.
SYEUP (O. Fr. ytietop, mod. tirop. Span, xaroptt for axoropt,
Arab, a/, the, and ahanki drink ; cf . '' Sherbet " and *' Shrub "),
the name given to a thick, viscid liquid, containing much dis-
solved (genierally crystalline) naatter, but showing little tendency
to. deposit cryi^als. The ** syrup " employed for medicinal
purpoKs oonsisia of a concentrated or saturated sdution <tf
tefined sugar in dbtiUed water. The simple " synip" of the
British Pharmacopoeia is prepared by adding 1000 grams (or
5 lb) of refined sugsr to 500 cubic centimetres (or two pints)
of boifing distilled water, heating until it is dissolved And sub-
sequently adding boiling distilled water until the weight of the
whole b 1500 grams (or 7I lb). The specific gravity of the
syrup should be 1*35. PUntund syrupa are made by adding
flavouring matter to a simple syrup. For. instance, tyrupus
^omotkut b prepared by adding certain quantities of orange
and cinnamon water to simple syrup. Simikxly, wudicahi
syrups are prepared by adding medicaments to, or dhsolving
them in, the simple syrup. XSMen syrup is the uncrystalUxaUe
fluid '5lrah)e4 off in the process of obtaii^Ag lefiaed crysttUizcd
BUgftr. TreoiU and molasses are syrups obtained in the. earlier
stages of lefinmg. Technically aad scientifically the term syrup
is also employed to denote viscid, generally resifiual, liquids,
oontalnhigsubstanece other than sugar in solution^
SVRTnflANS Celso Sifianiaji, Syrjenian, Zyrenian, Zirianiaa,
Zsrrian'and Ztrian), a tribe bdongmg to the Permian dtvision
of theeafiftera Knns. They Are said to number about 85,000
on ^the west side of the Urals in the governments of Perm,
Vologda and Archangel, and there are also about xooo on the
Siberfan side of the lower Ob. Their headquarters are at Ust-
Ishm», at the junction of the Ishma and Pechora. Formerly
they spread farther to the west.' They are of moderate statute,
blond, and grey-eyed, and more energetic and inclined to trade
than mo&t of the allied tribes. They were oonverted to Christi-
anity, about r350 and their language was reduced to writing.
They call themselves Komi and axe not sharply distinguished
from the tribes known as Permian, the languages being mutually
inteUigRjle. The archSeological remains in the governments
of Perm and Vatyka called Chudish by Russians are probably
Syryenian. A grammar of the language was published by
CastrSn, arid linguistic and other notices of the tribe are contained
in the Journal de la socUU finm-^niricntu, especially for 1903.
(Se e fllW OrUCRlAN.)
STSTTtB (Gr. <r^, together with, and vrSXot, a column),
in architecture, a term meaning hiiving columns rather thickly
set— an intcrcolumniatlon to which two diameters are aslsigned.
8YZRAil» a town of Rtissia, in the government oli Simbirsk,
156 m. E. of the town of Penza, and a short distance from the
Volga. Pop. (1M2), 24,5<*'; (tQOo), 33»046. Syzrafl orifpnated
in a fort, erected *in 1683, to protect the district from the Tatars
and Circassians. Most of its inhabiUnts are engaged in garden-
ing and tillage. In the largp villages of the surrounding district
various petty trades are carried on. The town has long been
in repute for -its tanneries and its manufactures of leather.
Several flour-mflls and other factories have recently sprung up.
Much grain is exported; timber is brought from the upper
Volga, and manufactured wares from Nizhniy Novgorod.
SYZT6Y (Gr. ovfiryte, a yoldng together, from aiv, together,
and root f»ry-, yoke), iii astronomy, either of the points at which
the moon is most neariy in a line with the sun. The moon passes
her syzygies, or is in a syzygy, at new and full moon.
"Theocritus, Brunck. Anakcla veto. poet, graec. I 3(14.
3i8
SZABADKA— SZR-CFTUEN
SZABADRA (Ger. Mana-Tktresiopd), a town of HunBary,
{n the county of B6cs-Bodrog, 109 m. S.S.E. of Budapest by
rail. Pop. U900), Si 464. It is situated in the great Hungarian
plain between the Danube and the Thciss, and is the centre of
an immense agricultural district. To the town belongr a large
territory (369 sq. m.) of the adjoining PuszU Telecaka, where
Urge herds of cattle are reared. In this tecritory is situated
Lake Palics, a favourite watering-place and summer resort.
SZAB6 VON SZBNTIIIKL6S. JOZSBP (ift32>-i894), Hungarian
geologist, was born at Kalocsa, on the 14th of March 1822.
His fint contribution to science was an essay on metallurgy,
in which subject he had received special training. Afterwards
he settled at Budapest and investigated the geology of the district,
the results of which were published in a geological map (1858).
In 1859 he joined the staff of the Austrian Geological Skirvey,
as a volunteer member, and paid attention to the economic
as well as to the purely scientific aspects of the work. He also
arran^ for surveys having special reference to agricultural
geology to be undertaken by the Hungarian Geobgical Institute.
In 1862 he became professor of geology and minerak>gy in the
university of Budapest. In later years he devoted himself
largely to petrology, and published memoirs on the trachytes
of Hungary and Transylvania; on a new method of determining
the species of felspars in rocks, depending on fusibility and fbme-
coloration; on the geology and petrdogy of the district of
Schemnitz; and on Santorin Island.^ He died at Budapest on
the 1 2th of April 1894. '~
I He was author of CetUgju mit hesondertr RSekswhi ai^ iU Petrc
tnpkie, den Vulkanismus %. dk Hydrograpkie (1883).
t SZALAY, LADISLAS (1813-1864), Hungarian sUtesmtnr and
historian, was bom at Buda on the'i8th of April 2813. Alter
the completion of his studies, he became a member of the
Hungarian parliament, and in 1848 he represented Hungary
in th^ German national parliament at Frankfort. He took part
.in the levolution of 1848^49, and was obliged to seek refuge
in Switzerland, where he wrote his history of Hungary, This
important work, published at Budapest (1856-1860), extends
.to 1707. Saalay also wrote remarkable studies on Pitt, Fox,
MiE^>eau aiKl other statesmen, and conLribttted very con-
siderably to the codification of Magyar law. In later life he
returned to Hungaiy, but be died at Salzburg oa the 17th of
July 1864.
See Alexander Flegler, L, von Szalay (Leipzig, 1866).
SZifcCHENTl. ISTVAN. Count (1791-1860), Hungarian
itatesman, the son of Ferencz Ss£chenyi and the countess
Juliana Festetics, was bom at Vienna on the 2xst of September
1 791. Very carefuUy educated at home till his seventeenth
year, when he entered the army, he fought with distinction at the
battle of Raab Gune 14, 1809), and on the 19th of July brought
about the subsequent junction of the two Austrian armies by
conveying a message across the Danube to General J. G. Chasteler
at the risk of his life. Equally memorable was his famous ride,
through the enemy's lines on the night of the i6th-x7th of October
1813, to convey to BlUcher and Bemadotte the wishes of the
two emperors that they should participate in the battle of
Ldpoig on the following day, at a given time and place. In
May i8r5 he was transferred to Italy, and at the battle of
Tolentino scattered Murat's bodyguard by a dashing cavalry
charge. From September 1815 to 1821 be visited France,
England, Italy, Greece and the Levant, carefully studying the
institutions of the countries through which he passed, and every-
where winning admireia and friencls. A second— «:ientific —
tour with his friend, Baron Miklos Wessd6nyi, taught him much
about trade and industry, which knowledge he subsequently
applied to his country's needs. In 1825, when he went to France
in the suite of Prince Pil Estcrh&zy, to attend the coronation
of Charles X., the canal du Midi especially attracted his attention
aud suggested to him the idea of regulating the rivers Danube
and Thelss. At the Diet of 1825, when the motion for founding
a Hungarian academy was made by Pil Nagy, who bitterly
reproached the Magyar nobles for so long neglecting their
mother-tongue, Sz£chcnyi offered to contribute a whole year's
income (60,000 ftorins) towtrds ft. His example was followed
by three other magnates who contributed between them 5S.000
florins more. A commission was thereupon appointed to settle
the details, and on the 18th of August the project received the
royal assent. Another of his great projeas was the opening
up of the Danube for trade from Buda to the Black Sea. He
satisfied himself of the practicability of the scheme by a person-
allly conducted naval expedition from Pest to Constantinople.
The Palatine Joseph was then won over, and on the 20th of
June 1833 a Danube Navigation Committee was formed which
completed its work in ten years. Sz^henyi was also the first
to start steamboats on the Theiss, the Danube and the lake of
Balaton. It was now, too, that he published his famous work
Stadium, suggesting a whole series of useful and indeed indis-
pensable reforms (1833), which was followed by Hunnia (1834),
which advocated the extension and beautifying of fiudapest
so as to make it the worthy capital of a future great power. His
A Few Words on Horse-racing, a sport which he did so much to
introduce and ennoble, appeared in 1839.
All this time Sz^chenyi had been following, with some anxiety,
the political course of Kossuth. He sincerely believed that the
exaggeration and exaltation of the popular editor of the Pesti
Hirlap would cast the nation back into the old evil conditions
from which it had only just been raised, mainly by Sz6chenyi*s
own extraordinary efforts, and in Kdet nipt, which is also an
autobiography, he prophetically hinted at an approaching
revolution. "Trample on me without ceremony," he wrote
to Kossuth on this occasion, " but for God's sake don't use the
nimbus of your popularity to plunge Hungary into chaos."
On this very point of reform the nation was already divided into
two parties, though only the minority held with Sz€chcnyi. But
neither this fact nor the gradual loss of his popularity restrained
Sz£chcnyi, both in the Diet and at county meetings, from
fulminating conscientiously against the extreme demands of
Kossuth. His views at this period are expounded in the
pamphlet PolUikai programm tdredikek (" Fragments of a
Political Programme"}' He held the portfolio of ways and
communications in the first responsible Magyar administration
(March 23, 1848) under B&cthy&ny, but his increasing appre-
hension of a revolution, with its inevitable corollaries of civil
war and a mpture with the dynasty, finally affected his mind,
and on the 5th of September he was removed to an asylum.
Here he remained for many years, but recovered sufficiently
to correspond with his friends and even to meditate writing
fresh books. In 1859 he published the pamphlet Ein Blick
in which he implored his countrymen to accept the Bach s>'Stem
as the best constitution attainable in the circumstances. The
sudden death of his old friend Baron Samuel J6sika and the once
more darkening political horizon led him, in a moment of despair,
to take his own life (April 8, x86o). He richly deserved the
epithet " the greatest of the Magyars " bestowed upon him by
his political antagonist Kossuth.
Most of his numerous works on political and economical subjects
have been transbted into German. The beet complete cdirioa
of his writings has been pubUshed. in nine volumes, by the Hvagarian
Academy (Pest, 1884-1896). See L^« of Stichenyi. by Zsigroood
Kcrodny (Hung.: Pest, 1870); Aurel Kecskem^thy. The Lnst
Years and Death of Count Stiehenyi (Hung.; Pest. t866); Menyhert
Lonyai, Cottnt Siichenyi and Ins Fosthumons Writings (Hong.;
Budapest. 1875); ^^^x Falk. " Der Graf Stephen Safeheoyt und
seine Zeit " (in the OesUrreichische Rente, Vienna. 1867): Ant4l
Zichy, Count Stichenyi as a Fedaeogue (Hung.; Budapest. 1876):
P4I uyulai. Stichenyi as a Writer (Hung.; Budapest, 1892); Antal
Zichy, Biographical SkeUh of CounI Stephen Saechenri (Hung.;
a vob.. Budapeat. 1896-1897). (K. N. B.)
SZB>CH*UBIf (Four Riven), a western province of China,
bounded N. by Kokonor, Kan-suh and Shen si, E. by Hu-p«h
and Hu-nan, S. by Kwei-diow and Yun-nan, and W. by Tibet.
Estimates of its population vary from 45,000.000 to 68,000.000;
estimates of its area from 185,000 to 218,000 sq. m. It is
considerably larger than any other province of China, Yun-nan,
which comes next in size, covering less than 150^000 sq. m.
S»<h*nen contains twelve prefectual dtiet, inclusive of Ch'eng>
tu Fu, the provincial capital. The western portion forms pair.
SZ£G£D
3«9l
•f the iBOiuituD*UB(b of Centnl .Asia andTinath of it It over
10,000 ft. Iiigli, while heights of 16,000 to 19,000 fL oocor. TIm
•orthcm portion is Abo mountAinoiH, bat tfat cast oentnd put
of Sxe<h*ueo consists of a red saadstooe tab]e>land (see CniUt
f 1). Towac^ the north-east end of this plateau, ooinhiDnlsr
known as " the red basin, " is Ch*ing*tu Fu (pop. 490,000*-
Soo^ooo), the provincial capital The piain in which the 'city
«aiids is about 70 m. long and 30 wide, and is noted for the
density of its population (about 5,000,000), its wealthy and its
^lendid irrigation works.
The fauna includes bears, yaks, various kinds of antdope,
nwnkqrs and parrots. The flora includes magnificent yews,
a great variety of bamboos, tallow, varnish, soap, and wax
trees, rhododendrons and giant axalcas. The ethnotegical and
ooanerdal boundaries are sharply defined by the physical
features. The mountain districts are poorly cultivated, and
are inhabited by IJin or barbarians, who are distinguished
under the tribal names of Stefan, Lo-lo and Man-Cs2e, and
who maintain a semi«ind<pettdcnc& Tibetans afe also scattered
over the western region and are numerous in the district of
Pa-tang. The table-land is inhabited by Chinese, and is one
of the nMMt thriving and populous regions in the empire*
These Chinese exhibit great diversity of type, due in part to
immigration from other provinces in the 17th century —
three fourths of the inhabitants having, it is ssjd, been exter-
minated towards the close of the Miog dynasty.
Through the southern portion of Sxe<h*uen runs the Yangtseo-
kiaog, which is there navigable throughout the year, while the
province is traversed by three large rivers^ the Min-kiang, the
Fu-sung-ho and the Kialing-kiang, all of which take their rise
in the mountains 00 its north-west border, and empty into the
Yaagtsse-kiang at Su-chow Fu, Lu Chow and Chung-k'ing Fu
respectively. A series of rapids disturb the waters of the
Yangtate-kiang between I-ch*angand Chung-k'ing, a distance
of about 500 m. According to the native authorities there
are 13 big rapids and 72 smaller ones on these waters. Ia
ordinary circumstances it takes about six weeks to traverse
the distance. In 1898 Mr A. Little took a steamer, which had
been built for the purpose, up the rapids, and since then one or
more of these boats have ascended them. The province ia
iatcfsected by numerous but difficult roads. The Ta-pei-lu,
or great north road, leads from Ch*eng-tu Fu to Peking. From
the same centre there branch roads to Chung-k'hig Fu, to Pan-
ning Fu and to Ya-chow Fu, while another lotd cofmects
Chung-k'ing Fu with Kwei-chow Fu on the Yangtsze-kiang
and beyond with I-ch*ang Fu in Hu-peh. From Ya-chow Fu,
again, start two important roads, one leading into Tibet by way
of Yung'king, Ts'ing-k'i Hien, Ta^chien-lu, Li-Ung, Pa-tang
and Chiamdo, and the other to Western Yun-oan via Ts'ing-k'i
Hien, Ning-yuen Fu, and Yen-yuen Hien to Ta-li Fu. From
Ta-h Fu this road continues through Momein to Bhamo in
Burma. Another road connects Pa-tang and Li-kiang Fu with
Ta-li Fu, and yet another crosses the southernmost comer of
the province connectingTung-ch'uen Fu in Yun-nan with Ta-li
Ftt in the same province. In 1910 a k>an of j£6/Mo^eoo was
anangcd for the construction of a railway from Hankow through
the provinces of Hu-peh and Sse-ch'uen to Ch'eng-tu Fu.
The pfoducu of Sae<h'uen include silk, tes, rice, sugar,
hemp, vegetable wax, tobacco, timber and oranges. A larger
quantity of silk is produced in eastern Sae-ch'uen than in any
other province of the empire. Large quantities are exported
to Shen<ci, Shan-si, Kan-suh, Peking^ Yun-naa, Tibet, Kwei-
cbow, Kwang-si, Hu-nan and Hu-pch.
White wax ia another valuable article of the Sae-ch*nen trade. It is
Bade excluflively in the department of Kia-ting Fu, the climate of
W*Mm '•'hich appears to favour the propigation of the disease
among tne insects which is said Oy the natives tobe the cause
of the plentiful secretion of wax. This bchef is bome out by the fact .
that in the dtstricu where the insects breed only a sraaH quantity of
wax is produced, and experience has taught the natives the advantage
of breeding the Insects in one district and producing the wax in
another. The region of Kien-chang in the south of the province
has been found most suitable for breeding purpowv, and it is there,
thctefore, on the insect trees, whkh are evergreens with large and
oointod ovate leaves, that the bredding pespesees axi earned on.
AS the end of Apnl theproducen sUrt each with a load of the eggs
of the insects for the district of Kia-ting Fu, a journey which on
foot occupies about a fortnight. The road between the two dis-
trida is very monntatoous, and as exposure to the heat of the sun
woukl hatch the eggs too rapidly, the tnveUcni journey only during
the night. At Kia-ting Fu the eggs are eagerly bought up, and
are at once put upon the wax tree. Baron von Ricbthofcn thus
describes the subsequent process: —
" When the egg balls are orocured they ate foMed up, six or seven
together in a bag of palm leaf. These bags are nnpended on the
twtgs of the trees. This is all the human labour required. After
a few davs the insects commence coming out. They spread as
a brownisn film over the twigs, but do not touch the leaves. The
Chinese describe them as having neither shape, nor head, nor eyes,
nor feet. It is known that the faiacot is a species oJF coccus. Gndu*
aDy, while the insect is growing, the suiiace of the twigs tMoomcs
encrustated with a white substance, this is the wax. No care
whatever is required. The insect has no enemy, and is not even
toacbcd by ants. In the latter half of August the twigs are cut
off and boiled in watof. when the wax rises tothesuHacci It is
then melted and poured into deep pans. It cools down to a trao»-
luceot and highly crystalline substance.^*
Tobacco is grown very generally throughout the province,
and a exported in large quantitcs to Si-Xan, Tibet, Yun-nan,
Hu-oan, and the export to Hankow alone is estimated at
6| million lb annually. The best is grown in the district
of P'i Hien; the next quality is said to come from Kin-t'ang
Hien, and the third quality from Shih-£ang Hien, all these
districU hevag in the plain of Ch'eng-tu Fu. The habit, which
is unknown in other provinces, of smoking the tobacco leaves
rolled up in the shape of cigars obtains largely in Sze-ch'uen.
Salt is also produced in Sxe<h'uen in large quantities from brine,
which iSi raised from w«Us. Tsze-liu-tsing, in Tsze Chow,
Wu-tung«kiao, hear Kia-ting Fu, Pao-ning Fu, and Tung-
ch'uen Fu, are the districts where the wells are most abundant.
The brine is raised from the well with long bamboo tubes and
bamboo rapes, and is then led to large pans for evaporation.
In the district of Tsze-liu-tsing pctroletui is struck at a depth
of from x8oo to 3000 ft., and is used for evaporating the brine.
Coal, iron and copper are found in many parts. The only coal
worked is of an inferior quality, and the iron is smelted with
wood alone. Ning-yuen Fu is the principal district from which
the copper is produced. Wheat, barley, beans, rice, Indian
com, potatoes, &c, are among the other products of Sze-ch'uen.
ChimgK'ing Fu(pop. about 6oo/x)o) is the principal treaty
porL It imports textUes, aniline dyes, metals, sosp, petroleum
&c., and exports silk, wax, tobacco, sugar, oil, musk, medicinal
plants, &c By the terras of. the Mackay Treaty, signed at
Shanghai in 1909, the port of Wan Hien (pop. 140,000), which
is situated on the Yangtsze-kiang, 200 m. below Chung-K'ing
Fu, was opened to trade in 1905. Both Protestant and Roman
Catholic missions are at work in the province; the Protestants
opening their first mission station, at Chung-K'ing, in 1877.
See L. Richard. Comprdiensive Geography of the Chinese Empire,
pp. 104-iioand the authorities there cited (Shanghai, 1908); also
" The Provmcc of S*c-ch"ucn," in The Chinese Empire (M. Broom-
halt ed.; London. 1907): and Colonel C. C. Manifold. '* Recent
Exploration and Ecmiomk: Development in Central and Western
China," in Ceog. Journ. (1904), vol. xxiii.
SZEGED (Ger., Sutedin), the capital of the cx>unty of Csoogr&d
in Hungary, 1x8 m. S.£. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900),
100,270. It is situated on both banks of the Theiss just below
the confluence of the Maros, and contains the inner town and
four suburbs. It Is the second town in Hungaiy as regards
population, and since the disastrous inundation of the Theiss
on the night of the nth of March 1879, which almost completely
destroyed it, Szeged has been rebuilt. It is now one of the
handsomest towns of Hungary, and has several huge squares,
bftMul avenues, boulevards and many palatial buildings. It
has also been encircled with a strong dam in order to protect
it from floods. Among the prindpal buiklings are a Franciscan
convent, with a rich library and an interesting collection of
antiquities and ecclesiastical objects: a Piarist and a Minorite
convent; a handsome new town^hall; and a natural history
and historical museum to which is attached a public library.
Szeged is the chief seat of the manufacture of paprica, a kind of
3ao
SZEKESFEHERVAR— 8Z0MBATHELY
red pepper largely uted in Hungary, And of a pastty caUed
tarkonya\ and has factories of soap, leather, boots, saw-mills
and distilleries. Szeged is the centre of the commerce and in-
dustry of the great Hungarian AUOld, being an important railway
junction and the principal port on the Theisa.
Since the 15th century Sseged has been one of the most
prominent cities in Hungary. From 1541 till x686 it was in
possession of the Turks, who fortified iL It is also notorious
for its many witchcraft trials^ In xM it sent strong detach-
ments to the national Hungarian army. In July 1849 the seat
of the government was transferred hither for a short time.
SZfiKESFEB(foVAR (Ger., SluJUweissenimrg, Lat.,' AM
Rtgalis or Alba JZe^), a town of Hungary, capital of the county
of Fej*r, 4X »• S.W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 30|4S»-
Tt is situated in a marshy plain and is a well-buut and prosperous
town. Sz£kesfch6rv&r is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric,
one of the oldest in the country, and was formerly a town of
great importance, being the coronation and burial place of the
Hungarian kings from the zoth to the x6th century. ' Amongst
its principal buildings are the cathedral, the episcopal palace,
several convents, o! which the most noteworthy is the Jesuit
convent, now a Cistercian secondary school with a handsome
church, and the county hall. The town carries on a brisk trade
in wine, fruit and horses, and is one of the principal centres of
horse-breeding in Hungary. Sz£kesfeh6rv&r is one of the
oldest towns of Hungary, in which St. Stephen, the first ting
of Hungary, built a church, which served as the coronation
church- for the Hungarian kings. In the same church some
fifteen kings were buried. In 1543 it fell into the bands of the
Turks, under whom it remained until 1686. Before evacuat-
ing it, the Turks plundered the tombs of the kings, destroyed
the old church and several other buildings, and burnt the
archives. Several sarcophagi of the kings, and the foundations
of the oM church, have been found by excavation beneath
the cathedral.
. SZBKLERS, or Shekels (^sri^e^y, lit. Siculi)^ a Fmno-Ugriaii
people of Transylvania, akin to the Magjrars. They form a
compact mass of rather more than 450,000, extending from
near Kronstadt on the south to Maros-Vis&riiely and Gyerg6
St MikI6s on the north. Their origin is unknown and has been
the subject of much learned debate. Their own andent tradi-
tion affirms their descent from Attila's Huns. Accordmg to
Procopius (De heUo gothicOf W. 18) 3000 Huns entered Transyl-
vania (ErdeUu, i.e. the Magyar ErdHy) after their defeat ** calling
themselves, not Hungarians, but Zekul," and the Szeklcrs were
the descendants of the Huns who stayed in Transylvania till
the return of their kinsmen under Arp&d; tlie anonymous scribe
of King Bfla speaks of them as " formerly Attila's folk." Von
Rethy {Ung. Rev. vil. 8x3) suggests that they were originally
a band of Black Ugrians who sought refuge in Transylvania
after their defeat by the Pechenegs. Timon, however {Hagyar
Alkotmdny is JcgidrUnel, p. 75), points out that their language
proves that their separation from the main Magyar stock most
have taken place after the Magyar tongue had been fully deve-
loped (see also Hunfalvy, MagyQr&rszdg Eiknograpkidja, 700).
According to another theory they were Magyars transplanted
by St Ladislaus to Tiransylvania in order to form a permanent
frontier guard. Some such orighi woold, indeed, seem to be
inqilied by the , name Szekel, if this be derived, as Csetn^
sarraiscs ("Vit Sieklerfrage/' Ung. Ret. I. 4xx>428), from
mk, seat, i.e. an administrative district (cf. the SttM of the
Tkansylvanian Sixons); Stektly would thus mean simply
"fronlier-gnards/*
SZreUQBfl, EDB (18x4-1878), Hungarian dramatist, whose
original name was Jtoef Saathmiry, was bora at Nagyvirad-
Olaszi, on the 8th cl KUrch 1814. His parents would have
made Mm a priest; he wanted to be a gieat doctor; finally be
entered the office of an enj^eer. But hb bean was afaready
devoted to tbe dmnA and, on the x 5th of August 1834, despite
the pwjbiWtH! of hb tynimical father, he actoally appeased
f^ikjlft d( BMqwst. His father tbcfetpba forbade
him to bear his name in future, arid. the younger S^atbrniry
henceforth adopted instead the name of Ede Sagligeti, the
hero of one of Sandor Risfalud/a romances. He supported
himaell for the xwzt few years precariously enough, earning as
he did little more than twelve florins a month, but at the same
time he sedulously devoted himself to the theatre and sketched
several plays, which differed so completely from the *' original"
plays then in vogue (The Ptayei'^nU Trick attually appeared
upon the boards) that they attracted the attention of aucb
connoisseurs as VdriJsmarty and Bajza, who warmly encouraged
the young wxfter. In 1840 the newly founded. Hungarian
Academy crowned his five-act drama RotOf the title-r6le of
which was brilliantly acted by Rosa Laborfalvy, the great actress,
who subsequently married Mauras J6kax. Szigligeti was now
a celebrity. In 1840 he was elected a member of the Academy
and in 1845 a member of the Kisfalndy Society. He was now
the leading Hungarian dramatist. Three of his plays were
crowned by the National Theatre and sixteen by the A^demy.
His verdict on all dramatic subjects was for years regarded ui
final, and he was the mentor of all the rising young dramatists
of the 'sixties. During the half -century of bis dramatic career
Ssigligeti wrote no fewer than a hundred original pieces, afl of
them remarkable for the inexhaustible Ingenuity of their plots,
their up^to-date techniqiie and the consummate skill with which
the author used striking and unexpected effects to produce
his dinouemenl. He wrote, perhaps, no work of genius, but he
amused and enthralled the Magyar playgoing public for a
generation and a half. Srig^geti^ most successful tragedies
were GKtt» (X844). Pa^ Bcldi (1856), LiglU*s Shadows (x86s>,
Struensee (1871), ValerUtind The Pretender {jMS), His tragedies,-
as a rule, hick pathos and sublimity. Much mote remarkable
are his comedies. He is a perfect master of the art of weaving
complications, and he prefers to select his subjects ftom the
daily life of the upper and upper-middle dasses. The best of
these comedies are The Three C&mmands of Matrimony (1850),
Tunefid Stetiey (1855), Mamma (1857), The Reign 0/ Wifmot^
(1863), and especially the farce Young Lilly (1849). He also
translated Goethe's Egmoni and Shakespeare's Ridtard tIJ.,
and wrote a dramaturgical work entitled The Drama and iis
Varieties. A few of his plays have appeared in German.
'See P. Rakodczay, EdtvardSsigJigeli's Life and Works (Hung.;
Presburg, 1901} ; Pk\ Gyulai. Memorial Speeches (Hung.; Bo£i-
pe*t. 1879 A<^d 1890). (R. N. B.)
SZOHBAtHBLT' (Ger., Steinamanger), the capital of the
Hungarian county of Vas, 162 m. W» of Budapest by rail.
Pop. (1900), 93,309.. It is the scat of a Roman Catholic bishop,
ai^ possesses a beautiful cathedral (1797-1821) with two towers,
x8o ft. high. Other buildings are the episcopal palace, to which
is attache a museum of Roman antiquities, the county hail,
the convent of the Dominicans and the seminary for Roman
Ckthoh'c priests.- Szombathely is an important railway and
industrial centre, and has a state railway workshop, maau-
facterics for agricultural machinery, foundries and steam nxillk
. About 5 m. south of Sxombathely Ues the small village of Ja&k,
with a Dominican convent from the ixth century, which has
a zemaikably beautiful church, one of the best specimen of
Romanesque architecture in the Country. About x6 m. by rail
sooth of the town is KOrmend (pop. 6x71), with a beautiful
castle belonging to Count Bathya^yi. About x6 m. by rail,
west of Kdrmend is the small town of Saent Gotthard (pop.,
2055, mostly Germans), with a*Cisterdan abbey, foonded by
King Btia HI. in X183, where General MontecUccuH gained a
decisive victory over the Turks in 1664!
Siombathdy occupies the site of the Roman town Sabaria
Savaria), which was the capital of Paimonia. Here In a.d. X93
Septimius Sevcrus was prodairoed emperor by his legions.
Many remains from the Roman period have been excavated,
snch as traces of an amphitheatre, a triumphal ardi, the old
fortifications, an aqueduct, ftc The remains are preserved partly
in the museum at Budapest, and partly in the municipal museum.
The bishopric was created in 1777,
T— TAAFFE
<Z2t
Ttbe Uft letter in the Semitic alphAbet, where, howtver,
iU foim in tiie earliest iotcriptions is that of a St
Aadrew'a Cross X. In both Greek aod Latin, however,
although the uprisht and cross stroke acefreqaently not
exactly at right angles and the upright often projects b^yood the
cross stroke, the forms approach more nearly to the modem than
to the Semitic shape. The name Tdm was taken over in the Greek
rai;. The sound was that of the unvoiced dental slop. The
English t, however, is not dental but alveolar, being pronounced,
as d also, not by putting the toogue agaipU the teeth but against
their sockets, lliis difference is marked in the phonetic
differentiation of the dental and the alveolar / by writing them
respectively I aiul t. The alveolar sound is frequent also in
the languages of India, which possess both this and the dental
sound. The Indian ^, however, is probably produced still farther
irom the teeth than is the English sound. In the middle of
words when 1 precedes a palatal sound like i (y) which is not
syllabic, it coalesces uiih it into the sound of jA as in position,
naticn, &c. The change to a sibilant in these cases took place
in late Latin, but in Middle English the i following the t was
still pronounced as a separate Syllable. A later change is that
which is seen in the pronunciation of nature as natf, ^his
arises from the pronunciation of « as y«, and does not affect
the English dialects which have not thus modified the u soxmd.
Similar changes had taken place in some of the local dialects
of Italy before the Christian era. At the end of words the
English / is really aspirated, a breath being audible after the /
in words like M, kU, pU, This is the sound that in ancient
Greek was lepiescnted by $. In medieval and modem Greek,
however, this has become the unvoiced sound represented in
English by (A in Ihin, tJ^ick, pith. Though represented in
English by two symbols this is a single found, which may be
cither interdental or, as frequently in English, produced " by
keeping the tongue loosely behind the upper front teeth, so that
the breath escapes partly between the tongue and the teeth,
and partly, if the teeth are not very closely set, through the
mterstices between them" (JespcTKn). In EngUsh tk repre-
sents both the unvoiced sound ^ as in iWw, &c., and the voiced
sound 9, which is found initially only in pronominal words
Mke this, ikat, tkae, Ihetit those, is commonest medially as in
f9iher, botktr, smoiher, eUher, and is found also finally in words
Uke wiih (the preposition), 6^. Earfy Englisfa used t^ and
d indiscriminately for both voiced and unvoiced sounds, in
Middle English A disappeared and > wsu gradually asaimflated-
in form to y, which is ofun found for it In early printing. It
is, however, to be regretted that English baa not kept the old
sy mbo b for sounds which are very chuacteristic of the language.
In modem Greek the ancient 3 (d) has become the voiced spirant
(5), though it is still written d. Hence to represent D, Greek
baa DOW to neaort to the clumsy device of writing NT instead.
(P. Ci.)
TAAFPl, raUARD PRAMZ J08BPB VOH, Count {nth
Viscount Taaff^e and Baron of Ballymote, in the peerage of
lielandl U^^yt^s), Austrian statesman, was bom at Vienna
on 14th February 1833. He was the second son of Count
Ludwig Patrick Taaffo<i79t<-r85s), a distinguished public man
who was iBinfster of justice in 1848 and president of the court
of appeaL As achOd Taaffe was one of the chosen companions
of the youag archduke, afterwards emperor, Francis Joseph.
In 1859 he entered the public service; in 1867 hewasStatthalter
of Upper Austria, and the emperor offered him the post of
minister of the interior in Benat's administration. lo June
he became vice-president of the mhustry, and at the end of
the year he entered the first ministry of the newly organiaed
Austrian portion of the monarchy. For the next three years
he took a very important part in the confused political changes,
and probably more than any other politician reprasentcd the
wishes of the emperor. He had entered the ministry aa a
German Liberal,^ but be aoon took ah intermediate positjott
between the Liberal majority of the Berger ministry and the
party which desired a fcderalistlc amendment of the constitu-
tion and which was itrongly supported at court. From
September i8d8 to Januaiy 2870, after the ictirement of Auer^
sperg, he was president of the cabinet. In 1870 the government
broke up on the question of the revision of the constitution:
Taaffe with Potocki and Berger wished to make some concessions
to the FederalisU; the Liberal majority wished to preserve
undiminished the authority of the Rcichsrath. The two parties
presented memoranda to the emperor, each defending their
view, and offering their resignation: after some hesitation the
emperor accepted the policy of the majority, and Taaffe with
his friends resigned. Tlie Liberals, however, failed to carry on
the government, as the representatives of most Qf the territories
refused to appear in the Reichsralh: they resigned, and in
the month of April Potocki and Taaffe returned to office. The
latter failed, however, in the attempt to come to some under*
standing with the Czechs, and in their turn' had to make way
for the Clerical and Federalist cabinet of HohenwarL Taaffe
now became Statthaller of Tirol, but once more on the break-
down of the Liberal government in 1879 he was called to office.
At first he attempted to carry on the government without
change of principles, but he aoon found it necessary to come
to an imderstanding with the Feudal and Federal parties, and
he was responsible for the conduct of the negotiations which
in the elections of this year gave a majority to the different
groups of the National and Clerical opposition. In July he-
became minister president: at first he still continued to govern
with the Liberals, but this was 'soon made impossible, and he
was obliged to turn for support to the Conservatives. It was
his great achievement that he persuaded the Caecha to abandon
the policy of abstention and to take part in the parliameni.
It was on the sQpport of them, the Poles, and the Clericals that
his majority depended. His avowed intention was to unite
the nationalities of Austria: Gcrmana and Slavs were,, ma he
said, equally integral parts of Austria; neither must be
oppressed; both must unite to form an Austrian parliament.
Notwithstanding the growing opposition of the German Liberab,
who refused to accept the equality of the nationalitiea, he
kept his position for thirteen years. Not a great creative
statesman, he had singular capacity for managing men» a
very poor orator, he had in private intercourse an urbanity and
quickness of humour which showed his Irish ancestry. For
the history of his administntion see Austsu-Hi^ncary,
History (Sec II. *' Anstria Proper "). Beneath an apparent
cynicism and frivolity Taaffe hid a strong feeling of patriotism
to his country and loyalty to the emperor. It was no small
service to both that for so long, during very critical years in
European history, he maintained harmony between the two
parts of the monarehy and preserved constitutional government
fax Austria. The necessities of the parliamentary situation
compeDed him sometimes to go farther in meeting the demands
of the Conservatives and Czechs than he would probably have
wished, but he was essentially an opportunist: in no way a
party man, he recognized that the government must be carried
on, and he cared little by the aid of what party the neoeasary
majority was maintained. In 1893 he was defeated on a proposal
for the revision of the franchise, and resigned. He retired into
private life, and died two years bter at his country residence-
EUerschau, in Bohemia, on 29th November 1895.
By the death of his eldbr brother Charles (i823>i873). a colond
in the Austrian arnii^. Taaffe succeeded to the Austnan and Irish
cittea. He ananicd in itba Countese Irana Tsaky. by, whom he
left four daughters and one ion, Henry. The family history
Mcsents points of unusual interest. From the 13th century the
Taaffes had been one o( the leading fannilies in the north of Ireland.
In 1628 Sir John Taaffe^was raised to the peerage as Baron Bally-
int Taaffe of Corvcn. He left fifteen children, of
324
TABERNACLE— TABERNACLES, FEAST OF
iTABSBNACLBp as a geaoal term in arcbitectture, a species
of niche or reeess in which an image may be placed. In Noiman
tK>rk there are but few remainsi and these generally over door-
ways. They are shallow and comparatively plain, and the
figures are often only in low relief, and not detached statues.
In Early English work they are deeper, and instead of simple
arches there Ss often a canopy over the figure, which was placed
on a small, low pedestal. Later in 4.he style the heads of the
tabernacles became cusped, either as trdoils or cinquefoils,
and they are often [daced in pairs side by side, or in ranges,
as at Wells cathedral. Decorated tabemades are still deeper
and more ornamented, the heads are sometimes richly cusped
and surmounted with crocketed gables, as at York, or with
projecting canopies, very much like the arcade at lichfidd.
In this case the under side of the canopy is carved to imitate
groined ribs, and the figures stand either on high pedestals, or on
corbels. Perpendicular tabemades possess much the same
features, but the work is generally moredabozate (see Corbel,
Canopy, Niche, &c.). The word tabernacle is also often used
for the receptade foe rdics, which was often made in the form
of a small house or church (see Shsine). The term " tabcmade
work " is givoi, in architecture, to the richly sculptured tracery,
umllar to that employed on the upper part of a tabernacle,
decorated with canopied niches which contain statues. The
Eleanor crosses in England are enriched with tabemade work
over the niches, as also the chapels of Bishops Nicholas West
(1461-1533), and John Alcock (1430-1500) in Ely cathedral,
both dating from the beginning of the i6th century.
TABERNACLES. FEAST OF, the autumn fesUval of the
Israelites, beginning on the 15th of Tishri and cdebrated by
residing for the seven succeeding days in rustic booths (Heb.
Sukkolbf in the Vulgate Tabemacula, whence the English name
of the feast). Among the Hebrews at was the third and chief
of the three annual pilgrimage festivals connected respectivdy
with theharvesting of the barley (PassoVer), of wheat (Pentecost),
and of the vine (Tabemades). Hence it is referred to as " the
Feast " par excdUnce (Heb. He^g, d. Arab. Hajj) even as late
as 3 Chron. viL 9. Being of the nature of a pilgrimage feast the
booths were temporary erections for the accommodation of the
pilgrims. But in early Jewish tradition, in both Yahvis^ and
Elohist sources of the Pentateuch (£xod» zxziv. 22, sqdii. 16)
it is called simply the Harvest Feast (A.V. " Feast of Ingather-
ing ") and is to be observed " at the end of the year,*' U. of
the agricultural year. In I)eut. rvL 13 seq., it is termed the
Feast of Tabemades and is to be kept seven days after the
produce of the threshing-floor and winepress has been gathered
in. In the Holiness Code (Lev. xxiii. 39) it is to be kept for
seven days after the first, the first of vrhich is to be " a sabbath,"
and the eighth " a sabbath " (possibly originally a lunar quarter-
day): branches of four trees are to be taken. In the Priestly
Code (Lev.xxiii. 33 seq.; Num. jodx. 12-38) the first and eighth
day are to be days of holy assembly^ and in the latter passage
elaborate details are given of the sacrifices to be presented,
including a series of bullocks, thirteen on the first day, twelve
on the next, and so on down to seven on the seventh day.
Only one is to be sacrificed on the conduding feast (H^b.
kiereO) of the eighth day.
The higher criticism sees, m these successive enactments of
the various codes included in the Pentateuch (g.».)i s develop-
ment in the character of the festival. At first bdd at any of
the local shrines, such as GQgal, Bethd, Shiloh, as well as
Jerusalem, it was hdd at an indefinite date during the harvest
in the fall of the year. Then with the concentration of the
cultus at Jerusalem represented by Deuteronomy, the celebra-
tion was restricted to the Judean capital, and its duration fixed
at seven days, though its date was still left indeterminate.
This was fixed in the Priestly Code at the 15th of the seventh
month, and an dghth day of solemn assembly added after the
return from the exile.
Against this hypothetical reconstruction is the fact that
Solomon appears to have selected the occasion of the feast for
the dedication of the temple, and that it lasted, even in his
time, seven days (i Kings vm, s, 6^. Jersboam giu»md for
a similar feast in the northern kingdom on the X5th day of
the eighth month, " like unto the feast in Judah" {ibtid, xii. 32)..
The determination of a fixed date must therefore have been
much earlier than Deuteronomy or the alleged period of the
Priestly Code, A pilgrimage least must be fixed in date to
ensure the simultaneous presence of the pilgrims. There arcv
besides,, seeming references to the feast in the early prophets,
as Hosea xii. 9, Amos v. 21, as well as in Isaiah ix. 9 (Heb.).
The conduding feast docs not seem to refer to tabemacla
per u, but to be distinct from it, as is shown by the break iit
the descending series of the sacrifices of bullocks as given in
Numbers. In Jewish practice the conduding feast is not held
in booths, and Maimonides {Morek, vL 4a) suggests that its
object was to give opportunity for final proceedings in asscnU^y
halls. _ . ^
The existence, therefore,' of much variation in the practice
of the festival in historic times is scarcely proved by the seeming
variations of tho enactments concerning it in the Pentateuclu
It is possible, however, that there may have been differences
of custom in the carrying out of the feasL In Neh. xiiL 15
the trees whose branches were used for making the booths
appear to diHer ({om those mentioned in Lev. xxiii. 40, though
in Jewish tradition the latter passage was taken to refer to the
Luiahf or a combination of twigs of wUlow and myrtle, with a
palm branch, which, together with a dtron, are held in the
hand during processions in the synagogue. The Sadducces
and Karaites did not carry these in their hand, but used; them
as decorations of the booths. In the second temple there
was a water libation every morning of the festival, and on the
evening of the first day the great golden canddabrum was
lit up and the men danced a torch dance around it (Mishnah^
Sukkah, v. 2-4). It is rq>orted by Josephus that, when Alex-
ander Jannaeus, in the year 95 B.C., was acting as high-piiest
in the temple on the Feast of Tabemacle6> instead of pouring
the water libation on the altar, according to the Pharisaic
custom, he poured it at his feet, giving rise to a riot in which
6000 men are said to have lost their lives {Ant. jxl., xiii., 5;
Talmud, Sukkah, 48 b).
The festival is certainly an agricultural one, and is so termed
in the Pentateuch. Whether it was derived from the Canaanitea,
who had similar f^tivals Qudges xxix. 27), is uncertain. All
nations have similar harvest homes, espedally with reference
to the vintage feasts; as, for insUnce, the Athenian Chchophoria.
The Syrians cdebrated every three years a " Booth i^cstival.**
At the Hindu Festival of Dasara, which lasted nine days from
the new moon of October, tents made of canvas or booths made
of branches were erected in front of the temples. The Spartans
had a nine days' festival termed Camea, during which they
dwelt in pavilions and tents in memory of their old camp life
(Athenaeus, iv. 19). The Feast of Tabemades b one of the
few Jewish festivals described in classical writers. Plutarch
{Symposium iv., vi. 2) compares Tabemades with the Bacchic
rites. It was pre-eminently the period of exultation in ancient
Jewish. rite, and the Mishnah declares that "He who has not
seen the joy of the libations of Tabemades has never in his life
witnessed joy." So much importance was attributed to this
festival that it was chosen as the occasion on which the Law
should be redted during the sabbatical year (Dcut. xxxi. 9-12),
and the Messianic vision of Zecbariah xiv. z6 sees the remnant
of all the nations coming up to Jerusalem to worship the Lord
of Hosts, and to keep the Feast of Tkbemades.
In bter Jewish custom the one-year cyde of reading of
sections from the Pentateuch ends on the conduding day of
Tabemades, which is therefore known as the Rejoicing of the
Law {Simfiaf T&roh). The custom of dwelling, for part of the
day at least, in f)ooths, is still kept up by orthodox Jews,
who have temporary huts covered with branches erected
in thdr courtyards, and those who are not in possession
of a house with a backyard often go to pathetic extremes in
order to fulfiTIhe law by making holes in roofs, across which
branches are placed. (J. Ja.)
TABLE— TABLEi MATHEMATICAL
3H
TABU <tat. Itflnfo), a flaf, oblong dab supported upon Ic^
or pillan; originally' anything flaU As one of the f^ indis-
pensable pieces of doiacstic iuralture, the table is of great an-
tiqnity. It was known, in a small and rudimentaiy fom, to
the EgyptSaas, who used wood for its construction; the Assyrians
certainly employed metal and possibly other materials in its
manulactiire. Grecian tables were also oftea of metal, with
three oc four legs and of oousiderable variety of form; they were
small and low By Roman times the table had appurently
become somewhat more common. The favourite form was the
tripod, but one and four legs were also used. Already the shape
varied considerably, and in addition to wood, there were tables
of marble, ivory, bronse and the predous metals. The more
costly examples were carved, inlaid or otherwise omamented,
cedar and the finely marked or grained woods generally were
much sought after As in Greece the tables were low, they
were intended for redining, rather than sitting; their legs were
those of wild beasts, or were formed of sphinxes, termini and
other figures. Some of those which remain are of extreme grace
and most delicate worlunanship; to them the Empire style
is enoTBMUsly indebted. In antiquity tables of any kind can
only have b^ the appansge of the rich. In the early middle
ages, although there was variety of fotm^tbe drciilar. semi-
circular, oval and oblong were aU in use— tables appear, save
in tare instances, to have been portable and suppovted upon
trestles fixed or folding, which were deared out of the way at
the end of a meal. The custom of serving dinner at several
small taUeSy which is often supposed to be a very modem
rdinement, was certainly followed in the French chltteaux, and
probably also in the English castles, astariy as the r3th century.
For persons of high degree, fixed tables were reserved. Even
at a period when domestic furniture was of a very primitive
ckaiacter and few modem coovenienoes had been evolved,
costly tables were by no means un]mown--some dim traditions
of Rome's refinements must necessarily have filtered through
the centuries Thus Charlemagne possessed three tables of
silver and one of gold — ^no doubt they were of wood covered
with plates of tfie predous metab. Before the i6th century
the number of tables properly so called was small, hence very
few of earlier date than the middle of that century have come
down to us. In the chapter4kouse of Salisbury cathedral is a
restored istb-ccntury eaample which stands pnctitAUy alone.
In point of age it fa most nearly approached by the famotis
pair of trcctle tables in the great hall at PenshursL
When the table became a fixed and permanent piece of
fumituxt the word ** board, " which had kHig connoted it, fell
into (fisose save in an allusve sense, and its place was taken
by such phrases as "joyned table" and "framed Uble"~
that is, jointed or framed together by a joiner; sometimes
people spk^e of a '' standing " or " dormant " Uble. They
were most frequently oblong, some two feet or two feet six
inches wide, and the guests sat with their backs to the wall,
the other side of the table being left tree for service. Sometimes
they were used as side>Ubles, or furnished with a cupboard
beneath the board; they were supported on -quadrangular legs
or massive ends and feet full of Gothic feeling, and were several
inches higher than the dining-table of the soth century. Heavy
stretchen or foot^rails were fixed dose to the floor— for the
avoidance, no doubt, of dranghts. Oak was the usual material,
but elm, cherry and other woods were sometimes used. Soon
tht legs became bulbous, and were gadrooned or otherwise
omaacttted, and the frame began to be carved. The intro-
duction, before the rdth century dosed, of the "drawing table"
marked the rapidity with which this piece of furniture was
developed. TUs was the forerunnpr of the ** extending dining-
tdUe.'* Of the three leaves of which these tables were con»-
posed two were bdow the other; they drew out and were
siq>ported by brackets, whUe the slab proper dropped to the
■aase level Somewhat later legs became excessivdy bulbous;
> For matbematiral tables see' next article. This use of the
word comes from the analogy of the laying out of objects on an
otdinafy table.
this ugly form gave place soon after the middle of the 17th
century to baluster-shaped legs. Hitherto Ubles had, genetally
speaking, been large and maasivo^Uttle in the nature of what
is nam called the ** occasional ta&le " seems to have been pro-
vided until some yean after the Restoration. About that time
small tebles of varying sizes and shapes, but still of substantial
weight, began to be made; many of them were fiap4ables,
which took up little room when they were not in use; These,
however, had been known at an earlier date. Charies 11. had
not long been on the throne when the idea of the flap-table
was amplified in a peculiarly graceful fadiion. Two flaps were
provided instead of one, the result being the rather large ovsl
table of the ** gate-leg " variety that has remained in use ever
since, in which the open '* gate " supports the flap. Towards
the end of the rdgn Ubles began to have the graceful twisted
togs joined to the flat seipentme stretchers, which produced,
almost for the first time in English furniture, a sense of lightness
and gaiety. The walnut tables of the end of the Stuart period
were often inlaid with marquetry of great excdlenoe. The
number and variety of the tables in well-^o-do households were
now increasing rapidly, and the console-table was imported
from the Continent contemporaneously with the common use
of the mahogany side-table.
As mahogany came into general use, about the beginning of
the second quarter of the i8th oentmry, an enormous number
of card-tables were made with plsln or cabriole legs and spade
or daw and ball feet, often with lions' heads carved upon the
knees; the top folded up to half its sixe* when open. The
Chippendale school intfloduced small Ubles with carved open-
work " galleries " round the edges (to protect china and other
small objects), and dustered 1^; Gothic forms and Chinese
frets were for a time fasfaionaUe. Later in this century, so
prolific in new forms of furniture, tables were frequently made
of rosewood and satinwood; side-Ubles, often highly elaborate,
adorned with swags and festoons and other classical motives,
supported by termini or richly carved legs, were gilded and
topped with marble slabs or inlaid wood. The Pembroke UMe,
of oblong form, with two semi-drcokr or oblong leaves, with
edgings of marquetry, was a characteristic feature of late 18th-
century English furniture, and still retains its popularity. Then
came the Empire period; the .taper was replaced by the round
leg, rosewood grew commoner, and brass mountings the rule.
For illustrations see Ftjknituue.
TABLB, MATHBIIATICAL In any Uble the tcsuIu
Ubulated are termed the '* ubular results " or *' respondents, "
and the corresponding numbers by which the Uble is entered
are termed the ** arguments." A table is said to be of sin^e
or double entry according as there are one or two argumenU.
For example, a Uble of logarithms is a table of sin^ entry,
the numbers being the arguments and the logarithms the Ubular
resiilU; an ordinary multiplication table a a Uble of double
entry, giving xy as Ubular result for x and y as arguments.
The intrinsic value of a Uble may be estimated by the actual
amount of time saved by consulting it; for example, a table of
square rooU to ten dedmab is more valuable than a Uble of
squares, as the extraction of the root would occupy more time
than the multiplication of the niunbcr by itself. The value of a
table does not depend upon the difficulty of calculating it;
for, once made, it is made for ever, and as far as the user is
concerned the amount of labour devoted to iU original con-
struction is immaterial In some Ubles the labour required
in the constmction is the same as if all thetabular resulu had
been calculated separatdy; but ia the majority of instances a
Uble can be formed by expeditious methods whidi are inap-
plicable to the calculation of an individual result. This is the
case with tables of a continuous quantity, which may frequently
be constructed by difierences. The most striking insUnce
perhaps Is afforded by a factor uble or a uble of primes; for,-
if it is required to determine whether a given number is prime
or not, the only universally available method (in the absence of
Ubles) is to divide it by every prime less than iU square foot
or until one is found that divides it without remainder. Bvt
3^6
TABLE, MATHEMATICAL
to fam a table of prime nomben the pioceas m iheofttkaOy
linple and capid, lor we have only to laage all the niunben ia
a line and strike out eveiy seoood mmibcr beginning liom a,
cveiy third beginning irom 3, and so on, those that icmaia
being primes. Even when the tabular itsolts aie coostmcted
srpanitrly, the method of diffoenoes or other nifthods oon-
nectmg together different tabular results may afford valnahle
verififations. By having leoouise to tablet not only does the
oompoter save time and hdMNir, but he also obtains the certainty
of aminiry.
The invention of logarithms in 16x4, foUowcd immediatdy
by the calculation of logarithmic tables, revoltttionijed all the
methods of calculation; and the original work, performed by
Henry Biiggs and Adrian Vlacq in ^••^^!^*»T"g logarithms in
theearly part of the 17th century has in effect formed a portion
of every arithmetical operation that has since been canied out
by means of logarithms. And not only has an incredible amount
of labour been saved, ' but a vast number of calculations and
researches have been rendered practicable which otherwise
would have been beyond human reach. The mathematical
process that underlies the tabular method of obtaining a result
may be indirect and complicated; lor riamplr, the logarithmic
method would be quite unsuitable for the multi|riication of two
numbers if the logarithms had to be ralnilated spcdally for the
purpose and were not already fah>i1at»d for use. The arrange-
ment of a table on the page and all typographical details— such
as the shape of the 6gures, their spadag, the thickness and
placing of the rules, the colour and quality of the paper, &c. —
are of the highest importance, as the computer has to spend hours
with his eyes fixed upon the book; and the efforts of eye and
brain required in finding the right numbers amidst a mass of
figures on a page and in taking them out aocuratdy, when the
computer is tired as well as when he is fresh, aie far more trying
than the mechanical action of simple reading. Moreover, the
trouble required by the computer to leatn the useof a table need
scarcely be cooaiderBd; the important matter is the time and
labour saved by it after he has leamed its use.
, In the following descriptions of tables an attempt is made
to give an account of all those that a computer of the present
day is likdy to use in carrying out arithmetical calculations.
Tables relatiag to ordinary arithmetical operations are first
described, and afterwards an account is given of the most useful
and least technical of the more strictly mathematical tables,
such as factorials, gamma functions, integrals, Bcssd's faac-
tions, &C. Nearly all modem tables are stereotyped, and in
giving 4heir titles the accompanying date is either that of the
original stereotyping or of the ttrage in question. In tables that
have passed thnnigh many editions the date given is that of the
«iition described. A much fuller account of general tables
published ptevioosly to 1872, by the present writer, is contained
in the British Association lUpirt for 1873, ppw X'X75.
Tables of Dirisort (Facior Tables) and Tahles cf Primes.-^Thie
existing factor tables extend to 10,000^)00.- Is 1811 L. Chemac
publiahed at Deventer his Cribntm ariikmetieum, 'whkh gives
all the prime divison of every narober not divisible by 3, 3, or s
up to 1,000,000. In 1814-1817 J. C. Burckhaidt pubUsned at Paris
his Tables desdwisewst giving the least divisor of every number
not divisible by 3, 3. or ^ up to 3,036,000. The second million
was isMied in i8fa, the third in 1816, and the first in 1817. The
correqpondtng tables for the seventh, eighth, and ninth millioas
were calcnUted by Z. Daae and Issued at Hambuig in 1862, X863,
and 1865. Dase died suddenly in 1861 during the progress of
die work, and it was completed by H. Rosenberg. Dase's calcula-
tion was performed at the tnstigatioa of Gauss, and he began at
6fiOO/)oo becaose the Beriin Academy was in posscssioa of a nana-
script presented by Crelle extending Burckhardt's tables from
3.ooo/)0o to 6,000.000. This manuscript was found on examina-
tion to be so inaccurate that the pabucaHon was not desirable,
and accordhttly the three intervening milltons were cakvlated
and pu blished by James Glalsher, the FaOor Table for the Fourtk
> Referring to factor tables, J. H. Lambert wrote {JSupbtemeuic
tebularunit 1798, p. xv.) : '^ Univenalis finis taliura ubularum
est ttt setnd pre semper computetur quod aaepius de novo compu-
tandum foret. ct ut pro omni caso competetur qood in futururo pro
qiMvisesttlOompuUtmndesiderebitur." Thii applies to aU tables.
liiBiem ^fpfrin^ at ^ ^f * 4fm hi t9j% ; . .
and sixth milhoas in 1880 and 1883 respectively (all three 1
steieotvped). The tenth million, though cah-ubted by Dase
and Rosenberg, has not been published. The iriae quarto
volmaes (TaUea des dmimm, Paris, 1814-1817; Fattar TaUet^
Loodoo, 187^1883: FaeionH^TMu, HaaOnifg, i8te-igC^ thv
form one uniform table, giving the least divisor of every auBber
not divisible by 2. 3, or 5, from unity to nine millions. The arrange-
ment of the results on the page, which is due to BnrekhanH. is
admirable (or its clearness and condensation, the least faetoss far
9000 nunbers being given on each page. The tabular jwtion «d
each minioo oocnpics 112 pages. The first three ■"«'"*"— were
issued separately, and also bound in one volume, but the other
six millioDS are all separate. Burckhaidt began the pubficatioii of
his tables with the second million instead of the first, as Cheraac's
factor table for the first roiUion was already ia exsstciicBu Bnick-
hardt's first million does not supersede Cheraac's, as the latter gives
all the prime divisors of numbers not divisible by 3, 3, or ^ up to
1,020,000. It occupies 1020 pages, and Burckhardt found it very
accurate; be detected only thirty-eight errors, of which 1
' ' ing bei
thus i
^ s given in Buickbardt's brst miQion. Other errata ut contained
in Allan Cunningham's paper referred to below.
Burckhardt gives but a very brief account of the method hw
which he constructed his table; and the in t ruduttioo to Daae^
miUions merely consists of Gauss's letter sunestuw their oa»>
struction. The Introduction to the Feurth Umwm (pp. 53) 1
tains a full account of the method of construction and a hisi .
of factor tables, with a bibliography of writings on the subfect.
The Introduction (pp. I03) to the Sudk MilUom contains an enoaera*
tioo of primes and a grot number of tables relating to the dis-
tribution of primes in the whole nine millions, portions of whidh
had been publldied in the Cambridge PkUosopkiad Proceedimp and
elsewhere. A complete list of errors fat the nine mfllaons was
published by J. P. Gram (Ada malkemoHca, 1893, I7r P> 3M>)>
These errors, 141 in numbn-* and which affect prioapally the
second, third, df^th, and ninth millions, should be caxcittlly cor-
rected in all the cables. In iooq the Carnegie Institution of Waid^
ington pid>fished a factor table by Prof. D. N. Lehmer which givca
the least factor of all numbers not divis&le by s, 3, 5» or 7, no to
""ons. This tatblSf which covere a range of ai^ioo nnauien
igle pskge, was reproduced by photography from a 1
»py 01 the author's original manuscript, "nie introdo
doe to the author, the remaintnji twenty-nu
by the slif>ping of type ia the printing. The
are given in Biuclchardt'is first million. OtiM
t^t^ |millirt| t%,
on a single pskge, was reproduced by photography Irom a type>
written copy of the author's original manuscript, the introductiaa
contains a fist of errata in the nine mSKons previously pubGshed,
completely oonfirmiag Gram's list.
The factor Ublea which have just been described greatly exceed
both in extent and accuracy any others of the same kind, the
largest of which only reaches ^/)0O. This is the limit of Antoo
Feflcd's Ta/el offer ermfaekcH Factoren (Vienna, 1^6), a remark-
able and extremdy rare book,* neariy all the copses having been
destroyed. Georg Vega (Fstels^, 1797) gave a Ubie showing all
the divisors of numbers not divisible by a, 3, or 5 up to ioa/>oo,
followed by a list of primes from 103,000 to 40041^ In the
eariier editions of this work there are several errors m the list,
but these are no doubt cor r ected in J. A. HQlare's edition (iflifo).
J. Sak>mon (Vienna, 1827) gives the least divisor of all nuaftbcss
not divisible by 3, 3, or 5» up to xo3/>ii, and B. Goldbeig
{PrimsaJikn und Faeiaren^Tafdn, Loprig, 1863) gives all factora
of numbers not divisible by 3, 3, or 5 up to 351,650. H. G. Kfihler
(lMaritkmisck4rifmu>melr»sdiea Handburkt 1848 and subaBqoent
editums) gives all facton of numbere not prime or divwSila
Peter Barlow fables, 1614)
(ive all factora
up to 10,000. Barlow's work also contains a list
of primes up to 100,103. Both the factor table and the fist of
primes are omitted in the stereotyped (1840) reprint. Full lista
of enata in Chernac (181 1), Barlow J1814). HQlsse's Vega (1840),
Kfihlcr (1848), Schaller (185O. and (ioldberr (1863) are contained
m a paper by Allan Cunningham (Mess. 9/ Matk., 1904, 34, p. 24:
I905« SSf P* H)- V. A. Le Besgue (Tables dioertes pour ia dSetm^
postlim des ssMlrer, Paris, I861A) gives ia a table of twenty pages.
the least factor of numbere not divisible by 3, j, or 5 up to i 15.500.
In Rccs's Cychpaedta (1819), article '* Prune Numbers," there js a
by 2, 3, 5, or II up to 31^5. Peter Barlow CTables, il
and F. Schaller {Primxahlen-Tafd, Weimar, 1855) give all fac
of off numbers up to 10,000. BaHow's work also contains a
list of primes to 317.319 arranged in decades.
(1870) contains a list of primes up to ,
The Fonrtk MiOiem
The fourth editioa
(1879) contains a list of prunes up to 30»54T- The fourth editioa
of the Ugftritkmic Tables (Londed, andlthaca, N.Y.. 1803) of
G. W. Jones of Cornell University contains a UbIe of all the lactore
of numbers not divisible by 3 or $ up to 30,ooa In the case of
primes the ten-place logarithm is given. Hiis table does not occur
m the third eiHtion (fthaca. N.Y., 1891}. On the first page of
the Seeemd MilUom Burddiardc gives the first nine multiples of the
primes to 1443; aad a smaller table of the same kind, extending
only to 313. occurs in Lambert's SuPpUmenia (1798). Several
papera contain Ksts of high primes (ije. beyond the range of the
» For bforraation about it, see a paper on " Factor Tahlea,"
in Comb. PhU, Free (1878). iii, 99-«38, or the Introduction to the
FottrAMiOum.
TABLF, MATHEMATICAL
327
fJKtor tablei). Amamt these my be mentioned two, by Aim
Cimainsham and H. J. Woodall jointly, in the Men. «f iftfflk^.
1900. 31. P. i<Vs; 1905, 34* P- 7<« ^ ««> *he papen dn- lactorita^
uoas of high numbera referred to under Tables reloHng to the Tke&ry
•/ Nmmtbers. The Vienna AcadeAiy p(m e» 9t t the manuscript of
aa f«*— »«•«' factor table eMending to 100.000.000, constructed
maay yean ago by J. P. KoHk (1793-1863) (see Eticy. math. Wits.,
1900-1904, i. 053, and Lehmer's Factor TmU, p. ix.).
MMfiuatwm TahUs.-'K multiplication table is asuafly of double
entry, tne two arguments being the two factors; when so arranged
it is frequently called a Pythagorean table. The laigest and most
wefot work b A. L. CreUeV ReekemafOn (Bremiker's edition, 1857.
atereotyped; many subseqoent editiona with German, French, and
English title-pages), whkih grves in one volume all the products
op to 1000 X 1000, so arranged that all the multiples of any one
number appear oo the same page. The original edition was pub-
lisked inr 1890 and consisted of two thick octavo volumes. The
second (stereotyped) edition is a convenient folio volume of 450
pages.' In low an entirely new edition, edited by O. Seeltger.
was published in which the multiples of 10, 20, .... 990 (omitted
in previous edltk>ns) are included. This adds 50 pages to the
volume, but removes what has been a great drawback Co the use
of the tables. Other improvements arc that the tables are divided
off horiaontally and vertkally by lines and spaces, and that, for
calcttlatioBs in which the lak two ^gures- are rejected, a mark
has been phKed to show when the M figure retained should be
increased. Two other tables of the same extent (loooXiooo). but
more cood eos ed in arrangement, are H. C. Schmidt's S^Uenhuck
fAschenleben. 1806), and A. Henselin'a ReehetUaJd (Berlin, 1897).
An aaooymoos Ubie, published at Oldenburg in 1860. gives products
op to 900X509. and M. Cordier, Le MtUHplicateur ie tots cents
emrris (Pluis, 187a), ^ves a multiplication table to 300X300
intended for commennat use), in both these works the product
is printed in full. The four following tables are for the multiplica-
tion of a number by a single digit. 0) A. L. Crelle, ErkidUemntS'
Ujel fttr jede*^ dar an nclmen hat (Beriin. 1836). a work extending
to 1000 pages, gives the product of a number of seven figures by a
single digit, by means of^ a double operatran of entry. Each page
is divided into two tables: for example, to multiply 9382477 oy 7
we tnra to page 825. and enter the right-hand table at Ime 77.
where we find 77339: we then enter the left-hand table
7. wh(
p rodo c t reouin
le page at line 93. column 7. ftnd find 656, so thAt the
^ quired is 65677339. '-"-«•••
ddklmte/rf (Hamburg and Oothft,
(3) C. A. Bretschndder. Pro-
i. 1841)1 is somewhat rimilar to
Crelle's table, but smaller, the ni -'^ ' ' '- '"^ 'ti-
pScaad being five instead of seven. Me
of ProdmcU (London, 1865). the pri ler
tf a single <fipt is given by a do nt
of the table is the same as that oi he
principle, but the arrangement is d y^
ing only 10 pages and Bretschneid ns
MitUipUkaiionS'TaheUe (St Petersbi nt
as Bretschneider's table but occup les
extending to looXfooo (t.r. givine by
three) may be mentkmed C. A. 1 e^
(iCatfarahe, 1891). The tabk^ of In,
iiebenwerda, 1896) and J. Riem ro-
iim, Basel, 1807) extend to ioo> of
500 pages J. mers {Reckentafdn , on
ffttf rsn- bis viersteUiien Zaklen, Ber lur
fieures by two. The entry is by th ti-
pRcand, and there are 3000 produci ier
tables, the interest of which is ma— . , be
made of C. Hutton's Table ef Products and Powers of Numbers
(LoflMJon. 1781). which contains a table op to 100 X 1000, and J. P.
Gruson's Grosses Binmaieins von Bins bn Bundtjttausend (Berlin.
I799>— « table of products up to 9 X 10.000. The author's intention
was to extend it to 100.000. but only the first part was published.
In tbb book there b no condensation or double arrangement; the
pages are very large, each containing 125 Hnes.
Quarter'Squares. — Multiplication may be performed by means of
a table of riagle entry In the manner indicated by the formula-—
oA-J(fl+6)M(<»-fr)".
^Only one other multiplicatioa table of the same extent as
Creile's had appeared previously, via. Herwait voa Hobenbofg 's
Tobuiae ariOtmetkae wpo«do4mifiioom mmieersaies (Munich, 1610), a
huge folio volume of more than a thoosand pues. It appears
from a oorrespoodence between ICepler and von Hobenbuis, which
took place at the end of 1608, that the latter used his table when
in manoscript for the p erform a nce of multiplica t ion s in seneral,
and that the occurrence of the word ^osthaphaeresis 00 toe title
ss doe to ICoplcr, who pomted out that by means of the table
spherical triao^^ could be solved more easily than by Wittich's
prosthaphaeresu. The invention of logarithms four years later
afforded another means of performing multipUcationa, and von
Hohenborg'a work never became generdly known. On the method
of psoothaphaeresis, see NAnBa. Tobn. and on von Hohenburg's
table, sse a paper " On mukiplicaUoa fay a Table of Single Entry,"
PhiL Uag^, 1878. ser. v.. 6. p. 331.
Tbui with • table of quarter-squares we can multiply together
any two numbers by subtracting the quarter-square of their
difference from the quarter-square of their sum. The largest
table of quartcr^ttarcs is J. Blater*s Table of Quarter'Squares of
aU wMe numbers jtom i to 200,000 (London. 1888),* which gives
auarter-souaree 01 every number up to 200.000 and thus yields
irectly tne product of any two five-figure numbers. This fine
tablef b well printed and arranged. Previous to its publication
the largest table was S. L. Laundy's Table of Quarter-Squares oj
all mmnbers up to 100.000' (London, 1856), which b of only half
the extent, and therefore b only directly available when the sum
of the two nuflsfaers to be. multipUed docs not exceed 100.000.
Smaller works are J. I. Centnerscbwer, Neuerfundene MuUipUeO'
Hans- smd Quadrat^Tafdn (Berlin, 1825), which extends to 20.000,
and J. M. Merpaat, Tables aritkmonomiques (Vannes, 1833). which
extends to 40,000. In Mcrpaut's work the quarter-square b
termed the *' arithmone." L. J. Ludolf, who published in 1690 a
table of squares to 100,000 (see next paragraph), explains in his
introduction how hb table may be used to effect multiplications
by means of the above formub ; but the earliest book on quarter^
squares b A. Voiun, Tables de9 multiplications, on logarilkmes
des ftombres ofMers depuis I jusqu'd 20.000 (Paris, 1817). By a
bgarlt&m Voidn means a quarter«|uare, «.«. he calls a a root
and io^ its logarithm. On ' ' '
see Phi, Um. [v.] 6, p. 33T.
and \c^ its logarithm. On the subject of quar^-squares, &c.,
-e/»)W.lfaf.lr.]6,p.33i.
Squares, OAes, Sfc., and Square Roots and Cube Rools.'-'Iht roost
coavenient table for general use b P. Barlow's Tables (Useful Know*
ledge Society, London, from the stereotyped plates of 1&40), which
gives squam, cubes, square roots, cube roots, and reciprocab to
10^000. These tables also occur in the original edition of 1814.
The largest table of squares and cubes is 1. P. Kulik, Tafeln der
Quadrat- und Kubik-ZaUen (Leipzig, 1846}, whkk gives both as
fur aa 100,000. Bister's table of quarter-squares already mentioned
ffives squares of numbera up to 100,000 by dividing the number
by a; and up to 200,000 by multiplying tne tabular result by 4.
Two eariy tables give squares as far as 100.000. viz. Maginus,
Tabula tetragenica (VenKe, 1593)1 and Ludolf, Tetrofonometrin
labularia (Amsterdam. 1690); G. A. Jahn, Tafd der Quadrat-
und Kubikwurwdn (Leipeig, 1839). gives squares to 27.000, cubes
to 24.000, and square and cube roots to 25.500, at first to fourteen
decimals and above loio to five. E. G^n {Recueil de tablet
numiriqms, Huy, 1891) gives square roots (to 15 pbces) and cube
roots (to 10 places) 01 numbers up to 100. C. Hutton, TeMes of
Products and Powers of Numbers (London, 178 1), gives squares up
to 2^,400, cubes to lo;o6o, and the first ten powers of the first
hundfred numbers. P. Ebrlow, MathenuUical Tables (original
hundn
le first nine or ten powers are given in Veva.
707). and in Hiklsse's editkm of the same (1840), in J
buck (1848). and in other collections. _C. F. Faa de Bruno. Calcut
edition. 1814). eives the first ten powcre of the first hundred
numbers. The first nine or ten powers are given in Veca. Tabulae
(T707). and in Hiklsse's editkm of the same (1840), in Kdhler, Hand-
ies erreurs (Pkris, 1869), and J. H. T. MQller, ViersteUite Loga-
rithmen (1844), 8>ve squares for use iii connexion with the method
of least sqxiares. Four-place tabks of squares are frequently given
in five- and four-figure collections of tables. Small tables often
occur -in books intended for engineers and practical men. S. M.
Drach (Messenger of Matk., 1878, 7. p. 87) has given to 33 pbces
the cube roots (and the cube roots of the squares) 01 primes
collections. In Vega's Tabulae (1797. and the subsequent editions,
indudtne HQIsse's) the powers of 2. 3, 5 as far as tne 45th, 36th,
and 27tn respectively are given; they also occur in KOhier's Hand-
Loranthmts
buck (1848). The first 25 powers of 3. 3. 5, 7 are given in &Uomon,
Loraritkmtsche Tafeln (1B27). W. Shanks. Rectificalion of the Circle
' Ives every I3th power of 2 up to 2'". A very valuable
, Power^ubles, Errata ") published by Albn Cunningham
in the Messenger of Matk., IQ06. 35. p. 13. contains the results of a
careful examination of 27 tables containing powers hi^^er than the
cube, with lists of errata found in each. Before using any power
table thb list should be consulted, not only in order to correct
the errata, but for the sake of references and general information
in regard to such tables. In an appendix (p. 23) Cunningham
Jives errata in the tables of squares and cubes of Bariow (1814).
ahn (1830). and Kufik (1S48).
Triangular Numbers. — E. de Joneourt, De nahtra et praeclaro
usu simpticissimae speciei numerorum trieonalium (The Hague.
1763). contains a table of triangular numbers up to 2O,O00: viz.
|ii(n+i) is given for all numbers from a«i to 30,000. The table
occupies 334 pages.
Reciprocals.--V. BaHow*s Tables (1814 and 1840) give reciprocals
up to 10,000 to 9 or 10 places; and a table of ten times thb extent
b given by W. H. Oakes. Table of the Reciprocals of Numbers from
t to 100,000 (London, 1865). This table eives seven figures of tl»e
redprocal. and is arranged like a table of seven-figure logarithms,
differences beirtg added at the side of the page. The redprocal
* The actual pboe of pubUcatwn (with a German title, &c) b
Vienna. The copies with an Englbh title, dec, .were issued by
TrObnsr; and those with a French title, &c, by Gauthaer-ViUafa.
AU bear the date 1888.
328
TABI^, MATHEMATICAL
of a number of five fijgures is thcrefpce taken out at once, and two
more figures may he interpolated for as in locarithma. R. Picartfe,
La Daision riduite d une addition (Paris, i86i)« gives to ten signi-
ficant figures the reciprocals of the numbers from I0»ooo to 100^000^
and also the first nine multiples of these reciprocals. J. C Houaeau
aives the ccciprocals of numbers up to 100 to 20 places and their
first nine multiples to I3 places m the ButteUm of the BrusseU
Academy, 1875. 40, p. 107. E. G^lin (RecueU de tatiUf mmtrifmSt
Huy, 1894} gives reciprocals of numbers to 1000 to 10 placet.
Tables for ike Bxptestiein of Vidgar FracHons as Decimals.-^
Tables of this Idnd nave been given by Wucbeier, Goodwyo' and
Gauss. W. F. Wucheier, Beytrdge sum aUaememem Gebnuick der
Deeimalbrtteke (Carisruhe, 1796). gives the decimal fractions (to
5 places) for all vulgar fractions whose numerator and denominator
are each less than 50 and prime to one another, amnged according
to denominiuon. The most extensive and elaborate tables that
have been published are contained in Henry Goodwyn's First
Centenary of Tables of all Decimal Quotients (London, 18 16), A
Tabular Series of Decimal Quotients (1823). and A Table of the
Cirdes arising from the Division of a Unit or any other Whole Number
by all the Integers from i to 10x4 (1823). The Tabular Series (1823),
which occupies 153 pages, gives to 8 places the decimal correspondtitf
to every vulgar traction less than/^ whose numerator and denomi-
nator do not surpass 1000. The afgumenU are not arranged
according to their numerators or denominators, but according to
their magnitude, so that the tabular results exhibit a steady increase
from 'ooi («x/b*) to ^09989909 (»M)- The author intended the
table to indude all fractions whose numerator and denominator
were each less than 1000, but no more was ever published. The
Table of Circles (1823) gives all the periods of the circulating
decinaals that can arise from the division of anv intqcer by another
integer less than 1024. Thus for lA we find -676921 and *1$384&,
whicli are the only periods in which a fraction whose denominator
it 13 can circulate. The table occupies 107 pages, some of the
periods being of course very loqg ie,g., tar loai the period contains
1020 ^res). The First Centenary (1816} gives the complete
periods of the rectprocalt of the numbers from I to loa Goodwyn's
tables are very scarce, but as they are nearly unique of their kind
they deserve special notice. A second edition of the First Centenary
was issued in 1818 with the •addition of some of the Tabular Series,
the numerator not exceeding «> and the denominator not exceeding
lOOw A posthumous table d C. F. Gauss's, entitled " Tafel zur
Verwandlung giemeiner BrOche mit Nennem aus dem ersten Tausend
in DecimalbrQche," occurs in vol. ii. pp. 412-^34 of his Cesammelte
Werke (GOttingen, 1863), and resembles Goodwyn's TabU of Circles.
On this subject see a paper "On Circulating Decimals, with special
Deference to Henry Goodwyn's TaUe <ff Circles and Ti^wiar Series
ef Decimal Quotients" in Comb. PkiL Proc,, 1878, 3, p. 185^ where
ualso given a table of the numbers of di^ts in tae periods of
fractions corresponding to denominators prime to 10 from i to
1024 obtained by counting from Goodwyn s table. See also under
(^ulalin^ Decimals (below).
Sexaiestmal and Sexcentenarv^ TaUu.— Originally all calculations
were sexagesimal; and the relics of the system still exist in the
division 01 the deforce into 60 minutes and the minute into 60
•scoiid& To facilitate interpolation, therefore, in trigonometrical
and other tables the following large sexagesimal tahks were con-
structed. John Bernoulli, A Sexcentenary Table (London, 1779),
gives at once the fourth term of any proportion of which the first
term is 600' and each of the other two is less than 600': the. table
is oif double entry, and may be described as giving the value of
■ ' I containing a
- .. . giving
«y/6oo correct to' tenths of'a second, x and y each ^
number of seconds less than 600. Michael Taylor, A Sexagesimal
~ ' ' • /o '
Table (London, 1780). exhibits at sight the fourth term of any
proportion where the first term b 60 minute^ the second any
number of minutes less than 60, and the third any number of
minutes and seconds under 60 minutes; there is also another
table in which the third term is any absolute number under 1000.
Not much use seems to have been made of these tables, both of
which were published by the Commissioners of Longitude. Small
tables for tne conversion of sexagesimals into centcsimals and
vice versa are given in a few collections, such as Hulsse's edition
of Vega. H. Schubert's Funfstelliee Tafdn und Cegentafeln (Leipzig.
1897) contains a sexagesimal (able giving xy/60 for x*! to 59
and y « I to isa
Tritonomelncal.Tables (Natural),— ^Vcter Apian published m i^
a table of sines with tne radius divided decimally. The ,nnt
complete canon ^ving all the six ratios of the sides of a nght-
angled triangle is due to Rhetkus (1551), who also introduced
the semiquadrantal arrangement. Rheticus's canon was calcu-
lated for every ten minutes to 7 places, and Vieta extended it to
every minute (i579)- In 1554 Kcinhold published a table of
tangents to every minute. Tne first complete canqn published
in England was by Thomas Blundeville (i594)> although a table
of sines had appeared four years earlier. Regiomontanus called
his Ubie of tangents (or rather coUngents) tabula foecunda on
account of its great use; and till the introduction of the word
"tangent" by Thomas Ftnck (Ceometriae rotundi Ubri XIV,,
Basel, 1583) • table of tangents was called a tabula foecunda or
caman fatcundus. Besides "tMstgmu** Finck alio iAttodHCAd'tba
.word " secant." the uble of secants having previously beea called
tMa ben^fica by Maurolycus (1558) and labula foecundissima by
Vieta.
By far the grMtest computer of pure trigonometrical itblcs is
George Joachim Rheticus, whose work has aever been aupaiaeded.
His celebrated ten^eciroal canon, the Opus paktinum, was pub-
lished by Valentine Otho at Neustadt in 1596, and in J613 his
fifteen-decimal table of sines by Pitiscus at Frankfort under the
title Tkesaurus mathematicus. The Opus palatinum conuins «
complete ten-decimal trigonometrical canon for every ten ittronds
of the quadrant, semkiuadranully arranged, with differeacee for
all the tabular results throughout. Sines, cosines, and secants ar«
given on the left-hand pages in columns headed respectively "Per*
peodiculum," "Basis," '^ Hypotenusa." and on the rHEOt-hand
pages appear tangents, cosecants, and coUngenU in columns
headed respectively ** Perpendiculum," " Hypotenuse," " Basis.**
At his death RhetKus left the canon nearly complete, and the
trigonometry was finished and tha whole edited by Valentine
Otho; it was named in honour of the elector palatine Frederkk IV..
who bore the expense of publicatioo. Tho Thesaurus of 1613 gives
natural sines for every ten seconds throughout the quadrant, to
I5places, semiquadranully arranged, with first, second, and thiid
dittereooes. Natural sines are also given for every second fro^s
o* to X* and from 89* to 90% to IS pieces, with first and eecond
ditterencea The rescue of the manuscript of this work by Pitiscue
forms a striking episode in the history of mathematkal tables.
The alteratk>ns and emendations in the earlier part of the cor-
rected edition of the Opus palatinum were made ov Pitiscusi who
had his suspicions that Rheticus had himself cakulated a ten-
second table of sines to 15 decimal places; but it couki not be
found. Eventually the lost canon was discovered amongst the
papere of Rhetkus whkh had passed from Otho to Jan^ea Christ-
mann on the death of the former. AmoQgst these Pitiscus found
(i) the ten-second ubIe of sines to 1$ places, with first, second.
and third differences (printed in the Thesaurus)-, (2) sines for
every second of the first and last dwiees of the quadrant, also
to 15 places, with first and second differences; (3) toe commence-
ment of a canon of ungents and secants, to the same number of
decimal olaces, for every ten seconds, with first and eecond differ*
ences: (4; a complete mmute canon of sines, taiuents, and secantj^
also to IS decimal places. This list, taken m connexwn with
the Opus palatinum, gives an klea of the enormous labours under*
taken by Rhetkus; ois tables not only remain to this day tte
ultimate authorities but formed the data from wUch Vlacq cmku-
lated his logarithmk canon. Pitiscus says that for twelve ywrs
Rhetkus constantly had computers at work.
A history of trigonometrical ubies by Charles Hutton was petr
fixed to all the early editions of his Tables ef Logarithms, and forms
Tract XIX. of his Mathematical Tracts, voL 1. p. 278, 1812. A good
dged of blblkgraphical information about the Opus palatinum and
earlier trigonomctrkal tabks is given in A. De Morgan's artkle
'Tables' in the English Cyclopaedia. The mvenrion of log-
arithms the year after the pubhcation of Rhetkus's volume by
Pitiscus changed all the methods of cakulation; and it is worthy
of note that John Napier's original table of 1614 was a k^rithrmc
canon of sines and not a uble of the logarithms of numbers. The
logarithmic canon at once superoeded the natural canon : and
since Pitiscus's time no really extensive uUe of pure tr^ooo*
metrical functions has appeared. In recent ycara the employment
of calculating machines has revived the use of Ubics of natural
trigonometrical functkns, it being found conveoknt for some
purposes to employ such a machine la connexion with a natural
canon instead ol using a kigarithmk canon. A. Junge's Tafel dee
wirUichen Ldnge der Sinus und Cosinus (Leipzig, 1864) was pub-
lished with this object It gives natural sines and cosines for
cyrery ten seconds of the quadrant to 6 places. F. 'M. Clouth,
Tables pour le calcul des coordonnies goniomitrigues (&fainz, n.d.).
gives natural sines and cosines (to 6 places) and their first nine
multiples (to 4 places) for every centesimal minute of the quadrant.
Tables of natural functions occur in many collections, the natural
and logarithmk values beiqg sometimes given on opposite |
sometimes side by side on the same page.
The following works contahi ublcs of trigonometri __
other than sines, cosinei^ and tangents. J. Pesqukh, Tabulae
logarithmtco-trigonomelrieae (Leipsig, 1817), contams a table of
sin^ cos^, taiAr, cot^ from x-i'^to.45' at intervals of i' to 5
plaoee. J. Andrew. Astronomical and Nautical Tables (London.
im), contains a table of " squares of natural eemichonta," ic. of
sin>«x from x-o* to 120* at intervals of 10' to 7 places. This
table was greatly extended by MajorGenersl Hannyngtoo in his
Haoersiues, Natural and Loiarithmie, used en computing Lunar
Distances for the Nautical Almanae (London. 1876). The name
"haversine," freouently used in works upon navigation, is aa
abbreviation of ''half versed sine"; vis., the faavenine of jc b
equal to i(i-cios «). that i^ to sin*4«. The table gives logarithmk
haverrincs for every 13' fi^om o* to 180* and natural havcrslnet
for every 10' fromo* to i8o*j to 7 places, except near the fa '
ers toe kgarithma ace given to only 5 or 6 places It
TABLE, MATHEMATICAL
329
337 folio pageti and mt tttnieflled by Andienr's work, a copy
vi which by chance fcU into Haxinyi^oa's hands Hanaviw-
400 recomputed the whole of it by a: partly mechanical metkod,
a combtaatjoa oi two arithoioiiicten Deiac employed. A table
of havenunee is uaef ul for the aoiutlon oi sphencai tsianglo when
two «dcs and the included angle aw given* and in other problems
in spherical trigonometry. Andrew's original table seems to have
attracted ytry little notice. Hannyngton's was printed* on the
recommendation of thesuperintendeat of the Natttieal Almanac office,
at the public cost. Before the calculation of Hannyngton's Ubie
R. Farley's Natural Verstd Sims (London, 1856) was nsed in the
Naulttai Almanac office in computing lunar disunoes. This
line ubIe containa natural versed sines from o* to 125* at
•nter^ds of lo' to 7 places, with pioportional parts, and log vened
sines from o* to i^y at intervals of 15' to 7 places. The aigu-
ments are also given in time. The manuscript was used in the
oAce tot twenty*five years before it was printed. Tiaverse tables,
whidi oocui in most ooUectioos of navigation tables, cootain
muiciples of sines and cosincac
ComoMm or BriigiaM Ijogarithms cf Nunrittn Mud Triiono-
metrical Ratios. — ^For an account of the invention and history of
logarithms, see IjOGAmthm. The following ace the fundamental
works which contain the results of the original calculations of
logarithms of numbers and trigonometrical ratios ^^Briggs, Arith-
wittica lagarilhmiea (London, 1624), logarithms of numbers from
I to 20/>oo and from 90gooo to 100,000 to 14 places, with inter-
script diiierences: Vlacb, Aritkmetica hgarUhmtca (Couda, i6a8,
also an English edition. London, 1651, the ubies being the same),
lea-figure logarithms of numbers from i to 100,000, with differences,
also log sines» tangents^ and secants for every minute of the c|uad-
rant to 10 places, with interscript differences; Vlacq, Trigono-
mutria arti&cialis (Couda. 1633), log sines and tangents to every
ten aeconds of the quadrant to to places, with differences, and
fen*figare logarithms of numbers up to ao,Qoo. irith differences;
Brigss, Triiomamttria Britannica (London, 163J). natural sines to
15 places* tangents and secants to so places, log sines to 14 places,
and tangents to 10 places, at intcrvab of a hundredth of a degree
from o*^to 45^ with intencript differences for all the functions,
in 1794 Vega reprinted at Leipzig Vlacq's two works in a single
folio vohime; Thesaurus lognrithmarum computus. The arrange-
ment of the ubie of logariuims of numbers is more compendious
than in Vlacq. being similar to that of an ordinary seven-figure
ubIe, but it IS not so convenient, as misukcs in taking out the
difieranoes are more liable to occur. The trigonometrical canon
givea log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents, from o* to a*
at tatervaia of one second, to 10 places, without differences, and
for the rest of the quadrant at ratervals of ten^ aeconds. The
trigoaometricai canon is not wholly reprinted from the Trigono-
metria orH^kMoiis, as the logarithms for every second of the first
two degrseai which do not occur in Vlacq, were calculated for the
work uy Lieutenant Dorfmund. Vega devoted great attention to
the detection of errors in Vlaci^'s logarithms of numbers, and has
given several important errau lists. F. Lefort (Annaies de I'Ohstr^
w a i ot M 4t Paris, vol. iv.) has given a full errata list in Vlacq's and
Vega's logarithms of numberi^ obtained by comparison with the
great French manuscript TaiUs du cadastre (see Logautbm;
comp^ also Uonihly Notices R.A.S., 52, pp. 35s* 28S; 33, p. 339;
344 Jf- 447)* Vega seems not to have bieBto»ed on the trigono*
metrical caMon anything like the care that he devoted to the log-
arithma of aumbers, an Gauss ^ estimates the total number of
lastpfignre errors at from 3t^3 to 47.74^. niest of them only
amounting to a unit, but some to as much as 3 or 4.
A copy of Vlacq's Atithmetica logaritkmica (1628 or 1631), with
the errors in numbers, logarithms, and differences corrected, b stXl
the best table for a calculator who has to perform work requiring
ten-figure logarithnu of numbers, but the book is not easy to pro-
cure, and Vcga'a Thesaurus has the advantage oi having tog sines, &c,
in the same voluaie. The latter work also has been made more
accessible by a photographic reproduction by the Italian govrra-
meat jRiproduuone jotozincogra/ua deli' Iftttuto Ceografieo Mili-
tart, FloreQce, 1896). In 1897 Man Edier von Leber puUishcd
tables for {aciUtating interpolations in Vein's Thesaurus (Tabularum
ad faciliarem et breviorem in Georpi Vegae " Thesauri logariih-
wtarum " magnis cauombus inter pdationis computationem ulilium
Trias, Vienna, 1897). The object of these tables is to take account
of second differences. Prcftxcd to the tables is a long litt of errors
in the Thesaurus, occupying twelve page&. From an examination
of the tabular results in the trigonometrical canon corresponding
to 1060 angles von Leber estimates that out of the 90,720 tabular
results 40J96 are in error by * 1, 2793 by *2.and 191 by ^3. Thus
hi* estimated value of the total number of last-figure erroi* is 43,336,
which is in accordance with Gauss's estimate. A table of ten-figtire
logarithms af numbers up to 100.009, the result of a new calcula>
tion, was published in the RepoH of the f/.5. Coast and Geodetic
Smirej for 1895-6 (appendix 12, pp. 395-7??) by W. W. Duffidd,
superintendent of the survey. The table was compared with Vegans
Thesaurus before pt^lication.
S Pfneto's TaUe* de loioritkmes tulpsires d iix dicimakSf eok-
struitee d^aprks na n o u e ea u made (St Petersburg, 1871), though a
timet of only te pages, may be usefully emplo^red when Vlacq and
Vega are unprocurable. PSneto's work consists of three tables:
the first, or auxiliary table, contains a series of factors by which
the numbers whose logarithms are required are to be multiplied
to bring them within the range of table 2; it also gives the log-
arithms of the reciprocals of these factors to 12 places Table 1
merely gives ksganthms to 1000 to 10 frfaces. Table a gives
logarithms from 1.000,000 to i, on. 000, with proportional parts
to hundredths. The mode of using these tables is as foUows. If
the Iwarithro cannot be taken out directly from table a. a factor
M is found from the auxiliarv table by which the number must be
multiplied to bring it withm the range of ubIe a Then the
logarHhm can be taken out, and, to neutxaliae the effect of the
multiplication, so far as the result is concerned, log i/i/ must be
added; this quantity is therefore given in an adjoining column
to Af in the auxiliarv table. A similar procedure gives the number
answering to anv logarithm, another factor (approximately the
reciproeai of U) Seing given, so that in both cases multiplication
is used. The laborious part of the work is the multiplication by
Af : but this is somewhat compensated for by the ease with which,
by means of the proportional parts, the logarithm is taken out.
The factors are 300 in number, and are chosen so as to minimize
the labour, only 25 of the 300 consisting of three figures all dif-
ferent and not involving o or I. The principle of multiplexing by
a factor which is subsequently cancelled by subtracting its log-
arithm is used also in a tract, containing only ten pages, published
by A. Namur apd P. Mansion at Brussels in 1877 under the title
Tables de lo^rithmes d la dicitnales jusqu'A 434 miUiards. Here
a table is given of logarithms of numbers near to 434.294, and
other numbers are brought within the range of the table by multi*
plication by one or two factors^ The logarithms of the numbers
near to 434,294 are selected for tabulation because their differ-
ences commence with the figures too . . . and the presence of the
zeros in the difference renders the interpolation easy.
The ubIes of S. Gundclfingcr and A. Nell (Tafeln sur Berechnung
neunstdliur Logaritkmen, Darmstadt, 1891) afford an easy means
of obtalmng nine-figure lo^rithms. though of course they are far
less convement than a mne-figure table itself, The method, in
effect consists in the use of Gaussian logarithms, viz., if N«n-f^,
log N" log n+log (i-f^/n>-log n+B where B is log (i+p/n) to
argument A* log p-Iog n. The tables give log n from n^iooo
to n " 10,000, and values of B for argument A.*
Until 1891, when the eicht-decimal tables, referred to further
on. were published by the French government, the computer who
could not obtain sumciently accurate results from seven-figure
logarithms was obliged to have recourse to ten-figure tables, for.
with only one exception, there eusted no tables giving eight or
nine figures. This exception is John Newton's Tnionometria
Britannica (London, 1658), which gives logarithms 01 numbers
to 100.000 to 8 places, and also 10^ sines and tangenu for
every centesimal minOte (i^. the nine-thousandth part of a
right angle), and also log sines and tangents for the first three
degrees of the quadrant to 5 places, the interval being the one-
tbousapdth part of a degree. This table is also remarkable for
giving the logarithms of the differences instead of the actual differ-
ences. The Arrangement of the page now universal in seven-figure
tables— with the hfth figures running horizontally along the top
line of the page— is due to John Newton.
As a rule seven-figure logarithms of numbers are not published
separately* most tables of logarithms containing both the logarithms
of nUYnbers aixl a trigonometrical canon. Babbagc's and Sang's
logarithms Are exceptional and give logarithms of numbers only.
C Babbage» Table t^ the Logarithms of the Natural Numbers from
I to to8.000 (London, stereotyped in 1827: there are many tirages
of later dates), is the best for ordinary use. Great jams were
taken to get the maximum of dcomcss. The change of figure in
the middle of the block of numbers is marked by a change of type
in the fourth figure^ whkh (with the sole exception of the astensk)
is probably the best method that has been used. Copies of the
book were printed on paper of different colours— yellow, brown,
green, Ac.— as it was considered that blackon a white ground
was a fatiguing combination for the eye. The tables were also
issued with title-pages and introductions in other languages. In
1 87 1 E. Sang published A New TabU of Seven-place Logarithms
of all Numbers from ao.ooo to 200.000 (London). In an ordinary
table extending from 10,000 to 1OQ.000 the differences near the
beginning are so numerous that the proportiooal parts ar© either
ywy crowded or some of them omttted; by making the table
extend from ao^ooo to 200.000 instead of from 10^009 to i00*00O
the diffaences are halved in magnitude, while there are only one-
fourth an many in a page. There is also greater accuracy* A
> See his •* Einige Bemerkuneen ai Vega's Thesaurur logarHh-
mentm,*' in Astronomt9che Nechrirkten for 1851 (reprinted in his
Werke, wL iit. pp. 257-64): alsu Monthiy NoNees R^.S., 33, pi 440>
* A sevenofigure talile of the same kind is rontained in S. Gundel-
finger's SeehssMlige Caussiscke uud siebensteUigt gemeine Lagartthmem
(Leipzig. 1902).
9,990 to i/x>o,oxo to 6j ^aces. Tneie first appeared in
i Imprao'd . . . by A. S. Philomath {Loadon, 1717). They
in republished in Sherwin's, Callet's, and the «ariier editions
330
further pecttliarity of this table is that multiples of the diffemoes,
instead of jvoportional parts, are pve at the side of the page.
Typographically the UbVe b exceptional, as there are no ruka, the
numbers being separated fnom the loganthma by reversed ormunaa
— a doubtful advantam. This woric was to a peat extent tlie
result of an original calculation; see Tram. Roy, Soe. Edin.^ 1871,
36. Sang propcHied to publish a nine-figure table from 1 to ixmo.qqo.
but the requiHte support was not obtained. Various papers 01
Sang*s relating to his logarithmic calculations will be found in the
Proc. Roy. Sac. Bdin. subsequent to 1872. Reference should here be
made to Abraham Siarp's table of logarithms of numbers from
I to 100 and of primes from lOO to 1 100 to 61 places^ also of numben
from 999.' ' ' "*
Ctomelry 1 .
have been republished in Sherwin's, (Pallet's,
of Hutton's tables. H. M. Parkhurst, Astronomical Tablet (New
York, 1871), gives logarithms of numbers from i to 109 to loa
places.'
In many seven-figure tables of logarithms of numbers the values
of 5 and T are given at the top of the ps^, with V, the variation
of each, for the purpose of deducing log sines and tangents. 5 and
T denote log (sin x/x) and log (tan xM respcaively, the argument
being the number <^ seconds denoted by certain numbers (some-
times only the first, sometimes every tenth) in the number cdumn
on each page. Thus, in Callet's tables, on the page on which the
. . « . ,. ,_.-..,_._. . -"-loff (tan
■ io% To
^ .. „ -- 673a'«7, we have
5-'4-685498o'and log 6732'7" 3.9128 189^, whence, by addition, we
obtain 8-5I36873: but K for 10' is - 2*20, whence the variation
for 12'*7 is -3. and the lo^ sine required is 8-5136870. Tables
of 5 ana T are frequently caUcd, after their inventor, " Uelambre's
tables."
Some seven-figure tables extend to ioo,ooo,and others to 108.000,
the last 8000 logarithms, to 8 places, being given to ensure greater
accuracy, as near the beginning of the numbers the differences are
large and the interpolations more laborious and less exact than in
the rest of the table. The eight-figure logarithms, however, at tfie
end of a seven-figure table are liable to occasion error; for the
computer who is accustomed to three leading figures, common to
the Block of figures, may fail to notice that in this |»rt of the table
there are four, and so a figure (the fourth) is sometimes omitted in
taking out the logarithm. In the ordinary method of arranging a
seven-figure table the change in the fourth figure, when it occurs in
the course of the line, is a source of frequent error unless it is very
deariy indicated. In the earlier tables the change was not marked
at all, and the computer had to decide for himaeli. each time he took
out a logarithm, whether the third figure had to be increased. In
some tables the line is broken where the change occurs; but the
dblocation of the figures and the corresponding irregularity^ in the
tines are very awkward. Babbage print<Kl the fourth figure m small
type after a change; and Bremiker placed a bar over it. The best
method seems to be that of prefixing an asterisk to the fourth figure
of each logarithm after the change, as is done in Schr6n's and many
other moderu tables. This is beautifully clear and the asterisk at
once catches the eye. Shortrede and Sang replace o after a change
bv a Hokta (resembling a diamond in a pack of cards). This is very
clear in the case of the b's, but leaves unmarked the cases in which
the fourth figure is i or 2. A method which finds favour in some
recent tables is to underline all the figures after the increase, or to
place a line over them.
Bi" ' '
k)gai
Which, being more obtrusive, seems less satisfactory. In some tables
the increase of the last figure is only marked when the figure is
increased to a 5, and then a Roman five (v) is ased In place of the
Arabic figure.
Hereditary errors in logarithmic tables are considered bi two
TABLE, MATHEMATICAL
Babbage printed a subscript point under the last figure oi each
larithm that had been increased. SchrOn used a bar subscript.
papers " On the Progress to Accuracy of Logarithmic Tables " and
'* On Logarithmic Tables," in Monthly Notices R,AJ.,r "
440. See also vol. 34, p. 447 ; and a paper by Gcmerth,
dsterr. Gymm., Heft vi. p. 407.
,5aa:?3.-
Passing now to the logarithmk: trigonometrical canon, the first
great advance after the publication oTthe TrijoHometria artijMalis
in 1633 was made in Michael Taylor's TaNes of Logarithms (London,
1792^, which give k)g rines and tangents to every second of the
quadrant to 7 places.- This table contains about 450 pages with
an average number of 7750 figures to the page, so that there are
altogether nearly three millions and a half of figures. The. change
> Legendre (Traiti des fonOioHs eUipHqttes, vo{. ii., 1826) gives
a uble of natural sines to 15 places, and of k)g stnes to 14 piaccs,
for every 15' of tha qu^rant, and also a uble of logarithms of
uneven numbers from 1163 to 1501. and of primes from 1501 to
10,000 to 19 places. The latter, which was extracted from the
Tables du cadastre, is a ooatinnation of a uble in W. Gardiner's
Tables e( Lofarilkms (London, 1742: reprinted at Avienon. 1770).
which gives bgarithma of all numbers to looo^ and of uveven
numbers from 1000 to II43- Lenmdre's ublcs also appeared in
his Exerdees de calail inUtralp vol. tii. (1B16).
in the leading figufo, when it oeenn in a ODloraa, is not fltttfeed tt
all; and the Udk must be used wfth very great caution. In fact ic
is advisable to go through the whole of it, and fill in with ink the
first o after the change, as well as make some mark that will catch
always be conect. Partly 00 aooonnt of the ibaenoe ofa mark to
' 3te the change of figure in the oolamn and partly 00 aooount of
siae of the uble and a somewhat inconvenSeat arrangenentt
the work seems never to have a>me into general use. Computers
have always preferred V. Bagay's NoueeUes TabUe eutromomi&Kes
el hydrognfinqites (Paris, iS^), which also eontaiaa a complete
k>garitbmic canon to every second. The change in the column la
verv deariy marked by a large black nucleus, surmo a ded by a
circle, printed instead d. o. Bagay's work havingbecome laie and
costly was reprinted with the errors corrected. The rapriat, bow-
ever, bears the original title-fiage and date x82j^. and there appean
to be no means of dbtinguishing it from the onguud work except by
turning to one of the errau in the original edKion and examining
whether the correction has been made.
The only other canon to every second that has been published is
contained in R. Shortrede's Loffirithmic TaUes (Ediaburch). This
work was originally issued in 18^4 in one volome, but Dcang dis>
satisfied with k Shortrede issued a new edition in 1849 in two
volumes. The first volume contains logarithms of numbers, anti*
kigarithms, &c, and the second tlie trigonometrical canon to every
second. The volumes are sold sepaiately, and may be regarded jsm
independent works; they are not even described on tbdr title-
pages as vol. L and vol. ii. The trigonometrical caaon is very com*
plete in every respect, the arguments beine nvea in time as wdl as
in arCf full proportional parts being added, Ac. The change of
figure m the o^umn is denoted by a noku, printed instead of o where
the change occurs. The page is crowded and the print aot very
clear, so Uiat Bagay is to oe preferred for r^ular use.
Previous to 1891 the only imporunt ubles in which the quadrant is
divkled ccntestmally were J. P. Hobert and L. Ideler, /VMacOfS tables
trieonomitriques (Beriin, I799)» and C. Boida and J. B. J. Delambre,
Tables trieoHometrifues dicimales (Paris, 1801). The former give,
among other tables, natural and kig sines, cosines, ungents. and
cotangents, to 7 places, the aivuments proceeding to 3* at intervals
of lo*^ and thence to 90* at mtervals of 1' (centesimal), and also
natural sines and tat^sents for the first hundred ten-thousandths
of a right angle to 10 places. The latter gives tong sines.ooa(nes,
ungents, cotangents, secants, and cosecants homo* to ^^ax intervato
of 10' (with full proportional parts for every second), and thence to
SO* at intervals of 1' (centesimal) to 7 places. There is also a table
of log nnes, cosines, Unmnts, and ooungenu from o' to loi' at
intervals of 10' and from o^ to 50** at intervals of 10^ (centesimal) to
1 1 places. Hobert and Ideler eive a natural as well as a Jogarithmie
canon, but Borda and Delambre give only the latter. Borda and
Delambre give seven-figure logarithms of numben to io,ooo, the
line being b«oken when a change of figure take* place in it.
The tables of Borda and Delambre having become difiktilt to
procure, and seven-figure ublcs being no longer sufficient for the
accuracy required in astronomv and geodesy, the French govern-
ment in 1891 tasoed an eight-ngure table conuining (besides log-
arithms of numben to 120.000) (off dncs and tangents for every tea
seconds (centesimal) of tne ouadmnt, the Utter being extracted
from the Tables du cadastre ol Prony (see Locamthm). The title
of this fine and handsomely printed work Is Sertue ^hgrafhique dm
Parmie: Tables des lomrithmes d hitU dicimales . . publUee par
ordre du minisbre do Us guerre (Paris, lunprimerie Nationale, 1891).
These Ubles are now in common use where c^ht figures are required.
In Brigff's Tritonometria Britamtica of 1633 ^be degree is divided
oentesimally, ana but for the ap|)earance in the same year of Vlacq's
TVMMuwMlna arttfictatis, in which the degree u divided sexaged-
mally, this reform might have been effected. It b clear that the
most suitable time for making such a change was when the natural
canon was replaced by the logarithmic canon, and Briggs took
advantaffe of thb opportunity. He left the degree unaltered, but
divided it centesimally instead of sexagesimally, thus ensuring the
advanUges of decimal division (a saving of work in interpolations,
multiplications, ftc.) with the minimum of chanffc. The French
mathematicians at the end of the 18th century divided the right
angle centesimally, completely changing the whole system, with no
appreciable advantages over Briggs's syitem. In fsct the centesimal
degree is as arbitrary a unit as the nonagenmal and it b only the
non-centesimal subdivision of the degree that gives rise to Incon-
venience. Briggs's example was followed by Roe, Oughtred. and
other lyth-oentury writen; but the oentesmal division of the
degree seemed to have entirely passed out of use, till it was revived
by C. Bremiker in his Logarith^isck^irigonometrische Tafebs mit fUnf
DeeimalsteUen (Beriin, 1872, loth ed. revbed by A. Kallius. 1906).
Thb little book of 158 pages gives a five-figure canon to every
hundredth of a degree with proportkmal parts, besides k)garithma
of numbers, addirion and subtraction logarithms, ftc.
The eight-figure Uble of 1891 has now made the use of a cen-
tesimal table compulsory, if thb number of figures b required.
TABLE» MATHEMATICAL
33 «
TW Aitfmtmittk§ (ksdUtkfft »«• howtver, piiblillriag an ^igbt*
Sgure table on the •engeHnul •vfcein. uiMkr the chaftte of Dr. J.
Bauadungar. the director of the k. Recheninttstut at Bedia. The
arranaeinent it to be in groups of three at in Bremikcr'f tabkik
Cm t cH mu «/ Tabks.-^For a computer who requires in one volume
logarithms of anmben and a ten-second logarithauc canon, perhaps
the two beat booka are L. Schrbn. Saem'Fititre Lofftrilkwu (Loodort,
i<6s. stereotyped, aa En^ish edition of the German work pub-
lished at Brunswick), and C. Bnihns. A Nev Manual fit Utantkmi
to Seam Plotts of DitimaU (Leipsic« 1870). Both these worfs
ifit which there hayt been numerous editions) give kii^rithms of
aumbers and a complete ten-second canon to 7 phoes; Bnihna
alio fives log sines, cosines, tangents, and ootangents to every
aeoood up to 6* with proportional parts. Schr6n contains an
interpolation Ubie. of 75 Ptt0Bs. giving ihe first 100 mukiples of
att numbers from 40 to aio. The logarithms of numbers extend
to 108/900 in Schrte and to ioo/xx> In Bnthns. Almost eoually
convenient is Bremiker's edition of Vega's Latanthmie TaHu
(Berlin* stereotyped; the English edition was translated from
the Itftieth edition of Bremiker's by W. L. F. Fisdwr). This
book gives a canon to every ten seconds, and for the npt five
degrees to every second, with knaritbms of nnmbees to 100.000*
Sc£rO«. Bnihns, and Bremifccr all give the pro p o rti onal parts for
all the differences in the logarithms of numbers. In Babbage's.
Callct's, and many other tables only every other table of pio-
Borcioaal parts is given neat, the beginning for want of space.
§cliv6a. Bruhns, and most modem tables published in Germany
have title-pages and introductions in di0crent languages. J. Dupuis.
TabUs de htarUkmes d upt dUimaUs (stereotyped, third Uiage.
1868. Paris), is also very convenient, containmg a ten-second
canon, besides logarithms of numbers to 100,000, hyperbolic log-
arithms of numbcn to 1000, to 7 places, &c In this work negative
chamoteristics are priated throughout in the tables of arcular
feoctioos. the minas sign being placed above the figure: for the
mathematkal calculator these are preferable to the ordinary char-
acteristica that are increased by 10. The edges of the pages con-
taining the circular functions are red, the rest being grey. Dupuis
aba edited CalleC's logarithms in 186a, with which this work mast
' " T§i*ki (Vienna.
Bccond
. I logarithms in 186a, with which
•ot be confounded. J. S '
1827), coati *
far the first
contains a ten wacond canon (the intervals being one seooi
ss), k)garithms of numbers to 108,000, squares,
. . and cube roota to 1000, a factor table to
i08/>ii, ten-place Briggian and hyperbolic logarithma of numben
u» 1000 and of primes to 10.333. and many other useful tables.
The work, which is scarce, is a wdl-printed small quarto volume.
Of coUactioos of general tables among the most gseful and
•oceasible are Hutton, Callet, Vega, and Kdhler. C. Hutton's
wcO-knowB Ma i k met i f a l Tables (London) was fint issued in 178^
but considerable additions were made in the fifth edition (181 1>.
The tables oontaia seven-figure kigarithms to io8/x>a and to laoo
to ao places, some antilocanthms to ao places, hyperbolic logarithms
fiom I to 10 8± intervals of -oi and to laoo at intervals of unity
to 7 places, logistic loearithma, log sines and ungents to every
second of the first two degrees, and natural and log sines, tangents,
aecaata, and versed sines for every minute <^ the quadrant to 7
pfaHDca. The natural functions occupy the left-hand pages and
the lofarithmic the right-band. The first rix editions, published
in Hatton's lifetime (d. 1823), contain Abraham Sharps 6i-figure
logarithms of numbers. Ohnthus Gregory, who brought out the
1830 and succeeding editions, omitted these ubles and Hutton's
tatfodoGtioo, which contains a history of logarithms, the methods
of oonatittcting them, &c F. Callet's Tables portatnes ie log^
rilkmts Cilereotyped. Paris) seems to have been first issued ..
1783, and has since passed through a great many editions. In
that of i8S3 the contents are seven-figure kNsarithma to 108,000,
Briggia n and hyperbolic logarithma to 48 pbccs of numbers to
lao and of primes to 1097, log sines and tangents for minutes
(centesiasal) throughout the quadrant to 7 places, natural and
lag sinoa to 15 places for every ten minutes (centesiinal) of the
ttuadnnt, log sines and tai^ents for every second of the first five
depeea (sexagesimal) and for every ten seconds of the quadrant
(seaagestmal) to 7 places, besides logistic logarithms, the first
hnndned multiples 01 the modulus to 34 places and the first ten
to 70 places, and other tables. This is one of the most complete
and practically useful collections of kjgarithms that have been
fb&j^i^, aad it is peculiar in giving a centesimally divided canon,
te si* of the page in the edttiona published in the 19th century
lafser than that of the eariier emtions, the type liaving been
reset. G. Vega's Tabidae loptrUkmo-trii e n^ n t Un cae was first pub-
lished in 1797 in two volumes. The firM contains seven-figure
logarithms to ioi/mx), log sines. Ac., for every tenth of a second
ID 1'. for every second to I* 30*. for every 10' to 6* 3'. aad thence
at intcrrab 01 a sainute, also natural sines and taa^eau to every
orarate. all to 7 plaoest The second volume pves awnple divisors
of aO aumbers up to lotdooo, a list of primes fram ioa<ooo to
400,313, hyperbolic logarithma of numbers to 1000 and of primca
to lo^ooo, to 8 plaoes, r* and k)fib«e* to x«io at intervals of -01
to 7 figures and 7 plaoes respectively, the first nine powerp of
the numben from I to 100, squares and cubes to 1000^ logistic
Waridiiha. bloonial «haorem obefieieBla. ftc. Vcm. also published
JiaMMit JigaftlftiiMEa-lricaaoMSlraaan (Leip^g, iloo). the tabica
t ...... .^ identical with n portion of those contained m the
The r«- •
first volume of the Tobaimt,
editions, a slenocyped iosue „^
(SomaiiMaf wu Aem a» i *dier T^eim,
The oamenta are nearly the
Tabmlae went through many
brottgbt ont by J. A. HOIsae
volume in 1840.
those of the (Mriginal work.
the chief difference bddA that a brve tabfe of Gaussian'iDgBrithma
is added. Vega differs mn Button aad Callet in giving so many
useful noorlogaiithmic tables, and hia coOectton is in many r espe ci a
eomplementary to thaha. J. C. Schulae, Kerne mU srveiterft
Sosimfaiir togfirUkmi st kerf tri g em ome ir i xkert smd ondeyer Tafdn
(a vols. Beriin. 1778). Is a vahiable collection, and contains seven-
figure kgarithma to ioi/K>o, log sines and tangenu to 2* at
■ and natin'
intervals of a aecond, i_ _ ^ ,
to 7 places, h)g ahics aad taageau and Napiaian log sines and
tangenta to 6 places, all for every ten sccoads to 4* and thence
for every minute to a%\ besides squares, oufaes. square roou. aad
cube toots to lOQO^ Iwnominl theorem coefficients, powers of e.
and other small tabica. Wotfiam's hyperbolic logsrithinB of
numbers bdosr io/)M to 48 places ficat appeared in thia work.
J. H. Lambert's Supptememia tabulantm foiuriikmieanim et th-
pmowteiekartm (Lisbon, 1798) oontains a nnmber of useful and
curious non-logarithmic tabica and bean a general resemUanoe
to the sBoood volume of Veca, but there are also other ssnll
uUes of a more strictly matnematical character. A very useful
cdlectioo of non-kiaritnmic tables ia contained in Peter
New Malhematkal TeMes (London. 1814). It |
aad cube raota (tto 7 places), 1
veiy useful
er Borioar'a
square roota, aad cube raota (50 7 punes), leaprocala to 9 or 10
pucea, and reacdutiona Into then* prime factors 01 all aumbos fnan
1 to 10.000, the first ten powcn of numben to too. fourth aad
fifth powere of numben iiom 100 to 1000, prime mimfaen from
I to loo,iq), dght-iilape hypertjolie IpjKarithms to lo/wo. tj ' '
for the aolutiott of tlie irreducible case in cubic equationa, Ac.
the sterectyped reprint of 1840 only the squares, cubes, squaaa
roots, cube roots, and r e ci pro ca ls are retaincicL The first voluma
of ^Mirtrede's tables, in addition to the trigooooietxioal caaon to
evefv aecond, oontaina antilogarithma and Gaussian kigarithma.
F. K. Hassler, Tabutbe leiarilkmUM d ieiiimemebticae (New Yoric,
1830, stereotyped), gives seven-figure logarithms to 100,000. log
sines aad taiwcnts for every second to 1^, and log sines, cosinesL
tangents, ana cotangent* from 1* to 3* at intervale of 10' and
thence to 43* at intervals of 30^. Every effort haa been made to
seduce the siae of the tables without lorn of distinctnem, the page
being only about 3 by 5 inches. Copses of the work were published
with the mtrodoction and title^'page in different languages. A. D.
Sunley, TaUsf ^ Le§»iihms (New Haven, U.S., I860), givca
seven-figure kganthma to 100,000, and log sines, cosines, tangents,
cotangents, secants, and coaecants at imervab of ten seconds to
IS* aad thence at intervals of a minute to 45* to 7 places, besides
natural sines and cosines, antilogarithms. and other tables. This
collection osied its cripn to the fact that Hassler'e tablea were
found to be inconvenient owiiw to the smallnem of the type.
G. Luvini, TMes e§ Legeriikmt (Umdon. 1866. rtereotyped, printed
at Turin), gives seven-figure logarithms to 30^040, Briggian and
hyperbolic logarithma of primes to laoo to aO plsces, log sines and
tangents for each aecond to 9', at intervale of 10' to 2\ ol 30' to 9*,
of 1' to 45* to 7 places, besides square and cube roots up to 625.
The book, which is intended for schools, engineers, Ac., has a
peculiar arai^ement of the logarithma and proportional parts on
the pagea. Maibemolieal TabUs (W. A R. Chamben, Edinburgh).
containiiK logarithms of numben to 100,000. and a canon to every
minute of lo|( sines, tangents, and secants and of natural sines to
J plaoes. besNles proportional kigarithina aad qtber small tables,
IS cheap aad suitable for schools, though not to be compared aa
rc^fds matter or typography to the best tables described above.
Of six-fieure tabu
nova tabtiia Berolimemsis
liker's Logarilkmentm VI.
(Berlin 1852) is probably one
of the
It gives logaritluns of numben to ioo/)oo, wiili proportional
parts, and log sines and tangents for every second to 5*, and beyond
5* for every ten seconds, with
, . , J.Hantschl.
mis€k-lntlM»omelris€ke$ Handbmeh (Vienna, 1837), gives five-
figure logarithma to 10.000, lo^ sines and tangenta tor every ten
seconds to 6 places, natural sines, tant^ents, secants, and versed
sines for every minute to 7 plaoea. bganthms of primes to 15.391.
hypobolic kgarithms of numben to 11.273 to 8 plaoca. least
divison of numben to 18,377. binomial theorem ooefficlenta, Ac.
R. Farley's Six-Fiiure Letqrilkms (London, stereotyped, 1840),
gives six^giire kigarithma to 10,000 and k)g stnea and tangents
for every nunute to 6 places. -
Coming now to five-figure taUes a very convemeat little book ia
Tables 1/ Isfarilfcau (Useful Knowledge Society, London, from the
st e reotyped plates of 1839). which was prepared by De Moigan,
though It has ao name on the title-page. It containt five-figure
loganthms to 10,000, log rines and tangents to every nunute to
^ pbces, beskks a few smaller tables. J. de Lalande's Tables de
U^rithnus b a five^figurc table with nearly the same contents aa
De Morgan's, first published in 1805. It has since passed through
many etStions, and, after being extcadcd from 3 to 7 places, passed
33«
TABLE, MATHEMATICAL
_ ^ _ ^ _ J. n^«— i^fc and S HM^hum. Mmmd tf
HaOtMlie^ TMes (Londoa. tMo>. she fi«e>figiii« tapirithaw to
lOuooo and log matm and ramcnf lor evcty niMrte. alio a aaiall
talife of Gaoaian losaritfama. J. Hoofl, TaMtf ^ Iti^nlkmn i
«Mf dirnafli^ (Pu». i>7i ; ne«r editioa iqoj^^n a vcfy uainjueut
€ollectien of & v t -ig aie cables; boidca logamknia of onabcfs and
dmlar laactioaa, there aie GiiiMnn loganthna. kaae divaon of
a m nbeni to laj^i, andlocarithntt, Ac Tbe work (itS fp.) w
posted on thin paper. KGetaerth,I%iiftleBifeiemeimeLotanU^mem
(yieoaa« 1866). nvcs logarithms to loAio and a ten eecoiid canon.
Thece are mattf Enea on the pase» vo tnat the dooble page oontuBS
log fines. coHiwa, tai«enta, ancfobcaqgents extending over a minote.
stdU» (loth edition by A. KaUiu, Berfia, 1906),
already referred to, gives Icyarithns to lojoo^ .»d^ii togat^hmic
. t €9trf kmmimiXk dL a degree (senmiaial), io a haady
vDlttme; the lines are divided into groups of uuee, an anaageaMnt
aboBt the ooMvenicnoe of which uere is a dtffcrenoe of fffwntflfH
H. Gnveliiia» FunfsleOiig hgaritkmisik hig»momHriickt Tafibtji^
du DtdmaUtOuH^ da Qvadramltu (Bcriin, 1886), is a wdHprinled
fi«B-6gure table erving kwuftbrns to 10/009. a k^arithniie canon to
r centesimaTminute {tjt. ten-thousandth part of a right
I catensive taUe (40 pp.) Cor tlfe coa re rei on of
led ares into sexagewnally expreMcd ares and
J the other tables is a f our^place table of squares fraa o to 10
at intervals of •001 with propottiooal parts. E. Becker, LoganA^
ed., Vdpag, t9iyj\ gives logarithms to 10,009 xmI * logarithmic canon
for evefy tenth 01 a minute to 6* and tlumoe to 4s* for every minute.
There are also Gausnan logarithms. V. E. Camborg. Lo f ar itmtiabel
(Copenhagen, 1897), is a well-piiated collectios of Ubies, which
oootains a fii^figiire logarithmic canon to every nunnte, five-figure
logwithros of nnmbcn to 10,000, and five-figure antilogarithms,
five^figure numbem answering to four-figure nwintiwwif from
I to <'990Q at intervals of -oooi. H. Schubert, Finfsltllite
n umd Cetenit^dm (Ldprig, 1896), is peculiar in giving.
Tafd» , .
- besides logarithms of
canon, the three eo
logarithms, and angles aasweriiw to logarithmic and natural
trigonometrical functions. The five-figure tables of F. G.
numbers and
tables
logaiithnuc and natural
of numbers answering to
(Beriin, 1870) have passed thitMigh very many editions, and mention
should also be made of those of T. Wittstein (Hanover, T859) and F.
W. Rex (Stuttgart. 1884). & W. Holman, QmpuMiam &lc9 and
Lotariikms (New York, 1896). contains a well-printed and w»t«h-«««
set of tabic* including five-Dgnre logarithms of oumbcfs to 10.000
and a five-figure logarithmic canon to every minute, the actual
charac t eristics (with the neratiye sign above the number) being
printed, as in the tables of Dupois, 1868, referred to above. There
IS also a four-place trigonometrical canon and four-place anti-
logarithms, reciprocals, square and cube roots, Ac G. W. h
LotariUmie Tables (4th ed., London, and Ithaca, N.Y., 189^),
tains a five-place natuhd triyoooroetric a l canon and a six-]
logarithmic canon to every minute, six-place Gaussian and hynerw
Ixdic k)garithms, besides a variety of tour-place ubles, including
squares, cubes, quarter-squares, reciprocals, Ac. The factor table
has been already noticed. It is to be observed that the fourth
edition is quite a distinct work from the third, which contained much
fewer tables. J. B. Dale, FtH-fitwe TabUs cf MathgmaHcai Func-
tions (London, 1901), is a book of 92 pages containing a number of
small five-figure tables of f unctbns which are not elsewhere to be
found in one volume. Among the functions tabulated are elliptic
functions of the first and second kind, thegamma function, Lcgenore's
coefficients. BeMel's functions, sine, cosine, and exponential intqnals,
Ac. J. Houti's ReeueU de Jormuks «l de tables numhinus (Paris,
1868) contains 19 tables, occupying 6a pages, most of tnera givin|^
resutu to 4 places; thiey relato to very varied sub j e ct s a nti-
logarithms, Gaussian logarithms, logarithms of t-l-x/i'-x elliptic
integrals, squares for use in the jnetbod of least squares, Ac C
Biemiker, TaM wiersteUigtr LofonOmen (Beriin, 1874). gives four-
figure k>^tnms, of numbers to 3009. )og sines, cosines, tangents,
and cotangents to 8* for every huadrMth of a decree, and thence to
as'forevery tenth of a degree, to4 places. There are also (jaussian
logarithros, squares from o-ooo to 13.500, antikigarithma, Ac The
book contains 60 pages. It is not worth while to give a list of four-
figure tables or other tables of small extent, which are very numerous*
but mention may be made of J. M. Peirce. Matkemaiical TabUs
chiefly to Four Ftpircs (Boston, U.S., 1879), 4> RP** contain in g also
hyperbolic functions; W. HaU, Fottr-fignre TaSeS and^ ConsiunU
P. Denning. Five-fiture Malkcmaitcal Tables far School and Laboratory
Furposes (t9 pp. of uMes. larfe octavo); A. R. Hinks, CamM^r
Fonr-j/iiiire uShamatieal TabUs (» pp.). C M. WHlich, Pofmlaf
Tables (Lofidoo, l8»L is a uteful book for an amateur; it gives
BriggUn and hyperbdlk logarithms to laoo to 7 places, aquarca,
Ac, to 343, Ac
ffyperbaltc or Napieriafi or tfahtral I«fSfdftmx.— The toearithmt
inveuMi 1^ Napier and explained by him in the DeseriMw (1614)
WfMI iDt toe ttve as those notr called natural or hyperbolic (vix.,
li(illMii(IlJiiitiil''J f'niurniTriiT ri "' r'rii ' r - Napiarihn
efMyp
dontoTveMi
are of poidy historic mterest; it b therefore snfficimt to refer to
the article LocAtiTSM, where a full aooount is given. Apart frosa
the inventor's own pobKcations. the only strictly Napicrjaa tables el
importance are contained in Uniiius a Triiomommria (Cotogae,
I6a#-i625) and Schalae's 5ii siw la s f (Berlin, 1778), the former bong
the largest that has been ootastnictad. Loganthms to the base c,
where e denotes a-7i83t . . ., were firat puMialied by J. Speideil, Nam
LogariAmes (1619).
The moat copious table of hyperbolic logarithms b Z. Dase, Tofd
dor mUOrlichm LomOomem (Vienna, 1850). wliidi extends from i
to 1000 at intervals of onity and from 1000 to 10.500 at iotervnla
10.5001
of •! to 7 plaoca, with differences and proportional parts, amnged
aa in an ordinary seven-figure table. By adding log 10 to the lesulis
the range b from ro^ooo to 105.000 at intervab of unity. The table
formed part of the Amtals of the Vienna Obserwaloey for 1851. but
separate copies were printed. Tbe moat elaborate table of hyper-
bdie logarithms b due to Wolfram, who calculated to 48 places the
logarithms of all ourabeia up to 2aoo, and of all primes (abo of a
great many composite numbers). Iiet s >geu thb hmit and 10.00a.
wolfram's lesulu first appeared in Schulae's SBanafanr (i778).
Six kigarithms which Wolfram had been prevented front f oi np rtii i g by
a serious iQneas were supplied in the Berliner JakrhneA, 1783, pL 191.
The complete table was l eproda c ed in Vega's Thesamrus (I794>»
where several erron were corrected. Tables of hypcrbofic logarithms
are contained in the followiog collections:— Callet. all numbcra to
100 and primes to 1097 to 48 phces; Borda and Delamfare (i8ot),
all mnnbers to laoo to If places; Salomon (1817). all nnmbere to
1000 and primes to 10.333 to 10 pbces; Vega, Tabulae (inchidiaa
Hfibse's editwn, 1840), and Kfihler (1848), aO nnmbera to looo and
Btmes to 10.000 to 8 places; Bartow (1814), aO nuroben to 10.000;
utton, liathematieal TabUs, and WnUcfa (1853), all nnmbera to
laoo to 7 places; Dupub (1868), alt numbers to 1000 to 7 plaees.
Hutton abo gives hyperbolic hijmrithms from t to 10 at tnterwab
of •oi to 7 places. Reef's Cyclopaedia (1819), art, ** Hypertelio
Logarithnis,''contains a table of hyperbolic logarithms of all nmabcn
to 10,000 to 8 pl a rf ^
Logarithms to base e are generally termed Napiorimt by Engliah
writers, and notaraf by foreign writers. There seems no ob|ection
to the former name, though the togarithms actually mwented by
Napier depended on the base r*, but it shontd be mentioned in
text-books that 8o<alled Napierian togarithms are not idcmical with
those originally devised and cakubted by Napier.
Tables to coueert Brigfian into Hyperbolic L ogu H ka m, md vspt
sersa.— Such tables mei^y consist of the firat hundred (soflKCimca
only the fint ten) multijjles of the modulus '43439 44^*9 • • • and
its reripTDcal 3-^58 50939 ... to 5. 6. S, to, or more plaoea.
They are generally to be found in collections of logarithmic tables^
but rarely exceed a page m extent, and are very easy to cooatnict.
SchrOn and Bruhns both give the first hundred multipleB of the
modulus and its rec i procal to to pbces, and Bremiker (in hb edition
of Vega and in hb ssx-figure tables) and Dupub to 7 nbces. C F.
Degen. Tabularum Bnneas (Copenhagen. 1824). gives the firat
hundred multiples of the modulus to y> places.
AulOotiuithMs.— In the ordinary tables of logarithms the aatnral
iramben are integers, while the logarithms are faKommensurable.
In an antilogarithmic canon the logarithms are exact qnaadtba,
such as HMOOi. -oooea, Ac. and the corresponding numbera are
incommensurable. The bigiest and eariiest work of thb kind b
J. Dodson's AntHogarilhmie Canon (London, 1743), which give*
numbers to 11 places corresponding to logarithms from o to r at
intervals of •ooooi, arranged like a seven-figure kigarithmic table,
with interscript differences and preportbnal parts at the bottom
of the page. This work was the onfy brge antibearithmic canoa
for more than a century, till in 1844 Shortrede published the fnat
edition of hb tables: in 1849 he published the second edition, aad
in the same year Filipowaki's ubles appeared. Both these works
cortUin seven-figure antifegarithma: Shortrede jpves numbera to
logarithms from o to I at intervals of •00001. with cfifferenoea and
multiples at the top of the page, and H. E. Filipowsla. A Tabla a$
AnUloiarithms {London, 1849). contains a ubb of the mnecaton,
the proportional parts being given to hundredths.
Small tables of antiloganthms to 9o places occur in a nnua l
collectiotts of tables, aa Gardiner (174^). Caaet, and Hutton. Fbur-
and five-place ubles are not uncommon in recent wocka, aa e.f. in
Houel(i87i).Ga " " " — '
Addition and i
such tables b to ^
log ft are given. Let
A -log X. B -log (i+ar*). C-log (i +x).
Leaving out the
imeo ubb in Z. Leonelli^ Thioria des Imb»
. oi diductifs (Bordeaux, 1803), in whkh tba
fint suggestion was made.^ the principal ubbs are the fbttofwinft
Gauss, Tn Zach's UonoMitke Correspondent (i8i»). gives 3 and C
for argument A from o to a at intervals off *ooi, thence to 5*40
* LeoneHi's oris^nal work of 1803. which b extremely scat«e» 1
rep ri m e d by J. fliwia at Paris in 1875.
TABLEi IdATHEMATJCAL
33$
• ■ • " • — ■ . ••. - -»^ ^ Mattbies-
'I
tibleliicpniitediaG«UM'»H^<rAe,'toLiiLp.344.
MB, TigfU mr fatiiMMni JiirvcAiiMf (Akona, 1818), give* B
Mid Cti>7placeaior Aicument A fromotosat mtervalBof >oooi,
KBoe to 3 at iBCen«la of <aof, to 4 at iotctvab o( *oi, and to 5
at Uacrvau of 'i; the table is not coaveaiently arranged. Peter
Gny, Tabks cad Fmmuiat (Londoq, 1849, and ** Addendum."
1870), gives C for atgument A from -3 to —1 at intervals of •ooi
and Cnun •^i to a at iAtervals of •0001, to 6 places, with propor-
ikMial parts to bttodiedths* and log (l •*x) for argument A from^j
to •*! at totervakof •GDI and from I to «I8g99 at intervabof 'Oooi,
• ■ 1. Zecb, ^
J.
, Tafdm der Ad^tamp-
to 6 plaees^ witb propor ti onal parts. ,
md ^mtdraaiMuJMntkmun, (Ldpngr 1849)/ giMs B for argument
A from o to a at intervals of Hnoi, thtnoe to 4 at intervals of
•001 aad to 6 at intervals of •m ; also C for argument A from
o to •OOP3 4t iatcrvak of '0000001, thence to «os at intervals of
•000001 and to '303 at intervals of -oooot, all to 7 places, with
proportional parte. These tables are reprinted from HiUsee'S
edlBoB of Vcsa (1849); the i8so oditioii of HQlmc^s V«ga con-
tained a leprwt of Gauss's original table. T. Wtttstein,. Lqm-
ritkmu d* Gaws A sefl dieimaSu (Hanover, 1866), gives B for
aiguraebC A from 3 to 4 at intervals of •!. from 4 to 6 at intervals
of ^M, from 6 to 8 at mtervab of •ooi» from 8 to 10 at imcrvab
of •0001, abo from o to 4 at tbe same intervals. In this hand-
some work the arrangement is similar to that in a seven-figure
laguitluBic table. Gauss's original five-place table was reprinted
in Paaqidch. Tabtdae (Letpsig, 1817); KOiler, Jtnme de la iandt's
T*^n (t^pdr. 1839), and Handbuek (Ldpcig, 1848) ; and Galbnaith
and Kauthton. Manual (London, i860). HooU, TabUs de iof^
ntkmas (1871), aho gives a small five-place table of GousiiaA
logaritlwis, the addition and subtiaction Iqjiarithms being separsted
as ia Zech. Modified Gaussian logarithms are given by J. H. T.
MOller, Vurstdliu Logarithmm (Gotha, 1844), ▼iz., a foun-pUce
table of Band — log (i-«>^) from A —o to <03 at intervals of •0001,
Bce to -as at intervals of •oox, to 3 at intervals of •oi, and to
4 at iattfvals of <i ;, and by, Sbort[ede, LogorMMCc TabUs (vol L,
3 at intervals of •!, from A
intervals '
td'i, I .
arithnis airanged in a new way.
5 ^
of <n, to 1*3 at
l849)« via., a five-place taole of B and log (i -^x) from A
' ' ' ------ intervals a
31
The principal table gives \og
-3 to 9-7 at
is off 'OOf , to 3 at intervals of '4 ,
FiUpowsld's AntUegarUkms (1849) oontains Gaussian log^
s airanged in a new way. The principal table gives log
(r-f-i) as tabular result for log » as argument from 8 to 14 at
jntcrvah of «ooi to 5 places. Wddenbach, Ta^d mm dm L^tantk-
£+«
mm . • • (CopesJutgeo, 1829), gives log ^—^ for argument A from
•389 to s*oo9 at intervals of *ooi, to ^-6 at intervals of 'Oi, and
to 5'5 at interwls of -i to S places. J. Hou^rs Recueil de formtdef
«l d» IttbUs mtuniriguu (sod ed., nris^ x868) contains tables of
lofcs&p+Oi '**»i'37 *"** l<>gi«r^ ^"'" log »■ —5 to —3 at in-
tervals cl •!, from log *« — 3 to — I at intervals of -oi, from
logx- -xtooat faitcrvals of -ooi. F. W. Rex (FilnfsteUia
LofflHikmen^Tafeln, Stuttgart, 1884) gives also a five-figure tabic
of log 1^ add E. Hammer in lik' SechaadUge Tajd der Werike
/Or jedeu Wert da ArgimnUs tot * (Leipsigr >903) gives a six-
figure table of this function from log « a? to 1-99000, and thence
to I '999700 to s places. S. Gundelnngers SechssteUiie Caussische
md nebautdlige gemeine Logaritkmen (Ldprig, 1902) oontains a
table of l(«»Xi+x) to 6 places from loc x*> —2 to 2 at intervals
of •001. GTW. Jones's LogarUkmic Tables (4th ed., London, and
Ithaca. N.Y., 1893) contain 17 pages of Gaussian six-figure tables)
the principal of which ^vc loe (x +x) to argument log x from
log s^ —2 •So to o at mtervals of •001, and thence to -1999 at
intervals of "OOOi, and log (1— r*) to argument log x from log
x«-4 to '5 at intervals of 'OOOi, and thence to 2-8 at intervals of
•OOI. Gaussian logarithms to 5 or 4 places occur in many collec-
tions of five-figure or four-figure tables.
Quadratic LoatrUhnu. — In a pamphlet Saggio ^i tavele del loga'
" ' !rc«^r(Udine, 1885) Conte A. di Prampcro has described
a meuod of obtaining fractional powers (positive or negative) of
any nofflbcr by means of tables contained in ^he worlc U
n-.N, then ,.l2ii2t^:^ai2t5,
■ lor^ \
and if tSie logarithoui aro taken to be Briggian and a
bm^, then «*logi» lQgh»iV/log a+ia
utioa that
. „ ^_. - - -. toaarithms of
* where » is any power (positive or negative) of 2 have
om9, uieo «*iogi» iQghM«/iog a-f-ia
This qoantsty the aathor defines as the qoadtatit
N and denotes by L^» It fottows from this <
UA^'^L.^r-flogi^^pgitf. Thus^ tbs, quadratic
tbe same a
A Mibsldiaiy tsbfe oontains the vahNS of the constant
logMf/logMa for 204 fractional vahies of f. The mabi taUe contains
tbe values of tooo mantbsae corresponding to arguments N, Nk,
Nh, . • . (irtiirii all have tbe same maatissae). Amone the argu-
ne the
Its are tbe <|aantities lo-o, xo*i, to-s. . . . 99^ (the intervsl
being -t) aad io«oo, 10-01, . . . 10-99 (the interval being -oi). As
an example, to obtain the value of laf we tabs froa the first table
the coosunt -^Otsfif^fi^ wUch^belMin to ^. nod entMng «e maih
table with 12 we take out the quadratic logarithm io*xo9937 which.
by applying the oonstant. gives 9*524975 the q[uadratic logarithm
oi the quantity required.
^ An a(tf)endjx (Toaofa dedi espanenti) j^vea .the Briggian \en*
nthms of the first. 37 nusnbers to tbe bnt 50 numbers as base,
viz. log.JV for iV=2. 3.^ . . ., 57 and x-a, 3. . - .. 50. The n^ts
are generally given to 6 places.
Logistic and Proportional Lagaritkmt.-^in most collections of
tabk» of lonritbms a five-place Uble of logistic logarithms (or every
second to i is given. Logistic ubles give loc 3600^ Jog x at inter-
vals of a second;* being expressed in degrees, minutes, and seconds.
In SchuUe (X778) and Vega (1797) tbe table extends to x-3600'
and m Callet and Button to x » 5280'. Proportional logarithms for
every second to 3* (»«. log xo.8oo-log x) form part of neariy all
collections of tables relating to navigation, generally to 4 places,
sometimes to 5. Bagay, Tables (1829), gives a five-place table,
bnt such are not often to be found in collections of mathematical
tables. The same remark applies to tables of proportional log-
arithms for every minute to 24*', which give to 4 or 5 places the
vahies of log 1140 -log x. The object of a proportional or logistic
tabte, or a table of log o-log x, is to faciUtate the calculation of
proportions in which the third term is a.
Inter potatien Tables.— Ail tables of proportional parts may b«
regarded as interpobtion tables. C. Bremiker, Tafd der Ttq-
portionaUeUe (Berija, X843), gives proportional parts to hundredths
of all numbers from 70 to 699. bchrSn, Logarithms, contains an
interpolation tabk giving the first hundred multipbs of all numbers
from 40 to 410. Sexagealmal tables, already described, are inter*
polatlon tables where the denominator is 60 or 600. Tables of
the values of binomial theorem coefficknts, which are required'
when second and hi|Tver orders of di^ci^nces are used, are described
below. W. S. B. Woolhouse, On Intetpolatum, Summation, and
Ike Adpistment of Numerical Tables (London, 1865), contains nine
pages ef interpolatibn tables. The book consists of papers ex*
tracted from vols, xi and 12 Of the Assurance Magoxine.
Dual Loearitkms.—Thh term was used by Oliver Byrne in lai
Dwa AriihmeHe, Yottng Dual Arithmetician, Tables of Dual Lot^
nthms, &c (London, 1863-67). A dual number of the ascendlnr
branch is a continued product of powers of i«x, i«oi, i-oor, Ac.,
taken in order, the powers only being expressed; thus 1 6,9.7,8
denotes (i-i)Ki'OiWi-oox)»(i-oooi)", the numbers foUewing the 1
bemg called dual dints. A dual number which has all but the
last digit aeros is called a dual logarithm; the author uses dual
kigaritfams In Whfch thene are seven ciphers between the i and the
logarithm. Thus since t '00601 502 Is equal to f 0,0.0,0,0,0,0,599702
the whole number 5997<» » the dual logarithm of the natural number
x*oo6oxso9.
arithms, both of the ascendmg and descending branches, and the
corresponding natural numbers. The author claimed that hb tables
were superior to those of common logarithms.
Craiia«Mt.~In neariy all tables of logarithms there !s a page
devoted to certain frequently used constants and their logarithms,
such asv, »^», «», V«-. A specially rood collection Is printed in W.
Templeton's Mdhmgkes and Engineer's Pocket Companion (cor-
rected by S. Maynard, London, 1871), which gives 58 Constants
involving r and their kigarithms, generally to 30 places, and 13
others that may be property called mathemarical. A good list oT
constants involving w is given in Salomon (1827). A paper by G.
Paucker in Gnmeffs Archm ( vol. i. p. 9) has a number of^constants
involvmg w given to a great many places, and Gauss's memoir on
the lemmscate function {Werke, vol. in.) has «-», <-4», r-f», Ac.,
calculated to about 50 traces. The quantity » has been worked
out to 707 places (Shanks, Proe. Ray. Soe., 21, p. 319).
J. C. Adams has cahailated Euler's consunt to 263 places (proe,
fay. Soe., 27, p. 88) and the modulus -43429 ... to 272 pbces
(Id. 42, p. 22). The latter value b quoted in extenso under
LoCAKiTHH. I. Burgess on p. 23 of his paper of 1888, referred to
under Tables 4>f «■, has grven a number of constants involving v and
p (the constant -476936 . . . occurring in tbe Tkeory of Errors),
and their Bnggiaa logarithms, to 23 pbces.
Tables for Oe Solution of Cubic EfnaUons.—Lamhest. SupUemetda
(i798)» gives *(x-««) from *-• ooi to i-ijs as intcrvab of •001 to
7 places, and Bariow (1814) gives x»-x from x-i to i'f549 at
interyab of -ooox to 8 places. Very extcnavc tables for the solution
of cubic equations are contained in a memoir " Beitr^e xur Auflfisung
h6h«er Gleichungen '• by J. P. Kulik in the Ahh.^ k. B0km. Ces.
der Wiss, (Prague, i860), il. pp. 1-123. The principal tables
(pp. 5»-t23) give to 7 (or 6) places the values of * (x-x«) from
«-o to x*>3*96oo at intervals of -ooi. There are abo tables of the
even and uneven determinants of cubfc equations, &c. Other tables
for the K^ution of equaHons sre by A S. Guldbere in the Porkand.
of the VuUns-Selskab of Christiania for 1871 and 1872 (equations
of the srd and sth order), by S. Gundelfinrer, Tafeln ntr BerechHung
dftr redlen Wurseln simtiicker trinomiscken Cleickungen (Leiprif .
1897), which depend on the use of Gaussian logarithms, and by K.
Melime, SddCmdcVt ZeiHckrift, 1898, 43. p. 80 (quadratic equations).
334
TABLE, MATHEMATICAL
Binominal Theorem CMfJEetiniU.— Tablec of the values of
*(y-i) . y(y~0(y-a) ^ x(y~0.. (r-s)
1.2.3
1.2. ..6
from x-*oi to x-i at intervals of •01 to 7 places (which are useful
in interpolation by second and higher oram of differences), occur
inSchulse(i778), Barlow (18x4). Vega (i797 and succeeding editions),
Hantschl (1827), and Kdhler (1848). W. Rouse. Doctrine of Chances
(London, n.d.). gives on a folding sheet (fi-\-b)* forn^i, 2,. ..20.
H. Gyld^n {KuneU des Tobies, Stockbbim, 1880) gives binomial
coefficients to fi-40 and their Icwarithms to 7 places. Lambert,
Suppiementa (1798), has the coefficients of the first 16 terms in
(i +x)) and (i -x)l. their values being given accurately as dedxnals.
Vega (1797) has a page of tables giving ^, j^,-. ^.... and
similar quantities to 10 places, with their logarithms to 7 places, and
a page of this kind occurs in other collections. Kbhier (1848) gives
the values of 40 such quantities.
FirHToU Numbers. — Denoting ii(»+l)...(»+»— 1)/»! by fnl*,
Lambert, Suppiementa, 1798, gives [ifl< from « > i to h <-30 aqp from
«-l to <«12; and G. W. Hill (Amer. Jour. Math., 188^; 6. p. 130)
gives logoff]* for n > |. It It i. 1. and from » *- 1 to » > 30.
Trigonometrical Quadratic Surds. — The surd values of the sines
of every third degree of the quadrant are given in some tables
of logarithms; e.g., in Hutton's (p. xxxix., ed. 1855), we find
•in 3*=IIV(5+V5)+VV+VI-V(i54-3V5)-V|-Vil: aftd'the
numerical v^ucs of the surds V(5+V5)i V(Y). &c-. *« fijven
to 10 places. These values were extended to ao places by Peter
Cray, iless. of Math., x877i 6, p. 105.
Cwculating Decimals.— ^ktoowyn a tables have been described
already. Several others have been published giving the numbers
of digits in the periods of the reciprocals of primes: Burckhardt,
Tahlts des dioiseurs du premier mUlton (Paris, 1814-1817), gave one
for all primes up to 25^3 and for 22 primes exceeding that limit.
E. Desmarest, Thhrie des nombres (Paris, 1852), included all primes
up to ro.ooo. C. G. Reuschle, Matkematische Abhandtung, entkaliend
neue tahientheoretische Tabellen (1856), contains a similar table to
15,00a This W. Shanks extended to 60,000; the portion from
1 to 30,000 is printed in the Proc. Roy. Soc., 22, p. jKto, and the
remainder is (deserved in the archives oif the society {Id., 23, p. 260
and 24, p. 392). The number of di/pts in the decimal period of ijp,
is the same as the exponent to which 10 belongs for modulus p, so
that, whenever the period has p—\ digits, 10 is a primitive root of p.
Tables of primes having a given number, n, of digits in their periods,
Le. tables of the resolutions of lo'*— 1 into factors and, as far as
■ f W. Looff (in Grunerl's
4, pu 115) and by
, . ^ r extends to i»=6o
and the latter to »*ioo, but there are gaps in both. Reuschle's
tract also contains resolutions of 10*— i.
There is a similar table by C. E. Bickmoce in Mess, of Math., 1896,
35i P> 43* A full account of all tables connecting n and p where
10^ a I, mod p, 10* being the least power for which this congruence
holds good, is given by Allan Cunningham {Id., 190^ 33, p. 145).
The paper by the same author, " Period-lengths of Circulates "
(Id. 1900, 20, p. 145) relates to circulators in the scale of radix a.
See also tables of the resolutions of a*— i into factors under Tables
relating to the Theory of Numbers (below). Some further references
on circulating decimals are given in Froc. Comb. Phil. Soc., 1878, 3,
p. 185.
Pyihagorean Trian^s. — Ri^ht-angled triangles in which the sides
and hypothenuse are all raUonal integers arc frequently termed
Pythagorean triangles, as, for example, the triangles \, 4, 5, and
5, 12, 13. Schuize, SamnUun^ (1778). contains a uble of such
triangles subject to the condition tan hu^jfti** being one ol the
acute angles). About 100 triangles are given, but some occur
twice. Large tables of right-angled rational triangles were given
by C A. Bretschncider, in Crunert's Archiv, 1841, 1. p. 96^ ami by
Sang, Trans. Roy. Soc Edin., 1864, 33, p. 727. In these tables the
triangles are arranged accordix» tohypothenuscs and extend to
1201, 1200, 49, and xios, 107^, 264 respectively. W. A. Whitworth.
in a paper read before the Lit. and Phil. Society of Liverpool in
1875, carried his list as far as 2465, 2317, 78a. See also H. Rath,
"Die rationalen Dreiccke," in Crunerts Archio, 1874, 56, p. 188.
Sans's paper also contains a table of triangle* having an angle of
120"^ and their odes intesers.
Powers of w. — G. Pauckcr, in Crunert's Ardiio, p. 10, gives »"* and
vl to 140 places, and w-*tri,wi, vi to about 50 places; J. Burgess
{Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1898. 39, II., No. 9. p. 23) gives (U>t.
2lr-|, and some other qonttairta iovqiving w as well as their Bngnan
logarithms to 2i S!F%^JSSJ&.''*'¥y>*'^iL^^ oC «onsUnls (seo
CoHSlantst dxiyti tSJbynJHUiln jHMM^ MB^bsft ovdvt powera
of 9 «ad 0.^i^%||iiHI^^HflMMMiyBI (ill^N|licr» in Proc
rand
t.e. tables of the resolutions 01 10^— i into factors
known, into prime factors, have been given bv W. Lo
Archiv, 16. p. ^; reprinted in Now. annates, 14, |
Shanks {Proc. Roy. Soc. 22. p. 381). The former ej
i''+3'*+5'^+ Ac Legendre (rraitf its foaOioms dlipiiqm$,
vol. 2. p. 432) computed Sm to 16 places from m*-i to 35. and
Glaisher {Proc. Land. Math. Soc, 4. P- 48) deduced j»and cTor tha
same arguments and to the same number of places. The latter also
Bve S», s», om font -2. 4, 6.. . . 12 to 22 or more places {froc. Land,
ath. Soc, 8. p. 140), and the values of Xn, where 2. -2^+3--+
5~"+&c (prime numbers only involved), for fi«»2, 4, 6. ... 36 to
15 places (Com pie rendu de f Assoc Franqaise, 1878, p. 172).
C. W. MerrifieU {Proc Roy. Soc, 1881, 33. p. 4) gav« the values
of log, 5. and Z, for 11-1.2,3,..., 35 to 15 places, and Glaisher
{Quar. Jour. Math., 1891, 25, p. 347^ gave the values of the same
Juantities for » -2,4.6. ... 80 to 24 pilaces (last figure uncertain),
lerrifidd's table was reprinted by J. P. Gram on p. 269 of the paper
of 1884, referred to under Sinenntegral, Gfc, who also added the
vahaes of \og,»S» for the same argumenU to IS places. An error
in Za in Merrifidd's table is pointed out in Qfiar. Jonr. Maik.,
2J» P« ^7^ This quantity is correctly given in Gram's reprint.
T. J. Stielles has greatly extended Legendre's Uble of S,. His table
{Acta math., 1887. '^' P' ^99) gives ^ for all values of » up to « -70
to 32 plaoes. Except f<M- six errors of a unit in the last figure he
found Legendre's table to be correct. Legendre's table was re-
printed in De Mocsan's Dif. and Int. CaU. (1842). p. S54- Various
small tables of other series, involvii^ inverse powen of prime
numbers, such as 3-*-5-»+7-*+iP-i3*+..., are given in vol*.
25 and 26 of the Qmar. Jour. MaA.
Tables of «« and f, or H)4>erboiie Antilogarithms.-^Tht laiigest
tables are the following: C. Gudermann, Theorie der potential' oder
eyhlisck-hyperbolisehen Functionen (BerUn. 1833), which consists of
-pen reprinted from vols; 8 and 9 of Creils's Journal, and gives
Jm sinh X, logia cosh x, and logio tanh x from x -2 to 5 at intervals
t -ooi to plaoes and from x -5 to 12 at intervals of 'Oi to 10 places.
Since sbh x-i(«*— «-•) and cosh x-i(tf« +«-»). the values of
«* and r* are dedudUe at once by addition and subtraction.
F. W. Newman, in Camb. Phil. Trans., 13, p. 145, gives values of
r-«fro(n x-o to 15*3^ at intervals of 'OOi to 12 plaoes, from
— 15*350 to 17*298 at intervals of '002, and from x - 17'300 to 27'6t35
' of *oo5, to 14 places. Glaisher, in Camb. Fht" ""
at intervab c
PhU. Trans.,
*oo5, to 14 places. Glaisher, in Camb.
I3t P- 343i gives four tables of f, r', logiar*. logi* r^, their ranges
being from x — 'OOi to • i at inter\'als of •001 , from 'Oi to 2 at intervals
of 'Oi, from •! to 10 at intervals of •!, from i to 500 at intervab of
unity. Vega, Tabulae (1797 and later ed.), has logic «" to 7 places
and «* to 7 figures from x--oi to 10 at intervals of •ox. KOhlcr's
Handbnch contains a small table of C. In Schulee's Sammlnni
(1778) e* is given for x- 1, 2, 3,. . . 24 to 28 or 29 figures and for
x-25, 30, and 60 to A2 or 33 figures; this table is reprinted in
Glaisher's paper (loc at.). In Salomon's Tiifeln (1827) the values
of «*,«••, «••», r*^,... «-"«"^, where s has the values i, 2,. ..9,
are given to 12 places. Bretschneider. in Crunerfs Archio, 3, p. 33,
gavetf* and r^and also sin x and cos x for x — I, 2.... to to 20
places, and J. P. Gram (in his paper of 1884, referred to under 5tiie.
integral, 6fc), gives r« for x-io, ii... .20 to 24 places, and from
x-7 to x-20 at intervals of o«2 to xo, X\, 14. or 15 places. T.
Burgess {Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., x888. 39, II. No. 9) has given (p. 26)
the values of e-' and v|^ for x-4 and for x-J, 2,. . ., 10 to 30
places. In the same paper he also gives the vahies of vf^" ^'''"^
x-o tox- i>25o to 9 places, and from x- x-25 to x-X'^o at intervab
of -ox, and thence at various intervals to x-6 to X5 places, and the
values of logw ^pr** from x-i tc x-3 at intervals of •001 to
16 places.
Factorials. — ^The values of logi# (a!), where «! denotes 1.2.3...
n, from n - x to 1200 to x8 places, are given by C. F. Degen, Tabu-
larum Enneas (Copenhagen, X824). and reprinted, to 6 pUces. at the
end of De Morgan's article " Probabilities " in the Encyclopaedia
Melropolitana. Shortrcde. Tables (X849, vol. L}, gives log (aO to
n - xooo to 5 pUccs. and for the arguments endine in o to 8 placo.
Degen also gives the complements of the loganthms. The first
20 figures 01 the values of »X»! and the values of — lo^ (aXa!)
to xo places are given by Glaisher as far as n -71 in the Phd. Trans.
for 1870 (p. 370), and the values of x/n! to 28 significant figures
as far as n- 50 in Camb. Phil. Trans., 13, p. 246.
BemouUian Numbers. — ^Th* first fifteen Bernoullian numbers
were given by Eulcr, InsL Calc Diff., part ii. ch. v. Sixteen more
were calcubted by Rothe, and the fint thirty-one were published
by M. Ohm in CreUe's Journal, 20. p. 11. J. C Adams calculated
the next thirty-one, and a table of the first sixty-two was published
l|yr him in the BriL Ass. Report for 1877 and in CrtOe*s Journal, 85.
J. -^ I- ^u« »_•* A — ilgpffi the numben ara given not only aa
1 expressed in integen and drcubting
( figures of the values of the first 250 Ber-
f tr Briggian logarithms to 10 placn, have
t r. Camb. Phil. Trans., 12, p. 384.
i).—C. Gudermann, Theorie der potential-
4 \ Funeiionen ^Berlin, 1833). gives (in 1 00
f ' every centesimal minute of the onadraat
I >le contains the values of tfab lunctio*.
TABLE, MATHEMATICAL
335
■ko at ioteryab of • mbrato. f rem 88^ to iod* (eeiitesliiMl) t* ti
ction f<
TTt0 Gamma PmuHtm, — Legendre'fl greit table ftppetred in vol.
M. Legendre, ttaiU des fonctioHS mpiifues
" degree (sexi
A.
!>. 356), gives the nine function for every half
of the qtindrant to la places.
-rGsMUMAM '
6i hi^ Estrckm df
TmUi dtsfaiuUm
from x>--t to 3 at
the third order.
AfulyUuk* SUM
arguments differ \
p. 5^7. The last
so that the full U
(without differem
(vol. ii.
D
(1870). p. 285. am
CakmLus (1884), p
'^is
had prrriously p«
dancrences.
TMes c«nmeUd with EttipUe FufUtums.—heeaidn jmiblished
elaborate tables of the elliptic integrals in voL ii. of his Traiti des
fmtchmu eUiptiques (1836). Denoting the modular angle by #,
the amplitude by ^ the Inoomplete intMral of the first and second
kind by F{4) and Fi(4>\ and the complete intapals by Jt and £,
the uMes are: — (i) log»S and logMJC from tf-o^to 00* at intervals
of o*-i to 13 or 14 places, with diffeiences to the tnird order; (s)
£1(4) and F(4). tlie modubr aogle being 45*, from 4-0* to 00*
at intervals of o*-^ to I3 traces, mth differences to the fifth order;
C}) £1(45*) and r(4%*) from 9-o* to oo* at intervals of I^ with
differences to the sixtn order, also E anaK for the same arguments,
all to 13 places; (4) ^i*) and PM for every degree of both the
amplitudeaod the argument too or 10 places. The first throe tables
had been published previously m vol liL of the Extrckes 4$ cakui
imb^al (1816).
TaliUs itmMng q.—P. F. Verhukt. TraiU desfonOimu eUiptiquet
(Brussels, 1841). contains a table of logM(logu)^^ f<)r an;ument §
at intervals of o*>l to 13 or 14 places. C. C. j. Jacobi, m CnOe's
JmmnUt a6, p. 93, gives Uxn 9 from 9**o* to 90* at tntenrab of o***!
to s pluxa. E. D. F. Meusel's Sommluut mathemaUscktr TaSdn, L
(Iserlohn, i860), consista of a table of Iokn 9 at intcrvab of l' from
#-0* to 90* to 8 places. Glaiiher, in liimik. Not. RA^., 1877,
37*P>37S>8i^'<talqeMtftolO|rfacesattd9t0 9trfaoeSforevery degree.
In J. Bertrand's Calad Imttgral (1870), a table of Ion* q from «-o*
to 90* at intervals of 5' to 5 plaoies is accompanied by taUes of logi*
Mi^iKhr) and logw logw f^ and by abrkkmenta of Legendre's tabtes
of the elliptic integrals. O. ScUOmtkh, VmUnmKn der kdherem
Amifsis (Brunswick, 1879), p. 448, gives a small table of logM q for
' ^05 planes.
CoeJicitHts (Zonal Harmomes)^— The values of P^x)
from «"*0 to I at intervals of -oi are given by
very decree to 5 glaoes.
JtgjtMafiaa "
or»-l, 3.3, ^ - ,
Glaisher. in BriL Ass. EeP., 1879, pp. 54-57. The functions tabulated
*(S«^-iJ. 5?»(«)-l(5<«-3»). ^«)-K35*^
BriL Ass. 1
arePKx)-*, i*(x>-*(j«^-i), P«(«)-l(5<«-3»). ^*)-K35**-
"5t^^^"A(42f-693f»+3i5*»-35«). ...
The values of F»(cos 9) for »-i, 3,. . .7 for $»o\ t*, 3*,. . .90*
given by J. Perry in the Proc. P&j
in the Phil. Mag., 1891. ser. 6, 33.
cur in connexion with the theory of
f spharoids, and other physical theorie
)i9iu.--F. W. fiesael's original table ai
to 4 places are given by J. Perry in the Proc. Phys. Soc., iJtoj,
11. p. 331. and in the Phil. Mag., 1891. ser. 6, 33. p. 513. The
fmwrtions P* occur in connexion with the theory of n
the attTMtioa of spheroids, and other physical theories^
BtsstTs FmtctUms.'^. W. fiesael's original table appeared at the
end of his memoir, " Untersuchung des planetariscben Teils der
StAmngen, wekhe aus der Bewegung der Sonne entstehen " (in
Abk. dL Bsrf. Akad. 1834: reprinted in vol. i. of h» AhhoMdhmgen,
684). It gives J.(a) and Ji{x) from x ^o to 3'3 at intervals of •ox.
ore extensive tables were calculated by P. A. Hansen in " Ermit-
.t&dl
to s«ao, besides smaller tables of JU(v) for certain values of n as
far aa »— 38, all to 7 plaoes. Hansen s table was reproduced by
O. SchlOflulcb, in Zettsehr. fir Math., 2, p, 158. and by E. Loromel,
' - - " ^ - - ^-^^ . "WVP:"'
the chang<
Shidien 4ber die Bessefsenen Punctipnen ,
Hansen's notation Is slightly different from
ipzig, 1868). p. 127-
Bessel s; the change
aiguflent. SchlOmilch gives the taUe in
Hansen's form; Lommel caqpresses it in Bessd's.
Lord Raylcigfa's Theory of Sound (1894). i, p. 331. gives /.(x) and
/i(x) from x-io to x«i3*a at intervals of o-i to 4 places, taken
from LoauBd* A hxgc table of the same functions was given by
E. D. F. Mcissel in the i4M. d. Berlifi ilAwf. for 1888 (published also
separately). It contains the values of /,(x) and AM from x«o to
X • 15-50 at intervals of •01. A. Lod^e has cakulated the vahies of
the function /»(^) where
I.(A'i^Mi^'^\ 1 I a(a^a) 1 3-4.(3ii4^)(3n-|.4 )"'"- ' ' \
His tables give /.(a) for »*o, 1, 3 ii from x*o to X"6 at
intcrvab of o-3 to 11 or 13 places {BriL Ass. Ref., 1889. p. 39),
1/ji) and /.(x) from x*o to x- 5* 100 at intervals of •001 to 9 places
{Jd., 1893. p. 339. and 1896, p. 99). and of Mx-^i) from x "O to x » ^
at iatervais of o>3 Ud.. 1893. p. 338) to 9 pisoea. to all th« tJibiM
Ii'
tiie last figure Is unoertala. Subsidiaiv tables for the calcidation
of Bed^'s functions are given by L. N. G. Filon and A. Lodge in
BriL Ass. Rep., 1907. p. 94. The w<nrk is being continued, the
object being to obtain the vahies of /.(x) for n-o, |, 1. 1^,. . . , 6}.
A table by E. J^nke has been announced, which, beinaes tables of
other mathematical f unctk>ns, u to contain values of Benel's functions
of order land roots of functions derived from Bessd's functions.
Sine, Cosine, Exponential, and Logantkm Jniepals. — ^The func-
tions so named are the integrals f'HSilix, f'SSL*dx,f' Cdx,
J * X Jtt X J-,^ X
T--— , which are denoted by the functional agns Si x, Ci x, Ei x,
ii X respectively, so that Ei x «Ii c*. J. von Soldner, Thiorie et tables
d'une noMvelle fonetion iranscendanle (Munich, 1809), gave the
values of U X from x*o to 1 at intervals of •! to 7 places, and thence
at various intervals to 1220 to 5 or more places. This table is
reprinted in De Morgan's Diff. amdluL Calc., n. 663. Bretschneider,
in Gnaurt's Arehm, 3, p. 33, cakulated Ei ( ^x). Si «^ Q x for x« i, a,
... 10 to 30 places, and subsequently (in Schldmilch's Zeitsckrifi, 6)
worked out the values of the same functions from x— o to i at
intervals of -oi and from x to 7*5 at intervals of 'l to 10 places. Two
tracts by L. Stenberg, Tabulae lotaritkmi interralis (Malm6, part L
1861 and part ii. 1867), give the valuesof Ii 10* irom x > — 15 to 3*5 at
intervals of -oi to 18 CMces. Glaisher, in Phil. Traus., 1870, p. 567,
gives Ei (*x). Si x, Ci x from x-o to i at intervab of -oi to 18
places, from x - 1 to 5 at intervals of • i and thence to 15 at intervab
of unity, and for x«30 to 11 places, besides seven-place tables of
Si X and Ci x and tables of their maximum and minimum values.
See abo BelUvitis, " Tavob numeriche logaritmo-intqnrab " (a
paper in Memoirs of the Venetian InstUuU, 1874). F. W. Bessel
caicubted the values of Ii looo. Ii 10,000, Ii 100,000, Ii 300,000,. . .
K 600,000. and Ii 1,000,000 (see Abhandlungen, 3. p. 339). In
Glauher, Faetor Table for the Sixth Million (1883), i iii.. the values of
Ii X are ^ven from x-o to ^(,000,000 at intervals of 50,000 to the
nearest mtegcr. J. P. Gram in the publications of the Copenhagen
Academy, 188^ 3, No. 6 (pp. 368-272), has given to 30 places the
values of Ei X from x — 10 to x « 20.at intervab of a unit (thus carry-
ing Bretschndder's tabb to thb extent) and to 8, 9, or 10 places,
the values of the same function from X"5 to x«30 at intarvab of
>ns are em*
y of errors,
be denoted
iction and
-|V» (PAil.
transpose
hetabbsof
e as follows.
1 erf c X from
ocit (erfc x)
.W. Bessel,
'erfc x) from
nentbgnx,
01. A. M.
10. contains
of •oi to 10
places. J. F. Eocke, Berliner ast. Jahrhuch for X834, gives 4- erf x
from xmo to 3 at intervab of *oi to 7 places and ^ erf (fix) from
x«o to 3'4 at intervals of 'Oi and thence to ^ at intervals of •i to
5 pbces. p being •4769360. Gbisher, in PhiL Mag., Decembq- 1871,
rives erfc x from x«3 to 4*5 at intervab of •01 to 1 1, 13, or lapbces.
Encke's tables and two of Kramp's were reprinted in the Encyclo'
paedia MetropoUtana, art. " Ptobabilitiea." These tables have also
been reininted in many foreign works 00 probabiHties, errors of
observations, Ac. In vol. 3 (1880) of hb Lehrbuch s«r BahnbesHm'
mmng der Komelen und Planeten T. R. v. Oppober gives (p. 587) a
tabb citti X irom x«o to 4*53 at intervab of 'Oi to 10 places, and
(p. 603) a tabb of ^ erf X from x«o to a at intervab of •01 to 3
1}1lces. Both tables were the result of original calcubtions. A very
arge tabb of ben «" erfc x was caicubted by R. Radau and published
in Utt Annates ieVobservatoirede Paris {Mimoires, 1888, 18. B. 1-35).
ft contsins t}.e values of logi* «* erfc x from x« — ©•iso to 1*000 at
intcrvab of •ooi to 7 places, with differences. A. Markoff in a
separate publication, roUr des valenrs de rintigralef r"^ (St
Petersbuiig, 1888). gives erfc x from x "-o to 3 at intervab of 'Ooi and
from x»3 to 4*80 at intervab of •01, with first, second, and third
differences to 11 places. He abo gives a tabb of -4^ erf x froih
x-o to x«2-499 at intervals of •001 and thence to 3*79 at intervab
of •01. J. Burgess, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edim., 1888, 39, II., No. 9,
pubfished very extensive tables of ^ erf x. which were entirely
336
TABLE. MOUNTAIN
the result of a new calculadon. His tables give the values of this
function from x»o to 1*250 at intervals of -ooi to 9 places with
6rBt and second diifercnccs, from x » i to 3 at intervals of -001 to
15 places with differences to the fourth order, and from x«3 to 5
at intervals of •! to 15 places. He also gives erfc x froai«»oto
x-5 at intervals of •! to 15 places. B. Kjimpfe in Wundt's Phil,
Stud., 1893, p. 147, gives ^ erf r from x»o to x» 1-509 at intervals
of K)Oi, and from if'Bi-so to xa2-88 at intervals of -oi to 4 places,
G. T. Fechner's EiemenU dsr Pkychophysik (Leipzig[, i860) contains
(pp. 108, no) some small four-place tables connectmg rln (as argu-
ment) and hD where - = J+^erf — -• A more detailed account of
tables of erf x, t^ erf x, &c., b given In Mess, of Maih.,i^, 38, p. 1 1 7.
Values of J «**dx.— The values of thU integral have been calcu>
lated by H. G. Dawson from ««»o to **»a to 7 places (last figure
uncertam). The table is published in the Proc. Lend, Math, Sec,,
1896, 39, p. 531.
• TaMes of Intetrals, not Numtrical. — Meyer Hirsch, IntegreX-
taMn (1810; Eng. trans., 1823). and Minding, Integraltafdn (Berlin,
*o49)» give values of indefinite inteerals and formulae of reduction;
both are useful and valuable works. De Haan, Nouvelks tables
d'inUfrales dSftnies (L^ydcn, 1867), b a quarto volume of 727 pages
containing evaluations of definite integrals, arranged in 485 tables.
The first edition appeared in vol. d of the Transactions of the
Amsterdam Academy of Sciences. Tnls edition, though not so full
and accurate as the second, gives re^ferences to the original memoirs
in which the different integrals are considered. B. O. Peirge's A Short
Tabie of liitfgrals (Boston, U.S.A., 189^) contains integrals, formulae,
expansions. &c., as well as some four-place numerical tables, including
those of hyperbolic sines and cosines and their logarithms.
Tables mating to the Theory of Numbers. — These are of so technical
a character and so numerous that a comprehensive ac<:ount cannot
be attempted here. The reader is referred to Cayley's report in the
Brit. Ass. Rep. for 1875, P* 3*^^' ^bere a full description with references
is given. Three tables published before that date may, however,
be briefly noticed on account of their importance and because they
form separate volumes: (i) C. F. E>e|en, Canon Pdlianus (Copen-
hagen, 1817), relates to th* indeterminate equation ji^— ox«««i for
values of a from i to looo. It in fact gives the expression for Va as
a continued fraction; (2) C. G. J. Jacobi, Canon arithmeticus
(BerNn, 1839), is a quarto work containing 240 pages of tables,
where we find for each prime up to looo the numbers corresponding
to given indices and the indices corresponding to given numbers, a
certain primitive root (10 is taken whenever it is a primitive root) of
the prime being selected as base; (3) C. G. Reuschle, Tafeln com-
pUxer PrimtahUn, wekhe aus Wurzeln der Binheii tebtldet sind
(Beriin, i8.'5). includes an enormous mass of results relating to the
higher complex theories.
Passing now to tables published since the date of Cayley's report,
the two most important works are (i) Col. Allan Cunningham's Btnary
CanoHy (London, 1900), a quarto volume similar in construction,
arrangement, purpose, and extent to JacoWs Canon arithmeticus,
but differing from it in using the base 2 throughout, i.e.* in Jacobi's
Canon th« baseof «ach table is always a primitive root of the modulus,
while in Cunningham's it is always 2. The latter tables in fact give
the 'residues /? ol a" (where x^o, i, 2, . . . ) for every prime P or
power of a prime, p^, up to tooo, and also the indices x of 2*, which
yield the residues R to the same moduli. This work contains a list
of errors found in the Canon arithmeticus. (2) The same author's
Quadraik Partitions (London, 1904). These tables give for every
prime p up to loo^poo the values of a, 6; c, di A,d; and L, M
where p«-a»+fi»-c»-f2<P-M»+3^-i(-L*+27AP)- They also give
e, / where p^t* — 2/« up^ to 25,000 and resolutions of p into the forms
«*-5y». kx^-sy^), /'+7i«». i(»»+iitt»). A'*"^'*, x^-i-sy*.
(?+blP, C'«-6H'«, f^-ju'*, e-^-iot^, f-ion^ p^-iiw^ up
to 10,000 : as well as the feast solutions of r*— Di^'* ^^l up to
D » IQO and least solutions of other similar equations. A complete
list of errata in the previous Partition tables of Jacobi, Reuschle,
Lk>yd Tanner, and in this table is given by Allan Cunningham in
Mess, of Math., 1904, 34, p. 132. The resolution of a"— i into
its numerical factors is treated in detafl by C. E. Bickmore in Mesi.
of Math., 1896, 25, p. 1, and 1807, 26, p. 1. On p. 43 of the
former volume he gives a table of the known factors of a*— i for
0=2. 3i 5t 6, 7, 10, II, 12 and from «-i to »'»50. Other papers
on the same subject contained in the same pcriodicaiare by Allan Cun-
ningham, 1900, 39, p. 145; ,1904, 33, p. 95; and F. B. Eicot^ ibid,,
p. 49. These papers contain references to other writines. Tablea
of the resolutions of 10*— i are referred te
under Cireitlating Decimals. If a' is the
wlwrh the congruence o*Sr (mod. W is a
belong to the exponent x for modulus p,
chief exponent (Haupt-exponent by Aljan <
a for the modulus b; so that (l) this es
figures in the circulating period eiif the fn
radix a. and (2) when x«^-i. o isnkwin
Quar. Jour. Math., 1906. 37, p. 132, he gives a tnble of Haofit-
exponents of 3 for all primes up to ro.ooo. la Acta Math. (1893,
i7> P- 315; i397> aOk Pf IS3: i^} 23, p. 300) G. Wertheim has
given tne least primitive root of pnmea up 10 sooa The follow-
tag papei» contain lists of high primes or factorizations of high
numbers: Allan Cunningham, Mess, of Math,, 1906, 3^; p. 166
(Pellian factorizatk)ns) ; 1007. 36. p. 145 (Quartan factoruations) ;
1903. 37f p« 65 (Trinomial binary factorisatkms) j 1909, 38, ppk.
81, 145 (Utophantive factorization of quartans); 1910, 39, pp. 33,
97: 191 1, 40, p. I (Sextan factori^tions) ; 1903, 31. p. 165:
1905; 34t P* 7^ (High primes). Tlie last three are joint papecs
by Cunningham and H. J. WoodalL Tablea relating to the distri-
bution of primes are contained in the introduction to the Sixth
MiUion (see under Fatter Tables), in ), P. Gram's paper on the
number of primes inferior to a given lim^t in the Vidensh, Selsk. Skr,^
1884^ H. 6, Copenhagen, and in Mess, of Math., 1902, 31, p. 173. A
table of x(")i the sum of the complex numbers having n for rorro,
for primes and powers of primes up to »« 13.000 by Glaisher, was
published in Quar, Jour, Math., 1885, .30, p. 153, and a 8even-p.ace
table of fix) and logio fix), where fix) denotes §•}•! • • ~^, the
denominators being the series of prime Qumben up to 10,000, in
Mess, of Math., 1899^38, p. i.
Bibliography. — Bibliomphical and historical information re>
lating to tables is colleaed m Br&. Ass. Rep. for 1873, p. 6. The prin-
cipal works are:— ^. C. Heilbronner, Htstoria Matneseos (Leipzig,
1742), the arithmetical portion being at theend . J. E. Scheibel. Etnleu
tung zur mathematischen Bucherkenntnia (Breslau, 1771-64); A. G.
Kastner, Gexkichte der Matkematih (GOttinjgen, i7p6--i8oo). vol. iii. ;
F. G. A. Murhard, Bibliotheca Mathem(U»ca (Leipcig. 1797-1804),
vol. ii.; ). Rogg, Bibliotheca Malhematiea CTObingen. isio), and
continuation from 1830 to 1854 by L. A. Sohnke (Leipzig and London,
1854); J. de Lalande, Bibliograpkie astronomigue (Paris, 1803),
a separate index on p. 960. A greilt deal of information upon
early tables is given by J. B. J. Delambre. Histoire de Vastronomie
modeme (Paris, 182 1), vol. i.; and in No*, xix. and xx. of C
Mutton's Mathematical Tracts (1812). For lists of logarithmic tables
of all kinds see De Haan, Verslagen en Mededeelingen of the Amster-
dam Academy of Sciences {Abt. Natuurkunde) 1862, xiv. 15, and
Verhandelingen of the same academy, 1875, xv. separately paged.
De Morgan's article " Tables," which appeared first in tne Pinny
Cyclopaedta, and afterwards with additions in the EngjUsh Cydo-
paedia, gives not only a good deal of bibliographical information, but
also an account of tables relating to life assurance and annuities,
astronomical tables, commercial tables, &c
Reference should also be made to R. Mehmke's valuabfe article
*' Niimerisches Rechncn " in vol. i. pt. ii. pp. 941-107;^ of the £«icyfc.
der matiu Wia. (Leipci^^. i<KX>-a),'whu:h besides tables includes oJcu-
lating machines, graphical methods, &c (J. W. L. G.)
TABLE HOtmTAIH (Dutch Tafelberg), a name frequently
given in South Africa to flat-topped hills and mountains, there
a characteristic feature <^ the scenery. Occasionally such bills
are called plat, i.e. flat, bergen. Specifically Table Mountain is
the mountain which arises behind Table Bay^ in the Cape
Peninsula, Cape Town lying at its seaward- base and on its
adjacent lower slopes. The mountain forms tht northern end
of a range of hills whith terminates southward in the Cape of
Good Hope. The northern face oi the mountain, overlooking
Table Bay, extends like a great waU some two miles in length,
and rises precipitously to a height of over 3500 ft. The face is
scored wfth ravines, a particulariy deep cleft, kno^n as The
Gorge, affording the shortest means of access to the summit.
East and west of the mountain and a httle in advance of it are
lesser bills, the Devil's Peak (3300 ft.) being to the east and
Lion's Head (2100 ft.) to the west. Lion's Head ends sesiwatd
in Signal HiD (iioo ft.). The western side of Table Mountain
faces the Atlantic, and is flanked by the hills known as The
Twelve Apostles; to the south Hout's Bay Nek connects it
with the remainder of the range; on the east the mountain
ovedoOks the Cape Fllits. (Dn this side its slopes arc less sleep,
and. at its foot are Rondebosch, Newlands, Wynberg, and other
leiadential sobuihs of Cape Tbwn. The ascent of the mountain
ffomMIMlbefeir 'by «ottt*» Bav Nek &* practicable for horse*.
cunt is variously stated
small valleys and hills,
its flora inehiding the
rell-known silver tree.
fHihtn buttress of the
Mfc;Mount|iiii and its
TABLE-TURNINIG— TABOO
in
beauty. The view t^m the sumatt evertooking Table Bay
ia also one of mtich graodeuK
The aouUi-eaat winds which aweq> over Table Moantain
frequently cause the pbenomenen known aa ** The Tabk-dotfa."
The summit of the mountain ii thtt covered by a whitish-frty
doud, which is being csonatantly iorccd down the noithem faoe
towacds Cape Town, but never reaches the lower slopes. The
clouds (not alwaya caused by the south-easter) lorm very
suddenly, end the weather on the mountain is esoeedingly
changeable. The rainfall on the summit is hcavy» 7S-t4 inches
a year being the average of twelve years' observations. This
compares with au average of 54*63 inches at Bisbop*s Court,
Newlands, at the foot of the inountaia on the east and with
25-43 inches at Cape Town at the northern foot of the moimtain«
The relative luzuiiance of the vegetation on the upper part of
the mountain, compared with that of iu lower slopes, is due
Dot only to the rainfall, but to the lai^e additional moisture
condensed from clouds. The result of experiments conducted
by Dr Marloth {Trans, S. Afrn. FkU. Soc, for 1903 and 1905)
goes to show that during cloudy weather the summit* of the
mountain resembles an inunenae sponge, and that this condensa*
tioa of moisture considerably influences the yield of- the iprings
m the lower part of the mountain.
TABLfr-TUBNlNO. When the movement of modem spirit?
ualism first reached Europe from America in- the winter of
1852-3, the most popular method of consulting the " spirits "
was for several persons to sit round 4 table, with their hands
itsiing on it, and wait for the table to move. If the experiment
was succcsslul the table would rotate with considerable rapidity,
and would occasionally rise in the air, or peif onn other move*
meats. Whilst by many the movements were ascribed to the
agency of spirits, two investigators— count de Casparin and
Professor Thury of Geneva^-a>nductcd a careful series of
experiments by which they churned to have demonstrated that
the movements of the table were due to a physical force cma-
oating from the bodies of the sitters, for wMch they proposed
the name " ectenic force." Their conclusion rested on .the
supposed dimination of all known physical causea for the
movements; but it is doubtful from the description of the
experiments whether the precautions taken were suf&cknt to
exclude unconscious muscular action or even deliberate fraud.
In England Uble-tuming became a fashionable diversion
and was practised all over the country in the year x3s3. ^'
John Elliotson and his followers attributed the phenomena to
mesmerism. The general public were content to find the
explanation ef the movements ia spirits, animal magnetism,
edfc force, galvanism, electricity, or even the rotation of the
earth. James Braid, W. B. Caipentcr and others pointed out,
however, that the phenomena obviously depended upon the
expectation of the sitters, and could be stopped altogether by
appropriate suggestion. And Faraday devised some simple
apparatus which conclusively demonstrated that the move*
ments were due to unconscious muscula*- action. The apparatus
consisted of two small boards, with\glass rollers between them,
the whole fastened together by indiarubber band? in such a
manner that the upper board could slide under lateral pressure
to a limited extent over the lower one. The occurrence of such
laietal movement was at once indicated by means of an upright
haystalk fastened to the apparatus. VVhen by tins means
it was made dear to the experimenters that it was the fingers
which moved the table, not the table the fingers, the phenomena
loeoetaBy ceased. The movements were in fact simply an
■1^'rtrt^ of automatism. But Faraday's demonstration did
Cttlelp 4lop the popular erase.
By bdicven the table was made to serve as a means of com-
; with the qurits; the alphabet would be slowly
r sad the table wo^ tilt at the appropriate letter,
out words and sentences.. Some Evangelical
S^tfcoveied by this means that the spirits who caused
Ks were ci a diabolic nature, and some amazing
» published in 1855 And x&S4 of the revelations
Lihe tt frip g ta bid.
TaUe^uralng b sliUla vogue ataongst spirUualiit didei.
The device was empbyed with success by* Pralesior ChailH
Bichet and otheaia thought-traoafeieace e^perimeata.
See A.' E. de Gasparin, Des TabUs taumantes, dm Surnaturd, &c
(fans, i«54); Thury, Des TabUs toumanUs (Geneva, 1855);
Faraday's letter on Table-torning f^ The Times, 30th June 1853.
Oiautariif Rnim, Sept. iftsa^-^rticle by Camentcr on Spiritoalism,
&c.; Mn De Momaa,/nwi MaUer to SfiirU (LoBdoo. 18^: Ch.
RIcbet. Procudings SJ'Ji,, vol. v. F. Podnore, Modern Spirit-
ualiim (London, 1902), U. 7-21, gives an account of. the move-
ment in r8s3. with lefeiences to contemporary pamphlets and
newspaper artides. (F. P.)
TABUNUM (or tabtdinum, from (abulo, board, picture), ia
Roman architecture, the name given to an apartment generally
situated on one side of. the atrium and opposite to the enUance;
it opened ia the rear on to the peristyle, with either a laige
window or only an anteroom or curtain* The walls were richly
decorated with fresco pictures, , and busts ol the family were
arranged on pedestals on the two sides of the room.
TABOO (also written (apu and tabu), the Polynesian name
givca to pvobibitioos enforced by religious or magical sanctions.
As a verb it means to " prohibit^" as an adjective " proh^bitedt
sacred, dangerous, unclean."
r. The word " taboo " or its dialeaical forms are found
throughout Polynesia; in Melanesia the term is tamlm; ia
various parts of Malaysia and the East Indies pantanf^t bobosso,
pamaUif &&; in Madagascar Jadi includes taboo; m North
America the Dakota term Mmkan bears a sloular meaning*
T<aboo is pechaps derived from f0. to oaark, and M «> adverb
of intensity.
a. Fundamental Ideas. — In taboa proper are combined two
notions which with the progress of dvilixation have become
differentiated— (i) sacred and (ii.) impure, or. unclean; it must
be borne in mind that the impurity is sacred, and is not derived
from contact with common things- It does not imply any
moral quality; it has been defined as an indication of "a
connexion with the gods, or a separation from ordinary pur-*
poses aad exclusive appropriation to persons or things con-
sidered saacd;, sometimes it means devoted by a vow." This
definition docs not cover the whole connotation of taboo as it
is employed at the present day, but it indicates clearly the
non-moral character of the idea. The ordinary usage is perhaps
best defined-^he' sutement that taboo is " negative magic,"
i^, abstinence from certain acts, in order that undesirod magical
results may not loUovf, in this sense a taboo is simply a ritual
prohibition. Properly speaking taboo includes only (a) the
sacred (or unckao) character of persons or things, (6) the kind
of prohibitHui which results from this character, and (c) the
sanctity (or undeanness) which results from a violation of the
prohibition* The converse of taboo in Polynesia is noa and
allied forms, which mean " general " or " common "; by a curious
Goinddence noa is the term used in Central Australia to express
the relation of persons of opposite sexes on whose intercourse
there is no restriction.
3. Classijicaiion,'-\ano\xs dasscs of taboo in the wider sense
may be distinguished: (i) natural or dlrca, the result of mana
(mysterious power) inherent in a person or thing; (ii.) com-
municatcd or indirect, cquaUy the result of mana, but (a)
acquired or {b) imposed by a priest, chief or other person; (iii.)
intermediate, where both factors are present, as in the appro-
priation of a wife to her husband. These three classes are those
of Uboo proper. The term taboo is also applied to ritual pro-
hibitions of a different nature^ but its use in these senses is
better avoided. It might be argued that the term should be
extended to embrace cases in which the sanction of the pro-
hibition is the creation of a god or spirit, i.e. to religious inter-
dictions as distinguished from magical, but there is ndther
automatic action nor contagion in such a case, and a better
term for it is Religious interdiction.
4. OlyeUSs-^ThK objects of taboo are many: (i.) direct taboos
aim at (a) the protection of important persons — chiefs,
priests, &c.— and things against harm; (6) the safeguarding
of the weak^-women, chfldren and oommon people generally—
from the powerful mana (magical influence) of chiefs and priests ;
(c) the provision against the dangers incurred by handling or
coming in conUct with corpses, by eating certain foods, &c.;
id) the guarding the chief acta of life— birth, initiation,
marriage and suual functions, &c., against interference;
(c) the securing of human beings against the wrath or power of
gods and spirits; (/) the securing of unborn infants and young
children, who stand in a specially sympathetic relation with
one or both parents, from the consequences of certain actions,
and more especially from the communication of qualities sup-
posed to be derived from certain foods, (ii.) Taboos are imposed
in order to secure against tfaSeves the property of an individual,
his fields, tools, &c.
5. Sanctions.—Tht sanctions of taboo may be (1.) natural
or direct; (ii.) social or indirect. Natural sanctions are
(a) automatic, where the punishment of the offender results
from the operation of natural laws without any element of
volition, just as some kinds of magic are held to bring about
their results without the intervention of a spirit; (6) animistic,
where the penalty results from the wrath of a god, deceased
human being, or other spirit. The motive of the social sanation
is Intimately religious or magical, but the penalties incurred by
the violator of a taboo are social; they are inflicted by other
members of the community, firstly, as a means of averting the
supernatural sanctions, which, ^ot having fallen on the actual
offender, may visit his innocent fellows; and secondly, as a
means of discouraging other offenders; in these cases the
criminal is not himsell taboo, but, thanks to his manUf braves
the supernatural consequences; the social penalty is also
inflicted on those who, like mourners, are themselves taboo and
refuse to take steps to seclude themselves, in defence of the
community; in the first class the social penalty is at once
repressive and prophylactic, saving the innocent by punishing
the guilty, and thus averting by a piaculum the vengeance which
would otherwise fall somewhere; in the second the penalty
is purely repressive.
The violation of a taboo makes the offender himself taboo;
other penalties are not unkown: thus a man who partakes of
a forbidden animal will break out in sores or the animal will
reproduce itself within him and devour his vitab. Sometimes
it is thought that the penalty falls on the kinswomen of the
offender and that they produce, instead of children, animals
of the taboo species. In Melanesia burial-grounds are taboo,
and if the shadow of a passer-by falls on one, this entails upon
him the loss of his soul; sometimes misfortime is held to dog
the footsteps of the offender in this life and the next. But
in some of these cases the observer who reports them has prob-
ably confused taboos proper with negative magic. The social
sanctions range from the death penalty down to the infliction
of a fine or exaction of money compensation; the Polynesian
'custom of despoiling a man who breaks a taboo is perhaps a
special case of thb penalty, but the practice of ceremonial
plimdcring cannot always be so explained, and may perhaps in
this case too be capable of an entirely different exphmation.
Possibly the savage is more susceptible to suggestion than
civilized man; at any rate, cases are not unknown in which the
violation of a taboo has been followed by illness or even death,
when the offender discovers his error. Not unnaturally rites
of purification act as counter suggestions and save the offender
from the effects of his erroneous beliefs.
6. Mana. — ^In the case of automatic taboos, and to some
extent of other ritual prohibitions, the penalties for violation
are unequal; they may be regarded as ^
between the mana of the person or ob;
offender against the prohibition. In
Codrington, mana " is a power or infl
b a way supernatural; but it shows
or in any Idnd of power or excellence
This mana is not fixed In anything, 1
almost anything; but spirits, whethe
supernatural (t.c. non-human) beings.
it; and it essentially belongs to personal beings to originate U,^
though it may act through the medium of water, or a stone
or a bone " (cf. the snkman of West Africa, in FsnsHisii).
Persons or things which are regarded as taboo may be compared
to objects charged with electricity; they are the seat of a
tremendous power which is transmissible by contact, and may
be liberated with destructive effect if the organisms which
provoke its discharge are too weak to resist it; the result of a
viobtion of a taboo depends partly on the strength of the
magical influence inherent in the taboo object or penon, partly
on the strength of the opposing mana of the vk)lalor of the
Uboo. Thus, kings and chiefs are possessed of great power,
and it h death for their subjects to address them directly;
but a minister or other person of greater mana than common
can approach tbem unharmed, and can in turn be approached
by their inferiors without risk. The burial-place is often taboo
for the common people, save when they are actually engaged
in funeral rites; but the sorcerer, thanks to his indwelling
power, can resist the deadly influences whidi would destroy
the common folk, and may enter a cemetery for ritual or other
purposes. So too indirect taboos depend for their strength
on the mana of him who imposes them; if it is a chief or a
priest, they are more powerful than those imposed by a common
person. The mana of the priest, or chief, does not depend on
his position; on the contrary, it is thanks to his mana that
he has risen above the common herd.
7. Transmissibiliiy.— It is characteristic of Uboo proper
that it is transmissible; as a logical corollary of this idea,
acquired taboo may be thrown off by suitable magical or puri-
ficatory ceremonies; the mourner, or h^ who takes psrt in
funeral ceremonies; was perhaps at the outset regarded as a
person charged with death-dealing power, and fear of the spirit
of the dead may well have been secondary; however this may
be, we can distinguish taboos, the violation of which charges
with supernatural power the human being who violates them,
thtis rendering him directly dangerous to the community, from
ritual prohibitions the violation of which makes him an outcast,
not as himself dangerous, but as a person obnoxious to the gods.
The ritual prohibitions of pregnancy, and the restrictions im-
posed on the parents during the early childhood of their offspring,
are not taboos proper; though they are transmissible, they do
not depend on the transmis^on of an undifferentiated mana;
what the parents seek to avoid is often the transmission of
specific qtialities, conceived as inherent in certain animals,
t.g. cowardice in the hare, slowness in the tortoise; the animal
is not necessarily in any sense sacred, nor are the parents, if
they disregard the prohibition, liable to any penalty, direct
or indirect; neither they nor the child are rendered taboo by
any violation; inially, save that the child acquires its qualities
by a sympathetic process, the abstinence of the parents is
correlative to the converM operation of eating an animal or
otherwise acquiring by a magical process the good qualities
inherent in anything.
8. Duraihn of TabooSt ImposUioHt and Abrogalian,'^T$h<M>
is properly sanctity and the kind of interdict which it entrains;
by a transference of meaning it is sometimes used of a period
of time during which ritual prohibitions of a reli^ous nature
are enforced; these periods were proclaimed in Polynesia an
important occasions and sometimes lasted for many years; they
may be termed interdicts. Many persons and things are per-
manently taboo; among them may be mentiooed kings and
chiefs, the property of dead persons and, a foi "
or anything in contact with them. Otim I ~
TABOO
339
new-born cbiU may aba make the eropa imm, just as it may
icjnove the taboo from a temporarily affected person.
In tlic Tonga Islands a person who became taboo by touching
a chief or his property had to put away hid sacred character,
before he was allowed to make use of his lands, by touching
the soles of a higher chief's feet and washing in water. Strangers
before penetrating into a viUagc, priests after a sacrifice, warriors,
women after child-binh» at puberty, the menstrual period, &&,
must submit to lustration. Sometimes the purificataon was
effected by inhaling the sacred contagion; in New SSealand a
chief who touched his own head had to apply his fingers to his
Mse and snuflE up the sanctity abtftracted from his bead. la
other cases mere lapse of time suffices to cause the removal of
a taboo; in Melanesia, where taboos are laiigely animiatic,
moumen go away for some months and on theur return are f fee
from taboo, the explanation given being Chat the spirit has
got tired of waiting for them.
Indirect taboos are imposed Sn various ways, and unless they
are removed may be as permanent as direct taboos, save that
the death of the persona by whom they are unposed must result
in their abrogation. In Polynesia a general taboo was imposed
by proclamation; a chief might also taboo particular objects
to his own use by naming them after a part of his person; more
pennanent was the taboo imposed by touching an object, but
this too could be removed by proper ceremonies. In Melanesia,
corresponding to the animistic character of tambu, a method of
imposing taboo is to mention-the name of some spiHt.
Taboo objects were marked in. various ways: a piece of white
cfcith, a bunch of leaves, a bundle of branches (in Melanesia)
painted red and white, a stick with dry leaves, are among the
methods in common use; in Samoa one mark of a taboo was
lo set up the image of a shark; in New 25esland it sufficed to
give a dMp with an aie to make a tree taboo. Particdar Uboos
thus imposed seem to be abrogated by the dechumtion of the
person who imposes them; on the other hand, he, no less than
others, is bound by the taboo until it is abrogated.
9. Tab9o and the Evduiion af Punishmaar~Ftml codes may
be brgefy, if not wholly, traced to religious sources of which
taboo ia certainly one; the violation of any Uboo amy hnperil
the life or health of other members of the community besides
the offender; it calls for measures intended to discourage others,
as well as for steps to avert the immediate evfl; if a taboo
ioqiosed by a. chief is disregarded, not only has his authority
been set at nought, but he, and in the second place, other
mtmb cr a of the community may suffer if the real offender
gets off scot free, thanks to the mono which enables him to
defy sopematunil sanctions. The importance of this hi the
evohition of Uw and order is manifiest; for whereas a cHief
would not intervene to protect the property of an individual
simply to punish what we regard as a transgrnsion, he is bound
to do so when a taboo is broken. That die taboo may be of
fan own imposition does not affect the question, for he is bound
to observe it himself, and oonvenely may suffer siipematural
penalties when it is vkrfated by another. Just as blood-guilti-
ness may be wiped out by composition, the vioiatwn of a uboo
may be atoned for by a money payment or simUar consideration
for the icvpcatioo of the taboo; this compensatfon seems to
have a re tr o spe ctive effect, and thereby removes the dangers
brought into existence by the violation.
i& r«io0 eitd Moral OUigalioH.'^ln proportion as a Uboo
^ 4 caitom and its sanctions fall into the background
Jta obligations thus transformed are one
itive, the distinguishing feature
I and instinctive. We are
I the prohibition of incest,
'. among other peoples
" r as a rule irreguUr
ncrs against tribal
: nature of taboos,
vc been very early,
which the relations
II. Jlsyo^ atii FnuAy Tdboo$.^hmaag people of low cultuio
the chief, and in higher cultures the king, is sometimes heM
responsible for the order of nature, the increase of the crops,
and the welfare of his people genoaUy; it is therefore of the
highest importance that nothing should diminish or perturb
hb influence, and, as a logioal consequence, the life of the king,
and to a less degree of the chief, is surrounded with a cooqiU*
cated system of taboos and ritual prohibitiona. £vcn when
this idea of the magidaa^king or chief is not found, his position
is an eapresaon of the more powerful mama dwelliiig within him;
consequently the king or chief may not come in contact with
the common folk, for fear his touch should blast them, as
Kghtning irithen the life of the oak. We can usually see why
a king or chief must hoU aloof from those whona he might injure*
but it is not always easy to see the basic idea of the taboos, if
such they be, which aim at protecting the poteuate, or ensuring
his due regulation of the coune of nature: Some African kings
may not see the sea; another may not lie down to sleep; in
thn Menuwei IsUnds the chief will die who during an interdict
eau at the same time as common people; it is frequently for-
bidden to see the Idng partake of food. At a further stage
of evolntioo these taboos degenemU into mere rules of etiquette,
the violatioQ of which involvea the poniahment of the o&ndcr,
but the punishment is justified on formal grounds only. In
eariy society the king and the priest often stand very near
together; jimt as we find a war diief and a peace chief* so we
meet with political and religioiss sovereigns. Sometimes the
political king is also the priest and thexefbre sacred; the web of
ritual prohibitfam woven round him may result in the creation
of a secular authority like the Tycoon in Japan, who can rule
the state without reference to the ceremonial observances
prescribed for the nominal sovereign. Sometimes, on the other
hand, the priest beats the title of kmg, but has hist even the
shadow of political pOwer and is free to perform his priestly
f mictions. In these, however, as we see by the example of the
flamen dialis at Rome, or the kings of fire and water in Cam-
bodia, he is still hedged round by mauilold restrictkws as a
person wiio must be protected from doing harm to othen or
suffering harm himself. In the exercise of his priestly functions
he is allied upon to offer sacrifice; before fulfilling his office
he is often required to submit to additional ritual prohibitbns;
his pcrsonsA sanctity, already great, is augmented, and his
approach to the sanctuary facilitated. Conversely, the sacrifice
over, he performs lustriU rites, in part to fiee UmseU from
the taint of errors of ritual, but also to desacraliae himself.
1 3. Fnntrary and AUied Taboot»'^T»booa of mourners, widows,
and of the dad are common all the world wttt but they are
especiayy prominent in Mebmesia. These are explained on an
animistic hypothesis as due to the fear of the dead man's spirit,
but we seem to see traces, e.;. in Madagascar, of the idea' that
the contagion of death and not the wmth of the dead is the
underlying motive; for it is not dear why the soul of a dead
kinsman should necessarily be hostile. With funerary taboos
may be compared uboos of warriors both on and after an
expedition, tsi)Oos of hunters dtuing the chsse and especially
after killing a dangerous anfanal, taboos of cannibals, and on
partin'panu in all other ceremonies which involve contact with
death or the dead. Tempoiaiy seclusion and lustration before
return to ordinary life are commonly prescribed for all in this
category, even though their connexion with the dead be no
closer than ishnpliedin consanguinity. The properly of the
dead man is commonly burnt or deposited with him in the
grave, in part as a protective measure, in part under the influence
of belief in the continuity of this and the future life, and the
need of supplying him with necessaries. Burial grounds are
avoided, animals or plants from the neighbourhood are not
used as food. Finally the name of the dead is not used, partly
for fear of summoning him by the power of the word, but partly
also from a conviction that, like the name of a king or chief, it
is too holy or too dangerous for common use.
13. Tebocs of tkt 5i£A.~Both disease and death are unnatural
in the eyes of the savage; they are often the result of the magic
340
TABOO
of «oine eneifoy; but they niAy also be the result of an infractioii
of a; taboow Some part of the funerary taboos may perhaps be
referred to this belief; whatever be the case with taboos of
the dead, there can be no question that the sfck are secluded or
even abandoned, subjected to rites of purificatkm and to re-
strictions of various sorts, not because their malady is con-
tagious in our sense, but because they are temporarily taboo
and dangerous to the health of the community. The sick have
imposed on them curative as well as prophylactic taboos; in
Madagascar the sun is said to '* die " when it sets; therefore
it is forbidden to a sick man to look upon itas it goes down.
14. Taboos of Woment Sexud TcbooSt A9oidamc$.-^Tbt age of
puberty is especially dangerous for both sexes; in the case of
a woman the danger is not so modi for herself as for others,
and results from her physiological state; this daiiger is renewed
with each successive menstrual period, and the licquently- long
seclusion at puberty finds a parallel in the mriversal practice
in lower stages of cultiure of separating adult fiemales, not only
from males, but from the whole of the community at sudi periods.
At puberty girls are confined for months or even years; they
may not see the sun nor touch the earth; many foods are for-
bidden them, and special costumes are prescribed for them, as
for mourners. The expectant mother is taboo for months before
the birth of her child, and her disabilities are not removed for
a long period after delivery. Women may not look upon the
performance of rites of initiation nor of secret societies; they
may not eat new crops in New Caledonia till long after the
men have partaken of them; they may often not approach
the men's club-house. Both parents, but espedally the mother,
are subjected to restrictions, havii^ for their, object the pre-
servation of the health of the unborn or newly born chikL
Women, are often forbidden to eat "with their husbands;, nor
may they share his labours, especially at sea.
The relations of the sexes are regulated by complicated rules
but they are not necessarily taboos* In the first place, laws o'
exogamy and similar regulations h'mit the field of choice; evei
where no obstacle on this side is present the intercourse of th
sexes is often, espedally at first, hedged round with ntmberlr
interdictions and rites. Coniiected with the rules of ezogan
are the customs of avoidance^ which prescribe that a man m
not speak to nor even look at his mother-in-law, sometimes a
his father-in-law, daughter, and other relatives; in like mac
the wife must avoid the husband's relatives^ and the bro
may often not speak to the sister. .
15. Other raitfM.T— Taboos of various kinds are impose
strangers, on aoicerers, and on children. Certain place
Uboo; taboos protect the* crops and ensure that landi
are not removed. In fact the number of taboos is so
that it is impossible to mention them in detail.
16. IHstribtUicn. — ^Although taboo is a Polynesian w«
institution is far from being restricted to Oceania,
prohibitions* though they seldom reached the Polynesia
are found in America, Africa, and especially Madagasca'
and Central Asia, and among the non-Aryan tribes r
But taboo and its survivals are not confined to the unciv
17. Devehpmenis cf Taboo.— li would be remark
feature which has taken such deep root in the cu!
belief of savage and barbarous peoples did not leave
impress on the faiths of higher cultures^ Just as the
become moral pari passu with mankind, so the <*
clean has become the physically and morally deai
has become the moral, and taboo has changed i
helinessk At a certain point in evolution the notioi
sometimes positive and implying the possession <
properties, sometimes negative and connoting n
mere absence of holiness, which is in this case ind
from mana^ becomes a prominent element in n
Uter ^tage and as a result of the greater wdgl
morality, the positive undeanness falls into U
leaving only the negatively unclean, the unhol;
in ttadi death-dealing, but may, like its savag-
down on the community, innocent and guiUy -
of higher p
ment of tin
their moral
18. Ami I
the Greek
or "poB
UsuaUy, :
tinguishi
for sacr<
Greek C
those ( I
Ocean!'
sentinr !
Phito
a gen
famir
belie*
IdnfT
(cei
gar
on
at
bi
f
I
TABOR-t-TAeHEQMETRY
341
M SloM, AMty Mnk* iip^^
Ganep, raMM
« MMMrrSTtfif JewB tee H«2ii(^. Z>^^
jBiJM: iv.aas. For the Semitn aee Robertton Saitli, IW^Imii «/
I4i &siiifasf . pofjMb For a tenewi dwCTwion of taboo lee M^riBkr,
bo. dt.. V. Gcanep. do. For maaul tabooi wmt Cmwley, My$hc
JbM, and in j0Km. Antk. InU* xxiv. ii6. ai9. 4^0- For taboo* of
oommeoMiUty tee Crawley in FotUore, vL 15a See abo Hubert
aad UaMM in Annf* SanWoMgar. ii. J9-X38 oa lacrifioe; aad vis.
ioB.oa«M«a; Durkhetm««6.k9S-70oa incest and eaogamy: Matw
ia Rmmt d« i'AMtotra des rthntms, xjtxv. 41^-60 oa tkfaoo and peoal
hw: J. G. Fraxer« Coldtm Bmgk, i. ^7*'464 on royal and pnMtly
tabooa. abo iii. I-I34, 301^36* 463-467; J. Tochmanni aiticleB on
" La F«KMation " ia HUusitu, iSai » Ac.; T. G. Fiaaer, oci burial ritet.
m Jmmt, Awth, lust., xv. 64 aq^ For punty and hotineae in the CM
Testament see Baudissiok StmUmt ii. 3^143 ; for maw see Jmrn-
maiimtmUs Ankmfur Etimopapi^, viL 232. (N. W. T.)
TABOR, ft town in western Bohcmift, 00 the FVand&- Joseph
lailway, 104 kilomeUes from Prague. Pop. (190S) 20,703.
It is tbe chief tAwn of a ^ovemmeal district and the scat of
a provindal law-court, and also of an Industrial school. The
town was founded in 1420 by the more advanced party of the
chiixch-reformers or Hussites, who, as it became their ccotre,
■OOB beeui lo be known as the Taborites.. The town is
otuated on the summit of an isolated h91 separated from the
surrounding country by the Luxnice stream and by an extensive
pond, to which the Hussites gave the biblical name of Jordan.
The historical importance of the dty of Tabor only ceased
wlKn it was captured by Kitog George of Podfibrad in i4S<-
Though a large part t>f Ae andent fortifications has recently
been demolished. Tabor— or Hradlste Hory Tabor, the castle
of the Tabor HiU, as it was called in the Hussite period— has
sifll mtjeiv e d many menoriab of iu past fame. In the centre
of the city Is the market-place {rynk). Only very narrow
streets lead to it. to render the approach to it more difficult in
time of war. In the cmtre of the market-place is the statue of
2iika, the greatest of the Taborite leaders. Here also is the
diaconal church, bfuHt in 15x6 in the style of the Bohemian
Renaissance, and the town hall, In connexion with which' a
museum has been founded, which contains interesting memoriab
of the Hussite period. Some parts of the andent forttficallons
tad the irery ancient Rotnov tower abo still exist.
See Thir. HradisU Hory Tabor (1895).
TABRIZ, the capital of the province of Aserbaijan hi Persia,
shuated in the valley of the Aji Chai, " Bitter River," at an
devation of 4400 ft. m 38* 4' N., 46* i8f E. Based on a
census taken in 1871 the population of Tabriz was in 1881
estimated at 165,000, and is now said to be about 300,00a
The popular etymology of the name Tabriz from ^« fever,
rfrapourer away (verb, rUA/ait»pour away, flow; German
riadnf), hence "fever-destroying," is erroneous and was
invented in modem times. It is related that Zobddeh, the wife
of Haxrm-al-Rashid. founded the town in 791 after recovering
there from fever, but the earlier chronicles give do support to
this sutement, and it is nowhere recorded that Zobddeh ever
visited Azerbaijan, and the name Tabriz was known many
centuries before her time. In 184J Hammer^Purgstall correctly
explained the name as meaning the " warm-flowing " {tah»
warm, same root uslepm*^ tepid ") from some warm mineral
ipcia^ in the ncigbbourbood, and compared it with the synony-
mous Tcplitz In Bohemia. In old Armenian histories the name
is Tavroh, which means the same. The popular pronunciation
la and lav for U^ has given rise to the spellings Toils snd Tauris
met with in older travellers and used even now.
Overlooking the valley on the N.E. and N. are bold bare rocks,
vbife to tfie S rises the majestic cone of Sahand (12,000 ft.).
Tte ^mm^ possesses few buildings of note, aad of the extensive
Bit attention. The ark, or dtadd, In the south-
rthe dty, now tised as an arsenal, is a noble
^ ' '^ with mighty walla and a tower xso ft. in
^ of old Tabriz the sepukhro of the
a (8x95*1304), In a quarter once koown
1 Sham and ShSm) 1 Ghazan, is
t except as part of a huge tumulus
r dome) and other bufldings erected
byGhsaahaiwakodisftfipeaked. Tfiey st«9d aboiit 4 in. S.W.'
from the modem town, but far within the origlaal boundaries.
The '* spacious arches of stone and other vestiges of departed
Aiaiesty," with whkh Kcr Potter found it sunMnded in i8x6,
INK poasibly lemains of the epUege (medretsc*) and monsstery
i^mUl^ wbese 1^ BatQts found shdter during his visit to the
tocaiity. Ontfae eastara side «f the city stand the xuins of the
Masjed i Jefaan Shah, oommonly known as the Mas^i Kcbid,
or " Blue Moaque^" Irom the bhie glazed tiles which cover ics
waHa. - It was bnik by Jehan Shah of the Kara Kuyunli, ot
Black Sheep dynasty (143 7-1467).* Tabriz is celcbimtdd as ow
of the most healthy dties in Persia.
Tabriz was for a k>ng period the emporium for the trade of
Persia on the west, but since the opening of the railway through
the Caucasus and greater facilities for tnmsport on the Caspian,
much of its trade with Russia has been diverted to Asters and
Resht, while the insecurity on the Tabriz-Trebizond route since
1878 has diverted much commerce to the Bagdad road. Accord-
ing to consubr reports the value of the exports and imports
which passed through the Tabriz custom-house during the years
1867-73 averaged £5931800 and £x,sa6,66o (total for the year,
£1,820,460); the averages for the six years 2893-9 were
£313,880 and £544,530. There are reasons to believe that these
values were condderably understated. For the year 1898-9
the present writer obtained figures directly from the books kept
by the customhouse official at Tabris, and although, as this
official informed him, some important items had not been
entered at all, the value of the exports and imports shown hi
the books exceeded that of the consular reports by about xo per
cent. Since that time the customs of Azerbaijan have been
taken over by the central customs department Under Belgian
offidab, and it is suted that the trade has not decreased.
British, Russian, French, Turkish and Austrian consulates and a
few European commercial finns are established at Tabris; there
are also post and tdegraph offices. Tabriz has suffered much
from earthcjuakes, noubly in 858, 1043. and 1731, each time
with almost complete destruction of the dty. * (A. H.-S.)
TABULARItW {tabvla, board, picture, also archives, records)!
the architectural term given to the Record office in andent Rome,
which was bttilt by Q. Lotatius. Cattdns, the conqueror of the
CimbrL It was situated on the west side of the Forum Romanum,
and its great corridor, 330 ft. long, raised 50 ft. above the forum
on a massive substructure, is sUU partly preserved. This
corridor wss lighted through a seriea of arches divided by semi-
detached columns of the Doric order, the earliest example Of
this class of decoration, which in the Theatre of MarccUus, the
Cok)sseum, and all the great amphitheatres throughout the
Roman empire constituted the decorative treatment of the wail
surface and gave scale to the structure. Traces of an upper cor-
ridor with semi-detached columns of the Ionic order have been
found in the Tabularium, but this structure was much changed
in the 13th centu ry, when the Palace of the Senators was built.
TACHEOHBTRT (from Gr. rox^, qidck; mIt^mt, a measure),
a system of rapid surveying, by which the positions, both
horizontal and vertical, of points on the earth's surface relative^
to one another are detenained without using a chain or tape
or a separate levdling instrument. The ordinary methods of
surveying with a theodolite, chain, and levelling Instrument
(see StTsvEYlNc) are fairly satisfactory when the ground b
pretty dear of obstructions and not very predpitoua, but it
becomes extremely cumbrous when the ground is much covered
with bush, or broken up by ravines. Chain measurements are
then both slow and liable to considerable error; the levelling,
too, b carried on at great disadvantage in point of speed, though
without serious loss of accuracy. These difficulties led to the
introduction of tacheometry, in which, instead of the pole
formerly employed to marii a point, a staff similar to a levd staff
is used. Thb b marked with hdgfats from the foot, aiid b gradu-
ated according to the form of ucbeometer in use. The azimuth
angle is determined as formerly. The horizontal distance b
^ Thb mosque b popubriy attributed to Ghazan Khan (end of
13th etnliary).
weU-defioed points on the staff and the known distance between
them, or by readings of the staff indicated by two fixed wires
in the diaphragm of the telescope. The difference of height is
computed from the angle of depression or elevation of a fixed
point on the staff and the horizontal distance already obtained.
Thus all the measurements requisite to locate a point both verti-
cally and horixontally with reference to the point where the
tacheometer is centred are determined by an observer at the
instrument without any assistance beyond that of a man to
bold the staff.
The simplest system of tacheometry employs a theodolite with>
out additions of any kind, and the horizontal and vertical distances
are obtained from the angles of depression or elevation of
tMTo wdl-defined points on a staff at known heights irom
the foot, the suit being held vertically. In fig i let T
be the telescope of a theodolite centred over the point C.
and let AB be the staff held truly vertical on the ground at A. Let
I* and P be the two well-defined marks on the face of the staff.
Fig. I.
both of them at known heights above A. and enclosing a distance
PPaf between them. Let a and fi be the measuPM angles of
elevatfen of P and F. and let d be the horiiontal disunce TM of
the staff from the theodolite, and h the height PM of P above T.
Then since
PM ^d tan fi and PM ^d tan a,
we have <-P'M-PM -d(tan ^-tan «).
Therefore
Un^-tana*
SUM a
*Un/9~tan«
If TC, the height of the rotation axis of the telescope above the
sround, -9. and if AP'^. then the height of A above C is h-p-}-q.
If. as is usually the case, a number of points are determined
from one station of the theodolite, and Jki. As. ka, &c., be the
values of A for the different poinu A|, At, Aa. Ac., then the
difference of level of Ai and At will be hirki, that of Ai and
Ai will be ht-ki, and so on. To ensure the essential condition
that the staff is held vertkral, it is usually provided with a
small circular spirit-levd, and the staff-holder must always
keep the bubble in the centre of its run. No graduation
of the staff is required beyond two well-defined black lines
across the white face at P and P, but the marks can be
very usefully supplemented by wings fastened on the two
sides of the staff, having their tops at right angles to the
staff, at the same height as the points P and P', and
forming a continuation of the black lines. A convenient
length for the staff is 12 ft., with the point P 2 ft. from
the foot, and the point P at the top of the staff, so that
5«IOft.
With the above arrangement the staff can easily be read
with a s-inch theodolite at half a mile disunce. But while it
is frequently very useful to determine approximately points
a long way off. the determinations will not be nearly so
accurate as those of near points. Thus suppose that the
• iivrc u niitc imcuouuu ot viruiB in lae ncia. DUi cne rvaucuon
work M rather heavier than u the case with some of the ucheometers
described below. Since the accuracy of the method depends
entirely upon the accuracy with which the vertical angles are
measured, it is advisable that the vertkal circle shoaM be as large
as possible, very finely and accurately divided, and fitted with good
verniers and micfXMCOpes.
In Eckh<M's omnimeter the vertical circle of the theodolite is dis-
penaed with, and a saving of reduction work is effected by reading,
not the vertical angles themselves, but the ungents <A the attics.
In the Ziegler-Ha^ tacheograph the ungents are md not
horizontally but vertically, and the arranffement is as follows. —
In fig. 2 O is the axis of roution of the toiescope: mn is the axial
line of a sled bolt, which carries on its top a knife-edge, on which
the telescope rests by means of an agate plate. The bolt b carried
by a slide in which it can be raised orlowered by a mkrometer screw
fitted with a graduated head The slide plays between the vertical
cheeks of a sundard rigidly atuched to the frame of the instrument,
and it can be raised or lowered by a rack and pinion The telescope,
which resu on the knife-edge, follows the movement of tlic bolt
The slide carries on one side a vernier by which to read the dlvistons
on a scale fixed to one of the vertical legs of the standard, and the
zero point o of the scale is the point where the horizontal plane
through O cuts the scale when the plane-table or upper plate of the
theodolite is truly level. The scale is graduated in divi^iions. each
of which is the Tilth part of the disunce Oo, or h. The head of the
micrometer screw which raises or lowers the steel bolt in the slide is
graduated with a zero mark and with marks corresponding to a
vertical movement of the knife-edn of TtiiA>/oA> &c. The instrument
is used as fdllows* — Let AB be the surface of the ground, and EC
a suff held vertically at B. and let CB be produced to meet the
horizonul line through O in M. Let the head of the micrometer
screw be turned till the zero division is exactly under the pointer.
Let p be the zero division on the suff. and let the slide and bolt
be raised by the rack and pinion movement till the axis of the
telescope is directed towards p. Let v be the point where the line
O^ cuU mn, and let the ungent reading ov be Uken on the scale.
Then let the telescope be lowered by the micrometer screw in the
slide till the division on the head of the screw marked i is exactly
under the pointer, the knife-edge of the bolt has then been lowered
through a distance vt equal to A/ioa Let e be the point on the staff
where the line Ck cuts it. and let the reading at q be taken. Then
since the triangles between O and mn and U and CM are similar
to each other, and vt is r^^th of Oo. therefore pq will be T^eth
of OM. or OM"iooX^ This gives the horizontal distance
of the suff from O and the vertical disunce ^M of ^ above
O is OM tan MOp«OMX<w/Oa, and since 09 has been read in
Fic. a.
.^^. ^ .^Ul^L f\^ .^^.^1 .
«1.. _l.-i._l.
TACHBOMEl^Y
ED* » oM-hair oC the Aittaoe ED. «ad 19 M ia Boponiaa. Th«
distance ED can be iiuUntiy inferred from the readiagt of the tuH.
if the Utter be cuiubly jriduated. If, for example, it be desired
to know the distance ED in yards, and by eoastmction tbe oro-
■ortaoo EC/BC««>, then the laCCRapt on the «aff at i yard from
Ewould be ^th oia yard, or -yt inch, the inttroept at a yasdslrom
343
yardi
E would be 2 X -72 inches, and so on.
^ i^nudt
- _^ If therefore the staff be
graduated with divisions of 7} inch, and the intercept be 45 of
tuch diTlaions. it would be inferred that the distance of the staff
faum E was 45 )«rds. The constant proponio n EC/BC can be
checked by nMnsurinK 100 yards from E and observing whether
Fic. 3.
the antesoept is eactiy too dhrisioas or not. If it is not. the wire
daphxant must be shifted in the tube until it is. In figs. 5. 4« 5
ana 6 the distances are deduced from the readings of a central
wire in the optical axis of the telescope and of a wire above it. for the
mke of simpudtY. The usual arrangement is to fit the diaphragm
with a central wire and with one or two wires above and below it
at equal disunces fnnn the central win. The vertical angle of
depreaaon or elevation is find by directing the central wire to a
vell-ilefined division on the staff, and the distance of the staff is
inferred from the readinjgs given by the corre^xmding wires above
and bek>w the central wire.
The elementary form of tacheometer gjven above Hlustrates
the general prinaple of the class of tacheometen now under con*
nderation. and as leading up to the practical form, in which the
staff U viewed with a telescope mounted in the manner of a theo-
dolite. The simplest form is Reichenbach's tacheometer. which
nay be investigated as follows: — In fig. 4 let A be the obioct glass
by which an image of the staff ST u formed at HK. The wire
(feaphragm b moved b the tube so as to coincide with the image,
•iKl vnrdnl theteoOM of the mT froM the axie of rotathm of the
telescope mn fnnd thu•^>In fig. « let ST be the observed
ntxvoe^ on the staff when the telescope u hicliaed at an
55f^ V*^6? •!«n»"*^- Dra*' TS' at right angles to OT.
The angle TS'S wJU be very neaity a right angle, and STS' nay be
takenaaegualtoa. If thoe were s gradoatioas (each corresponding
to I yard m diataaoe) m ST. there would be n cos a gnduations in
'H-fcS
Pic. 4.
and the image and wires are viewed with an eye-piece (not shown)
m the usual way. Let O be the point where the vertical axis 01
the instrument cuu the axis of the telescope, the instrument being
centred over a pes. from which the distance to the staff is required.
The object glass (of focal length -/) is at a distance c from O. Let
AT-a and AH-s. and the angle SAT-HAK-9. Then if t be
the height of the image HK, t-v tan 9. Since i/o4-i/«« 1//. we
have »• -•//(»-/), and hence «-i^ un i/iu-f). Let F be some
point 00 At such that AF-x ana FT-a'^ And let the angle
>PT •-4. Then a • »'+x and tan # • a' Un #/(«' +x), and therefore
•"^^^5^* •*" »* t»'-tx~/ "^ ♦• *"^ *^ '"^' • "^ **" ^
II thctefure the point F be taken at a distance / from the object
Fic. 5.
ST. and therefore the distance of the staff from F. as inferred from
the observed number of graduations in ST. must be multiplied by
cos a to give the true distance FT. Aoain FN "FT cos a. so that
the distance inferred from the observed number of graduations in
ST must be multiplied by cos^a to give the horizontal distance of
F from T. To this must be added the disunce OL-OF cos a-
(/+c) cos a to get the horiaontal distance. OM, of O (the vertical
axis of the iastrument) from T. This value of OM must be multi-
plied by tan a to obtain the value of lb. the vertical disUnce of T
from 0. Tables of the value of cos •, cos^ a. and un c are necessary
to facilitate these calculations.
In this ucheometer the disUnces as inferred from the readima
of the staff are the distances of the suff fnAn F and not from O.
Thb defect was remedied by ^rro. who added a lens (called the
anallattac lens) to the telescope. The arrangement of the telescope
as manufactured by Messrs Troughtoa and
Sirams. is as follows: — In fis. 6 O is the point
where the vertical axis of the instrument cuu
the axis of the telescope^ The object glass is
fixed at a distance e from O. and the anallattic
lens at a distance d from the object glass.
The disUnces e and d are choeen to suit the
constructive conveniences of the ijutrument.
The diaphragm at K te movable so that it
can be made to coincide with the image of the
staff. The focal length /i of the object glass
u arbitrary, and the f<xal length /, of the
anallattic lens is determined from an equation
of condition between c. d. 1%, and /«. The
image of the staff ST would be formed by the
object glass at H, at a disunce ri from the
object gUss, were it not that the rays, after
passing through the object gbss, are received
the anaUattic lens and the image of the suff u formed at
on the wire dbphragm. which b slid in the tube till it coincides
with the position of the image. The image at K b viewed by an
eve-piece in the usual way. Let T be the pomt where the image
ol the suff b cut by the central wire of the diaphragm, and S the
point where the image b cut by one of the outer wires of the db-
phragm. If # and # be the angles subtended by ST at the object
glaas and at the point O respectively, and if 1 be the height of
the image at K. k the height of t.ne virtual image at H. then by
elementary geometry and from optical considerations, we obuin
Let A be made such that effie+fO (<f-/i)"0. the equation of
xxiditi^ *
1
I
I
1?,
liti^n above mentioned. Then jl^ « |tf (c Hi ) -r/i |/(e +/i)-
And -;;:^.un ^^ii£±^:iSh . un ^
Fm. 6.
I Therefoie all the readings of the
I the outer wire of the diaphragm t
suff which wodd be
which wodd be given by
ontheKoeOSdor " *
344
TACHIENLU—TACHYLYTES
which ^ it the iune), aad the dlitMM from O ahMg OT will be
proportional to the radinf on the staff. Thus if the stall be
suitably gnduated, the distance from O can be immediately deduced
from the leading. Also, as befoie. if the telescope be indtoed at an
angle a to the horizontal, the distance OT inferred from the number
of graduations ia ST must be multiplied by oosF a to give the hcKinnital
distance of Q from T, and the horiaontiiJ distance so obtained nnist
be multiplied by tan a to obtain the vertical distance of T from O.
The inconvenience of the reduction work necessary to obtain
the horizontal and vertical distances produced the Wagncr-Feunel
tacheometer, by which the distances can be read directly from the
instrument. As is seen from fig. 7, three scales are provided, to
measure the inclined distance, the horizontal distance, and the
vertical distance respectively. All three are arranged in a plane
parallel to the plane in which the telescope turns. The inclined
scale is attached to the telescope exactly parallel to its line of
collimation, and moves with it. The horizontal scale is fixed to
the upper horizontal plate of the theodolite. The vertical scale is
on the vertical edse of a right-angled triangle, which can be slid
along on the top 01 the borizonul scale. The inclined scale capies
a slide which is provided with two verniers. One of these is parallel
to the inclined scale, and is for the purpose of setting off on the
scale (in tepns of the divisions on the scale) the inclined distance
df the staffs from the axis of rotation of the telescope. The other
turns on a pivot whose centre Is accurately In the edge of the Inclined
scale at the point where the zero division of the inclined vernier
Fig. 7*
cuts the edge, and is for the purpose of reading the vertical scale:
it can be turned on its fAv<^ so as to be verttc^ whatever may be
the inclination of the telescope. Moreover, since the distance
from the centre of the pivot to the zero of the vernier is always
constant and known, the vertical scale can be graduated so that
the reading of the vernier gives the height (in terms of the division
on the scale) of the staff above the axis of rotation of the telescope.
The horizontal scale attached to the horizontal plate of the theodolite
is read by mean$ of a vernier carried by the triangle. To ascertain
the horizontal and vertical distances of the point on the staff which
is cut by the middle wire in the diaphmgm of the telescope from the
rotation axis of the telescope, the Inclined distance of the point on
the staff Ts rea^i by means of the wires, as in Porro's tacheometer.
This distance (in t,erms of the divisions) is then set off on the inclined
scale by means of (be inclined vernier, and the vertical scale on the
triangle is mo\n»d up to the vertical vernier, which is adhisted to
Its edge. With proper eraduatbn of the horizontal and vertical
scales the horizontal and vertical distances can be at once read off
on the scales. This method, however, requires that the staff be
held 80 that its face is perpendicular to the line of sight, which is
more troubiesome than holding the staff vertical.
AuTHORiTiBS.— Brough oa " Tacheometry," Proe. Inst. C.B.,
vol. xd. Pierce on the " Use of the Plane table," iM. vol. xdi.
Kennedy on the " Tacheometer," ibid. vol. xcix. Airy on the
"Probable Errors of Surveying by Vertical Angles," ibia, vol. d.
Middleton on " Observations in Tacheometry/' ibid. vol. oxvi.
Youn^ on " Surveying with the Omnimeter,'* ibid. vol. cxvii.
J* Bridges Lee on " Photographic Surveying," Tnuu. Soe. Engin.,
vol. for 1899. ''The Ziegler-Hager Tacheograph," Enpneering,
vol. Ixv. (W. Ay.)
TACHIBIILn, t town of China. In the province of Sze^h *uen.
It is the great tea mart for Tibet, and from Tachienlu the two
Irade-foutes. tlie Gym lam and the Chang lam, diveiie, tbt
focmer to L4dakh nnd the latter to Kuh«Kr.
TACHVLTTU, or TACRYLires (from (Br. rtix^, swift,
>d/w, to dissolve, meaning " easily fused,*' though some have
erroneously intecpceted it as "easily soluble in adds"), ia
petrology, the vitieoos forms of the basic igneous rocks; in
other words, they are basaltic obsidians. They aro black in
colour, dark brown in the thinnest sections, with a resinous
lustre and the appearance of pitch, often moie or less vesicular
and sometimes sphcrulitic. They are very brittle, and bteak
down readily under the hammer. Small crystals of felspar or
of olivine are sometimes visible in them with the unaided eye.
All tadiylytes weather rather easily, and by oxidation of their
iron become dark brown or red. Three modes of occunence
characterize this rock. In all cases they are found under
conditions which imply rapid cooling, but they are much less
common than add volcanic glasses (or obsidians) , the reason being
apparently that the basic rocks have a stronger tendency to
crystallize, partly because they are mbre liquid and the molecules
have more freedom to arrange themselves In crystalline order. .
The fine scoria ashes or "dnders" thrown out by basaltic
volcanoes are often spongy masses of tacbylyte with only a few
larger crysuls or phenocrysts imbedded in black glass. Such
Uchylvte bombs and soona are frequent in Iceland; Auvergnc,
Strombolj, Etna, and are very common also in the ash beds or tuffs
of older date, suoh as occur in Skye, Midlothian and Fife. Derbyshire,
and elsewhere. Basic pumices of this kind arc exceedingly »-ide>
spread on the bottom 01 the sea. dther dispersed in the " red day**
and other deposits or forming layers coated with oxides of man-
ganese, predpitated on them from the sea water. These tachylvte
ftazments, which are usually much decomposed by the oxidation
and hydration of their ferrous com^unds, have taken on a dark red
colour. Thii alteced basic glass is known as " patagontte " ; con-
centric bands of it often surround kernels of unaltered tachytyte,
and are so soft that they are easily cut with a knife, tn the pala-
gonite the minerals also are decomposed, and are represented only
by pseudomorphs. The fresh tachylyte glass, however, often con«
tains loxenge-shaped crysuls of plagioclase felspar and small prisma
of augtte and olivine, but all these minerals very frequently occur
mainly as microlites or as beautiful skeletal growths with sharply-
pointed corners or ramifying processes. Palagonite tuffs are found
also among the older volcanic rocks. In Iceland a breed ■tietch of
these rocio, described as " the palagonite formation,** is said to
cross the island from south-west to north-east. Some of these tuffs
are fossiliferous; others are intercalated with glacial deports.
The lavas with which they occur are mostly olivine-tMsalts.
Palagonite tuffs are found in Sicily, the Eifel, nungary, Canary
Islands. &c
A second mode of occurrence of tachylyte is to the fonn of lava
flows. Basaltic rocks often contain a small amount of glassy
ground-mass, and in the limburgites this becomes more Important
and conspkuous. but vitreous types are fax less common in these
than in the add lavas. In the Hawaiian Islands, however, the
volcanoes have poured out vast floods of black bnsit. contamiog
felspar, augtte, olivine, and iron ores in a black glassy base. They
are highly liquid when discharged, and the rapid cooling which
ensues on thctr emerccftce to the air prevents crystallization taking
place completely. Nfany of them are spongy or vesicular, and their
upper surfaces are often exceedingly rough and jagged, while at
other times they assume rounded wave-like forms on solidiflcation.
Creat caves are found where the crust has solidified and the liquid
interior has subsequently flowed a«-ay, and stalactites and stalag-
mites of black tachylyte adorn the roofs and floors. On section
these growths show usually a central cavity enclosed by walls of dark
brown glass in which skeletons and microliths of augite, olivine
and felspar lie imbedded. From the crater of Kilauea thin
clouds 01 steam rise constantly, and as the bubbles of vajaow are
liberated from the molten tode they carry into the air wtth them
thin fibres of basalt which solidify at once and assume the form oil
tachylyte threads. Under the murroecope they prove to be neariy
completdy glassy with small drcular air vesidtt sometimes dxnw«
out to lone tubes. Only in the Hswaikn Islands are glassy basahic
lavas of tnls kind at aU common.
A third mode of occurrence of tachylyte is as the maTgtns and thin
offshoots of dikes or sHb of basalt, dofarite and dltbose. They nve
sonctihies only a fraction of an inch in thickness, tmmMBitmk IfeiB
la^r of pitch or ur on the edge of a crystaHnwd^ '
veins tevefil inches thick are tomerimes |-— *-«-^-
tions tachylyte is nrely vesiculstf, bntlto'
fluxion banditiff aocentuaied \ "'^ "
which am vislole as T
have a distinct Tadli
varying CDla«r» TMo^a
pertitic and these raok^^
are olivine, ang'
ncay*tfnciir
TACITUS, OQRNELIUS
«din«ry cfyatalttne dobiitm wbich in a very ihort diatodoe nay
contain no vitreous baae whatever. The spheruUtes may form the
greater part of the mass, they may be a Quarter of an inch in diameter
and ace oocasionatty much larger than this. These coarsely spherulittc
Rxki paaa over inf» the «arialiteft ifjt.) by increaaing roarBeae^
in the 6boea of their spheruUte*, which soon beoooie ivcogaisaWe
as needles of felspar or feathery growths ol augite. The ultimate
product of decomposition in this case also is a red j>aIaeonitic
substance, but owing to the absence of steam carities the Uchylyte
srivagcs of diloes are men often found in a ffcsh state than the
hasic lapiUi ia ash-beds. Many oocuneaces of baaeltie piidMtoMa
have bma reported from Skye* MulU^ and the western part of Scot«
land; they are found also in connexion with the intrusive doleritc
alls of the north of England and the centre of Scotland. In the
Saar dittrict of Germany simitar rocks occur, sotae of ailiich have
been described as weisseibergitcs (from Weisselberg).
Other localities for tachylyies of this group are Nassau, Silesia
and Sweden.
The chemical composition of some of the rocka of this group is
iadicaled by the analyses given bek»w:—
3+S
passage of his AgncaUt, destrribing tbia as a "slngulazf j blessed
time," but the hideous leign of terror had stamped itself in-
effaeeabiy on hit soul, and when he sat down to write Us Bittarf
he couki see little but the darkest side of impenalisBi. To
his friend the youager PUny we aic indebted for the little we
know abotA his later life. He was advanoedf to the ooasulship
in 97, in succesnon to a highly distinguished- man, Veiginiua
Riifus, on whom he delivered in the senate a funoal 'eulogy.
In 99 he was associated with Pliny in the prosecution «f a great
politkai offender, Marins' itiacua, nnder whom the provSndals
of Africa had Buffered grievons wion^s. The prosecutkm was
snccessfai, and both Tacitua and Pliny teceived a spedal vote
of thnks from the senate for theSr conduct of th^ case. It
would seon tliat Tadtus lived to the ctose of Trajai^a reign, as
he seems^ to hiiit at thai empeior^i cKtensioa of the caqure
by his anooBBful Eastem campaigns from ix$ to 1 17. Whether
SiCV
AW)*
FeO.
FcC
CaO.
MgO.
Na,0.
K.a
H^.
1. Palagom'te. Set}ada1r, IceUitd . . .
II. P^lagonice from deep-sea deposifk, F^ht )
Ocean (with 2-«9% MnOk) . {
ill. Palagonite. Franz Joseph land'. . yi .
IV. Tachylyte. Ardtun, Mull, Scotland » .
V. Tachylyte. The Beal, Portree. Skye , .
44-73
35-4a
5303
5a-59.
tl>63
16-28.
8-30
20-09
17-33
14-60
14*75
14-57
12-30
9-53
fi.r4
$13
1-88
104
6-05
6.47
629
2-23
7-10
2-63.
i|.6*
0-68
4-50
3-92
4-52
424
o-Ti
402
tr.
127
a^o
17-85
9-56
16-80
264
3-27
TACUUS, CORKEUUS (c. 55-129), Roman historian. Tadtos,
who ranks beyond dispute in the highest place among men
of letters of aU ages, lived through the reigns of the emperors
Kero, Galba, Olbo, Vitellius, Vesipasian, Titus, Domitian,
N'crva and Tiajan. AU we know of bis personal history is from
allmioas to himself in his own works, and from eleven lettera
addressed to him by his very intimate friend, the younger PUny.
The exact year of his birth is a. matter ol inference, but it may
be approxlmatdy fixed near the close of the reign of Claudius.
Pliny indeed, though himself bom in 61 or 62, speaks of Tacit u«
and himself as being " much of an age,'** but he must have been
some years junior to his friend, who began, be tells us» his oi&cial
life under Vespasian,' no doubt as quaestor, and presumably
tribune or aedUe under Titus (8q or St), at which time he must
have been twcnty-Evc years of age at least. Of his family and
birthplace we know nothing certain; we can infer nothing
horn his name Corodius, which was then very widely extended;
but the fact of his early promotion seems to point to respectable
antecedents, and it may be that bis father was one Cornelius
Tadtus, who had been a procurator in one of the divisions of
Gaul, to whom allusion is made by the elder Pliny in his Natural
History (vH. 76). But It is all matter of pure conjecture, as it
aho is whether his " pracnomen ** was Fublius or Galus. The
Bost interesting facts about him to us a<e that he was an eminent
pleader at the Roman bar, that he was an eye-witness of the
"reign of terror" during the last three years of Domltian,
and that he was the son-Io-law of JuHua Agricola. This honour*
able cDonexion, which testifies to his high moral character, may
very possibly have accelerated his promotion, which he says*
was begun by Vespasian, augmented by Titus, and stril further
advanced by Domilian, under whom wc find him presiding as
praetor at the oelebtation of the seciilar games in 88, and a
member of one of the old priestly colleges, to which good family
was an admost indispensable passpoft. Next year, it soeras, hie
left ffiinr, and was absent till 93 <m some provincial business,
and it li possible that in these four years he may have made
lbs ^spaiBtaoce of Germany and its peoples. Hik father-in-
t Jte year of hb return to Rome. In the condudtng
e tells us plainly that be witnessed
[ manx of Rome's best dtlsens fxtwi 93
la senator he fdt almost a guilty
the emperor Nervals accession his
IS, and so it continued through
^||kajan, he himsdf, in the opening
*J7MLi. *Ibid,
a. s. F.)
he outlived Trajan is matter of conjecture. It b worth ^loti^ng
that the emperor Tadtus in. the 3rd century claimed descent
from him, anid directed that ten copies of his works should be
made every year and deposited in the public libraries. Ue also
had a tomb built to his mcmory> which was destroyed by order
of Pope Piiis V. in the Utter part ol the i6lb century.
Pliay, as wo see dearly from several passages in his letters,
had the highest opinion of his friend's ability and worth. H«
consults him about a school which he thinks ot esVaUisbing at
Comum (Como), his birthplace, ao^.^^ks him, to look out for
suitable teachers and professors.. And he pays' him the high
compliment, "I know that your Huloria will be iounortal,
snd this makes me the more aiv^i^w that may name should
appear in them.''
The following is a list of Tacitus's remaining woriis, azranged
in their probable chronological order, wluch may be approxi-
matdy inferred i^om internal evidence:— (1) the Diaiogu* «»
Ortl&rs, about 7<^ or 77; (2) the UJe oj Agrteoia, .97 or 98;
(3) the Cfrmatiyt 9S, published probably in 99; (4) the SisUries
(Hislariae), completed probably by xi j or 1x6, the last years otf
Trajan's reign (he must have been at work on them for many
years); (5) the Annals, his latest work probably, written in
part perhaps ah>og with the HislorUs, and completed sub<
sequently to Trajan's i^ign, which he. may very well have
otitlived.
The Dklcgue on Orators discusses, In the form of a conversation
which Tadtus professes to ha ve^ heard (as a young man) between
some eminent men at the ELoman bar, the causes of the decay of
elo<|uence under the empire. There are some interesting remarks
in it o& the change for the worse that had uken plax;e in the
education of Roman lads. The style of the Dialogue is far more
Ciceronian than that of Tacitus's later work, and critics have
attributed it to QuintUias; but its genuineness is now generally
accepted. It is noticeable that the mannerisms of T*citus
appear to develop throogh his Iffctime, and are most strongly
marked in his latest bookSr the Anuats.
The Lf/« of AgricoU, short as it is, has always been considered
an admifable spedmen of biography. The great man with all
has grace and dignity is brought vividly before us, and the sketch
we have ot the histoiy of our island under the Romans gives a
special interest to this little work.
The Germany, the full title of which is " Cpncetniog the
geography, the manners and customs, and the tribes of
Germany," describes with many suggestive hints '*
• Ann. ii. 61 : iv. 4. * Epp, vfL'^
346
TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS
chusctcr of die Geman peopks, and dwells paitlcularty on their
fierce and independent spirit, which the author evidently (dt
to be a sUnding menace to the empire. The geogmphy Is fts
weak point; much of this was no. doubt gathered from vague
hearsay. Tacitus dweUs on the contrast between barbarian
freedom and simplicity on the one hand, and the servility and
degeneracy of Roman life on the other. .
The Hittchest as originally composed hi twdvc books, bnAight
the history of the empire from Galba in 69 down Co the dose of
Domitian's reign in 97, The first four books, and a small
fragment of the fifth, giving us a very minute account of the
eventful year of revohition, 69,, and the brief reigns of Galba,
Olho and Vitellius, are ail that remain to us. In the fragment
of the fifth book we have a curious but entirely inacouate
account of the Jewish nation, of their character, customs and
religion, from a cultivated Roman's point of view, whidi we see
at once was a strongly prejudiced one.
The Annals— BL title for which there is no andent authority,
and which there Is no reason for supposing Tacitus gave dis-
tinctively to the work— record the history of the emperors of
the Julian line from Tiberiiis to Nero, comprising thus a period
from A.0. 14 to 68. Of these, nine books have come down to us
entire; of books v., zi. and zvi. we. have but fragments, and
the whole of the reign of Gaius (Caliguhi), the first six years of
Claudius, and the last three years of Nero are* wanting. Out
of a period of fifty-four years we thus have the history of forty
years.
The prfndpal MSS. of Tadtus are known as the ** first "and
" second " Medicean— both of the xoth or nth centuries. The
first six books of the Annalr exist nowhere but in the ** first
Medicean " MS., and an attempt was made in 1878 (o prove
that the Annals are a forgery by Poggio Bracdolini, an Italian
scholar of the isth century, but their genuineness is confirmed
by their agreementMn various minute details with coins and in-
scriptions discovered since that period. Moreover, Rnodolphus,
a monk, writhig in the 9th century, shows that he is acquainted
with a MS.. of Tadtus containing at least the two first books.
Add to this the testimony of Jerome that Tadtus wrote in thirty
books the hves of the Caesan and the evidence of style, and there
can be no doubt that in the Annals we have a genuine work of
Tadtus. .
Much of the histoiy of the period described by him, especially
of the earlier CkcSars, must have been obscure and locked up
with the emperor's private papers and memoranda. As we
should expect, there was a vast amount of floating gossip, which
an historian would have to sift and 'utilise as best be might.
Tkcitus, as a man of good social position, no doubt had access
to the best faiformation, and must have talked matters over
with the most eminent men of the day. There were several
writeis and chsoniders, whom he occastonally dtes but not veiy
often; there were memoirs of distintpiished persons— those,
for example, of the younger Agrippina, of Thrasca, and Hel>
vidius. There were aevexal collections of letters, like those of
the younger Pliny; a number, too, of funeral ontions; and the
" acta senatus ** and the " acta: populi " or *^ acta diuma," the
first a record of proceedings hi the senate, the latter a kind of
gasette or joumaL Thus there were the materiab for hbtoiy
in considerable abundance,, and Tadtus was certainly n man
who knew how to turn them to good account. He has given
ns a striking, and on the whole doubtless a true, picture of the
empire in the 1st century. The rhetoric^ tendency which
characterises the" silver age" of Roman literature, gives perhaps
exaggerated expression to his undoubtedly strong sense of the
badness of Individual emperors, but he assuredly wrote with a
high )iim, and we may accept his own account of it: " I regard*
it as faistoiy's highest function to rescue merit from oblivion,
and to hold up' as a tenor to base words and actions the repro-
bation of posterity." He Is convinced of the degeneracy of the
age, thoii^ it be relieved by the existence of truly noble virtues:
and he connects this degeneracy more or less directly with the
* See Introduction to »^ * -' •^— «*aux'« edition of the Annals
of Tadtus. Claiendor » Ann. iiL 65.
hnperial rCgime. But It is difiicult to dogmatise as to Tkdtos'a
political ideals. He is ppmarily concerned rather with ethics
than with politics; thou^ he may feel that the world is out
of joint—with whatever sentimental sympathy he may regard
the age of "liberty," and admire the heroic epoch of the
republic— yet he appears to realise that the empire is a practical
necessity, and to the provinces even a benefit. Like the Stoics,
with whom otherwise he has little in common, he censuses rather
individual rulers than the imperial system. But "the key
to the hiterpretarion of Tadtus," it has been well said,* " is
to regard him as a moralist rather than a polilidan.!' Perhaps
the strongest work in the Annals and Histories is the delineation
of character.
Tadtus gives us no certain due to his relijpous belief. His
expressions of opinion about the government of the universe
are difficult to reconcile with each other. There seems to have
been a strange tinge of superstition about him, and he could not
divest himself of some belief^ in astrology and revelations of
the future through omens and portents, though he held these
were often misunderstood and misinterpreted by chaHatans
and impostors. On the whole he appears to have inclined to
the philosophical theory of " necessitarianism," that every man's
future is fixed from his birth; but we must not fasten on him
any particular theory of the world cr of the universe. Some-
times he speaks as a beb'ever In a divine overruling Providence,
and we may say confidently that with the Epicurean doctrine
he had no sort of sympathy.
Tadtus's style Is discussed *in the article Latin Lanc0aoe.
Whatever judgment may be passed on It, it Is certainly that of
a man of genius, and cannot fail to make a deep impression on
the studious reader. Tadtean brevity has become proverbial,
and with this are dosdy allied an occasional obscurity and a
rhetorical affectation which his warmest admirers must admit.
He has been compared- to Carlyle: and both certainly affect
singularity of expression. But they are alike only in the brevity
of sentences; and the brevity of Cariyle Is not that of an artist
in epigram. Tadtus was probably never a popular author;
to be understood and appredated he must be read again and
again, or the point of some of his acutest remarks will be quite
Tacitus has been many times translated, in spite of the very great
difficulty of the task; the number of versions of the whole or part
is BUted as 393.
Murphy's transbtion (we should call it a paraphrase) was for long
one of the best known; it was published early in the 19th century.
On this was based the 60<alled Oxford translation, published by
Bohn in a revised edition. Messrs Church and Brodnbb's transla-
tion, and IVofesBor Ramsay's (1904) (the latter of Annals i.-iv.)
are much better. The best known foreign translation is Davanxati's
(Italian), printed about 1600 and frequently rc-published. The
French versions by Louandre and Burneuf (about the middle of the
last century) are also good. Among the very numerous modem
commentaries, the most Important are Ruperti's (18A9); Orelli's
(18^: the Histories. Germania, Atricola, and Dialogues -were
revised and re-edtteo by Meiser and Andersen between 1877 and
1895): Ritter's (186^): Nipperdey's (1870); HerSus's (Htslories,
1885); Fumeaux's (AnnalSt i.-^t., 1884; xi.-xvi., 1891; Germania,
1894): Spooner's (Histories, 1891). The last two editors' intro-
ductions are particularly useful: Of works relating to Tacitean
Latioity, Draeger's Syntax mnd Stil des Tacitus is the best.
(W.J.B.;A.D.G.).
TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS, Roman emperor from the
S5th of September aj>. 275 to April 276, was a native of Inter-
amna (Temi) in Umbtia. In the course of his bug life hehdd
various dvil offices; including that of oonsulin 373, with universal'
respect. Six months after the assassination of Aurelian he was
chosen by the senate to succeed him, and the choice was cordially
ratified by the army. During bis brief reign he set on foot
some domestic reforms, and sought to revive the authority of
the senate, but, after a victory over the Goths in Cilicia, he
succumbed to hardship and fatigue (or wan slain by bis own
soldiers) at Tyana In Cappadoda. Tacitus, besides bdng a
man of Immense wealth (which lie bequeathed to the state),
' DiU, Roman Society from Nero lo Marcus AurdiuSt Bk. I* ch. i.
*ii«a. vi.3i.S2.
TACNA-^TACTICS
347
Ittd considenbre Eteraty cultuK, and was proud to daam descent
bom tlie bistoriaa, whose works he caused to be tranacribed at
the puhlk expense and phced in the public libraries. Tacitus
possessed many admirable quafa'lies, but his gentle character
and advanced age unfitted him for the throne in such lawless
See Life by VbpSscus in Hxstoriae Augusttu Sfriplores; alsoEutro-
pins. n. to; Aurelius Victor, Caesarts, *56; Zonaras xii. SB; H.
Schilier, Ctukiekk ier rdmucken Kaisermi, i. 1883; Pauly^Wissova,
RtaUmcychpidie, iSL 2^71 ff.
TACR A. a northern province of Chile, in dispute with Peru
from 1893 onwards, bounded N. by Peru, E. by Bolivia, S. 1^
Tarapaca, and W. by the Pacific Area, 9251 sq. m. Pop.
(189s) 7^160. It belongs to the desert region of the Pacific
coast, and is valuable because of its deposits of nitrate of soda
and some undeveloped mineral resources. There are a few
fertile spots nesr the mountains, where mountain streams afford
irrigation and potable water, and support small populations,
but in general Tkcna is occupied for mining purposes only.
None of its streams crosses the entire width of the province;
they are all lost in its desert sands. The climate is hot, and
earthquakes are frequent and sometimes violent. There is
one railway in the province, running from the city of Tacna to
Arica (f.v.), and in igto another from Arica to La Paz, BoQvia,
was imder oonstruction by the Chilean government. The pro-
vince consists of two departments, Tacna and Arica, which
once formed part of the Peruvian department of Moquegua. Its
capital is l^cna (pop. T895, 9418; 1902, estimated xx,504)»
a small inland town 48 m. by raJl from Arica, in a fertile valley
among the foothills of the Andes. Existence is made possible in
this oasis by a small mountain stream, also called Tacna, which
supports a scanty vegetation. The town owes its existence to
the Bolivian trade from La Vta and Oruro, and is the residence
of a number of foreign merchants. Tacna was captured by a
Chilean force under General Baqucdano on the 27th of May 1880.
At the dose of the war between Chile and Peru (1879^x883),
the terms of the treaty of Ancon (signed by representatives of
the two countries on the 20th of October X883) were practically
dictated by Chile, and by one of the provisions the Peruvian
provinces of Tacna and Aiica were to be occupied and exploited
by Chile for a period of ten years, when a plebiscite should be
taken of their inhabitants to determine whether they would
reroain with Chile or return to Peru, the country acquiring the
two provinces in this manner to pay the other $10,000,000.
At the termination of the period Peru wished the plebiscite to
be left to the original population, while Chile wanted it to
indude the large number of Chilean labourers sent into the
province. Chile refused to submit the dispute to arbitration,
and it remamed unsettled. Meanwhile Chile expelled the
Peruvian priests, and treated the province more like a conquered
territory than a temporary pledge.
TAOOM A» a dty and sub-port of entry, and the county-seat
of Pierce county, Washington, U.S.A., on Commencement Bay
of Pugct Sound, at the mouth of Poyallup river, about 80 m.
from the Pacific coast, and about 23 m. S.S.W. of Seattle.
Pop. (1890) 36,006; (1900) 37,7 M, of whom X 1,032 were foreign-
bom (Inducfing 1603 Swedes, X534 English-Canadians, X474
Norwegians, X424 Germans, and X323 English; (xgio, U.S.
census) 83,743. Tacoma is served by the Northern Pacific,
the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound, and the Tacoma
Eastern r^ways; the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy raflway
operates through trains to and from Missouri river points and
Tacoma, over the Northern Padfic tracks, which are also used
by the Great Northern and Oregon & Washington railways.
There is dectric railway connexion with Seattle. Tacoma is
the starting-point of steamship lines to Alaska, to San Frandsco,
and to Seattle, Port Townscnd, Olympia, Victoria, and other
ports on Puget Sound. There are trans-oceanic lines to Japan
and China, to the Philippines and Hawan, and to London,
Liverpocl and Glasgow, by way of the Suez Canal. The dty
is situated on an excellent harbour and has 25 m. of waterfront.
From the tidelands the dty site slopes gradually to a plateau
about 300 ft. faiii^, ooBunandiBg fine views of Puget 'Sottid and
its wooded islands, and parts of the Cascade and Olympic mnges.
Tacoma is the seat of Whit worth College (1890, Presbyterian),
the University of Puget Sound (1903, Methodist Efriscopal),
the Annie Wright Seminary (1884), at boarding and day school
lor ghiB, and the Pacific Lutheran Academy and Business
CoO^ge. The Tacoma High School has an excellent, stadium
for athletic contests, seating 25,oaa The dty has a Carnegie
library (1899), ^1> about s^fOoo volumes. Among other
public buildtngs are the court house, the dty ball, in which are
the rooms of the State Historical Sodety (organized, 1891;
incorporated, 1897); the Federal Building; an armoury; the
Chamber of (commerce, aftd several fine dburchcs. The Ferry
Mttsemn, founded by Ointoii P. Feny, has interesting historical
and ethmrfogical collections. In 1910 the dty had seven public
parks (1120 acres), induding Pomt Defiance, a thickly wooded
park (about 640 acres), and, In the centre of the dty, Wright
Park, i& which b the Sesrmour Conservatory. Tacoma is a
sub-port of entry In the Puget Sound Customs district (of which
Port Townscnd is the official port), which is second oi^y to San
Frandsco on the Padfic coast In the volume of foreign trade.
The dty has a large jobbing trade, a coal kupply from rich de-
posits in Pierce ootmty, and abimdant water-power from swift
mountain streams, which is used for generating electridty for
jnunidpal and industrial use. In 1900 and in 1905 Tacoma
ranked second among the dties of the state in the value of
factory products. Lnd smdting and refiniifg (by one establish-
ment) was the most impoitant industry in 1905; lumber, timber
and planing mill products, valued at $3,407,951, were produced
in that year, and flour and grist mill products, valued at
t2,7^$,S$7. Other important manufactures were furniture,
ships and boats, raOway cars (the Chicago, Milwaukee &
Puget Sound and the Northern Pacific systems having shops
here), engines, machinery, shoes, water pipes, preserves and
beer. In 1905 the total value of the factory products wan
$12,501,816, an increase of 121*4% since 190O' The sssessed
property valuation of the dty in 1909 was' $54,226,26x1 being
about 42% of the actual valuation.
The site of Tacoma was visited by Captain George Vancouver
in 1792; Commencement Bay was surveyed for the Unit«l
States govenmient by Lieutenant Charies Wilkes in x84(, and
the present dty was founded by General Morton Matthew
McCarver in 1868 and was at first called Commencehient City.
That name was soon changed to Tacoma, said to be a corruption
of Tihha-ma or Ta-ho-bttf Indian terms meaning " greatest white
peak," the name of the peak (14,526 ft.), also called Mt.' Rainier,
about 50 m. S.E. of the dty. General McCarver's original plat
included what is now the first ward of the dty, and. is oJIed
the Old Town. In 1873 the Northern Padfic railway (com-
pleted in X887) established its terminal on Commencement
Bay, and named it New Tacoma. A town government was
formed in X874, the place became the county-seat in x88o, and
in 1883 the two " towns " were consolidated and incorporated as
a dty tmdcr the name Tacoma. In X909 a new dty charter
was adopted under which the dty government is vested in
five commissioners (one of whom acts as mayor), each in charge
of a dty department.
TACTICS (Gr. nurrud^, sc tix^i from t&^ocut, to arrange
in order of battle).^ It may perhaps seem superfluous at the
present time to emphasize the distinction between strategy
and tactics. Moreover, defira'tions arc rarely quite satisfactory,
for they can seldom be perfectly clear and at the same time
perfectly comprehensive. Yet, since it is necessary that the
parties to any discussion shotUd have some common starting-
point, it will be as well to begin by stating exactly what is
meant to be included under the heading of this artide.
Strategy {q.v) is the art of bringing the enemy to baltk
on terms disadvantageous to him. Combined, or to use the
phraseology of the Napoleonic era, " grand *'
* Unlike the French tacdftu, the German
all other forms, the English word is invariabl
348
TACTICS
metbods employed for his deBfniction by a force of all arms,
that h, of infantry iq.v.), artillery (9.0.) and cavalry {qJ9.).
Each of these possesses a power peculiar to itself, the full
development of which depends to a greater or less d^ee upon
thd aid and co-operation of the other two. Now it is quite
evident that the only force which can ensure this cooperation,
and can produce hannonious working -between, the vaflous
components of. that complex machine, a modern army, is the
wili-pQwec of the supreme commander. It is, then, the'sphare
of the higher oommaiider on the day of battle which is generally
expressed by the term " combined tactics," and which will l)e
dodt with in this artide. Yet it must not be understood that
because the term higher, oi: supreme, commander is used that
the theory of combined tactics may be safely neglected by those
soldiers whose ambitions or opportunities do not seem to lead
^^^^ to that position. In the British Army more than
ff^^jy^ in any other^ as the South African war showed, a
comparatively jnnior officer may at any moment find
himself placed in command of a mixed force of all arms, without
lany previous practical knowledge of how it should be handled.
It! will oot then be possible to make the best use. of. such
opportunities by the uneducated light of nature, and such
theoretical .knowledge as may have been gleaned from books
and matured by thought will be of great value.
. It .is of the first importance, that the commander of a mued
force should know exactly the powers and limitations of the
units under, his cootro). Should he not be a master of his
profession, he will at tunes demand more from bis subordinates
than they can reasonably be expected to perform; at other
times he will miss his chances by ignorance of their capabilities
An uneducated commauder may indeed be likraed to an in-
different mechanic, who sometimes places an undue strain
upon the engine he is supposed to control, and sometimes allows
its precious powers to run to waste.
There is, however, a still stronger reason why all officers
should stuc^ ^the art of grand tactics. In every batt le situations
arise of which the issue is decided by the promptitude and
efficiency of the co-operation between the three arms. At such
momeotSr an officer in charge of ^ battery of artillery, or of a
squadron of cavalry, may find aa opportunity of tendering
valuable aid to his own infantry; and a knowledge of the
tactics and training of the other arms may then be essential,
for it will probably be necessary to act without instructioj^s
from superior authority.
^ But although the importance of studying tactics may be
readily aUowied, there would appear to be considerable diversity
of opinion as to the best method of conducting that study. It
is often confidently asserted that tactics cannot be learnt from
hooks; and in support of this theory it is ctistomary to adduce
Napoleon's well-known statement that tactics change every
ten years. But if we examine the matter more closely, it wifl
become evident that the changes which the great captain had
in his mind were those of formations, due principally to im-
proved weapons, rather than of the piindples upon which
coqpbined tactics are based^ Indeed, it could hardly be other-
wise, for military history furnishes many instances of great
battles which have been fought out on exactly the same lines,
although separated in point of time by many centuries. The
great similarity between Rossbach iq.iK), Austcrlitx (q.v.) and
Salamanca (9.V.) has often been quoted since Napoleon first
drew attention to it, but a great deal more remarkable and
instructive is the similarity between the battle on the Mctaurus,
which dealt the final blow to the hopes of Carthage in Italy, and
Marlborough's masterpiece, the battle of RamiUics iq.v.). In
both cases the battle was lost through faulty dispositions before
it had been begun. In both cases the ultimate loser
took up a position behind a stream, thereby losing his
mobility and voluntarily surrendering the initiative
to an enemy who w^ not slow to take advantage of
it. Prcdscly the same error was committed lime after time
by the Austrian gCDcni^« «^" f#%..»i»t against Frederick, notably
at Leuthen (see Sev battle closely resembling
both RamiUies and the Metaunis. Coning to a btcr date, we
find the same error committed, with of course precisely the same
result, in Manchuria, where the Russian generals repeatedly
surrendered the initiative to their enterprising opponents, and
allowed them to dictate the course of battle. Xt must not,
however, be understood from this that no commander should
ever stand upon the defensive; rather it is meant that we
should levn from history the proper method of doing so. This
we cannot do better than by studying Wellington's battles in
the Peninsula, for never have tactics been bro«g^t to higher
perfection^ Although frequently compelled to adopt Ihe
defensive, he never surrendered the conduct of tbe battle to
his enemy. Even when surprised and taken at great disad>
vantage by Soult at Maya (see PENWStJAE Wax), it can be
seen how, while lesser men would have been content to reinforce
the threatened points, Wellington's one thought was to discover
where he could deal the most effective blow. Nearly a hundred
yean later and in a theatre of war many thousands of miles
away, a very similar battle was fought out by Kuropatkin and
Oyama, though on a vastly greater scale.
But history teaches us more than the methods of the great
captains; for from it we may leam those changes which have
been introduced into, both organization and tactics by the
improved weapons which sdence has placed in our hands, and
thence the tacticiau may deduce the changes of the future.
Just as the " Old Dessauer " foresaw the advantage which the
Iron ramrod would give to the Prussian infancy, and as Welling-
ton perceived that improved firearms would render possible the
extended lines he adopted, so may the great generals of the
future learn those lessons which are ordy brou^t home to others
through the dire ordeal of battle. From the days of the long-bow
to those of the Lee-Metford rifle, the changes in. tactics have
been brought about by the developnnent of fire. It '
is therefore only natural that the introduction of ^Zeti
small-bore rifles, quick-firing artillery, and smokeless
powder should have revolutionized many of our ideas. Before
the invention of the breech-loader and the rifled caimon, the
three arms .of the service employed very different methods of
combaL The infantry depended priadpally on the bayonet,
the cavalry on the lance or sabre, the artiUcry on fire. Now
there is practically but one method common to all arms whether
in attack or defence. The bayonet aiui the sabre still have their
part to play; but in almost every phase of the combat their
importance is diminishing, and infantry and cavalry roust
depend more and more upoi^ fire to compass the enemy's over-
throw. All the preliminary movement and manoeuvres have
but one end in view, the development of fire in greater volume
and more effectively directed than that of the opposing force;
for it is " superiority of fixe " that prepares the ground lor the
final decision.
Side by side with the improvement in firearms there has
come another great change which, on the continent of Europe
at all events, has had a marked effect on modem tactics. This
is the improvement in communications, which has alone made
it posible to use the vast numbers with which great battles
have recently been fought. Without railways the power
which universal service has placed in the hands of the generata
of the 20th century could never have been fully developed, for
the men could neither have been conveyed to the theatre of
operations, nor could they have been fed even sup- mo^tn
posing they had been got there. Now all this is «»•-
altered, and the first step towards the attainment <*«^*«
of superiority of fire will be to brit^ as many men as possible
on to the field of battle; the second step will be to place them
in the position from which they can use their weapons to the
very best advantage. From these premises it is not difficult
to foresee the type of battle which will prevail, until some new
discovery changes the military systems of the worid. In the
future, as in the past, it will be the duly of the strategist to mass
superior numbers at the decisive point ; but so soon as this has
been effected there is only one method by which the tactician
will be able to follow up the advantage. That is by bringir^g
TAxmcs
34^;
flooi Bia Into metitm than Us opponent Is able to dOu From
this it foOowa tbattbe ea««lopSiig actkm will be tlie uMal fonki
ti battle; and that although the extent of front may not almys
be ao grentf In proportion to the nnaiben engaged, as on the
iMttleieldB of South Africa or even of Manchuria, the general
tendency of modem Invention iriU undoubtedly be to Increase
the accn of the battlefield.
If then wt are ri^t in supposing that the front of an army
in action will cover many mites of country, it necessarily foUows
that in approaching the field many roads wilt be used. Here
the dntict of the cavalry will begin; lor the commander who
' scover earliest the approaches by which the flank detacb>
of his opponent are moving, is obviously in the best
to form his plans for cnvdopmenL Here we are
verging upon the strstegic use of cavalry; but under
modem conditions the tactical useol that arm is almost
merged In the stntegieal use. No Ambt it has always been the
object of Che wise commander to attain his enemy's flank; yet,
since, owing to the increased range of smaU-bore rifles, turning
movements like those which fomed such a marked feature of
Fredeticfc the Great's battler can no longer be made after the
infantry troops have come Into contact, they must be prepared
as soon as the necessary faiformation has been obtamed. More-
over, fuaOAtiig most be left to chance, for it osn hardly be deided
that if the battle of Gmvelotte were to be foujribt agahi to^oonow,
the fathire to locate the tight flank of the French amy would
have even more serious consequences than imie actually the'
case (see "Mm: B&OUs cf lifo). Such mistakes can only be
avoided by obtaining good information, and thua It wiU bto
seen that the chances of bringmg off a sooeessful converging
attack^are greatly in favour of the commander who is best served
by hia carvahy. But, as the opposhig forces dmw near, a
gradual change comes over the dudes of the mounted arm, for
it nnat then protect the troops in rear from observation, so that
the pitpaatiens for envelopment may be oonceated. To tUs
end the occupation of points of tactical vantage, such as falHs,
wooda and vfllages, behind which the mafai army can deploy
or the ontflaaldDg columns march in security, beoomca iu
chief ahn. In the next stage, ^.«., when one or other army is
forced to stand on the defensive, reoonnaissanoe of tho position
held wiD be the duty of the cavalry of the attack.
So far lu functions ate dear enoiigh, but when the preparations
for the infantry attack have been completed we have practically
nothing to guide ns. Unfortunately the two most recent wars,
in South Africa and Manchuria, have tanght us but little of the
handling of cavaky m battle. In South Africa the peculiar
chamderiatks of the Boeta gave no scope for cavalry action;
while in Manchoria the theatre of operations was practically a
defile between the mountains and the Liao river, which afforded
no room for manoeuvre. With regard to the handling of cavalry
in am juncthm with the other anna then Is, therefore, more room
for divcssity of opinion than is the case with either infantry or
artiltery. Time alone will show tho real capabilities of the
cavalry of to-day, and the openfiog battles of the next great
campaign in Europe will bring about many changca. Meanwhile
such experience as we have to guide us seems to indicate that
the development of fire has rendered cavalry^ even when highly
crained in the use of the rifle, less capable of acting indepen-
dently against inftmtry than it was formerly. Huonghout the
war in Manchuria, we constantly find the Russisn cavalry
reooonalsaance checked by Japanese infantry; and on the other
hand the weak Japanese cavalry closely supported by infantry
was fairly effieetive. The drcumstancea were of course pccoUar,
but the Infefenoe appears to be that unaoppotted mounted
tmopa cannot be expected to achieve imporunt results except
whcs acting against simflar bodies of the enemy; that is to
say. under conditions which fsU outside the province of €om«
bined tactics. Moreover, since well-posted infantry can easily
hold in check greatly superior numbers d cavalty, it would
ccrtsinly seem that wide tactical movements, intended to
ihreaten the enemy's line of retxeat, are more likely than not to
resoh in predigil waste of strength. .This bemg the esse it
AnmuT
wbuM seem that the best tne of cavalry on the battlefidd wili
be on the flanks of, and hi ctese touch with, the infantry, Where
each arm can render support to the other. On the defensive
the tactical action of cavalry is not less important than on the
offensive. Accompanied and strengthened by horse artillery
it may occupy tactical poinU either on the flanks of the mahi
position or thmwn out well to the front. Aided by smokeless
powder, magazine rifles and quick-firing guns, numbers may be
concealed and the attacking enemy may be induced to deploy
his troops and to reveal his movements prematurely. Should
he do BO, nmch of his advantage will be gone, for the defender
will be greatly helped hi his preparations for the counter-atuck,
the most effective weapon at his command.
But when at last the slower moving bodies of infantry and
artillery come into contact, the battie enters upon a new phase.
It has long been recognized that the first step towards tho
attainment of fire superiority over a vigiUnt enemy is a vigorous
artllleiy bombardment. For many years this action of the
artillery was regarded merely as a preliminary to the infantry
attack; and it was not until the rade awakening of the eariy
battles of the Boer war, that it was realised In England that
unless the infantry cooperate, the artillery is not likdy to
produce any result. If the atUcUng infantry is kept
at such a dtstanca from the position that it caimot
pass quickly to the assault, the enemy will rttain his
troops under cover during the cannonade, perhaps even leaving^
his trenches unoccupied, and present no target to the goaaa.'
Indeed, n most instructive instance of this very line of action
is furnished by the battle of Ta-shih-chiao. There the tight of
the Russisn line was held by the infantry of the xst &berian
army corps, supported throughout the greater part of the day
by only two batteries of artillery. So heavy waa the fire of
the Japanese artHtery hi this portion of the field that General
Stakelbeig, tho commander of the Russian corps, aent word to
his superior officer that he had not considered it advisable to
occupy his trenches, and that should he be compelled to do so
Us ti^ops must suffer very heavy Ums. As thfaigs fumed out
the Japanese infantxy dui not deliver any attack against the
Russian right, the defbnders remained under cover, and the
losses inflicted by tho bom1»rdment were afanost negligible.
Other Instances inight be quoted, but enough hss been said to
prove that to reader the artillery bombardment effective the
infantiy must oo-opemte; for by this means only will the enemy
be compelled to man his defences, to show himself above hie
paiapeu, and to expose himself to shrapnel fire.
Here arises one of those qucstkws which are the outcome of
modem science, but whkh have not been finally answered by
modem war. As a result of improved ballistics, better methodi
of observation, and perfected methods of communication, it k>
new possible for field artillery to make use of indirect fire from
behind cover. Against stationary objects, such as a battery in
action, the results achieved by this method are as good as those
which are obtained by firing directly over the sl^ts. At the
same time the control of indirect fire is slow, snd it still remaina
to be proved whether It can boused satisfactorily agiJnstqukkly
movmg targets. If it should be found that, hi spite of scientific
aids, the artittery of the defenoecan be made to leave its cover
and to disdose iU position by the advance of the infantry, the
importance of the aid which one aim can render to the other
needs no denkmstiation. After all, however, the siknring of
the guns of the defence is but a means to an end, and the
principal aim of the guns of the atta<^ is to enable the infantry
to get suffidently dose to the position to deliver an assault;
for the infantry assault is the crowning act of battle. Similariy
the gunnem of the defence mast never forget that their great
object is to repd this ssme assault. The artillery duel, there-'
fore, is but a phase. Sooner or later one side wiU gidn the
upper hand. Then it must be dedded whether the inferior
ariJUery can best serve the interests of the infantry ^''
tliednd,orbyce8singtofireuntilitcan find som
able target.
ShouU the guns of the defence have proved i
350
TACTICS
of the attack, it will probably be wiat for them to wait until the
advandog cohimns of infantry have deployed; should the
positioDS be reversed, it will be well for the gunnera of the attack
to leave their weapons and to remain under cover until such
time 05 their opponent is compelled to turn his attention to
repelling the infantry. So great is the power of the modern
rifle and quick-firing gun that infantiy, unsupported by artillery,
hu but little chance of carrying a position held by determined
men, and it is for this reason, and not with a view to saving their
own lives, that the gunners must reserve themselves until the
last moment. They must be ready and alert when their services
are most required; moreover their final positions should be
selected with a view to keeping up their fire until the last possible
moment. Indeed they must often run the risk of injuring some
of their own troops when firing over their heads. Sometimes
a iavourable position may be found for the artillery upon the
flank of the attack. Such positions have a double advantage.
Not only do they bring enfilade or oblique fire to bear upon the
enemy's trenches, but they are able to continue the bombard*
ment much longer than is possible when posted directly in rear
ol the assaulting columns. But whatever the position of the
artiUeiy may be, one thing is certain: namely, that the infantry
of the attack can hardly hope to succeed if its own guns have
been disabled while striving to maintain an unequal dueL Thus
in the earlier stages of battle the action of the artilleiy will
be chancteriaed by a certain degree of prudence. The com-
manders on either side will strive to conceal the numbers and
positions of their batteries, and will not employ more guns than
are absolutely necessary for the attainmoit of any paurticular
objea they may have in hand. But when the preliminary
stages are over, and the infantry is finally committed to the
assault, a change must come over the conduct of the artillery.
In this final phase there is no hmger room for prudence. In-
direct fire is out of place, and the duty of the guns cannot be
better described than in the words of the French text-books,
" to follow the infantry in a secies of rapid advances, by ^cbekms,
without hesiuting to come into action within the shortest range
of the hostile infantry." But when the time comes to follow up
the infantiy the skill and knowledge of the battery commander
are most highly tried. Concealment is no koger 1^ object, and
he must trust all to his offensive power. To make the most of
this power it is of the first tmpoartance that his guns should be
hiDught at once into poeitioBa whence they can be effectively
used; for, quoting again from the French instructions, " con-
siderations of concealment lose their importance for artillery
that is told off to follow up the movements of the infantry. In
this case artilleiy must not fear to oone into action in the open*
although in this aituatioo a battery usually forfeits its freedom
of ttaaoeuyre."
Even the introduction of shielded guns will not affect this kas
of mobility, for batteries which are brought to within effective
rifle range of the defence must tapttiL to loae a considerable
proportion of their hones. Hence it follows that although the
position into which they are brought in support of infantry may
prove to be unsatisfaaocy it cannot be changed; their assist-
ance will be lost at the most critical moment, with the result
that the attack, deprived of their support, will probably faiL
In France, where artillery tactics have perhaps received even
more attention than in other oountiiesb the necessity lor this
dose support by guns has been so far leoogniaed that the
batteries of the attack have been divided into two distinct
portions* The duties of one section have already been dcsczibed.
Thoae of the aecond are^--{I) To continue to shell the enemy's
position as long as possible without danger to the advancing
infantiy; (a) To engage the hostile infantry " avcc la demite
£neigie "; (3) To watch carefuUy for ooonteivattack.
It is pofectly dear that the performance of these duties,
in faa, the application of the whole principle of oo-operatioA
between infantry and artillery, is intiinateiy oonnected with the
useofground. The art of ntilisiag ground to the best advasiavB
must therdore be deeply studied. If we look back upon hisleiy^
we cannot but be stnwfchp* < h " »" ^ H >gt pt thsl the sppeeda-
tionTor neglect of Uie cspadties of the ground hss played in
almost every battle. The most brilliant victories have been w<tt
by manoeuvres which, if not suggested by the physical icttUires
of the battlefidd, were deprived by the nature of the grouikd of
half their risk. What was true of Austerliu and Leutben b true
of Liao-yang and Mukden. Now, as in the past, battles resolve
themsdves into a series of struggles for certain localities, a
methodical progression from point to point, each successive
capture weakening the enemy's position until at last an over-
whelming fire can be brought to bear upon some vital point.
This nkethod of attack is most distinctly seen in siege operations,
such as those round Port Arthur, where the attadt dosed
graduaUy in upon the defence until (he possession of one or two
points rendered the capture of the place a matter of time akme.
Now the difference between the attack of a fortress and of a
defended position is, in the main, one of degree rather than of
kind. But there is no doubt that the chief point of difference
is often overlooked, both by the amateur and by the uneducated
professional soldier.
In staff rides sad in war games, occasionally even in peace
manoeuvres, it is usually assumed that the party who starts
upon the defensive must remain in that unenviable position
throughout. This, however, is not the teaching of histoiy. II
there is one lesson in tactics which stands out more deariy than
all the others which may be learnt from the campaigns of the
great commanders, it is that a ddensive attitude should never
be aasum«i except as a means of passing to the offensive under
more favourable conditions than those whidi present themsdves
at the moment. In siege operations the r^les of the ^^i^-^i^.
rival forces are more dearly defined; and until the ^SStT
operations are brought to a condusion the relations
of the two commanders remain unchanged. In the open fidd
of battle, except in the case of a purdy delaying or of a rear-
guard action, this is not the case. There both generals, if they
undeistand their duties, are always striving to secure the
offensive, for no battle has ever yet been won by purely ddensive
tactics. The defensive attitude is, therdore, only a phase of
that manoeuvring to secure the upper hand which be^ns with
the strategic concentration, ahnost, one might say, wsih the
peace organisation.
In spite of Moltke's oft-quoted saying that the combmation of
the tactical ddensive with the strategical offiensive is the strongest
form of war, the very fact of one side adopting the ddensive
proves, in at least ninety-nine cases out of every hundred, that
in earlier stages of the campaign the enemy has gained ^n
advantage, dther by his numbers, his stretegy, or his readiness
to act, which can only be counterbalanced by success in battle.
Other things being equal, the side which is numerica^y the
weaker is naturally the fimt to be forced to rdinquiah the
initiative. But, whatever the cause, the aim of the commander
will be to retrieve his fortunes by a tactical success. Perhaps
the most striking example in history of its accomplishment is
furnished by the rampaign and battle of Salamanca. There,
after weeks of marching and counter-marching, Wellington was
finally out-manoeuvred by Marmont and forced to stand and
fight under circumstances by no means favourable to the ddence.
His line of communication was in danger, and his trains were
already bdng httnied to the rear. Then Marmont made a
mistake; and in a few hours the French army was in full re-
treat. Never was the tactical genius of a commander more
dnmaticaUy displayed; but we may wdl ask ourselves whether
under modem oonditionB similar results would be possible.
The point is, however, that to the true generd the purdy
defensive battle is unknown; and in place of a sin^ movement
directed by a msster mind we shaU see in future a scries of com-
bats, each with its stroke and counter-stroke, taking place upon
a front extending over many miles of country. Of thb type
of battle the Sha-ho is at present the best example. There the
opentions opened with an attack against the Japanese right,
whidi was met by a similar attack ddivered by the Japanese
centre and kft. A less able commander than Oyama might
have attempted to check KuropatUn's eflenslve DoveaMcnt by
TACTICS
•351
Rmfacdag his own threatened flank; thafcis to say, that he voukl
hsve confonned to the movements of his adversary and per>
■litted him to dicUte the course of events. This was not the
Japanese system. Oyama had no intention of fighting a purely
defensive action. He knew that his opponent had massed his
streogth upon his left, and it was only reasonable to assume that
if one portion of his line was strong, some other poition must
be weak. The actual point first selected by Oyama for decisive
attack was the centre of Kuropatkin's line. Thb efi^ort failed,
and tlie scales were ultimately turned by an almost uneipected
mccess against the Russian right. The resulting victory was
cettandy less complete than would have been the case had the
Japanese commander been able to carry through his original
plan, but it is obvious that a force operating against the centre
ol a hostile line must itself be in danger of envek>pment; and
in this case it is interesting to note that the battle was really
decided by an outflanking movement by a weak force, while the
omtnl attadc in considctable strength achieved but little.
Oyama'sooaductofthiBbattlehasbcenmuchcriticised. Bysome
writers he has been blamed for leaving his own defensive Ihie too
weak; by others he has been accused of attempting too much«
These are difficult questions, requiring detailed examination;
ior the present it is sufficient to note that, although inferior in
nambecs, be snocefeded in accomplishing an envdapiBg movement
which forced his enemy to retire, lie fact is that by superior
skill, although actually inferior in numbers, he succeeded in
pbdng more rifles in the £ring line than did his opponent.
Dorinc a great part of this stmQH^, which lasted for five days,
it would be difficult to say vdiich side was on the defensive
and which on the offensive. No doubt at the commencement
Knnipatkin was. the assailant; it is equally certain that in the
end it was Oyama who attacked; yet it would be impossible
to say, as at AusterUtz and Salamanrw, exactly at what moment
the rMes were exchanged.
If then we are justified in assuniing that in the great battles
of the fotuie neither army will be acting entirely on the offensive
or entirely on the defensive, it may seem idle to speculate as to
whether the recent improvements in fireanns.and ballistics axe
in favour of one side or the other. In this connexian the lessons
which may be learned from the South African and the Ruaao-
Japanese wars are most instructive. After the former it was
often urged that the conditions of modem battle are distinctly
ia favour of defensive tactics; in other wards, that the force
which awaits attack can develop the full power of each arm with
greater facility than that which delivers it. This contention
had mnch to support it, but it wi» not always realised that any*
thing which gives new strength to the defence -must at the same
time add sonwrhing to the advantages of the army which attacks.
The ootoome of the improvements in rifles, guns and powder
k that ia* fewer men are required to hold a definite position
than of okL To a certain extent this favours the defence. A
nocfa larger proportion of the available troops can be set free to
act in reserve, and to ddivcr the counter-stroke, i^. a much
larger number than f ormeily can be empfeyed by the defenders
in attack. This is to the good. But the assailant profits in
ihnost equal ratio. His strength haa always lain in power of
maaoeuvring, of hiding his movements, and of massing suddenly
sipiast some weak p^nt. To-day this power is greater than
ever belore. The increased power of the rifle renders it oam«
parativdy essy for him to form an impenetrable barrier with
part of his forte, perhsps with his cavaby supported only by a
small proportion. of his infantry, behind which the remainder
can move unobserved. Moreover, the object of the assailant's
aunoeuvres will be to place portions of his forces on the flsnk
or flanks of the position he is attacking. II he can accomplish
this, the effect, moral and physical, of the enfilade fire which is
brought to bear upon the enemy's front will be far greater than
that wbidi attended a similar operation when fire was of less
account. In addition to this Increased facility for manoeuvre,
the great strength of the local defensive confers upon the assail*
ant the power of denuding certain portions of his line td troops,
ia order thnt he may massr them Isr offensive action elsewhere.
Here again the study of ground and a true knowledge of the
capabilities of the various arms are of supreme importance. Wett-
placed artillery, aided by machine guns, may enable a compara-
tively weak force of inifantry to hold a wide extent of front,
provided that each arm is able to use its strength to the fullest
extent. In this way the skilful commander can turn eadi
feature of the battl^ki to account and can release a greater
number of his troops for the all-important enveloping move-
ments. It was just this power which enabled Oyama to outflank
the Russian XVII. Corps at the battle of Sha-ho, for he was
able to weaken his own sght to an extent which a very few
years ago would have been impossible. In short, the process of
envelopment is more easy than it used to be; and envelopment,
which means that the enemy is under fire from several directioos,
is much more effective now thsn in the past.
In Germany this fact has long been recognized, and it was for
this reason that German soldiers refused to accept the con-
clusions at which many English military critics arrived after
the South African war. Under the influenos of their German
teachers the Japanese never hesitated to attack, even with
inferior numbers, and to make the envdopment of the enemy
more certain they went into battle practically without reserves.
In diis respect the war in Manchuria marks an epoch in the
history of tactics; and for that reason, if for no other, it shookl
be carefully studied. Moreover, it emphasises an important
difference in the handling of large and small armies which is of
quite recent origin. Until a few years ago all oontinental
armies were organized in army corps. These corps were com-
posed of two or three infantry divisions with a large body of
corps troops, principally arrillery. Now the raisdti d*4irt of
this artillery was to form the nucleus of a reserve which could be
retained under the hand of the corps commander to be used as
required. That is to drive home the infantry attack, to deliver
or repd a cotmter-attack, or, but very sparingly, to strengthen
a weak point in the defensive line. With the development of
the enveloping battle, it was soon realized in Germany that
oaps artillery was an anachronism, for the distancca
are now so great that reserve artillery can hardly SSillf
be moved to the particular part of the battlefield ^rUBtJ^,
where its services are required in time to be of any
use. Thus the corpa artillery was first split up among the
<livisioos, and soon a number of divisional reserves took the
place of the great central body, while the corps commander
retained a comparatively small number of troops under his
own hand. In this way the control of the supreme commander
over the course of the battle is greatly weakened and the chance
of correcting any error in the original plan is diminished. It
had long been realized that errors in the strategic deployment
of troops were almost impossible to correct; and now it came
to be seen that this was equally true of the tactical deployment.
Just as under modem conditions even Napoleon could hardly
have recovered from errors like those which marked the opening
phases of the Eckmtthl campaign (see Napoleonic Cahtaicns),
so the most brilliant genius will no longer be sufficient to wia
battles if the original plan is not ooncct. It was upon this
theorx that the Japanese commanders planned their battles,
and it was very soon proved that' they had the courage of their
convictions. For the first time it was seen that battles were no
k>nger won by the general who husbanded his reserves, but by
him who first got every available man into the firing line. But,
while giving QyaoMv Kuioki, Oku and the otheis every credit
for the strength of mind which enabled them to divest them*
selves of reserves when their battles were far from being won*
we must also remember that they were fighting an enemy who^
like the Boers, were incapable of organizing a really decisive
counter-stroke. For English soldien this point has a peculiar
interest, as it has a very distinct bearing upon **^' — ^ ' -"Mr
own army. From what has already been
be, dear that the valtie of numbers upon th<
new than formerly; for, granting that the
side is equally skilful, the chances of eavei
of him who. commands* the greater aum
352
TACTICS
to our geognphiad position and to the conditions tinder which
we live, the number of BritiBh troops available for employment
in any war against a continental Power will almost certainly
be inferior to that which can be employed against ns. It it
of course true that we should never engage in operations on the
continent of Europe excq>t in alliance with some other Power;
but it is quite possible that the British army might be entrusted
with the execution of some definite task which, while pait of
A general strategical scheme, would involve completely inde^-
pendent action. It is under such drcomstances as these that
we must be prepared to encounter troops which in leadership
and training will be at least the equal of our own, and in numbers
will probably be superior to them. In these circumstances our
chances of envelopment will not be great, but this must by no
means be taken to mean that our chances of success are to be
despaired of. . Far from it. In the first place strategy may
induce the enemy tempotarily to divide his forces, and thus to
afford favourable opportunity for an effective blow. Failing
this, it remains to be considered how a general may best emfdoy
inferior numbers with a reasonable hope of gaining a tactical
victory. To this the answer must be that his best, indeed his
only, chance of victory lies in the counter-stroke.
In France this fact has received- due recognition, and since
that country is in the imfortunate position of having to be
prepared to encounter superior numbers, the training and
organisation of her armies differ essentially from those of her
most formidable neighbour. Acknowledging that at the outset
of a war she must be placed at a grave disadvanuge, she strives
n^ to develop her power of manoeuvre and of delivering
cmiaiif«> a Strategic counter-stroke. With this object her
'"***■ armies move in deep formations on a comparatively
narrow front, covered by strong advanced guards. Thus, in
the earlier stages, they are much less conunitted to a definite
line of action than are armies moving upon a widely' extended
front, and, provided intelligence is received in time, they can
be massed quickly against the enemy's flanks. Similariy in
the later stages she trusts to the tactical counter-stroke, and
hence the corps artiUery, which has been abandoned in Germany
for reasons whkh have already been given, is still retained in
France.
In the foregoing pages the question was raised as to whether
the great tactical counterrstrcjces of the past are still possible
under modem conditions. Unfortunately the battles in Man-
churia afford no instance of a successful counter-stroke, for the
Sha-bo is more an example of an encounter action than of
a carefully conceived counter-attack. In these drcumstanoes
we are forced to rely upon theory; but theory based upon a
correct understanding of the past should form no nncertain
guide to the practice of the future. What then are the principles
upon which our theory is to be based? First, that the defensive
battle is only a step towards assuming the offensive. Secondly,
that the only means of assuming the offensive with success is
the counter-stroke. Thirdly, that the counter-stroke, in at
least nine cases out of every ten« should aim at the envelopment
of the attack. From these premises it follows that the moat
effective form of the defensive battle will be that which compels
the enemy to deploy his foroes and then uses the reserve to
envelop one or both of his flanks. Since, however, modem
battles are fought over a very wkle extent of front, it necessarily
follows that the possibility which the defence possesses of
successfully enveloping the attack must dqscnd to a very great
eztetat upon the correct disposal of the reserves when dAwing
up the originai line of battle. Just as the chances of making
the best U5e of superior number in the attack depend upon
a correct strategical deployment at the comrnenoement of a
campaign, so the chances of a successful counter'Stroke depend
upon a correct distribution of troops at the commencement of
an action. . Hence we see that the most important point which
a general who finds himself compelled to take up a defensive
positioa has to dedde is where to piece those troops by whose
aid he hopes eventually td seize tlie offensive. One thing is
(lou** namely, that tte'vaob^plice for men .wbo am destined
to envelop one or other flank of the attack nanst ne beliiiid the
centre of the defensive line. Time akme must tender such a
position unsuitable, for it must entail a march of many hours,
if not of days, before the troops can teach the point fron which
they axe to be kunchcd to the attack. This being so, it wouU
seem that the right place for the^jeneral reserve of the drfetiding
army under modem conditions must be on one or other of the
flanks; and, always bearing hi mind that the chief object to be
attained is regaining the initiative, we are driven to the oon-
dusion that the best place is that flank from which an effective
blow can be dealt at the assailant's most vulnerable point, that
is to say, at the flank through which his line of communicatioa
may be most easily attainwl. If this theory be concct, yet
another point has been established, namdy, that the main
plan of the decisive connteF«tvake must be derided before,
and not after, the first shot in the general engagement has been
fired. Under the conditions which obtain fb-day it is no use
waiting for the enemy to make a mistake, for the odds against
it being detected xn great. A huxulxed yeait ago armies
oumoeuvred in full view of one another, and mistakes coidd be
perceived by evoy company officer on dther side. Nov afl
tiiis is changed, and the difficulties i^ the defience are incieased
by the fact that although the attack may make many blunders,
it will do so at such a distance from the defence as to itiuler
them comparatively secure from detection. Having prepand
his counter-stroke, the chief point towards which the commander
of the defence must du^ct his attcntieft after battle has been
joined, is the exact moment at which It should be ddivered.
Needless to say that the chances of success will be enormously
increased if the coimter-stroke is unexpected, for in war the
demands which surprise makes upon moral are quite out of
proportion with the physical danger which men are called upoa
to underga If then defence is ever to be converted into attack,
it would appear: (i) That the counter-stroke must be carefully
planned, and must form an integral part of. the criginal scheme
of defence, (a) That it must be property directed. (3) That
It must be correctly timed. (4) That if possible it must come
as a surprise. Of these conditions, the first three are dependent
for their fulfilment upon good information, careful preparation,
and correct appreciation of the enemy's plans; but it is in the
fourth that the inspiration of the really great commander will
be most conspicuously displayed on the day of battle, and the
greater the numbers under his command the more d^kuh his
task must be.
When, as at the Sharho and Mukden, the troops on either
side are numbered by hundreds of thousands, the commander-
in-chief cannot hope to keep the direction of events in his own
hands for very long; but when tens of thousands only are
engaged, the whole battle can be controlled as well now as in
the past. The extent of front will ceruinly he greater than it
was formerly, but against this may be set the fact that improved
communications by telegraph and telephone enable the com-
mander to keep in touch with events in a manner which until
recently was quite impossible. It is for this reason that the
eariier and smaller battles of the Jlusso- Japanese War contain
many lessons which are of more use to British soldiers than axe
those which may be learned from the great struggles which took
place later on. But in dl battles, whether great or small, the
first requirement is a commander who possesses suffideat stead-
fastness of character to carry out on the day of battle the plans
he has formed beforehand. War is like a game of bridge, for the
most successful player is not he who best remembers the fall
of the cards or who knows the correct leads by heart, but he
who can decide upon and carry out the plan best suited to the
strength of his hand. In both cases a bad pbn is better than
none, and vacillation even between two good plans is fital.
In both cases side issues arc constantly arising which --^^^^.
tend to obscure the main issue. On the battlefield ^itJS!
these side issues take the form of appeals for assist-
ancefrom virions quarters, all of which must tempt the supreme
commander to weiaken the general reserve which has been
set aside for his decisive strukeu « To such apfieals he moat turn
TADPOLE
353
A deaf ear, oonfidoAt in tfaft kaowUdge tint the bat my of
assisting hte sorely-pteaaed tioops is by a vigoroiis blow at his
enemy's weakest spot. Hence It follows that the force which
is to deliver the blow must be ke{>t perfectly distinct from the
k>cal reserves Hnder subordinate comtnanrifTs, which aie held
in readiness to strengthen weak plaoeain the defensive line, or
to deliver local counter-atiaieka. It also follows that this fosce
must comprise eveiy man wbo can be spared from the passive
portion oC the defence, and that to produce the fullest results
there must be complete oe-operation between Che three arms.
It is here, in all probability, that cavalry will find its oppor>
tunity. On the one hand, the cavalry of the attack will strive
to locate the bosUle reserve which is preparing to deliver a
counter-attack; failing this it will protect the flanks of its own
infantry, ready to move to any threatened point and to assist
with dismounted fire in repelling the advancing Uoes when the
necessity arises. On the other hand, the cavaby of the <!eEence
will strive to conceal the movements of its own general reserve
and- will locate the flanks of <the Infantry against which the
countcr<attack is to be directed. The share of the artillery in
this stage of the battle is aufficienUy apparent, and it is obvious
that the chances of sucoeas of one feide or the other nuist depend
largely upon the skili and self-sacrifice of the gunners. Should
the commander of the defence, aided by his cavalry, have been
successful in effecting a surprise, hb chances of victor/ will
he further increased U his infantry is supported closely by the
artillery. Much also must depend upon the handling ojf the
artillery which has suddenly been thrown upon the defensive.
If the battery leaders are quick to reaUte the changed ^uatlon
and to pick up new targets, perhaps leaving covered positions
sad firing over the sights, all may yet be well; but it is certain
that if the surprise has really been complete the infantry will
require all the assistance it can possibly derive from the other
arms in order to avert defeat.
One more point remains to be noted. Since the abject, of
tactics is to win battles, every effon should be directed to that
single end. If certain formations ore adopted with a view U>
avoiding loses, it must only be in order thai more men may
be brought up to the decisive point. The same principle holds
good with regard to what are known as holding, or secondary,
attacks whose r^ is frequently misunderstood. Indeed the
names themselves are misleading, for they inevitably convey
the impression that the duty of winning has been entrusted to
some other body. For this reason the commander is apt lo
consider that he has fulfilled his task if he succeeds in gating
to within reasonably close range of the enemy's position,, where
he can remain without suffeiiog undue loss. Far from this
being the case, the fact is that againat aa able opponent an
attack of this nature is useless, for be will very .soon detect
^^^ which is the resl and which is the secondary attack,
2aSb *'^ unless the two are pushed with equal vigour he
will disregard the one and turn all bis aUeotion to the
ether. It may even happen that he will be aUt to take troops
from that porrion of his line which is only threatened and place
them where he is really pressed, or even utilize them in counter^
attack. In such a case it may happen that the so-called V hold-
ing " attack may itself be held by less ^ao Its own numbers,
while the main attack is suffering defeat in sotne other quarter
of the field. Here again there is mach to be learnt from the
past; and for the true conduct of these ftinl attacks we need
not go outside the history of our own army. Many instances
aaight be quoted, but none afe more to the point than that of
the assaulting columns at the capture of B^dajoa. On that
memorable occasion the British troops were divided into five
cofumnsy three of which were vainly huiied against the great
breaches which had been made in the walls. But what the
auin assaults failed to do was accomplished by the attacks from
which least had. been expected; and Philippon with hb gallant
defenders was forced to surrender by the loss of the San Vincenle
bastion and the castle of San Ro<|ue, which had been considered
to be iropfegnable. This is the spirit whith OMUt imbue the
iolaioryaian, the cavairyman, and ihe artilleryaiaii aliloe. For
without the fighting Ipiklt, neither generalship, formations, nor
weapons can prevail. (N.- M.*>
TADPOLE, a term often, but wrongly, applied indiscriminately
to all Batrachian larvae. It is absurd to call the larva of a newt
or of a Caecilian a tadpole, nor is the free-swimming embryo
of a frog as it leaves the egg a tadpole. A Udpole is the larva
of a tailless Batrachian after the loss of the external gills and
before the egress of the fore limbs (except in the aberrant
XeH0pus) and the resorption d the taiL What characterizes a
tadpole is the conjoined globular head and body, so formed
that it is practically impossible to discern the limit between
the two, sharply act off from the more or leas elongate com-
pressed tail which is the organ of propulsion. In describing
tadpoles, the term " body " b therefore used as meaning head
and body. The toil consists of a fjeshy muscular portion bordered
above and below by membranous expansions, termed respectively
the upper and lower creftt, the former sometimes extending along
the body.
Except in a few aberrant types, which are mentioned below,
the mouth is surrounded by a much developed lip like a funnel
directed downwards, and is armed with a homy beak not unlike
that of a cuttle<fish. The characters offered by the circular lip
are among the most important for the distinction of species.
It may be entirely bordered by fleshy papillae, or these may be
restricted to the aides, or to the sides and the lower border.
Its inner surface fa furnished with ridg^ beset with scries ot
minute, brisllc-like, erect, horny teeth, each of which, when
stron^y magnified, is seen- to be formed of a column of super-
posed cones, hollowed out at the base and capping each other;
the summit or crown of each of tbeae cones is expanded, spatu-
late, hooked backwards, and often multicuspid. The number
of these columns is very great. F. E. Scbulse has counted as
noany as xioo in the lip of Pelobaits fuscia. The beak is made
up of homy elements, like the labial teeth, fused together; its
edge, when sufiiciently magnified, is seen to be denticulate, each
denticle representing the cusp of a single tooth. The gills, borne
on four arches, are internal and enclosed in the branchial
chambers. The arches bear on the convex otiter side the
delicate arborescent gilb, and on the concave inner side develop
a membranous septum with vermicular perforations, a special
sifting or filtering contrivance throu^ which the water
absorbed by the mouth has to pass before reaching the respira-
tory organs of the branchial apparatus.
The water is cxi)elled from the branchial chambers by one or
two tubes opening by one orifice in most Batrachians. This
orifice b the spiraculum, which u lateral, on the left aide of the
body, in most tadpoles, but median, on the breast Or belly, in
those of the Disec^midet sndot some of the Eniyttomatiiae.
An tadpoles are provided with more or less distinct lines of
ffluriferons sensory crypts or canals, which stand in Immediate
rdatim to the ncrre branches and are regarded as organs of a
special sense possessed by aquatic vertebrates, feeling, in its
broadest sense, having been admitted as their possible use,
and the function of deterniinfaig waves of vibration in the
aqueous medium having been suggested. In additkin to these
lines, all tadpoles show more or less distinctly a stnatl whitish
gland in the middle of the head between the eyes, the so^ooflcd
frontal, gland or pineal gland, which in early stages it connected
with the brain. A 'glandular streak extending from the nostril
towvds the eye is the lachryual canal. The eyes are devoid
ofHds.
. Owing to more «r leas herbivarous habits, the Intestine Is
exceedingly elongate and anucta convoluted, being several times
larger and of a greater caKbie than after the metamorphosis.
Its opening, the vent, is sitvsted eitlieron the siiddle Ime at
the base of the tail, or on the right side, as If to balance the
Sinistral pos&ion of the spiraculum. The tail varies much in
length and shape according to the species; w ■ " ' *• ^
rouiuied at the end, somedmes more or Ictt r
even terminating in a fitament. The skelet<
and the skull is remarkable for the very eloi
of the kywer iaw; the tall remains In the not
35+
no cartiUges being formed in this organ, which is destined to
disappear with the gills. The hind limbs appear as buds at
the base of the tail, and gradually atuin their full development
during the tadpole life. The fore limbs grow simultaneously,
and even more rapidly, but remain concealed within a diverti-
culum of the branchial chambers until fuUy formed, when they
burst through the skin (unless the left spiraculum be utilized
for the egress of the corresponding limb).
The above description applies to all European and North American
udpoles. and to the great majority of those known from the tropica.
The following types are exceptional.
The circular lip is extremely developed in Megalophrys montana,
and its funnel-shaped expansion, beset on the inner side with
radiating series of nomy teeth, acts as a surface-float, when the
tadpole rests in a vertical position; the moment the tadpole sinks
in the water the funnel collapses, taking on the form of a pair of
horns, curling backwards along the aide of the head; but, as they
touch the suftaoe again, it le-expands into a reguhr (-arachute. ,
^ In^ some species of Rama and Slatinns inhabiting mountainous
districts in south-eastern Asia, the larvae are adapted for lUe in
torrents, being provided with a circ'ilar adhesive disk on the ventral
surface behind the mouth, by means of which they are able to anchor
themselves to stones:
In some Indian and Malay Engystomattds of the genera Caiiula
and Microkyla, the udpoles are remarkably transparent, and differ
markedly in the structure of the buccal apparatus. There is no
funnel-shaped lip, no homy teeth, and no beak. The spiraculum
is median and opens far back, in front of the vent.
In the Aglossal Xeitopus, the tadpoles are likewise devokl of
circular lip, horny teeth, and beak, and they are further remarkable
m the (oHowtng respects: There is a long tentacle or barbel on
each side of the mouth, which appears to represent the " balancer "
of Urodele huvae; the spiraculum is paired, one on each side; the
(ore limbs devek>p externally, like the hind limbs.
Some tadpoles reach a very great size. The largest, that of
Pseudis paradoxa, may measure a foot, the body being as large
as a turkey's egg. The perfect frog, after transformation, is
smaller than the larva. Pseudis was first. described by Marie
Sibylle de M6rian (i647'X7i7), hi her work on the fauna of
Surinam (published first in 1705 at Amsterdam, republished in
Latin in 1719), as a frog changing into a fish. Among European
forms, some tadpoles of PdobaUs attain a length of seven inches,
the body being of the sixe of a hen's egg. The tadpole of the
North American bull-frog measures six inches, and that of the
Chilian Cafyptocepholus gayi seven and a half inches.
AuTHORiTiES.~L. F. H4ron-Royer and C. Van Bambeke, " Le
vestibule de la bouche chex les t^tards des batraciens anoures
d' Europe." Arch. Biol., Ix. 18S9. p. >8S: F- E. Schulae. " Ober die
inneren Kiemen der Batrachierlarven," Abh, Ak, BerL, 1888 and
1893: G. A. Boulenger, "A Synopsis of the Tadpoles of the
European Batrachians," P.2.5., 1891, p. «qi; F. t. Beddard.
" Notes upon the Tadpole of Xewtus laerir,P^S., 1894. p. lot ;
S. Ftowtr. " Batrachians of the Malay Peninsula and Siam,'* P.Z.S.,
1899, p. 885 ; U. S. Ferguson, " Travancore Batrachisns," J. B«mkay
nS. S>c.. XV. 1904. p. 499. (G. A. B.)
TAEL (Malay tail, takU, weight, probably oomlected with
Hind. /Wa, weight), the name current in European usage for
the Chinese Uang or ounce, the Hang oC fine uncoined sflver being
the monetary unit throughout the Chinese empire. Tlie tad is
not a coin, the only silver currency, apart from imported doUais,
being the ingots of silver known as ** aycee "; the dnly other
native currency is the copper " cash." As a money of account
the tad ia divided into 10 mac$ {ttkm), 100 crndtrin or candareem
(Juh), 1000 IL The value viaries with the price of silver. The
" Haikwan Uel," •*.«. the custom-bouse tael, that m whidi
duties are paid to the Imperial Maritime Customs, is a weight of
58-77 grains Troy, the value of which varies*, thus it was
reckoned at ji. fy, in 190s, 3s- 3i<L iu 1906^ 31. 3d. in 1907,
and 7%. 8d. in 1908 (tee Cbima: f Finance).
TAENIA (Gr. rwKo, ribbon, filkt), the term in architecture
given to the projecting fillet which crowns the architrave of the
Greek Doric order.
TAFIULT. or TAinsT (t^- "the Onintry of the FiUiU,"
as its inhabitants an called, because descended from the Arabian
tribe of Hil&l, settled here in the nth century), the moat impor-
tant oasis of the Moroccan Sabaa, ten days' Journey south of
Fes, across the AUat. It i« nlih M i a J ioir iu large and luscious
to the sucootfttl th, soon after the
TAEL— T AFT, W. H.
arrival of an ancestor of the reigning dynasty of Morocco
(hence called the FilAli Sharifs, i.t. descendants of Mahomet)
circ. AJ>. 1250, this dynasty owes its rise to power. Since 1648
it has been the custom of Moorish suluns to despatch soperfloous
sons and daughters to Tafil<, and as the males are all sharifs,
the fanaticism against Europeans is comprehensible. Instead
of living in towns its bellicose inhabitants occupy isolated
fortified buildings, and are constantly at war. In Ifli, the
central portion, formeriy existed the town of Sagilmasa, founded
by Miknisa Berbers in 757 b.c. It was on the direct caravan
route from the Niger to Tangier, and atuined a considerable
degree of prosperity. It was destroyed at the end of the nth
century, but iU ruins still extend five miles along the river bank.
The first European to visit TafiUlt was Rene Caillte (1828). the
next Gerhard Rohlfs (1864). A later visit to the oasis by W. B.
Harris is described in his book TaJUei (London, 1895).
TAFT, LORADO (x86o- ), American sculptor, was born
at Elmwood, Illinois, on the 39th of April i860. He graduated
from the University of Illinois in 1879, and from x88o to 1883
studied in the £a>le des Beaux Arts, Paris. In x886 he became
instructor at the Art Institute, Chicago, lecturing there, at
the Chicago University, and elsewhere in Ihe United States.
He is the author of an exhaustive and authoritative work, Tke
History of American Sculpture (1903). Among his works, in
addition to much portraiture, are: " Sleep of the Flowers '* and
" Awakening of the Flowen," both made for the Columbian
Exposition; "Despahr" (1898); "Solitude of the Soul**
(1900), and " Fountain of the Lakes " (1903).
TAFT. WILUAH HOWARD (1857- ), the twenty-seventh
President of the United States, was bom in Cincinnati, Ohio,
on the 15th of September 1857. His father, Alphonso Taft
(1810*1891), born in Townshend, Vermont, graduated at Yale
College in 1833, became a tutor there, studied law at the Yale
Law School, was admitted to the Connecticut bar in 1838,
removed to Cincinnati in 1839, and became one of the most
influential citiacns of Ohio. He served as judge of the Superior
Court (1865-72), as secretary of war (1876) and as attomey-
geneml of the Um'ted States (1876-77) in President Grant's
cabinet; and as mim'ster to Austria-Hungary (1882-84) and
to Russia (1884-85).
WiUlam Howard Taft attended the public schools of Cfndnnati,
graduated at the Woodward High School of that city in 1874.
and in the autumn entered Yale College, where he took high
rank as a student and was prominent in athletics and in the
social life of the institution. He graduated second Csalutstorian)
in his class in 1878. and began to study law in Cincinnati College,
where he graduated in 1880, dividing the first prize for scholar*
ship. He was admitted to the Ohio bar in 1880. Fbr a few
months he worked aa a kgal reporter for the Cincinnati Timts
(owned by his brother C. P. Taft), and then for the Cindnoati
Commercial. Earty in 1881 he was appointed assistant praaap
cuting attorney of Hamilton county (in which Cincinnati Is
situated), but resigned in 1882 on being appointed colector of
internal revenue of the United Slates for the first district of
Ohio. The work was distasteful, however, and in 1883 be
resigned to return to the law. From 1885 to 1887 he served as
assistant solicitor of Hamilton county, snd in the latter year
was appointed judge of the Superior Court of Oliib to fill a
vacancy. He was elected by the people in the next year and
served until 1890, when he was appointed soUdtor-general of
the United States by President Benjamin liairison. His work
in connexion with the drafting of the Sherman Anti-Tkttst Act
and with the Bering Sea controversy attracted attention. In
1893 he was appointed a judge of the Sixth Circuit, United States
Court, and became known as a feariess administrator of the
law. Several decisions were particulariy objectionable to
organised labour. The fint of these, decided in 1890, upbeid
the verdict of a fury awarding damages to the Moores Lime
Company, wUdi had sustained a secondary boycott because it
had sold materia] to a contractor who had been boycotted 1^
BrirUayeis' Unk>a Na 1. The second decision grew out of the
attempt of the Bioth^rfaood of Locomotive F.Bgiiiii>rf» to ptevcni
TAGANROG
355
Other roads from accepting freight from the Toledo, Aaii Arbor
k North Michigan railroad, against which a " legal " strike bad
been declared. Judge Taft granted an injunction (7th March
iSgj) against the Pennsylvania raibt>ad, making P. M. Arthur,
chief of the Brotherhood, a party, and caUed Rule i a, forbidding
engineers to haul the freight, crtminaL During the great railway
strikes of 1894 Eugene V. Debs, president of the American Railway
Union, sent one Frank W. Phelao to tie up traffic in and around
GodnnatL The receiver of the Cincinnati, New Orleans &
Texas Pacific railway applied for an injunction against Phelan
and others, which was granted. Phelan disobeyed the injunction
and on the 13th of July 1894 was sentenced to jail for six months
for contempt. The doctrine that " the starvation of a nation
cannot be the lawful purpose of a combination " was announced,
and Jud^e Taft said further that " if there is any power in the
army cf the United States to run those trains, the trains will
be run.** In 1896-1900 Judge Taft was professor and dean of
the law department of the University of Cincinnati
A movement to elect Mr Taft president of Yale Univeiaity
gained some strength in r 898-99, but was promptly checked
by him, on the ground that the head of a great university should
be primarily an educationalist. In 1900 be was asked by
Prc^dent McKinley to accept the presidency of the Philippine
Commission charged with the administration of the islands.
Though he had been opposed to the acquisition of the Philippines,
be did not believe that the inhabitants were capable of self-^
govenunent, and he foresaw some of the difficulties of the
position. Yielding^ however, to the urgent request of the
president and his cabinet, be accepted and served from the
xjth of March 1900 to the 1st of February X904. On the
establishment of civil government in the islands, on the 4th of
July 1 90X , he became governor, ex ojj^ia. The task oi construct-
ing a system of government from the bottom, of reconciling the
oonfiicttng and oftfen jealously sensitive elements, called for
tact, firmness, liulustry and deep Insight into human nature,
aU of which Governor Taft displayed in a marked degree. (See
PanxFPiNE IsiAMDfi.) The religious orders had been driven
Ota during the insurrection, but held title to large tracts of land
which many Filipinos and some Americans wished to confiscate.
This delicate matter was arranged by Mr Taft in a personal
interview wit^ Pope Leo XIII. in the summer of 190a. The
pope sent a special delegate to appraise the lands, and the sum
of $7,339^000 was paid in December 1903. lUt Taft gained
peat influeooe among the more conservative Filipinos, and
their entreaties to him to remain influenced bim to decline the
offer of a place upon the Supreme bench oficred by President
Roosevelt in 1903.
Finally, fecUng that his work w«a accomplished, Mr. Taft
retomed to the United Sutes to become secretary of war from
the xst of February 1904. With a party of congressmen he
visited the Philippines OQ a tour of inspectioa July-September
X905, and in Sq>tember X906, on- the downfall of the Cuban
rqwbUc and the intervention of America, he took temporary
charge of afiairs in that islaiMl (September-October). In the next
year (March- April) he inspected the Panama (Zanal and also
visited Cuba and Porto Rico. He again visited the Philippines
to open the first legislative assembly (i6th October X907), and
returned by way of the Trans-Siberiair railway. On this tour
he visited Japan, and on the snd of October, at Tokyo, made a
speech which had an important effea in quieting the appre-
hensions of the Japanese on the score of the treatment of their
people on the Pacific coast.
With the approach of the presidential election of 1908,
President Roosevelt reiterated his pledge not to accept another
nomination, and threw His immense influence in favour of Mr
Taft. At the Republican convention held, in Chicago, in June,
Mr Taft was nominated on the first ballot, receiving 702 out of
980 voles cast. James S. Sherman of New York was nominated
for Vice-President. During the campaign many prominent
labour kaders opposed the election of Mr Taft, on the ground
that \m decisions while on the bench had been unfriendly to
organised labour. In the campaign Mr Taft boldly defended
his course from the plktform, and apparently lost few votes on
account of this opposition. At the ensuing election In November,
Tail and Sherman received sax electoral votes against x6s cast
for William Jennings Bryan and John W. Kern, the Democratic
candidatei
In his inaugural address (4th March 1909) President Taft
announced himself as favouring the maintenance and enforce-
ment of the reforms initiated by President Roosevelt (Including
a strict enforcement of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, an effective
measure for railway rate regulation, and the policy of conserva-
tion of natural resources); the revision of the tariff on the basis
of affording protection to American namifactuits equal to the
difference between home and foreign cost of production; a
graduated inheritance tax; a strong navy as the best guarantee
of peace; postal savings bankr, free trade with the Philippfaie
Islands; and mail subsidies for American ships. He also
announced his hope to bring about a better undersUnding
between the North and the South, and to aid in the solution oi
the negro problenu In accordance with his pre-election pledge,
CTongtess was called to meet in extra session on the xsth of March
to revise the tariff. Hearings had been previously held by the
Ways and Means Committee of the House of Representatives,
and a measure was promptly reported. After passing the
House it was sent to the Senate, where it was much changed.
The final Payne-Aldrich Aa was approved by the President on
the sth of August 1909, though in many respects it was not the
measure he desired. The wbh to meet people of the different
sections of the country and to explain his position upon the
questions of the day led the President to begin (14th September
X909), a tour which included the Pacific coast, the South-west,
the Mississippi Valley and the South Atlantic states, and during
which he travelled 15,000 miles and made s66 speeches.
Mr Taft ddivend the Dodge lectures at Yale University in 1906
on the Res|)onsibilicies of Citisenahip.* puUishcd as Four Aspetls
oj Ckic Duty (1906). Some of his political speeches have been
Jubllshed under the titles Present Day FrobUms (1908). and PoUkial
ssnes and Outlooks (1909).
TAOANROO, a seaport of southern Russia, on the N. sihore of
the Sea of Azov, in the Don Cossarks territory, some 170 m.
SJb. of the* town of Ekaterinoslav. It is built principally of
wood, stands on a low cape, and has the aspect of an important
commercial dty. The imperial palace, where Alexander I.
died in 1825, and the Greek monastery (under the patriarch
of Jerusalem) are worthy of notice. Statues of Alexander L
(1830) and Peter the Great (r905) adorn the town. In the
13th century Poan merchants founded there a colony, Portus
Pisanus, which, however, soon disappeared during the migra-
tions of the Mongob and Turks. An attempt to obtain pos-
session of the promontory was made by Peter the Great, but it
waa not definitely aimexed by the Russians until seventy 3rears
afterwards (1769). The oommexdal importance of the town
dates from the second half of the X9th century; in X870 its
population had risen to 38,000^ and after It was brought into
railway connexion with Kharkov and Voronesh, and thus with
the fertile provinces of south and south-east Russia, the hicreaae
was still more rapid, the number reaching 56,047 in 1885, and
58,928 in 1900 — Greeks, Jews, Armenians and West-Europeans
being important elements. The town was bombarded and in
part destroyed by an Aiaglo-French fleet in May X855. Taganrog
is an episcopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church, and has
tanneries, tallow works and tobacco manufactures. The road-
stead is very shallow, and exposed to wiiub which cause great
variations in the hei^ of the water; it is, moreover, rapklly
silting up. At the quay the depth of water is only g to 9 feet,
and large ships have to lie 5 to 13 miles from the town. More-
over, the port is closed by ice three to four months in the year.
Notwithstanding the disadvantages of iu open toudumud. the
foreign trade has rapidly expanded, the aoi-
exports having incressed from 6) millions !
over 10 millions sterling in 1904. The chi
being corn, the trade of the city is subject tc
Linseed and other oil-bearing grains art alsc
356
TAGES— TAHITI
of commerce, is wed is wool mm! butter. The imports, which
consist chiefl/ of machinery, fruits (dried and fresh), wine,
oil and textiles, do not much exceed half a milKon sterfing
annually.
TAGES (TSgis), a minor Etruscan deity, grandson of Jupiter,
and founder of the art of divination in Etruria. According to
the story, during the ploughing of a field near Tarquinii a being
of boyish appearance sprang out of the furrow. The shouts of
the ploughman (Tarchon) brought to the spot all the people
of Etruria, whom the boy proceeded to instruct in the art of
divination. Having done this, he suddenly disappeared. His
instructions were for some time handed down orally, but were
subsequently committed to writing, and formed the twelve books
of Tages, containing a complete system of Etruscan lore.
See Cicero. I?# Dn. ii. 23: Ovid, hfetam. xv. 553; Fcstus, s.v.;
Mommsen, HisL ef Sbnu (£ng. tr.), bk. L ch. la.
TAOUACOZZI, OASPARO (x54<^i599), Italian surgeon, was
bom at Bologna in 1546, and studied at that umversity under
Cardan, taking his degree In philosophy and medicine at the
age of twenty-four. He was app6inted professor of surgery and
afterwards of anatomy, and achieved notoriety at least, and the
fame of a wonder-worker. He died at Bologna on the 7th of
November 1599.
His princiDal work is entitled De Curtorum Chirurgia per Insitioncm
Libri Duo (Venice, 1597, fol.,; it was reprinted in tjie following
year under the title of Chirurtia Nopa de Narium, Anrium, Labior-
mmqu£ Defeetu per Ituitionem Cutis ex Humero, arte kacleiuu tmmbms
iffiola, uirciendo (Frankfort, 1598, 8vo).
TAOUAOOZZO, a town of the Abruxzi, Italy, hi the province
of Aquila, 56 m. by rail E.N.E. of Rome, and 10 m. W. of
Avezsano. Pop. (1901) 4517 (town); 9061 (commune). It
lies 2428 ft above sea-level, at the mouth of the deep ravine of
the Imele. It conuins several old churches, iratably S. Fran-
cesco, with a fine rose window in the facade, and medieval
houses. The palace, built at the end of the 14th century by
tbe Ofsini, is fine. The place was given to the Colonua family
in 1526. At the end of 1268 a battle took place here between
Conradin of UbbensUufen and Charles of Anjou, which itaulted
in the defeat of Conradin and his execution.
TAOUOKI, MARIA (1804-1884), Italian ballet dancer,
daughter of FHippo Taglioni (1777-1871), master of the ballet
at Stockholm, Cassel, Vienna and Warsaw, was bom at Stock-
holm on the 23rd of April 1804. She was traii>ed by her father,
who is said to have been pitilessly severe. It was to his care
and her own special talent for dancing that she owed her success,
for she possessed no remarkable personal attraction. Her first
appearance was at Vienna on the 10th of June 1822, in a ballet
of which her father was the author, La Rtuption (Tune jeune
nympke d ia comr tU Terpsichore. Her success was immediate,
and was repeated in the chief towns of Germany. On the 23rd
of July 1827 she made her Paris d^but at the Op^ra, in the
BaUetdcSkilien, and aroused a furore of enthusiasm. Among
her more remarkable periarmahces were the dancing of the
Tyrolienne in CuOlcmme Tdi, of the pas de fascinatioH in Meyer-
beer's RoUrt U DiabU, and in La PilU du Danube, At this
period the ballet was an important feature in opera, but with
her retirement in 1847 the era of grand ballets may be ^'d to
have doted. In 1S32 she married Ccmite Gilbert de Voiiins,
by whom, she had two children. Losing her savings in specula^
tion, she afterwards supported herself in London as a teacher
of deportment, especially in connexion with the ceremohy of
presentation at court. During the last. two years of her life
she lived with her son at Marseilles, where abe died on the 23rd
of April 1884. TagUoni is frequently mentioned in the. novels
of Balzac; and Thackeray, in TMe Ntwcomes^ says that the
young men of that epoch ** will never aee anything bo graceful
as Taglioni in La Sylphide.'*
TAOUS (Span. T^, Pbrtitg. Tijo), the longest river of the
Iberian Peninsula. Its length Is $65 m.. of wbidi 199 are on
or within the frxmlier of Portugal, and the irra of its basin is
about 31,850 sq. m. The buMi «MliiMralt«cly narrow, and
theTagus, like til
flows in a rather confined valley, often at the bottom of a rocky
gorge below the general level of the adjacent country. The
river rises on the westem slope of the Muela de San Juan (522$
ft.), a moimtain which forms part of the Sierra de Albarracin,
88 m. E. of Madrid. Thence the Tagus flows at first north-
westwards, but, after receiving the Gallo on the right, it flo^i
west, and then south-west or west-south-west, which is its
general direction for the rest of its course. Regular river
navigation begins only at Abrantes, a few nules below which
the Tagus is greatly widened by receiving on its right bank the
impetuous Zezere from the Serra da ^trella. Passing San-
tarem, the highest point to which the tide ascends, and the limit
of navigation for large sailing vessels and steamers, the river
divides below Salvaterra into two arms, caBed the Tejo Novo
(the only one practicable for ships) and the Mar de Pedro.
These branches enclose a deltaic formation, a low tract of
marshy alhivium known as the Lezirias, traversed by several
minor channels. Both branches terminate in a broad tidal
Jake immediately above Lisbon {q.v.). The Tagus estuary,
though partly blocked by a bar of sand, is one of the chief
harbours of south-western Europe.
The narrower part of the Tagus basin lies to the south, and
the left-band tributaries which drain it are almost all mere
brooks, dry in summer. The principal exception is the Zatas
or Sorraia, which, rising in the Serra dX)ssa, flows westwards
^crOss the plateau of Alemtejo, and joins the Mar de Pedro. The
principal right-hand tributaries, besides the Gallo and Zezere,
are the Jarama, descending from the tableland of New Castile
a little below Aranjuez, the Alberche and the Tietar, which
collect their head waters from opposite sides of the Sierra de
Credos, and the Alagon, from the rough and broken country
between the Sierras de Credos and GaU.
TAHITI, the largest and most important of the FVench
Society Islands (q.v.) In the Pacific Ocean, in 17* 38' S., 149*
30' W. Pop. about 10,300. The island, in shape not unlike
the figure 8, has* a length of 33 m., a coast-line of 120, and an
area of 402 sq. m. It is divided into two portions by a short
isthmus (Isthmus of Taravao) about a mile in width, and
nowhere more than 50 ft. above sea-level. The southern, the
peniosuU of Taiarapu, or Taluti-itl (Little Tahiti) measures
II m. ia length by 6 m. in breadth; while the northern, the
circular maia island of Porionuu, or Tahiti-uni (Great Tahiti),
has a length of 22 m. and a breadth of 30. The whole island
is mounuinous. A Uttle to the north-west of the centre of
Great Tahiti the double-peaked Orohena rises to 7349 ft., and
the neighbouring Aorai is only a little lower. Little Tahiti has
no such elevation, but its tower-like peaks are very striking.
The flat land of the Tahitlan coast, extending to a width of
several miles^with its chain of villages, its fertile gardens, and
its belt of palnM, sometimes intersected by stream-fed valleys
which open on the seashore — forms a most pleasing foreground
to the grand mountain ranges. A good road surrounds the
island, the extreme north of which is formed by Point Venus,
W. of which lie the Bay of Matavai and Papeete, the European
town and seat of government, on its beautiful harbour.
'CTtmale.— The seasons are not well defined. Damp is exoeasive;
there is little variation in the weather, which, though hoc, is never-
theless not depressing, and the climate for the tropics must be
cort^dercd remarkabty healthy. The cainfatl is largest between
December and April, but there is so much at other times of the
year also that these iMmths hardly deserve the name of the rainy
season. During this period nonh-wcst winds ace frequent, con-
tinuing at timet for weeks, and there are thunderstorms and hurri-
canes. These, while not Mnerally destructive, are sometimes so,
as notably the storm of the 13th of January 1903. During the
eight drier and cooier months south-east trade winds pMvaii. but
there are southeriy winds which bring rain* and even westerly
breezes arc not infreauent. The mean temperature for the year
on the coasts is 77* F. (maximum 84*, minimum 69*): and the
average ^infall from December to March (4 months) is 90 inches:
from April to November (8 months), 19 iftches.
foitMa.— Mammalst as in ocbtr Polynesian islands, are restrictea
to a few species of bats (mo«tly of the genus Fteropus), rat» and
roJce, none of thorn peculiar. (Dl domestic' animals* the pig and the
<k>g^-the former a small breed which qukkly disappeared before
TAHITX
357
tlw ftroneer European itiainf^-werfrplentiCul even ia\Vt'all|8*s ciayt.
The oniienotosy ts very poor as compared with that of the Western
f^dfic; the Society Imaads possess no peeuliar genera and but few
peculiar necies. They daim. however, a thmsh, neveral small
narrots oi great beauty, doves, pigeons, mils and a sandpiper
f Tnngd UucopUra). A juncle-fowl Cvar. of QaUui hankivay is found
Ml the mountains, but as dome^Icated fowls were abundant, even
when Tahiti mfas first dtseovcred by Europeans, these wild birds
are doabtlesa the ofTspoax of tanw birds. The lagooaa vwarm
with fbh of many species, insects are poor in species, though some
of than are indigenous. Crustaceans 'and molluscs, on the other
ly poorly. A i^eworthy feature of Tahitian conchobey
umoer of peculiar species belonging to the genus Parltaa,
rv«ry valley being the habitat of a distinct form.*
hand, are well r e pr e se nted; wonns,^ echinodennai and comls com-
paratively * . - .-,...
M the nun
almost e vw valley being the habitat of a distinct
flan.'-Thft flora, though hixuriant and greatly enhancing the
beauty of the islands, is not very rich, it n, however, less poor
in trees, shrubsand hardwood plants, than in the sroaUer under-
growth. Orchids, including some beautiful species, and ferns are
abundant; but, here as in Polynesia generally, Rubiaceae is the
order best represented. Remarkable are the banana thickets,
which fnnr at an altitude of fiom 3000 to 5000 ft. Along the
ibore— tn some places almost to the extinction of aU nativQ growth'
—many exotics have established themselves;. and a, peat variety
of fruit-bearing and other useful trees have been Introduced.*
ink&Hianls.— 'The Tafiitians are a typical Polynesian race,
dosdy connected physically with the Marquesans and Raro-
toDgans, but widely divided irom them in many of their customs.
The dialects, also, of the three groups are different, the Tahitinn
being poiiapB the softest in all Oceania. Tbe ^omen rank
with the most beautiful of the Pacific, though the accounts given
of tKem by early voyageis are much exaggezaled; and for
feaeral symmetry of form the people are unsurpassed by any
race in the world. Even now In its decadence, after generations
of drunkenness and European disease and vice, grafted on mbom
indolence and licentiousness, many tall and robust people (6 ft.
and even upwards in height) are to be found. Men and women
of good birth can generally be distfn|(ttisbed by their height
and faimess, and often, even id early age, by their enormous,
ooKpulcnce. The skin varies from a very Ught olive Xo a fuU dark
brown. The wavy or cutiy hair and the expressive eyes >aK
Mack, or neariy so; the mouth is large, but wdl-shaped knd set
with beautiful teeth; the nose broad (formerly flattened in
infancy by artificial means); and the chin well developed.
The native costume was an oblong piece of barfc-cloth with a hole
in its centre for the head, and a plain piece of cloth round the loins
was worn alike by men and women of the higher classes. Men of
an ranks wore, wrth or without these, the T bandage. The women
concealed their breasts except in the company ottheir superiors,
when etiquette demanded that inferiors of both sexes should uncover
the upper part of the body. The chiefs wore shott feather cloaks,
not unlike those of the Hawaiians, and beautiful semicircular breast-
plates, dexterously interwoven with the black plumage of the
rrigate bird, with crimson feathers and with sharks' teeth; also
most daborare special dresses as a sign of mourning. The priests
fcsd strange cylindrical hats, made of wicker-work and over a yard
in height. Cifcamcision.^and in both sexes tattooing, were generally
practised, and much significance was attached to some of the marks.
The houses were long, low, and open at the sides. Household
otensib were few— plain round wooden dishes, sometimes on legs,
coco-nut shells, baskets, &c. Low stools and head-rests were used.
Pottery heing unknown, all food was baked in a hole dug in the
froana or roosted over the fire. Their chief musical instruments
were the nose-flute — often Used as the accompaniment of song —
and tiie drum. Conch-shelU were also used. Tahitlan stone adzes,
which are greatly inferior in finlsAi to those of the Hervey Islands,
are, tike the adzes of Polynesia in general, distinguished from those
of Melanesia by their triangular scaion and adaptation to a socket.
Slings were favourite weapons of the Tahitians; they had also
plain ^»ean expanding into a wide blade, and chibs. The bow and
arrow seem only to have been used in certain ceremonial games.
Their canoes, from 30 to 70 ft. in length, were double or single, and
provided with sail and outriggers. They were not well finished,
but the high curved stems, nsing sometimes to a height of 20 ft.,
of those destined to carry the images of their gods, were carved with
strange figures and hung with feathers. Cannibalism is unknown,
tfiougn some ceremonies which were performed in connexion with
human sacrifices may possibly be survivals of this practice. The
staple food of the islandeis consisted of the bread-fruit, the taro-
loot, the yam. the sweet pouto, and in some districts the wikl
-■ FiRsdi and Hartlaub, Fauna Central-Pelynesiem, Halle, 1867.
• De CudOo, lUttstmH^nes Phrae InsutamM Maris Pactfici,
EMis,CW&
plantaint but they also ate much fish (the turtle was cof
sacred food), as welt as pigs and dogs, though of the latter,
the women were so fond as to suckle the puppies sometim
considered
as pets,
puppies sometimes even
to the exclusbn of their own chikiren.
Tahitians were good fishermen and bold seamen. They steered
by the stars, of which they distii^uished many constellations.
The land was carefully tended and the fields well irrigated. Three
great classes were recognized:— (l) The sovereign, who bore a semi-
sacied as well as a political character, and the reigning chiefs of
districts; (2) the proprietors and cukivators of inhente«lland, who
also built canoes, made arms, &c. ; to these two classes also belonged
the [wiests. who were medicine-men as well; (3) the fishers, artisans.
&c., and slaves. As ware and infanticide depopulated the island
this class gradually acauired land and with it certain privileges.
Rank is hereditary and determined by primogeniture, not necessarily
in the male line. The firstborn of a sovereign succeeded at once
to titular sovereignty: the father, who was the first to pay homage
to hb child, then abdicated, and became regent. It b easy to iwe
that, while thb custom tended to keep honours within a family,
it may have encouraged the practice of infanticide, which was
common in all grades of society when Tahiti was first vbited hy
Europeans. The age at which the child's authority became real
varied according to his own abilities and the will of his subjects.
Though arbitrary, the power of the king was limited by the power
of hb vassals, the district chiefs, who ruled absolutely over their
respective districts, and who might be of as good blood as himself.
The king had a councillor, but was atone responsible for any act.
The fai-insular form of Tahiti promoted the indeoendence of the
chiefs, and war was rarely declared without their being first sum-
moned to ooundl. Their power over their own people was absolute.
The form of government was thus strictly feudal in character, Iwt
it gradually centralised into a monarchy, which, in the pcison of
Pomare LI., the English missionaries greatly helped to regulate and
strengthen. The sovereign sent his commands by a messenger,
whose credentUb were a tuft of coco-nut film. This tuft was
returned intact as a sign of assent or torn in teken of refusal.
The xtxttfAoi fttn square tr ec' s urr o unded enclosures, with a
single entrance and several small courts, within which were houses
for the images and attendant priests. K pyramidql stone structure,
on which were the actual altars, stood at the further end of the
square. In the temples were buried the diiefs, whose embalmed
bodies, after being exposed for a time, were imerred in a crouching
position. Their dculls, howeverr were kept in the houses of thrh
nearest rebtlons. In the great temple at Atahura the stone
structure was 370 (t. long. 94 ft. wide, and ^ ft. high, and its summit
was reached by a flight of steps built of hewn coral and basalt.
Sacrificial offenngs, including human sacrifices, formed a prominent
part of Tahitian worship. An eye of the victim was offered to the
king, and placed within hb mouth by the officiating priest. Every
household possessed its own guardian spirits, but there were several
superior divinities, of which, at the beginning of the 19th century,
Ore was the most venerated. The imag^ which are leas remarkable
than those of Hawaii, were RNigh representations of the human form
carved in wood. The Areoi^ a licentious religious association, was a
special feature of Tahitian society.
The Tahitians arelight-hearteci, frivolous, courteous and generous,
but deceitful and cruel. They were always notorious for their
immorality, one of their customs being a systematized encharige of
wives. Besides danciw. the singing of songs, and the recitation
of historical and mythical ballads, the natives had sIm) a variety
of sports and games. Wrestling, boxing, and spcar-lhrowlng
matches, with foot and canoe races, were held; also sham fights
and naval reviews They had several ball games— one (played
chiefly by women), a kind of football; but suri-swimming was
perhaps the favountp sport, and cock-fighting was much practised.
Products, Trade, Administration. — Papeete, as the emporium for
a widely scattered archipelago (includmg Paumotu, &c.),has an
export trade in mother^n-peari, pearb (mainly from the raumotu
islands), orenges, trepang (for China), copra and vanilla. Many
whalers formerly vbited Papeete harbour. During the American
Civil War, in the middle of the igtlucentury. Tahitian cotton was
put upon the European market, but itS cultivation had ceased by
1864, and it has been little grown since. This is also true of coffee
and tobacco, among other crops which have been tried. Sugar pnd
rum are also produced.
The importation of " labour,*' chiefly for the plantations, frort^
other Polynesbn islands was placed under government control in
1863. The Tahitians tbemselvea.pcefer handicrafts to agricnkucd
work, and many are employed as artisans by European masters.
The total value of exports was £140,323 and of imports £127,600
In 1904. Papeete is the seat of government. The French establish-
ments in the Eastern Pacific are administered by' a governor, a
privy cQvncil, and a council induing the maire ofc H ai iJ i iM and the
presidents of the chambers of commerce and J''
History. — The discovery and early exp^
Islands is treated under that heading. In
Bligh in the " Bounty " visited Tahiti,
Pomare, whose family had been pre-emi
358
TAHR— TAILLE
more than t centuiy. Aided by sLcteen of the " Bounty "
mutineers, and armed with guns procured from Bligh and a
Swedish vessel, Pomare greatly strengthened his power and
brought to a successful close a long struggle with E^eo.
The attempt at colonlaation by the Spaniards in 1774 was
followed by the settlement of thirty persons brou^t in
1797 by the missionary ship "Dufit." Though befriended by
Pomare I. (who lived till 1805), they had many difficulties,
especially from the constant wars, and at length they fled with
Pomare II. to Eimeo and ultimately to New South Wales,
returning in xSia, when Pomare renounced heathenism. In
181S he regained his power in Tahiti. For a time the mis-
sionaries made good progress-^a printing press was established
(18x7), and coffee, cotton and sugar were planted (1819); but
soon there came a serious relapse into heathen practices and
immorality. Pomare II. died of drink in 1824. His successor,
Pomare IIL, died in 1827, and was succeeded by his half-sister
Aimata, the unfortunate *' Queen Pomare (IV.)." Ir 1828 a
new fanatical sect, the "Mamaia," arose, wUch gave much
trouble to the missions. The leader proclaimed that he was
Jesus Christ, and promised to his followers a sensual paradise.
In 1836 the French Catholic missionaries in Mangareva attempted
to open a mission in Tahiti. Queen Pomare, advised by the
English missionary and consul Pritchard, refused her consent,
and removed by force two priests who had landed surreptitiously
and to whom many of the opposition party in the state had
rallied. In 1838 a French frigate appeared, under the command
of Abel Dupetit-Thouars, and extorted from Pomare the right
of settlement for Frenchmen of every profession. Pritchard
opposed this, and caused Pomare to apply for British protec-
tion; but this was a failing, and the native chiefs compelled the
queen, against her will, to turn to France. A convention was
signed in 1843, placing the islands under French protection, the
authority of the queen and chiefs being expressly reserved.
Dupetit-Thouars now reappeared, and, alleging that the treaty
had not been duly carried out, deposed the queen and took
possession of the islands. His high-handed action was not
countenanced by the French government; but while, on formal
protest being made from England, it professed not to sanction
the annexation, it did not retrace the steps taken. Two years
were spent in reducing the party in the islands opposed to French
rule; an attempt to conquer the western islands failed; and
at length, by agreement with England, France promised to
return to the plan of a protectorate and leave the western
islands to their rightful owners. Pomare died in 1877, and her
■on Ariane (Pomare V.) abdicated in z88o, handing over the
administration to France, and in the same year Tahiti, in-
cluding Eimeo, was proclaimed a French colony. In ZQ03 the
whole of the French establishments in the Eastern Pacific were
declared one colony, and the then existing elective general
ooundl was superseded by the present administration.
Besides the narratives of earty voyages, and ccncral works covering
the Society Islands (for which see Pacific), we Vincendon-Dumoulin,
Zm Iks Takitu esquisus kuUniqius ei gfoirapkiques, Paris, 1844;
A. Gonfil, "Tahiti," in La Fronet coloniaU, Paris, 1886; H. Le
Charticr, Tahiti, Paris. 1887; Monchoisy, La NouvtU* Cytkire,
Paris, 1888; G. Colliogridge, Who discovered Tahiti? " in Joum.
Pe^ynesian Soe., xit., 1^3. Among the narrative works of visitors
to Tahiti may be mentioned Pierre Loti, Le Marian di Loti, Paris,
1881 ; Dora Hort, Tahiti: tkt Catdm cf lh$ Pacific^ London, 1891.
TAHR, the native name of a shaggy-haired brown Himalayan
wild goat characterized by its short, triangular and sharply
keeled horns. Under the name of Bemitragus jemlaicuSf it
typifies a genus in which aro included the wariatu, or Nilgiri
ibex {H, hytcerims), from the Nilgiri and Anamala! hOls of
Southern India, and a small species, ff. jayakeri, from South
Arabia. Tahr frequent the worst ground of almost all ruminants*
: TAILUNDIBR, lAINT-RBIli (18x7-1879), French critic,
whose original name was Ren£ Gaspard Ernest TaiUandier, was
bom in Paris on the i6th of December 18x7. He completed his
studies at Heidelberg, f-^ '^- ^ - professor of literature,
successively at Strasr d the Sorbonne, where
he was nominated h eloquence in x86ft.
Most of the articles included in his published vdumes £ist ap*
pcaiediMithitJ{etued*sd€Mxmondes, In January 1870 he became
general secretary of the ministry of education, and continued
in this office after the fall of the Empiro. He became officer of
the Legion of Honour in 1870, and was elected to the Academy
in X873. He died in Paris on the 22nd of February 1879.
His works include >—/i/emafM H Russiet itades ktsiorifms €t
liUhains (i8«6). U Poik dm, Camease . . . Miekd Lmmmtcf
(1856), Mannee de Saxe (a vols. 1865), TcMgMM et Magyars (X869),
UChinlPkiUppadaStiiit'ii^n)*
TAILLB (from Fr. taHkr, to cut or divide; late Lat to/iore,
said to come from tatia, talea), the equivalent of the Eogliab
taUag/s (9.0.), was in France the typical direct tax of the mickile
ages, just aa the word tofdUu was the genetic term f6r an
indirea tax. Other words used in certain districts in the
same sense as taUU were (puste {qvesta, quista)Jouait Qaragium\
cote. The essence of the tax denoted by these names was that
the amount was fixed en bloc for a whole group of persons, and
afterwards divided among them In various ways. In ancient
French law we find three forms of taitte: the taitte servUe, tatUe
seiineufiate, and laiUeroyale.
,The lailU aenile can acarcdy be termed a tax; it was nAer a
tax which had degenerated into a sousoe of profit for certain in-
dividuals. Every lord who poasessed serfs could levy the faille 00
them, and originally this was done arbitrarily (a volontf) both as to
frequency and amount. It always remained a chaFactcnstIc feature
of seridom, but was limited and fixed, either by contiacta or coft*
cessions from the lord itailU abemiie), or by the customs.
The taiile seigneuriaU was a true tax, levied by a lord on all his
subjects who were neither nobles nor ecclesiastics. But, in our
opinion, when feudalism waaesubiiAed, the right of levying k did
not bekmg to every lord, but only to the lord having the hmula
justice. But he levied it by right, without the oeceastty for any
contract between him and those who paid it. He fixed the sum to
be paid by each group of inhabitants, who then had to see that It
was aasepaed. coUoctod, and paid to the lord, dectiag oomtniesarica
(preud kommes) from among themsdves for this purpose. Thta
was reducing the administration of taxation to its simplest form.
Custom, however, or an order of the lord generally fixed the principle
upon which the division was made. It was often a " hearth tax '*
{fouage), when each fire, ue. eadi'bead of a family, paid the same
sum. arrived at fay dividing the local coatingtnt of the lailk by the
number of fires. But this equality, which took no account of weami
or poverty, was felt to be unjust, and the assessment began to be
made accordirts to the resources of each family, " the strong beering
the weak, and the weak relieving the strong." The seigniorial
laille* like the servile, had the character of a personal tax (failU
persondie), a rudimentary tax on income, every roan being taxed
according to his wages or other income. The king originally had
only the right of levying the taiile in places where ne had reuined
the exerdse of the haute justice. At that time there was no royal
laille, strictly speaking; it was only the seigniorial taiile transferred
to the crown, but it was one of the first taxes his right to levy which
upon all the inhabitants of the domain of the crown, whether serfs
or roturiers, was recognixod. In the course of the i^th century the
idea began to prevail that it was fair for the king, m time of war,
to levy a taiile upon the subjectt of the lords having the haute
justiu in various parts of the loyal domain. Moreover, lailles were
often granted him by the provmdal estates or the states-general.
Thus the general taiile, raised for the benefit of the king, oecante
more and more frequent, and naturally tended to become permanent.
This transformation was confirmed, rather than effected, by the
ordoHna$ue of 1439. Its inunediate object was, not the regulatioii
of the taiile, but the organization of the companies terdonnance.
i.e, the heavy cavalry which the king from that time on maintained
on a permanent footing. Militaiy expenses thus becoming per-
manent, it was natural that the tatUe, the tax which had long been
devoted to meeting the expenses of the royal wars, should also
become permanent. Thb was contained implicitly in the ordonttanu
of 1439, which at the same time suppressed the seigniorial taiile,
as competing too closely with the royal laUle hy imposing a double
burden on the taxpayer. A kind of seigniorial laUle continued
to exist besides the servile taUle, but this kind presupposed a titles
a contract between the taxable roturier and the lord, or dae im-.
memorial possession, which amounted to a title.
The royal taiile naturally retained the distinctive characteristics
of the seigniorial, as can be seen from an examination of the way^ in
which It was assessed and collected ; the chief characteristic bang
that ecclesiastics and nobles, who were exempt from the seigniorial
taiile, were also exempt from the royal. The royal laille, though
levied by the king by right, did not fall upon the whole Idngdom.
•"* "'. - ...... f!^ pays d*itatt wtrc tkot tetct
The pays d'Oectious were subject to it, t
FxANce: Law and iHStitutiane).
Throughout the pays d'tiectians the i
Throughout the pays d'tiealons the tatOe was almost univcrsaliy
personal {taUle personuelle), «.c. a tax on the whole income of the
TAILLEFJER—TAILOR
359
twiiijfif. vtetMBfiti «oiipM.^^It WM alio a diitributofy tax
(mSS ds ftpartiiion) \ every year the Idng in hlf council fixed the
total sum which the taitU was to produce in the following year;
he drew up and aipied the AreMi it la Imilk (warrant), and the ooik
tiibation of tl» ladividiial taxpayer waa arrived at in the laat
aaatyaia by a tcTMa of sttbdiviaioaa.
The fMMil iM r&i &«t divided the total aum among the varioaa
thiiraMts (the hinier financial divisions), again dividing the amount
doe from each ttniraliU among the iUctions of which it was com-
posed. Then the Hut in each Stetian divided the oontribution
doe Icoai it aaoBg the pariihei. The final dividoa took place
in the parish or community, among the inhab#tanta subject to
the tax. So far the system remained the same as that of the old
•rigniorial taitte. The assessment and coUection of it were the
buameaa of the eommunity: the crown, in nriadple, had nothing
to do witk them ami did not bear the coat of a local ariminjerratioo
ler the pwpoaa. The coouniuuty had to produce iu contingent
of the IsaUe. In prindole it was even held to be the debtor for the
amount; hence the inhabitants were jointly rempniible, a sute
of affair* whidi was not suppreaaed till the time of Tuigot, and even
The iahabtanta aobf ect to the lailU, suflamoned to a general
assembly by the syndic, elected commiamrics for the assessment
(Asseeurs) and coflection (eotUctcurs) of the tax from among them-
selves. Oripnaliy two series were elected, both asaesaors and
ta. But from 1600 oowardathe same persona fulfilled both
I. the oagecc being, by living the amemors the duty of
[the tax, to lead to a juster and more conscientious asscsa-
nt. The system appeared to be admirable, forming in thb
respect a lond of sen-government, but in practice it was frequently
oppreaaive for the taxpayers. The assessors estinuted the indivi-
daal inoDaea arbitnariiy. village quantls and rivalrica leading them
to overcharge some and under-charn others, and complaints were
aomberlcaa on this point. Control should no doubt have been exer-
cised by the Hus, but they do not seem to have taken this part
ef their doties very aeriously. Ptmneot was rigoronaly enforced,
and thoB lor a variety of reaaooa the laUk was a burdensome and
hated tax. It had still further vices: not only were nobles and
CTfliiBa stirs exempt from it. but many other privileges had been
iatroduoed bv law. total or partial exemption extending to a large
■aartier ef civil and military oiBciala aixi tmphyis oi the crown
ontha/crssriiliilra^ The toams in general were not subiect to it,
at leact directly; aome had been exempt from time immemorial,
others (rfditmies) had purchased exemption for a aum of money,
yet others (abonnies) lud compounded for the tax, s^. instead of
paying the latZb they paid into the royal treasury a aum fined fay
eoainsct, which they generally ruaed by aclrssr. or emranoedaea.
Such wna the admhustiation of the laOU until about the middle
of the inh century, after which time, although the broad lines
remained the same, important reforms were introduced. They
came princioally from the provincial itUmdamtt, or from the totirt
4a madat, which wen animated by a liberal apirit. The tnlmdanff.
by an earrnise ef their'teaaral or special powers, took the place of
the Mum, and dd^ated rMnaiuwtVci aicr tailUs (commissaries of
the ImKt) for the assessment of the parishes, who guided and super-
vised the elected collcctora — -lor th e mostput ig noran t andpartial
peasBBta* Tney also endeavoured to dulmguiah between dmerent
bad* of iaooaaek in order to arrive ata mora just estimate of the
total income, and fixed by tariff the proportion in which each kind
of ittoome was to contribute. They sometimes settled officially
and of their own authority the share of certain taxpayervi and,
though tibk was sometimea done aa a favour, it was often a mcaaure
el juatiee. They also tried to limit the aoope of privilegea. Theae
etfoffts were inspired by a aeries of adentific studies and criticisms,
chief among which were Vauban's DUiu royaU, and the Tailk tarifU
ef the AbW de St. Pierre.
To certain districta the MU was real (lailU reeOt) f.#. a tax 00
teal property. It was not an equal tax falling on aU laadcwncn,
but the question aa to whether a oertain esuie was to be taxed or
nx was decided aooording to the quality of the property, and not
that of the owner. 'ThtbunsM0bUs{fiifs)uhdtht6iinsectUsiAstiques
were exempt ; tenures rohifurts, however, by whomsoever held, were
taxed. A small part of the pays i'&utions was also tays de taiU§
ftd*. Bat it was the chief form of tax in the fays dVtals, and even
thertf aa attempt had jgencrally been made to check the exemption
of nobles' property. It has been shown that in these districts the
laSle Lad cxrigmalfy been personal, having become real by a curious
In t" --•--...
tMse ifistricta there were sadmstm, or compoix'
Mwriers Oand r eg ist er s ), whldi allowed <»f a non-arbitxaiy assessment;
and at the end of the cnoea rfgsmr merely needed revision.
In oartam provinoea where the royal taiOe was levied there were
aeitlKT UscUoiu aor iJhUralUis, and the whole administration of
the tax waa in the hands of the haeniants. These were the provinces
ef the cast end north, which were united to the croun at a period
when the power of the talmdentr waa already fully developed;
they were enmrrimri known as p€ys d'imposiium.
See FaAMCV: Law and InstUutwns; Henri Ste, Les Clasus
rwaUs €i Iff rfainu domanial en France au Moyen af» (Pkris. 1901); \
and Auger, Cade des laiUes (Paris, 1788). 0- P' £•) '
TAIXtfnB, the fMmame of a baid and warrior of the
I xth century, whoae exact name and pbce of birth are unknown.
He accompanied the Norman army to Englaad in 1066^ and
obtained peimisaion from William to strike the first blow, at
the battle of Hastings. He fought with spirit and determine
lion, and «u killed in the battle. Mention of TaiUefer is made
by Guido, bishop of Amiens, in his Carmen de beUa HasUngfinsi,
^' 9SX-44 (m Jf 09. Hist, Brit., 1&48) and .by Heniy of Huntingdon
in his Hitlaria An^ansm (in Ber» Brit, med, aeai script., p. 763,
ed. AfBoId, liondon, xS79)i uui hi* prowess is depicted on the
Baycux tapestiy. the statement of Wace in the Raman ds
Raitt 3nl part, v. 8035-62, ed. Andresen (Heilbronn, 1879), that
TaiUefer went before the Norman army singing of Charlemagne
and of Roland and the vassals who died at Roncevaux, has
been consklered important in demonstrating the existence of
a comparatively early tradition and song of Roland.
See W, Spats, Die ScUaekt «sn Hast^gs CBerlin. 1896) ; Freeman.
Bistarj^tke Herman OmqnesL
TAILOR (Fr. laJUfur, from taiUer, to cut, Lat. talea, a thin
rod, a cutting for planting), one who cuts out and makes dothei.
Formerly the tailor, or eissar, made appaid for both men and
women, and not merely outer garments, but also artides of linen
and the podding and lining of armoui^-whcaice the style " Taylors
and Linen Armouren " applied to the Merchant Taylon Com-
pany of the City of London in their earliest charters. But the
word is now 0nenl]y limited to those who make the outer
(doth) gatmenta for men, and less frequently for women, though
a pfanse such as ** shirt-tailor " is occasionally met with. In
modem usage, too, it commonly has the impUcatioo that the
garments are made to the order, and to the measure, of the
individual puiiphsser, as opposed to ready-made dothiqg, whidi
means artides of apparel maauteaured in large quantities in a
series of stock or standard sizes, such that any purchaser may
expect to iiad among them one that irill fit him with moie or
less accuracy. The dothing trade was originally confined to
goods of the poorest grades, but it has come, especially in
Ameiioa, to indude aitides of good, though not of the first,
quality. It probably fiiBt csme into existe&ce at seaport townsr
iriiere, to meet the convenience of sallon retuxning from long
voyages and requiring their wardrobes to be replenished at
short notice, the "outfitters", kept stocks of ready-made
garments on sale; but it made no considerable progress until
after the middle of the 19th century, when the introduction of
the sewing-machine brought about the possibility of manu-
facturing in large quantities. Its development was attended
with gradually increasing subdivision of labour and, to a large
extent, with the disappeannoe of the tailor as a skilled craftsman*
The first step waa for a garment, such as a coat, to be com-
pleted by the joint efforts of a famfly. Then followed the " task
system," which in America was the result of the influx of
Russian Jews that began about x87S. Under it a team of three
men, with a " presser " and a gbl to sew on the buttons, divided
the work between them. Payment was made by the " task,"
ijt. a specified number of garments, the money being divided
between the members of the team in certain proportions. Often
several teams would be run by a contractor, who naturally
selected the cheapest workshops he could find and packed them
as full of workers as poosible; and when through stress of com-
petition he had to accept lower prices the plan he adopted was
to increase the number of garments to a task, leaving the pay
unaltered. The result was the introduction of many of the
worst features of the " sweating system," the workers having to
work excessively long hours in order to finish the task, which
in some oases meant as many as twenty coats a day. In the
" factory " or *' Boston " aystem the subdivision is still more
nunute, and as many as one hundred persons may be concerned
in the production of one coat. The amount of taik>ring skill
required in a worker is even further reduced, but the ptcmiset
come under the regulation of the factory laws,
system has also cheapened production in a li
because it has enabled mechanical power for
machines, and ako expensive labour-saving m
36o
TAIN— TAINE
iiAroduced to an extent not economically pos^e In sfnall
diops.
TAIK. a royal and police burgh of the county of Ross and
Cromarty, Scotland. Pop. (1901) J076. It is situated on
rising ground within a mile of the southern shore of Dornoch
Firth. 25} m. N.E. of Dingwall by the Highland Railway. The
name, of which the Tene, Tayne and Thane are older forms. U
derived from the Icelandic Iking, "assembly" or "court."
Among the principal buildings arc the town hall, court house,
public hall, Easter Ross combination poorfaonse, and the
academy (opened in 1B12). The Industrie indudc distiHiog,
the making of aerated waters, and woollen manufactures, and
the town is important as a market and distributing centre.
The rainfall is one* of the lowest in the kingdom. Duthoc
(locally called Duthus), a saint of the nth century, is believed to
have been a native, and the old ruined chapel near the station
is supposed to have been his shrine. To the coUegiate church
of St Duthus, a Decorated building, founded by James III. in
r'47i, James IV. made several pilgrimages In penance for his
father's death. The building was used as the parish church till
1815, when it fell into disrepair, but it was restored between
X871 and 1876. It has monuments to Patrick Hamilton, the
martyr, and Thomas Hog (1628-1692), the Scottish divine, for
some time a prisoner on the Bass. Three and a half miles
S.E. are the remains of the Eariy English abbey of Feam,
founded at Edderton in 1230 by Farquhar, ist eari of Roes,
atid transferred hither in 1338. The chancel, nave and two side
chapels exist, and it still serves as the parish church. Patrick
Hamilton became titular abbot in 15x7, and after his martyr-
dom the abbey was added to the bishopric of Ross.
TAINB, HIPPOLYTB ADOLPHB (1828-1893), French criUc
and historian, the son of Jean Baptiste Taine, an attorney, was
bom at Vouziers on the 21st of April 1828. He remained with
his father until his eleventh year, receiving instruction from him,
and attendhig at the same time a small school which was under
the direction of M. Pieison. In 18^59, owing to the serious illness
of hfe father, he was sent to an ecclesiastical pension at Rethel,
where he remained eighteen months. J. B, Taine died on the
fth of September 1840, k^ving a moderate competence to has
widow, his two daughters, and his son. In the spring of 184 1
Tahie was sent to Paris, and entered as a boarder at the Institu«
tion Math6, where the pupils attended the classes of the ColL^e
Bourbon: Madame Taine followed her son to Paris. Taine
was not slow to distinguish himself at schooL . When he was
but fourteen years old he had already drawn up a systematic
scheme of study, from which be never deviated. Ht allowed
himself twenty minutes' phiytime in the afternoon and an hour's
mttsie after dinner; Ih^sTcst of the day was spent in work. In 1S4.7,
as filiran 4e rfiHorique, he carried off six first prizes in the general
competition, the prize of honour^ and three accessits; be won
all the first school prizes, the three science prices, as well as two
prizes for dissertation. It was at the Coll^ Bourbon that he
formed lifelong friendships with several df his schoolfellows
who afteru'ards were to exercise a lasting influence upon him:
among these were Pr^ost-Paradol, for many years his most
intimate friend; Planat, the future " Marcelin " of the Vic
Parisienw; and Com^lis de Witt, who introdnced him to Guiaot
when the latter returned from England in 1846.
Public education was the career which seemed to lie open to
Taine after his remarkable school successes. In 1848 he ac-
cordingly took both his baccalauriat degrees, in science and
letters, and passed first faato the £cole Noimale; among his
rivals, who passed in at the same time, weTe About, Suoey,
Libert, and Sockau. Among thoae of Taine's feliovr-siudents
who afterwards made a name in teaching, letters^ journalism,
the theatre and politics, ite^ were ChaUemeULaceur^ CKaasangi
Aub6, Perraud, Ferry, Wei«, Yuiig« Gndier^ <ilB6ud« Provost-
Paradol and I "^ ' "' ' '^
them at once;
butbyhisind
industry, but I
ILS well as in pf
the Church, and he analysed and datsffied all that he read. Be
already knew English, and set himself to master German in
order to read Hegel in the original. His brief leisure was
devoted to music The teachers of his second and third years^
Deschanel, G^ruzez, Berger, Havet, Filon, Saisset and Simon,
were unanimous in praising the nobility of his character, tbe
vigour and the fertility of his intellect, the distinction of style
with which his work was always stamped; they were equally
unanimous in finding fault with his unmeasured taste for classi-
fication, abstraction and formula. The director of studies,
M. Vacherot, gauged his capacity at the end of his second year
with prophetic insight. He prophesied that Taine would be a
great savant, adding that he was sot of this world, snd that
Spinoza's motto, " Vivre pour penser," would also be his. In
the month of August 1851 he came forward as a candidate for
tJbe fellowship in philosophy {agrigaiiou de philosophic) in com*
pany with his friends Suckau and Cambier. Taine was declared
to be admissible, together with five other candidates; but in
the end only two candidates were admitted, his friend Suckau
and Aub6. This decision created almost a scandal. Taine's
reputation had already spread beyond the college. Everybody
had taken for granted that he would be admitted first. The fact
was that his examiners sincerely considered his ideas to be
absurd, his style and method of handling a subject dry and
tiresome.
The Minister of Public Instruction, however, Judged Taine
less severely, and appointed him provisionally to the chair of
philosophy at the coUegc of Toulon on 6lh October 1851; but
he never entered upon his duties, as he did not wish to be so
far from his mother, and on t3th October he was transferred
to Nevers as a substitute. Two months later, on the 27th
December, occurred the coup d'ilal^ after which every university
professor was regarded with suspicion; many were suspended,
others resigned. In Tune's opinion it was the duty of every
man, after the plebiscite of the loth December, to accept the
i>ew state of affairs ja silence; but the universities were not
only asked for their submissioni but also for their approbation.
At Nevers they were requested to sign a declaration expressing
their gratitude towards the President of the Republic for the
measures he had taken. Taine was the only one to refuse his
endoraemenL He was.at once marked down as a revolutionary,
and in spite of his success as a teacher and of his popularity
among his pupils, he was transferred on 99th March 1859 to the
lyc^e of Poitiers as professor of rhetoric, with a sharp warning
to be careful for the future. Here, in spite of an abject com-
pliance with the stringeat rules imposed upon him, he remained
in disfavour, and on 2Sth September 1852 he was appointed
assistant professor of the sixth class at the 1yc£e of Bcsangon.
This time he could bear it no longer, and he applied for leave,
which was readily granted him on 9th October 1852, and renewed
every year till his decennial appointment came to an end. It
was in this painful year, during uhich Taine worked harder than
ever, that the fellowship of philosophy was abolished. As soon
as Taine heard of this he at once began, to prepare himself for
the fellowship in letters, and to work hard at Latin and Greek
themes. On loth April' 1852 a decree was published by which
three years of preliminary study were necessary before a candi-
date could <x>mpete Cor tJie fellowship, but by which a doctor's
degree in letteri counted as two years. Taine immediately
set to work at his dissertations for the doctor's degree; on the
8th June (1852) they were finished, and 150 pages of French
prose on the Sensations and a Latin essay were sent to Paris.
On the X 5th July he was informed that the tendency of his Essay
on the Sensations made it impossible for the Sorbonne to accept
it, so for the moment he laid this work aside, and on ist Aug^
he began an essay on La Fontaine. He then started for Paris,
where an appointment which was equivalent to a suspension
" * him.' His imivecsity career was over, and he was
to devote himself to letters as a profession. In a few
his two dissertations, De personis Platonicis aikd the
D La Fontaine's fables were finished, and on 30th May
I took his doctor's degree. This was the last act of his
TAtNE
361
uBivcKtty cftner; hb life as a man of- letter* was now to
'■ No sooner had he deposited his dicsertatioDS at the Sdrbonne
than he began to write an essay on Livy for one of the com-
petitions set by the Academy. Here again the moral tendency
of his work excited lively opposition, and after mttch discussiota
the competition was postponed till iSss; Tklne toned down
some of the censured passages, and the woik was crowned by
the Academy in 1855. The essay on Livy was published in
1856 with the addition of a preface setting forth deteraiinist
doctrines, much to the disgust of the Academy. In the beginning
of z8s4 Taine, after six years of uninterrupted efforts, broke
down aod was obliged to rest: but he found a way of utilising
his enforced leisure; he let himself be read to, and for the first
time his attention was attracted to the French Revolution; he
acquired also a knowledge of physiology in following a course
of medidne. In tBs4 he was ordered for his health to the
Pyrenees, and Hachette, the publisher, asked, him to write a
guide-book of the Pyrenees. Thtne's book was a collection
of vivid descriptions of nature, historical anecdotes, graphic
sketches, satiriol notes on the society which frequents watering-
places, and underlying the whole book was a vein Of stem
pkifesoE^y; it was published in 1S55. _
The year 1854 was an Important one in the life of Tkine.
His enforced leisure, the necessity of mixing with his feUow-
men, and of travelling, tore him from his cloistered existence and
brought him into more direct contact with reality. His method
of expounding lAihsophy underwent a change. Instead of
employing the method of deduction, of starting with the most
abstract idea and following it step by step to its concrete realixa-
tion, henceforward he starts from the concrete reality and pro-
ceeds through a succession of facts until he arrives at the central
idea. His style also became vivid and full of colour; he shows
that he is acutely sensible to the outward manifestations of
things and depicts them In all their relief. Simultaneously with
tlas change in his works his life became less sdf-oentred and
aalitaiy. He -lived with his mother in the Isle Saint-Jxyuis, and
BOW be once more associated with his old friends, Planat, Prf^
vust-Paradol and About. He made the acquaintance of Renan;
sod through Renan that of Saiate-Beuve, and he renewed
friendly relations with M* Havet, who for three months had
been his teacher at the £cole Nermale. These years (1855-56)
were Taine^ periods of greatest activity and happiness in pro-
duction. On ist February 1855 he published an article on La
Brayerc in the Rmue'de tlnsXruOion PiMupu^ In the came
year he published 'seventeen articles in this review and twenty
in 1856 OH' the most diverse subjects, ranging from Menander
to Mocanlay. On ist August 1855 he published a short article
in the Remte its Deux Mondes on Jean Reynaud. On 3rd
Jvfy i8s6 appeared his first article in the Dibats on Saint-^imon,
aod from 1857 onwaids he was a constant contributor to that
jsaniaL But he was seeking a larger fieki. On 17th January
1856 his history of English literature was announced, and from
r4th January 1855 to 9th October 1856 he published in the
Renu d€ VlnOmcUan PtMique a series of articles on tha French
philoaophera of the 19th century, which appeared In a volume
at the beginning of 1857. In this volume he energetically
attacked the principles which underlie the philosophy of Vktor
Coosiftaad hk school with an irony which amounts at times to
inevereace. The boc^ cfases with the sketch of a system in
which the methods of the exact sciences are applied to psycho-
Isgkal aad metaphysical feseaich. The work itself met with
iastaatsneous success, and Taine became fitmous. Up till thai
moment the only iagpoctaat articles on his work were an article
fay About on the Voyage aux Pyrhua} and two artklcs by
Gsdsot <m his L«sy.* After the publication of Lu FkihMpktM
Frumfois, the articles of Sainte-Beuve in the Momieitr <Qth and
i6th Maxch i856>, of Shcrer* in the Bibliatkkpu UmttrtdU
(1858), aad of Planche in the Rgfue da Deux Mtnia (xst April
« Revue de Tlnstruclion Pubtique, 20th May 1856.
• DibaU, a6th and 27th January 1857.
• Reprinted la M4lMgis d4 Cntique RdSgtMm,
i8sy) sliow that from th^ moment he had taken a place in the
front rank of the new generation of men of letters. Caro
published an attack on Taine and Renan, called " LTd6e de
Dieu dans une Jeune ficole,"' in the Rente Contemp^aine of
X5th June 1857. Taine answered all attacks by publishing new
books. In 1858 appeared a volume of ^sAis de Critique et
d^HisUmre; in r86o La Fontaine el ses Fables, and a second
edition of his Pkilosophes Fran^ais, During all this time he
was persevering at his hbtory of English literature up to the
time of Byron. It was from that moment that Taine*s influence
began to be felt; he was in constant intercourse with Renan,
Sainte-Beuve, Shcrer, Gautier, Flaubert, Saint-Victor and the
Goncourts, and gave up a little of his time to his friends and to
the calls of society. In 1863 Taine came forward as a candidate
for the chair of literature at the Polytechnic School, but M. de
LomMe was elected in his place. '.
The following year, however, in March, Marshal Randon,
Minister of War, appointed him examiner in history and German
to the military academy of Saint Cyr, and on 26th October 1864
he succeeded VioHet-lc-Duc as professor of the history of art
and aesthetics at the £cole dcs Beaux Arts. Renan's appointment
at the Ollege de France and Tame's candidature for the Poly-
technic School had alarmed Mgr. Dupanloup, who in 1863 issued
an Averiissemeni A la Jeunesse et aux Phres de Fttmille,w\ac^
consisted of a violent attack upon Taine, Renan and Littrfl
Renan was suspended, and Tsine's appointment to Saint Cyr,
would have been cancelled but for the intervention of the
Princess MathOde. In December 1863 his Hisfoire de la Littira-i,
ture Anglaise was published, prefaced by an introduction in
which Taine's determinist views were developed in the most
uncompromising fashion. In 1B64 Taine sent this work to the
Academy to compete for the Prix Bordin. M. de Falloux and
Mgr. Dupanloup attacked Taine with violence; he was warmly
defended by Guizot: finally, after three days of discussion, it
was decided that as the prize cOuld not be awarded to Taine, it
should not be awarded at all. This was the last time Taine
sought the suffrages of the Academy save as a candidate, in
which quality he appeared once in 1874 and failed to be elected,
M^zi^res, Caro and Dumas being the rival candidates; and
twice in 1878, when, after having fsiiled in May, H. Martin being
chosen, he was at last elected in November in place of M.
Lom€nie. In x866 he received the Legion of Honour, and on
the conclusion of his lectures in Oxford on Comeille and Racine,
the Umveraty conferred upon him (i87r) its degree of D.C.L. *
The period from r864 to 1870 was pierfaaps the happiest of
Thine's fife. He derived pleasure from his employment at the
Beaux Arts and Saint Cyr,' which left ample leistire for travel
and research. In 1864 he spent February to May in Italy, which
furnished him with several articles for the Revue des Deux Mondes
from December 1864 to May r866. In 1865 appeared La
Pkihsophie de VAH, in 1867 Vldial dans VAri, followed by
essajra on the phik>sophy of art in the Netherlands (1868), in
Greece <r869), all of which short works were republished later
(in 1880) as a work on the philoaophy of art. In 1865 he
published his Nouoeaux Essais de Critique et d'HisUnre; from
1863 to 1865 appeared in La Vie Pansienne the notes he had
taken for the past two years on Paris and on French society
under the sub-title of " Vie et Opinions de Thomas FrMfric
Graindotge," pubhsfaed hi a volume in 1867, the most personal
of his books, and an epitome of his ideas. In r867 appeared a
supplementary volimie to his history of English literature, and
in January 1870 his Thiorie de PItUettigenee, In 1868 he
married Mademoiselle Demsdk,the dauber of a distinguished
architect.
He had made a long sUy in England m 1858, and had brought
backoopioos notes, which, after a second journey in 187 1, he
publisbed in 1872 under the title of Notes sur VAngUktrt, On
38th June 1870 he started to vist Germany, but his journey
was abruptly intertupted by the outbreak of the wa*^ "^
project had to be abandoned, and Taine, deeply sha)^
events of 1870, felt that it was the duty of every Fn
work solely in Che interests of France. On gth Octot
36a
TAINE
published an article on ** L'Opiaion en AUemagne et les Con-
ditions dc la Paix/' and in 1871 a pamphlet on Lt Sufragt
Universei; and it was about tliis time abo that the more or
less vague ideas which he had entertained of writing on the
French Revolution returned in a new and definite shape. He
determined to trace in the Revolution of 1789 the reason of the
political insubility from which modem France was suffering.
From the autumn of 1871 to the end of his life his great work,
Les Origints de la France ConUmporaine, occupied all his time,
and in 1884 he gave up his professorship in order to devote
himself wholly to his task; but he succumbed before it was
finished, dying in Paris on 5th March 1893. In the portion of
^he work which remained to be finished Taine had intended to
draw a picture of French society and of the French family,
and to trace the development of science in the 19th century.
He had also planned a complementary volume to his Tkiorie
de PInkUigfituef to be entitled U» TraiU de la VciotiU,
The Origines de la France CorUemporainef Taine's monu-
mental achievement, stands apart from the rest of his work.
His object was to explain the existing constitution of France
by studying the more immediate causes of the present state of
affairs— the last years of what is called the Ancien lUsinie, the
Revolution and the beginning of the 19th century, to each of
which several volumes were assigned. He also had another
pbject, although he was perhaps hardly conscious of it, which
was to study man in one of his pathological crises; for Taine
^akes an investigation into human nature, and the historian
checks and endorses the pessimism and misanthropy of Grain-
dorge. The problem which Taine set himself was to inquire
why the centralization of modern France is so great that all
individual initiative is practically non-existent, and why the
central power, whether it be in the hands of a man or of an
assembly, is the sole and only power ; also to expose the error
underlying two prevalent ideas.'— ^(i) That the Revolution
destroyed absolutism and set up liberty; the Revolution, he
points out, merely caused absolutism to change hands. (2) That
the Revolution destroyed liberty instead of esublishing it;
that France was less centralized before 1789 than after x8oo.
This also be shows to be untrue. France was already a cen-
tralized country before 1789, and grew rapidly more and more
so from the time of Louis XIV.. onwards. ...The devolution
merely gave it a new form.
The Origines differ from the rest of Taine's work in that,
although he applies to a period of history the method which he
had already applied to literature and the arts, he is unable to
approach his subject in the same spirit; he loses his philosophic
calm; he cannot help writing as a man and a Frenchman, and
he lets his feelings have play; but what th^ work loses thus
in impartiality it gains in Ufe. .^
Taine was the philosopher of the~epoch which succeeded the
era of romanticism in France. The romantic era had lasted
from 1820 to 1850. It had been the result of a reaction against
the cUssical school, or rather against the conventionality and
lifeless rules of this school in its decadence. The romantic
school introduced the principle of individual liberty both as
regards matter and style; it was a brilliant epoch, rich in men
of genius and fruitful of beautiful .work, but towards 1850 it
had reached its decline, and a young generation, tired in turn of
its conventions, its hollow rhetoric, its pose of melancholy, arose,
armed with new principles and fresh ideals. Their ideal was
truth; their watchword liberty; to get as near as possible to
scientific truth became their object. . Taine was the mouthpiece
of this period, or rather one of its most atitboriutive spokesmen.
Many attempts have been made to apply one of Taine's
favourite theories to himself, and to define his^ predominant
and preponderant faculty. Some critics have held that it
was the power of logic, a power which was at the same time the
source of his weakness and of his strength. Ho had a passion
for abstraction. " Every man and every book," he said, " can
be summed up in three pages, and those three pages can be
summed up in three Uma*" .89 coNflers everything as a
mathematical psoblmv Tiiytlg<iijlM^<lil'«i>KVW « a work
of ait: ** Cest beau comme nn syflogisiBe," ht Mld'ofTflontte
of Beethoven. Taine's theory of the universe, his doctrine,
his method of writing criticism and history, his philoaophical
system, ane all the result of this logical gtf t, this p«sion for
reasoning, classification and afaatraction. But Taine's imagina>
tive quality was as remarkable as his power of logic; hence the
most satisfactory definition of Taine's predominating factilty
would be one which oompiehended the two gifts. M. Lemaitie
gave us this definition when he called Taine a pttU-UgjUiem;
M. Bourget likewise when he spoke of TUne's intaf^naiien
pkUosopMque, and M. Barrjs when he said that Taine had the
power of dramatizing abst r acti o ns. For Taine was a poet as
well as a logician; and it is possible that the portion of his work
which is due to his poetic and imaginalive gift may pcove the
most lasting.
Taine's- doctrine consisted in an inexonhie determinism, a
negation of metaphysics; as a philosopher be wks a posidvist.
Enamoured as he was of the precise and the definite, the
spiritualist philosophy in vogue in 1845 positively maddened
him. He returned to the philosophy of the 18th century,
especially to Condillac and to the theory of traniiofmed sensa*
tion. Taine presented this philosophy in a vivid, vigorous
and polemical form, and in concrete -and coloured language
which made his works more accessible, and consequently more
infiuentlal, than those of Auguste Comte. Hence to the menf
of 1 860 Taine was the true representative of positivism.
Taine's critical woifc is considerable; but all his weeks of
criticism are works of history. Hitherto history had been to
criticism as the frame is to the picture; Taine reversed the
process, and studied literary personages merely as specimens
and productions o£ a certain epoch. He started with the axiom
that the complete expression of a society is to be found in its
literature, and that the way to obtain an idea of a society is to
study its literature. The gresi writer is not an isolated being;
he is the result of a thousand causes; firstly, of his race;
secondly, of his environment; thirdly, of the circumstances in
which he was placed while hia talents weie devebping. Henoe
Race, Environment, Time^these are the three things to be
studied before the man is taken into oonsidentlon. Taine
completed this theory by another, that of the predemmUing
factUtyt the /ocititJ mailrtsse. This consists in beUeving that
every man, and especially everyv great man, is dominated by
one faculty so strong as to subonUnate all othen to it, which
is the centre of the mfcn's activity and leads him into one
particular channel. It is this theory, obviously the result of
his love of abstraction, which is the secret of Taine's power and
of his deficiencies. He always looked for this salient quality,
this particular channel, and when he had onoe made up 1^
mind what it was, he massed up all the evidence which went
to corroborate and to illustrate this one quality, and necessarily
omitted all conflicting evidences. The result was an indinatkm
to lay stress on one side of a character or a question to the
exclusion of all others.
Taine served science onfalteringHy, without looking forward
to any possible fniits or result. In has work we find neither
enthusiasm nor bitterness, neither hope nor yet despair; merely
a hopeless resigmition. The study of mankind was Taine's
incessant preoccupation, and he followed the method already
described. He made a searching investigation into humanity,
and his verdict was one of tmqualified condemnation. In
" Thomas Craindorge " we see him aghast at the spectacle of
man's brutality and woman's foUy. In man he sees the primeval
savage, the gorilla, the carnivorous and lascivious animal, or
else the maniac with diseased body and disordered mind, to whom
health, either of mind or body, ia but an accident. Taine is
appalled by the hUe knmaine; and in all his works we axe
ooosdous, as In the case of V<dtaire, of the terror with which
the possibilities of human felly inspire him. It may be doubted
whether Taine's system, to which he attached so much import-
ance, is really the most lasting part of his work, just aa it may
be doubted whether a sonata of Beethoven bears any resem-
blance to a syllogism. For Taine was an artist as well as a
TAIREN— TAIT, A. C.
363
ia^duL, an Artist irlio nir and depicted what he saw in vital
and glawing language. From the artist we get his essay on
La Fontaine, his artidea on Balaac and'Radne, and the passages
on Voltaire and Rousseau in the Anden Regime. Moreover, not
only waa Taine an artist vrbo bad not escaped from the influence
of the nxnastic tradition, but he was by his very method and
Btyie a romanticist. His emotions were deep if not violent,
his vision at times almost lurid. He sees everything in startling
relief and sometimes in eiaggemted outOne; as did Balzac and
Vktor ^xgo. Hence his predtfection for exuberance, strength
and splendour; his love of Shakespeare, Titian and Rubens;
his delight in bold, highly«coloured themes.
Tone's tP<»Mf'!r^ was great, and twofold. On his own genera-
tion it waa considerable; during the epoch in which he lived,
while a wave of pessimism was sweeping over French h'terature,
he was the high priest of the cult of misanthropy, in which evei
science was held to be but an idol, worthy of respect and de-
votional service, but not of faith. In iu torn ctme the reaction
sgsittst positivism and pessimism, and an attempt at spiritual
fcnascence. Around a man so remarkable as Taine a school is
certain to form itself; Taine's school, which 'was one of positivtst
doarines, rigid systems and resigned hopelessness, was equally
certain to produce at some time or another a school of determined
opponents to iu doctrines and system. If, therefore, the tone
which pervades the works of Zola, Bourget and Maupassant
can be immediately attributed to the mihienoe we call Taine's,
it is also the influence of Taine which is one of the ultimate
causes of the protest embodied in the subsequent reaction.
(M. Ba.)
appreciative study of Taine'* philosophy in his Taitu, Sckerer^
Laboulaye (P^s, 1901). See alao A. Sorel, Nowtaux esnis d*kisloire
d de crii^tae (1898) ; Gabrid Monod. Les Matlres de Vkistoin (Pariis
1S94}; fcimile Fafl;uet. PotUiaius moralisUs au XIX* siide (Paris,
uoo) ; P. Lacomoe, La psychologie des mdnidus el des sociiUs cket
Taiiu (1906): P. N6ve, La pkUosopkie de Taitu (1908): and
especially Victor Giraud, Essai $ur Tahu, son mnre et zon influence,
tapns des docmmenis inidits (and ed., 1902); V. Giraud, iNMw.
papkie de Taine (Paris, ipoa). A oomprehenaivc list of books and
articles on Taine is given in H. P. Thieine's Guide Inbliognphique de
la ItUirature francaise de 1800 d 1906 (Paris, 1907). More recently,
Taine'* historical work has been adversely criticized, especially by
A Aulard in fectnres deli^Tred at the Sorbonne in 1905-6 and 1906-7
{Taine, Ustarien delarholutionfranqaise, iQp7), devoted to destructive
criticisin of Taine's work on the French Kevolutioo.
TAIREV* or Dairen (Russian Do/ay), a free port created by
the Russian government and opened to foreign trade in i^or,
■tuatcd on the Central Manchurian railway, and thus one of
the Padiic termini of the Trans-Siberian railway. It stands
at the head of Talien.wan Bay, on the cast side of Liao-tung
peniimila, in Manchuria^ about ao m. N.E. of Port Arthur. The
harbour is roomy, easy of entrance, and free from ice all the
year nmnd. The town is situated along the front of the harbour
and occupies the slope leading np to the hills at the rear. It is
designed to accommodate 30,000 inhabitants and is separated
from the Chinese quarter by a large natural park. The climate
is temperate and healthy. Tairen is provided with wharves
to accommodate the largest ocean steamers, the wharves having
a vertical face with 38 ft. depth at low water. The area of the
port is rja acres, and the inner harbour is protected by a stone
and concrete breakwater 5950 ft. long. At an early period in
the RosBo-Japanese war (28th of May 1904), Dahiy was occupied
by the Japanese after slight resistance.
TAIT* ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL (i8rx-tS82), Anglican
divine, archbishop of Canterbury, was bom at Edinburgh on
the list of December 181 r. His parents were Presbyterians,
bet he carty turned towards the Scottish Episcopal Church, and
WIS amftniied in his first 3Fear at Oxford, having entered Baltiol
Colkgr m October 1830 as a Snell exhibit fc>ner from the Uni-
versity of Glasgow. He won an open Khobrship, took his
degree with a firtt-class in Uteris hnmaniaribns (1833), and
became fellow and tutor of Balliol; he was also ordained deacon
(1836) aad priest (1838), and aervtd the curacy of Baldon.
Rapid changes among the feOows found him at the age of
twenty-siz " the senior and most responsible of the four Balliol
tuton." The experience gained during this period stood him
in good stead afterwards as a member of the first Oxford
Unrveisity Commission (1850-51). He never sympathised with
the principles of the Tractarian movement, and on the appear-
ance of Thict XC. in 1841 he drafted the famous protest of the
'' Four Totofs " against it; but this was his only important
contribution to the controversy. On the other hand, although
his sympathies were on the whole with the liberal movement
in the university, he never took a lead in the matter. In 1842
he became an undistinguished but useful successor to Arnold
as headmaster of Rugby; and a serious illness in 1848, the first
of many, led him to welcome the coibparative leisure which
followed upon his appointment to the deanery of Carlisle in
1849. His life there, however, was one of no little activity;
he served on the Univenity Commission, he restored his
cathedral, and did much excellent pastoral work. There too he
suffered the great sorrow of his life. He had married Catharine
Spooner at Rngby in 1643; in the spring of 1856, within five
weeks, five of their children were carried off by virulent scarlet
fever. Not hmg afterwar<b he was consecrated bishop of
London on the 22nd of November 1856, as successor to C. J.
BlomfieM. His translation to Canterbury in 1868 (he had refused
the archbishopric of York in 1862) constituted a recogni(k>n of
his work, but made no break in it. His last years were inter*
rupred by ilhicss and saddened by the death in 1878 of his only
son Crauford, and of his wife.
If Blomfield had almost remodeUed the Idea of a bishop's
work, his successor surpassed him. Tait had all Blomfiekl's
earnestness and his powers of work, with far wider interests.
Blomfield had given himself zealously to the work of church-
building; Tiit folkywed hi his steps by inaugurating (1863) the
Bishop of London's Fund. He devoted a very krgo part
of his time at London in actual evangelistic work; and to the
end his interest in the pastoral side of the work of the cleigy
was greater than anything else. With his wife, he was instrU'o
mental in organizing women's wort upon a sound basis, and he
did not a little for the healthful regulation of Anglican sister-
hoods during the formative period in which this was partltubiriy
necessary. Nor was he less successful in the larger matters of
administration and organization, which brought into play his
sound practical judgment and strong common-sense. He was
constant in his attendance in parliament, and spared no pains
in pressing on measures of practical utility. The modification
of the terms of clerical subscription (1865), the new lectionary
(1871), the Burials Act (1880) were largely owing to him; for
all of them, and especially the last, he incurred much obloquy
at the time. The Royal Commissions on Ritual (1867) and on
the Ecclesiastical Courts (1881) were due to him, and he took a
large part in the deliberations of both. Probably his successor
(see Benson, E. W.) was brought into closer relations with the
colonial churches than Tait was; but the healthy development of
the Lambeth Conferences on the lines of mutual counsel rather
than of a hasty quasi-synodic action was largely due to him.
On the other hand, Tait was not successful in dealing with
matters which called for the higher gifts of a ruler, and especially
in his relations with (d) the liberal trend in modem thought,
and {b) the Catholic revival, (o) As regards the former, he was
himself not a little in sympathy with it. But although well-
read, he was no scholar in the true sense, and had neither the
knowledge to feel sure of his ground nor the theological insight
to perceive the real point at issue. His object in dealing with
questions of faith, as in dealing with the ritual question, was
primarily a practical one: he wished to secttte peace, and
obedience to the hw as he saw it. Consequently, after his
sympathies had led him to express himself favourably towards
some movement, he frequently found himself comp^''
back. He expressed a qualified sympathy with
writers of Essays and Rcviftrs, and then joined in 1
j it by the bishops (1861). The same kind of apparc
. Was found in his action in other cases; e.|., in the
364
TAIT, A. F.— TAIT, P. G.
(1863), and in the cOQtroveny'M to the use or disuse of the
Athsna^iiin symbol (xSja). It was nAtursIly and widely mis-
undentood. Some who did not know him thought, or pre-
tended to think, that he was a Socinian or a fcee-thinker. The
world at large knew better; but even Temple warned him, in
the case of Essays and Reviews, " You will not keep friends if
you compd them to fed that in every crisis of life they must
be on their guard against trusting you." (6) As regards the
second point, Tait was concerned with it during the whole of
his episcopate, and above all on the side of rittuJ, on which it
naturally came into most direct conflict with, the recognized
ecclesiastical practice of the day. He had to deal with the
St George's -in-the-East riots in 1859, and the troubles at St
Alban's, Holbom, in their earlier stages (1867); he took part
as assessor in the Privy Council judgment in the Ridsdale case
(1877); he was more closely concerned than any other bishop
with the agitation against confession in 1^58, and again in 1877.
His method throughout was the same: he endeavoured to obtain
a compliance to the law as declared by the courts; failing this,
he made the most earnest efiforts to secure obedience to the
ruling of the Ordinary for the sake of the peace of the Church;
after this, he could do nothing. He did not perceive how much
of reason the " ritualists " had on their side: that they were
fighting for practices which, they contended, were covered by
the letter of the rubric; and that, where rubrics were notoriously
disregarded on all hands, it was not fair to proceed against one
class of delinquent only. In fact, if others, were inclined to
ignore it altogether, Tait could hardly realise anything but the
connexion between the English Church and the State. From
such a position there seemed to be no escape but in legislation
for the deprivation of the recalcitrant clergy; and the Public
Worship Regulation Act (1874) was the result. For this Tait
was by no means responsible as a whole: some of the provisions
which proved most irksome were the result of amendments by
Lord Shaftesbuiy which the bishops were unable to resist;
•od it must be borne in mind that the most disastrous results
of the measure were not contemplated by those who were instru-
mental in passing iL The results followed ineviubly: clergy
were cited before a new tribunal, and not only deprived but
imprisoned. A widespread feeling of indignation spread not
only among High Churchmen, but among many who cared little
or nothing for the ritual practices involved; and it seemed
impossible to foretell what the outcome would be. But the
aged archbishop was moved as much as anybody, and tried
bard to mitigate such a state of thing^ At length, when the
Rev. A. H. Mackonochie was on the point of being deprived of
his benefice of St. Alban's, Holbom, for contumacy, the arch-
bishop, then on his. deathbed at Addingtoo, took steps which
resulted in the carrying out of an exchange of benefices (which
had already been projected), which removed him from the juris-
diction of the court. This proved to be the turning-point;
tad although the ritual difficulty by no means ceased, it was
afterwards dealt with from a different point of view, and the
Public Worship Regulation Act became practically obsolete.
The archbishop died on the 3rd of December (Advent Sunday),
1882, leaving a legacy of peace to the Church.
Tait was a Churchman by conviction; but although the woric
of his life was all done in England, he remained & Scotsman to
the end. It was the opinion of some that he neverreally under-
stood the historical position of the English Church and took
no pains to learn. John Tillotson, one of his predecessors in
the archbishopric, was a favourite hero of his, and in some
ways the two men resembled one another. But Tait had none
of Tillotson 's gentleness, and he rode roughshod over the
obstacles in his way. He cannot be called a great ecclesiastical
statesman, but he administered his office well and was un-
doubtedly one of the foremost public men of his day.
See R. T. Davidion and D. Benhaa. Ufe of Aftkbiskop Tait,
8 vols. (1891) ; A. C Tait. CaAarim aad Cra^fmri Tmt (1880).
(W. £. Co.)
TAIT* ARTHUR FITZWIUJAH (181^1905), Amecicaa
•itist» was bom near Liverpool, K^gland.<Bihi «th of August
18x9. He emigrafed to the United Stales in 1850, and mt
identified with the art life of New York until his death. In
1858 he was elected to fall membership in the National Academy
of Design, New York. He died at Yonkcrs, New York, on
the a8th of April 1905. He painted barnyard fowls and wild
birds as well as sheep and deer, with great dexterity, and repro-
ductions of his minute panela of chickens had an enormoui
vogue.
TAIT, PETER GUTHRIE (1831-190Z), Scottish ' phyddat,
was bom at Dalkeith on the 38th of April 1831. After attending
the Academy at Edinburgh and spending a aesskm at the
University, he went up to Cambridge as a member of Peterfaouse,
and graduated as soiior wrangler and first Smith's priaeman
in 185s. As a feUow and lecturer of his college he remained in
(Cambridge for two years longer, and then left to take up the
professorship of mathematics at (Queen's College, Belfast. There
he made the acquaintance of Thomas Andrews, whom he joined
in researches on the density of osone and the action of tht
electric discharge on oxygen and other gases, and by whom he
was introduced to Sir W. R. Hamilton and quaternions. In
z86o he was chosen to succeed his old master, J. D. Forbes, as
professor of natural philosophy at Edinburgh, and this chair he
occupied till within a few months of his dnth, which occurred
on the 4th of July 1901, at Edinburgh. The first scientific
paper that appears under Tait's name only was published in
i86a. His earliest work dealt mainj.y with mathematical
subjects, and especially with quatemiona iq.v.), U which h»
may be regarded as the leading exponent after their originator,
Hamflton. He was the author of two text-books on them — one
an EUmenlofy Treatise en Quaternions (1867), written with the
advice of Hamilton, though not published till after his death,
and the other an Intredudion to Quaternions (1873), u^ which
he was aided by Professor. Philip Kelland (180^1879), who
had been one of his teachere at Edinburgh. In addition,
quaternions was one of the themes of his address as president
of the mathematical section of the British Association in 1871.
But he also produced original work in mathematical and ex-
perimental physics. In 1864 he published a short paper on
thermodynamics, and from that time his contributions to that
and kindred departments of science became frequent and
importanL In 1871 he emphasixed the significance and promise
of the principle of the dissipation of energy. In 1873 he took
thermoelectricity for Ihe subject of his disccnirse as Rede
lecturer at Cambridge, and in the same year he presented the
first sketch of his well-known thermoelectric diagram before the
Royal Society of Edinburgh. Two years kiter researches 00
" (Charcoal Vacua " with J. Dewar led him to see the true
dynamical expUnation of the Crookes radiometer in the large-
ness of the free path of the molecule of the highly, rarefied aic
From 1879 to e888 he was engaged on difficult experimental
investigations, which began with an inquiry into the corrections
lequired, owing to the great pressures to which the instruments
had been subjected, in the readings of the theemometen em*
ployed by the " Challeager " espeditmn for observing deep-sea
tempemtuves, and which; were extended to include the com*
pressibility of water» glass and mercury. Between 1886 and
189a he published a series of papers on the foundations of the
kinetic theory of gases, the fourth of which oantained what was,
according to Lord Kelvin, the first ptoel ever given of the
Watetsion-Maxweli theoreas of the avecafe equal partition ol
energy in a masUne of two diffcRnt gases; and about the same
time he carried out investigations into impact and iu duration.
Many other inquiries conducted by him might be mentioned,
and some idea may be gained of his scientific activity from the
fact that a ieleGtk>n oidy from his papeiSy published by the
Cambridge Uniwenity Press, fills three large volumes. This
mass of work was done in the time he could spare f ram his
professorial teachmg in the university. In addition,- he was the
author of a number of books and articles. Of the former,
the first, published in 1896, waa on the dynamics of a particle;
and afterwards there f oUowed a number of ooodae treatises on
thcnaodyiiamicSk best, light, properties of matter and dyttsmSa^
TAJIK— TAKLA MAKAN
365
toseilrtr vitb an admtobly Indd vohme of popular lectares 00
RecemS Admnces in Physical Science. With Lord Kelvin be
coUabonted in writing the well-known Trcalise on Natural
PkiloMfky. ** Tbomaon and Tait," as it is familiarly called
(" T and T"' was the authors' own formula), was planned soon
after Lord Kelvin became acquainted with Tait, on the hitter's
appointment to his professorship in Edinbuigh, and it was
intended to be an aU-compreheosive treatise on plqfsical science,
the foundations being laid in kinematics and dynamics, and the
ftractnre completed with the properties of matter, heat, light,
electricity and magnetism. But the literaiy partnership ceased
in about eighteen years, when only the fim portion of the plan
had been completed, because each of the members felt he could
work to better advantage separately than jointly. The friend-
ship, however, endured for the twenty-three years which yet
icmained of Tait's life.
Tait collabonted with Balfour Stewart in the Unstm Univene,
which was followed by Pamdeoacal Philosophy. Among his articles
may be mentioned those which he wrote for the ninth edition of
thi» Encyclopaedia on Light, Mechanics, Quaternions. Radiation
and THermooynamics, besides the biographical notices of Hamilton
and Clerk MuweO.
TAJIK, or Passiwak, a subject race of Afghanistan.
Underlying the predominant Pathan elements in the count ly,
the Tajik (Tajak, or Tausik) represents the original Persian
possessor of the sofl, who still speaks his mother tongue and
therefore calls himself Parsiwan. There are pure Persians in
Afghanistan, such as the Kizilbashcs of Kabul and the Naoshir-
wanis of Kharan; but the name Tajik (» '* stranger ") appears
to be applied only to an admixture of original Arab and Persian
stock, who are the slaves of the community— hewers of wood
and drawers of water. Everywhere the Tajiks are the culti-
vators in rural districts, and the shopkeepers and clerks in the
towns. They are a fine, athletic people, generally fair in
complexion, and assimikte in aspect, in drns, and much in
maimers to the Afghans, but they are never nomadic. The
Tajik is as much the slave of the Pathan in Afghanistan* as is
the Hindki (whose origin is similar) in the plains of the Indus.
Yet the Tajik peculation of the richly-cultivated districts north
of Kabul proved themselves to be of good 6ghting material in
the Afghan war of 2879-^, and the few Kizilbashes that are
to be found in the Indian army are brave soldiers. The
number of the Tajiks in Afghanistan is estimated at 900,000.
The name itself originaUy occurs in the Pahlavi writings, and is
explained to mean, first, the Arabs in general, then their descendants
bom in Persia and elsewhere out of Arabia, and, lastly, the Persians
io general and their descendants bora in Turkesun and elsewhere
out of Penaa. Tajik thus cane to be the collective nante of all
conmunities of Iranian stock and Persian speech wherever found in
Central A^ These are co-extenave with the former eastward and
northward limits of the Persian empire: but, after the ascendancy
of the Tiirld races, they became the subject element In Turkestan,
Afginniataa, Bokhara, Khiva, Kashgaria, while still politically
doninant in Badakshan, Wakhaa, Darwaz, Kost and Karatcghin.
la most of these places the Tajiks, with the kindred Galcl»8, £cem
to form the bulk of the popularion, the distinction being that
** Tajik *' is appliod rather to the settled and more civilised low-
hndera of modem Persian speech, " Galcha " to the highlanders
of Ferghana, Kohisun, Wakhan, &c., who speak either archaic
f<mBS of Persian or dialects intermediate between the Iranian and
Sanskritic branches of the Indo-European linguistic family.
But. although mainly of Iranian stock, with light complexion and
teg^ar featmes. the Tajiks claim Arab descent, regardine the
district about Bagdad as their primeval home, and considering
themselves the descendants of t^ie Arabs who overran Central Asia
ia the first century of the Hejira. At the same time, *' it is evident
that the inhabitants of the mater part of this region (Central Asia)
most from an cariy period nave come in contact with the successive
waves of Turkish (TCirki) and even Mongol oopolation which broke
over them: acoordmgly we find that, although the type !s essentiallv
Iranian, it has undergone a certain modindKion (Cai>t. J. M.
Trotter, Bokkdra, p. 109).* The term Tajik must be distingtrished
from Sttrte, the latter sim^ meaning " trader ** or " shopkeeper." and
being apodsed indiscriminatdy to the settled as opposed to the
nomad dement, and especially to the urban populations, of what-
ever mce, in Central Asia. The Tajiks arc known as Tits on the
west ade of the Caspian (Baku, LenKoran, Sec).
TAKHTBINOJI (185S-1896), Maharaja of Bhaunagar, a
Rajput dief of the Gohel ckn, and the ruler of a state in
xxvx 7
Katkiawar, was bora on the 6th of Janoaiy 1858, and succeeded
to the throne of Bhaunagar on the death of his father^ Jaswant-
aingji, in 187a During his minority, which ended in 1878, he
was educated at the lUjkot college and afterwards under an
English officer, while the administration of the state was con-
ducted jointly by Mr. £. H. Percival, a member of the Indian
Civil Service, and Azam Gowrishankar Yodeyshankar, C.S.I.,
one of the fotemost native statesmen of India, who had served
the state in various capacities since x8sa. At the age of twenty
Takhtringji found himself the ruler of a territoiy neariy 3000
square miles in extent. His first public act was to sanction a
railway connecting his territoiy with one of the main trunk linet,
which was the first enterprise of its kind on the part of a raja
in western, if not in all, India. The commerce and trade, and
the economic and even sodal development of the state, which
came in the waice of this railway, confirmed Takhtdngji in a
policy of progressive administration, under which educational
establishments, hospitals and dispensaries, trunk roads, bridges,
handsome edifices and other public works grew apace. In t886
he inaugurated a system of constitutional rtde, by pLidng
several departments in the hands of four members of a council
of state under his own presidency. This innovation, which
had the warm support of the governor of Bombay, Lord Reay,
provoked a virulent ^tack upon the chief, who brought his
defamers to trial in the High Court of Bombay. The punish-
ment of the ringleaders broke up a system of blackmailing to
which rajas used to be regularly exposed, and the public spirit
of Takhtsingji in freeing his brother chiefs from this evil was
widely acknowledged throughout India, as well as by the British
authorities. In x886 he was created G.C.S.I.; and five yean
hiter his hereditary title of thakore was raised to that of
maharaja. In 1893 he took the occasion of the opening of the
Imperial Institute by Queen Victoria to visit Enj^d in order
to pay personal homage to the sovereign of the British Empire,
on which occasion the University of Cambridge conferred on
him the degree of LL.D. He died in 1896. (M.M.Bh.)
TAKIN, the Mishmi name of a remarkable hollow-horned
ruminant {Budoreas taxicolor)^ the typical representative of
which inhabits the Mishmi HtUs, in the south-east corner of
Tibet, immediately north of the Assam Valley, while a second
form is found further east, in the Moupin district. The lakin,
which may be compared in size to a Kerry cow, is a dumsily
built brute with yellowish-brown hair and curiously curved
horns, which recall those of the South African white-tailed gnu.
Its nearest relatives appear to be the serows of the outer
Himalaya and the Maby countries, which are in many respects
intermediate between goats and antelopes, but it is not improb-
ably also related to the musk-ox (g.v.). As it lacks the thick
woolly coat of the two Tibetan antelopes known as the chiru
and the goa, there can be little doubt that it inhabits a country
with a less severe dimate than that of the Central Tibetan
plateau, and it is probably a native of the more or less wooded
districts of comparatively low elevation forming the outskirts
of Tibet. It is remarkable for the shortness of the cannon-
bones of the legs, in which it resembles the Kocky Mountain goat.
TAKLA VAKAN. the Central Asian desert which lies between
the N. foot of the Kuen-lun ranges and the wide curve of the
Tarim river on the W., N., and E. It appears to be naturally
divisible into two parts by the river Khotan-darya, and the
name applied to the western part between that river and the
Yarkand-darya (Tarim) is the desert of Takla Makan proper,
while the part between the Khotan-darya and the Une of the
lower Tarim and the Cherchen-darya is known as the desert of
Cherchen. The former is occupied almost entirely by sand-
dunes. Sand mountains range in altitude from 60 ft. up to as
much as 300 ft. The only breaks in this " sea of sand-waves "
are a few small patches of alluvial day. Often two distinct
systems of dunes can be distinguished; one system, consisting
of the larger concatenations, stretches from E. to W.. '^^^'
the secondary or transverse dunes run from N. to S.
N.E. to S.W. The steeper faces of the dunes and of t
accumulations are for the most part turned toward
366
TALAING— TALAVERA DE LA REINA
the S.W. and the W.« that is, inwiably away from the directiaa
of the prevailing winds; but in some ports the steep £aces are
those fronting the £. and the S. In the desert of Cherchen,
however, wh^e the general he^t of the dunes in the N.E. is
unifonnly greater than in the desert of TaUa Makaa proper,
reaching op to 350 ft., the configuration is complicated by the
appearance of elongated expanses of level day called bayirs,
varying in size from half a mile to a dozen miles fli length,
bairen and tinged with saline deposits in the middle, with scanty
vegetation around, and lofty sand-dunes overhanging them on
both sides. These elliptical, cauldfbn-shaped basins all stretch
from N.E. or E.N.E. to S.W. or W.S.W., and axe arranged in
long curving chains, the successive depressions bong parted
by transvcne ridges of sand. They owe their configuntion in
great part, perhaps entirely, to the prevailing wind.
On perfectly leviel ground the dunes aiecrescentic in shape, have
a steep face towards the W., are highest in the centre, and dope
away in each direction towards the two horns or cusps of the czcscent.
On the windward side they have a convex, spoon-shaped slope,
reffulariy formed, but crumpkd by tiny und-waves or ripple-marks.
" With regard to the large accumulations of and (in the desert
of Cherchen) we have ascertained the following laws — ^(i) In the
N. of the desert they turn their steep faces towands the N.W., m
the middle towards the W.N.W.. and in the S. towards the W. and
W.S.W.; (2) their eastern slopes ascend rather slowly towards
their crests; (3) on the other side their steep leeward f^ces go down
sheer at an angle of 33". or else in two or three steps; (4) their mass
diminkbes towards the S. ; (5) they are each built up of an innu-
merable number of individual dunes: (6) althoueh their relief is
influenced by winds from other quarters than the predominant,
their mass is unaffected by them; (7) it is their varying breadths
which ^ive rise originallv to the thresholds, and consequently to the
formation of the bayirs (Sven Hedin. op. cU. L 362).
• The bayirs become progress! vdy rarer,, less distinct, and
smaller in size as one advances from £. to W. At the same
time the arrangement of the sand-dunes grows more and more
irregular, and the dunes themselves plunge steeply down
towards the W., the S., and the S.W., and are drawn out towards
the N.N.E. and S.S.W., the N. and S. and the N.W. and S.E.
In that part of the desert two systems of dunes are distinguish-
able, intersecting or rather crossing over one another diagonally
or at right angles. In the extreme west, at Ordan-Padshah,
between Kashgar and Yarkand, the dunes travd annually some
13 ft. towards the S.E., not towards the S.W. The prindpal
cause of the difference between the arrangement of the sand-
dunes in the desert of Cherchen and the arrangement of the
sand*<iunes in the desert of Takla Blakan proper in the W.
is the wind. In the latter, winds from several quarters co-
operate to mould the relief of the desert into capridous and
changing outlines; but in the E. the wind blows not only with
greater rt^gularity from one settled direction, the N.E. or
E.N.E., but also with much greater violence. Indeed, it is in
the open Lop country, where the mountains, the Kuruk-tagh
on the N., and the Astin-tagh on the S., are the nearest to each
other, that the wixui develops its greatest and most concentrated
energy.* In the E., where the sand waves are most exposed to
the fiercest wind, they form dongated waves, distinctly out-
lined, corresponding to the breakers of the ocean. They dis-
seminate themselves westwards over the desert in ever-widening
concentric cirdes. The curving courses of the Tarim and the
Koncheh-darya are the only dieck upon the invasion of the
Takla Makan by the sand which is generated in the desert of
Lop or further £. and N. in the mountains which girdle the
desert of Gobi. But the former river is itself encroaching upon
the N.E. margin of the desert, and pressing more and more
towards the S.W.
With regard to the origin of the stupendous masses of sand
that 611 the basin of the Tarim, K. Bogdanovich conmders thera to
consist for the most part of the di«ntegrated prxxiucts of the fine-
grained alluvial clays of the desert itsdf. On the other hand,
G. N. Potanin and V. A. Obrachev both seek for its origin in the
hard rocks of the mounuins which encircle the deserts; and in this
view, subject to certain modifications, Sven Hedin is disposed to
agree. But he adds' that the masses of sand themsdves "are
> Sven Hedin, op, dL 1. 364.
^Op,eiLvL,Jii^
derived from three sepaiate souitses, ia part diivetlf, in past i»>
directly — (i) the direct transportation by the wind of the pioducis
of dlsintenation from the adjacent mountains, whether sandstones
or crystalline rocks; (2) through the activity of the wind operarive
amongst the arenaceous alluvia of the rivers and temporary lakes;
(3) through the sand that was already praseat in the soil, and which
became exposed in rings more or las concentric in proportion as
the former (Central Asian Mediterranean) sea dried up.'* Of these
agencies the river Tarim makes by comparison much the smalkst
contribution of disintegrated material to the volume of sand. The
area covered by sands m the desert of TakU Makaa pioper is esti-
mated at nearly ti6,ooo sq. m., and the area covered by them in
the desert of Cherchen at neariy i43/>oo sq. m.
Vegetation and animal life are extremely scarce. The former
Is practuuilly confined to various steppe plants, kamish (reeds),
tamarisks fahnost invariably growing on root-mounds), and poplars.
The animals are hares, rats and one or two other rodenta, foxes, and
in a few places the wild camel.
The dimate is one of extremes. At Merket on the W. verge of
the desert of Takla Makan proper the winters are ooM, though the
snowfall is small, while the Mimmcrs are hot. In the de^trt of
Cherchen a temperature of -22* F. has been observed in the depth of
winter, and there snow sometimes falls heavOy. During the sand-
storms which sweep over the region in spring, the thermometer
drops as much as 10* or 12* F. below aero. On the other hand, a
temperature as high as 86" has been recorded in the end of April
(cf. Gobi}. It is only in winter that this appalling desert can be
croa a td with any degree of safety. It is destitute of water, but in
winter it \s possible to transport ice on the backs of camels. Some-
times for days together the desert is eovdoped in sn impenetrable
dust-haae, which chokes and smothers every living creature. In
the second half of the 13th century Marco Polo left a vivid descrip-
tion of this desert and related legends associated with it (see the
edition of his travels in English by Sir H. Yule, cd. 1903). The
fullest account by a modem writer is that given by Svea ¥iedin in
his Scientific Results of a Journey in Central Asia, 1899-1902 (Stock-
holm, vols. i. and ii. 1905-6) ; see also his Through Asux (London,
1898), vol. i. For archaeology, see Turkestan. {]. T. Bs.)
TALAIMO, more accurately called Mto, the name given to
the remnant of the Peguan race, which for long strove with
the Burmans for the ascendancy in what is now Burma. In
the middle of the i8th century the Peguans were roasters of the
country from the Gulf of Martaban to far to the north of
Mandalay. Now, however, the Talaing population b practically
confined to the Tenasserim and Pegu divisions of Lower Burma,
and even there it seems to be dying out. According to the
census of xgox they numbered only 321,898 persons, of whom
154,480 spoke the Talaing language. The Talaings are, histori-
cally, the most important representatives in Burma of the M6n-
Annam linguistic family, who have Idt tokens of their presence
from the Khasia Hills in Assam to the Gulf of Siam. The origin
of the name Talaing is disputed, but it is most commonly bdieved
to be a term of reproach, meaning " downtrodden," given by
the conquering Burmans. The people call themselves Mons.
They are lighter in complexion and more sturdily built than
the Burmans and the face is rounder.
TALAR, the architeaural term given to the throne of the
Persian monarchs which is carved on the rock-cut tomb of
Darius at Nakst in Rustan, near Persepolis, and above the portico
which was copied from his palace.
TAUVERA DB LA RBINA. a town of central Spain, in the
province of Toledo; on the right bank of the river Tagus, and
on the Madrid-C&ceres railway. Pop. (1900) 10,580. Talavera
is of great antiquity, the Caesobriga of the Romans. Portions
of the triple waU whkh surrounded it remain standing, and the
Axco de San Pedro is one of its Roman gates restored. Among
the ancient buildings are the Torres Albarranas, built by the
Moors in the xoth century, the -Gothic collegiate church, and
three secuhrized convents, one of which dates hoxa the i4ih
century, but has twice been partially restored, and is now a
factory. The bridge of thirty-five arches across the Tagus
dates from the X5tli century. TaUvera " of the queea " was so
named because, from the reign of Alpbonso XL (X3Z2-50), it
was the property of the queens of Castile.
For the operations which culminated In the famous battle of
Talavera, between the English and the French, and those which
followed that engagement, see Peninsular War. Sir Arthur
Wdlealey (afterwards Duke of Wellington), the British commander,
acting in 00-operation with Licutenant-General Cuesta'a Sutnish
r« took positisa on the ayth of July X809 on the Upper Tag
TALBOT (FAMILY)
367
p mie c t e d by his advaaoed mud.
north fcom (be right bank 01 the 1
His line, lacing due east, an
river to a ridge niiuiiitg parallel
to the Tagus, beyond which ridge, also parallel to the river, lay the
Sierra de MootaJbon. Cuesta's men with their right flank resting
OB the river held Talavera itadf and the close country to the north-
want of it: Wellesley's right connected with CuesU^s left, and hia
Kne scretcned away northwards to the ridge mentiooed above.
The Sierra was not, on the first day, occupied, and even on the inner
ridge itself the diviaon of General {afterwards Lord) Hill was from
some misanderrtanding very late m taking up its position. The
whole front was covered by a rivulet running (iom the ridge to the
Tagos. The battle was begun by the attadc of two French divisions
on tbe British advanced gwud, which retired into the main position
with aevere loss and in some disorder. Marshal Victor's forces
foUowod them up sharply, and soon came upon Wellealcv's fine of
battle. For some time the possession of the ridee (owing to the
delay of Hill's IXvisaon) was doubtful, and RufaneDonkin's brigade
had a severe struggle, but in the end the arrival of Hill's troops
secured this all-important point for the Allied left. Meanwhile
the Spaniards (though there was at first a temporary panic amongst
them) and the right divisions of the British repulsed an attack in
the plain, and tbe day dosed with the ahmca facing each other
along the rivulet and on the ridge. The losses had been heavy on
both sides. Early on the 38th the battle was renewed by a furious
attack on Hill's troops, whose left was now probnged to the Sierra
• • • ' " ta. King
i present,
for Soiiit. whom they expected to come in on Wdlesley's rear, and
it was only after long discussion that the kinff gave a reluctant assent
to Victor s plan 01 attack. That Marshal's divisions once more
tried to oust Hill from the ridve, and once more failed before the
steady voll^ of the British line and the charge of the cavalry
posted in this quarter (though, owing perhaps to defective ground-
scooting, tibis nearly ended in disaster). At the same time Genefol
S^nstiam's 4th corps, after a heavy bombardment, assaulted the
Allied centie in the plain. Here the British aad Spanish battalions
bdd their owa firmly, and a counter attack by General Mackenzie's
division burled back the French in disorder. Yet another attack
Ib&owed these failures, and came very near to achieving a great
success. This time Lapisse's division of Victor's corps attacked
the AlKes' left centnfr, composed of the British Guards. The French
cdanans were aaain checked by the British line, but here the couoter-
stroke, unlike Mackenzie's, was carried too tar, and the troops in
the ardour oi incautious pursuit were very severely handled and
pushed bark to the position by the French reserves; when Wel-
ksky decided tbe <fay h^ a counter attack with the 48th regiment,
nade with great intrepidity and steadiness. The Guards, with
spleadid discipline, resumea their positions, and eventually the
French, with their leader Lapisse mortally wounded, fell back.
Failure all along the line and heavy losses left Kiw Joseph no
akemative but to retire towards Madrid. The French lost 7268 men
out of 46,i38present, the British 5363 out of ao.641: the Spanish
bases were officially returned at xaoi out of some 36^000 pment.
TALBOT (FAHiLy). Apart from its achievements, this is
one of the few families in the English aristocracy which traces
aEke its descent and its surname from the Norman conquerors
of En^and; and it may be said that there hfts hardly been a
time during more than seven centuries in which tbe Talbots
have not been of considerable account in public life. Yet in
some periods they appear rather as a potential infiuence, while
St certain marked epochs they stand out among the most pro-
ninent acton in English histoty. The name of Richard Talbot
occurs in Domesday Book as the holder of nine hides of land in
Bedfordshire under Walter Giffard. There is no evidence that
he came over to England with the Conqueror himself; and,
as he did not hold of the king in capiUf it is clear that be was
not a leader. Talbot being a personal nickname and not derived
from a place, those who bore It were not of necessity connected,
and tbe early pedigree is obscure. But a Geoffrey Talbot took
part with the empress Maud against King Stephen; and a
Hugh Talbot held the castle of Plessts against Henry I. for
Hugh de Gouraay, and afterwards became a monk at Beaubec
in Normandy. Richard Talbot, with whom the proved pedigree
begins, obtained from Henry II. on his accession the lordship
of Linton in Herefordshire, and from Richard I. the custody of
Ludlow Castle; and his descendants for some generations
appear to have been wardens of various castles on the borders
of Wales, and intermarried with the great families of this region.
Under Edward 11. t Gilbert Talbot was head of the house, and
invaded Scotland In the king's company, but afterwards took
part with ThanaBS of Lancaster against the king. He, however.
was pardoned; and obtained from Edward TH. a confirmation
of the grant of the manor of Linton and other lands, being also
mmmooed to parliament as a baron (1331).
His son Richard, who had married a daughter and co-heiresi
of John Corayn of Badenoch, laid cbdm to certain lands in
Scotland in her right, and, when restrained from entering that
country by land (Edward HI. having then made an alliance
with King David), he joined in a successful expedition which
invaded it by sea in the interests of Edward BalioL Three years
later be was taken prisoner In Scotland, and redeemed for
9000 marks, after which the king made him governor of Berwick.
He took part also in Edward's wars against France, as did like-
wise his son Gilbert, who succeeded Mm. His wife had brought
him the noble seat of (Soodrich Castle on the Wye, and at this
time the family posaeased lands In the counties of Oxford,
Gloucester, Hereford and Kent. Gilbert's son Ridiard added
to this inheritance by marrying the heiress of Lord Strange of
Blackmere, and himself became under Richard II. one of the
beirs of the earl of Pembroke, thus adding to his estates, lands
in Berkshire, Wilts, Salop and Essex. Another Gilbert Talbot,
grandson of the last, claimed to cany the great span at tht
coronation of Henry V., and had a commission to receive the
submission of Owen Gkndower and his adherents. He also
distinguished himself In the invasion of Normandy. He was
twice married, his second wife being a Portuguese lady, but he
left no male issue, and was succeeded by his brother John.
Hitherto the head of the houte had borne the name of Lord
Talbot; but this John, after obtaining by marriage the title of
Lord Fumival, was for his distinguished actions created earl
of Shrewsbury (see SEBZWSBumY, John Talbot, ist earl oO. -
Besides his martial exploits, this John claims some attention
for his family afliances. His first wife Maud, a granddaughter
of Thomas, Lord Fumival, brought him the castle of Shefiield
■s part of her Inheritance, and he was accordingly summoned
to parliament in the days of Henry IV. as John Talbot of
HaDamshire, otherwise Lord Fumival, more than thirty yean
before he was made earl of Shrewsbury. Tbe property became a
favourite residence of the family during the Tadot era; and, but
for the death in 1616 of Gilbert, 7th earl of Shrewsbury, without
male issue, Sheffield might have remained much longer a centre
of feudal magnificence rather than of commerce and manu*
factures. The second wife of John, earl of Shrewsbury, was
Margaret, the ddest of three daughters of Richard Beauchamp,
earl of Warwick, by that earl's second wife, a danghter of
Thomas, Lord Berkeley. By her he obtained a third part of
tbe Berkeley property; and, though she did not become tbe
mother of a line of earls, her ddest son, John Talbot, was created
Viscount Lisle, and it was he who fell along with his fathex^t
the disastrous battle of Chatillon in Gascony. His son Thomas,
who inherited the title of Viscount Lisle, was slain at the early
age of twenty-two in a feudal contest with Lord Berkeley, arising
out of a dispute as to the possession of Berkeley castle, on the
30th of Marofa 1470; and the title was afterwards conferred on
Edward Grey, the husband of one of his two sisters.
John, the second earl of Shrewsbury, was the ist earl's son
by his first wife. He had been knighted at Leicester in 1426
along with the infant king Henry VI., had served in the wars
of France, and been made chancellor of Ireland during his
father's lifetime, when he was only Lord Talbot. Afterwards
he was made lord high treasurer of England, and in 1459 was
rewarded for Ms services to the house of Lancaster with a grant
of 100 marks a year out of the fordship of Wakefield, forfeited
by Richard, duke of York. But next year he and his brother
Christopher were slain at the battle of Northampton, fighting
in the cause of Henry VI. His son John succeeded him, and
then his gcandson George, who fought for Henry VII. at Stoke,
and whom King Henry VEIL sent as his lieutenant against the
rebels in the Pilgrimage of Grace. But perhaps tb^ "-* '■''h
most redounds to his credit is the humanif
received the fallen Cardinal Wolsey into hir
when he was on hb way up to London as a t
Francis, the sth earl, took a leading part
368
TALBOT, M. A.— TALC
Scotland under Henry VIII. and Edward VI., and waa one of
the two peers who alone opposed the bill for abolishing the
pope's jurisdiction under EUzabeth. His son Geoi;ge, who
succeeded, was the earl to whom the custody of Mary Stuart
was comdUtted, his task being rendered all the more difficult
for him by the intrigues of his second wife, Bess of Hardwick,
the builder of Chatsworth, who had married three husbands
before her union with him. Two sons of this last eari succeeded
one another, and the title then devolved, for want of male issue,
on the lineal descendanu of Sir Gilbert Talbot of Grafton in
Woccestecshire, third son of John, the and eaii. But the old
baronies of Talbot, Strange of Blackmere, and Fumival had
passed away in 1616 to the daughters of the 7th earl, of whom
the youngest married Thomas (Howard) earl of Arundel, whose
descendant, the duke of Norfolk, has the valuable Furaival
estates. The above Sir Gilbert had fought for Henry VII. at
Bosworth, where he was severely wounded, was knighted on
the field, and was throughout one of the first Tudor's most
trusted coundllors. He fought also at Stoke against the in*
surgents with Lambot Simnel, was made a knight banneret,
governor of Calais, and lord chamberlain.
The 9th earl, George, descended from this Gilbert, died un-
married, and his nephew, who followed, was succeeded by his
grandson Francis, chiefly memorable ifor his unhappy fate.
His second wife, the " wanton Shrewsbury " of Pope, a daughter
of the eari of Cardigan, was seduced by the duke of Buckingham,
whom the outraged husband challenged to a duel The countess,
it is said, was present at the scene, and held Buckingham's hoiae
in the disguise of a page, saw her husband killed, and then
clasped her lover in her arms, receiving blood-stains upon her
dress from the embrace. Charles, the isth earl, son of this
unfortunate nobleman, was raised by William IIL to the dignity
of a duke, but as be left no son this title died along with him in
17 18, and the earldom of Shrewsbury devolved on his cousin
Gilbert, a Roman Catholic priest.
From thb time the direct line of Sir Gilbert Talbot of Graftim
began to fail. A nephew three times succeeded to an uncle,
and then the title devolved upon a cousin, who died unmarried
in 1856. On the death of this cousin the descent of the title
was for a short time in dispute, and the lands were claimed for
Lord Edmund Howard (now Talbot), an infant son of the duke
of Norfolk, under the will of the last eari; but the couru
decided that, under a private act obtained by the duke of
Shrewsbury shortly before his death, the title and bulk of the
estates must go together, and the true successor to the earldom
was found in Earl Talbot, the head of another line of the de-
scendants of Sir Gilbert Talbot of Grafton, sprung from a second
marriage of Sir Gilbert's son. Sir John Talbot of Albrigbton.
The head of this family in the beginning of the i8th century
was a divine of some mark, William Talbot, who died bishop of
Durham in 1730. His son Charles, who filled the ofiBce of lord
chancellor, was created Baron Talbot of Hensol in Glamorgan-
shire in 1733; and his son William was advanced to the dignity
of Earl Talbot in 1761, to which was added Ingestre, the barony
of Dynevor, with special remainder to his daughter. Lady Cecil
Rice, in X78a Then succeeded a nephew, who was created
Viscount and Eari Talbot, and assumed by royal licence the
surname of Chetwynd before Talbot, from his mother.
All the titles just mentioned have been united in the line
of the Ead Talbot who successfully claimed the Shrewsbury
title as the 1 8th earl, the earldom of Shrewsbury (1442) being
now the oldest existing that is not merged in a higher title.
The family seats (Alton Towers and Ingestre Hall) and the chief
esutes are in Staflfordshire. The <M badge of the family was
a " talbot " or ruanii^c laomxL (J. Ga.; J. H. K.)
TALBOT, MARY iUW (i77a-i9o8), the '< British Amazon.'
captured by the British, who transferred her to the " Bnmt-
wick," where she served as a powder monkey, being wounded
in Lord Howe's victory of the ist of Jtme 2794. For this she
later received a small pension. When the wound healed she
again went to sea, was captured by the French, aiMl imprisoned
for a year and a half. Her sex was not discovered until shortly
afterwards she was seized by a pressgang. She finally became
a household servant to Robert Klrby, a London publisher, who
included an account of her adventures in his Wonderjtd Museum
(1804) and in Life and Surprising Advenlures of Mary Atme
Talbot (1809). She died on the 4th of February x8o8.
TALBOT, WUXIAM HENHT FOX (1800-1877), English dis-
coverer in photography, was the only child of William Daven-
port Talbot, of Lacock Abbey, WilU, and of Lady Elizabeth
Fox Strangways, daughter of the 2nd eari of Uchester. He
was bom on the xzth of February z8oo, and was educated at
Harrow and at Trinity Ccdlege, Cambridge, where he gained
the Poison prize in i8ao, and graduated as twelfth wrangler in
182X. From 2822 to X87S he frequently communicated papers
to the Royal Society, many of them on mathematical subjects.
At an early period he had begun his optical researches, which
were to have such important results in coimexion with photog-
raphy. To the Edinburgh Journal of Science in X826 he con-
tributed a paper on " Some Experiments on Coloured Flame ";
to the Quarterly Journal of Science in 1837 a paper on " Mono-
chromatic Li^t "; and to the Pkilosopkical MagoMtne a number
of papers on chemical subjects, including one on " Chemical
Changes of Colour." Before L. J. M. Daguerre exhibited in
1839 pictures taken by the sun, Talbot had obtained similar
success, and as soon as Daguerre's discoveries became known
communicated the results of his experiments to the Royal
Society. In X84X he made known his discovery of the calot>'pe
or talbotype process, and after the discovery of the collodion
process by Frederick Scott Archer in X85X he devised a method
of instantaneous photography. For his discoveries, which are
detailed in his Pencil of Nature (X844), he received in 1842 the
Rumford medal of the Royal Sknuety. While engaged in his
scientific researches he devoted much time to archaeology.
He published Hermes, or Classical and Antiquarian Researches
(1838-39), and Illustrations of the Antiquily of the Booh of
Genesis (1839). With Sir Henry Rawlinson and Dr Edward
Hincks he shares the honour of having been one of the first
decipherers of the cuneiform inscriptions of Ninevdi. He was
also the author of English Etymologies (1846). He died at
Lacock Abbey on the X7lh of September 1877.
TALBOT OF HBN80L, CHARLES TALBOT,. xsT Bason (1685-
X737)> lord chancellor of England, was the eldest son of William
Talbot, bishop of Durham, a descendant of the xst eari of
Shrewsbury. He was educated at Eton and Oriel Collie, Oxford,
and became a feUow of All Souls 0>llege in X704. He was called
to the bar in X71X, and in X717 was appointed solicitor-general
to the prince of Wales. Having been dected a member of the
House of Commons in x 7 20, he became solicitor-general in x 7 26,
and in X733 he was made lord chancellor and raised to the peerage
with the title of Baron Talbot of HensoL Talbot proved himself
an equity judge of exceptional capacity and of the highest
character during the three years of his occupancy of the Wool-
sack. He died on the 14th of February X737. Among his
contemporaries Talbot enjoyed the reputation of a wit; be
was a patron of the poet Thomson, who in The Seasons com-
memorated a son of his to whom he acted as tutor; and Butler
dedicated his famous Analogy to the lord chancellor. The title
assumed by Talbot was derived from Hensol in Glamorganshire,
which came to him through his wife.
See Lord CampbeU, Xcnu of the Lord ChanceOors and Keepers of
the Great Seal (8 vols. London, i8<is-6q); Edward Foss, The Judges
' '9 vols, London, 1848-6^); Lord Hcryey, Memoirs of
jeorge II. ( 2 vols. London. 1848); G. E. C, Complete
vu. (London, 1896).
mineral which in its compact forms is known as
soapstoue. It was probably the itayviint \i$ot
istus, described as a stone of silvexy lustre, easily
TALCA— TALE
369
cnL He vend lak, loinetiiiies written talk, it said to. oqwa
bom tht Aiabic lalqf and not to be connected, as has been
iancifuny soggested, with the Swedish tdtja, ** to cut," Talc
and mica were confused by the older writers, and even at the
present day mica is sometimes known in trade as taic; whilst
the term was formerly applied also to foliated gypsum.
Tak is found occasionally in small hexagonal and rhombic
plates, with perfect basal cleavage, and they are supposed
to be moooclinic Taic often occurs in foliated masses,
sometimes with a curved surface, readily separating into
thin very flexible, non-eUstic laminae. The plates give
a six-rayed percussion^figure. Talc has a hardness of only
about I, and a specific gravity of from 3-6 to 2*8. Its extreme
softne» and its greasy feel are characteristic The lustre on
the cleavage face is pearly, or sometimes silvery, and one of the
oU names of the mineral was sUlU Unat^ while German writers
sometimes called it KatsensUber. The colour is white, grey,
yellow or frequently green. The mineral has strong bire>
Cringence and a small optic axial angle.
Talc is a magnesium silicate HaMgaSiiOo. It is generally
icgarded as a hydrous silicate, but the water is expelled only
at a very strong heat, and may therefore be regarded as basic.
By the action of heat the hardness of the mineral is greatly
increased. Pseudomorphs are known after actinoUte, pyr-
oxene, &C., and the mineral has probably been generally formed
by the alteration of fcrro-magnesian silicates. Talc occurs chiefly
in crystalline schists, usually associated with chlorite, serpentine
and dolomite. Fine examples of iq>ple-green colour are found
at Mount Greiner, in the Zillerthal, TiroL Talc-schist is a
loliated rock composed chiefly of talc, generally associated
with quarU and felspar; but all soapy schists are not neces-
sarily takoae. The peariy micaceous consiitoeat of the Alpine
protogine Is a muacovite.
The '* steatites " of Pliny was a stone resembling fat, hut other-
wise ttodescribed. Being easily cut, steatite has always been a
favourite material with the carver: it was used for Egyptian
scarabs and other amulets, which were usually coated with a
blue vitreous glaxe; and it was employed for Assyrian cylinder-
scab and for other ancient signets. By the Chinese steatite is
largely used for ornamental carvings, but many of their " soap-
stone" figures are wrought in a compact pyrophyllite {q.v.),
which is essentially different from talc. The name agalmatolite
is often applied to the material of these figures, and was sug-
gested by M. H. Klaprolh from the Greek iyoXiULj " an image."
Pagodiie is an old name for Chinese figure-stone. Ancient
steatite carvings are found among the ruins of Rhodesia.
Steatite is usually a white, grey, greenish or brown substance,
occurring in veins or nodular nyisscs or in lenticular bedded
deposits. Pseudomorphs after quartz and dolomite occur
near Wonsiedel in Bavaria. In some cases it is a product of
the alteration of pyroaem'c rocks, and the commercial mineral
may be very impure. The ease with which steatite may be
worked, coupled with its power of resisting heat, has led
to iu onpfeyment for vessels for household use, whence it is
called " pocstone "—the lapis oUurU of old writers. Among the
osc* of steatite may be mentioned its employment, especially in
America, for sinks, stoves, firebricks, foot-warmers, tips for gas-
burners and electric switchboards: when ground it is used as a
filler for paper, for leather-dressing, for covering steam-pipes, as
an ingredient in soap, for toilet-powder, for certain paints and as
a lubricant. A fine granular steatite is used by tailors for mark-
Jag doth under the name of " French chalk " or " Spanish chalk."
Slate pencils are made of steatite and pyrophyllite; and in Burma
steatite pencils are used for writing on bbck paper. In the
oxyhydragea flame, steatite has been fused and drawn out into
tkn9ul% like quaxta-fibres.
Stcadto and tafe-aehisCi are widely distribatcd, and have occasioa-
abeeo uaed as butlding stones. When firftt raised the stoae is
, but hardens on expoauie. Soapstone from Gudbrandsdal is
used in the cathedral of Trondhiem in Norway. Veins of steatite
occur m the terpentine of the Lizard district in Cornwall, and the
anneral was used under the name of soap loek in the maouCac-
tare of the old Woiocscer po ire la in . Among localities of atcatite
in the British Isles mention may he made of Crohy Head and
Cartan near Letterkenny in co. Donegal, Ireland; the Snetland isles,
the Hebrides (Harris) and Shineas in Sutherland. In North America
the distribution of the mineral is very extensive; localities of
economic importance are near Gouverneur and ddewhere in St
Lawrence co., New York; at Francestown in New Hampshire;
Stockbridge, Windsor co., Vermont; Lynnfield, Masoachusetts;
near Lafayette, Pennsylvania; Albemarle. AmeNa, Buckingfaam,
Fairfax and Fluvanna cot., Vimnia; Chetokeef Moore and Swain
COS.. North Carolina: and in Murray oo.. Georpa.
A fibrous steatite from New York state, used in the manufacture
of paper, is known as agalite. Rensaelaerite is a wax-like talcose
substance, passing, into serpentine, from St^ Lawrence 00.. New
f E, r • — . ^ .. ~
York, named by E. Emmoas in 1937 after & Van Rensselaer, of
Albanv. N.Y. Beaoooite is an aabcstiform talc from Michigan,
named by L. W. Hubbard. The termpyrallolite was given by Nils
G. NordenskiOld to a mineral from Finland, which apoears to be
tak pseudomoiphous after pyroxene. Talcoid was K. F. Naui
mpyralli
I Finland
., Talcok.
name for a white bmcUar mineral from near Preasnitz in BobenUa.
A blue earthy mineral from near Silver City, New Mexico, known
locally as " native ultramarine,** b a magnesium silicate.
See " Talc and Soapstone *' in vol. ii. of Mineral Respurees oflht
U.S. (Washington. 1909). and J. H. Pratt. " Economic Papers." No. 3
of Geol. Surv. of N. Carolina (1900) ; also E. W. Parker in loth lUpoH
of U.S. GcoL Surv. (1898): C. H. Smyth, iunmr. The F^nus TaU
Industry ej St Lamence Co., N.Y., in ^* Mineral Industry," vol. ix.,
for 1900; and G. P. Merrill's Nm-metaUic Minerals (New York,
1904). (F. W. R.*)
TALCA, a province of Chile, bounded N. by Curico, E. by
Argentina, S. by Linares and Maule, and W. by the Pacific.
Area 3S40 sq. m. Pop. (1895) 138,961. In the E. the Andean
slopes cover a considerable part of its territory, and in the W.
another large area is covered by the coast range. Between
these is the oentral valley of Chile in which the population and
industries of the province are chiefly concentrated. The
mountainous parts are well wooded. The intermediate pUin,
which is rolling and slopes gently to the S., is fertile and devoted
to wheat and stock. The capital of the province is Talca (pop.
x^5> 33*332; 1903 estimated 42,766), on the Rio Chiro, a
tributary of the Maule, 156 m. by rail S. of Santiago. It is
one of the most important provincial towns and commercial
centres of central Chile. There are woollen factories, especially
for the universally worn " poncho." Talca has railway con-
nexion with Santiago on the N., with Conccpci6n on the S.,
and with Constituci6n at the mouth of the Idaule.
TALCAHUANO, or Talcacuano, a seaport of the province
of Concepd6n, Chile, on the bay of Concepd6n, 8 m. N.W. of
the city and port of that name. Pop. (1895) 20,451; (1902,
estimated) 13,499- It is sheltered by the ishihd of Quiriquina.
It has the best harbour on the Pacific coast of South America,
and is one of the most important ports of southern Chile, being
connected by rail with Concepci6n, Santiago and southern
Chile. Its foreign trade is krge and steadily increasing. The
Chilean government has established its chief naval depot here.
TALB (0.£ng. talu, number, account, story; the word is
common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Gcr. Zahl, number,
ErxOJUung, narrative, Du. iaal, speech, language), a general
term, in tbe usual acceptance of the word, for fictitious nana*
Lives, long or short, ancient or modem (see Novel). In this
article " tale " is used in a stricter sense, as equivalent to the
German " Volks-m&rchen " or the French " conte populaire."
Thus understood, popuUr tales mean the stories handed down
by oral tradition from an unknown antiquity, among savage
and civilized peoples. So understood, popular tales are a subject
in mythology, and indeed in the general study of the develofv
roent of man, of which the full interest and importance was long
unrecognized. Popular tales won their way into literature,
it is true, at a very distant period. The Homeric epics, espedally
the Odyssey, contain adventures (those, for example, of the
Cyclops and the husband who returns in disguise) which are
manifestly parts of the gei»eral human stock of popular narrative.
Other examples are found in the Rigoeda, and in the myths which
were handled by the Greek dramatists. CoUectiop- -^ ~— .i-.-
tales, more or le^s subjected to conscious litr
are found in Sanskrit, as in the work of Somad
SarU SAgara, or " Ocean of the Streams of
translated by Mr Tawney (CakutU, x88o).
37°
tALE
AND One Nights C^.v.) ate full of popular talcs, and popular
talcs are the staple of the medieval Gesta Romanorumt and of
the collections of Straparola and other Italian conteuraw Ia
aH these and similar gatherings the story, long drcuhtcd from
mouth to mouth among the people^ is handled with conscious
art, and little but the general outline of plot and character of
incident can be regarded as originaL In the Histories ou Contes
dtt Temps PassS of Perrault (Elzevir, Amsterdam, 1697; the
Parisian edition b of the same date) we have one of the earliest
gatherings of tales which were ta^en down in their nursery
shape as they were told by nurses to children. This at least
seems probable, though M. Alfred Maury thinks Perrault drew
from literary sources. Permult attributed the composition to
bis son, P. Darmancour, at that time a child, and this pretend
enabled him to give his stories in a simple and almost popular
guise. It seems that popular tales in many cases probably owe
their origin to the desire of enforcing a monl or practical lesson.
It appears that their irrational and " infantile " chaxacter-^
" d^pourvues de raison "—is derived from their origin, if sot
actually among children, at least among childlike peoples, who
have not arrived at "raison," that is, at the scientific and
modern conception of the world and of the nature of man.
The success of Perrault's popular tales brought the genre
into litcrar>' fashion, and the Cbmtesse d'AuInoy invented, or
in some cases adapted, "contes," which still retain a great
popularity. But the precise and scientific collection of tales
from the lips of the people is not much earlier than our century.
The chief impulse to the study was given by the brothers Grimm.
The first edition of their Kinder- und Haus-MHrchen was
published in 1812. The English reader will find a very con-
siderable bibliography of popular tales, as known to the Grimms,
in Mrs Alfred Hunt's translation, Crimm^s Household Tales,
ibiik Sotes (London, 1884). ** How unique was our collection
when it first appeared," they exclaim, and now merely to
enumerate the books df such traditions would occupy much
space. In addition to the mSrchen of Indo-European peoples,
the Griimns became acquainted with some Malay stories, some
narratives of Bechuanas, Negroes, American Indians, and
Finnish, Esthonian, and Magyar stories. Thus the Grimms'
knowledge of non-European m&rchen was extremely • slight.
It enabled them, however, to observe the increase of refinement
" in piDportion as gentler and more humane manners develop
themselves," the monstrosities of Finnish and Red-Indian
fancy gradually fading in the narratives of Germans itnd Italians.
The Grimms notice that the evolution of popular narrative
resembles the evolution of the art of sculpture, from the South-
Sea idol to the frieze of the Parthenon, " from the strongly
marked, thin, even ugly, but highly expressive forms of its
earliest stages to those which possess external beauty of mould."
Since the Grimms' time our knowledge of the popular tales of
non-European races has been greatly enriched. We possess
numbers of North-American, Brazilian, Zulu, Swahili, Eskimo,
Samoan, Maori, Kaffir, Malagasy, Bushman, North African,
Fiort, New Caledonian, and even Australian mSrchen, and can
study them in comparison with the stories of Hesse, of the West
Highlands of Scotland, of Scandinavia.
While the popular romances of nu:es of aU coloun must be
examined together, tnother element in this subject is not less
important. It had probably been often observed before, as by
Lord FountainhaU (1670), but the fact was brought otot most
vividly by J. G. von Hahn {Grieckische und tdbanesiseke Mlttchen,
Leipzig, 1864), that the popular tales of European races turn
on the same Incidents, and display the same succession of
situations, the same characters, and the same plots, as are
familiar In the ancient epic literature of Greece, India, Germanjr
and Scandinavia. The epics are either fully-developed mSrcheii
evolved by the literary genius of poets and saga-men, or the
ro&rchen are degenerate and broken-down memories of the
epics and sagas, or perhaps there may be examples of both
processes w,— namely, that the popular tales
are, so 1 grains of gold of which the epic
is the " placer."-the belief that the
mirchen are the detritus of the saga.^was for a tang ttitee
prevalent. But a variety of arguments enforce the oppo^te
conclusion, namely, that the marcben are essentially earlier in
character than the epic, the final form to which they have been
wrought by the genitis of Homer or of some other remote yet
cultivated poet. If this view be accepted, the evolution of
m&rchen and of certain myths has passed through the folkmmg
stages:—
(i) The popular tale, as current among the lucultivated
peoples, such as Iroquois, Zulus, Bushmen, Samoans, Eskimo,
and Samoyedes. This tale will reflect the mental condition of
rude peoples, and will be full of moastrous and miraculous events,
with an absence of reason proper, as Perrault says, " ft ceux qui
n'en ont pas encore." At the same time the tale will ver>-
probably enforce some moral or practical lesson, often the
sanction of a taboo, and may even appear to have been invented
with this very purpose, for man is everywhere impressed with
the importance of conduel.
(2) The same tale— or rather a aeries of incidents and a plot
essentially the same— as it b discovered surviving in the oral
traditions of the illiterate peasantry of European races. Among
them the monstrous element, the ferocity of manners observed
in the first stage, wHl be somewhat modified, but will be found
most notable among the Slavonic tribes. Nowhere, even in
German and Scottish mftrchen, is it extinct, cannibalism and
cruel torture being favourite inddeata.
(3) The same plots and Incidents as they exist in the heroic
epics and poetry of the cultivated races, such as the Homeric
epics, the Greek tragedies, the Cyclic poets, the Kalcwah of the
Finns, certain hymns of the Rigveda, certain legends of the
Brahmanas, the story of the Vobungs,— in these a local and
almost historical character is given by the introduction of names
of known places, and the adventures are attributed to national
heroes,— Odysseus, Oedipus, Sigurd, Wainamofnen, Jason,
Pururavas, and others. The whole tone and manneiB are
nobler and more refined in proportion as the literary wotlLman-
ship is more elaborate.
This theory of the origin of popular tales fn the fancy of
peoples in the savage condition (see MyrROLOcv), of their
survival as mSrchen among the peasantry of Indo-European and
other dvilized races, and of their transfiguration into epics,
could only be worked out after the discovery that savage and
civilized popular tales are full of close resemblanoet. These
resemblances, when only known to exist among tndo-European
peoples, were explained as part of a common Aryan inheritance,
and as the result of a malady of language. This system, when
appUed to myths in general, has already been examined (see
Mytbolooy). According to .another view, miLrchcn every-
where resemble each other because they all arose in India,
and have thence been borrowed and transmitted. For this
theory consult Benfey's Panckatanird and M. Cosquin's Conies
de Lorraine (Paris, 1886) In opposition to the Aryan theory,
and the theory of borrowing from India, the sytem which is
here advocated regards popular tales as kaleidoscopic arrange-
ments of comparatively few situations and incidents, which
again are naturally devised by the eariy fancy. Among these
incidents may be mentioned, first, kinohip and intermarriage
between man and the lower animals and even inorganic pheno-
mena. Thus a girl is wooed by a frog, pumpkin, goat, bear,
or elephant, in Zulu, Scotch, Walachian, Eskimo, Ojibway, and
German mftrchen. This incident is based on the lack of a ser «e
of difference between man and the things in the worid which
is prevalent among savages (see Mythology). Other incidents
familiar in our nursery tales (such as " Cinderella " and " P^jss
in Boots") turn on the early belief in metamorphosis, hi magic,
in friendly or protecting animals (totems or beast manftous).
Others depend on the early prevalence of cannibalilim (compare
Grimm, 47, " The Juniper Tree "). This recurs in the mad song
of Gretchen in Faust^ concerning which a distinguished student
writes, " This ghost of a ballad or rhyme is my earliest remem-
brance, as crooned by an old East-Lothtaa nurse." (Compare
Chambers's Poptdof Rhymes of Scotland, 1870, p. 49^) Tlie
TALENT— TALGARTH
371
tsne lepnd.oecun anioiig the Bechuanas, and is pubUih«d by
Casalis. Yet another iocident springs from the taboo on certain
actions between husband and wife, producing the story of
Cupid and Psyche (see Lang's Custom and Myth, 1884, p. 64).
Once more, the custom which makes the youngest child the
heir is illustrated in the mjirchen of the success^ dopite the
jealousy of the elders, of Cinderella, of the Zulu prince (Calla-
way's Tales from tki Amamht, pp. 64, 65), and in countless other
mairchen. In other case9» as in the world-wide milrchen corre-
sponding to the Jason epic, we seem in presence of an early
romantic invention,-^how di0used it is difficult. to imagine.
Mocal lessons, again, are inculcated by the numerous tales
which turn on the duty of kindness, or on the impossibility of
evading fate as announced in prophecy. In opposition to the
philological ezpbnalioo of the story of Oedipus as a nature-
myth, this theory of a collection of incidents illustrative of
moral lessons b admirably set forth in Prof. Compaictti's Eiipo
» la MMogia Cvmparata (Pisa, 1867).
On a general view, then, the stuff of popular tales is a certain
number of incidents and a certain set of combinations of these
ittcjdeots. Their strange and irrational character is due to their
remote origin in the fancy of men in the savage condition; and
their wide distribution is caused, partly perhaps by oral trans-
mission from people to people, but more by tb^ tendency of
the early imagination to run everywhere in the same grooves.
The narratives, in the ages of heroic poetry, are elevated into
epic soflig, and in the middle ages tb^ were even embodied in
trends oi the saints. This view is maintained at greater
kogth, and with numerous illustrationa, in the introduction to
Mts Hunt's translation of Grimm's Kinder- und Hams-Mdrcken,
and in Custom and Myth, already referred to.
For savage popular tales see Theal's Kaffir Folk Lon (and ed.,
London, 1886); Callaway's Nursery Tales 4^ the AmaxtJu (London,
1868); Schoolcraft's Alpe Researehes; Gill's Myths and Tales of the
(•-..jl o^^j:^, d.>»:*^*C Tmr,Jmii^mmr j^JiMm^Mw ^tfiDA\« Shoftland's
^rican
•tinsh Rink's Taka and Traditmu of the kskimoi BktWs
BoUemta Tales and Fables (London. 1864): Caitrin's Sanufyedische
Mdrchen; Maspcro s Contes Egyptiens (from ancient Egyptian M5S.) ;
and Leiand's Attonquin Lcpnds (London, 1884). For European
laks. the UMiomphy in the translation of Grimm already referred
to may be used, ajid the MaiHonneuve collection, Les LitUntures
Mmtaint, may be recommended. The names of Liebrecht. Kdhler,
Dasent. Ralston. Nwra. Pitr£. Cosquin, Afanasief. Gaidoz, Sebillot,
nay serve as clues tnrpuzh the enchanted forest of the nursery talcs
of Europe. Miss Coxc's Cinderella (Folk-Lore Society) is an excellent
work on the subject, as is Sidney Hartbnd's Legend of Porseus,
mainly concerned with myths of mifaculous births. For Auatmlia
tccMn Langbh Parker's Australian Legendary Tales (;> vols.) and
Howitt*s Natii-e Tribes of South-East Austratta. M. S^iltot has
edited French tales, and Mr Dennett has given Foik-Lore of the Fiort.
There are abundant materials and diKussions in Fraaer's The
Caldm Bomgh. <A. U)
TAUUIT (Lat. taknhan, adaptatfoa of Or. Hthaanm, balance,
wdgfat, from root i«X-, to lift, as in rhSpm, to bear, r&Xas,
enduring, cf . Lat. toUtrt, to lift, Skt. hdd, balance), the name
of an andent Greek unit of weight, the heaviest in use both for
monetary purposes and for commodities (see WEXcnts and
Measithes). The weight itself was originally Babykmian, and
derivatives were in use in Palestine, Syria and Egypt. In
medieval Latin and also in many Romanic languages the word
was used figuratively, of will, inclination or desire, derived from
the sense of balance, but the general figurative use for natural
endowments or gifts, faculty, capacity or abilityi is due to the
parable of the talents in Matt. xxv.
TAtfOURD, SIR THOMAS NOOM (1795-1S54), English
fudge and author, the son of a brewer hi good drcumsUnces,
was bom on the »6lh of May 1795 at Reading (not, as is some-
times stated, at Do»cy, near Stafford). He received his early
education at Hendon, and at the Reading grammar-school.
At the age of eighteen be was sent to London to study law under
Joseph Cbitty, the special pleader. Early in 182 1 he Joined the
Otford drcuit, having been called to the bar at the middle
Temple in the same year. When, fourteen years later, he was
created a serjeant-at-law, and when again he in 1849 succeeded
Mr. Justice Coltman as judge of the court of common pleas, he
attained these distinctions more perhaps for his laborious care
in the conduct of cases than on account of any forensic brilliance.
At the general election in 1835 he was returned for Reading.
This seat be retained for dose upon six ycais, and he was again
returned in 1847. In the House of Commons he introduced
an International Copyright Bill; his speech on this subject
was considered the most telling made in the House during that
session. The bill met with strong opposition, but Taffourd
had the satisfaction of seeing it pass into law in 184^, albeit
in a greatly modified form. Dickens dedicated the FUkmck ,
Papers to him.
In bis early years in London Talfourd was dependent-^in
great measure, at least— upon his literary exertions. He
was at this period on the staff of the London Magaxingf and
was an occasional contributor to the Edinburgh and Quarterly
reviews, the New Monthly Magazine, and other periodicals (
while, on joining the Oxford circuit, be acted as law reporter
to The Times. His legal writings on matters germane to
literature axe excellent expositions, animated by a lucid and
telling, if not highly polished, style. Among the best of these
are his article " On the Principle of Advocacy in the* Practice
of the Bar " (in the Law Magazine t January 1846); his Proposed
New Law of Copyright of the Highest Importance to Authors
(1838); Three Speeches delivered in the House of Commons in
Favour <tf an Extension of Copyright (1840) ; and his famous
Speech for the Defendant in the Prosecution, the Queen v. Mexon,
for the Publication of Shelley*s Poetical Works (1841).
But Talfourd cannot be said to have gained any positkm
among men of letten until the production of his trag^y Ion,
which was privately printed in 1855, and produced in the follow*
ing year at Covent Garden theatre. The tragedy was also well
received in America, and was reproduced at Sadler's WeUs in
December x86i. Thb dramatk poem, its author's masterpiece,
turns upon' the voluntary sacrifice of Ion, king of Argoa, in
response to the Delphic oracle, which had declared that only
with the extinction of the reigning family could the prevailing
pestilence incurred by the deeds of that family be removed.
Two yeara later, at the Haymarket theatre. The Athenian
Captive was acted with moderate success. In 1839 Clencoa,
or the Fate of the Macdonatds, was privately prhitfed, and in
.1840 it was produced at the Haymarket; but this home drama
is inferior to his two dassic plays. The Castilian (1853) did not
excite a tenth part of the interest called forth by Ion. Befote
this he had produced varflsus other prose writings, among them
his " History of Greek Literature," m the Encyclopaedia Metro*
polHana. Talfourd died in court during the periormance of bis
judicial duties, at Stafford, on the xjth of March 1854.
In addhion to the wittings above-mentioned. Talfourd was the
author of The Letters of Charles Lamb, with a Sketch of his Ufe (1837);
RecolUciions of a First Visit to the Alps (I841): Vacation RambUs
and Thouffhls, comprising recollections of three Continental tours in
the vacations of 1841. 1843, and 1843 (' ^oU., 1844): and Final
Memorials of Charles LanA (1849-50).
TALGARTH, a decayed market town in Bneconshire, South
Wales, situated on the Ennig near its junction with the Llynfi
(a tributary of the Wye), with a station on the joint line of the
Cambrian and Midland companies from Brecon to Three Cocks
Junction (2I m. N.N.E., but in Talgarth parish). The popu-
lation of the whole parish (which measures i2.:?94 acres) was
1466 in 190Z*. The church of St Gwendoline, restored in 1873.
is in Perpendicular style, with an embattled tower restored in
1898. The Baptists, Congregationalists and Calvinistic Metho-
dists have each a chapel in the town, and there is also a Con-
gregational church at Trcdwcstan, founded in 1662. About
1 m. S.W. is Trevecca, where Howel Harris, one of-ihaJoundexs
of Welsh Methodism, was bom in 1713, ar'
established a communistic religious " family
persons; their representatives in 184a hand
to the Welsh Calvinistic Methodist conne?
opened there a theological college, and ir
Harris memorial chapel. In 1906 the '
372
TALIENWAN— TALLAHASSEE
to Aberystwyth, and the buildings are now used by the Con-
nexion as a preparatory school for ministerial students.
The fortified station of Dinas occupies the summit of a hill
about 3i m. S.E. of Talgarth, and connnands the mountain pass
to CrickhoweU and the eastern part of the vale of Usk. Its
castle, built on the site of -an earlier British fortress, was destroyed
(according to Leland) by the inhabitants to prevent iu falling
into the hands of Glendower. The town was in the manor of
English Talgarth, there being also a manor of Welsh Talgarth,
in which Welsh laws prevaUed.
TALIBNWAN, an open bay or roadstead on the east side of
the Liaotung peninsula, Manchuria. It was leased to Russia by
China in 1898 with the naval fortress of Port Arthur, from which
it is distant 40 m., the lease being transferred to Japan in 1905.
The Russian town of Dalny (now Tairen) was built upon the
west side of the bay, known as Port Victoria. Being ice-free all
the year round, it has an advantage over Niuchwang, which is
frozen up for four months in the year. Niuchwang, however,
lies much nearer to the great producing and consuming districts
of Manchuria. Talienwan Is in railway connexion with Niu-
chwang and Pelung and via the Siberian railway with Europe. It
was the tendezvous of the British fleet during the AngIo>China
war of i860, whence the names Port Arthur and Port Viaoria.
TAUESSIN. the name of a late 6th century British bard,
of whom practically nothing is known except the attribution
to him of the collection of poems known as the Book of Taliasin,
See the article Celt, § Literature, IV.
TALISMAN, a magical charm. The word is often used as a
term synonymous with amulet (9.0.), but strictly should be
applied to an inanimate object which is supposed to possess
a supernatural capacity of conferring benefits or powers, an
amulet being that which protects or wards off evil (see
Magic). The most common form which the talisman took
jn medieval or later times was that of a disk of metal or stone
engraved with astrological figures, or with magical formuUe^
of which Abraxas {q.v,) and Abracadabra {q.v.) are the most
familiar. The word is derived through the Spanish from Arab.
filsamdn, plural of ^</j<xm, an adaptation of Gr. TlXc<r/ic, pay-
ment, outlay (from reXar, to accomplish), used in Late Gr. of
an initiation or mystery and in Med. Gr. of a charm.
TALLADEGA, a city and the couty-seat of Talladega county,
Alabama, U.S.A., 35 m. £. of Birmingham. Pop. (1900) 5056
(2687 negroes); (xoxo) 5854. It is served by the Southern,
the Louisville 8e Nashville and other railways. Talladega is
situated in the foothills of the Blue Ridge, about 560 ft. above
sea level. It is the seat of the Alabama Synodical College for
Women (Presbyterian, 1903), of Talladega College (Congrega-
tional, opened 1867; chartered 1869 and 1889) for the higher
education of negroes— the first college for negroes in the state,
and of several institutions devoted to the care of the deaf,
dumb and blind. Limestone and coal are found in the
vicinity. Among the manufactures are cotton goods, cotton-
seed oil, iron, hosiery, chemicals and fertilizers. There are
several mineral springs near the city, and the municipal water
supply is derived from a spring in the city. The electric lighting
and power plant is operated by water power on Jackson Shoals.
Talladega was originally an Indian village. On the 9th of
November 181 3, it was the scene of a decisive victory of the
whites and their Indian allies, aooo strong, led by Gen. Andrew
Jackson, over 1000 " Red Sticks," or Creek Indians, who were
hostile to the extension of white settlemeou in Indian territory.
TALLAGE (med. Lat. taUaiium, Fr. tailagd, from late Lat.
talartt taleare, Fr. taiUer, to cut, classical Lat. taiea, a cutting,
slip; cf. *' tally " and the French taiUe, q.v.), a special tax in
England paid by cities, boroughs and royal demesnes. The
word, variously interpreted as a part "cut off" from the
property taxed, or as derived from the tally {q.v.\ first appears
in the reign of Henry II. as a synonym for the auxUium burgi,
which was an occasional payment exacted by king and barons
over and above the annual firma bwgi from burgage tenants,
since all boroughs after the Norman Conquest came to be re-
garded as in tome lord's demesne. The tax displaced the
Danegdd so far as the towns and demesne lands of the Crown
were concerned In the second half of the 12th century, aiul
gradually the barons were deprived of the right of tallaging their
respective demesnes without royal authorization. The imposi-
tion of tallage continued under the immediate successors of
Henry II.; t^ barons failed to secure its prohibition or even
limiution at Ruimymede, and Henry III. levied it frequently.
The amount to be paid was determined during this time ^
officials of the exchequer in special fiscal circuits through
separate negotiations with the various tax-paying communities,
the towns usually raising their quota by means of a capitation
or poll tax. Iu imposition practically ceased by r283 in favour
of a general grant made in parliament, and the king's retention
of tallage seemed particularly unnecessary and illogical after
burgesses were summoned to parliament. The opinion used
to be held that tallage was forbidden by the Conjirmalio car-
tarum, but the Latin version of that document which bears the
title De taliagio non concedendo, although cited as a statute in
the preamble to the Petition of Right in 1627 and in a judicial
decision of 1637, was merely a chronicler's summary of the
purposes of the official French document, which did not mention
tallage by name. After 1297, however, there were only three
levies of the tax: one by Edward I. in 1304; again in 1312 by
Edward II. despite the protesU of London and Bristol; and
finally in 1332, when Edward III. encountered such opposition
from parliament that he withdrew the commissions and accepted
in its place a grant of a tenth-aod-fifteenth. The last time that
the king granted leave to the barons to tallage their demesnes
was in 1305. The second sUtute of r34o formally enacted that
the nation should thenceforth not " make any common aid or sus<
tain charge," including tallage, without consent of parliament.
See William Stubbs, Canstttutional History of England, vol. L
sect. 161. vol. ti. sect. 275: D. J. Medley, Engiis^ Constitutionoi
History, xrd cd. (London, IQ03); Pollock and Maitland, History
of Enilisk Law, vol. i.. 2nd ed.; S. J. ham and F. S. Pulling.
Dictionary of English History,
TALLAHASSEE, the capital of Florida, U.SJL, and the
county seat of Leon county, in the W. part of the state, about
40 m. £. of the Apalachicola river and so m. from the Gulf of
Mexico, about midway by railway between Jacksonville and
Pensacola. Pop. (1900) 2981 (1755 negroes); (1910) 5018;
in X900 the population of the county was X9,887, of whom
x6,ooo were negroes. Tallahassee is served by the Seaboard
Air Line and the Georgia, Florida & Alabama railways. The
city is finely situated on a hill, about 300 ft. above sea-level,
and the streets are wide and well-shaded. The principal build-
ings are the State Capitol, Grecian in architecture, the Federal
Building, and the County Court House. In the Episcopal
cemetery two monumenu mark the graves of Charles Louis
Napolfon Achille Murat (1801-1847), the eldest son of Joachim
Murat, and of his wife Catherine (1803-1867), the dauber of
Col. Bird C. Willis of Virginia and a grand-niece of George
Washington.^ Tallahassee is the seat of the Florida Female
College, co-ordinate with the State University for men, and the
State Normal and Industrial School (for negroes), an agricultural
and mechanical college. About 17 m. S. of Tallahassee, in
Wakulla county, is the Wakulla Spring, about 106 ft, deep,
one of the largest of the remarkable springs of Florida.
Tallahassee's name is of Seminole origin, and means, it is
said, " tribal land. " During a war with the Apalachee Indians
in 1638 the Spaniards, according to tradition, fortified a hill
W. of the city, where the Fort St Luis Place, a plaotatloa
' Murat settled here about 182 r, became a naturaliaed American
citizen, relinauiahiog hb claim to the crown of Naples, and lived
here for much of toe time until his death, holding tuccesaivcly the
office of alderman, mayor and postmaster of the city, and devoting
some of his leisure to the prc^ration of chire books, describing
political and social conditions m Aracriea, the last of which, Ex>-
position des principes du gonoemement ripubUeain lei qu'ii a Hi
perfectionni en Amirique (1838). was translated into many languages
and was very popular in Europe. After his death his wife Uvro in
what is still knom'n as the Niurat Homestead, about 3 m. W. of
Tallahassee, and after the American Civil War she receiwd an annuity
of 30,000 francs from Napoleon HI.
TALLBOY-^TALLEYRAND
373
About i8x8 moM «l the lodUos «n«
czpeUed from ibe vicimty, and a setUemeat was made by tbe
whites In 1824 TaUabassec» then virtually uninhabited, was
ioraiaJly choaen by the United Suies Govornment as tbe capital
of the Teniiory oif Fbrida, and it ooatuiued as the capital after
the admission of Florida into the Union as a state in 184$. It
was a residential centre for well-to-do planters before the Civil
War, and BcUair, 6 m. S., now in ruins, Was a iaahionable
pleasure resort. On the loth of January i86t a state conven-
tion adopted at Tallahaesce an Ordioance of Secession.
TALLHOY (partly a translation and partly a corruption of
the Freoch Aaaffttfu), a doubk chest of drawees. Wheress tbe
chest of drawers in iu familiar form (sometmies in the iSlh
century called a " lowboy ") contains three long and two short
drawers, the tallboy has five, six, or seven long drawers, and
two short ones. It is a very hte i7th<entary development
of the smaller chest. The early examples are of walnut, but by
far the largest proportion of the many that have survived are
cf mahogany, that being the wood most frequently employed
in the i8th century for the construction of furniture, especially
the more massive pieces. Occasionally the walnut at the
beginning of the vogue of the tallboy was inlaid, just as salin-r
wMd varieties were inlaid, depending for relief upon carved
comioe-niouldings or gadiooning, and upon handsome brass
handles and escutcheons. The tallboy was the wardrobe of
the 1 8th century, but it eventually gave place to the modem
type of wardrobe, which, with its sliding drawers, was speedily
(ouod to be not only as capacious as its predecessor but more
convenient of access. The topmost drawers of the tallboy
could only be reached by the use of bed steps, and the dis-
appearance of high beds and the consequent disuse of steps
exercised a certain influence in displacing a characuristic
piece of furniture which was popular for at least a ccsUury.
TAUBHAMT. OtotOfl, 8IEUR DBS r6aUZ {i6tg-i6giy,
French author, was bom at La RocheUe on the 7th of November
1619. He belonged to a wealthy middleclass family of Huguenot
persuasion; the name des R£aux he derived from a small pro-
perty purchased by him in .1650. When he was about eighteen
years of age he was sent to Italy with his brother Francois, abb6
TaUemant. On his return to Paris, Tallemant took his degrees
m civil and canonical law, and his father secured for him the
position of conseUler e« parlcmetU. The profession was dis-
tasteful to him, and he decided to ensure himself a competence
by marriage with his cousin Elisabeth de Rambouillet. His
half-brother had 'married a d'Angennes, and this connexion
secured for Tallemant an introduction to the H6tcl de Ram*
bouillet. Madame de RambouiOet was no admirer of Louis XIII. ,
and she gratified TaDemant's curiosity with stories of the reigns
of Henry IV. and Louis XIH. of real historical value. But
the society of the H6lel de Rambouillet ftseH opened a field
for his acute and somewhat malicious observation, in the
HistorkiUs he pves fim'shed portraits of Voiture, Balxac, Mai-
herbe, Chapclain, Valentin Conrart and many others; Blaise
Pascal and Jean de la Fontaine appear in his pages; and he
chronicles the scandals of which Ninon de ITndos and
Ang^hque Paulet were centres. They are invaluable for the
literary history of the time. It has been said that the malicious
ibtention of his work may be partly attributed to his bourgeois
extraction and that the consequent slights he received are
avenged in his pages, but independent testimony has established
the substantial correctness of his statements. In 1685 he was
converted to Catholicism. It seems that the change was not
entirely disinterested, for Tallemant', who had suffered con-
siderable pecum'ary losses, soon after received a pension of
aooo livrcs. He died m Paris on the 6th of November 1693.
Des Itfiattx was a f>oet of some merit and contributed to the
Cwtande de JiMe, but it is by his HistarietUs that he is rememtiered.
The worh renaioed in maDiMcripc until it was edited in 1834^6 by
MM. de ChiteaujBroo. Jules Taachereau and U J. N. de Monmerque.
with a nolke on Tallemant by Monmerqud. A third edition (6 voU.
1877) contains a notice byPSuIia Paris. TaUemant had begun
Mtmeirtt pem !• Hfjoux JkAw» ^Amtnd»t bat the maauKript
TALLEYBANI>-rtUGOSD*CBARI£S MAURICB DB (e7S4-
1838), French diplomatist and statesman, was bom at Paris on
the 13th of February 1754, though some accounts give the date
as the 2nd of February. His father was Lieutenant-Generftl
Charles Daniel de Talleyrand-P6rigord, and his mother was
Alexandrine {nie) de Damas Antigny. His parents, descended
from ancient and powerful families, were in constant attendance
at the court of Louis XV., and (as was generally the case then
ia their class) neglected the child. In his third or fourth year,
while under the care of a nuise in Paris» he fell from a chest of
drawers and injured his foot for life. This accident darkened
his prospects, for though by the death of his elder brother he
should have represented the family and entered the army, yet
he forfeited the rights of primogeniture, and the profession of
arms was thenceforth closed to him. Entrusted to the care of
his grandmother at Cbalais in P6rigord, he there received the
Only kind treatment which he experienced in his early life, and
was ever grateful for it. He was removed at the age of eight
to the College d'Harcourt at Paris (now the Lyo£e St Louis),
where his rich intellectual gifts enabled him to make good by
private study the defects of the training there imparted* At
the age of twelve he fell ill of smallpox, but his parents showed
little or no interest in his recovery. Destined for the church
by the family council which deprived him of Us birthright, he
was sent when about thirteen years of age to St Sulpice, where
he conceived a dislike of the doctrines and discipline thrust
upon him. After a visit to his uncle, the archbishop of Reims,
he xctumed to St Sulpice to finish his preliminary training for
the church, but in his spare time he read the works of Mon-
tesquieu, Voltaire, and other writers who were be^nning to
undermine the authority «f the cncUn rtgmet both in church
and state. As subdeacon he witnessed the coronation of
Louis XVI. at Reims, but he did not take priest's orders until
four years later. Recent researches into his early life discredit
most of the stories that have been told respecting his profligacy
and his contempt for the claims of the church; and it is ad*
mitted that, while rejecting her authority in the sphere of dogma
and intellect, he observed* the proprieties of life (gambling being
then scarcely looked on as a vice) and respected the outward
observatuxs of religion.
During his life at Paris he bad oi^rtimities of mixing in the
circles of the philosophers and of others who frequented the
sakm of Madame de Genlis, and he there formed those ideas in
favour of political and social reform which he retained through
life. After taking his licentiate in theoloi^ in March 1778, he
gave little more attention to theological studies. Nevertheless
the acuteness of his powers, added no doubt to his social position,
gained for him in the year 1780 the position of agent-general of
the clergy of France, in which capacity he had to perform
important administrative duties respecting the relations of the
clergy to the dvil power. The growing claims of the state on
the exchequer of the clergy made his duties responsible, his
colleague as agent-general being of little use. At the extra*
ordinary assembly of the deigy in 1782 he made various pro-
posals« by one of which he sought, though in vain, to redress the
most gbuing grievances of the underpaid cur6s. Though the
excellence of his work as agent-general in tbe years 1780-86
was fully acknowledged, and earned him a special gift of 3i»o<>o
livrea, yet he did not gain a bishopric until the beginning of tbe
year 1789, probably because tbe king disliked him as a free-
thinker. He now became bishop of Autqn, with a stipend of
2s,ooi> livres, and was installed on the 1 5th of March.
The first rumblings of the revolutionary storm were making
themselves heard. The elections for tbe States General were
soon to Uke pUce; and the first important act of the new
bishop wsa to draw up a manifesto or programme of the reforms
which he desired to see carried out by the States Genersl of
France. It coropiised the following items: the formation of a
constitution which would strengthen the monarchy by calling
to it the support of the whole nation, the drafting of
of local self-government on democratic lines, the re'
administration of justice and of the .criminal la
374
TALLEYRAND
abolkioii of Cfae most burdeiMome ol fendal and cbas privileges.
This progmmnc was adopted by the dergy of his diocese as
thdr MMer, at book of instrucdons to their representative at
the States General, namely Talleyrand himself.
His inflnenoD in the estaU of the clergy, however, was cast
against the union of the three estates in a nngle assembly, and
he voted in the minority of his order which in the middle of
June opposed the merging of the clergy in the National Assembly.
The foUy of the court, and the weakness of Louis XVI. at that
crisis, probably convinced him that the cause of moderate reform
and the framing of a bicameral constitution on tbe model of that
of England were hopeless. Thereafter be inclined more and
more to the democratic side, though for the present be concerned
himself mahily with financial questions. In the middle of
July he was chosen as one of tbe committee to prepare a draft
of a constitution; and in the session of the Assembly which
MIrabeau termed tbe orfjU of tbe abolition of privileges (4tb of
August) he intervened in favour of discrimination and justice.
On tbe loth of October, that is, four days after the insuzrection of
women and the transference of tbe king and court to Paris, he
proposed to the Assembly the confiscation of the lands of the
church to the service of the nation, but on terms rather less
rigorous than those in which Mirabcau {qx.) carried the proposal
into effect on the ^nd of November. He identified himself in
general with the Left of the Assembly, and supported the pro-
posed departmental system which replaced the old provincial
system early in 1790. At the federation festival of the 14th
of July 1700 (the " Feast of Pikes ") he officiated at the altar
reared in the middle of tbe Champ de Mars. This was his bst
public celebration of mass. For a brilliantly satirical but not
wholly fiair reference to the part then pbi>^ by Talleyrand,
the reader should consult Carlyle's Preneh Reooluliony vol. ii.,
bk. i., ch. IS. The course of events harmonised with the anti-
clerical views of Talleyrand, and he gradually k)osened the ties
that bound him to the church. He took little part in, though
he probably sympathized with, the debates on the measure known
as the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, whereby the state enforced
Its authority over the church .to the detriment of its sllegiance
to tbe pope. When the Assembly sought to impose on its
members an oath of obedience to the new decree, Talleyrand
and three other bishops complied out of the thirty who had
seats in the Assembly. The others, followed by tbe greater
number of the clergy throughout France, refused, and thence-
forth looked on Talleyrand as a schismatic. He did not long
continue to officiate, as many of the so-called " constitutional "
clergy did; for, on the sist of January 1791, he resigned the
see of Autun, and in the month of Manh was placed under the
ban of the church by the pope.
Just before his resignation he had been elected, with Mirabeau
and Sieyte, a member of tbe department of Paris; and in that
capacity did useful work for some eighteen months in seeking
to support the cause of order in the turbulent capital. Though
he was often on strained terms with Mirabeau, yet his views
generally coincided with those of tjiat statesman, who is said
on his death-bed (and of April 1791) to have communicated to
him his opinions on domestic an4 international affairs, especially
advising a dose understanding with England. Talleyrand's
reputation for immorality, however, was as marked as that of
Mirabeau. While excelling him in suppleness and dexterity,
he lacked the force of character possessed by the great " tribune
of the people "; and his influence was gradually eclipsed by
that of the more ardent and determined champioia of democ-
racy, the Gironditts and the Jacobins. In the closing days of
the first or Centtituent Assembly, Talleyrand set forth (10th
of September 1791) his Ideas on national educatbn. Education
Wii to fei«fi«4 ibd to kad up to the university. In pUce of
tdTg^ ggtoD were alone to be taught.
b^to the second National Assembly
rtheaelf-denying ordinance passed
', At the dose of 1791, sought
f for which his mental qualities
him with an admirable
The ooniltisMi of alisifs on Che contlnsnt sesosei
to French enthusiasu to presage an attack by the other Powea
OB Frsnoe. la reality those Powen wei« far more occupied
with the Polish and Eastern questions than with the affain of
France; and tbe declaration of Pilniu, drawn up by tbe
sovereigns of Austria and Prussia, which appeared to thRatca
France with interventmn, was recognized by all wdl-informcd
persons to be " a loud-sounding nothing." The Franch foreign
nunister, Delessart, believed that be would checknate all tbe
efforts of the imipris at the oootinental courts provided that
he couki confirm Pitt in his intention of keeping England neutral.
For that purpose Delessart sent Talleyrand, well known for his
Anglophil tendencies, to London, but in tbe unofficial or semi-
official capadty which was rendered necessary by the decree of
the Constitoent Assembly referred to above. Talleyrand arrived
in London on the 24th of January 1793, and found public
opmion so far friendly that he widU off to Paris, ^ Believe me,
a fapprockemettt with Eoghmd is no chimera." Pitt recdved
Urn cordially; and to Grenville the envoy suted his hope that
the two free nations would entexinto dose and friendly rdations,
each guaranteeing the other in the possession of its eidstiag
territories, India and Ireland being Ludoded on the side of
Britain. After some delay the British government dedded to
return no defimte answer to this proposal, a resnh doe, as
Talleyrand thought, to the Gallophobe views of King George
and of the ministen Camden and Tharlow. Talleyrand,
however, was convinced that Great Britain would not intervene
against France unless the latter attacked the Dutch Netherlands*
He returned to Paris on the loth of March to persuade tbe
foreign minister (Dumouriez now held that post) of tbe need of
having a fully accredited ambassador at London. The ex-
Marquis Chauvelin was appointed, with Talleyrand as adviser.
The situation became more oompies after the 19th ol April,
when France dedared war against Austria and pirpared to
invade tbe Austrian or Belgic Netherlends. Owing to certain
indiscretions of Cfaauvelin and the growing unpopnlarity of the
French in England (espedaily after the disgracdol day of the
aoth of June at tbe Tuileries), tbe mission wsa a iaiiuxe; but
TaUeyrsnd had had some share in confirming Pitt in his policy
of neutrality, even despite Prussia's overtures for an alliance
against France. After TaUeyrsnd's return to Paris early in
July (probably in order to sound the situation there) matten
went from bad to wock. Tbe overthrow of the monarchy on
tbe xotb of August and the September massacres rendered
bopdess all attempts at an enUnU eordiaU between the two
peoples; and the provocative actions of Chauvelin, undertakes
in order to curry favour with the extremists now in power at
Paris, undid all tbe good accomplished by the tact and modern^
tioa of Talleyrand. Tbe latter now sought to escape from
France, where events were becoming intolerable; and after
some onsuccessful attempts to obtain a passport to leave Paris,
he succeeded on the i4tb of September and landed in England
on the 23rd, avowedly on private business, but still animated
by the hope of averting a rupture between the two governments.
In this he failed. Tbe provocative actions of the French Con-
vention, especially their setting aside of the rights of the Dutch
over the estuary of the Scheldt, had brought the two nations
to the brink of war, when tbe execution of Louis XVI. (aist of
Jan. 1793) made it inevitable. Talleyrand was expelled from
British soil and made his way to the United States. There he
spent thirty months in a state of growing uneasiness and dis-
content with his suxToundings.
The course of events after the Hiermidorian reaction of July
1794 favoured his return to France. Thanks to the efforts of
Daunou and others his name was removed from the list of
imigris, and be set sail for Europe in November 179$. Landing
at Hamburg in the January following, he spent some time there
in the coQipany of his friends Madame de Genlis and Reinhard;
and when party rancour continued to abate at Paris, he returned
thither in September. After a time marked by some pecuniary
embanassment, he was recoaunended by Madame de StaKl to
the Director Barras for the post of minister of foreign affaka.
TALLEYRAND
375
H isdmimfton the tttenUoo of the DirectoiB bad been stfengtheocd
by his reading two papers befoce the Freach Institute^ the first
on the commefoal relations between Eoglaod aod the United
Sutea (in the semse referred to above), and the second oo the
advantages to be derived Izom new colonies. In the latter
there occurred the suggestive remarks that, whereas revolutioiis
made men prematurely old and weary, the work of coloniaaUon
tended to renew tho youth of nations. France, he observed,
needed the spur to practical energy which the Americans had
at hand in the effort to subdue the difficulties placed in their
way by nature. Similar efforts would tend to make Frenchmen
forijrt the past, aod would at the same time supply an outlet
for the poor and diaeootented. The pnctical statesmanship
contained in the^ papers raised Talk^rand in publio cstiiOA-
tion; and, thanks to^the efforts above named, he gained the
post of ibreign minister, entering on his duties in July 1797^
Bonaparte by his victories over the Austrians in Italy and
Styria had raised the French republic to hdghu of power never
dreamed of, aiki now desired to impose on the emperor terms
of peace, to which the Directors demurred. TaUejrrand, despite
the weakness of his own position (he was as yet little more than
the chief clerk of his department), soon came to a good under-
standing with the general, and secretly expressed to him his
satisfaction at the tcnnB which the latter dictated at Campo
Fonnio (17th of October 1797)' The amp d'Uat of Fructidor
(September 1797) bad perpetuated the Dinctoiy and Jed to
the exclusion of the two " moderate " membeis, Camot and
Barth^l£my; but Talleyrand saw thai power belonged really to
the general who had brought about the (ouj^ d^ttol in favour of
the Jacobinknl Directors headed by Baoaa.
After the luplure of the peace negoUatioos with England,
which resulted from the €9up ^tttU of Fraaidor, the policy of
France became moie wsarlike mnd aggreiaive. The occupation
of Rome and of Switaerland by the French troops and the events
of BonapaAe's Egyptian expedition (sec Napolson I.) brought
about a renewal of war on the continent, but with these new
devdopmenta Talleyraod had little or no coonezioa. His
powen as minister were limited, and he regretted the extension
of the area of war. Moreover, in the aatumn of 1797 his repuu-
tioo for politicsl morality (oevef very bright) was overclouded
by questionable deaCngs with the envoys of the United States
sent to arrange a peaceful settlement of certam disputes with
France. The investigations of the most recent of Talleyrand's
biogrBphers tend lo show that the charges made against him of
Uaflkfcshg with the envoys h«ve been overdrawn; but all his
apofegists admit that irregubtritiss occurred. Talleyfaod re-
futed to dear himself of the chaises made against him aa his
friends (cspedaliy Madame de Stael) wged him to do; and the
incident probably told against his chances of admiasion into
the Dhectory, which were discuiaed in the summer of 179&
A year later he resigned the portfolm ibr foreign affairs <2oth
of July r 799), probably because he foresaw the imminent ooUapse
of the Directory. If so, Jiis psemenitions were correcL Their
realization was assured by the return to Fraitce of the " Con-
queror of the East " in October. The general and the diplo-
matist soon came to an onderstanding, and Talleyrand tact-
fully brought about the alliance between Bonaparte and Sicyte
(ft.) (then the most mflucntial of the five Dtrectois) which
paved the way for the coup d'Aai of Bmmaire (aee Fumcs
iUvoLimoN and Napoleon L).
Talleyrand's share in the actual events of the i8th, 19th
Brumaire (9th, loth of November) 1799 was Uaiitcd to certain
dealings with Barras 00 the former of those days. About
midday he took to Barras a letter, penned by Hoederer, re-
questing him to resign his post ss Director. By what means
Talfeyrand brought him to do so, whether by persuaskm, threats
or bribes, is not known; but on that afternoon Barras left
Paris under an escort of soldiers. With the more critical and
exciting events of the 19th of Brumaire at St Ckrad Talleyrand
had no direct connexion, but he had made all his preparations
for flight in case the blow failed. His reward for helpmg on the
winning cause was the ministry for foreign affairs, which he-
held from the doae of Dooember 1799 on to the summer of 1807.
In the great work of reconstruction of France now bqpm by
the Fir^t Consul, Talk^mnd phyed iko unimportant pait. His
great aim was to bring about peace, both international and
internal. He had a hand in the pacific overturca which Bon»-
parte, eady in the year 1800, sent to the court of London^ and,
whatever may have been the motives of the TuaH, Consul in
sendmg them, it is •certahi that Talleyrand regretted thsk
faUureu After the battle of Marengo an Austrian envoy had
come to Paris in response to a proposal of BonaparU, and
TaUqysimd peouaded him to sign terms of peace. These were
indignantly repudiated at Vienna, but peace was aiade between
the two Fowen at Luxk^ille on the 9th of February xSoi.
As regards French affairs, Talleyrand used his inffuence to
help on the r^eal of the vexatbua bws against tmigrH, non-
juring pricsU, and the royalisU of the west. He waa also in
fuU sympathy with the poli(^ which led up to the signature of
the (^noordat of x8oi-a with the pope (see Concqbdat); but
it Is probable that he had a hand in the questionable intrigues
which aocompanlsd the closing parta of that complex and
difficult negotiatioa. Attheeadof June 1802 the pope removed
Talleynnd from the ban of excommunication and allowed him
to revert to the aecubr state. On the loth of SqiUmber z8oj,
owing to pressure put on him by Bonaparte, he married Madame
Grand, a diforcU with whom he had long been living.
During the meeting of luUan noUbks at Lyons early in i8oa
Talleyrand waa servioeafale in manipulating affairs in the way
desired hy Bonaparte, and it is known that the foreign minister
suggested to them the desirability of appointing Bonaparte
president of the Ciaalphw Republic, which was thenceforth' to
be called the Italian Kepublic. In the negotiations for peace
with England which went on at Amiens during the winter of
itoi"^ Talieyiand had no direct share, these (like those at
Ltttt^ville) being transacted by Napoleon's eldest brother, Joseph
Bonapnte (9.S.). On the other hand he helped the First Consul
in assuring French supfemacy in Switzerland, Italy and (Germany.
lA-Geauuiy the indemnification of the princes who lost all tbsit
lands west of the Rhine was found by secularising and absorbing
the ecclesiastical states of the empire. This unscrupulous
proceeding, knowA as the Secularisations (February 1605), was
carried out largely on lines laid down by Bonaparte and TaUcy*
rand; and the latter Is known to have made large suma of
money by trafficking with the claimants of church lands.
'While helpiiig to csUblish French suprtroacy in ncighbourins
states and aasiatug Bonaparte in securing the title of First
Consul for li/e, TaJleyrand sought all means of securing the
permaacnt welfare of France. He worked hard to prevent the
rupture of the peace of Amiens which occurred in May 1803,
and be did what he could to prevent the sale of Louisiana to
the United States earlier in the year. These events^ as he
saw, told against the best interests of France and enudangered the
gains which sbe had aecored by war and diplomacy. Hiereafcer
he strove to moderate Napoleon's ambition and to preserve the
European system as far as possible. The charges of duplicity
or treachery made against the foreign minister by Napoleon's
apologista are in ncariy all cases unlonnded. This is espedalfy
so in the case of the execution of the due d'Enghien (Mardi i^),
which TaUeyitod disapproved. The evidence against him
rests on « document which is now known to have been iorged.
On the assumption of the imperial title by Napoleon in May
1804, Tall^rand became grand chamberlain of the empire,
and received dose on 500,000 francs a year.
Talleyraad had rarely succeeded in bending the will of the
Firrt Consul. He altogether failed to do so with the Emperor
Napoleon. His efforts to induce his master to acoocd lenient
terms to Austria in November 1805 were fatile; and he looked
on helplessly while that F6wer was crushed, the Holy Roman
Empire swept away, and the Conlcderatioo of the RUne set
up in central Europe. In the baigaiatngs whidi accompanied
this hut event TaUeytaad is believed to haive reaped a rich
harvest from the (jenoan princes most iieariy caM3erni>^ ^^ '
the 6th of July t6o6 Nap^eon con f erred on Ua
376
TALLEYRAND
title of prince of Bciievaiio» a ptptX fief in the NcftpoUtan
Cerritovy.
In the negotiations with England wfaidi went on in the
ettnuncr of 1806 Talleyrand bad not a fiee hand; they came
to nought, as did those with Russia which had led up to the
signature of a Franco-Russian treaty at Paris by d'Onbril which
was at once disavowed by the tsar. The war with Prussia and
Russia was ended by the treaties of Tilsit (7th and 9th of July
1807). TaUeyrand had a hand only in the later developments
of these ocsoliations; and it has been shown that be cannot
have been the means of revealing to the Britisfa government
the secret arrangements made at Tilsit between Fiance and
Russia, though his private memifs, among them Fouchi, have
charged him with acting as traitor in this affair.
Talleyrand had long been weary of serving a master whose
poKcy he more and more disapproved, and after the return
faom Tilsit to Paris he resigned office. Neverthelesa Napoleon
retained him in the ooundl and took him with him to the inter-
view with the Emperor Alexander I. at Erfurt (September
1808). There Tallejrrand secretly advised that potenute not
to join Napoleon in putting pressure on Austria in the way
desired by the French emperor; but it is well known that
Alexander was of that opinion before Talleyrand tendered the
advice. TaUeyrand disapproved of the Spanish policy of
Napoleon which culminated at Bayoone in May 1808, and the
stories to the contrary may in all probability be dismissed as
idle rumours. It is also htrd to believe the statement in the
Talleyxand Memoirs that the ex-foreign minister urged Napoleon
to occupy Catalonia until a maritime peace could be arranged
with England. On Talleyrand now fdl the disagreeable task
of entertaining at his new mansion at Valeo^ay, in Touraine, the
Spanish princes virtually kidnapped at Bayoone by the emperor.
They remamed there until March 181 4. At the close of r8o8,
while Napoleon was in Spain, Talleyrand entered into certain
rektions with his former rival Fouch^ (9.V.), which aroused the
solicitude of the emperor and hastened his return to Paris.
He subjected TaUeyrand to violent repioadies, which the
ex-minister bore with his usual ironical calm.
After the Danubian campaign of 1809 and the divorce of
Josephine, TaUeyrand used the influence whic^ he stiU possessed
in the imperial conncfl on behalf of the choice of an Austrian
consort for his master, for, like Mettemich (who is said first to
have mooted the proposal), be saw that this woujd safeguard
the interests of the Habsburgs, whose influence he fdt to be
essential to the welfare of Europe. He continued quietly to
observe the course of events during the disastrous years 181 2-13;
and even at the beginning of the Moscow campaign he summed
up the situation in the words, " It is the beginning of the cod."
Early in 1814 he saw Napoleon for the last time; the emperor
upbraided him with the words: " You are a coward, a traitor,
a thief. You do not even beUeve in God. You have betrayed
and deceived everybody. You would sell even your own father."
TaUesrrand listened unmoved, but afterwards sent in his resigna^
tion of bis seat on the council. It was not accepted. He had
no share in the negotiations of the congress of Ch&tiUon in
February-March 1814. On the surrender of Paris to the aUies
(30th of March 1814), the Emperor Alexander I. took up bis
abode at the h6tel TaUeyrand, and there occurred the conference
wherein the statesman persuaded the victorious potentate that
the return of the Bourbons was the only possible solution of
the French problem, and that the principle of legitimacy alone
would guarantee Europe against the aggrandizement of any
one sute or bouse. As he phrased it in the TaUeyrand Memmrs:
** The house of Bourbon alone could cause France nobly to
conform once more to the happy limits indicated by policy and
by nature. With the house of Bourbon France ceased to be
gigantic m order to be great." These arguments, reinforced
by those of the royafa'st agent de VitroUes, convinced the tsar;
and TaUeyrand, on the ist of April, convened the French senate
(only 64 members out of 1401 attended), and that body pro-
nounced that Napoleon had forfeited the crown. Ten days
later the faUen emperor recogniied the Ineviiable and signed
the Act of Abdication at FoDtatnebtean. The next effort of
TaUeyrand was to screen France under the principle of legitimacy
and to prevent the scheme of partition on wfaidi several of the
German statesmen were bent Thanks mainly to the support
of the tsar and of England these schemes were foiled; and
France emerged from her disasters with frontiers whidi were
practicaUy those of 1793.
At the congress of Vienna (1814-15) for the srttkmCBt of
European affairs, Talleyrand, as the representative of tke
restored house of Bourbon in France, managed adroitly to break
up the league of the Powers (framed at Chaumont in February
1814) and assisted in forming a secret aUiance between England,
Austria and France m order to prevent the complete ahserptioQ
of Poland by Russia and of Saxony by Prussia. The new triple
alliance had the effert of lessening the depaands of those P6wcrs,
and of leading to the weO-known territorial compraniBe of rSi 5.
Everything was brought into a state of uncertainty once more
by the escape <rf Napoleon from Elba; but the evenu of the
Hundred Days, in which TaUeyrlnd had no share — he reoiained
at Vieima until the loth of June — brought In the Bonrboos once
more; and Talleyrand's plea for a magnanimous treatneot of
France under Louis XVIII. once more prevailed in aO important
matters. On the 9th of July i8f 5 he became foreign minister
and president of the council under Louis XVIII., but diplo-
matic and other difficulties led him to resign his appointment
00 the ajrd of September s8i St Louis, however, naming him
high duunbcrlaln and according him an annuity of 100,000
francs. The rest of his life calls for Uttle notice except that
at the time of the July Revolution of 1830, which unseated the
elder branch of the Bourbons, he urged Louis Philippe, duke of
Orieans (^.t.), to take the throne offered to him by popular
acclaim. The new sovereign offered him the portfolio for foreign
affairs; but TaUeyrand signified his preference for the embassy
in London. In that capacity he took an important part in tlie
negotiations resperting the founding of the new kingdom of
Belgium. In April 1834 he crowned his diplomatic career fcry
signing the treaty which brought together as allies France,
Great Britain, Spain and Portu^; and in the autumn Of that
year he resigned his embasqr. During hb last days he signed
a paper signifying his reconciUation irith the Roman Catholic
Church and his regret for many of his early actions. The king
visited his death-bed. His death, 00 the 17th of May 1838,
caUed forth widespread expressions of esteem for the statesman
wbo had rendered such gnal and varied services to bb country.
He was buried at Valcncay. He had been separated from the
former Madame Grand in 1815 and left no heir.
Under aU the inconsistencies of Talleyrand's career there lies
an aim as steadily consistent as that wiiich inspired his oontenv
porary, Lafayette. They both loved France and the cause of
constitutional Uberty. TaUeyrand believed that he served
those causes best by remaining hi office whenever possible, and
by guiding or moderating the actions of his chiefs. He lived
to see the triumph of his principles; and no Frenchman of that
age did so much to repair the mischief wrought by fanatics and
autocrats. In the opinion of enlightehed men this wiU mitigate
the censures that must be passed on him for his laxity in matters
financial. If he enriched himself, he also helped to save France
from ruin at more crises than one. In imvate life his ease of
bearing, friendliness, and, above aUt his inexhanstible fond of
humour and irony, won him a large circle of friends; and judges
so exacting as Mmes de Stati and de R^musat and Lord
Brougham avowed their delight in his society.
Bv a codicil added to his wiU on the I7tb of March 1838 Talley.
rand left hi* memoir* and papers to the duchess of Pino and to M.
de Bacourt. The latter revised them with care, and added to them
other pieces eroaaatiag from Talleyrand. They were not 10 be
?ublislied until after tne lapse of thirty years from the time of
alleyrand's death. For vanoos reasons they did not see the light
until 1891. This is not the place in which to discuss so lam a
<|oestion as that of the genuineness of the AftANotm. which, imfaed.
is now f^nendly admitted. There are. however, several su^>idous
circumstances which tell against them as documents of the first
importance, notably these: first that Talleyrand Is known to hat-e
destroyed many 01 his most important papersi and secbadty that
TALLIEN— TALLIS
377
li* de BiMDUft sIflMM cflrlalfuy dww up die con 110c ted namtive
which we sow p OM cw irom notes which wcne in more or km oC con-
(luioa. For this question see articles by M. Cbuquet in Reo, criUqag
i'ktstoire ei d« ItUtraiure, 25th of May 1891 (Paris): also articles by
others in the Rev. tnOmiqiu, vols, xiviii. and :&x. (Paris) ; also in
the Qwarleriy JCmm, No. 545 (London, 1891), and JE«m6ttrtA R«9U9,
vol 174 (London, 189I); by P. Bailleu in the Hiitorische ZnUckriSU
voL \xym. (Munich. 1893), and by Albert Socel io )us UcUuts
kiitoHques (pp. 70-113).
The Talleyrand Mimoins were edited by the due de Brogtie in
S vols. (Pans, 1891-3). They have been translated faito English
by A. HaII. 5 vols. (Loodon, itei-a). (X his letters and despatches
the (oUowiofl; are the chief collections:— G. Pallaio, Lm missum de
Talleyrand i Lcndrex en 1792 (Paris, 1889), and Le minUtkre de
TaUeyramd sous le DirecUnre (Piuis. 1891); P. Bertrand, LeUres
imiiUes de TaUeynnda NapaUtm, 1800-9 (J^»^ ^^h G- P^Hatn.
TaUeyrand cf Lwis X VII J. (Paris, 1881), and Ambasuide de Taliey*
rand d Londres (1830-^), 2 vols. (Paris, 1891).
Among the biographies, or bio^phical notices^ Talleyrand the
fallowing are. on the whole, hostile to him: G. Touchard Lafosse,
Taileyraud, kistoire poHtique et vie inUme (Paris. 1848); G. Michaud,
Hisi. pplUiqite ft prate de TaUeyramd (Paris, 1853); A. Pichot,
Sonvenirs intimes stir TaUeyramd (Paris, 1870) : Sainte-Beuve, " Tal-
leyrand." in Ncwfeastx lundist No. xiL; and Vufemarest, Taueyrand.
Tfic estimate of him of Sir H. L. E. Bulwer Lytton in his Historical
Ckaraelers, 2 vols. (London, 1867) and that of Lord Biougham in
Histarkai Sketches of Statesmen, 3 vols. (Londooi 1845, new edition),
are better balanced, but brief. Of recent biographies of TaUeyiand
the best are Lady Blenncrhasset's TaUeyrand (Berlin, 1894, Ene.
translation by F. Clarke, a vols. London, 1894); TalUyrand, a Bto-
rrapkical Study, by Joseph McCabe (London, I906); and Bernard de
Lacombe, La vie pnvie de TaUeyrand O910). (J. Hl. R.)
TAUmr, JBAN LAMBEBT (1767-1820), French Revolu-
tiooist, was the son of the mattre d*kdlel of the marquis de Bercy,
and was bom in Paris. The marquis, perceiving the boy's
ability, had him well educated, and got him a place as a lawyer's
derk. Being much excited by the firsr events of the Revolu-
tion, he gave up bis desk to enter a pxinter's office, and by 1791
he was ovetaeer of the printing department of the Moniteur.
While thus employed he conceived the idea of tht joumal'Ojfficke,
and after the arrest of the king at Varennes in June 179 1 he
placarded a large printed sheet on all the walls of Paris twice a
week, under the title of the Amides Cttoyens, journal fraiernd.
This enterprise, of which the expenses were defrayed by the
Jacobin Club, made him well known to the revolutionary
leaders; and he made himself still more conspicuous in or-
ganising the great " F^te de la Libert£ " on the rsth of April
1792, in honour of the released soldiers of Chiteau-Vieuz, with
Callot d'Hcrbois. On the 8th of July 1792, he was the spokes*
man of a deputation of the section of the Place Royale which
demanded from the legislative assembly the reinstatement of
the mayor, J6rome Potion, and the ^ocureur^ P. L. Manuel,
and be was one of the most active popular leaders in the attack
upon the Tuileries on the loth of August, on which day he was
appointed secretary or derk to the revolutionary commune of
P^ris. In this capadty he exhibited an almost feverish activity;
he perpetually appeared at the bar of the assembly on behalf of
the commime; he announced the massacres of September
in the prisons in terms of apology and praise; and he sent off
the famous drctilar of the 3rd of September to the provinces,
recommending them to do likewise. He had several persons
imprisoned in order to save them from the fury of the mob«
and protected several suspects himself. At the dose of the
month he resigned his post on being dected, m spite ^f his youth,
a deputy to the Convention by the department of Seine-et-(Ksc,
and he began his legishilive career by defending the conduct
of the Omimtme during the massacres. He took his seat upon
the Mountain, and showed himself one of the most vigorous
Jacobms, paiticulaily in his defence of Marat, on the 26th of
February 1793; he voted for the execution of the king, and was
elected a member of the Committee of (general Security on the
list of January 1793. After a short mission in the western
piovinces he retunied to Paris, and took an active part in the
toups ^tua of the 31st of May and the 2nd of June, which re-
sidted in the overthrow of the Girondists. For the next few
months he remained comparatively quiet, but on the 23rd of
September 1793, he was sent with Claude Alexandre Ysabeau
(iTS^-xSax) on his misuon to Bordeaux. This was the month
In which the Terror was orgaidsed under the superintendence o!
the 0>mmittees of Public Safety and (General Security.
Tallien showed himsdf one of the most vigorous of the pro-
consuls sent over France to establish the Terror in the provinces;
though with but few adherents, he soon awed the great city
into quiet. It was at this moment that the romance of Tallien 's
life commenced. Among his prisoners was Thcr^, the divorced
wife of the comte de Fontenay, and daughter of the Spanish
banker, Francois Cabarrus, one of the most fascinating women
of her time, and TaHien not only spared her life but fell in love
with her. Suspected of " Moderatism " on account of this
inddent, espedally when he was recalled to Paris, Tallien
increased, in appearance, his revolutionary seal, but Therdse
abated hh revolutionary ardour, and from the lives she saved by
her entreaties she recdved the name of '* Our Lady of Ther-
mtdor," after the 9th of Thermidor. Tallien was even elected
president of the Convention on the 24th of March 1794. But
the Terror could not be maintained at the same pitch: Robes-
pierre began to see that he must strike at many of his own
colleagues in the committees if he was to carry out his theories,
and Tallien was one of the mep condemned with them. They
determined to strike first, and on the great day of Thermidor
it was Tallien who, urged on by the danger in which his beloved
lay, opened the attack upon Robespierre. The movement was
succe»ful; Robespierre and his friends were guillotined; and
Tallien, as the leading Themndorian, was elected to the Com-
mittee of Public Safety. He showed himself a vigorous Ther-
midorian; he was instrumental in suppressing the Revolu-
tionary Tribunal and the Jacobin Club; he attacked J. B.
Carrier and Joseph Lebon, the reprisenianis en mission of
Nantes and Anas; and he fought bravdy against the insurgents
of PrairiaL In all these months he was supported by Ther^se,
whom he married on the 26th of December 1794, and who became
the leader of the social Hfe of Paris. His last political achieve-
ment was in July 1795, ^hen he was present with Hoche at the
destruction of the army of the imigrii at (^bcron, and ordered
the executions which followed. After the dose of the Conven-
tion TsUien's political importance came to an end, for, thou|^
he sat in the Council of Hve Hundred, the moderates' attacked
him as terrorist, and the extreme party as a renegade. Madame
Tallien also tired of him, and became the mistress of the rich
banker Ouvrard. Bonaparte, however, who is said to have
been introduced by him to Barras, took faim to Egypt in his
great expedition of June 1798, and after the capture of Cairo
he edited the official journal there, the DBcade BgypHenne.
But General J. F. Menou sent him away from Egypt, and on his
passage he was captured by an English cruiser and taken to
London, where he had a good reception among the Whigs and
was weU recdved by Fox. On returning to France in 1802 he
obtained a divorce from his wife (who in x8os married the comte
de Caraman, later prince de Chimay), and was Idt for some time
without employment. At last, through Fouch^ and Talleyrand,
he got the appointment of consul at Alicante, and remained
there xmtil he lost the si^t of one eye from yellow fever. On
returning to Paris he lived on his half -pay until rSis, when he
recdved the favour of not being exiled like the other regiddes.
His latter days were spent in poverty; he had to sell his books
to get bread. He died in Paris on the x6th of November 1820.
Tallien left an Interesting Discours sur les eauses qui ont produil
la RMutian franiaise (Paris, 1791, in 8vo) and a Mtmowe snr
VadminislraHon defEgypte 6 Varrieie des Franfois. See TaUiem
et I'Bxpidition' d'EgypU, in La Rteoluiian Frumcaise: Revm
d'kistvtrt mederne et catUemporaime^ t. iii. p. 260. On Madame
Tallica see Arstoe Houssaye. Sotre Dame de Thermidor (Paris,
1866^; J. Turquan, Someraines et grandes Dames: La citoyenne
TaUten, Umoignagfs des umtemporains et documents inUUs (raris.
1898); and Louis Gastine, La beUe TaUien (1909).
TALUS CTallys, TxtYS, or TAixxsnTs), THOMAS {c. 1$!$"
1585), justly styled *' the father of English cathedral music,**
was bom about 1515. It has been conjectured that, after
singifigas a chorister at old Saint Paul's under Thom^' * ' ***-
he obtanied a place among the children of the
He is known to have become organist at Walthsm
378
TALLOW— TALLOW TREE
oa the dittolotion of th« monastery is 1540, he received, in com*
peosation for the loss of h» preferment, sot. for wages and
208. for reward. In the library of the British Museum there Is
preserved a volume of MS. treatises on music, onoe belonging to
the abbey, on the last page of which appears his autograph,
" Thomas Tallys "—the only specimen known.
Not long after his dismissal from Waltham, Tallis was ap*
pointed a gentleman of the chapel royal; and thenceforward
he laboured so zealously for the advancement of his art that
the English school owes more to him than to any other composer
of the x6th century.
One of the earliest compositions by Tallis to which an approa-
mate date can be assij^ied is the well-known Serviu in the
Dorian Mode, consisting of the Venite, Tt Deum, BcnedUtus,
KyrU, Nicene Creed, Sancius, Gloria m Excelsis, Magnificat
and Nunc DimiUis, for four voices, together with the Preces,
'Responses, Paternoster and Litany, for five, all published for
the first time, in the Kev. John Barnard's First Book of Sdecied
Church Music, in 1 641, and reprinted, with the exception of the
Venite and Paternoster, in Boyce's CaAedral Music in 2760.*
.That this work was composed for the purpose of suppl>'ing a
pressing need, after the publication of the second prayer-book
of King Edward VI. in 1552, there can be no doubt. Written
in the style known among Italian composers as lo stiU famig-
liare, i.e. in simple counterpoint of the first species, nota contra
notam, with no attempt at learned complications of any kind— it
adapts itself with equal digmty and clearness to the expression
of the verbal*ext it is intended to illustrate^ bringing out the
sense of the words so plainly that the listener cannot fail to
interpret them aright, while its pure rich harmonies tend far
more surely to the excitement of devotional feeling than the
marvdlous combinations by means of which lits many of Tallis's
'contemporaries sought to astonish their hearers, while forgetting
all the loftier attributes of their art. In self-restraint the Lilany
and Responses bear a close analogy to the Improperia and other
limiUr works of Palestrina, wherein, addressing himself to the
heart rather than to the ear, the princeps musicae produces the
most thriUing effects by means which, to the superficial critic,
appear almost puerile in their simplicity, while those who are
able to look beneath the surface discern in them a subtlety of
style such as none but a highly cultivated musician can appre-
ciate. Of this profound learning Tallis possessed an inex-
haustible store; and it enabled him to raise the English school
to a height wUch it had never previously attained, and wluch
it continued to maintain until the death of its Ust representative,
Orlando Gibbons, in 1625. Though this school is generally said
to have been founded by Dr lye, there can be no doubt that
Tallis was its greatest master, and that it was indebted to him
alon&for the infusion of new life and vigour which prevented
it from degenerating, as some of the earlier Flemish schools had
done, into a mere vehicle for the display of fruitless erudition.
Tallis's ingenuity far surpassed that of his most erudite con-
temporaries; and like every other great musician of the period,
he produced occasionally works confessedly intended for no
more exalted purpose than the exhibition of his stupendous
slulll In his canon Miserere nostri (given in Hawkins's Zfu/ory
of Music) the. intricacy of the contrapuntal devices seems little
sAiort of miraculous; [yet the resulting harmony is smooth
and normal, and only the irregular complexity of the rhythm
betrays the artificiality of its structure. The famous forty-part
motet, Spem in alium, written for eight five-part choirs, stands
on a far hi^ier plane, and the tour de forct of handling freely
and smoothly so many independent i>aru is the least remark-
able of its qualities. An excellent modem edition of it was
produced by Dr A. H. Mann in x888 (London, Weekes & Co.);
and, when the reader has overcome the di£5culty of reading a
fcore that runs across two pages, he finds himself ia the presence
of a living classic. The art with which the climaxes are buUt
up shows that Tallis's object in writing for forty voices is indeed
. ^Boyoc's uaaoeovBtable omiiaoQ of the very beautiful Vemto
u a miifoitttiie which cannot be too deeply deplored, aioce it hM
led to its conrignmmt to almost bopelcM ooUvioa.
to produce an effect that could not be pcoduoed by tluKty-«ine.]
These tours deferu, however, though approachable only by the
greatest contrapuntists living in an age in which counterpoint
was cultivated with a success that has never since been equalled,
serve to illustrate one phase only of Tallis's many-sided genius,
which shines with equal brightness in the eight psalm-tunes
(one in each of the first eight modes) and unpretending little
Veni Creator, printed in 1567 at the end of Archbishop Parker's
First Quinquagene of Metrical Psalms, and many other compo-
sitions of like simplicity.
In X575 Tallis and his pupfl William Byrd— as great a contra-
puntist as himself — obtained from Queen Eh'zabeth royal letters
patent granting them the exclusive right of printing music and
ruling music-paper for twenty-one years; and, in virtue of this
privilege, they issued, in the same year, a joint work, entitled
Cantionet quae ab argumento Sacrae vocatttur, guinque ct sex
partium, containing sixteen motets by TalUs and eighteen by
Byrd, all of the highest degree of excellence. Some of these
motets, adapted to English words, are now sung as anthems in
the Anglican cathedral service. But no such translations appear
to have been made during TalUs's lifetime; and there is strong
reason for believing that, though both he and Byrd outwardly
conformed to the new religion, and composed music expressly
for its use, they remained Catholics at heart.
Tallis's contributions to the Cantiones Sacrae' frat the last
of his compositions published during his lifetime. He did ix)t
live to witness the expiration of the patent, though Byrd survived
it and pubh'sbed two more books of Cantiones on his own
account in 1589 and 1591, besides numerous other works. Tallis
died November 23, 1585, and was buried in the parish church
at Greenwich, where a quaint rhymed epitaph, preserved by
Strype, and reprinted by Burney and Hawkins, recorded the
fact that he served in the chapel royal during the reigns of
Henry VIII., Edward VI.^ Mary, and Elizabeth. This was
destroyed with the old church about 1710; but a copy has
since been substituted. Portraits, professedly authentic, of
Tallis and Byrd, were engraved by Vandergucht in 1730. for
Nicolas Haym's projected History ofMusic,hui never published.
One copy only is known to exist.
Not many works besides those already mentioned were printed
during Tallis's lifetime; but a great number are preserved m MS.
It is to be feared that many more were destroyed, in the t7th
century during the spoliation of the cathedral libraries by the
Puritans. (W. S. R.)
TALLOW (M.C. tdugh, Ujig, cf. Du. talk, L. Ger. taXg; the
connexion with O.E. tadg, dye, or Goth, lulgus, firm, is doubt-
ful), the solid oil or fat of ruminant animaU, but commercially
obtained almost exclusively from oxen and she^. The various
methods by which tallow and other animal fats are separated
and purified are dealt with in the article Oils. Ox tallow occurs
at ordinary temperatures as a solid hard fat having a yellowish
white colour. The fat is insoluble in cold alcohol, but it dissolves
in boiling alcohol, in chloroform, ether and the essential oils. The
hardness of tallow and its melting-point are to some extent affected
by the food, age, state of health, &c., of the animal yielding it,
the firmest ox. tallow being obtained in certain provinces of
Russia, whereior a great part of the year the oxen are fed on hay.
New tallow melts at from 42* s' to 43* C, old tallow at 43*S^» and
the melted Tat remains liquid till its temperature falls to 33' or
34* C. Tallow consists of a mixture of two-thirds of the solid
fats palmitin'and stearin, with one-third of the L'quid fat olein.
Mutton tallow differs in several respects from that obtained
from oxen. It is whiter in colour and harder, and contains only
about 36 per cent, of olein. Newly rendered it has little taste or
smell, but on cxposujre it quickly becomes rancid. Sweet mutton
laDow melts at 46* and solidifies at 36" C; when old it does
not melt under 49*, and becomes solid on reaching 44" or 45* C.
It is sparingly soluble in cold. ether and in boiling alcohol.
TALLOW TBEB. in botany, the popular name of a small
tree, StUlingia schifcra, belonging to the family Euphorbiaceac,
a native of China, but cultivated in India and other warm
countries. . The seeds arc thickly coated with a white greasy
TALLY— TALMA
379
whatance— •O'Caltod vcgeUbk uBo w— from widch candlet are
Bide, aad wUch Is abo used in soap-making and dressing dotli.
The battier tiw or uOow tree of Sierra Leone is Ptitadesma
btitynua, a member of the family Guttif erae. The fruit, which
is 4 to 5 in. long and about 3 in. in diameter, has a thick fleshy
rind abomiding in a yellow greasy juice.
TALLY, an old device, now obsolete, formerly used in the
EagSsh cnshequer for the {Mirpose of keeping accounts. ' The
viXfy was a willow or hazel stick about one inch in. depth and
thickness, and roughly shaped like a thick knife-blade (see
Fig. i). Notches (see Fig. 2) were cut on it showing the amount
.atBhe-jB^
stoves which wanned the houses of parliament. On the i6th of
October 1834 the houses of pariiament were burnt down by the
oveiheating of the stoves through using too miny of the tallies.
The so-called IcBy^ade was an old system of dealing carried
on in London and In the manufacturing districts of England, by
which shopkeepers furnished certain artSdes on credit to their
customers, the hitter paying the stipulated price for them by
weekly or monthly instalments (see.M'CuUoch, Didionary oj Com-
merU^—tht precursor, in fact, of the modem instalment system.
See S. R. ScargiH-Bird, CvUe to (ke PiMtc Records {Calendar of
SlaU Papers) ; HT Hall, CttriosUies and Anli^iiies of (ke Bukevter.
Fig. X.— a tally (not the k
paid, a gauged width of i) inches representing £xooo, x inch
£iao, I inch £10, half a notch of th^ size representing £1;
•^- inch xs., and the smallfsf notch id.; half-pennies were rep-
resented by small holes. The account of the transaction was
written on the two opposite sides, the piece of wood being then
split down the middle through the notches; one halt, called
the taily, being given as a form of receipt to the person making
the payment, while the other half, called the counter-tally, was
kept in the exchequer. Payments made into the exchequer
were entered into an accottot4x>ok, from which they were trans-
ne as that diown In Fi^. s).
TALHA, FRAXCOU JOIBPM (x763>i8a6), French actor, was
bom in Fsns on the x 5th of January 1763. His father, a dentist
there, and afterwards in London, gave him a good English
education, and be returned to Paris, where for a jrearand a hall
he practised dentistry. His predilection for the stage was culti-
vated in private theatricals, and on the sxst of November. X787
he madehis42d6«lat the(>»n6die Francaise as Seide In Voltaire's
Makamei, His efforts fxom the first won approval, but ior a
considerable time he only obtained secondary parta. It was as
the jetme premer that he fixst came prominently into notice,
g
lupd/pt^dJ^ 9ek^a/:^Jt/i^,jCLpi^
FiGw 3. — Diagrammatic view, showing notches with facamite of writing, of an Exdieqiicr~tany,''admowledging',the receipt
of £2^, 4&. ^Id. on the 25th oC October 1739, from Edward Ironside, Eaq., as a loan to the king on £3 per cent, annuities payable
jt oT the &nldQg Fund, on account of £$00,000 granted by Act il Geo. " - ^- '■^- -*-'- * ' '"- -'-*- -' **--
' The lower side,
out ol the ^nnldQg t> and, on account of £$60,000 granted
ta.ny. where tiie two ootcbcs denoting j^oo ase cut.
written upon it*
(eTTc4 to a strip of parchment, or lefZrr'r 6i0; this was then
thrown down a pipe into the laXLy-umrl^ a large room directly
vadcr the teller's ofiice. In the tally-court were offaceis of the
dak of the ''pells''* and of the auditor as representmg the
chamberlain of the exdiequer. The teller's bill was tlien
entered in the intxxnttis or receipt-book by the officer of the
clerk of tbe peQs^ and in another book, called the MX ef/Aeday,
hf the anditor's derfc. A tally was then made of the teOcr's
bin, and it was given on application, generally on the following
day, to the person paying in the money. At the end of the day,
the biU of the day was passed on to the deik of the cash-book,
by whoas afl the day's veoeipts were entered (see the *' Great
Accoont " oi PabUe Income emd Expenditure, part B. app. 13,
July X869, by H. W. Chishohn).
The pcactloe of issuing wooden tallies was ordered to oe
disamliiiaed by an act of X782; this act came into force on the
death of the last of the diambetlatns in t8^. The retmrned
tanks were stored in the room which had formeriy been the
Star-chaflBbcr. This toons was completely filled by them, so
that in t8>4, when it was desired to use the room, the tallies
were ordered to be destroyed. They were nsed as f ud for the
< So rillrrf from the pdls or dseepsldns (Lat. pdiis, ddo) 00 which
the records were written. The ckrk of the pdU was originally
the private derk of the treasurer. His duty was to beep separate
Tvcords of all oonies enterins and leaving the eichequer. These
recocds were kept 00 two rolls, the pdiis tniroitus, or pdls receipt
toil, and the pdtis exihu, or oells issue roll. The offit^ gradually
became a siaecure. its duties bdng disch»Tgfed bv deputy. Prevt-
ou.tJy to 178J the calaxy of the ofiice was derived from fees and pcr-
ccntagesb bot in that, year paribment settled the salary at £1500
a ycad*. The ofioe was aboliihed in 1854.
II., c. 27. The date ts'written upon the upper side <^ the
00 which the smaller notches are cut, has oody the word Sd
and he attained only graduaBy to his unrivalled position as
the exponent of strong and concentrated passion. Talma was
among the earliest advocates of realism in scenery and costume,
bdng aided by his friend the painter David. His first essay
in this direction took the form of appearing in the smaU r61e of
Proculus In Voltaire's Brutits, with a tog^ and Roman head-
dress, much to the surprise of an audience accustomed to x8th
century costume on the stage, and heedless whether or not it
suited the part played. Talma possessed m perfection the
physical gifts fitting him to excel in the highest tragedy, an
admirably proportioned figure, a striking countenance, and a
voice of great beauty and power, which, after he had conquered
a certain thickness of utterance, enabled him to aotuire a
matchless elocution. At first somewhat stilted and monotonous
in his manner, he became by perfection of art a model of sizn-
plidty. Talma married Julie Carreau, a rich and talented lady
in whose salon were to be met the prindpal Girondists. The
actor was an intimate friend of Napoleon, who delighted in his
sodety, and even, on his return from Elba, forgave him for
performing before Louis X\1II. In 1808 the emperor had
taken him to Erfurt and made him play the Mart de Cisar to a
company of crowned heads. Five years later he took him also
to Dresden. Talma was also a friend of Joseph Chhiier, Danton«
Camille Dcsmoulins and other revolutionists. It was in
Ch^oier's anti-monarchical CkarUs IX., produced on the 4th of
November 1789, that a prophetic couplet on the destruction
of the Bastille made the house burst into a sal''
led by Mirabeau. This play was responstbl
cat di<nimiom in the Comfdie Francaife wh
establishment, under Talma, of a new theatr
378
TALMAGE—TALMUD
•.•^40| OD ib/t site of the present
. . a OAS greatest triumphs. Further
. .uuk«^p was shown in his stage
«Nis^4 U79o)> pronounced a wonder-
. >«^ tmbres. In 1801 he divorced
on the dissolotion of tlie
pensatton for the lo.> <
aos. for reward. la tin
preserved a volume oi a
the abbey, on the K»^ ...,,».
" Thomas Tallys "~u - ->* v iwriotte Vanhove, an actress of
Not long after Ui^ .>.• -' ''^ his last iq)pearance on the
pointed a gcntlcma.i ' >•> \ 1. m DelaviUe's tragedy, and he
he laboured so z^u .... vXiober of that year,
the English school o . *. ^tuwts de Lekain, pricid6s dt rlflexuns
of the i6th century. -'•^. f^^'^r "uf? *° ^^ 9^,^^^^^
rk«-«f fK»*.ari;iv<. -• and pubhshed separately (1856) as
One of the earlier ^^^^il'Jt th6Atral.
mate date can br ^„^^^ ^1^^ pj^ luumime, a recueSHs ef 1
Dorian Mode, cri.. ^.- MfamitU, by Alex. Dumas (1850).
Kyrie, Nicene C-. . ^ j^g ^|^|^ (1832-1902), American
and Nunc Dmu ^^ ^^ ^^^^^ Btook, New Jersey, on
Responses, PaUt ^ ^^ ^^ educated at the University
J5»« ^?SV™^ *." ^ ri^ (now New York Univefsity) and at
Ckurck Mi^^, V. . hcological Seminary at New Brunswick,
, Venile and Pn . .^ graduated in 1856. Immediately aftcr-
,That this worv ^^ ^^ ^ Reformed ehuich at BefleviUe, NJ.
pr«^ingneed, -o Syracuse, N.Y.; in 186a to Philadelphia,
of Kmg Edwar ^ ^ ^j^^ g^^^^^ Reformed Dutch Church;
in the style k- ^.^^^^^j p^byterian Church in Brooklyn,
Itare, t.e. in r ,^ ^^^ ^ ^^ Tabemade was cnx:ted for
iwtem,withn ^^^^ ^^ bnUding was burned down. A
t^ *^ K 1 ^^^ pereons. was buUt for him in 1873, but
of the verba contain the crowds attracted by his eloquence
sense of the ., j^ ^gg^ ^^ ^j,yj^ ^j^^, ,^ burned to
interpret th ^^ j,^ succeeded by another and larger one,
."***^ ?"'*^'>' was burned in 1894. Shortly afterwards lie
^marveUous . ..Mgion, where from r89S to 1899 he was the
• « u"*,^""' ^^^^^ Dr Byron Sunderland (d. 1901), of the
aU the loll: ^ Church. Daring the laSt years of his life
9XU1 iUspo .,j jQ preach, and devoted himself to editing,
J"*"**' ^^' uring. At different periods he was editor of
heart rati . ^y^j^ (1873-76), New York; the Advance
most thri .^^. p^^^ l^s^ie'j Sunday Magazine (1879-89),
*hrT 1 ''^'^ Christian Herald (1890-1902), New York,
able to rmons were published regularly in more than
style su< •"caching, it is said, 25,000,000 readers. His
• had large circulations; among them are The
• Blossom (1870); Every Day Religion (1875);
hcrnade (1884); From Manger to Throne (1895);
iv of Life (189s). His eloquence, while scnsa-
nd striking, and his fluency and the picturesque-
,^uage and imagery were remarkable. He died
. on the xath of April 1902.
le great Rabbim'cal thesaurus which gre^ up
^t four or six centuries of the Christian Era,
Old Testament, became the "Bible" of the
chief subject of their subsequent literary activity.
—The Talmad (Hebrew "teaching, learning")
c Mishn&h (Heb. " [oral] repetition, teaching "),
collection of religious-legal decisions developing
the Old Testament, and the Cimdrfl (Aramaic
. decision," or perhaps also " teaching "), supple-
^^ orial, legal and otherwise.* The whole was in two
^ .ons, Palestinian and Babylonian. Other piaterial
^j he Mishnah is preserved in the TOsephtd (Aram.
g, ) and the Midrdshim, and since all these, together
^ rgiimlm, represent the orthodox Rabbinical literature
g the Old Testament with medieval and modem
I ic reader should also consult the articles Jews (parts
r MiDRAsn, Tarcum, and for more detailed and critical
the references given to the Jewish Encyclopedia.
h stands in contrast to MiqrA ("reading, scrioture");
equivalent is Matknlthd, from ihUl, " to repeat, whence
aiion Tanna, ** teacher" (J 3 below). These and the
m«^ Talmud, Ac., are more fully explatned in H. L.
Sle £iiilntiMC in deu Taiwmd (Utpog. 1908).
cute.
haustibl
to a hei
it com i
Oriand
to hav
Tallis
alone
it fro I
done
Talli
temi
be T
mor
skU
of:
she
The Mishoab is a more ot less ctrelul «iTMi9BiDait of -thft
extant Oral Law (see | a). It forms the foundatioQ of the
Gemarn, and is divided into six SidMm or Orders, each con-
taining a number of Massektcik (" weaviogs/' cf. the etymology
of " text ") or Tractates. These are subdivided into Pira^im
(" sections ") or chapteiSi and these again into poEBcn^khs or
sentences.
I. Zfmtm (" seeds "). the first Oider^ on agriculture, is btro-'
duced by, (1) Birdkdth (" blessings "K on daily and other pnyen
and blessimzs. (2) Pe'dk (" corner "\ deals with Lev. xix. 9 aeq.»
xxiii. 32; tkxxt. xxiv. 19-22, and the nghu of the poor. (3) Dimai,
or rather Dammai (" doubtful "). on doubtful cases relating to the
tithing of fruit offerings. (4) Kil'ayim (" of two sorts "), on for-
bidden mixtures (Lev. xix. 19; D^t. xxii. 9-II). (s) Shiiiltk
(" seventh "), on the sabbatical year (Ex. xxiii. iz ; Lev. xxv. 1-^;
Deut. XV. I sqq.). (6) TMmiith (" heave offerings "), on the laws in
Num. xviiL 8 sqq., 35 sea. ; Deut. xviii. 4. (7) Ma^asHUk (" tithes ")
or Ma'asir ^^shdn (" first tithe "), with reference to the Levitea,
Num. xviii. 2i-34(. (8) Ma'asir Shita (" second tithe "), with!
reference to the tithe eaten at Jerusalem, I>cut. xiv. 23-26. (9)!
Wallah ("cake"), on Num. xv. 1&-31. (10) 'Ortih ("foreskin'*!
lof trecsl), on Lev. xix. 23-25. {ii) Bikkirim ("first-fruits"^,;
on Ex. xxiii. 19; Deut. xxvi. i sqq. The fourth chapter of this;
treatise, printed in most editions, is properly a Baraitha.
n. Mdfd (" festival "). (i) ShabbSth, on the Sabbath as a day of
rest. Ex. xx. 10, xxiii. 12; Deut. v. 14, &c. (useful edition by Strack.
1890). (3) 'EriMn (" mixtures " or amal^mations), on legitimate
m^hods of avoiding inconvenient restrictions on the &bbath.
(3) Pisaklnt (" pasfiOveiB " — sacrifices and meals), on Ex. xii., xiiL
6-8, xxiiL 1$; Lev. xxiii. 5 sqq.; Num. xxviii. 16 sqq.; Deut. xvi.
I sqq., &c. (4) ShiqaOm (" shekels *'), on the poll tax (Ex. xxx.
12 sqq.; Neh. x. 33). (5) Y^md (Aram. " the day "), or Kipputim
(" atonement "), or Y. ka-lt. (" the day of atonement "), on Lev.
xvi., xxiii. 26-32 (useful edition by H. L. Strack, Leipzig, 1904).
(6) Sukkdh or Sukkdtk (" boothfs] '*). on Lev. xxiii. 34 &qq. ; Num.
xxix. 12 soq.; Deut. xvi. 13-16. (7) Bi^dk {** egg, the opening
word) or .ydm lob ("good \i.e. feast] day "). general rules for feast-
days. (8) Rosh ha-SMnek (" New Year festival "), on the services*'
the calendar, and more particularly on the first of the Seventh Month
(cf. Num. X. 10, xxviii. 11 sqq., &c.). (9) Ta'anitk or Ta*am^fyMt,
i.e. *' fast[s]," special observances relating thereunto; in particular
to public fasts appointed in time of drought. (10) MipUak, " roll "
(of Esther), the reading of it at Punm, &c. {\\) Md'ed qdfin
(" the small M," to distinguish it from the name of this order), or
Maskkin (the first word), regulations for the intermediate festi-
vals at Passover and Tabernacles. (12) ^d^gHk ('* festival "), on
the three principal festivals. Deut. xvi. 16, the duty of piWriras
and the dcnicments to be avoided (transl. from Bab. Talm. by A. W.
Streane, Camb., 1891).
III. NOskim (" women "). (i) Yibdmdth (" sisters-hi-law *'}. on
the levirate, &c. (2) Kitkiibotk (" marriage contracts "), rights
and duties of husband and wife. (3) Niddnm (" vows "), on Num.
xxx- (4) Ndzlr (" Nazirite "), on Num. vi. (O Gitfin (" docu«
ments "), on divorce and separation. (6) SSfsk (" the taithteaa
woman ^'>. on Num. v. ii-^i. (7) QiddAskbt (" aanctificatioQS !*
of marriage), on the contraction of legal marriage.
IV. NizMn (" damages "). also known as YiskU'dtk (" deeds of
help "). (0 Babd qammd (Aram. " the first gate "), on injuries and
compensation; civil law. (2) B. Af«?l d (Aram, "the middle
E» "), on sates, leases, k»t pioperty. (3) B. Batkri (Anm. " the
t gate "), on real estate* succession, &c. (4) Sanhedrim
(ffuwvjptor). on procedure and criminal law. (s) Makkdih, "blows,"
on the number to be inflicted (Deut. xxv. 1-3) and for what offence.
&c. (6) Shlbii'6tk (" oaths "), on Lev. v. 4 sqo. (7) 'Sduyy^k,
" testimonies," viz. of later teachers regarding their predecessors,
on the schools of HiUel and Shammai. 'Aqiba, &c.. important for
the problem of the literary oTowth of the Mishnah. (8) *Ah6dSk
ZSrdh (" idolatrous worship 'j, regulations in reference to heathen
idolatry (useful edition with Germ, transl. by Strack, 1909: and
including that of the Gcmara by F. C. Ewald. Norembog. 18^).
(9) 'Abdth or Pirqi A. (" sayings of the fathers "), a famous collection
of maxims; the sixth chapter on " the possession of the law " does
not propcHy belong to the Mishnah (ed. with transl. by C. Taylor;
Camb. 1897. and in German by H. L. Strack, 1901). (10) HMtydtk
(" dcci^ons "). on judicial ancf other errors (Lev. iv. i sgq.).
V. Qfd&slnm (" holy things "). (1) Z&&kim (" sacrifices "), or
skihVatk gidashtm ("the slaughter of holy things "). on the sacri-
fickil laws. &c. (2) Mhi&mi (" meat-offerings "), 00 X£v. u. 5.
1 1-13. ^-1. 7-16. XIV. 10-20, &c. (3) ^vi^n or SWHA*'* H. C* |the
slaughter ofl common things "), on non-sacrificial meat. (4)
Bikdrdtk ("first-bom"), on firstlings (Ex. xiu. 12 seq.: Lev.
xxvii, 26 scq.; Num. viti. 16-18, xviii. 15-17; ^^^' ^- '9 Kiq)-
(5) 'Armn ("valuations" for ransom. Ac), on Uv. »v. 15-28.
29 sqq., xxvii. 2 sqq.. 28 leq. (6) ThnQrdk (" cwhange of
dedicated animals), cf. Uv. xxv?i. 10. 33. (7) KirithKk (" cuttmg
off"), on excommunication. &c. (B) Milldk ("trespass ), on
Lev. y. 15 aqq.; Num. v. 6-8. (9) TdttOd, on the " continual or
TALMUD
381
ptRKCiMl fdaUy burnt oRering).** "E*. nix. 38-43; Num. nvhL
. ' measures "). an iroportani tractate on the
temple (measuremenu. gates, halls. &c ). (1 i) Qinnim (" nests ").
on sacnnces ol dove& by the poor (d Lev. 1. 14- 1?. v. 1 stiq.. xii. 8)
VL JoMrdiA or J^L, " pun6ationft,'* a euphemism Tor thing*
which are ntually or ceremonially " uocleaa." (i) KiRm
CvemA»"), their imclcanness (cf. Lev. xi. vt oqq.; Num.
nx. 14 sqq . xxxi. ao aqq). (2) Okdldtk (" fents ). on defilement
through a corpse (Num. xix. 14-20). Sec. (3) Nigilm (" plaeues,"
Le. leprosy). (M Lev xiii. aeq. (4} PirOh (the (red] " heifer ), 01
Num. xu.
defilements,
(cf Lev.
JVi
(" predisposine . ....
•ret unclean things (cf Lev. xi. 34. 37 seq.). (9) Z(Mm {" those vith
ts) T^AdfMfc (eaphemisro for impurities), on minor
(6) MiqwA*dlk (ntual baths), bathing for the defiled
. xiv 8. XV. s sqq.; Num. xxxi. 33; also Mark vii. 4). (7)
(female " impurity "), on Lev. xv. 19-33. ^8) iiaksklrin
iposine "). or Maskqln ('* liquids **), on dehlement caused by
lean things (cf Lev. xi. 34.37 seq.). (9) ZtMm {" those vith
a discharge"), on Lev xv. (10) Tibui Ydm ("immersed for (or
onl the day **), on those who have taken a ritual bath and must wait
until sunset before becommg ritually pure (see Lev. xv. 5. xxii.
6 seq.. N urn xix. 19). (11) Kdcidyiiii. ^* hands," their purification
(cf. Matt XV. 2, 30: Mark vii 2-4. &c.). (12) Oqfin (" seems "),
on the relation between fruit and the stems and stalks as regards
defilement. &c
To Oder IV the Babylonian recenuon of the Talmud adds seven
treatises, which are of later ongin and are regarded as more or less
extra-canonical, (i) Abdtk dl Rabbt Nathan, an expansion of IV.
o. attributed to a second-century Rabbi, but post-Talmudic (ed. S
bchechter. 18S7) (3) S^phhim (" scribes "). on the writing of the
scrolls of the Pentateuch, grammatical (Massoretic) rules, and (a
later addition) on the bturgy (ed. J. Mailer. Leipzig, 1878). (3)
£M RabbiUki ("great weeping"), or. euphemistically. Sim&l^dtk
(" ioy> ")< <»^ mourning customs and rules. {4)KaUdh (" betrothed,
bride "). on chastity in marriage, &c. Direk Eref (5) RaJbbak, and
(6) Zufd, a " large " and a " small " treatise on various rules of
" conduct " and social life. (7) Ph-eq ha-ShSldm. a " chapter on
peace " (peacefulness). In addition to these seven, other small
Talmudic treatises are also reckoned (edited by R. Kirchheim.
Fcaokion -on-Main. 1850). These deal with (l) the writing of the
rolls of the Law. (2) JihMX&h (Deut vi 9. xi. 20); (3) Tiphiinn
(prayers, phylacteries) ; (4) the fringes (Num. xv. 38); (5) slaves;
(6) Che Samantans (see J. A. Montgomery, The Samartians^ pp.
196 sqq ); and (7) proselytes.
The Mishnah its«f contains63 trarutes. or. since IV 1-3 originally
formed one (called NitlqiH) and IV 4. 5 were united. 60. The
number is also given as 70 (cf. 3 Esd. xiv. 44-46), perhaps by in-
cluding the seven smaller treatises appended to iV. There are
5»3 chapters (or 325. see L 11, IV. 9).
2. The Oripn of the Misknak. — A careful distinction was
drawn between the Written Law, the Mosaic TOrih, and the rest
of the Scriptures (apasr "nw), and the Oral Law, or TOrSh
by Mouth C^ '»?3r .▼«*). The origin of the latter, which has
become codified in the Mishnah. has often been discussed. It
was supposed that it had been handed down by Ezra; that
it was indebted to Joshua, David or Solomon; that it was as
old as Moses, to whom it had been communicated orally or in
writing, complete or in its essence. The traditional view is
well illustrated in the words ascribed to R. Simeon Lakish,
3rd century a.d.:* "What is that which is written, *1 will
give thee the tables of stone, and the Law and the Cortmand-
mcnt, which I have written, that thou mayest teach them
(Ex. xxiv. 12)*? 'Tables,* these are the Ten Words (the
Decalogue); the 'Law' is the Scripture; 'and the coramand-
mtnt,' that is the Mishnah: • which I have written,* these are
the Prophets and Writings (i.e. The Hagiographa), *to teach
them,' that is the Gemara — ^thus instructing us that all these
were given to Moses from Sinai." Literary and historical
criticism places the discussion on another basis when it treats
the Mosaic T6r5h m its present form as a post -exilic compilation
(about 5lh century B.C.) from sources differing in date, origin and
history There is no a priori reason why other legal enactments
should not have been current when the compilation was first
made, the Pentateuchal legislation is incomplete, and covers
only a small part of the affaiis of life in which legal decisions
* For the sake of convenience Ben (" son '*) and Rabbi are. as
usual, abbreviated to b and R. For the quotation which follows.
•ce Oesterley and Box. Tke Religion and Worship of tht Synagogue
f London. 1907) p. 51 . and. on the subject. S. Schechter. Studies tn
Jwiassm (London. 1 806). ch. vit.— " the history of Jewish traditran " ;
^. Weber. Judische Tneologve (Leipzig. 1897). pp. 91 seq. and mo sqq.;
Scrack. op cx( . p 8 seq. ; W Boosset. Rdig. d. Judentums (Beriin.
15^). pp, 176 sqq . and Jew, Ency., iv 4?.? sqq.; see also G. B.
Gray's art. Law Literature " in the £110^. Bib.
migfai be needed. There must have been a large body of usage
to which Jewish society subscribed, custonmry usage is one of
the most binduig of kws eveo among modem Orienu) com-
muniiies where laws in writing are unknown, and one of the
most interesting features is the persistence in the East of closely-
related forms and pnndples of custom from the oldest times to
the present day. Laws must be adjusted from time to time to
meet changing needs, and new necessities naturally arose in the
Greek and Roman period for which the older codes and usages
made no provision. Much in the same way as Roman law
was derived from the Twelve Tables, the Jewish written laws
were used ts the authority for rabsequent modifications, and
the continuity of the religious-legal system was secured by a
skilful treatment of old precedents.* In the arude MnMUsa
it will be seen that new teaching could justify itself by a re*
interpretation of the old writings, and that the traditions of
former authoritative figures could become the framework of a
teaching considerably later than their age. It is probable that
this process* was largely an unconscious one; and even if con-
scious, the analogy of the conventional ** legal fiction " and the
usual anxiety to avoid the appearance of novelty is enough to
show that it ib not to be condemned. By the help of a tradition
—a " haggadic "or" halakic " Midrash {q.v. \ i)~contemporary
custom or Ideals could appear to have ancient precedents, or
by means of an exegetical process they could be directly con-
nected with old models. In the Old Testament many laws in
the Mosaic legislation are certainly post-Mosaic and the value
of not a few narratives lies, not in their historical or biographical
information, but in their treatment of law, ritual, custom,
belief, &c. Later developments are exemplified in the pseud-
epigraphical literature, notably in the Book of Jubilees, and
when we reach the Mishnah and Talmud, we have only the
first of a new series of stages which, it may be said, culmi-
nate in the 16th-century Shid\fan 'Arik, the great compendium
of the then existing written and oral law. Thus, the problem
of the origin or antiquity of the unwritten Oral Law. a living
and fluid thing, lies outside the scope of criticism, of greater
utility is the study of the particular forms the laws have taken
in the written sources which from time to time embody the
ever-changing legacy of the past.
The course of development between the necoenition of the supre-
macy of the Pentateuch and the actual writing down of the Mishnah
and Gemara can be tr^cd only in broad lines. It is known that
a great mass (tf oral tradition was current, and there are a number
of early references to written collections, especially of haggadah.
On the other hand, certain references indicate that there was a
strone opposition to writing down the Oral Law. It is possible,
therefore, that written works were in circulation among the Irarncd.
and that these contained varying interpretations which were likely
to injure efforts to maintain a uniform Judaism. Philo speaks o(
Mvpla kypa/^a Wij itvX vbiutia. (cd. Mangey, 11. 620), and the oral
esoteric traditions of the Pharisees are attested by Josephus (xiii.
10, 6, cf. 16, 2); cf. in the New Testament, Matt. xv. 1-9. Marie vii.
8, &c.; and the 8fWT«p6r« "repetitions" (cf. the term Mishnah)
of the Chrisiian Fathers. For the vmtten collections, see Stradc,
op. ft/., pp. 10 sqq.; I. Thcodor, Jerjo. Ency., viii. 552, J. Z. Lautcr-
bach, ib.. p. 614; W. Bachcr, ib.. xii. 19: 5. Schechter, //ai/»«/rs'
Dut. BiUe. V. 62; and art. Midrash, ( 5, in this work. The theory
of an esoteric tradition is distinctly represented in a Esdras xiv..
where Moses receives words which were not to be published, and
Ezra re-writes seventy books which were to be delivered to the wise
men of his people. Also the Book of Jubilees knows of secret
written traditions cenraining regulations regarding sacrifices. &c.,
and Jacob hands over " all his books aiid the boon of his fathers
to Levi his son that he might preserve th«m and renew them for hia
children (i.e. the priestly caste) unto this day " (xiv. 16).
3. CrmoSi of tke Misknak and Gemara.'^ According to the
traditional view the canon of the Old Testament closed with
the work of £2». He was followed by the SdpklHm, ** scribes "
(or the Men of the great Synagogue), to the Maccabaean age,
and these again by the *' Paire " {zHidtk, Gr ^b»), the reputed
heads of the Sanhcdria, down to the Herodiao age (1 50-30 B.C.).
The last culminate in Hillel iq.t.) and Shammai, the founders
of two great rival schools, and to this famous pair the work
* See W. R. Smith. Old Test, in the Jewish r '
i
384
TALMUD
It presupposes a koowledgc which made oomraentaries a aeccssity
even, as we have seen, 10 ihe Jews themelvcs. The opening
of Order 11. 6, for example, w5uld be unintelligihle wHhont a
knowledge of the law in Lcvit. xxiii. 42: '* A booth Cihc interior
of which is) about 20 cubits high is disallowed, R. Judah
allows it. One which is oot ten hands high, one which has not
three walls, or which has more son than shade is disallowed.
* An old booth?' (marks of quotation and imcrro^ation must
he supplied). The school of Shammai disallows it; but the
Khool of Hiliel allows it." &c< In the Gcmara, the decisions of
the Mishnah are not only discussed, explained or developed, but
•II kinds of additional matter are suggested by them. Thus,
in the Dab. Gem. to HI. s, the reference in the Mishnah to the
Zealots (t^nkptM) is the occasion for a kmg XDmantic account
of the wars pre«xding Che dcstruaion of the Second Temple.
In IV. 3 the incidental prohibition of the cutting up of a roll
of Scripture leads to a most valuable discussion of the arrange'
ment of the Canon of the Old Tcsuroeot, and other details
including some account of the character and date of Job.
Thrre arc numerous haggadic interpolations, some of consider-
able Interest. Prose mingles with poetry, wii with wisdom,
the good with the bad, and as one thing goes on to suggest
analhrrt It makes the Talmud a somewhat rambling compilation.
ll U Hcnrcely a law-book or a work of divinity, it is almost an
M^i yi jopordia In ila scope, a store-house reproducing the know-
lrilu« and the thought, both unoooscious and speculative, of
ihv firti few centuries of the Christian era.
A Kood idea of its hcteroseoeity is afforded by the English trans-
t4ltuiiK of TrtlmuJic and other comnaentarics by P. 1. Hcrthon
U.uiuloii, 18K0-5). For miscellaneous coUectioos of excerpts, see
ll i'uUiio (in the Chandos Classics); Chencry, Lteends Jrom the
iUt^Jrui A ; I. Myers, Cem$ Jrom ike Talmud-, S. Rapopon. Tides
t/niii t^aximi from the ISidraih; E. R. &Ioniague. Talei Jrom the
IhImh4, a valuable general introduction to the Rabbinical
UuM.ilure (with numerous excerpis) is given by J. Winter and
A. WltnH'hc. Cttch. d. Jud.-tleUen. u. Tafm. IsUeratur (Trier. 1894).
lliv l«t«*rniure has not been fully explored for its contribution to
tlic variout branches of antiquarian researdi. On the animal
l^ltU's. must of them found also in Indian and in classical collections,
WT J. j scobs, Fables of Aesop (London, 1889); for myth, super-
tnitun and folk-lore, see D. Joel. Ab^hnbe (Bresbu. 1881}. and
M C.iUnlMum. Semit. Sat^nkunde (Leiden, 1893), Ces. Amjsatse
(lifihn. 1901); for mathematics, see B. Zuckcrmaan (Brcslau.
iH M), for medicine, J. Bcrgcl (Leipzig. 1885). Sec. For these
sul»j«*» l«. and for law, zoology, geography. &c. &c., see the lull and
0.u«Utr(l bjblioHraphics in M. L. Rodkinson. flut. oj Talmud (New
\\>\ k, igoj), vol. ii. ch. viii.. and Strack's EtnUUung. pp. 164*175.
Ordinary estimates of the Talmud are often influenced by
the attitude of Christianity to Judaism and Jewish legalism.
4\\\[ by the preponderating interest which has been taken in
tlic T^')lKious-legal side of the Rabbinical writings. The canoniza-
tion of oral tradition In the Mishnah brought the advantages
A'ul the disadvantages of a legal rclipon, and controversialists
h.vNt^ ttftually aecn only one side. The excessive legalism which
^Nts^A^K"* the Talmud was the scholarship of the age, and the
t »Ih.vkI suffers to a certain extent because accepted opinions
\ ..» uvUU'vl views arc commingled. To those who have no
Ki n»nv With Ihc minutiae of legislation, the prolix discussions
k s k» » V.vvM«e as the arguments appear arbitrary.* But the
» .. v! X .\\ vli^cussions were often merely speciahst and technical
». , ^xstv academical and ecclesiastical debates which did
Kx ^^ »,^* u»us;h cvcry-day life; sometimes they were for the
',»,>v^ sH ivwMKiling earlier conflicting views, or they even
..... V N iK'V exhibitions of dialectic skilKcf .perhaps, Mk xii.
i' tKtji t< fupposed that this predilection for casuistry
',»Avi .^»t?. snnt which impelled Jewish scholars of the
» ^ .V »«»^»«^ '«> *;«i\l>' or translate the learning of the Greeks'
V.S.XV vk..k i i*4» irom a modern point of view— old-fashioned
* IK* ^M*^ aublwH of Jewidi legntiam riiould be compared with
\sutikj^ ^IH9M« 4««M Uw and rehgiofi are one » as rcfards the Inal
.-♦Nsu yjv vW «M«v*wrly suggestiVTff and instructive study ' The
Kv W wA»* •A ^** 4«s4 IWifioo. the Mosaue el-Azhar.. by J. Bryce.
ailewlMAMHMWHII^^HBtf* <m^'*Q^ Hebrew translations
hSStM^^^^^^^^Bhnipm Latin dress I
scholarshq), yet one may now rcoogmee that m the deveJopmem
of European science and philosophy it played a necessary
pan, and one can now realize that again the benefit was for
common humanity rather than for the Jews alone. It may
strike one as characteristically Jewish that extEavagnni and
truly oriental enoomioma were passed upon such legalists and
Talmudists as Isaac Aliazi, Rashi or Mainonides, none the less
the medieval Jews were able to produce and appreciate excellent
Uierature of the most varied description. In any case, the
Talmud must be judged, like other authoritative religioas litera-
ture, by its place in history and by its survivaL From age to
age groups of laws were codified and expanded— the Priestly
law of the Old Testament, the Mishnah, the complete Talmud,
the subsequent codifications o( Alfazi, Maimooides. and finally
Joseph Caro. Thus, the Talmud occupies an imennediate place
between the older sources and its later devebpments. At each
step disintegration was arrested, but oot Jewish genius, and
the domination of the Law in Judaism did not as a matter of
fact have the petrifying resulu which might have been antici-
pated. The explanation may be found partly in the intense
feeling of solidarity uniting the Deity with his worshippers and
his worshippers among themselves. No distinction was drawn
between secular and religious duties^ between ceremonial, ethical
or spiritual requirements. Modem distinctions of moral and
ceremonial being unknown, ancient systems must be judged m
the light of those modes of lbou|^t which could not view religion
apart from life. The Talmud discusses and formulates rules
upon points which other religions leave to the individual, k
inculcates both ceremonial and spiritual ideas, and often sets
up most lofty ethical standards. The bonds, rigorous and
strange as they often appear to others, were a sacrament en-
shrined in the imagination of the lowliest follower of the Talmud.
Some of the keenest legalists {e.i. the Babylonian Rab) are
famous for their ethical teaching, and for their share in popular
exposition; one of the best ethical systems of medieval Judaism
(by Bahya ibn Pekuda) is founded upon the Talmud, the la&i
exponent of Rabbinical legalism, Joseph Caro, was at the same
time a mystic and a pietist; and the combination of the poetical
with the legal temperament is frequent. The Talmud outlived
the reactionary tendencies of the Qaraites ig.v.) and of the
Kabbalah (9.0.), and fortunately, since these movements, impor-
tant though they undoubtedly were for the evolution of thought,
had not within them the power to be of lasting benefit to the
rank and file of the community. Finally, no religion has been
without exhibitions of fanaticism and excess on the part of its
followers, and if the Old Testament itself was the authority
for witch-burning among Christians, it is no longer profitable
to ask whether the Talmud was responsible for offences com*
milted by or alleged against those whose lives were regulated
by it On the other hand, Judaism has never been without iu
heroes, martyrs or saints, and the fact that it still lives is
sufficient to prove that the mechanical legahsm of the Talmud
has not hindered the growth of Jewish religion.
Apart from the general interest of the liberature for history
and of its contents for various departments of research, the
exegetical methods of the Talmud are especially instructive
There were rules of interpretation, and they give expression to
one dominant idea: there is an infinite potentiality in the words
of the Old Testament, none is fortuitous or meaningless or
capable of only a single interpretation, they were said for all
time. •* for our sake also " and " for our learning " (cf . Paul, in
Romans iv. 24, xv. 4). This was not conducive to cnlual
inquiry; questions of the historical background of the biblical
passage or of the trustworthiness of the text scarcely found a
place. The interpretation itself is markedly subjective, by
the side of much that is legitimate exegesis, there is much that
appears arbitrary in the extreme. The endeavour was made
to interpret, not necessarily according to the letter, but accord-
ing to individual conceptions of the spii^t and wnderiying
motive. Thus, the same evidence could give rise to widely
differing conflicting interpretations, which may not be directly
deducible from or justified by the Scripture Hence the value
TALMUD;
385
of the teaching, whether halakic or haggtdic, teats upon its
intrinsic worth, and not upon the ezegelical principles which
were the tools common to the age. Moreover, it was jtlao con*
sidered necessary that teaching should be authenticated, as it
were, by its association with older authority whose standing
guaranteed its genuineness. For this reason anonynaous
writings were attributed to famous names, and traditions were
judged (as in Islam), not so much upon their merits, as by the
chain of authorities which traced them back to their sources.
To supplement what has already been pointed out in the
article Midrash, it may be noticed that the familiar penalty of
the " forty stripes save one " (2 Cor. xL 34; Josephus, AnL,
iv. 8, 23) is discussed in the Mishnah (Uakkotky iv. 5), and is
subsequently explained by an extremely artificial interpretation
of Deut. zxv. 3-3 (as though " to the number 40 ")• But the
penalty is obviously older than, and entirely independent of, the
arbitrary explanation by which it is supported. Again, the
rending of dothes on the occasion of a charge of blasphemy
(Matt. xxvL 65) is actually connected with Joseph b. (^rha of
the and century aj>. {Sanktd., vii. 5), although elsewhere this
halakah is anonymous. Here the effort was made to sub-
stantiate a practice, but the tradition was not unanimous;
and it often happens that the Talmud preserves different tradi-
tions regarding the same teaching, different versions of it, or
it is ascribed to different authorities (see Jew. Ency., xiL p. 15,
coL 2). The fact that certain teaching is associated with a
name may have no real significance for its antiquity, even as a
law ascribed to the age of Moses — the recognized law-giver —
may prove to be of much earlier or of much later inception.
This feature naturally complicates all questions affecting origin
and originality, and cannot be ignored in any study of the
Talmud in its bearing upon the New TestamenL^ Similar or
related forms of interpreution and teaching are found in the
Talmud, in Hellenistic Judaism, in the New Testament, in early
Qiurch Fathers and in Syriac writers. As regards the New
Testament itself, the points of similarity are many and often
important. It has been asserted that " the writings of recent
Jewish critics have tended on the whole to confirm the Gospel
picture of external Jewish life, and where there is discrepancy
these critics tend to prove that the blame lies not with the
New Testament originals, but with their interpreters." The
Talmud also makes " credible details which many Christian
expositors have been mthcr inclined to dispute. Most remark-
aUe of an has been the cumulative strength of the arguments
adduced by Jewish writers favourable to the aulhenricity of
the discourses in the Fourth (ktspd . . ."* The points of
contact between the phraseology in the Gospel of John and the
early Midrashim are especially interesting.* The popularity of
the parable as a form of didactic teaching finds many examples
in the RaDoinical writings, and some have noteworthy parallels
in the New tcsument.* It is known that there were theological
controversies between Jews and Christians, and in the Midrash
BereskUk Rabbah (Mtorash, 5 5, s) is a passage (translated in
Jew. Ency., viii. 558) directed against the Christian view which
found support for the doctrine of the Trinity in Gen. i. 26.
But it is uncertain how far the doctrines of Judaism were influ-
enced by Christianity, and it is even disputed whether the
Tslmud and Midrashim may be used to estimate Jewish thought
* There are many details in the Talmud which cannot be dated;
if «ome are obviously contemporary, others find parallds in Ancient
Babylonia, for example in the code of Hammurabi. See L. N.
Dembicx, J€». QuarL Re9„ xix. 109-126. and the literatum on
the code (pee Babvlonun Law). Numerou* mieceUaneoMS eii-
amplcs of the intimate relationship between the Rabbinical and
oWer oriental material will be found in H. Pick, Assyrischts u.
T^mudtsehes (Bcriin, 1903); A. Jcremias, Bah. m N. Test. CLcxontt,
m). AUe TesL im Licktt d. Altem Ohtnls {ib., \<yab)\ E. Biadioff,
9b. astruits im WtUbiU* d. Thaimud «. Uidrasck (ib., isfil)-
* I. Abrahama, on " Rabbink Aids to Exegesis," m Swete s
S5'
Camb. BQi. Essays (iQOo), p. 181. _
» See tb* essay of Schlatter, Sproche %. Beimat d. vterknBnn-
fol/jSni (190a). . .
• See P. Fiebig. AUM. CUkkmsst m. d. CUickmisu Jesu (Uipaig,
1904); Lauterbach, Jew. Ency., bu ^12 sqq.; Oestericy and Box.
p.96»eq.
of the ist or tad century aa. Much valoable work has been done
by modem Jewish aehoUxs on the " higher criticbm " of these
writings, which, it most be remembered, range over several
centuries, but it stiU remains difficult to date their contents.
Moreover, in endeavouring to sketch the theology of eariy
Judaism it has been easy to find in the heterogeneous and con*
flicting ideas a i^ystem which agreed with preconceived views,
and to reject as late or exceptional whatever told against them»
In considering the evidence it is a delicate task to avoid con-
fusing Its meaning for its age with that which has appeared the
only natural or appropriate one to subsequent interpreten
(whether Jewish or Christian) who have been necessarily influ-
enced by their envixonment and by contempocary thoughL
At all events, if these writings have many old elements and
may be used to illustrate the background of the New Testament,
they tUuslrate not only the excessive legalism and ritualism
against which early Christianity contended, but also the more
spiritual and ethical side of Judaism. Upon this latter phase
the pseudepigraphical and apocalyptical writings have shed
much unexpected light in linking the Old Testament with both
Christian and Rabbinical theology^ The valioua problems
which arise are still under discussioii, and are of ^reat importance
for the study of Palestinian thought at the age of the parting
ol the ways. They touch, on the one hand, the absolute
originality of Christianity and its attitude to Jewish legalism,
and, oa the other, the true place of the p^cttdepigrapka in Jewish
thought and the aatiquity of the Judaism which donuBStes the
TaUnud.- They do not, however, exclude the possibility that
by the side of the scholasddam of the early Jewish academical
circles was the more popular thought which, forming a link
between Jews and Christians, nltimatdy fell into n^ect as
Judaism and Christianity formulated their theok>gieB.
ge, tee
irald in
\n.Zur
, hlig.
ents in
On the doae
B. Ritter, Phih 1
Konigjsb^ger's M
Genesis d. Agada
d. Judenimms, pp
(Pari^' 1394). P- :
Aphraatcs (Vienw
the pacudepigiapl] t; thus
Mark. iv. 24 finds ^ulun,"
viii. 3 (R. H. Cha ow not
differ eeaentiany from the sayinc aacrlbcd to Gamaliel II. {Shabb.
S>^ and others. A close pacsUel feo Matt. vii. 3 is ascribed to
R. Tarpon. Utter half of ist century a.d. {AraJt. 166: " If one
says, take the mote from thy eye, he answers, take the beam from
thy eye"): It seems to have been a popular sayine (see Baba
Batkn, 156). See further, for the Talmud and Midrashim in
relatMMi to the New Teaument Kenerally. the literature in Strack.
pp. 165 sqq.; also A. WUnache, Nine Beitrdge %. Erldut. d. Evangelien
(uattinrcn, 1878); C. H. Toy, Judaism and Chrislianily (London,
1890; with Schechter's essay in his Studies [1896). pp. 283-305);
H. Uible, Jesus Christns im Talmud (Berlin. 1891): R. T. Herford,
Chrislianity in Talmud and Midrash (London. 1903: with W.
Bacher's review in Jew. Quart. Rev., x\il 171-183): Bousset,
0^. ciL : Ocsterley and Box, op. cit. (with C. G. Montcfiorc's review in
Jew. Quart. Rev., 19O8, pp. 347-357) ; I. Abrahams in Swete's Camb.
Bibl. Essays (1009), pp. 163-192; C. C. Montcfiore, Synoptic
G9$pels (1909) : H. L.Strack, Jesus, die H&reUker u. die Christen (1910).
The Talmud itself is still the authoritative and practical
guide of the great mass of the Jews, and is too ck>5ely connected
with contemporary and earlier Palestinian hfetory to f ^^^m ^
be neglected by Christians. With the progress of grtrfct
modem research the value of this and of the other okl
Rabbinical writings is being re-estimsted, and criticism has
forced a modification of many old views.* Thus, an eariy refer-
ence to the title of a work does not prove that it is that which
is now cnrrcnt; this applies, for example, to the tracUte
' Eduyydtk (see /mpl Eney., vnL 611), and to the Midrash Sipkrl,
which frequently differs from thit as known to the Talmud
{ib., m. 331). It has been fonnd that a tradition, however
• The " higher criticism ** of these writings aflfords many useful
hints and suggestions (or that of other composite works, e.g. the
Old Te&tament. It may be noticed also that the references to the
Old Testament sometMncs represent a sKjtlitly h:"— ~*» ••«;
sec V. A. Ax>towIt2er. Schriflwort in d. Rabb. Lit- '
Camb. Bibl. Essays, pp. 172 sqq.
38«
TAMBOUR— TAMILS
Tannyo^ find oontribation to fhe Spanisk sU^e. His kst
yesn were spent in recastuig his VsrfMM, nnd the result of his
effoits may be read in the posthnmtHis edition of his Otras
(Madrid, iSpflk^g). In 1858 Tamayo was elected a member of
the Spanish Academy, to wfaicfa be afterwards became permanent
secreury; and in 1884 the Conservative minister, AJejandio
Pidal y Mon, appointed liim director of the National library.
He died on the 20th of June 1898. (J- ^ -K.)
TAMBOUR (Fr. lor ** drum " ), the term m architecture given
to the inverted bell of a Corinthian capital round which were
carved the acanthus leaves decorating it: applied abo to the
wall of a circular structure, whether on the ground or raised
aloft on pendentives and carrying a dome; and to the drum of
a column which is built in sevoal oomsea.
TAMBOVRmB (Fr. tambour de Bc^uc, Ger. baskiscke
Trommel, Tambovrin, or ScktUen-trommel), a popular instrument
of percussion of indefinite musical pitch, used for marking the
rhythm in dance or harrhanalian music. The tambourine oon-
ststs of a flat wooden or metal ring, over one end of which is
stretched a parchment or vellum head; m the drctunfeience
of the ring are fixed nine or ten metal disks or small beHs which
jingle as the tambourine is struck by the hand, or merely waved
through the air. A tremolo effect is obtained by stroking the
head with the finger-tips. In a i4th<eatury MS. (Brit. Mus.
Stoane 3983, foL 13) a tambourine of modem appearance with
a snare bears the inscription ** Tjrmpanom." The tambouxine
is of the'highest antiquity, and waa known at different times
under the names of Hmird or labrd, tym p amom or tympatmm,
and symfkoma. (K. S.)
TAMBOV, one of the largest and most fertile governments
of central Russia, extending from N. to S. between the basins
of the Oka and the Don, and having the governments of Vbdimir
and Nizhniy^Novgorod on the N., Penza and Saratov on the £.,
Voronezh on the S., and Orel, TUk and Ryazan on the W. It
has an area of 25,703 sq. m., and consists of an undulating plain
intersected by deep ravines and brood valleys, ranging 450
to 800 ft. above sea>feveL Cretaceous and Jurassic deposits,
thickly covered with boulder-cky and kxB, are widely spread
over iu surface, concealing the underiying Devonian and Car-
boniferous strata. These Ust crop out in the deeper ravines,
and seams of coal have been noticed at several places. Iron
ore (in the north-west), limestone, day and gypsum are obtained,
and traces of petroleum have been discovered. The mineral
waters of Lipetsk, similar to those of Franzensbad hi their
slkaline elements, and chalybeate like those of Pynnont and
Spa, are well known in Russia. The Oka touches the north-west
comer of the govemment, but its txibataiies, the Moksha and
the Tsaa, are important channeb of traffic The Don abo
merely touches Tambov, and of its affluents none except the
Voronezh and the Khoper and the Vorona, a tributary of the
Khoper, are at all navigable. As a whole, it bonly in the north
that Tambov b well drained; in the south, which b exposed
to the dry south-east winds, the want of moisture b much felt,
especially in the distria of Borisoglyebsk. The climate b
continental, and, although the average temperature at Tam-
bov b 4S^ F., the winter b comparatively cold (January, 13^;
July, M*). The rivers remain frozen fbr four months and a
half. Forests occupy about 7) per cent, of the total area, and
•ccnr chiefly b the west; in the sooth-east wood b scarce, and
«faw b nsed for fuel. The soil b fertile throughoat; in the
nsrth il b dayey and sometimes sandy, but the rest of the
tw e uMKM b covered with a sheet, s to 3 feet thick, of black
^c^ «l sock ikhncss that in Borisoglyebsk oorofidds which
-BWMt been mamiicd for eighty years stiU ykXA good crops.
"^^ ssiiMHfeid popubtioB in 1906 was 3,805,^0. The
*- ^^^ b fliiiid into twelve dbtricts, the dnef towns of
t^<-
strong boU in the government. Notwithstanding a high biftb-
late (45 in the thousand), the armual increase of population b
but slow (o-s per cent, annually). The prevailing occupation
b agiicultnie, modem machinery being used on the steppe
larma. More than two-thirds of the area b arable, and of thb*
pfopotion 53 per sent, bekmgs to the peasant coaummitics,
36 per cenL to privau individuab, and 11 per cent, to the crown.
The principal oops are rye, wheat, oats, barley and potatoes.
Grain b exported to a considerable extent from the south,
ahhffwgh the yield b deficient in the north. Hemp and linseed
are abo cultivated, and the production of tobacco b yeariy
increasing. Beetroot b extensively grown for sugar. Live-
stock breeding, though less extensivdy carried on than formerly,
b still importanL Excellent breeds of horses are jnet with,
not only on the larger esutes, but abo in the hands el the
wealthier peasants, those of the Bityug river being moat esteemed.
Manufacturers aro represented cfaidSy by dbtillerics, taUow-
mdting works, sugar facto rie s, fkmr-miUs and wooIlen<lotli
milb. Commerce b brisk, owing to the large grain export—
Kozkyv, Morshansk, Tambov and Borisoglyebsk being the chief
centres for thb traflk, and Lebedyan for the trade in hones and
cattle. Hus government b backward educationally. A distinc-
tive feature b its large villages of crown peasants.
The region now induded in the north of the government was
settled by Russians during the earliest centuries of the princi-
pality of Moscow, but tmtil the end of the 17th century the
fertile tracts in the south remained too insecure for settlers.
In the following century a few inunigrants began to come in
from the steppe, and landowners who had received large grants
of land from the tsars began to bring thdr serfs from central
Russia. (P.A.K.;J.T.Bk.)
TAMBOV, a town of Russia, capital of the govemment of
the same name, 300 m. by rail S.E. from Moscow, on the TsnA
river, and on the railway to Saratov. Pop. (1884) 34.000;
(1900) 49,908. The town b almost entirdy built of wood,
with broad unpaved streets, lined with low bouses sunoonded
by gardens; but it b an archiepiscopal see of the Orthodox
Greek Church. WooQens, tobacco, oil and various other com*
modities are manufaaured. The trade in graia, and in cattle
purchased in the south and sent to Moscow, b far less important
than that of Morshansk and Kozkyv.
TAMBURELLO (caUed in Piedmont Tabauo\ a oomt game
popular in Italiy, particularly in the northem provinces. It is
a modification of the ancient game of PcUone (9.V.), bearing the
same genenl rebtion to it as Squash docs to Racquets. A f nil-
azed Tamburello Court, which need not be as true and even as
that f or PaUone, b 90 to 100 yards long and half as wide, divided
laterslly through the middle by a line {ccrdino) into two equal
spaces, the baUtOa and the rimesso. Three playcis icgubrly
fbrm a sUe, each carrying in one hand an impiemcBt called
tambmeBOy resembling a tambourine (whence the name), which
b a round frame of wood upon which b tightly stretched a cover
of horse-hide. A rubber ball about the size of a Uwn-tennis
ball b used. One of the players opens the service (bcttmla),
which b made from a small square called the Irampolnip, situated
at one corner of the baUuia but outside the court. The service
most be over the middle line. The ball must then be hit from
akle to side over the line, the side failing to return it or sending
it out of covrt losing a point. The game b scored like Uwn-
teimis, four points constituting agame, counting is+is+ro-l-io.
TambureUo, a less expensive game than Pallone, b popular
with the k>wer daases, who use it as a medium for betting.
TAMILB. The word Tamil (properly TamU) has been iden-
tified with Dravida, the Sanskrit generic appellation for the
south Indian peoples atMi their Unguages; and the various stages
through which the word has passed— Dramida. Dramila, DamiU
been finally discussed by Bishop CakiweU in hb Ccim^
Grammar 0/ Ae Drandian Langmafts (ad ad., 1875,
q.). The identification was first suggested by Dr Graul
ocAOtfNitfMs, vol. in., i8s4. P- 349)> and then adverted
)r G. U. Pope {Tama Handbook, 1850, Introduction)
{Maiaydima Dietianary, 1872, r.».). Dr Pope,
TAMILS
389
konvver, believed Taimi to be a corruption of tenmdu aottthern
q)eech, in omtradistinction to va4ugu, ihc northern» f.e., Teioga
JaoguAge. As in tlie caae of the Kafir, Turkish, Tagak «od
other typical languages, the term Tamulic or Tamulian has
occaaionaUy been employed as the designation of the whole
dass of Dravidian peoples and languages, of which it is only
the most prominent member. The present article deals with
Tamil in its restricted sense only. The Tamils proper are smaller
and of weaker build than Europeans, though graceful an shape.
Their physical appearance is described as follows:— a pouitcd
and frequently hooked pjnamidal nose, with conspicuous naces,
mote k>ng than round; a marked sinking in of the orbital line,
pcodudng a strongly defined orbital ridge; hair and eyes black;
the hitter, varying from small to middle-sized, have a peculiar
sparkle ajid a look of calculation; mouth large, lipa thick,
lower jaw not heavy; forehead well-fonned, but receding,
ittdintng to flattish, and seldom high; beard conaderaUe, and
often strong; colour of skin very dark, frequently approaching
to black {Manual of the Administralum of the Madras Presidency ^
Madras, 1885, vol. i., Introd., pw 36; see also Caklwell, Com-
porathe Grammar ej tiu Dravidian Languages, 1875, pp. 558-79}.
The Tamils have many good qualities— frugalUy, patience,
endurance, poh'tenesfr— and they are credited with astounding
BBcmoriea; their worst vices are said to be lying and lascivious-
ness. Of all the Sooth-Indian tribes they are the least sedentary
and the most enterprising. Wherever money is to be earned,
there will Tamils be found, either as merchants or in the lower
capacity of domestic servanu and bbourers. The tea and coffee
districts of Ceylon are peopled by about 950,000; Tamik serve
as coolies in the Mauritius and the West Indies; in Burma, the
Straits, and Siam the somaUed Klings are ail Tamils (Gxaul,
Reise nack Ostindien, Leipsig, 1855, vol. iv. pp. ti3>-2i2).
Langua^. — The area over which Tamil is spoken eictends
from a few miles north of the city of Madras to the extreme
south of the eastern side of the peninsula, throughout the country
below the Eastern Ghats, from Ihilicat to Cape Comorin, and
from the Ghats to the Bay of Bengal, including also the southern
portion of Travancore on the westeni side of the Ghats and the
Dorthem part of Ceylon. According to the census of 1901, the
total number of Tamil-speaking people in all India was 16,525.500.
To these should be added about 160,000 in the French posses-
sions. But as of all the Dravidian languages the Tamil shows
the greatest tendency to spread, its area becomes ever larger,
encroaching on that of the contiguous languages. Tamil is a
sister of Malayftlam, Telugu. Kanarese, Tulu; and, as it is the
oldest, richest, and most highly organized of the Dravidian
languages, it may be looked upon as typical of the family to
which at belongs. The one nearest akin to it is Malay&)am,
which originaOy appears to have been simply a dialect of Tamil,
but differs from it npw both in pronunciation and in idiom, in
the retention of old Tamil forms obsolete in the modem language,
and in having discarded all personal terminations In the verb,
the person being always indicated by the pronoun (F. W. Ellis,
DisserMion on the Malaydlam Language^ p. a; Gundcrt, Malay-
dlma Dictionary, Introd.; Caldwell, Comparative Cr.t Introd.,
p. »s; Bumell, Spuimens of South Indian Diaiects^Ho. 2, p. 13).
Abo, the proportion of Sanskrit words in Maiay&lam is greater,
while in Tamil it is less, than in apy other Dravidian tongue.
This divergence between the two languages cannot be traced
farther back than about the loth century; for, as it appears
from the Cochin and Travancore inscriptions, previotis to that
period both bnguages were still substantially identical; whereas
in the Rdmadtarilamt the oldest poem in MalayJLlam, composed
probably in the 13th centuiy, at any rate long before the arrival
ol the Portuguese and the introduction of the modem character,
we lee that language already formed. The modem Tamil
characters originated " in a Brahmanical adaptation of the old
Grantha letters corresponding to the so<aIled Vatteluttu." or
nuad-hand, an alphabet onoe in vogue throughout the whole
of the Fl94yM kingdom, as well as in the South Malabar and
Coimbatore districts, and still sparsely used for drawing up con-
vtyancea aaid other legal instruments (F. W. Ellis, DistertaUom,
p. 3). It is abo u«ed by the'Moplahs in Tellichefry. The
origin of the VaUeluttu itself is still a controverted question.
Dr Bumell, the greatest authority on the subject, stated his
reasons for tradng that character through the Pahlavi to a
Semitic source {Elements of South Indian Pataeography, 2nd ed.,
1878, pp. 47-52. and plates xvii. and xxxS.). In the 8th century
the Va(telutt^ existed side by side and together with the Graniha,
an ancient alphabet still used throughout the Tamil country
in writing Sanskrit. During the four or five centuries after the
conquest of Madura by the Cholas in the nth it was gradually
superseded in the Tamil country by the modern Tamil, while in
Malabar at oontiaued in general use down to the end of the 17th
century. But the earliest works of Tamil literature, such as
the Totkdppiyam and the Kuralj were still written in it. The
modem Tamil characters, which have but Utile changed for the
hist 500 yean, differ .from all the other modem Dravidian
alphabets both in shape and in their phonetic vahie. Their
angubr form is said to be due to the widespread practice of
writmg with the style resting on the end of the left thumb-nail,
while the other alphabets are written with the. style resting on
the left side of the thumb.
The Tamil alphabet is sufficieatly well adapted (or the expression
of the twelve vowdt of the language (a. i, 1, /, «« H, e. I. o, 6, ei, au),
— ihe oocasiooal KMjqds of d and H, both short and long, being
covered by the signs for «, i. t. I: but it is uttcriy inadeqiiaie
for the proper expression of the c»aioaants. inasmuch as (he one
character ik has to do duty also for kk, g, gfi. and similarly each
of the other surd consonants ck, /. (. p represents also the remaining
three letters of its respective dass. The letter h has, besides,
occasionally the sound of A, and ch that of x. Each of the five
consonants k. ch, I. i, p ha» its own nasal. In addk^n to the
four semivowels, the Tamil possesses a cerebral r and /, and has,
in common with the Malayilam, retained a liquid /, once peculiar
to all the Dravkiian bnguagcs. the sound of which is so difficuU
10 fix graphically, and varies co much in different districts,
that it has been rendered in a dozen different ways {Manual
o[ the Administration of Ike Madras Presidency, vol. ii. pp ao scq.)»
Fr. Miillcr is probably correct in approximating it to that of the
Bohemian 9. There is. lastly, a peculiar n. diffcrine in funciioo
but not in pronunciation from the dental n. The three sibilants
and h of Sanskrit have no place in the Tamil alphabet; but ch
often docs duty as a sibilant in writing foreign words, and the
four cocrespondtQg letters as wcU as j and ksk of the Grantha
alphabet are now frequently called to aid. It is obvbus that
many of the Sanskrit words imported into Tamil at various periods
(Caklwell, loc. ciL, Intred.. pp. 86 seq.) have, la consequence of the
incongruity of the Sanskrit and Tamil notation of their res|>caive
phonetic systems, assumed disguises under «'hich the original is
scarcely rccognirable: examples are utag^ (loka). urmam (rCpa),
ankken (arka). atputam (adbhuUm). nafchattiram (nakshatram).
irudi (rishi). ttrkam (dirgha). arasen (r&jan). Besides the Sanskrit
ingredients, which aopcar but spar&cly in the old poetry, Tamfl
has borrowed from Kindustani. Arabic, and Persian a large numbo*
of revenue, political, and judicial terms, and more recently a good
many English words ha\e crept in, such as tiraUi, treaty, paflar.
butler, &kt, act, hul6b, club, kavamar, governor, pinnalkidn, penal
code. ifJb^M, sick, mejastirelfv, magistrate. But, as compared with
its liicrar>' sister bnguagcs, it has preserved its Dravidian character
singularly free from foreign inflticncc. Of Tamil words which have
found a permanent home in English may be mentioned ctnry.
(itorO. mulligatawny {mUagu, pepper, and tapf^r, cool water),
cheroot {suntlfu). parbh {parnyan).
The laws of euphony (a\-o«ding of hiatus, softening of initial
consonants, contact of final with mitial consonants) are far more
complicated in Tamil than in Sanskrit. Btit, while they were
ri(;klly adhered to in the old poetical language (Scn-TamiK or
" Pcrlcct " Tamil), there is a growing teod(nc)r to neglect them
in the language of the present day (Kodun-Tamil). It is true the
Tamil rules totally differ from the pre\'ailing Sanskrit; still the
probability is in favour of a Sanskrit influence, inasmuch as they
appear to follow Sanskrit models. Thus, iruf nikkindn becomes
huvtkkindn; pan pdttiram, porpdltiram; tulfil kandin, miftir
kandhi; vdhirumei, vAtsirumei; palan tandan, palantdndan.
Nouns aire divided Into high-caste or personal and low-caste or
impenonal.'-^tbe former comprising words for rational beings, the
latter all the rest. Only in high-caste nouns a distinction between
masculine and feminine is observed in the singular; both have a
common plural, which is Indicated by change of a final n (feminine
f) into r; but the neuter plural termination kaf (gaf) may be super-
added in every case. Certain nouns change their base termination
before receiving the case affixes, the latter being t*- * ■ - r
singular and plural. They are for the ace. ei. '
{odu, udan), dat. ku. loc. i7 Udaltil, in), abl. U
udeiya (tftf«)._ There is, besides, a general ob
TAMILS
c r ury
M Iraqaently uted for the genltiv^ tmt may be inMrted
-r» of the above af&xes, to tome oi which die emphatic
2 may also be superadded< In the old |X>etry there is a
^T^KT variety of affixes, while there is an optioa of dispensing
.. aL Adiecttves, when attributive, praoede the noun and are
-.u^cftUe; when predicative they foUow it and receive verbal
'W&. TW pronouns of the 1st person are sing, ndn {ydn), in-
.>ui ^K en, plural ndm (ydm). infl. nam, including, ndngaf,
. -t^s: excluding the person addressed; of the snd person nt,
:. « %xM, nun), plural nfr {ntvir, ntrir), ntn^^, infl. um^ ungaf
.A*. To each of those focnu, inclusive also of the reflexive |Mt>-
^ i> ««« «lai, Idngal, a place is asugned in the scale of honorific
.^iiaak As in the demonstrative pronouns the forms beginning
.ideate nearness, those with a distance, and (in the old
cr- - those with u what is between the two, so the same forma
'With e (or >d» as in ydr* Ar, who?) express the interro-
The verb consists of three elements — the root (generally
.^-CM' to one syllable), the tense characteristic, and the personal
^. TVere ate three original moods, the indicative, imperative,
. nftfMtive (the 2nd singular imperative is generally identical
• ae root), as well as three original tenses, the present, past, and
^« The personal aflixes are— sing. (1) -te; (2) -dy, honorific
c. -An, fem. -if, honor, -dr, neuter -adu; plural (i)
Si
CO
thr
mc
Vo
Kh.
tha
tot
espe
cont
bov
Juiy,
haJf.
occar
»tnw
north
govtrt
earth,
have
The
^ ^iiw, -fm); (2) -irkal; (3) masc. fem. -Arkaf, ncut. -cna. These
i*«tf» jco-e for all verbs and for each of the three tenses, except
It the future, -cdu and -ana are replaced by -urn ^kkum). It
. u^ m the formation of the tenses that verbs difler, intransitive
jit^ Mmllv indicating the present by -Jbt>- (-Jh'nf-), the past by
.. .«»•, or 'in-, and the future by <«• (•6-)* and transitive verbs
■• ne corresponding infixes, -kkitr- {-kkin^-jt -tt- (-n^). and -^;
^. iHc* are numerous exceptions and seemingly anomalous forma-
.^ Other tenses and moods are expressed with the aid of special
>««» or auxiliary verbs. Causal verbs are formed by various
.ii» (-^'-i -M-, 'UU'), and the passive by the auxiliary pa4u,
ul. or by M!i, to cat. with a noun. The following four peculi-
.^s. are characteristic of Tamil: — first, the tenseless n»ativc
. n ^ the verb, expressed by the infix a, which is dided before
s^bJLtf vowels; second, the predicative employment of two
^^nT particles iUti and Ma, the one denying the existence or
etfKe. the other denying the quality or essence; third, the
^ jt two sets of participles,— one, called adiective or relative
..^cple. which supplies the place ol a relative clause, the language
^jQijMig no relative pronouns, and an ordinary adverbial participle
"TanMa; and, fourth, the practice of giving adjectives a verbal
,^-y^ means of personal afnxes, which form may a^ain be treated
. a9un by attaching to it the tleclensional terminations, thui:
' «. G?*^* P^*y^* ^>^ aiv Kteat^ ptri y &mukku, to us who are
.(. The old poetry abounds in verbal forms now obsolete.
. Utives, adverbs and abstract nouns are derived from verbs by
\hA afl^xes. All post-positions were originally cither nouns or
^^ forms. Oraiio indtrtcta is unknown m Tamil, as it is in all
« jther Indian langui^es, the gerund mrti being used, like Ui
■^^ykrit, to indicate Quotation. The structure of sentences b
^atx counterpart of the structure of words, inasmuch as that
^^ qualifies always precedes that which is qualified. Thus the
> friwttve precedes the substantive, the sobstantive precedes the
a^Mition, the adverb precedes the verb, the secondary clause the
^^Pf one. and the verb closes the sentence. The -sentence,
•i«ing called the woman who had killed the child, he asked why
^ committed such infanticide," mas in Tamil as follows:—
•Iftppltta id I9 ippa^
iHHiftHwa' hatiotaiiacdtobsadkd.- 'ThNwhribus
■ey«Jly fapa kcU&a. <-
dldrt?" hsviBgsiidk«uk«L _ ^ — ^ -.-
^ as the similarity of the structure'of 'the* Tamil and its
- linguages to that of the Ugro-Tartar class may have proved
^ive of the a£fium|>tioa of a family affinity between the two
.. such an affinity, if it exist, must be held to be at least very
• . inasmuch as the assumption receives but the faintest
.f support from an intercomparison of the radical and least
portion 01 the respective languages. >^
•Krr.---The early existence, in southern IndiaTof peoples,
animals and products the names of which, as men-
he Old Testament and in Greek and Roman writers,
identified with correspooding Dravidian terms, goes
•^the high antiquity, if not of the Tamil language,
<ne form of Dravidian speech (Caldwell, toe. cit.,
W~io6; Madras District Uanual, i., Introd., pp.
t practically the earliest extant records of the
do not ascend higher than the middle of the
»c Qir'- • '*-- -^nt in possession of the
"^in the bte Dr BurocU to
f m did not exist yet as
liability that about the
sprung up, which are
\ry a& representing the
»iiU-V-4lti
old literature (Bumell, he, eii., p. 127, note). The earlier of
these may have been Saiva books; the more prominent of the
others were decidedly Jain. ' Thoti^ traces of a north Indian
influence are palpable in all of them that have come down to
us(see,<.g.,F. W. Ellis's notes to the Kii^af)t we can at the same
time perceive, as we must certainly appreciate, the desire of
the authors to oppose the influence of Brahraanical writings,
and create a literature that should rival Sanskrit books and
appeal to the sentiments of the people at large. But the refine-
ment of the poNetical htnguage, as adapted to the genius of Tamil,
has been csirried to greater excess than in Sanskrit; and this
artificial character of the so-called Sen-Tamil is evident from a
comparison with the old inscriptions, which are a reflex of the
language of the people, and clearly show that Tamil hat not
undergone any essential change (Burnell, loCy cil., p. 142).
. The rules of Sen-Tamil appear to have been fixed at a very early
date. The Tolkdppiyam, the oldest extant Tamil grammar, is
assigned by Dr BumcU (On the Aindra School of Sanskrit Grant-
manans, pp. 8, 55) to the 8th centuiy (best edition by C. Y. Tftmo-
daram Pillci, Madras, 1885). The virat^iyam, another granunar,
is of the nth century. Both have been superseded by the NannHU,
of the isth century, which has exercised the skill of numerous
commentators, and continues to be the leading native authority
(English editions in Pope's TAtrd Tamil Grammar, and an abridg-
ment by Lanrus. 1884). The period of the prevalence of the
Jains in the PAodya kingdom, from the 9th or loth to the 13th
century, is justly termed the Augustan age of Tamil literature.
To its earlier days is assigned the Nala^iyir, an ethical poem on
the three objects of existence, which is supposed to have preceded
the iCiffof oi.Tinivalluvan. the finest poetical production ta the
whole range of Tamil composition. Tradition, in keeping .with
tlie spirit of antagonism to Brahraanical influence, says that its
author was a pariah. It consists of 1330 stanzas on virtue, wealth
and pleasure. It has often been edited, translated and commented
upon; see the introduction to the excellent edition published by
the Rev. Dr Pope, in which also a comprehensive account of tM
peculiarities of Sen-Tamil will be found. To the Awei, or Matron,
a reputed sister of Tiruvalluvan, but probably of a later date,
two shorter moral poems, called AuisC4i and Konrtivtpidan, are
ascribed, which are still read in all Tamil schools. Ckimltmaiti, an.
epic of upwards of 1000 stanaaa, which celebrates the exploits of a
king Ilvakan, also belongs to that early Jain period, and so does
the uiv&karam, the oldest dictionary oT classical Tamil. The
former is one of the finest poems in the language; but no more
than the first and part of the third of iu thirteen books have been
edited and translated. Kamban's BAmdya^m (about iioo a.d.)
is the only other Tamil epic which comes up to the CMiUAmapi in
poetical beauty. The most brilliant of the poetldal productions
which appe a red in the period of the Saiva revival (I3tn and 14th
centuries) are two cdloctlons of hymns addressed to Siva, the one
called TtnatAsakam, by MAoikka-Visakan. and a later and larger
one called TivAram, oy Sambandhan and two other devotees.
Sundaran and Appan. Both these collections \u\t been printed,
the former in one, the latter in five volumes. They are rivalled
both in rdigious fervour and in poe t ical merit by a conteraporaocous
collection of Vaishoava hymns, the NdUiyira-^prabaiidiam (also
printed at Madras). The third section of it. called Tirundymoli,
or " Words of the Sacred Mouth," has been published in T elugu
characters, with ample commentaries, in ten quartos (Madras.
1875-76). After a period of literary torpor, which lasted ncariy
two centuries, King Vallabha Deva. better known by his assumed
name Ativirar&ma P&ndyan (second half of the i6th century),
endeavoured to revive the love of poetry by compositioru of ms
own, the most celebrated of which are the Neidadam, a somewhat
extravagant imitation of Sri Marsha's Sanskrit Naiskadkam, and
the Vkrfts^Art, a coUectkm of sententious maxims. Though he had
numerous followers, who made this revival the most prolific in the
whole history of Tamil literature, none 01 the compositions of
any kind, mainly translations and bombastic imitations of Sanskrit
modds. have attained to any fame. An exceptional place, however,
is occupied by certain Tamil sectarians called iilter (t.r. siddkas or
sages), whose mystical poems, especially those contained in the
SivavAkyam, are said to be of singular beauty. Two poems of high
merit.composed at the end of the 1 7th century, a1sod«er\'e favourable
notice — the NHintrivihkkam, an ethical treatise by Kumirarurupara
Desikan. and the FrabhutiniolUei, a transbtk>n from the Kanarese
of a famous text-book of the Vira-Saiva sect. See the analysis in
W. Taylor's CaUilogue, vol. li. pp. 837-^7.
The modem period, which may be said t<
of the L
the other f _
school, composed 1453 stanzas ipAdal) which have a high reputation
for sublimity both of sentimrnt and style; and the Italian Jesuit
Joseph Beschi (d. 1742). under the name Viramftmuni. elaborated,
00 the model of the CkiiUAmavi^m. rdigiovsepic TBmbdmpi, which*
ayior s taiciogue, vol. u. pp. 037-^7.
e modem period, which may be said to date from the beginning
i last century, is ushered in by two mat poets^ one native and
thcr foreign. TAyuminavan, a phiFosopher of the paiitlieistic
TAMLUK— TAMMANY HALL
39'
aoQgh marred by blemishes of taste, is dasatd bv native critics
among the best productions of their literature. Tt treats of the
lustofy of St Josnifa, and has been printed at Pondicherry in
three volumes, with a full ana^s. English influence has here,
as in Bengal and dsewheft in India, greatly tended to create
a healthier tone in literature both as to style and sentiment. As
one of the best Tamil translations of Enghsh books in respect of
dktioa and idiom may be mentioned the BdlavydpSrikal, or '* Little
Merchants," pubKahed by the Vernacular Text Society, Madras.
P. Perdval's collection of Tamil Pfootrbs (3rd «d., 1875) should
also be mentioned. The copper-^Iate gpnts. commonly called
SAsanams, and stone inscriptions m Tamil, many of which have
been copied and translated (Arekae^ogical Survey of Southern India,
'vdLiv.iR.Sem^llMUefthaAtUiqmmamRewuaMsiMikePresidauy
of Madras, vols, i., it}, are the only authentic historical rocords.
(See also ^ Walter Elliot's contribution to the Jntemaiional Numis-
mata Orientalia, vol. iii. pt. 3.) As cariyr as the time of the Chinese
traveller HsOan Tsan^, books were written in southern India on
talipot leaves, and Albimni mentions this custom as quite prevalent
in hw time (loji). It has not died Out even at the present day,
though paper imported from Portugal has, during the last three
centuries, occasionally been used. Madras is now the largest
depository of Tamil palm-leaf MSS.. which have been described in
WUson's CatatagMecfike Macke$nie CoUecHon (Calcutu, i8a8. a vols.),
W. Taylor's CataLigue (Madras. 18^7, 3 vols.), and Coodaswamy
Iyer's Catalogue {yci. %., Madras, 1861). The art of printing, however,
which was introduced in southern In<f*~ -* '" ■*"'^ — 1.:«- \i
has tended to the preservation of mair he
aaoent literature, has also been the nd
drcuLacing a deal of literary rubbish ar ild
much better have remained in the o Dr
Bumdl has a note in his Elements < hy
(and ed.. p. 44). from which it appears t >re
cut hi Father JoSo de Faria. and tl a
Tamil and Portuguese dictionary was lu.
At present the- number of Tamil boo rs)
printed annually far exceeds that of al la-
culars put together. The earliest Tan la-
ment was commenced by the Dutch ii , s's
translation appeared at Tmnauebar in 1715. Since then many new
translations of the whole Bible have been printed, and ,some of
them have passed through several editions. The German missionary
B. Z'legenbalg was the first to make the study of Tamil possible in
Europe by the puMication of his CrammaUea Damuhca, which
appeared at Halle in 1716. Some time later the Jesuit' father
Bnchi devoted much time and labour to the composition of
grammars both of the vulgar and the poetical dialect. The former
n treated in his Grammatiea Latino-Tamuliea, which was written
in 1728, but was not printed till eleven years later (Tranquebdr,
>739)« It was twice reprinted, and two English translations have
been published (1831, 1848). His Sen-Tamil Grammar, accessible
since 1823 in an English translation by Dr Babington. was printed
from his own MS. {Clavis humaniorum literaruni suSlimioris Tamvlici
idiomatis) at Tranquefaar in 1876. This work is especially valuable,
as the greater portion of it conusts of a learned and ohaustive
treatise on Tamil jMoeody and rhetoric. (See, on hb other works,
(}raiU's Reise, vol. iv. p. ^27.) There are also^mman by Anderson,
Rhenius. Graul (in vol. u. of his BiNiotheca Tamulica, Leipzie. i8ss),
Lazarus (Madras. 1878), Pope (4th edition in three parts, London.
1863^5). and Crammaire Franfaise-Tamoule, by the Abbi Dupuis
Sbndicberry, 1863). The last two are by far the best. The India
Bee librao' possesses a MS. dictionary and grammar " par le
R^. P^re Dominique " (Pondicherrv, 1843), and a copy of a MS.
Tamil-Latin dictionary bv the celebrated missionary Schwarz, in
which 9000 words are explained. About the like nnmber of words
are given in the dictionary of Fabridus and Breithaupc (Madras^
1779 and 1809). Rottlers dictionary, the publication of which
was commenced in 1834, is a far more ambitious work. B'"^ — ^'^er
it nor Winsknr's (1862) come up to the standard of Tam kr-
ship; the Diciiomiaira Tamout-rraufois, which appeared di-
ch«ny in 2 vob. (185^2), is superior to both* just as th
arium Zatino-Cauico'Tam. " '" " -- '* • -^
Tamulicum {ibid., 1846) excels th
English-Tamil dictionaries which have been published at ]
^ Sbc a. T. Moodi^ and J. Vinson in Dictionnain de
AntinfoUtiaueSt s.t. " Dravidiens"; S. C. Chitty, T
PhUarck, JaHna, 1859; J. Murdoch, OassiJUd Cotalotfi»
Printed Books, Madras, 1865: C. E. Cover, F<dk'Sonis oj
India, Madras, 187 1; Bishop Caldwdl's Comparative Ct
A* Dnmdian Languages, snd ed., London, 1875; Cxraurs i
Otdndien, vols. iv. and v.; the quarteriy Lists ef Books
in the Madras Presidency; [Dr. Maclean's] Manual of tka
tration of the Madras Presidency, vols. L and iL, Madras, x io;
F. Mailer. Crundriss der Sprachwssenschaft, Vienna, iboa, ui. L
l63~3^: G. U. Pope, First Lessons in Tamtl, Tth ed^ Oxford, 1904,
and the Ndladtydr, Oxford, 1893; and J. VinsQq,*Afasi«l de la
Langue Tamoukt Psui»» 1903. ~ (R. R.)
' TAMLUK. an ancient towir of British India, in tbe Midnapore
diatria of Bengal, an the river Rupnarayan. - Pop. (1901)
8805. Under the name of Tamralipta was the capital of the
Peacock dynasty, and a seaport at which the Chinese Buddhist
pilgrims embarked. It i& now 60 m. from the sea, and the ruins
of the old city lie deep beneath river silt. It contains the palace
of a local raja, and some temples of peculiar construction.
TAMMANY HALU a political ocganisation in New York
City, U.S.A^ claiming to be the regular representative of the
Democratic party in that city. It takes iu name from a sachem
or chief of the Delaware Indians, Tamanend or Tammany, the
name itself meaning " the Af ahk." Before the War of Inde-
pendence there were Whig societies called " Sons of St Tam-
many " and " Sons of Liberty," with rituals in which Indian
words were used to suggest the American character of the
lodges. On the X2th of May 2789 William Mooney (d. 1833),
an upholsterer, of Irish birth, who had probably been a member
of an earlier Tammany society, founded in New York City
the " Society of St Tammany" or " Columbian Order" as a
patriotic, benevolent and non-political orgimisation, with the
intent to counteract the influence of what was believed to be
the aristocratic Order of the Cincinnati. A lew short-lived
societies of a similar kind were founded in other states. In
1805 the New York Society was incorporated as a benevolent
society, in i8ix it built its first wigwam, or hall, in Frankfort
Street near the City Hall, and in 1867 it moved to its present
hall in Fourteenth Street. The society was a secret organiza-
tion, divided into tribes, with sachems (the most important
being tbe Grand Sachem) as the chief officials, a sagamore, or
master of ceremonies, and a winskinskie, or door-keeper, and
with a ritual of supposedly Indian character. This " Tammany
Society" is not itself the well-known political organization,'
but rents its hall to the Tammany Hall General Committee, the
" Tammany Hall " of political notoriety; the leading members,'
however, of the " Society" and of the " Hall" are identical,
and the " Society " controls the meeting-place of the " Hall,",
so that tbe difference between the two is little more than nominal.
Almost from the beginning Tammany has been actively engaged
in politics, being part of, and during the greater period of its
existence actually representing in New York City, the Demo-,
cratic party, though always subordinating the interests of the
party as a whole to its own selfish interests. It has had local
rivals at different times, but these, though successful for a
while, have not lived long; on the other hand, the Hall has
not general^ been regarded with favour by the Democratic
party throughout the country at large.
Soon after its founding, Tammany came under the influence of
Aaron Burr. In 1800 it worked for the election of Jefferson as
President. It bitterly opposed De Witt Clinton for many years
and was hostile to his large Irish constituency; but, after it
secured in x8sa the coosUtutional amendments providing for
manhood su&age and for the abolitioo of imprisonment of
debtors, and especially after 1827 when Tammany first tried
to reduce the five-year period of residence necessary for naturali-
sation, the foreign-bom element gradually came into control
of the "Society" and of the "HalL" About 2842 Irish
** gangs," which used physical violence at election time, became
a source of Tammany strength. It reached its height of power
about 1870, under the leadership of William Marcy Tweed
(1823-78), who used his popularity as a volunteer fireman
to advance himiell in Tammany and who was the first " boss "
of the organization, which had formerly been controlled by
committees. In the mayoralty and the other admioisUative
offices and In the common council of the dty, in the chief
exocntive office of the state, in the state legislature, and even
in some of the judges' seats* Tweed had placed (or had secured
the election of) accomplices or tools, or else controlled votes by
purchase. In Apnl 1870 Tweed secured the passage of a city
charter which put the control of tbe dty into the hands of the
mayor, the oomptrQUer, and the comooissioners of park» and
public works. - A system of official phmder then began tha
has had few panallel9 in modem times. How much was actuall;
stolen can never be known; but the b^ * * ' * ' »hc dt>
which was $36,000,000 at the begiani \fio
in September 2871, an increase of K -n
392
TiAiMMERFORS— TAMPA
dght months; and within the Mme period a floating debt of
$20,000/300 was incurred, making a total of $81,000,000. For
thb Tast sum the diy had little to show. The method of
plunder was the presentation of exccsaire bills for work done,
cspedaHy in connexion with the new court-house then being
effected. The bills were ostensibly paid in full, but in reality
only in part, the rest being retained by Tweed, and divided
amongst his followers in proportion to their importance. The
total cost of the court-house to the dty was about $13,000,000
— many limes the actual cost of construction. The amount
paid in these two years for the dty printing and stationery was
nearly $3,000,000. The end came through a petty quarrel over
the division of the spoils. One of the plunderers, dissatis6ed
with the office he had received, gave to the New York Times
a copy of certain swollen accounts which showed conclusively
the >lwUng that had been going on. When Tweed was inier-
vk'^vil about the frauds his only reply was, " What are you
gi>ing to do about it?" The better classes, however, were now
thomufhly aroused, and with Samuel J. Tilden, afterwards
leoveraor of the state, at their head, and with the assistance of
the |'iiM<>j and of Harper** Weekly, in the latter of which the
ItovM'rlul cartoons of Thomas Nast appeared, completely over-
threw the ring and rescued the dty. Tweed was tried and on-
viitcil, but was afterwards released on a technicality of law;
he wd4 re arrested, but managed to escape and fled to Spain;
hr wti» IdenliAed and was brought back to gaol, where he died.
The iv»t ol the gang fared little better. Within a few years and
under a new leader, John Kelly, Tammany W2s again in control
of the city. Kelly was succeeded by lUchard Croker, whose
r«-ign a» ** boss '* continued until 190X. Since 1881 Tammany
hA» been in virtual control of the city government about one-
h.tH the time, a Tammany and a reform mayor often alternating.
Ther« were elaborate investigations of Tammany's control of
the city by committees of the legislature in 1890, 1894, and
iHoo. The most conspicuous overthrows of Tammany since
Iho ilays of Tweed were in 1894, in igoi, when practically the
whole reform ticket from mayor to alderman was dected, and
in iv>oo. when the mayor (not a member of Tammany) was the
unlv Tammany nominee on the general ticket elected. The
gutkH'T forms of corruption that prevailed under Tweed did not
SK a rule prevail in later years. Instead, the money raised by
and U%r the Hall and its leaders has come from the blackmailing
^a vorpoiaiions, which find it easier to buy peace than to fight
\\\\ their rights: from corporations which desire concessions
n\MU the city, or which do not wish to be interfered with in
vmuMihments en public rights; from liquor-dealers, whose
\ oMuea are more or less at the mercy of an unscrupulous party
Mt |v«t>f; from other dealers, espedally in the poorer parts
v4 th» rity, whose business can be hampered by the pdice;
.•nmm h^(t holders and candidates for office; and, lastly, in-
«. >N Ux through corrupt police officials, from the criminal classes
* Nt cAw«Utng establishments in return for non-intervention on
^' »su( ^ (he police. The power of Tammany Hall is the
K. •' U i^ult of the well-regulated machine which it has built
i«^ : ^NH^thovit the dty, directed by an omnipotent " boss."
>^^ > «\ « W'^ assembly districu " into which the dty is divided
^ ^»i « ^^uta number of repre«ntatives to the General Com-
^. ,v xx Unmany HalL Each district also has a " boss "
.v<« kM a committee, and these leaders form the Executive
XM... ^ A ;V Hall. There is also a " captain " for each of
H > .vcvvscts* over 1000 in nimiber, into which the dty
«v.,. rv fitronage of the dty filters down from the
^ N..<« A .te Hall to the local precinct leader, the latter
. , ■. • (» .«M « mere small munidpal offices at his disposal;
, .V *« '*- -^ )« j^Ntion money spent in his precinct. The
^ . ii^v— '"V9. ft :l* different assembly districts are largely
^ ^^.«x A «jk" is in considerable degree
...^ ,u^.4. ae« the Hall over the poorer
w»4» » -HIT*' V tie generally over or
^ jjWB. throughout Manhattan
"T ^_ w ^ I its most effective allies
.ed too that ihe.Hall is
not subject la divided counsels, but' is ruled by one man, a
" boss *' who has risen to his position by sheer force of ability,
and in whose hands rest the finances of the Hall, for which he
is accounuUe to no one. When the ** Greater New York "
was incorporated the power of Tammany seemed likely to grow
less because it was confined to the old dty (Borougji^ of
Manhattan and the Bronx), and the Democratic organiza-
tions in the other boroughs were hostile to it. The power
of the organization in the state and in the nation b due to
its frequent combination with the Republican organization,
which controb the state almost as completely as Tkmmany
does the city.
See Gusuvus Myers, The Bistary of Tammany BaO (New York.
1901). (F.H.H.)
TAMHERFORS (Finnish Tampere), the chief industrial dty
of Finland, capital of the province of Tavastehus, on the rapids
connecting Lakes N^-jirvi and PyhlL-jarvi, las m. by rail
N.W. of Helsingfors. Pop. (1904) 40,261. Tammerfors b an
important centre for the manufacture of cotton, linen, and
woollen goods, leather and paper. The town owes its ezistenct
as a manufacturing centre to the tsar Alexander I.
TAMPA, a dty and the county seat of Hilbboro county,
Florida, U.S.A., in the western part of the state, at the head of
Hilbborough Bay (the E. branch of Tampa Bay), at the mouth
of the' Hillsborough river. Pop. (1880) 730; (1890) 5532;
(1900) 15,839, of whom 5085 were foreign-born and 4382 were
negroes; (1910, U.S. census) 37i782. It b served by the Tampa
Northern, the Atlantic Coast Line and the Seaboard Air Line
railways, and by lines of steamers to the West Indies and to
the Gulf and~ Atlantic ports of the United Sutes. The larger
vessels enter at Port Tampa (pop. hfi 1905, 1049), 9 m. from the
dty, 00 the W. side of the peninsula separating Hillsborough Bay
from Old Tampa Bay, the W. branch of Tampa Bay. In order
to reach water sufficiently deep for the steamers, the railway
tracks have been carried by earth filling about seven-eighths of
a mile into the bav. The United States government has greatly
improved the harbour, and in 1899 adopted a project (modified
in 1905) for constructing a channel 26 ft. deep and 300 ft. wide
(500 ft. across the bar) from Port Tampa to the Gulf of Mexico;
in July 1909 80 per cent, of thb work had been completed. In
1905-1908 the channel of Hilbborough Bay was made 20 ft.
deep at mean low water and 150 ft. wide from the lower bay
to the mouth..of Hilbborough river, with a turning basin at the
inner end 450 ft. wide and 1050 ft. long. Tampa Bay has
permanent sea-coast defences. Tampa b the prindpal gateway
for trade and travel between the United States and the West
Indies. Owing to its ddightful dimate and its attractive situa-'
tion it has become a favourite .health resort. Many visitors
are attracted by the fishing (cspeciaUy for tarpon) and
shooting b the vicinity, water-fowl bteing plentiful in the Bay,'
and deer, quail and wild turkeys being found in the vidnity
inbnd. There are Urge prehbtoric shell-moundi at Indian
Hill, about 20 m. S.E. Tampa b an important shipping point
for naval stores and phosphate rock, for vegetables, dtrus fruit
and pineapples, raised in the vicinity, and for lumber, cattle
and fuller's earth. The Florida Citrus Exchange has its head*
quarters here. After the Spanish-American War (1898) a large'
trade with the West Indies devdoped. Cattle and pine lumber
are sent to Cuba, and Havana tobacco and fine grades of Cuban
timber are imported. There b a laige trade with -Honduras'
also. The imports increased from $755,316 in 1897 and $490,093
in 1898 (an extremely unfavourable year owing to the Spanish-.
American War) to $4,179^464 in 1909; the exports from
$820,792 in 1897 and $521,792 in 1898 to $1444,786 in 1899
and $4492.498 in 1909; a part of the custom-house dearingt
of Key West are actually shipped from Tampa. In
1905 the value of the factory product was $11,264,123, an
increase of 59 per cent, since 1900. The prindpal product. ia
dgars; most of the tobacco used b imported from Cuba, and
the manufacturing b done chiefly by Cubans who live in a
district known as Ybor City. It b said that more dear Havana^
cigars are manufactured in Tampa than in Havana. Othef
TAMPICO— TANAGER
393
■n bo3af, fottndiy producto, lumber and fer-
tiliioi; ud then are two ihipytnls.
Tampa Bay waa the landing-place of die expeditlona of the
Spanish e aiJoteia , Pamfilo de Narvaes and Hernando de Soto.
<Sce Floxidul) In January 1824 the United Sutes govern-
nent eatahtithcd here a fort. Fort Brooke, wMcli was an im-
portant baae of supplies during the second Seminole War, and
around it a settlement gradually devdoped. The fort was
abandoned in i860, and iu site is now a public park. During
the early part of the Civil War a small Confederate force was in
possesion, but in November z86i it was driven out by United
Statca gunboats. T^mpa grew rapidly after the completion of
the fiiBt railway thither in 1884, and in 1886 it was chartered
as a dty and became a port of entry. Diving the Spanish-
Amaican War United Sutes troops were encamped in
De Soto Park in Tampa, and Port Tampa was the point of
embarkation for the United Sutcs army that invaded Cuba.
TAMnOO, a dty and port of Mexico, in the state of Tamauli-
pas, on the N. bank of the Pannoo river, about 6 m. from the
Gulf of Mexico. Pop. (1906) 17,569, induding the neighbouring
settlemenU connected with the port works. The climate is hot,
humid and unhealthy, and the dty has suffered frequently from
epidemics of yellow fever. A modem sewer system and water-
works, constructed in 1903-1906, have improved its sanitary
oooditJon and will in time reduce its heavy death-rate — about
78 per looo in 1903, when an epidemic of yellow fever caused
337 deaths, and the births numbered 51a against 133 s deaths.
The eastern and poorer part of the town stands on low ground
only 9 or 3 ft. above the river, and is subject U> inundations.
The western part rises about 150 ft., consists largdy of private
icsidenocs, and is provided with water and good drainage. The
business section is well built, largely of stone and brick, and its
streets are well paved and provided with gas and dectric light.
The neighbourhood is swampy and malarial. Tampico has two
important railway connexions: the Monterrey and Gulf line
running N.N.W. to Cludad, Victoria and Monterrey, and a
branch of the Mexican Central running westward to San Luis
Potosi. There is alM> a line of river boats on the Panuco running
op to the mouth of the Tamazunchale about 135 m., and another
running to Tamiahua on the lagoon of that name by way of
the T^ixpam canal, about 77 m. Industries indudc an dectric
light and power plant, factories for making ice, clothing, and
fruit conserves, saw-miU, oil refinery, and a shipyard for small
river boats, llie modem port works, which have made Tampico
accessible to a larger class of steamers, indude two stone jetties
at the mouth of the Panuco, which have increased the depth of
water on the bar to 23 ft. at low water and 26 ft. at high water;
seven wlmrves on the N. bank of the river to accommodate
fourteen steamers at a time; steel sheds with railway tracks,
and railway connexions at the wharves. The depth of water at
the wharves varies from 18 to 25 ft. The exports indude silver
bullion (from San Luis Potosi, Aguascalientes, Torreon and
Monterrey), ixtle fibre, sugar, hides, live cattle, cotton-seed
cake, deer skins, honey, fustic, saisaparilla, coffee, rubber,
broom-coo t, cop per ores and asphalt.
TAKWOBTH, a munidpality of In«jts county, New South
Wales, Australia, on the Peel and Cockburn rivers, 285 m. by
ran N. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 5799- It is an attractive town
in a pleasant situation, with fine broad streets lined with shady
trees, and was the first town in Australia to be lighted by
electridty. Tamworth is the centre of several goldfields, at
one of which, Bingera, diamonds are found. It is also the
market of a pastoral and agricultural district. Brewing, malting,
steam, saw and fk>ur milling, coach building and the manufac-
ture ofboou and galvanlxed iron are its prindpal industries.
TAMORTH, a market town and munidpal borough of
England, in the Lichfield parliamentary division of Staffordshire
and the Tamworth division of Warwickshire, on the river Tame,
a southern tributary of the Trent. Pop. (i 901) 7271. It is
no m. N.E. from London by the London and North- Western
railway, and u hbo served by the west and north line of
the Midland railway (Bristol-Birmingham-Derby). The castle,
situated on a hdgiit above the Aaicer near its jnnctioD with
the Tame, is chiefly of the Jacobean period, but is enclosed by
massive andent waUs. Here was a residence of the Mercian
kings, and, after being bestowed on the Marmions by William
the Conqueror, the castle remained for many years an important
foitresa. Formerly the town was surrounded by a ditdi called
the King's Dyke, of which some trace remains. The church of
St Ediths, originally founded in the 8th century, was rebuilt,
after bdng burned by the Danes, by Edgar, who made it col-
legiate, but the exisUng Decorated buildSig, was erected afur
a fire in 134s* The free giammar school, rcfounded by
Edward IV., was rebuilt in 1677, and agahi m 1867. The
charities include Guy's almshouses, endowed in 1678 by
Thomas Guy, founder of Guy's Hospital, London. On the
commons or moors burgesses have tighu of pasture. Coal,
fixeday and blue and red brick day are dug m the ndghbour-
hood; and there are also market gardens. In the town are a
clothing factory, paper-mills, and manufactures of small wares.
The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldemen, and 1 2 oouacJUora.
Area, 285 acres.
Tamworth {Tamwurda, Tkanmortk, Tamworth) is situated
near the Roman Watling Street. It was burned by the Danes
and restored in 913 by Aethelflead, lady of the Merdans,
who built the fort whkh was the origin of the later castle.
The town was again destroyed by the Danes in 943. There
is no description of Tamworih in Domesday, but its burgesses
are inddentally mentioned several times. In Anglo-Saxon and
Norman times it possessed a mhit, and it is called a borou|^
in the Pipe Rolls of Henry II., but it was not then in a flourishing
condition. Tamworth was incorporated by Elizabeth in 1560
by letters patent, which sUte that it is an " ancient mercate
town," and suggest that the charten have been lost or burned.
The governing charter hi 1835 was that of Charles H., hicorpo-
rating it under the title of the bailiffs and commonalty of the
borough of Tamworth in the counties of Stafford and Warwick.
Edward III. granted two fairs, stiU kept up in 1792, to be held
respectively on St George's day and the day of the Ttanslation
of St Edward; another andent fair, in honour of St Swithin,
or perhaps originally of St Editha, is still held (July 26).
Tamworth sent two members to parliament from 1562 to 1885,
when iu representation was merged in that of the county.
TAHA« a river of British East Africa, which gives' its name
to the Tanaland province of that protectorate. It has a
course, following the main windings only, of over 500 m. Its
sources are along the watershed close to the eastern wall of
the eastern rift-valley, and it enters the Indian Ocean in 2* 40' S.,
about 1 10 m. N. by £. of Mombasa. One series of its numerous
beadstreams traverses the Kikuyu plateau north of the Ath!.
while others flow down the southern and eastern slopes of
Kenya. The main stream, from about 37* E. i* S.. where it
runs dose to the upper waters of the Athi, ftows in a wide curve
N.E., nearly reaching the equator. About 39" E. it turns S.,
and from this point is not known to receive any tributary of
importance. Its course is very tortuous, the current rapid,
and the channel much obstructed by snags. Its width varies,
as a general rule, between 200 and 200 yds. The banks are
usually low, in part forested and inundated at high water,
but away from the river' the country appears to consist of dry
plains covered with mimosa scrub. Adjoining the lower Tana
are many backwaters, which seem to show that the course has
been subject to great changes. In 2* 20' S. the river again turns
east, but during the last 10 m. it flows south-west, paralld to
the coast, entering the sea across a dangerous bar. The Tana
has been navigated in a steam-launch for some 300 m. from
the mouth. North of the Tana is the Ozi, a small river con-
nected with the Tana by the Bdasoni canal.
TANAGBR, a word adapted from the quasi-Latin Tanagra
of Linnaeus, which again is an adaptation, perhaps with a
classical allusion, of Taniara, used by M. J. Brisson and G. L. !«.
Buffon,andsaidbyG.deL.Marcgrave(Hii/. ^'T V/»/ ntasiOae,
p. 214) to be the Brazilian name of cer' 'hat
country. From them It has since Y *■
39+
TANAQUIl^-TANCRED
many otbm mosdy hHonging to the wotbcni portioa oC the
Nev Wodd, now iccognigrf by oniithologists as fonning a
distUkct UaSf Tamafn^ oi the Osdnes divisioii of PasseriiM
birds allied to the FrinpUida€ (see Fwcb); aad d 'w t ln gn i shed
from them duefly by their feebler oonfomiatioo and more
exposed oostzils. Th^ are coofiaed to the New World, and
are spraaUy fhanrtfrioir U the trapkal forests ol Ccotxal
and South America.
The tanagen l)ave beca erammfd fystematkafly by P. U Sdater,
and is the British Miiseam Catalopie (sL pp, 49-^c7) he admits
theexkt<«eeog375«peoe».whicfahe '
anasRs in 59 tjanen, fonrniig
HMc; TaMApiuiu, LampraHmae,
ae ate of vcfy uneqaal extent.
3-
six mbfamilies, Pi .
PhoeuiccpkUiuat, and PUyUmae. These ate of vcfy uneqaaJ _
for. while the fint of them conssU of but a iingle specks, Proauas
lersa-^tht position of which may be for seven! reasons still open
to doubt— the thifd inchMles.aioce than 300. Neariy aU are birds
of smatt aiae. the lainst hardy eOTwdia g a song-thruslL Mort of
them are remarkable for their gaudy oolouri0C. and this is especially
the case in those iomung the eenus called fay Sclatcr. as by most
other authors. CaliisU, a term madmissible through preoccupation,
to which the name of Tamafra at right teems to belong, while that
which he names roaagm shoidd probaUy be known as Tkrampis.
The whole family b almost confined to the Neotropical region, and
there are several forms peculiar to the Antilles; but not a tenth
of the spedcs reach even southern Mexico, and not a dozen appear
in the northern part of that country. Of the genus Pyromea, which
has the most northern range of sll. three il not four species are
common summer immigrants to soow part or other of toe United
States, and two of them. P. ruhra and P. oesfxM, known as the
scarlet tanager and the summer redbird, reach Canada and
Bermuda! P. cesSim has a westcni rep res ent ative, P. cooperi,
which by some authors is not recxignixed as a distinct spedes. The
malcsol all these are clad in rioaring red* P. mbra having, however,
the wings and tail black. The remaining spedes, P. IwioncUna,
the males of which are mostly yellow and black, with the head
only red, does not appear eastward of the Missouri plains, and
has not so northerly a range. Another spedes, P. hepakica^ has
shown itself within the lim£s of the United States. In all these
the females are plainly auired; but genetaUy among the Tanagen.
however bright may be their coloration, both sexes are neariy
alike in plumage. Little has been recorded 'of the habits of the
lOf r •? .
Central or South America, but those of the north have
tieen as closely observed as the rather retiring nature of the birds
renders possible, and it is known that insects, especially in the larval
condition, and berries afford the greater part of their food. They
have a pleasing song, and build a shalkm nest, in which the eggs,
geaeraOy three m number and of a greenish-blue marked with brown
and purple, are laid. A lew species are legulsrir but sparingly
imnorted into Europe alive, and, do well as cage birds.
I On the whole the Tanapidfoe may perhaps be considered to hold
the same relation to the PHngUMae as the Jcteridae do to the
5ra»8itfae and the AfaMMlUss to the SjMhms or r«r«wir. m each
case the purely New-WocU Family beia« the " feebler " tym.
TAXAQUIU the Etruscao name oC the wtfe of Tarquinlus
Prisms, or of one of his sons. Alter her iBunigration to Rome
she is said to have recdved the name Gala Caerilia She was
famous for her shrewdness and prophetic gifts, which enabled
her to foretdl the future greatness of her husband and of Servius
Tullius. There was a sUtue of her as Gala Caadlia in the
temple of Sancus, which possessed magical powers. She was
cdebrated as a spinner of wool, and was supposed to exercise
influence over Roman brides. TanaquU and Gai% Caecilia are,
however, really distinct personalities. The anecdotes told of
Gala Caedlia are aetlological myths intended to esqdain certain
usages at Roman marriages.
See Livy, i. 34. 41; Pliny, iVo/. HuC» viU. 74,txxzvl 70:
Schweglcr, RAmiuM CesekickU, bk. xv. 8.
TANAUAN. a town of the province of B^^angas," Luzon,
Philippine Islandsi about 38 m. S.SX. of Manila. Pop. (1903)
28,263. Tanauan is situated on a rolling upUmd plain. It
formerly l»x>duced much sugar, but I^ InhabitaoU axe' now
engaged chiefly in the cultivation of rice, Indian com and fruiL
Oranges and hog^ are tent Izom Tanauan to the M*"^* r ^ayif^* ,
The language is Ta^iog.
TAIMRED^GL 1x12), nephew of Bohemund snd a grandson of
Robttt Cwto^sd 00 the female side, was the son of a certaui
UoflM luJh %twr |m||^ Bivvaeea a niuquis, and some an
' ~ "^ ' akh BoheJmund in 1096,
Here he refused
the Bosphonis in-
nCAsaa
the disguise of a peasant; but alter the capMoe «f 1
consented to follow the example of the oth
became the man of Alesius. At Uemdea, in ihec
Minor, he left the main body of the Cmaaden^ ni
CiUda, dosdy foikmod by Baklwin of Lonaiae. Be ■Hjr
have been intending, in this cxpeditioa, to pnepan a faftsia for
Bohemond's easleni prindpality; ia aay case, he made hiBseif
master of Tarsus, and when he was evicted fnm it bf the
superior forces of Baklwin, he pushed farther oawania, aad
took the towns of Adana and Hamfistia. Be joiaed the nain
army before Antioch, and took a great part In the siege. Whea,
ia the spring of 1098, two castles were erected by the cnnaden,
it was Tancred who undertook the defence of the amie cipoaed
castle, which lay by St George's Gate, oa the west of the csty.
In the beginning of 1099 he was serving ia the tanks of Rajr*
numd'sarmy, whether to observe his movesseots in the iatcreMS
of Bohemund, or only (as is nana pcobahle) to be in the foooi
of the fighting and the march to JemaaleaL Bat he saea left
the count, like so many of the other pilgrims (see aadcr Rat*
mukd); and he joined himself to (kidfrey of Lonaiae ia the
final march. In June 1099 he hdped BaUwia de Bug One
future rival) la the capture of Bethlehem; and he played his
part in the siege of Jerusalem, gaining much booty when tbe
dty was captured, and falling into a paasioB because the secarity
he had given to the fugitives on the nof of SokHBon's tdople
was not observed by the crusaders. After the captuie of
Jerusalem he went to Naplous, and began to IouihI a principality
of his own. He took part in the battle of Ascalon as Aagoat;
and after it he was invested by Godfrey with Tibetiaaaiid the
principaUty of («alilee, to the north of Naplons. Ia iioo he
aUempted, without success, to prevent Baklwin of Lonaiae
(his old enemy in Cilida) from acquiring the throne of Jerasalees.
possibly having ambitions himself, and in any cae fesiing the
foundation of a strong non-Nonnan power in Palestine. Failing
in this attempt, and being urgently summoned from the North
to succeed Bohemund (now a prisoner with Danishmead) in the
government of Antioch, he suixeodered his smaller p o smMoa i
to Baldain, on cxmdition that they should be restored if he
returned in a year and three monthe, aad finally left the kinfdoM
of Jerusalem. He acted as regent in Antioch imm ixoo to 1103,
when Bohemund regained his libeny. Daring these yean he
succeeded in regaining the CiUdan towas for Antiedi (ixoi),
and in recspturing L a o di ce a (1x03); he inqpiisoiied RaynMmd
of Toulouse, aiul only gave him his libefty on stxiitgEat condi^
tions; and he caused the restotatioa of the deposed petiiarch
of Jerusalem, Dagobert, if only lor a brief season, by sefasing
to aid Baldwin L 00 ax^ other terais. When Bohemnnd was
set free, Tancred had to surrender Antioch to him; but he sooo
found fresh work for his busy hands. In 1104 be joined with
Bohemund and Baklwin de Burg (now count of Edessa ia
succession to Baldwin of Lorraine) In an expedition against
Harran, in which they were heavily defeated, and Baldwin
was taken prisoner. Tanczed, however, profited doaUy by the
defeat. He took over the government of Edessa in Baldwin's
place; and in Z105 Bohemund surrendered to him the govern*
ment of Antwch, while he himself went to Eorope to seek
reinforcements. Ruler of the two northern principaliti e s,
Tancred carried on vigorous hostHlties sgainst his M ahommedaa
neighbours, especially Ridwan of Aleppo; and In izo6 he sue-
oee^ed in capturing Apamea. In X107, while Bohemnnd was
beginning his last expedition agaust Alexius, he wrested the
whole of CiUcia from the Greeks; and he steadfastly refused,
after Bohemund's hiimilisring treaty at Puraxn la 1108, to
agree to any of lu stipulatwns with regard to Antioch and
Cilida. To the hostility of the Mahommrdant and the Greeks,
Tancred also added that of his own feUow Latiasp M'hen
Baldwin de Burg regained his liberty in 1108, it was only with
difficulty that he was mduced to restore &iesaa to him, and the
two coiitlnued unfriendly for some time; while m X109 he also
Interfered in the dvU war 10 Tripoli between the nephew aad
the eldest son of Raymund of Toutouae. But it was against tbe
emirs of Northern Syria that his "arms were chiefly directed;
TANCRED-^TANDY
.395
■ad h» beeuM tb» hammer of the TOrki, vestloBly atUckfaig
the cmiis on every lide, but especially m Aleppo, and exacting
tribute Iram them all. He died in xix a, leaving the govern-
■ent to his^bn>ther4n-law, Roger de Principatu, until such tine
as Bohennmd IL should come to his inheritance.
BiBUOGlAPBT.-^Tancfed'v Cesia were recorded by Ralph of
icn, who draw his inCormatioo from Taocred's own conversation
aod reminiiccncc*. Kiu;ler has written a work on B<themund tmd
Tancrtd (TQbinKen, i8m); and Tancred'i career k also described
by Rey, in the Rtmu de FOrunt LaHn, iv. J34-340. (E. Br.)
TASCRBD (d. 1194)) King of Sicfly, an illegitimate son of
Roger, the eldest son of King Roger II. , was croinied in Jamiaiy
1x90 in anccesriea .to William II. (f.«.). He was supported by
the rhinnrllnr Blatthcw d'Ajdlo and the official daas, while
the rival claims of Roger IL's daughter Constance and her
httsboad, Henry VI., king of the Romans end emperor, were
snpported by most of the ooble&. Tancied was a good aoUiery
thoogli his tiny stature earns from Peter of Eboli thenick^
neaae " Tancredulus." But he waa iU-supported in his task of
maiatnining the Norman kingdom, faced with general apathy,
and tbiettened by a baronial revolt, and, m additun^ Richard
Coeur-de»Uon, at Biessioa, rigo, threatened him with war.
Henry, skilfully winning over Pisa, Genoa and the Roman
Commune, isolated Tancred and intimidated Cclcstine UI., who,
00 the X4th of April xtpr, clowned him emperor at Rome. He,
however, failed to capture Naples in August and retired north,
leaving garrisons along the fronticis of the Regno. Tancred
now eooght to win over the towns by extensive grants of privi-
legea, and at Oravina (June xxpa) was recognised by the pope,
whose ineffectual support he gained by sunendering the royal
kfateafasp over Sidly. in xiga and 1x95 he commanded per-
sonally and with succesa against the Apulian barons, but his
death at Palermo (30th of February X194) a few days after that
of Roger, his son and joint-king, made Henry's path clear. His
wife SiXrilla indeed maintained a refiency for her second son
WiUiam IIL, but on Henry's final descent, Naples sunrcndered
almost without a blow ni May XX94, and the rest of the Regno
fallowed. Sibilla and the loyal Margarito ptepared to defend
Rdenno, but the citizens admitted the emperor on the eoth of
November 1x94. Taocred's family fell into Henry's hands,
and WiUiam IIL seems to have died in Germany in X19S.
TAMDT. JAMBS KAPPSR (1740-1803), Irish rebel, son of a
DttbKa ironmonger, was bom in Dublin in 1740. He started
life as a soiaU tradesman; but tummg to politics, he became a
member of the corpotalion of Dublin, and made himself popular
by his denunciation of mumcipal corruption and by his profMsal
of a boycott of EngUah goods m Ireland, In retaliation for
the restrictions imposed by the govcnunent on Irish commerce.
Ia April X780 Tandy was expelled from the Dublin voluateeis
(see Flood, Hbnet) for proposing the expulsion of the duke of
Leinstcr, whose moderation had offended the extremists^ He
was one of the most oonspioious of the small revoluliooaiy
party, chiefly of the shopkeeper class, who formed a permanent
committee in June 1784 to agitate for reform, and called a con-
vention of delegates from all fkarts of Ireland, which met in
October 1784. Tandy persuaded the corporation of Dublin to
condenm by resolution Pitt's amended commercisl resolutions
in 1785. He became a member of the Whig club founded by
Grattan; and he actively co-operated with Theobald Wolle
Tone In founding the Society of the United Irishmen in X79X,
of which he became the first secretary. The violence of his
opinions, strongly influenced by French revolutionary ideas,
now bxought Tandy prominently under the notice of the govern-
ment. In February 1793 an allusion in debate by Toler (after-
wards earl of Norbuiy), the attorney-general, to Tandy's personal
ugliness, provoked him into sending. a challenge; this was
treated by the House of Commons as a breach of privilege, and
a Sptzka's warrant was issued for his arrest, which howevn*
he managed to etude till its vaKdity expired on the prorogation
of parliament. Tandy then took proceedings against the lord
lieutenant for issuing a proclamation for his arrest; and although
the action failed* it increased Tandy's popularity, and bis
expenses were paid by the Society of the United Irishmen.
Sympathy with the French Revolution was at this time rapidly
spreading in Ireland. A meeting of some 6000 persons in
Belfast votod a congratulatory address to the French nation in
July 1 791. ''in the following year Napper Tandy took a leading
part in organizing a new miliUry association in Ireland modelled
after the French Natiooal Gmr^i they piofesied republican
principles, and on their uniform the cap of liberty msteaS of
the oovn surmounted the Irish haip. Tandy also, with the
purpose of bringing about a fusion between the Defeaders and
the United Irishmen, took the oath of the Defenden« a Roman
Catholic society whose mpariaa and political violenoe had been
mcreaaiflg for leveial years; but being thicatcned with prose*
ctttioa foe this step, and also for libd, he fled to America, where
he remained tOl 1798. In February 1798 he went to Paris,
where at this time a number of Irish refugees, the most ptOminent
oC whom was Wolfe Tone, were assembled, planning rebellion
in Ireland to be supported by a French invaaion, and <iuanelliog
among thenuelves. None 'of these waa more quarrelsome than
Napper Tandy, who was exceedingly conceited, and habitually
drunken; his vanity was wounded to find himself of leas
account than Tone m the councils of the conspbratoss.
Wolfe Tonc^ who a few months before had patronidagly
described hho to TaUeyrand as '' a respecufale <M man whose
patriotism has been known lor thirty yean," was now disgusted
by the lying braggadocio with which Tandy pexsuadcd the
French authorities that he was a personage of great wealth and
influence In Ireland, at whose appearance 30^000 men would
rise in arms. Tandy was not, however, lacking hk courage.
He accepted the charge of a corvette, the " Anacrcon," placed
at his disposal by tiK French government, in which» accomi-
panied by a few leading United Irishmen, and supplied with a
small force of men and a con^derable quantity of arms and
ammunition for distribution in Irriand, he sailed from Dunkirk
and arrived at the isle of Aran, off the coast of Donegal, 00 the
x6tk of Scptembet 179S. The populace showed no disposition
to welcome the invaders. Napper 'nuK^* who waa drunk
duxing most of the eipedition, took po ss ess ion of the village of
Rutland, where he hoisted an Irish flag and issued a bombastic
proclamation; but learning the complete failure of Humbert's
eipedition, and that Connaught instead of being in open rebellion
was perfectly quiet, the futility of the enterprise waa apparent
to the French if not to Tandy himself; and the latter having
been canied on board the " Anacrcon " in a state of intoaica-
tion, the vessel sailed round the noith of Scotland to avoid the
English fleet, and reached Bergen in safety, whence Tandy
made his way to Hamburg with three or lour companions. In
compliance with a pereiaptory demand from the English govern-
ment, and in spite of a counter-threat f«om the French Dixectory,-
the refugees were surrendered. Tandy requained in prison till
April x8oi, when he was tried, pleaded guilty, and was sentenced
to death; he was, however, reprieved and allowed to go to
France. This lenienQf may have been partly due to doubts
aa to the legality of the demand for his sunender by the Hamburg
authoritica; but the government was probably more influoiced
by Comwallis's ppiaion that Tandy waa '* a fellow of so very
contemptible a character that no pexson in this country (Ireland)
seeais to care the smallest degree about hioi." Moreover,
Bonaparte vigorously intervened on hia behalf, and is even said
to have made Tandy's release a condition of signing the treaty
of Amiens. Notwithstanding his vices and his lack of all
solid capacity, there is no reason to sus»pose that Napper Tandy
was dishonest or insincere; and the manner in which his name
was introduced in the well-knowxi baUad, "The Wearing of the
Green." proves that he succeeded in impressing the popular
imagination of the rebel party in Ireland. In France, where
his release was regarded as a Ficnch diplomatic victoiy, he f**
received, in March 1803, as a person of distinct ion: aaH wIvq he
died on the S4th of August xfloj his fur v
the military and an immense number c
See R. R. Maddm, TV Lian tf tke I
(DubMo. 1841-46); W. J, MacNevca, Fut
396
TANEGA-SHIMA— TANGANYIKA
York. 1807): T. Wolfe Tone. Autobiography, ed. by R. Barry
O'Brien. 2 vols. (London. 1893): W. J. Fiupatrick, Secret Servico
wider Pitt (London, 1892): bir Richard Musffravc. Memoirs of
XebeUioHS in Ireland, 7 vols. (DuUin. 1802): J. A. Froudc, The
Entfisk in Ireland in the Eitkloenlk Century, 3 vols. (London.
1872-74): Castlereaik Corrospondenu, u, iL; CorttwaUis Corre-
J — ",iu. (R.J.M.)
TANBOA-SHIHA, an iiknd lying ta the south of Kiushin,
Japan, in 30" 50' N. and 131* £., 36! m. k>ng and 7i m. broad at
it» widest part. It is a long k>w stretch of knd, carefully culti-
vated, and celebrated as the pUce where Mendes Pinto landed
when he found bis way to Japan in 1543. Until modem times
firearms were colloquially known in Japan as " Tanega-shimai"
in allusion to the fact that they were introduced by Pinto.
TANBT, ROGER BROOiCB (i777**xS64), American jurist,
was bom in Calvert county, Maryland, on the 17th of March
1777, of Roman Catholic parentage. He graduated from
Dickinson Collie, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, in 1795, began the
study of law at Annapolis in 1796, and was admitted to the
bar in X799. In x8o6 he married Anne Phebe Key, sister of
Francis Scott Key. He entered politics as a Federalist, and was
a member of the Maryland House of Dele^tesin X799-80. His
faith in Federalism was weakened by the party's opposition
to the War of 181 a, and he gradually became associated with
the Jacksonian wing of the Republican party. He served in
the state Senate in i8i6-3t, was attorney-general of Maryland
in 1827-3 x; '^ hi July 183 x entered President Jackson's
cabinet as attorney-general of the United Suies. He was the
i^resident's chief adviser in the atUck on the United States
Bank, and was transferred to the treasury department in
September 1833 for the special purpose of removing the govern^-
ment deposits. This conduct brought him into conflict with
the Senate, which passed a vote of censure, and (in June 1834)
refused to confirm his appointment as secretary of the treasury.
He returned to his law practice in Baltimore, but on the a8th
of December 183 s was nominated Chief-Justice of the United
States Supreme Court to succeed John Marshall. After strong
opposition the nomination was confirmed, on the xsth of March
1836, by the Senate. Under the guidance of Judges John Jay,
Marshall, and Joseph Story, the Judiciary from 1790 to 1835
had followed the Federalist loose construction methods of
Interpreting the constitution. The personnel of the supreme
bench was almost entirely changed during Presklcnt Jackson's
administration (1829-37). Five of the seven judges in 1837
were his appointees, and the majority of them were Southerners
who had been educated under Democratic iafluenoes at a time
when the sUvery controversy was forcing the party to return
to its original strict construction views. In consequence,
although the high judicial character of the men appointed and
the lawyers' regard for precedent served to keep the court in the
path marked out by Marshall and Stoiy, the state sovereignty
influence was occasionally manifest, as, for example, in the
opmion (written by Taney) in the Dred StoU case (1857, 19
Howard, 393) that Congress had no power to abolish slavery in
territory acquired after the fbrmation of the national govern^
ment. During the Civil War, Judge Taney struggled unsuc-
cessfully to protect individual Hberty from the encroachments
of the military authorities. In the case of §x parti John
Uenyman (1861, Campbell** Reporu, 646), ht protested against
the assumption of power by the President to suspend the
privileges of the writ of ksbeas corpus or to confer that power
upon a military oflker without the authorisation of Congress.
The delivering of this opinion, on circuit, in Baltimore, in
May t86x, was one of the judige's last public acts. He died
on the 1 2th of October 1864.
An- authoritative biography is Samuel Tyler's Memoir cf Koger
Brooke Tamoy (B«liiniore. 1872).
TANOA (" the safl **), a seaport of German East Africa, lying
opposite the island of Pemba in f 6' S,, 39' 7' E. The town is
reguUrly laid out on elevated ground on the southern shore of
Tangi Bay, and has a population of about 6000. Among the
pul^'- ^ the administrator's residence, the hospital.
1^ ^^rotestant and Catholic churches and the
govenunent and mission sdiools. Tanga is the port of the
Usambara district, where axe many thriving plantatfons. The
harbour is entered by a bxoad chaxmel five to eight f athoxne
deep. It is a port of call for the German mail steamexs, and
the starting-point of a railway to the Usambara highlands.
TANOANYIKA (a name said by V. L. Cameron to signify a
" mixing-place "), a vast lake in £ast«Ccntnd Africa, the longest
freshwater lake in the worid, measuring just over 400 m., with
a general breadth varying from 30 to 45 m., and an area of
about 12,700 sq. m. It lies at an altitude of about 2600 ft.
above the sea, and occupies the southern end o€ the great central
rift-valley, which terminates suddenly at its southern point,
the line of depression being represented farther south by the
more easterly trough of Lakes Nyasa and Rxikwa, from tvhich
Tanganyika is separated by the Fipa pUteau, composed of old
granitoid rocks; though even here traces of oU valley-walls
are said by Dr Kohlschitttcr to exist. North of Tanganyika
the valley is suddenly interrupted by a line of andent craptive
ridges, which dam back the waten of Lake Kivu (^.v.), but have
been recently cut through by the outlet of that htkie, the Rusizi,
which enters Tanganyika by several mouths at its northen end.
The flat plain traversed by the lower Rusizi was evidently once
a portion of the Ukt floor. Tanganyika has been formed by
the subsidence of a k>ng narrow tract of country reUitively to
the surrounding plateaus, which fall to the lake in abmpt diffs,
some thousands of feet high in places. The geological forma-
tions thus exposed show that the plateaus are composed of a
base of emptive material, overiaid by enormous deposits of
reddish sandstones, conglomerates and quartzites, exposed ia
parts to a depth of 2000 feet. Besides the plain to the north,
a considerable area to the west, near the Luknga outlet (see
below), shows signs of having been once covered by the lake,
and it is the opinion of Mr J. £. S.Moore that the sandstone
ridges which here bound the trough have been recently elevated,
and have been cut through by the Lukuga during the process.
The past history of the lake has long been a disputed question,
and Mr Moore's view that it represents an old Jmasdc arm of
the sea is contested by other writers. This idea originated in
the discovery of a jelly-fish, gasteropoda, and other organistnS
of a more or less marine type, and presenting some afiinity with
forms of Jurassic age. This fauna, to which the term " halo-
limnic " has been api^ied, was known to exist from specimens
obtained by Mr £. C. Hore and other early tiavellers, but has
been more systematically studied by Mr Moore (during expedi^
tions of X896 and 189&-99) and Dr W. A. Cunnington (r904-s)«
Various considerations throw doubt on Mr Moore's theory,
especially the abnost entire absence of marine fossiliferous
beds in the whole of equatorial Africa at a distance from the
sea, of any remains of Jurassic faunas which might link the
Tanganyika forms with those of undoubted Jurassic sge in
neighbouring regions. The formation of the existing rift-valley
seems in any case to date from Tertiary times only.
Although drinkable, the water of the lake seems at times at least
to be very slightly brackish, and it was supposed bv some that no
outlet existed until, in 1874, Lieutenant Cameron shoved that the
surplus water was discharged towards the upper Congo by the
Lukun river, about the middle of the west coast. The outlet
was further examined in 1876 by Mr (afterwards Sir Henry)
Sualcy. who found that a bar had formed across the outlet, and it
has since been proved that the outflow is intermittent, ceasing
almost entirely after a period of scanty rainfaU. and becoming
again established when the lake-level has been raised by a series
of rainy years. About 1880 it was running strongly, but about
this time a gradual fall in the lake-level set In. and was continued,
with occasional pauses, for some twenty years, the amount being
estimated by Wissmann at 2 feet annually. In 1806 Captain
H. Ramsay found that a wide level plain. Which had before been
covered by water, intervcrfcd between Ujiji and the lake, but
stated that no further linking had taken place during the two
previous years. Near Tembwe Head Mr L. A. Walttce found
recent beaches 16 feet above the existing levri. The Lvknga
was reported bkxkcd by a bar about 1807. but a certain amount
of water was found flowing down by Mr Moore in 1899: while
in 1901 Mr Codrington found the level 4 or 5 feet higher than in
1900, the outlet havins again silted up. A continued rise was
also reported ii» 1907. In any case, the alterations in level appear
TANGERMUNDE— TANGIER
397
lo be mendy periodic, and due to fluctintioiu in ninfatl, and do not
point, as come have supposed, to a secular drying up of the lake.
The lake is fed by a number of rivers and small streams whkh
descend from the surrounding highlands. The Mbcaraxi (or
Malagarasi), perhaps the laigKst fe«ier. derives most of its water
from the rainy districts cast o( the strip of high ground which
shuts 10 the lake on the north-eau. The main stream, ui (act,
has a nearly circular course, rising m 4* 40^ S.. only some ID miles
from the lalce shore and less than 40 miles from its mouth, though
Its length is at feast 220 miles. The other branches of the
Mlaganui, which traverse the somewhat and granite plateaus
between the lake and ^* C, bring comparatively little water to
the main stream. In its lower course the river is a rapi4^ stream
flowing between steep jungle-clad hills^ with one fall of 50 feet,
and IS of little use for navigation. The various channels of its delta
are also obstructed with sand-banks in the dry season. The
Ruiiizi. the next (or perhaps equal) in importance among the
feeders of the take, has already been spoken of It receives many
tributaries from the sides of the rift-valley, and is navigable for
canoes. The rematninj^ feeders are of distinctly less importance,
the Lof u, which enters in the south-west, being probably the laigest.
Tanganyika has never been sounded systematically, but the
whole conf^uration of its valley points to its being generally deep,
and this hsis been confirmed by a few actual measurements. Dr
Livingstone obtained a depth of Xa6 fathoms opposite Mount
Kabogo. south of Ujiji. Mr Hore often failed to find bottom with
a line of 168 fathoms. The French explorer, Vktor Giraud, re-
ported 647 metres (about 350 fathoms) off Mrumbi on the west
coast, and Moore depths of 200 fathoms and upwards near the
south end. The shores fall rapidly as a role, and there is a marked
scarcity of isbnds, none occurring of any sixe or at a distance from
the oMst Kne. The lake is subject to occasional storms, especially
from the 80uth-south<caat and south-west, which leave a heavy
swell and impede navigation. The ckMid and thunder and light-
ning effects are spoken of as very impressive, and the scenery of
tbelake and its shores has been much extolled by travellen.
Vcgctatwn b generally luxuriant, and forest ck>thes portk>ns
of the mounts slopes. The lake lies on the dividing line between
the floral regions of East and West Africa, and the oil-palm
characteristic of the latter is found on its shores. The largest
timber tree is the mvule, which attains vast dimensions, its trunk
■applying the natives with the dug-out canoes with whk:h they
navisate the lake. The more level parts of the shores have a
fertile soil and produce a variety of crops, including rice, maize,
manioc, sweet potatoes. sug.ir-cane, &c., &c. The waters dispby
an abundance of animal life, crocodiles and hippopotami occurring
in the bays and river mouths, which are also the naunts of water-
fowl of many kinds. Fish are also plentiful. Various sections
of the Bantu division of the Negro race dwell around the lake,
those on the west and south-west showing the most pronounced
Neero type, while the tribes on the east exhibit some intermixture
with representatives of the Hamttic stock, and (towards the south)
some traces of Zulu influence. The surrounding region has been
ovcrrua by Arabs and Swahili from the East African coast.
Though rumours of tlie existence of the lake bad previously
reached the east coast, Tanganyika was not visited by any
European until, in 1858, the famous expedition of Burton and
Speke reached the Arab settlement of Ujiji and partially ex-
plored the northern portion. Ujiji became famous some years
later as the spot where Dr Livingstone was found by Stanley
in 1871, after being lost to sight for some time in the centre of
the continent. The southern half of the lake was first circum-
nav^ted by Lieutenant V. L. Cameron in 1874, and the whole
lake by Stanley in 1876. The mapping of Tanganyika, which
bng rested on the surveys of Mr £. C. Hore, published in 1883,
received considerable modification, about 1899-1900, from the
work of Fergusson, Lcmaire, Kohlschtitter and others, vho
showed that while the general outline of the coasts had been
drawn fairly correctly, the whole central portion, and to a lesser
degree the northern, must be shifted a considerable distance
to the west. At Mtowa, in 5* 45' S., the amount of shifting of
the west coast was about 30 mflcs. At Ujiji, on the cast coast,
the longitude was given by Rohlschiitter as 39* 401' 2' E. as
comparni with ^ 4' 30* £. of Cameron, a difference of some
35 miles.
In the partition of Africa among the European Pbweis, the
diores of Tanganyika have been shared by Belgium, Great
Britain and Germany, Great Britain holding the southern
estremity, Germany the east, and Belgium the west. Stations
have been established on the lake by all Ihrcc Powers, the
principal being — German: Bismarckburg in the south and
Ujiji in the north; BritiA: Siimbu and Kaaakalawe, on
XXVI 7*
CametoB B^y; Belgian: Mtowa or AlbertviHe in 6* S. Ml»>
sionaries, especially the Catholic " White Fathers," are also
active on iu shoica. A amaU steamer, the " Good Newt,*' was
placed on the lake by the Loiidon Missionary Society in 1884,
but afterwards became the property of the African Lakes Cocpo-
ration; a laj«er steamer, the ** Hedwig von Wiasmann," carrying
a quick-firiog Krupp gun, was launched in 1900 by a German
expedition under Lieutenant Schloifer; and others are owned
by the '* Tanganyika Concessions " and Katanga companies.
The greater part of the trade with Tanganyika is done by the
African Lakqs Corporation by the Shiri'Nyasa route, but the
Germans have t^Maned up overland routes from Dar««ir€«iaam.
AtiTHORtTiES.~The nanrativca of Burton. Uvimntoae, Cameroa
and Stanley: E. C. Hore, Lake Tanganyika (London. 1892)}
j. £. S. Moore, in Ceoff. Journal, September 1897 and January
1901: To the Mountains of the Moon (London, 1901} j Tkt Tanfan-
yika Problem (London, 1903); L. A. Wallace, Geop. Journal, June
i899i H. Ramsay, in Verhamdl. d, CeseU. JOr Erikunde Berlin,
No. 7. 1898: H. Gbunine and E. Kohlschuttcr, in Miu. atu din
Deulschen Schutsgebieten, Nos. 1 and 2, 1900; £. KohlachQtter. in
Verhandl. 13 Dcutsck. Ceographenlages, looi; M. Fergusson, la
Ceol. Mag., August tooi; E. Stromer, m Petermanns Mitteit.,
December 1901; R. Codrington, in Geogr. Journal, May 1902;
W. H. Hudlcston, in Transactions Victoria Inst,, 1904: also papers
on the results of Dr W. A. Cunnington's expedition in Proceeatngs
of the Zootogieal Society, 1906, &c.; Journal of the Linnean Society,
1907. (E. Hb.)
TANOBR1I0MDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Saxony, on the Elbe, 43 m. N.E, frpm Magdeburg
by rail via SlendaL Pop. (1905) 13,829. It contains iron
foundries, shipbuilding yards, refineries, and other industrial
establishments, and enjoys a considerable nver trade in grain
and coal. It is ornamented by numerous brick buildings
of the 14th and isth centuries, including the turreted walls,
the church of St Stephen (1376), and the late Gothic town halL
The castle, built in the 14th century, was the chief residence of
the margraves of Brandenburg.
See Golxe, Ceschickle der Burg TangermUnde (Stendal. 1871).
TANGIER (locally Tanjah), a seaport of Morocco, on the
Straits of Gibraltar, about 14 m. £. of Cape Spartel, nestles
between two eminences at the N.W. extremity of a spacious bay.
The town, which has a pi^ubtion of about 40,000, presents a
picturesque appearance from the sea, rising gradually in the
form of an amphitheatre, with the dtadcl, the remainder of the
English mole and York Castle to the right: in the central valley
is the commercial qtutfter , while to the left along the beach runs
the track toTetuan, Though rivalry between European Powers
led to many public works being delayed, through the action of
the public Sanitary Association the streets, winch are nanow
and crooked, have been re-paved as well as cleaned and partially
lighted, and several new roads have been made outside the
town. In some of the older streets Eun^iean shops have
replaced the picturesque native cupboards; drinking dens have
sprung up at many <tf the comers, while telephones and eiectrk
light have been introduced by private companies, and Europeaa
machinery is used in many of the corn-mills, &c The main
thoroughfare leads from B4b el Marsa (Gate of the Port) to
the B4b cl Sok (Gate of the Maxket-place) known to the English
as Port Catherine. The sok presents a lively spectacle, espe-
cially upon Thursdays and Sundays.
Tangier is almost destitute of marmfactures, and while the
trade, about £750,000 a year, is considerable for Monicoo, it is
confined chiefly to imports, about two-fifths of which come from
Great Britain and Gibraltar, and one quarter from France.
The exports are chiefly oxen, meat, fowls and eggs for Gibraltar
and sometimes for Spain, with occasional shipments of slippea
and blankets to EgypL Most of the trade, both wholesale and
retail, is in the hands of the Jews (see further Mjorocco).
The harbour formed by the Bay of Tangier is sn tzfcnsive
one, the best Morocco possesses, and good in all weathers except
during a strong east wind, but vessels of any size have to anchor
a mile or so out as the shore to the west is shallow and sandy,
and to the east, rocky and shingly. Since 1907 n basin with an
ouUr and inner mok has been built. It does not, however,
398
TANGYE— TANJORE
accommodate Uxge vesiels. The climate is temperate and
healthy, and good for consumptives.
As the Seaport nearest to Europe, Tangier is the town in the
empire in which the effects of progress are most marked, and
since the end of the s8th century it has been the diplomatic
headquarters. The nudeus of a cosmopoliun society thus
formed has expanded into a powerful community enjoying
privileges and immunities unknown to natives not receiving
its protection. The steadily increasing number of visitors
has induced the opening of first-class holds, and necessitated
extensive building operations, resulting in the immigration of
some tlwusands of artisans* chiefly Spanish. The number of
European inhabitants (1905) was about 9000 (7500 Spaniards);
of Jews about 10,000.
The Roman Tingis, whfch stood in the immediate vicinity of
the site of Tangier, was of great antiquity; under Augustus it
became a free cily, and when Otho placed the western half of
Mauretania under a procurator, he called it Maurctania Tingitana
after its capital Tingis. It was held by Vandals, Byzantines and
Arabs, and when Mulai Idris passed from Tlem^en to Fez in
7S8, Tangier was " the oldest and most beautiful dty " of the
Maghrib. After many futile attempts the Portuguese obtained
possession of it in 147 1, but it passed to Spain in 1580, returning
again to the Portuguese in 1656. In 1662 as part of the dowry
of Catherine of Braganza on her marriage to Charles II., it came
into the possession of the English, and they defended it against
Mulai Ismail in x68o, but in 1684 it was decided, on account of
expense, to abandon the place to the Moors. £1 Ufrani writes
that " it was besieged so closely that the Christians had to flee
on thdr vessels and escape by sea, leaving the place ruined
from bottom to top." It was bombarded in 1844 by the French,
then at war with Morocco. In the early years of the 30th
century the sharIf RaisfUi terrorized the district round Tangier
and made captive several Europeans. As one result of the
Algeciras conference of 1906 a regular police force was organized,
and the control of the customs passed into European hands
(see Moaoocx): f History).
See A. Cousin, ToMffir (Paris, 1902) ; Ankms Uaroeaines (Paris,
1904-6).
' TAKATB, SIR RICHARD (1833-1906), British manufacturer,
was bom ai lliogan, near Redruth, Cornwall, on the 24th of.
November 1833, the ion of a small farmer. As a young boy
he worked in the fields, but when he was eight yean xM he was
incapacitated from further manual labour by a fracture of the
right arm. His father then determined to give him the best
education he omld afford, and young Tangve was sent to the
Friends' School at Sidcot, Somnsetshire, wiiere he progressed
rapidly and became a pupil-teacher. Taogye was not long con-
tented with this position, and through an advertisement in
The Frwti obtained a derkship in a small engineering firm in
Birmingham, where two of his brothers, skilled mechanics,
subsequently joined him. Here Richard Tangye remained four
years, obtaining a complete mastery of tJbe details of an engineer^
ing business, and introducing' the system of a Saturday half-
holiday which was subsequently adopted in all English industrial
works. In 1856 he started business in a small way in Birming-
ham as a hardware factor and commission agent. His first
customers were the Cornish mineH>wners in the Redruth district,
and, the business pn»pering, he was able before kmg to start
maauCKturing hardware goods on his own account, his two
brotfaem joifamg hhn in the enten;irise. The speciality of the
bcothets Tangye was the manufacture of machinery, and their
hydnudie lifting jacks were successfully employed in the laundi-
ing of the stramship " Great Eastern." In 1858 the firm, who
now confined themsdves to making machinoy, built their own
works, and shortly afterwards secured the sole right of manu-
factuvtag the newly invented differential puUey-block, thereby
materially adding to thdr business, which came to include
every kind of power-machine~-hydranlic, steam, gas, oil and
elccuidty. The business wss subsequently turned into a
limited company, and in 1894 Richard Tangye was knighted.
He died on the 14th of October 1906.
TANISTRT (from Gaelic tofu,' lordship), a custom among
various Celtic tribes, by which the king or chief of the dan was
chosen from among the heads of the septs and elected by them
in full assembly. He held office for life and was required by
custom to be of full age, in possession of aU his faculties and
without any remarkable blemish of mind or body. At the same
time, and subject to the same conditions, a ianut or next hdr
to the chieftaincy was elected, who if the king died or became
disqualified, at once became king. Usually the king's son became
fanist, but not because the system of primogeniture was In any
way recognized; indeed, the only principle adopted was that
the dignity of chieftainship should descend to the ddest and
most worthy of the same blood. These epithets, as Hallam says,
were not necessarily synonymous, but merely indicated that
the preference given to seniority was to be controlled by a
due regard to desert iConstit. Hist., vol. iii. c xviii.). This
system of succession left the headship open to the ambitious, and
was a frequent source of strife both in families and between the
clans. Tanistry was abolished by a legal decision in the reign
of James I. and the English land system substituted.
TANJORE. a city and disUicl of British India in the Madras
presidency. The city is situated on the right bank of the river
Cauvery, and is an important junction on the South Indian
railway, 218 m. S. of Madras. Fop. (1901) 57,870. As the
last capital of the andent Hindu dynasty of the Ch<Jas, and in
all ages one of the chief political, Uterary and religious centres
of the south, the city is full of interesting associations. It was
the scene of the earliest labours of Protestant misionaries in
India. The modern history of Tanjore begins with its conquest
by the Mahrattas in 1674 under Venkaji, the brother of Sivaji
the Great. The Biltish first came into contact with Tanjore by
their expedition in 1749 with a view to the restoration of a
deposed raja. In this they failed, and a subsequent eipedition
was bought off. The Mahrattas practically held Tanjore until
1799. In October of that year the district was ceded to the
East India Company in absolute sovereignty by Raja Sharab-
hoji, pupil of the missionary Schwarz. "The raja retained only
the capital and a small tract of country round. He died in
1833 and was succeeded by his son Sivaji, on whose death in
1855 without an heir the house became extinct. The mission
at Tanjore was founded in 1 77^ ^y the Rev. Christian F. Scbwarx
or Schwartz (i 726*1 796). The mission establishments were
taken over in 1826 by the Sodety for the Propagation of the
Gospd, which subsequently founded new stations in several
parts of the district. Roman Catholic missions date from the
first half of the 17th century. St Peter's College, founded by
Schwarz as a school, is now a, first-grade college affiliated to the
university of Madras. His church dates from 1779. Among
interesting ancient buildings may be mentioned the palace
within the fort, containing an armoury and fine library; and
the Brihadiswaraswami temple, of the nth century, enclosed
in two courts, surmounted by a lofty tower and including the
exquisitely decorated shrine of Subrahmanya. Though the
city has specialities of jewelry, carpets, modelling in pith, &c.,
there arc no large industries!
The District of Tanjore has an area of 3710 sq. m. On
account of its . fertility it has been called the " Gaiden of
Southern India." It Is irrigated by an elaborate system of
dams, cuts and canals in connexion with the rivers Cauvery
and Colcroon, and the soil is exceedingly productive. The delta
of the Cauvery occupies the fiat northern part, which is higl^y
cultivated, dotted over with groves of coco-nut trees, and is
one of the most densely populated tracts in India. The staple
crop is rice, which is grown on 77 per cent, of the cultivated
area. Tanjore is a land of temples, many of them being of very
early date. The district is traversed by the main line and several
branches of the South Indian railway, some of which have benn
constructed by the district board. The chief seaport is Negar
patam, and the principal export is rice to Ceylon. The popuh^
tion in 1901 was 2,245,029.
See raiv#rf IHilftfl Catelleir (Madras. 1906).
TANKARD— TANNIN
399
TARBABIHstyp^ofdiiiikiiigveflsel. The ironi wa$ formerly
awd loosdy of many sises, usually large, of vessels for holding
liquids; thus it was applied to such as held two or more gallons
and were used to cany water from the conduits in London in
the z6th and early 17th ceatunes. The word is now generally
applied to a straight, flat-bottomed drinking vessel of silver,
pewter or other metal, or of glass or pottery mounted on metal,
with & hinged cover and handle, holding from a pint to a quart
of tiquar (see Dsihkimg Vesseu). This derivaticm is obscure.
It appears in O. Fr. as tanquart and in O. Du. as tanckaert. It
may have been, as is suggested, metathesised from Gr. uMofios,
Lat.caiilAantf, a large vessel or pot. It is used to ^oss am^Wa
ia the Frompiarium PamdoruM (c. 1440). It b not connected
with " tank," a dstem or reservoir for water, which was formerly
" stank," and is from Port, tanqutf O. Fr. estangt mod. itangf
pool; Lat. siagKumj whence Eng. " stagnant."
TAMNA (Aramaic, ** teacher "). The root lent or le$ta cor-
responds philobgically to the Hebrew t/umo, from which comes
the word Mishnah (see MroRASB and Talmud), the great
Rabbink: code which (with certain parts of the Midrash and
other Rabbinic books) was the main literary product of the
activity of the tannaim (plural of lonna). The term lanna is
used in the Talmud of those teachers who flourished in the first
two centuries of the Christian era. The lannaim from the date
of the destruction of the Temple may be grouped: (i) 70^x00,
representative name Johanan ben Zaqqai iq.v.); (a) xo»-i3o,
representative name Aqiba (^.v.); (3) 130-160, representative
name Judah the Prince, compiler of the Mishnah. The suc-
cessors of the lannaim were called ^amaraim (see 'Amora).
See W. Backer, DU Agaia der TannaiUn. An alphabetical list
of taanaira and 'amoraim is riven in the Jewish Encychpedia, xii.
4^54. ^ <I.A.)
TAXHARILL. ROBERT (i774>x8xo), Scottish song-writer,
son of a Paisley silk-weaver, was bom on the 3rd of June 1774.
He was apprenticed to his father's trade at the age of twelve,
and, inspired by the poetry of Robert Bums, he wrote verses
as he drove the shuttle to and fro, idth shelf and iok-bottle
rigged up on his loom-post. He was shy and reserved, of small
and delicate physique, and took little part in the social life of
the town. Tl>e steady routine of his trade was broken only by
occasional excursions to Glasgow and the land of Bums, and a
year's trial of work at Bolton. He began in 1805 to contribute
verses to Glasgow and Paisley periodicals, and published an
edition of his poems by subscription in 1807. Three years later,
on the 17th of May 18 10, the life of the quiet, gentle, diffident
and despondent poet was brought by his own act to a tragic aid.
Tannahill*s claims to remembrance rest upon half a dozen songs,
full of an exquisite feeling for nature, and so happily set to
music that they have retained their popularity. " London's
Bonnie Woods and Braes," ** Jessie, the Flower o* Dunblane,"
and " Gloomy Winter's Noo Awa " are the best of them.
" Jessie, the Flower o' Dunblane " and " The Farewell " tell
the story of the poet's own unhappy love for Janet Tennant.
i TannahillV centenary was celebrated at Paisley in 1 874. See
edition by D. Semple (1876) for details of his life.
liTAJrNER. HENR7 OSSAWA (1859* ^ )> American artist,
of negro descent, was born at Pittsdbuxg,- Pennsylvania, on the
am of Jxme 1859. He was the son of Benjamin Tucker Tanner
(b. 1835), who became bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal
Church in sS88, edited the Christian Eecorder, the organ of his
church, from 1867 to 1883, founded, and from 1884 to x'888
edited, the African Mtthodist Episcopal Church Review, and
published sevoal pamphlets, poems and hymns, and sn Apdogy
jfer African Methodism (18^). The son was a pupil of Thomas
£akios, in Philadelphia, and of J. P. Laurens and Benjamin
Constant in Paris. Qe first exhibited at the Salon in 1895.
His " Daniel in the Lions' Den " received an honotuable mention
at the Salon of 1896. " The Raising of Lazarus," which received
a third-class medal in 1897, was purchased by the French govern-
ment for the permanent collection of the Luxembourg. Other
pictures are, "The Annunciation " (Salon. 1898), "Nicodemus
Coming to Christ" (1899), "The Jews' Wailing Place," and
" Christ m the Temple."
TAMNSR, THOMAS (1674-1 755)f English antiquary and pre-
late, was bom at Market Lavington in Wiltshire on the S5th
of January 1674, and was educated at (^tieen's CoUege, Oxford,
taking holy oiders in 1694. Next year he became cha4>lain and
then fellow of All Souls College, and a few years later private
chaplain to John Moore (1646-1 7r4), bishop of Norwich and
afterwards of Ely, who appointed him chancellor of the diocese
of Norwich. In 1706 he bMamc rector of Thoipe, near Norwich,
in 17x3 a canon of Ely, in 1724 a canon ol Christ Church, Oxford,
and in X733 bishop of St Asaph. He died in Oxford, where be
had passed most of his life, on the X4th of December 1735.
Tanner's chief work is his Notitii^ Monastica, a short aooount of
all the religious houses in England and Wales. This was pub-
lished at Oxford in 1695; it was reprinted with additions by the
author's brother, John Tanner, in 1744; and was reprinted again
with further additions by James Nasmith (1740-1808) in 1787.
He also wrote Bibliotheea Britannieo-Hibemica, a dictionary of
all the authors 11^10 flourished in England, Scotland apd Inland
before the opening of the 17th oentaiy, at which he labouicd for
forty years. This was not published until 17^, thirteen years
after the author's death. The bishop collected ouiteriab tor a
history of Wiltshire and worked for some time on a new edition
of the works of John Ldand. His valuable collection of books and
manuscripts is in the Bodleian library at Oxford.
Another writer of this name was Thomas Tanker (X630-X683),
the author of The Entrance of Maszarini (Oxford, 1657-58).
Educated at St Paul's School, London, and at Pembroke Hall,
Cambridge, be became a barrister and later a clergyman, being
vicar of Colyton, Devon, and afterwards of Winchfield, Hants.
TANNHJLUSER, or Tanhuses, German Miimesinger of the
X3th century, who lived for a time at the court of FrKlerick H.,
duke of Austria. After Duke Frederick's death he was received
at the court of Otto II., duke of Bavaria; but, being of a restless
disposition, and having wasted his fortune, Imb spent much time
in wandering about Germany. He also went as a Crusader to
the Holy Land. His poems belong to the decadence of the
Minnesang, and combine a didactic dispUy of leaming with
descriptions of peasant-life in a somewhat coarse tone. His
adventurous life led him to be identified, in the popular imagina*
tion, with the knight Tannh&user who, after many wanderings,
comes to the Venusberg, or Horselberg, near Eisenach. He
enters the cave where the Lady Venus— the Frau Hulda of
German folk-lore— holds her court, and abandons himself to a
life of sensual pleasure. By and by he is overcome by remorse,
and, invoking the aid of the Virgin Mary, he obtains permission
to return for a while to the outer world. He then goes as a
pilgrim to Rome, and entreats Pope Urban to secure for him
the for^veness of his sins. The pope declares it is as impossible
for him to be pardoned as for the staff he has In his hand to
blossom. TannhAuser departs in despair, and returns to the
Venusberg. In three days the sta£E begins to put forth green
leaves, and the pope sends messengers in all directions in search
of the penitent, but he is never seen again. This legend was
at one time widely known in Germany, and as late as X830 it
survived in a popular song at Entl^uch in Switaerland, a
version of which was given by Uhland in his AUe hock- und
niederdeutsche Volksiieder. Among the attendants of Hulda
was the faithful Eckhart, and in the preface to the Hddenbucfi
he is said to sit before the Venusberg, and to warn passers-by
of the dangers to which they may be exposed if they Unger in
the neighbourhood. The legend has been reproduced by several
modem CSerman poets, and by R. Wagner in an opera.
For Tannhluser's lyric poetry, see F. H. von der Hagen's Mimte-'
singer, ii. (1838): K. Bahsch. Deutsche Liederdichkr des la. hit
X4. Jahrhmderu (3rd ed. 1893), No. 47. See also F. Zander; Die
Tannhausersttge und der Minnesinger Tannhduser (1858); T. C, T.
Grftsse, Die Sage von Tannhduser (1846; and ed. 1861): A. Ohlke
Zu Tannhduser s Leben und Diciten (1890): J. Sidwrt, Tftnuhduse%
TnhaH und Form seiner Cediehie (1894).
TANKIN. or Taniqc Aod, the generic Barns' for ^ a widely
disseminated group of vegetable products, so named from
their property of converting raw bide into leather (f -v.). They
400
TANN-RATHSAMHAUSEN— TANTALUM
are soluble in water, thetr solutions having an acid reaction
and an astringent taste; the solutions are coloured dark bine
or green by ferrous salts, a property utilized in the manufacture
of ink (^.f.)* Their chemistry is litllc krrawn. Some appear
to be glucosides of gallic a^id, since they yield this acid and a
sugar on hydrolysis, e.g. oak tannin; whilst others yield proto-
catechttic acid and phloroglucin, e.g. moringa>tannin; common
tannin, however, is a digallic acid.
Common tannin, or tannic acid, Ci4HiaO»-2liiO, occurs to the
extent of 50% in gall-nuts, and also in tea. sumach and in other
plants. It may be obuinod by extracting powdered fi[ali-nuts
with a mixture of ether and alcohol, whereupon the tannin is taken
up in the lower layer, which on separation and evaporation yields
the acid. When pure the acid forms a colourless, amorphous mass,
very soluble in water, less so in alcohol, and practically insoluble
in ether. Common salt precipitates it from aqueous solutions.
It fonns a penta-acctate. It may be obtained artificially by heating
gallic add with phosphorus oxychloride or dilute aracnic acid
(cf. P. Biginclli, CastUa, 1909, m, ii. ppi a68 <i Mtq.); and con-
versely on Doilif^ with dilute acids or allotlis it takes up a niolccnie
of water and yields two molecules of gallic acid, CTntOt. It is
optically active— a fact taken aotiount of in J. Dekker's formula
(Ber.. ion6, 59, p. 2497). The chemistry has also been investigated
by M. Nierensteia and L. F. Iljin (see papen in the Ber., 19c?.
The tannin of oak, CifHiiOis, which is found, mixed with gallic
add. dbgic acid and qucidte. in oak bark, is a red powder; its
aqueous solution is coloured dark blue by ferric chloride, and boiling
with dilute sulphuric add gives oak red or phlobaphene. The
tannin of coffee, CwHi^i«, found in coffee beans, is not pre-
cipitated from its solutions by gelatin. Hydrolysis by alkaline
sdutions gives a sugar and cafTcic acid; whust fusion with
potassium hydroxide gives -protocatcchuic acid. Moringa-tannin
or maclurin, C|]H|^tli«0, found in Morus ttHcloria^ hydrolvscs
on fusion with caustic potash to phlorogludn and protocatechuic
add. Catechu-tannin occun in the extnct of Mtmota €aUcku\
and kino-tannin is the chief ingredient of kino (9.V.).
Medicine. — ^Tannic acid is official in both the British and l/nitcd
States Pharmacopodas. It is incompatible with mineral acids,
alkalis, salts of iron, antimony, lead and silver, alkaloids and
gdatin. The British pharmacopoeial preparations arc ( 1 ) (;/jfcrr«attai
Midi tanuici; (2\ suPposiloria acidi lannicii (3) trocktuus acidi
tannici. The United States also has a collodium Uypticum and an
ointment. From tannic acid is also made goi/tc onVf, which re-
sembles tannic acid but has no astringent taste. When applied
to broken skin or exposed surfaces it coagulates the albumen in
the discharges, forming a protecting layer or coat. It is moreover
an astringent to the tissues, hindering the further* discharge of
Buid. Una powerful local haemostatic, but it only checks
haemorrhaKe when brought directly in contact with the blccdtmr
point. It IS used in the treatment of haemoptysis In the form of
a 6ne spray, or uken internally it will check gastric hoemorrhaec.
In large doses, however, it greatly diwrdcrs the digestion. In the
intestine tannic acid controls intestinal bleeding, acting as a power-
ful astringent and causing constipation; for this reason it has
been recommended to check diarrhoea.
Tannic acid is largely used in the treatment of various ukers,
sores and moist eruptions. The glycerin is used in tonsillitb and
tlw lozenges in pharyn^tis. For bleeding haemorrhoids tannk
acid suppositories are useful, or tannic »aA can be dusted on
directly. The collodium stypticum is a valuable external remedy.
Tannic add is absorbed as [(allic acid into the blood and eliminated
as gallic and pyrogallic acids, darkening the urine. Gallic acid
does not coagulate albumen when used externally. It has been
used internally tn haemoptysis and haematuria. Combined with
opium it is an effident rcnaedy in diabetes insiptdms.
TAMN-RATHSAMHAUSEN. JIUDWIO SAMSOV ABTBUR,
FauHCtR VON UNO lu DCK (i8iS'iS8i), Bavarian general,
was bora at Darmstadt on the i8th of June 181 5, the day of
Waterloo. He was descended from the old family of von dcr
Tann, which had represcnUlivcs in Bavaria, Alsace and the
Rhine countries, and assumed his mother's name (she being
the daughter of an Alsatian, Frcihcrr von Rathsamhausen) in
1S6S by licence of the king of Bavaria. Lod«ig. the fir^t king
of Bavaria, stood sponsor for the child, who received his name
and in addition that of Arthur, in honour of the duke of
WcUingtoo. He received a careful education, and in 1827
became a page at the Ba\'arian court, where a great future was
predicted for hiio. Entering the artillery in 1833, he was after
some years placed on the general staff. He attended the
manoeuvres of the Austrian army in Italy under Radetaky
(f .f .) and, in tbe spirit of adventure, joined a French miliury
expedition operating in Algiers against the ToniiUn ioMku
On his retttrn he became a close peraorul friend of the Crown
Prince Maximilian Joseph (afterwards King MaximiUan). In
2848 he waa made a major, and in that year he distinguished
himself greatly as the leader of a Schle^wig-Holstein light oorpa
in the Danish war. At the close of the first campaign he waa
given the order of tbe Red Eagle by the icing of Prussia, and hia
own sovereign gave him the military order of MaX'Josqih
without his asking for it, and also made him a lieutenant-colonel.
In 1849 he served as chief of staff to the Bavarian contingent
at the front, and distinguished himself at the lines of Dtippei»
after which he visited Haynau's headquarters in the Hungarian
war, and returned to Schkswig-Holslcin to serve as v. WiUisen'a
chid of staff in the Idstcdt campaign. Then came the threat
of war between Prussia and Austria, and von der Tann was
recalled to Bavaria. But the affair ended with the " surrender
of OlmUtE," and he saw no further active service until 1866,
rising in tlse usual way of promotion to colonel (1851), major-
general (1855), and lieutenantrgeoerol (1861). In the earlier
years of this period he was the aide-de-<amp and constant com-
panion of the king. In the war of 1866 he was chief of the suff
to Prince Charles of Bavaria, who commanded the South
German contingents. The almost entirely unforttmate issue
of the military operations led to his being vehemently attacked
in the press, but the unreadiness and unequal cfiidency of the
troops and the general lack of interest in the war on the part oC
the soldiers foredoomed the South Germans to failure in any
case. He continued to enjoy the favour of the king and received
promotion to the rank of general of infantry (1869), but the
bitterness of his disappointment of 1866 never left him. He
was grey-haired at forty-two, and his health was impaired. . la
1869 von der Tann-Ralhsamhausen, as he was now called, was
appointed commander of the I. Bavarian corps. This corps he
commanded in the Franco^Gcrman War, and therein he retrieved
his place as one of the foremost of German soldiers. His
gallantry was conspicuous at Wdrth and Sedan. Transferred
in the autumn to an independent command on the Loire, he
conducted the operations against d^AurcDe de Paladines, at
first with marked success, and forced the surrender of Orkans.
He had, however, at Coulmicrs to give way before a numerically
larger French force; but reinforced, he fought several successful
engagements under the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg near
Orleans. On the termination of the war he was reappointed
commander-in<hief of the I. Bavarian corps, a post which he
held until his death at Mcran on tbe 26th of April 1881. He
had the grand cross of the Bavarian military orders, and the
first doss of the Iron Cross and the pour le mirite from the king
of l^s»a. In 1878 the emperor named von der Tatm chief
of a Prussian infantry regiment, decreed him a grant, and
named one of the new Slra&sburg forts afte# him.
See Life by Licutcnant-colond Hugo von Hclvlg in MiL Wocheu'
btaU, Supplement, 1882
TANSA* a small river in Salsctt island, in the Thana district
of Bombay, which provides the city of Bombay with its water-
supply. It is embanked by one of the largest masonry dams in
the world, built in 1892. The embankment is nearly 2 m. long,
118 ft. high, and no ft. thick at the base.
TANTA, a town of Lower Egypt, in a central position nearly
midway between the two main branches of the Nile, and con-
verging-point of several railways traversing the Delta in all
<lircctions. It has a population (1907) of $4,437, is the capital
of the rich province eif Gharbia, and is noted for its fairs and
Moslem festivals, which are held three times a year in honour
of Scyyid d-Bedawi, and are sometimes attended by 200,000
pilgrims and traders. There are a large railway station, a very
fine mosque (restored), and a palace of the khedive. Seyyid
e)-Bedawi,*who lived in the t3th century a.d., was a native of
Fcx who, after a pilgrimage to Mecca, settled in Tanta. He is
one of the most popular saints in Egypt.
TANTALUM Isymbol Ta, atomic wcfgM 181-0 <0«il^1, ft
metallic chcmiad element, sparingly distributed in nature and
then almost iavaiiabty a^ociated with columbiom. Its histoiy
TANTALUS— TANTIA TOPI
401
■ iotcnnixed with tlimt of cdtumoium. In i8ot C. Hatcfaett
detected a new element, which he named columbium, in a mineral
from Massachusetts, and in 1802 A. G. Ekeberg discovered an
element, tantalum, in some Swedish yttrium minerals. In
1809 W. H. WoUaston unsuccessfully endeavoured to show that
columbium and tantaliui were identlcaL In 1844 U. Rose
detected two new elements in the columbites of the Bodenmab,
which he named niobium and pdopUtm; dianium was discovered
by W. X. F. von Kobell in various columbites; and Umenium
and neptunium were discovered by R. Hermann. The researches
of C. W. Blomstrand, and others, especially of Marignac, proved
the identity of columbium, dianitun and niobium, and that
ilmenium was a mixture of columbium and tantalum. It is very
probable that neptunium is a similar mixture. Bcrzclius, who
prepared tantalic acid from the mineral tantaUte in 1820, ob-
tained an impure metal by heating potassium tantalofluoride
with potassium. In 1902 H. Mofssan obtained a carbon-bearing
metal by ftising the pentoxidc with carbon in the electric furnace.
The preparation of the pure metal was successfully effected by
Werner von Bolton in 1905, who fused the compressed product
obtained in the BerzcHus process in the electric furnace, air
being excluded. An alternative method consisted in passing an
electric current through a filament of the tetroxide in a vacuum.
The metal is manufactured, for use as filaments in elearic lamps,
by the actbn of sodium on sodium tantalofluoride.
The pure metal is silver-white in colour, is very ductile, and
becomes remarkably hard when hammered, a diamond drill
making little impression upon it. Its tensile strength is higher
than that of steel. It melts between 2250" and 2300**, its
spcdfic heat is 0*0365, ooeiHcient of expansion 0*0000079, and
specific gravity 16-64. When heated in air the metal burns
if in the form of thin wire, and is superficially oxidized if more
compact. At a red heat it absorbs large volumes of hydrogen
and nitrogen, the last traces of which can only be removed
by fusion in the electric furnace. These substances, and also
carbon, sulphur, selenium and tellurium, render the metal
very brittle. Tantalum is not affected by alkaline solutions,
but IS disintegrated when fused with potash. Hydrofluoric
add Is the only add which attacks it. It alloys with
icon, molybdenum and tungsten, but not with silver or
mercury.
In its chemical rdationships tantalum is assodated with
vanadium, columbium and didymium in a sub-group of the
periodic classification. In general it is pentavalent, but divalent
compounds are known.
Tantalum tetroxide, Ta^4, is a porous dark ^pey mass harder than
glass, and is obtained by rcdudni^ the pentoxtde with masneuum.
It is unaffected by anv acid or mixture of acids, but burns to the
pcntoxide when heated.
Tanlalmm pintoxide, Ta«0(. u a white amorphous infusible
powder, or it may be crysuULied by strongly heating, or by fuuiw
with boron trioxide or microcosnuc salt. It b insoluble in all
adds. It is obtained from potaamum tantalofluoride by heating
with sulphuric add to 400*, boiling out with water, and decern-
Bosifl^ toe residual compound of the oxide and sulphuric acid by
(piition. preferablv with the addition of ammonium carbonate.
Tamtalic ccidt HTaOs, is a gelatinous mass obuined by mixing
the chloride with water. It gives rise to nits, termed the tanta*
btes. The normal salts are all insoluble in water; the complex
add. besataatalic add. HaTaiOit (which does not exist in the free
state), forms soluble salts with the alkaline metab. Pertantalie scitf,
HTaO«, b obuined in the hydrated form as a white predpitate by
adding sulphuric acid to potassium pertantalate, KiTaOt* |HiO. whicn
b formed when hydrogen peroxide u added to a solution of poCasaum
hcxatantalate.
Taniaium pentanuoridet TaFt, for a long time only known in
solutioii, may be obtained by passing fluorine over an alloy oC
tantalum and aluminium, and purifying by distillation in a vacuum.
It forms colourless, very hygrosoopU: prisms, whKb sttack class,
slowly at ordinary tempemtures. more rapidly when heated {Ber.,
1909. 43, p. 493). Its double salts with the alkaline fluorides are
very important, and serve lor the seporstton of the metal from
oolambtum and titanium. Tantalum pentaehloridet TaCU, b ob-
tained as light yellow needles by heating a mixture of the pent-
oride and carbon in a current of chlorine. By heating with sodium
ama|Bam and separating with hydrochloric acid, the dichloride,
TaClraH^, b obtained as emerald groen hexagonal crystals.
The pentabromide casts, but tantalum and iodine apparently do
not oombine Tantalnm forms a sulphide, TaSi, and two nhridesb
TaNi and Ta«Ni, have been described.
Marignac determined the atomic weight to be 181, but Henrichsen
and N. Sahlbom {Ber., 1906, 39, p. 2600) obtained 1798 (H-i)
by converting the metal into pentoxide at a dull red heat.
TANTALUS, in Greek legend, son of Zeus (or Tmolus) and
Pluto (Wealth), daughter of Himantcs, the father of Pdops and
lyiobc. He was the traditional king of Sipylus in Lydia (or of
Phrygia), and was the intimate friend of Ztus and the other
gods, to whose table he was admitted. But be abused the
divine favour by revealing to mankind the secrets he had learned
io heaven (Diod. Sic. iv. 74), or by killing his son Pelops {q^v.)
and serving him up to the gods at table, in order to test their
powers of observation (Ovid, Metam. vi. 401). Another story
was that he stole nectar and ambrosia from heaven and gave
them to men (Pindar, 01. i. 60). According to others, Pan-
dareus stole a golden dog which guarded the temple of Zeus in
Crete, and gave it to Tantalus to take care of. But, when
Pandareus demanded the dog back, Tantalus denied that he
had received it. Therefore Zeus turned Pandareus into a stone,
and flung down Tantalus with Mount Sipylus on the top of him
(Antoninus Liberalis, 36). The punishment of Tantalus in the
lower world was famous. He stQod up to hb neck in water,
which flowed from him when he tried to drink of it; and over hb
head hung fruits which the wind wafted away whenever he tried
to grasp them {Odyssey ^ xi. 582). This myth b the origin of
the English word " tantalize," and also of the common name
" tantalus " for a set of spirit decanters kept under lock and *
key. Another story b that a rock hung over hb head ready to
fall and crush him (Euripides, Orestes, 5). The sins of Tantalus
were visited upon hb descendants, the Pelopidae. Andcnt
historical reminiscences and natural phenomena, especially
volcanic catastrophes, are at the bottom of the legend. The
tomb of Tantalus on Mount Sipylus was pointed out in antiquity,
and has been in modem times identified by C. F. Texier with
the great cairn beneath Old Magnesia; but Sir W. M. Ramsay
inclines to a remarkable rock-cut tomb beside Magnesia.
The story of Tantalus is an echo of a semi-Greek kingdom,
which had its seat at Sipylus, the oldest and holiest dty of
Lydia, the remains of which are still vbible. There was a
tradition in antiquity that the city of Tantalus had been
swallowed up in a lake on the mountain; but the legend may,
as Ramsay thinks, have been suggested by the vast ravine which
yawns beneath the acropolb. According to S. Reinach {Revue
archSologiquef 1903)) Tantalus was represented in a picture
standing in a lake and clinging to the branches of a tree, which
gave rise to the idea that he was endeavouring to pluck its
fruit. The punishment of the overhanging rock refers to the
dangerous position of the town of Tantalb below the summit
of Mount Sipylus.
See Pelops. Phrtcia; Sar W. M. Ramsay in Journal 0/
Hellenic Studies, iii.; Frascr^s Pausanias, iil. p. 555, v.. p. 392;
J. Hvl^n. De Tantolo (Upsala. 1896), who considers the story of
the tnint of Tantalus m the underworld to be due to the On^ic
interpolator in the Nfowa of the Odyssey, and the Pandareus story
to be an innovation of the Alexandnne poets. The essay contains
a copious Ibt of authorities and a history of the I'igend. According
to V. Henry {^Retwe des Eludes greeques, 1892), Tantalus b the sun:
the fruits which elude hb grasp are the stars suspended on the tree
of heaven, which disam>ear at the rising of the sun; the water into
which the sun desicenas without drinkmg, b the sea. Tantalus's
betrayal of the secrets of the gods refers to the sun unvdling the
secrets of heaven; the slaying of Pelops denotes the going-down
of the sun, Pelops meaning the " gray one," an epithet of the ^oomy
sky in which the last rays of the sun are extinguished.
TANTIA TOPI {c. 1819-1859), rebel leader during the Indian
Mutiny, was a MahratU Brahman in the service of Nana Sahib.
He instigated the massacre of Cawnpore, and commanded at the
battle of Bithur, where he was defeated by (kneral Havdock.
With the aid of the Gwalior contingent he pressed General
Windham hard at Cawnpore on the 27th and aSth of November'
1857, but was defeated by Shr Colin Campbell on the 6th of
December. Together with the Rani of Jhand he was besiege^
by Sir Hugh Rose in the Jhansi fort, but escaped and coUecK
a force of 20,000 men which Sir Hugh defeated without rdaxii
49'^
TAOISM— TAPACULO
the sicgn. This was the decisive adba of the campaign in
Central India, and Tantia Topi was obliged to seek refuge in
the jungles of Rajpntana and Bundelkhand, where he was
taken by Major Meade, condemned, and executed on the i8th
of April 1859. He was the only rebel leader in the Mutiny who
showed any conspicuous military talent.
TAOISM, a form of religion in China, the name of which is
taken from the ancient treatise called Tdo Teh King, supposed
to be the work of the sage Lao-tszc (g.v.)« The later charac-
teristics of Taoism as a form of worship represent a corruption
of the earlier doctrines of Lao-tszc, and the infusion of Buddhist
and other ideas.
TAORMIMA (ancient Tauromenium)^ a town on the £. coast
of Sicily, in the province of Messina, from which town it is 30 m.
S.S.W. by raiL Pop. (1901) 41 10. It has come into great
favour as a winter resort, especially with British and German
visitors, chiefly on account of its fine situation and beautiful
views. It h'es on an abrupt hill 650 ft. above the railway station,
and was founded by the Carthaginian Himilco in 397 B.C. for
a friendly tribe of Sicels, after the destruction, by Dionysius
the Elder of Syracuse, of the neighbouring dty of Naxos. In
395 Dionysius failed to take it by assault on a winter's night,
but in 392 he occupied it and settled his mercenaries there. In
358 the exiles from Naxos, after wandering up and down Sicily,
at last found a home there. Its commanding site gave it con-
siderable importance. It was the city at which both Timoleon
and Pyrrhus first landed. D uring the First Punic War it belonged
to the kingdom of Iliero, and after his death it enjoyed an
exceptionally favoured position with regard to Rome, being
like Messana and Netum, a civitas focderala. During the first
Servile War it was occupied by Eunous and some of his followers,
but was at length taken by the consul Publius Rupilius in 132.
It was one of the strongholds of Sextus Pompeius, and after
defeating him Augustus made it into a colonia as a measure of
precaution, expelling some of the older inhabitants. In the
time of Strabo it was inferior in population, as we should expect,
to Messana and Catana; its marble, wine and mullets were
highly esteemed. In A.O. 902 it was taken and burnt by the
Saracens; it was retaken in 962, and in 1078 fell into Uie hands
of the Normans.
The ancient town seems to have had two citadels; one of
these was probably the hUl above the town to the W. now
crowned by a medieval castle, while the other was the hill
upon which the theatre was afterwards constructed (E. A. Free-
man, History of Sicily, iv. 506). There are some remains of
the dty waUs, belonging to more than one period. It is
indeed ^)ossible that one fragment of wall belongs to a period,
before the foundation of the city, w^en the Naxians had a
fortified port here (Evans in Freeman, op. cit., iv. 109 n. i).
The church of San Pancrazio, just outside the modem town, is
built into a temple of the 3rd century B.C., the S. wall of the
ccUa of which is alone preserved. Inscriptions prove that it
was dedicated to Serapis. The other ruins belong in the main
to the Roman peijod. The most famous of them is the theatre,
largely hewn in the rock, which, though of Greek origin, was
entirely reconstructed. The seats are almost entirely gone,
but the stage and its adjacent bmldings, espedally the wall,
in two storeys, at the back, are well preserved: some of its marble
decorative details were removed for building material in the
middle ages, but those that remained have been re-erected.
The view from the theatre is of exceptional beauty, Mount Etna
being clearly seen from the summit to the base on the S.W.,
while tq the N. the rugged outlines ol the coast immediately
below, and the mountains of Calabria across the sea to the N.E.
make up one of the most famous views in the world. There are
also remains of a much smaller theatre (the so-called Odeiun),
and some large cisterns; a large bath or tank which was ap-
parently open, known as the Naumachia, ipeasures 4^^ ft. in
length and 39^ in width: only one of its long sides is now visible,
and serves as a foundation for several houses in the main street
of the modem town. The aqueducts which supplied these
dsteras may be traced above the town. There are remains
of houses, tombs, &c, of the Roman period, and fine speci>
mens of Romanesque and Gothic architecture in the modem
town.
See Ri£R>.(7»i&dira<»iiuitae(ftnteni«, Catania, 1902. (T.As.)
TAPACUU}* the name* given in Chile to a bird -of singular
appearance — the Pteroptochtu albicoHis of ornithology, and
applied in an extended sense to its allied forms, which constitute
a small family, Pteroptocfndae, belonging to the Ctamatora
division of P<ustr$s, peculiar to South America. About 20
Tapaculo.
spedes, disposed by P. L. Sclater {This, 1874, pp. 189-206)
in 8 genera, are believed to belong to this group.
The species of the Family first made known is Scytahpus
mageUanuus, orietnallv described ia 1783 by J. Latham {Synopsis,
iv. p. 464) as a Warbler. Even in 1836 I. Gould not unnaturally
took it for a Wren, when establishins; the genus to which it is
now referred; but some ten years aUcr Johannes MQller found
that SeylalopuSf together with the true Tapaculo. which was fint
described by Kittlitz in 1830, possessed anatomical characters that
removed them far from any poeition previously assigned to them,
and determined their true place as above given. In the meanwhile
a kindred form, Hyhctes, also first described in 1830, had been
shown by T. C. Eyton to have some very exceptional ofltcolofical
features, and these were found to be also common to Pleroplockus
and Scytalopus. In i860 J. Cabanis reooenizcd the Pleroptockidas
as a dMtinct Family, but made it also indude Menura (see Ltrb-
bird), and in 187a P. L. Sclater {ut supra) thought that Atrichia (see
Scrub-bird) might belong here. It was A. Garrod in 1876 and 1877
who finally divested the Family of these aliens, but until examples
of some ot the other genera have been anatomically examined it may
not be safe to say that they alt belong to the Pteroptochidae.
The true Tapaculo (P. aibicoUis) has a general resemblaiice in
plumage to the fenudes of some of the smaller Shrikes (Lontci),
and to a cursory observer its skin might pass for that of one; but
its shortened wings and powerful feet would on closer inspection
at once reveal the difference. In life, however, its appearance
must be whoUv unlike, for it rarely flies, hops aaively on the ground
ot amonff bushes, with its tail erect or turned towards its head, and
continually utters various and strange notes, — some, says Darwin,
are " like the cooing of doves, others like the bubbling of water,
and ipany defy all simikn." The " Turco." Hytcctes megapodius,
is larger, with greatly developed feet and daws, but is very nmilar
in colour and habits. Two more q)ccies of Hylactts are known, and
* Of Spanidi origin, it la intended as a reproof to the bird for the
shameless way in which, by erecting its uil, it exposes its hinder
parts. It has been sometimes misspdt *' Tapacolo," as by C. Darwin,
who gave (Journal of Researches, chap, xii.) a brief but entertaming
account of the habits of this bird and its relative, Hylactes /nega-
podius, called by the CUilenos " £1 Turco."
TAPER— TAPESTRY
4-03
othtf of Pttnfhekttt, all of which aft peculiar to Chile or
isosia. The spedet o£ Scytclopta are a« small as Wrens,
^ jatly of a dark colour, and inhabit paits of Brazil and Cobmbia,
one of them occurring so far northward as Bogota. (A. N.)
TAPER (probably of Celtic origin, cL Irish tapar, Welsh
lampr, taper, torch), a small thin candle of tallow or wax (see
Candle); from its eariy shape, in which the circumference of
the top was smaller than that of the base, the word came to
be as«l in the sense of " slender," particularly of something
diminishing in size at one end. In architecture the word is
used of the gradual diminishing of a spire or odunm as it rises.
The spire tapers almost to a point, where it is terminated by a
finial or vane: the column tapers only to a less diameter at
the top, and as a general rulo the more ancient the column the
greater its diminution or taper; thus in one of the early temples
at SeKnus in Sicily the upper diameter is about half the lower
diameter, while in the Parthenon it is about one-fifth.
TAPESTRY. The Gr. rivns and Lat. tapeHumt frdm which
our word "tapestry" is descended, implied a covering to
both furniture and floors, as well as curtains or wall hangings,
and neither of them really defines the particular way in which
such articles were made. The decorations on these Greek and
Fic. 1. — Gobelins high-warp tapestry frame, with weaver (i8th
century), holding in right hand (^a) bobbin with weft thread wound
round tts thick end. and with his left hand taking (e) some of the
Usses or strings with a loop at one end of each of them, through
whkJi a warp thread is passed, and thus pullinjs forward those
warp threads in between which he will pass his weft, mm is
the tapestry he has woven, which has been wound round (p) the
cylinder. The other letters in this diagram relate to details in
the frame which arc of subsidiary interest. The description of
them would not further elucidate the act of weaving which is here
in question.
Roman coverings were effected by painting, printing, embroidery,
or a method of weaving with coloured threads; and specimens
and other conclusive evidence show that early Eg>'plians,
Babylonbns, Chinese, Indians, Greeks and Romans employed
some at least of the means above-named.
Pf9ctMM l^c purpose of this article is to give some account
ita^tw of those decorated stuffs which are produced by
*^' weaving coloured threads on to warp threads in a
wMTlag, j^anner that differs from shuttle-weaving, and at
the present day is called tapestry-weaving, such for instance
as is practised at the famous Gobelins and Bcauvafs tapestry
manufactories In France. At the Gobelins, the warp threads
are stretched in frames standing vertically (high warp or haute
fiur): at Bcauvais in frames placed horizontally with the ground
(low waip or basse tisst). In the one case the Worker sits up to
his work, in the other he bends over it. In each he is supplied
with the design according to which he weaves, and notwithstand-
ing the varied positions the method of weaving is the mgt sad
same. The thread-supply of each separate colour re- low warp
quired in the design is wound upon its appointed peg ''«<"•'•
or bobbin, which is a simpler implement or tool than a loom
weaver's shuttle. Fig. x shows a Gobelins high-warp tapestry
weaver of the i8th century at work. With his left hand he is
pulling above his head a few of the looped strings {lius or Usses)
through which the warp threads {chainc) pass, so as to bring
forward the particular warp threads, in between and around
which he has to place the weft threads of the sdected colour.
In fig. 3 the workman's left hand pulls forward groups of warp
threads upon the lower part of which the weaving has been
finished; and with a comb-like implement in his right hand he
presses down and compacts the weaving. In the story of the
competition between Minerva/ and Arachne {Metamor phases ^
vi. 55-69), Ovid appears to be describing this very process, and
a great number of specimens of and to 5th century Egypto-
Roman workmanship corroborate the presumption of its
existence in Ovid's time. The absence of evidence to show that
loom and shuttle weaving was capable at that period of pro-
ducing elaborate figured fabrics is remarkable, and supports
the. probability that the tapestry-weaving process was that
FiG.'2. — Gobelins tapestry-weaving, showing (a) the left hand
of the weaver pulling forward (c) a group of w-arp threads, into
which with (6) the comb in his right hand he is compressing at
point id) the weft threads which have been passed around and in
between the warp threads; (r) are various bobbins, hanging at
rest, suspended by their weft threads; and ij) is the tapestry as
woven and compressed.
commonly known and practised for most if not all woven decora-
tion and ornament. It was certainly as freely used for costumes
as for hangings, couch and cushion covers and the like (see
Carpet). The frames in which the work was done varied ac-
cording to size from small and easily handled ones to large and
substantially constructed frames. As mentioned in the article
Embroiderv, ornament of tapestry-weaving occurs in a frag-
ment of Egyptian work 1450 B.C., and Greeks in the 3rd or 4lh
century B.C. also worked in this method, as is demonstrated by
specimens, now in the Hermitage at St Petersburg, which were
found in the tomb of the Seven Brothers at Temriouck, formerly
a Greek settlement in the province of Kouban on the north-
eastern shore of the Black Sea.^ The simplicity of the process
is so obvious that it is found to be widely employed in expressing
a variety of primitive textile decoration of which pieces from
Borneo, Central Asia, Tibet, the Red Indians of America, and
the ancient inhabitants of Peru' (see fig. 10) are to be seen io
museums.
> Sec Comptt rendu. Com. Arch., 1878-70.
' See Afcotmt ef.Craaesai Ancon, Aabcr & Co.; see also S|
from Graves at Linia in the Victoria and Albert Museum,
4.0+
TAPESTRY
As regards tbe Antiquity of the two sorts of frames (the bw
and hi|^ warp) the Beni Hassan wall paintings (1600 B.C.) include
diagrams of horizontal Gow warp) frames, with weavers squatting
on tbe ground at work on them; while a vertical or high warp
frame is represented on a Greek vase of the 5th century B.C.
found at Chiusi (fig. 3), and corresponds with frames used in
Scandinavian countries.^ In both these last-named the lower
ends of the warp threads are merely weighted, thus presenting
Fig. 3. — Penelope's tapestry-weaving frame, from a Greek vase
of the 5th century B.C. The standing ngure is that of Telemachus.
some difficulty to the act of weaving, and of subsequently com-
pacting the weft upwards, the warp not being taut and fastened
to a beam, according to more ordinary usage, as, for instance,
in the high warp frame illustrated in the codex of Rabanus
Maurus, 9th century A.D., preserved at Monte Cassino (fig. 4)-
The words " de Ceneceo " in this illustration point to a medieval
survival of the earlier gunaikonites of the Greeks and the
gynaecea of the Romans, which were the quarters set apart in
the house of the well-to-do for the spinning, weaving and
embroidery done by women for the household. From such
ancient frames to similar haute and basse lisse frames of the
French lapissiers nostrez and lapissiers sarrasinois governed
under edicts (1226-70) of Louis IX., and so on to present-day
Gobelins and Beauvais frames, the transition can be easily
realized. The texture of all tapestry weavings presents no
radical difference in appearance, no matter when or where
produced.
Within reasonable limits it is not |>racticab1e to sketch in a
complete form the history, from the middle ages onwards, of the
Erosccution of the art by each of the many European towns that
ave become engaged m tapestry weaving. But the foregoing
remarks will suggest, what seems to have been the fact, that a
continuity in the knowledge of the art was kept up so that as
favourable conditions occurred it would be called
Homaa into practice. Artificers (male and female) such as
tap—tiy the Roman plumarii wove tapestries with figures of
wtmvl^. Britons (Virgil, Ceorg., iii. 25) — '* Purpurea intexli toUant
aulaea Britanni," — others with scenes from the story
of Theseus and Ariadne (Catullus, Argon., xlvi. 267), besides many
more for emperors and the wealthy. The demand for such pro-
duction of the Uxtrinae or trade workshops, and of the more private
gynaecea, as well as the organization of workmen's societies, collegia
opifictutt, are evidence of circumstances lasting for some centuries
in Rome that were favourable to tapestry-weaving there. Sug-
gestive of Roman designs are the illustrations of part of a curtam
or wall hanging (fig. 5), and of a hanging or couch cover (fig. 6) ;
whilst the daintiest quality of tapestry-weaving for theomamenta-
tion of a tunic is displayed in fig 7. The omamentatk>n in fig. 5
— a hanging 5 ft. 3 in. by 19! in. — consists of a scries of horizontal
leafy bands or garlands and other devices: between the upper
bands on a red ground is a bird on a leafy twig. This is Egypto-
Roman work of about the 3rd century a.d. A portion of a linen
cloth or couch cover ornamented with tapestry woven in coloured
^Sce modem Farocae frame figured by Worsaae. AfbiUinger
fndei K, Museum for Nordiske Old Sager. Copenhagen, 1854,
wools and linen thread Is shown in fig. 6. At the'top there is a
fragment of a horizontal border of floral and leaf ornament be-
neath which, and enclosed by festoons of leaves, are two boys
floating in the air and holding docks; elsewhere are figures of boys
running and carryingbaskets of fruit, and large and small blomom
forms or rosettes. This also is Egypto-Roman work, about the
4th century, and is ± ft. 3 in. by 4 ft. 1 in. Fig. 7 presents a square
(from a small tunic) of very fine warp and weft tapestry-weaving,
with a child mounted on a white horse: in the border about him
are ducks, fish and (?) peaches. This too is Egypto-Roman work
of about the 2nd or 3rd century and is about 4 mches square. The
square in fig. 8 is from a tunic or robe and is of tapestry-ti-eaving
in bright-coloured wools, with a representation at Hermes holding
the caduceus in one hand and^ a jpurse in the other. About hte
head is a nimbus and his name in Creek characters. This a^ain ia
Egypto-Roman work of about the 1st or 2nd century and is 6|
inches square. The pane! of tapestry-weaving in fig. 9 is from a
couch or bed covering* and b wrought in purple wools and linen
threads. The design recalls the description of the toralia or couch>
covering alluded to in Pctronius Arbiter's^ account of Trimalchio's
banquet, " on which were depicted men in ambush with hunting
poles and all the apparatus of the chase." This piece is afsocd
Egypto-Roman work about the 3nd or 3rd century, about 12 in.
by 10 in.
The well-known 6th-century Ravenna mosaics of the Emperor
Justinian and the Empress Theodora are rich with hangings and
costumes decorated presumably with tapestry weaving^ similar
to those just described. From the 5th century and
for many centuries later, monasteries,' nunneries and TapeMOy
the like, under ecclesiastkal control or influence, womvltfgtn
became centres of activity in this and cognate arts, moaa*-
stimulated by the patronage of the Church and terlee,
courts; and in the 8th and 9th centuries the Em- Stt to 9Ui
peror Chariemagne's body of travelling inspectors, eaaUuy,
missi dominia, appears to have exercised for a time
a helpful influence upon such centres throughout France
and in parts of Germany. Two centuries later, free, as distinct
from bond, handicraftsmen were forming local associations for
their industries, and in this movement the weavers took the lead
throughout England, Flanders and Brabant, France being a little
later.' The gUds of weavers in London and Oxford
were granted charters by Henry I. In the nth century OBdMrnt
gilds of wool weavers existed at Cologne and Mainz, wtmyon,
and in the following century there was a simikir
gild at Spires: it is quite probable that some of^ their
weaving would be of tapestry.* The fragment in fig. ii is con-
sidered by authorities to be of 12th-century north European work,
possibly from some Rhenish place. At one time the whole piece
Fio. 4.— High warp frame from MS. Codex by Rabanus Maurus
(9th century).
" See Recherches sur F usage el Vorigine des tapisseries d ptrsonnages,
by A. Jubinal. 1840, p. 13. , ,,,
* See L. Brcntano^s History and Development of Guilds, % IV.
" The Craft GuUds."
TAPESTRY
Plate I.
Figs. 5-9. — Specimens of Egyp to-Roman tapestry weaving of about the 2nd to 5 th century A J).
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Plate II.
TAPESTRY
Fig. lo. — Fragment of coarse
linen material with a large
diamond panel of tai>estry
weaving in coloured threads
— Peruvian-made, before the
conquest of Peru by Pizarro.
About 3 ft. by 2 ft. 6 in.
Fig. II. — Portion of wall-hanging from the church of St.
Gereon, Cologne. North French or German manu-
facture of the nth or 12th century. About 2 ft. by
2 ft. 6 in.
Fig. 12. — An antepcndium, or altar hanging of tapestry woven in coloured wools, with the Adoration of the
Magi, probably from a design by Wohlgemuth (1434-1519). The tapestry is reputed to have been
executed i^i a mnvnnf at Bamberg; below the folds of the Virgin's cloak, to the right, the "tapissiere"
has wc ^rself at work. German, 15th centuiy. This interesting piece is in themuseum
at M 6 in. by 3 ft.
TAPESTRY
Plate III.
Fig. 13. — One of a series of designs (the Trojan War) by Jean Foucquet
(14 1 5-1485) from which tapestry hangings were woven, probably at
Arras in the middle of the 15th century.
Fig. 14. — Part of the tapestry (13 ft. high)
woven from the design in Fig. 13. Arrival of
Queen Penthesilea at the court of King Priam.
Fig. 15. — Part of the tapestry (10 ft. high)
woven from the design in Fig. 13. Queen
Penthesilea overcoming Diomedes.
Fig. 16. — ^Long and narrow tapestry (8 ft. 10 in. by 22 in.), German work of the 15th century.
Field labours, &c.
Plate IV. TAPESTRY
Fig. 17. — Part of a wall hanging of tapestry woven (probably at Brusseb early in the 16th century) with coloured wools
and silks, which is one of a series desitnicd, probably by some member of the school of Roger van der Weyden,
to illustrate the Triumphs written by Petrarch. The episode represented is the Triumph ofChastity over Love.
Falling from a triumphal car fitted with flaming altars or torches of love, and drawn by four winged white horses,
is Cupid, whose left arm is grasped by Chastity mounted on a unicorn and carrying the column symbolizing Strength
or Constancy. Foremost in the multitude about the car of Love are Cleopatra and Julius Caesar. In another
part of this hanging is the date 1507. The height of this piece is 14 ft. This, with tapestries of the Triumph of
Death and Fame, is in the Victoria and Albert Museum: one hanging of the Triumph of Time is at Hampton Court.
TAPESTRY
Plate V.
Fig. 18. — Brussels, early i6th century, hanging, covered with masses of flowers, on which are
shields bearing the royal arms. Now at Haddon Hall. The property of the duke of
Rutland.
Plate VI. TAPESTRY
Fig. 20. — ^Tapestry hanging (about 10 fU
high) possibly of Fontainebleau manu*
facture about 1540. Fetes in honour of
Henri II. and Catherine de Medicis.
Fig. 19. — Brussels taj>eslry (about 6 ft. high), late
1 5th century, with a shield bearing three cro\%Tis,
red and white roses, and the monogram I.H.S.
repeated three times. From Winchester Col-
lege.
Fig. 21. — German tapestry hanging (about 4 ft. Fig. 22. — Tapestry hanging (about 10 ft. high)
6 in. long by 3 ft. high) for a sideboard or buffet, made at the ^iedici factory in Florence, 1639.
middle of the xsth century. In the museum at Domestic scene, rinvcrno, winter.
Basel.
TAPESTRY Plate VII.
Fig 23. — Oudenarde tapestry, early 17th century. The des
and Eneas," rather hi the style of J. van Straeten,
The design, **Dido
Fig. 24. — One of the four tapestry hangings of the **Seasons," of Winter with Aeolus in the
centre, probably woven under the direction of Francis Hickes at William Sheldon's
manufactory at Barcheston, in Warwickshire, early in the 17th century, and now at
Hatfield House.
Plate VIII. - TAPESTRY
Fig. 2$. — ^Defence of Londonderry. Irish (Dublin) tapestry, early i8th century.
Fig. 26.— Tapestry woven at Merton Abbey, from a design by William Morris (1834-1896). The subject
is from his poem "The Orchard." Victoria and Albert Museum.
TAPESTRY
405
I to tlw chfiith of St. Gneon at Cdoem; a hrgt bit of it
it aam in the moaeuni at Lyons: another at Nurembenr: whilcc
a amaO part of tht border only u in the Victoria and Albert Muteum.
Sooth kenaincton. The pattern oonsists of repeated loundels
within each of which is a chimerical bird and bull (? Sc Luke).
chft wh e i e is a small eaale (? St. John). The style of design, strong
m oviental and Byzamme chaiBCtcr, is frequently found in shuttle-
woven silks of the period.
The renaisssnce of literatuse jn the 12th centoiy, infused with
ramaatk, mystical and religioiis tendencies, supplied subjects for
wall deoomtkm by fresco painting, the practice of
TMpiU H u which was revived then and came mto vogue in Italy
ifm mm and the south, whilst iu analogue in the northern and
more weather-wearing countries is to be found chiefly
in decorative tapestry weavings. Much tapestry is
certainly indebted for its cartoons to wall painting, but
illustrattons in MSS. also furnished subjects from which
__ , wnma6t by the tapissitnnostra And tainsnersik la kauk
hut in France, Germany and Flanders.* The earlier tapestries
■snaliy seem to have been narrow and kmg< e.t. the " todc H broderie "
of Baycux (see Cmbxoioery) and the i2th<entttry tapestries of
Halbencadt cathcdvaL Ahhouffh the making such narrow, long
mnjiriea survived into the 14th and inh centuries (sec fig. 16),
larger shapes (see figs. 14 and is) suitable as curtains and as hang-
km to cover larve wall-spaces became the mote frequent. From
this time forward the output from many European towns of big
pieces, mostly woven with coloured wools, was continuous and
conaidefable. The moro sumptuous eitamples from the 14th to
the 17th century were enriched with gleaming silks and metallic
threads.*
The subjects of the cartoons from whidi taoestries were woven
varied of course with the tastes of the times, the more frequent of
the eariier ones being religious (see fig. 12) or illus*
fMhCro' trative of moralities. Types of romantic, legendary
subjects are di^layed in fiss. 14 and 15 of the Siege
. of Troy, and fig. 23 of Dido and Aeneas. Historical
design occurs m fig. 30, which b one of a set of
tapestries woven possibly at uie roval factory of Fontainebleau
about 1540, to commemorate the fetes on the occasion of the
marriage of Henri 11. with Catherine de Medicis; and again in
fig. 35. of the "Glorious Defence of Londonderry.*' Pastoral
incidciits are shown in fig. 16, and social life episodes and incidents
bi fig. 22, which was woven at the celebrated Medici factory,
Florence, in 1630 by a French weaver— Pierre Fevre— from a
design in the style of F. d'AIbertIno (il Bacchiaca), 16th century,
entitled ** Vimtrno** (winter). Less human in interest are
tapestries, Bioatty of the late isth century, wrought from leafy
dc^na, osoaUy termed " ^erdtirts,** of which several were made at
Brussels durit^ the i6th centunr. Hcraldk: and floral devKes
were also frequently used, see fig. 19, from a piece of the late
i$th century in Winchester College, and fig. 18, which is at Haddon
Hall and was woven eariy in the 16th cemury. It b very amilar
to hancings which are at Bern and are said to have been ca])tured
from Charles the Bold at the battle of Granson. Many curiously
designed tapestries ol German i§th<enttfry origin are to be seen
in the museum at Basel— one of them (fig. 21) displays strange
beasts, unicorns, stags in the midst of Gothic foliage, and bbels
with legends. Other tapestries^ worked from still bter phases of
ernamental design, are fantastic with schemes of abstract orna*
ment into which are introduced as subridiary details figure subjects
set in panels and medallions.
The treatment of the companions in cartoons for tapestry
follows that adopted by painters. Thus examples from the litn
to theefid of the isth century are formal in the drawing of the forms
introduced into them, and comparatively limited in range of colours,
li^ts and shades, in acconlance with the mannerisms of the earlier
painters whether illuminators of MSS. or wall and panel painters.
It has been argued from this that the designers of such early
tapestry work possessed a sense of the limitations imposed by the
process and materials. But in their day the relatively snvall
oumber of dyes avaibble involved conventionality in colour,
ouite as much as the eariier styles of drawing involved conven-
tionaNty in form.
Fig. 13 b from an inteiesthig design by Jehan Foucquet
(1415-1485): and b ' ' --j-'L.. t.! :.t..-^.^ .u«
I one of a set, made by him to illustrate the
<Gmlfrey*s ff kotos BaioUle contains |»arriculars of the loan
by Charin V. of France to his brother Loub, duke of Anjou, of an
Olaminated MS. from which Hennequin or ^ean of Bruges, painter
ia ordinary and vakt de ehaiid>re to the king, made the cartoons
oaed by Nwolas Bataille (tapissier de Porii) in weavii^^ two ban^^ngs
fcpresenting the Apocalyipse (1377)- _
•" Tapis d» kault Hee de fin j/il d*arms ottpri i or de Chipre *'
(a.o. I39S)- One of the brecst and most deBcately wrought
tapestry hangings in which aoid and silver threads are Treely used
b that of Use Adoration of the Eternal Father: on the left of thb
b the story of the Emperor Augustus and the Tiburtine Sibyl: on
the rij^ the story of Esther and Ahasoerus. tt was bou^ by
Mr Piefpont MofVM.
Trojan War, now in the Loovre. From tfieae drawings tapestries
were woven at Arras probably in the middle of the isth century.
One of these hangings in the XHctoria and Albert Museum (see
fies. 14 and is) b from Foucquet *s design, representing the arrival
of Queen Penthesilea and her warrior women at Troy and the part
she took in a fight in which she vanquished Diomedes. This
episode was introduced by (}uintus CaUber (or Smyrnaeus). a 4th«
century writer, in his version of the Homeric story. A Upestry
from another of Foucouet's deagns dbpbying King Prbm in the
midst of hb court b in tne Palais de Justice at Issoire.
When Raphael, master of a freer and more realistic style in
rendering form and colour, produced his cartoons of the Acts of the
Ajmstles for a set of hangings for Pope Leo X.. a new con-
dition naturally came into pby, and practically became fjetredtap*
a principal source of the contrast which is ooservable tlom of
between the designs of upestries made before hb time and nmaBm la
those made after the eariy part of the l6th century. dntgaM lor
The provision of a bigger scale of dyes (for the wools and Upeatrke,
silks was stimubted to secure success in weaving these
more rcalbtx: representations of forms and greater subtbttes ia
colour, as well as the developed effects of perspective: compare, C»r
instance, the treatment in fig. 14 with that in fig. 22. The re-
straint or limitations of the earlier styles were thus gradually
suppbnted by the comparative complexities of the later; and it
b a ^int of interest to note that provision for still further inventing
and improving dyes and so helping tapestry to assimibte to paint-
ing b specially included in the regulations (1667) of the state
manufactory of the Gobelins, where under M. Chevrcul (director
of the dye-works for more than fifty years during the 19th century)
14^00 tones of colour have been used.
A chronolo^cal succession of styles may abo be traced in the
borders enclosing such varieties of design as those just referred
to. As a rule borders consisting of a selvage or pUin
band come first (see fig. 12). followed by those in which ^uooi
labeb with block-letter legends (figs. 14 and 15 and bordtra
' 17) are features; after them are narrow borders !■<"
lin * - - - -
fifled In with closely and well-arranged floral forms (see o/tfsls.
lower border in fig. 1 7) , to which succ«d borders of greater
width containing elaborate detail (fig. 20). Such as these dat^
from soon after the beginning of the 16th century, and those rather
wider and more extravagant in ornament follow on somewhat
later (see fip. 22 and 23). In the i8th century massive rococo
proscenium frames, as in fig. 25, are sometimes adopted.
Of the notable centres where the industry of tapestry-weaving
has been in considerable practice. Arras in the 14th ind 15th centuries,
Brussels in the 15th ana t6th, Middelburg and Delft in
the bte i6th andearly 17th centuries,* Parb in the l6th AMsMte
and 17th centuries and down to the present time, with o^alno
Mortlake in the 17th century, probably stand foremost; ofiLo
and from them the services of experienced workmen ladMiiyi,
equipped with frames and implements were requisitioned
and secured at most of the short-lived contemooraneous centre*
in almost all parts of Europe. Several names 01 tapestry-weavers
working durina the first half of the 14th century in Arras, Parb,
Valenciennes, bt. Omer and Reims, for Burgundian, Flemish ana
French nobles, have been recorded.* Throughout that century a
few weavers and many tapestries came from Arras into England,
where the term ** arras " b«came the generic name for woven wall-
hangings. Arras tapestries also went in quantities Into Italy
where they were called " Araai,** and into Spain where they bore
the name ^ pannos de nut." The tapiocrs of London received their
statutes in 1331, and Edward 11 1. caused an inquiry to be held
into the mistera lapiciarorum.* The industry at Arras began to
decline soon after 1460, and was succeeded about thb date by works
at Bruges, Ghent, Toumai, Lille. Oudenarde, but more especblly
at Brusseb, at which last city the industry grew to an importance
even greater than it had enjoyed previously at Arras or elsewhere.
The regubtions of the Brussels corporation of tapissiers were
framed in 1^51. Under them tapissiers mieht draw for one another
the stuffs of tiangings or of costumes in their figure composition^
trees, antmab, boats, grasses, &c.. in their "verdures," or leafy
* Only one or two of the tapestries representing the several
en^sgemeata between the Eaglbh and Spanbh fleeu in 1588 whkh
used to hang in the House of Lords (see Pine, Tapestry of the House
of Lords, London, 17^) were saved from the fire (1835). and are
now at Hampton Court. They doeely correspond with a set com-
memorating erMBgements bet w een tbe Dutch and Soanish fleets
(1572 and 1576) whldi are in the great Assembly Hall of the Pro*
vindal States of Zeebnd. These latter were woven chiefly at the
tapestry works at Middelburg. 15(^5-1629 ; the former were woven
at Francis Sfuring's works (or dpierincx) at Delft. Both, it appears,
were designed by H. Cornelius Vroom of Hariem. For interesting
details of the Middelburg works see van der Graft's De Tapii^
Fabrieken (Middelburg, 1869), and supplementary documents by
De Waard (Oud-HolUnd, xv.. 65. 1897).
* See lists in W. G. Thomson's History ^ Tapestry.
* Rot. Pat. 38 £d. 111.. Hardy's Record Kymer, vol 3. part a.
P-736.
4.o6
TAPESTRY
compositiofu. and the flowen, &c, as in ike xrouDd oC Fig. iS,
and might complete or correct their cartoons with charcoal or
shalk. but (or every other style o( work they were bound to apply
to profesftional painters under pain of fine ^
In 1528 the BrusacU ta^uurs and dealers in Upestriet were
required to mark their weavings. and Charles V. ordered all tapestiy
makers in the Low Countries to do the same.' This
Tt^eauy practice was followed in other countries into which
emigrant Flemish or French weavers had carried the
industry, nuking their upestries very often from
copies they took with them of cartoons designed by
noted Italian and Flemish painters. Makers* marks have in so
many cases been cut from tapestries that it becomes practically
impossible to identify the places where they were made, and the
dates of their production can only^ be conjectured from the styles
of designs, supplied for instance by such anists (or their
Arthta followers) as the Van Eycks. Roger van der Weydcn,
wif4t» Mantegna. Leonardo da Vinri, Raphael. Bernard van
(Mey. Lancelot Blondeel and John van der Siraaten or
Stradanus; this last-named was for many years em^
fioyed in connexion with the imporunt " Arrazeria
edici" founded in Florence by Cosmo L.dukeof Tuscany
(15.^7). which lasted until the beginning of the i8th century; Strad-
anus s style of design is similar to that 01 episodes in the story of Dido
and Aeneas shown in fig. 23 from an Oudenarde Upestry of the
early 17th century. Reverting to the 16th century, reference
must be made to Cardinal Wolsey and Henry VI IL. who possessed
enormous ouantities of the best Flemish tanotries of their time and
earlier, and a (air number of them are still preserved at Hampton
Court Palace.' The kin^ had in hb service not only agents especially
in Brussels to buy hangings, but also a considerable suff of " Arras-
makers." In Ireland, the taste for upestry was evidenced by a
manufactory at Kilkenny of "upestry, Turkey carpets and
diapers." founded early in the 16th century at the instance of Piers,
8th earl of Ormond and his ladv. Margaret FitzGerald, and giving
employment to workmen introduced by him from Flanders.* At
a rather later date tapestry works were established by William
Sheldon at Weston and Barcheston in Warwickshire, with a view
to which he previously sent Richard Hickes to the Low Countries
to learn tapestry- weaving. A few Fletnings were probably brought
over by him and set to work at Barcheston and Weston, where he
was appointed " master weaver." In his will (1569) Shekk>n calls
Hickes, somewhat erroneously perhaps, " the only auter and be-
nnner of Upestry and Arras within this realm." His son. Francis
Hickes, was educated at St Mary Hall, Oxford (1579-83). and
about 1640 he caused some Upestry maps to be woven.^ Made
before them are a set of hangings of the " Four Seasons," now
preserved at HatfieUL These are most probably from designs by
Frands Hickes. They were bought by the marquis of Salisbury
very shortly before the first vi«t of Queen Victoria to Hatfield.
The borden of these pieces with small medallions and Latin mottoes
are attractively amusing and interesting. In the lower border
(fig. 21) one may read ^' via. virtutl encyclopedia ; in the
upper border a date. " l6n," occurs in one medallion. In the
I imporunt coat of arms with
B those of Tracey of Toddington
. „ f Shirley of Wiston in Sussex
The designer's inventiveness and (ancy in illustrating attributes, &c. .
of the '^Seasons " are almost exuberant, however restricted and
quaint hb graphic power seems to be.
Philip IL is mentioned as havinjs encouraged a manufacture of
Upestry by Flemings in Madrid in 1^3. In 1539, Francis I.
itarted a royal factory for upestry at Pontainebleau (sec fig. 20),
and employed Primaticcio amonest other artisu to furnish the
necessary designs. Henry 1 1., whikt continuing wor)c at Fonuine-
bleau, caused a second factory to be set going in Paris at the Hdpital
de la Trinity. Henry IV. continued this royal patronage in lavish
fashion and added yet another factory, that in the Faubourg St.
Antoine. which in 1603 was trans(crrcd to workrooms in the Louvre.
As Paris thus came to the fore, so Brussels gradually declined.
Up<m the death of Henry IV. in 1610 Pans upestry-making
MifTered a check, which may perhaps have contributed somewhat
favoumbly to the surt made by James 1. to organize the Mortlake
worksj wfiere several foreign workmen were employed under the
direction of Sir Francis Crane.* Both James 1. pnd Charles I.
up^ boTxler of each hanging is an imporunt coat of arms with
several quartcrings, chief of which are those of Tracey of Toddington
In Gloucestershire impaling those of Shirley of Wiston in Sussex.
^ BulUiin dis commissions royaks d'arl et i'arckiologit, Wauten.
Les tapissiers de hauU et hasst lissc d BnaelUs,
'See list of Upestxy marks, pp. 473-8 1 ta Thomson's History
of Tapestry.
• See Law's Hampton Court Palace, 1885.
*See TrausaaiOHS of tke Kilkenny Archaeological Society, i9S2,
** Ancient Tapestry at Kilkenny Castle." by the Rev. James Graves.
* See " Tapestiy Maps in the Museum at York " (paper read before
Koyal Geographical Sodet\' by Rev. W. K. R. Bedford, printed
10th Dec. 1896. and included in vol. L of the tociety's Transactions
for 1897). also in Bodleian Libraiy.
•A bilf-lensth portrait by Van Pyck of Sir Francis Crane
«alM m tt|)e«ny, and one or two small fine-warp upestry panels
supplied conaderable mou ot owney for the Monlafce vorte, and
tapestries were made there, as fine aa any oomtcmpomiaoQdy
at Paris or Brussels, e.g. those from Raphaiel's cartoons of " the
Acts of the Apostles," ' Rubens's " Story of Achilla.** and por»
traits by yj*n t>yck. After the execution of Charles I.. Moitlahe
declined, and new hfe was infused into the industiy at Paria under
the influence of Colben, to whose Mrong personal interest in the
ans is due the organization in 16(67 of the HAtet des Gobelins onder
the painter Charles le Bnin as the Mammfmeimre iUyale des iieubUs
de M Couromne, which for large ' hangings became the
upestry-weaving centre in Europe. Three years previous!)' Colbert
had initiated a simitar roanufactoffy, chiefly with low-warp frames,
at Bcauvais, which is noted for tola and chair teau and backs,
screens and small panels.
Effoos to establish the industry in Rome were made dcrii^ the
17th century, but it is only since the pontificate of Clement XI.
in 1702 that a papal factory has been successfully conducted and
is still carried on in the Vatican. The manufactory of Snnu
Barbara in Madrid was founded by Philip V. in 1720. and
although it was closed in t8o8 it re-opened in 1815 and i% still
at work.
Tapestry-weaving during the i8th century under private enter*
prise was pursued with success and still continues at Auboaaoo,
Fcllettn; it was carried on for a short time only at
Fulham, Soho, Exeter, and for rather iotm periods at MXftMrf
Lille, Cambrai, Gisocs, Nancy, Naples. Tunn, Venice. Mttcsu*
Seville, Munich. Berlin. Dresden, Heidelberg and St fto*
Petersburg, roainuining, however, no very prukin g ed ripisnj
e»stence at any of these latter places. In more modem ww> * ^ i.
times English upestries woven after 1878 at the Merton
works from designs by William Morris (see fig. 26), as wdl aa by Sir
Edward Bume-Jones* and Mr Walter Crane, have great dia*
tinction in vigorous style reminiscent of* virile medieval work.
In mere technique of wcavii^ with fine warp and w«Ft they arc
outdone by the comparatively effeminate and delicate painting-
like fabrics now made at the Gobelins and Aubusaon.
Towards the end of the 17th century as wiell as early in the i8th
century some upestry-weaving was carried on in Ireland. For
about twenty years at Chapedaod. near Dublin, Upestry frames
were worked by Christopher and John Lovctt. the latter of whoa
had to leave Dublin, bringing with him into England aome thirtyw
eight pieces of Upestry 01 "Their Maiesties Maaufactui^ of
Ireland." In the Bank of Irdand. in College Green, Dublin, ar«
two laige hangings which were executed by Robert Baillie. who
is said to have held the appointment of upholsterer to the Irish
Kovemment in 1716.* One of them reprcsenu the Battle of the
Boyne, the other the " Glorious Defence of Londoodeny " (see
fig. 25). Lough Foyle and the hill surmounted by tlie city of
Londonderry are represented in the landscape: to the left in the
foreground is James 1 1., by whom is the Commander Hamikoo
with his hat off, and near at hand cavalry: on the right are mortara,
cannon and foot soldiers. The border of this tapestry is fantastic
in design and rather in the style of an ovcr-dabomted tkeativ
proscenium, upon which hang medallions oontaining portiaita
of Captain Baker, the Rev. Dr Walker and the captain of the
frigate " Dartmouth," in which the supplies ^were brought to the be-
sieged which led to the relief of the city and the defeat of the io«
vesting army. The designs for these Dublin Upestries are credited
to John Vanbeavcr. a Flemish weaver, who seems to have betm a
moderate draughtsman. They are clearly adaptations of de^gaa
of historical e\-ents, by Le Brun and van der Meulen, from ti^icIi
tapestries were woven xt the Gobelins factory to the order of
Louis XIV. at the end of the 17th century. These Dublin
hangings were woven about 17^ and Baillie was commissioned
to make four others representing the landii^ of the prince of
Orange, his army at Carrickfergus. the Battle of Aughrim,
and the Uking ci Cork and Kinsale by Marlborough.** These,
however, were not completed, and Baillie was paid £200 aa
compensation.
Tapestiy-weaving as a possible cottage or home industry is
^actiscd in a few places In Ireland and England. In the Far East,
China and Japan, the art, adopted presumably from western Asia,
is sometimes resorted to in making silken robes and intricately
figured hangings. The Japanese call their tapestry-weaving Isu-
of the Virgin Maiy and Jesus Christ, hang at Lord Petre's, Thomdon
Hall, Brentwood. Ancestors of the late Lady Petre were related
to the Crane family, as well as to the Markham family with which
Edward Sbddon by his marriase early in the 17th centu^ became
connected. The Sheldon and Markham arms occur in tae hnvder
of one of the map tapestries in the Bodleian Ubrary.
' The original cartoons, the property of the Crown, are exhibited
in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
' A very fine set of Merton upestries made from Bume-Joiies*s
designs are in the Munkipal Museum at Birmiogham.
* References to his employment in making tapestries occur in
the Journal oC the Irish House of Lords.
*See Gilbert's History of Dublin, vol. iii. p. 79.
TAPEWORMS
407
Floe iiiiifci of Mily and ktcr Emepmn tt p mri ei art to be
Men in the catlMdnIs of Reims, Bniget, Toamai, Aasera, Beauvaia,
Aiz. Sen*, in the Victoria and Albert Muteum, London,
IMbm Wtndaor Cattle, Hampton Court, ScMary'sHail Coventry.
•r*w«Aw the Loavic and Cluny Moteuma in raria, at ChantiUy,
ChaftreSf Amiena, Dijon, Orleana, Auxerre, Nancy, Bern,
* Basel, M • • ~ " *^ *
Munich, Berlin, Dresden, Vienna and
Nurembeiig^. In Italy the laiiest coUectiona (mostly at
16th «nd 17th Gcnttny wtnk) are those of the Vaticaa
at Rome, and the fleaU Calkna detk Aramu at Florence. Many fine
pieces are in the royal dalace at Turin, the PatoMU id Tdat Mantua,
thfir royal palace at Mihw, in the cathedml of Com ■ ""^ a
at Naples. The collection at the palace of Ma b
largest in Europe, and comprises more than one 1 1,
the okkr of which, of splendid Flemish dcsisn
tonged to Ferdinand and Isabella. Philippe le Be r
Charles V^ The principal cathedrals of Spaii
portant tapestries; those preserved at the ca 9
are more than enough to supply hangings for the e
of that building on the feast of Corpus Christl t
European continent, in the United Sutes'of Arm t
Britain almost uncountable taptetries are displ 1
mansions, castles, thdteawe and paUum^ belonc ^ .. ^,_ . _. J
wealthy families. A lar^ie number of books have been written
and published on the subject generally, asid many of them, contain-
mg good illustrations, are of recent date.
BjBUOcaArHY.— The following works may be' mentioned as
likdy to prove useful for investiga^ng the hiktory and character
of Ecypto- Roman and Coptic textues: — J. Kaiabacek, IHe fheadcr
Crt^uhen FihuU in AetypUn (" DU Ttxt%lten4kab9rStnie "). 8vo.
Vienna. 1883; Alan S. Cole. Catalont* of a CoOeckcn cf Tapestry
Woven and Embroidered "---'-•-''-*•
Museum, London,
Cantor Lectures, London, — ,, „., .._ .^^^
futtd* tm K, K. Oslerreuh, Museum, 13 'pboto-iiUiographs, 4to,
Vienna. 1889; E. Gerspach, Les tapissenes eopUs, 1^3 (some
coloured) illostrations, 4to, Paris. 1800; R. Forrcr, Mein Besuch
i» El'Achmim, 1 phototype and 36 process Ulustrationi, 8vo,
Strassburg. 1805: RdmiseMe und Bytanttnischa Setdok-Texttlun aus
dem GrdSerfelde vom Achmim-Panopolis, 2% p|)., 17 (15 coloured)
pLites. and illustrations in the text, 4t0b Strassbuts. 1891;
Uladimar Bock, Coplu Art; Coptic Fiptred TextOes (in Russian),
32 pp.. 6 phototype plates, dto. Moscow, 1897; W. Lowrie, Cimsitan
Art and Arekaeoloty (pp. 362-83, " Textile Art **). process illustra-
f ions. 8vo, New York and London, 1901 ; A. Gayet. L'aH copis (pp.
317-37. " Les Itssus "), process illustrations, 8va Paris, 1903.
In respect of medieval and later tapestries the ti * ' be
fsllowii^ worlcs are quoted: — ^Jubinal, Anaennss tapisi is.
1838-19. Ronchaud. La tapisterie dans Fantiqmtii los
d'Anthini^ Paris. 1884; MQnta, La tapisserte, Paris, 181 lu.
Les mUters ei corporations de la vtUe de Parts au xiit* . is.
1S79. Barbier de Montault. Tapissenes du sacre d'At is.
1863. De Fairy on the same subject, 1875: Barraud, la
calk de Beauvats, Beauvais, 1833: Pinchart. Roger van 'en
et les taptssertes de Berne, Bnisseb, 1864; Loriquet la
eaikUrale de Reims, Reims. 1882; Guiffrey. Pinchart 1 u.
idered Egypftan Textiles in Ae South Kenstngon
1887; "^Egyptian Tapestry,*' Society of Arts,
London, 1889; A. Riegl, Dte dgypttscken Texttl-
et les taptssertes de Berne,
• de Reims, Reims. ite2; UuiRrey,
Htstotre gjtnhale de la tapisserte^ 1878: MOntz. Les .
Uptsseries de Nancy, 1883. Vdsin, Tap. de la eath,
Toumai, 1863; Van Drival, JTop. d' Arras, Anas, 1 se.
Tap. du chAteau de Pau, ParFH 1881 ; De la Fons-MeJ lO-
luseurs des xt»^ au x»i^ si>cUs, Paris, 1870; Notice i \p.
de BeaueaiSt Clerroont, 1842; Deville. StattUs, etc., relati_ rp,
des tap. de 1258 d 127^, Paris, 1875; Dared. Les mauufaetures
naiumales de tapisserte aes Gobelins de Pans, 1885; van de .Graft.
De Taptjt-Fabneken der xvi. en xvit. Eetao, Middclburg. I809: De
Monuuft. Tat. de haute lisse d Rome, Arras, 1879: Conti, L'arte
def^ araui m Ftrenu, Fkwence, 1875: Camport, L'arataer^
Esteuse, Modena, 1876; BraghiroHL ilrosss m Mantata, Mantua,
1879: Farabulini. L'arte degli araxxt, Rome. 1884; Gcntili, L'art
des lapis^ Rome, 1878; Mama, Tap Italiennes, Paris, 1880.
Donc^aray, Museo EsbaHol de Anltguidades (Flemish Tapestry.
voL vii p. 47), Madrid. 1871-76. Dared and Guichaxd. Les tap.
dieoralttes, Paris, 1877; Lacordaire. Nottu sue Fonjtne des tapts-
sertes des Gobelins, ifc, Psris, 18^5. Goillaumot. Matu^aeiurt . . .
des CoheUns, Riris. 1800; Rahlenbeck, Les Taptssertes des Rots de
Na»arrt (in Messager dis Sciences HtsUmquet, Gand, 1868); Pera-
tlKm. Tap d^Aubussou, de Fellettn, et de BeUegarde, Pans. 1857;
Roy-Pierrefitte. Les tap de Felletin, Limoges, i8m. Dnrieux.
Tap de Cdmbrat. Cambrai, 1879. About and Bauer. Tap aprls Us
cartons de Raphael, Paris. 1875. Houdoy. Tap de la fabric<Uton
LSloise, Une. 1871; Vergnaud-Romagnesi. Tap au Mttste
d'OrUans, Orleans. i8m. De St Genois. Tap d'Oudenarde. Pkm.
de la tapissene. Tours, 1886. Pine. Tapestry
Vallance Aymer, The An of
.. , . . G Thomson. A History of
Tapestry from the earliest times until the present day. London. 19061
<A S C )
t^urmsns, uneans. 10^, vt m uenc
I 86a: GuiflTrey. HiU. ae la tapissene,
of the Bouse of Lords. London. 1730.
Waiiam Moms (see pp. 83-92). W
' See Report of Settor I F RuOo to the Dieetiee of the South
Kassiuifon Museum, i67S>
TAPEWOnm. Tbe Cestodes or Tapeworms form a daas
of purely endoparasitic Platyelmia, characterized by their
elongate shape, aegmef^ted bodies, and the absence of a tUgestive
system. With few eiceptions they are composed (i) of a
minute organ of fixation (the scolex), which marks the proximal
attached end of the body; (2) of a narrow neck from which
(3) a number of segments varying from three to several thousands
an budded off distally. These segments, or " pcogtottides,"
become detached in groups, and if kept moist retain their powers
of movement and vitality for a considerable time. This fact
gave rise in ancient times to the false idea that the tapeworm
originated from tbo union of these segments, and in modem
times it' has led to the view that the tapeworm is not a seg-
mented organism (the monozoic view), but is a colony composed
of the scolex which arises from the embryo and of tbe pro-
glottides^ vbidi are aseznally prdduoed buds that, upon or
before attainmg their full size and maturity, bctome separated,
grow, and, In some cases, Uve freely for a time, just as the
segments of a strobilatlng jeHy-fisb grow, separate and become
sexual individuals (the polyzoic view). Whether thia view is
soundly based is discussed below; the fact remains, however,
that « tapeworm is, with iew and rare exceptions, not directly
comparable at all points with a liver-fluke or indeed with any
other organism. The influence of parasitism has so profoundly
influenced iu structure that its affinities are obscured by the
development of specialized and adaptive features.
In contrast to these segmented or " merozoic " Cestodes, a
few primitive forms have preserved a unisegmental character
and form the Monozoa or Cestodaria. We may therefore
divide Cestodes into the Monozoa and the Merozoa.
Order I.— MoNoroA
This order comprises a few heterogeneous forms which probably
cdnstitute at least three families.
^ Family 1 Amphtlinidae.—OvsA or leaf -shaped animals found
in the sturgeon and
certain other fish.
Amphiltna foliacea
(fig. l) is in many
ways closely allied to
the Trematoda, from
which, however, it is
distinguished by the
want of a digestive
system. One end of
the body (usually
dengnatcd anterior)
is provided uith a
dandular pit (fig. i.
fia) which IS regarded
as a sucker or as re- |
lated^ to the uterine
opening (birth-pore), j
The excretory system
consistt of pKuliar
oeUa, eadi of whkh /
bean sevcfal"flames"
or bunches of syn-
dironoiKly va>raung
cilia. These cdls are /
imbedded in the peri-
pheral parenchyma, i
and lead mto convo-
luted eicretory tulxa
that form an anasto-
opening to Che
o5«J«[^y * po«5 ■{ Fio. I.— A, reproductive system of Amphiliua
the hinder end ol foliacea: a, glandular pit; *, opening of
the body. The cpi- „t«rus ; V. uterus (Mack) ; e, yolk-gland and
*^r ^Sff^^Li *^ **"^* '• •• ovary ; t, e', opening and duct of
pyniarinceas, wtncfa vagina; /, spermotheca; g, male eenital
send nchly brajKhed opening (gonopore); A,pefils;f.vasdcferens{
pnxnseatothesiiper- j, testes; *. shdl-gland. B, Amphtptyehes
ficialrtiticle. Tbepa^ {CyrocotyU) unto. Outline of the ventral
'^■yy* 'V^J!?*t ■urface to show the external apertuit» and
^^.i— ^*^ui u nervous system ; a, rosette-ofgan ; b, uterine
process» of which p©,^; g^ terminal sucker; r, vaginal pore:
°*?*'^"'" ''' " ^ ttJ"^ gonopore; n, 0, p, nervous system.
reprodu ctive^ organs (From Lankcster's Treatise on Zoology,
tpMot 01 the parts part rr )
shown in fig t. A,
•adit Witt U ssBo that, te additaoa to the opesiats «( thr maip
+o8
TAPEWORMS
and of the female (vaginal) ducts, there u a distinct uterine opening
at the opposite end of the body (b). Moreover, in AmphUina
ligtdouiea a founh dua (the anterior vagina) beeins close to the
ongin of the female duct, and after running forward a short
distance ends blindly (see fig. 7, C). The egs gives rise to an oval
larva, one half of which is ciliated and bears gknd-cells, the opposite
end carrying ten hooks. The fate of the larva is unknown.
Family il. Cyrocoty4idae. — Leaf -shaped animals with crenate
margins. ()ne extremity carries a pedunculate rosette-organ. It
is travMved by a canal from which a peculiar probosda-like structure
can be cxserted. The opposite end is oointed and provided with
a terminal sucker. Amphiptyches {^CyrocotyU) uma (fig. I, B)
is found in the intestine of^ Ckimaera and Calhrhynckus, and has
been almost fully described bv Spencer (7). The embryo is pro-
vided with ten hooks, and appears to select Lamellibcanchs
(JdacUa) for its intermediate host.
Family III. CaryophylUutdae. — Elongated cylindrical animals
either with a single subterrainal sucker at the proximal end, or
with the corresponding end of the body converted into a mobile
mdulatory fold. CaryophyUaeus mutabilis occurs in the roach
and other fresh-water hsh, and passes its earlier stages of develop-
ment in fresh-water Oltgochaets {Tubifex). Archies appendi-
cutatus lives throughout life in the coelom of Twnjex and of
Lirnnodrilus.
Arthtgdes and CaryephyOaeus are the only Cestodes that become
fully diSerentiated in an invertebrate host. The former indeed
FlC. 2.— Various Forms of Tapeworms. A, Ttunia echiiucoccus;
(from Leuckan). B. ArckigeUt sieboUi; (from Leuckart). C,
EdiinoboArium typus; (from Van Bcnedcn). D, CaryophyUaeus
mutabilu; X about 5 (from Carus).
ts said to produce fully developed gonads, and if kept in aquaria
with Tmbifex, the number of infected worms steadily increases,
a fact pointing to the whole cvde being passed through, without
the intermediation of a vertebrate host. Conclusive evidence,
however, has not yet been adduced to prove this point. The two
genera agree closely in form and structure and may possibly bekmg
to the cycle of the same or of allied species. Arckit^s (j mm.
long) consists of a subcylindrical body and a caudal appendage.
The former bears two terminal suckers on the flattened doraal
and ventral surfaces, the latter six hooks near the tip of the tail
The finer structure of the animal has been investigated by Mnuek
(10). whose account, however, is published in the Hungarian Ian-
rige. It shows a close agreement with that of Caryopk^^oeus.
well-developed cellular parenchyma forms a matrix in which
the muscular, excretory and generative organs are imbedded.
The nervous system consists of a ring bek>w the suckers and of a
birge number of radially arranged tracts running forwards and
backwards. Caryopkyliaius is an ek>ngatcd. flattened worm pro-
vided with one extremely mobile extremity, the other being drawn
out dunng the animal's sojourn in Tubtfnc into a short hexacanth
tail. It becomes fullv developed in its invertebrate host, but ap-
parently cannot produce eggs until transferred into the intestine
o( a fish.
Order II.— Merozoa
The Merozoa. to which the ordinary tapeworms^ of man and
domestic ani ' ' . . ^ «
They occur
ic animals bek)ng. includes ih** great majority of the Cestodes.
in vertebrate animals throughout the gk>be, though
varyiiig m abundance ui dinefent distncts and at diBf imt times.
With tew exceptions upeworms select the small intestine for their
sutwn, and in this situation execute active movements of ex-
tension and contraction. The body, or " atrobUa," consists of a
usually minute organ of attachment (scolex or hs representative)
which is imbedded in the intestinal membrane, and of a aeries of
segmenu that arise from the base of the acolex and increase ia
aixe distally. In one family {LigfUidae) the segmentatioa is only
expressed m the metameric distributkm of the generative organs
and the worn b externally unisegmental. In (ne remainder the
segmentatk>n involves primarily the genitalia and includes the
integument, muscles and port of the excretory Mtcm. The
nervous system is. however, not se gm e nt e d , and the excretory
system is continuous throughout the worm.
Scolex.—Tht scolex a btradially constructed, the proglottides
flattened, quadrangular and bilaterally symmetrical. In them a
ventral surface containing the usually median male and female
genital apenures is generally distinguishaUe from the smooth
Fic. 3.— Anatomy of Taenia (from Leuckart). A. portions of Taema
sagifuUa. B. head of the same. C. head of T. «afiaiM, show-
ing the crown of hooks. D. a segment of T. MxtsM/a,
showing the generative organs: »., nervous system: ex., longi-
tudinal excretory tubes: <r., transverse vessel: f/.* genital
papilla: d., cloaca; c.^., cirrus pouch; 9jd., vas deferens; IX.
testes: v., vagina: ev. ov., ovaries: iA.g., shell gland;. y.i„
yoHc gbnd: r.r.« receptaculum scminis: «/.. uterua. £., the
connections of the gtmcrative organs, lettering as above: o.d.,
o.d., oviducts: /.. fertilizing canaL F, detached segment of
T. sagtitata, showing ripe uterus. C, sui-hookcd embryo,
highly magnified.
dorsal surface, but in those Cestodes which possess marginal gono-
pores this distinction of surface is obscured. In such cases the
male organs are regarded as indicating the dorsal surface, the
female organs as belonging to the ventral surface.
The scolex is usually a conical muacubir structure. It bears
adhesive organs that are either suckers or hooks, and may develop
into the most varied outgrowths in order to nve increased firmness
of attachment to its host. Thus, starting from the two shallow
Eits, one dorsal and the other central, in the simplest forms, we
nd them becoming two elongated suckers (ImtMria) in the large
family Botkriocepkaltdae (fig. 8); and by fusioa of tha hpa tb«y
TAPEWORMS
409
ut tramferTed Into two tubet (SeUnophoridoe); and by the clomut
ol the lower aperture reconstituted into two suckers, the maivins
ol whkh arcjproduced and folded so as to resemble the leaf-Uke
outgzx>wths of the next group. In this division (Tetraphyllidea)
four suckers or bothria are developed on the scolex, but their cavities
are extremely shallow and their lips extremely mobile and variable
in shape;. Hence they are called phylhdia (fig. 4). These organs
may be raised on a short stalk.
their cavity subdivided into locuii,
and provided in some cases with
hooks. A peculiar modification
>of this type of acolex occurs in the
Eckinobclnridae, in which the axial
part of the organ (the rostellum)
IS elongated and provided with
several rows of hooks, whilst the
phyllidia have partially fused.
This elaborate type of scolex
appears to be an adaptation to
grasp the spiral intestinal valve of
sharlcs and rays. But perhaps the
most elaborate acolex is that of
the Tetrarhyncha (fig. 5). which
p _ e 1 « /* I ^. 1 are also parasitic in Selachians.
'^'SL.>~^*^^r°' Gi^y/^6^ The four Juckers are here united
ll^um rtggitiTom the Tor- ^ form two pairs or fused into
oedo. nwgnified to show the ^ «igle pair. Internal to the
i?i!''i. kP^^""*'^i-^*^^5p ^f suckeS are the four complex
which has a sucker. (From hooked proboscidcs. Each con-
Braun. m Bronn s Klasunu. gigj, ^f ^n eversible hollow tentacle
^««|«n d.Thtrrreuhs by provided with booklets and capable
«rmis5ion of C.S. Winter sche & introvefslon within a Stm-
Veriagshandlung). branous sheath filled with fluid.
The sheath terminates in an elongated muscular bulb. The muscles
are arranged in ten or more layers, and are transversely striated.
These complex organs have apparently arisen Ly the increase in
depth and differentiation of an accessory sucker such as is borne
on the phyllidia of the former group. Lastly, the scolex of the
more familiar Taeniidae (Tetracotytea) cames a rostellum en-
circled with hooks and four cup-shaped suckers the margins of
which do not project beyond the surface of the body. It seems
probable that these suckers are not the true " bothria " but are
developed from accessory stickers, the bases of which have dis-
appearecf almost completely. In one genus (Poiypocephalus) the
j^ace of a rostellum is uken by a crown of retractile tentacles.
This order is ahnost exdusivdy parasitkr in warm-blooded animals.
The extraordinary variety of form and complication of structure
exhibited by the appendages of the scolex are adaptations to fix
FiC. K.-^Tetrarhynekus. A, genera! view of the worm. B. bead
showing the suckers, proboscidcs and excretory canals. C,
portion of a proboscis showing the two forms of hooks:
highly magnified. (All from Pintner.)
the wonn and to resist the peristaltic action of the intestine in
which it livesb and are Aot connected directly with the ab«irption
of food.
PrstfcUides.^Thit tegmenta into which the body is divided
wry coraiderably in number, siae and fonn. Taenia eckinocficems
haa only three^ EchinoboUinum four, Bothriccephalus three thousand.
In every species the segments develop from the scolex distally and
increaie in siae with the maturation of the contained female genital
Offgvifr When this is reached, growth of the proglottides ceases.
Aa a snfFal rule the ripe proglottides are detached ra chains and
re^laoed by others which m their turn become detached, the process
baog repeated for a year or to until the worn wctkeiu and is cast
ont. In special caaea.
, . hovew, A jpnglottia may be detached
before attaining full growth, and with its generative orgam in ao
imperfectly developed condiHon. The minute Taema {Dopaimea)
profioUina (-5 to 1 mm. in length) from the common fowl detaches
lU tour or five segments into the intestine, where they attain a
length of a mm., and a breadth of i'35; that is, more than twkre
the size of the parent. The (Zntodes of Elasmobraneh fish (Mffer
more convincing examples of independent growth of the pro-
glottides, for these are often set free^ with only the male oigant
devel(^)ed. and each attains twice the siae of the parental strobila.
The form of the proglottides is most geneiaUy a rhombic or
trapezoidal figure. The hinder border is often drawn out into
mobile processes and hollowed out around the inaertioa of the next
Fig. 6.— Diagram of a transverse section through the body-wall of
a young Ligula, illustradng the microscopic structure of tape*
worms, a. cuticle; 6, basal membrane; c, outer circular
muscles; d, epidermal cells depressed below the surjface usually
occupied by them in other animals; e, gland cell; /, ** flame-
cell (the reference line stops a little short); %, outer longitu-
dinal muscles; A, a cakareous corpuscle; t, dorso* ventral
muscles: J, a " parenchyma " cell (probably nervous); k, nerve-
plexus; /. excretory vessel giving on capillaries ending in flame-
cells; m, a sense-cell; », a muscle-cell; 0. ending of the same:
P, ending of sense-cell; q, opening of gland-cell: r, superficial
ctitkle. (From Lankester's Treatue on Zoaloiy, part iv.)
segment. At this neck-like lone the muscles are abaent, and acroaa
it falls the Una of frKture when the proglottis sepaiatea f roa its
fellows.
StntctMn.-~'The anatomy of the Cestoda differs In only two or
three important features from that of Trematodea. In both c'
the bodv b encased by a tluck non-ceflular cutkde. the deepest layer
of which— the subcuticle or basal membrane (fig. 6 «)— ^s per f orated
by the branched free ends of the isolated epidermal cells, wbicb hava
sunk into the body, and by the endings of giaiid<ells and nflrv»'
cells (fig. 6). The mass of the body consists of ricMy branched
stellate ceil»-the meeenchyma— and imbedded in this .
tissua axe the aeiVDiM, excretory, muaeiilar and ftoeiativa i
4IO
TAPEWORMS
The excretory orrans tionsist of flaine<ell9. richly convoluted canaTi-
cuU, and a pair'oi longitudinal canals leading to the exterior by one
or more pores. The muscles are composed of outer circular and
inner longitudinal layers, and of branched dorso-ventral fibres.
The jKneraCive organs are of the complex hermaphroditic type
described in Trematoda iq^v.). In these broad anatomical features
both classes agree. But whilst in Trematoda a digestive sac is
invariably present except in the sporocyst larval stage, the Cestbdes
possess no trace of this orran at any stage of their development.
They obtain food entirely by osmosis through the striated cuticle,
and this food consists not of blood, as in flukes, but of chyle, by
which they are bathed in their favourite site, the small intestine
The second point of difference between tapeworms and Tre*
matodes lies in the absence of a definitely demonstrable " brain."
The concentration of nervous matter and ganglionic substance at
the oral end of Trematodes is equivalent to the " brain " of the
Planarians, but the similar thickening in the scolex of Cestodes is
by no means so certainly to be called by that' name. It appears to
be primarily related to the organs of attachment and to have attained
greater elaboration than the rest of the nervous system because
the proximal end is the most specialized and most stim.ulated
portion of the worm. Those Cestodes which possess no very distinct
organ of attachment (such, for example, as CyrocotyU) have no
distinct ganglionic thickening more pronounced at one end of the
body than at the other; and as these are forms which have retained
more primitive features than the rest, and show closer affinity to
the Trematodes, it seems highly probable that the complicated
nervous thickening found in the scolex, and often compared* with
the " brain " of other Platyelmia, is a structure sui generis developed
within the limits of the sub-class. In the opinion of several zoologists
it marks the tail-end and not the head-end of the worm.
The third important contrast in structural features has also
been acquired by the Cestoda Merozoa. namely, the repetition of
certain organs in a metameric fashion. The Monocoa are unseg-
roented ; the Ligulid<t . ha\'e segmented gonads and gonoporcs
without any trace of somatic metamerization except secondary
excretory pores in addition to the usual terminal one: the remain-
ing Cestodes are uniscgmental only in their larval stage, and all of
them show in their later staees repetition of the reproductive organs
and of the musculature. In addition, some show duplication of
the gonads and of their ducts, so that we find both transverse and
longitudinal repetition of these or|;ans, without corresponding
multiplication of the nervous ganglia roesench'yma, or excretory
opening.
The last structural peculiarity of the ^roup is the absence of the
functions of regulation and reparation which are so highly developed
in the more pnmitive Pbnarians. This statement is quite consistent
with the continuou3 production of new segments at the neck of the
scolex, for such a process is analogous to the devdopment of the
segments in a Chactopod. which is a perfectly distinct phenomenon
from the regeneration oC new s^ments to supply the place of a
head or tail-end or some other portion that has been lesioned. The
replacement o( detached mature proglottides at the distal end of
the Cestode-body by others b not regeneration, for ,the replacing
6ct has already developed, and in certain cases they can complete
their development quite independently after being detached from
the parent. More convincing evidence of the absence of true
regeneration, however, is the argument from malformation and the
phenomenon known as " pscudo-scolex. " It has long been known
that proglottides of the same species often exhibit sporadic mal-
formation from the normal shape, and the evidence goes to show
that the variation was due to arrested growth or some unusual
stress or pressure which, acting upon the young strobila, produced
a deformation, and that the proglottides so affected could not regain
their normal form. The power of reparation, so conspicuous a
feature of Turbellarians. is slight or absent in Cestodes. Moreover,
injury to the scolex. or amputation of that organ, reveals the con-
comitant absence of a regulative mechanism such as that which
generally controls the form and fitness of regenerated organs. In
such an event, a Cestode cannot replace the injured or severed
portion. The first two or three proglottides merely become deformed
and produce an appearance knowti as the pseudo-scplex. The
absence of these functions of regeneration and of regulation affords,
therefore, corroborative evidence of the highly specialized nature
of the Cestode organization.
Reproductio*. — The reproductive organs are usually repeated in
each proglottis, and in some families two complete sets of such
organs occur in each sennent; in a few cases, parts only of the
■ystam are duplicated. The struct ore of these organs is seen in
figs. 3, 6 and 7, and. as we have said, agrees closely with that of
Trenatodes. The cUef difference between the reproductive organs
of tlib two classes » tte presence in Cestodes of a separate vagina
and uterus, eac'a cf wMc^ opens in some families to the exterior
by an independent pore. . The vagina of Cestodes is tmdoubtedly
cofapaiabk wtlh the ao-caUed " utehis " of Trematodes, but the
nature o(the€aMod%itteiMpkiaiiDt 19 clear. Ithasbtenctmipared
«ith llilf (i<*lfjjllgl|irf ftninnWlIra (the vitdlo-intestinal duct
of thtL^M^nBUMnBlMUi- tate^^he more prinitive
lOMWMCfatbn we £od that
they posaess. in addition to the uterus, an anterior vagina (usvaSjr
present in Cestodes) and a posterior one. This last tube is probably
the homologue of Laurer's canal ((^to, 8). The single anterior
vagina is then comparable with the similariy named duct of ecto-
parasitic Trematodes. in which group it is either single or double.
The accompanying figure will assist this description.
Z.i/r-Aw/on**.— The life-history of Cestodes consists of larval and
adult stages, which are usually passed through in different hosts.
The egg gives rise in the uterus to a six*h«>ked embryo, which
reaches the first host in a variety of ways. It may hatch out as a
ciliated organism (fig. 8, D) capable of hving freely in water for at
least a week {Botknocephalus), which then, iieaten by a stickleback,
throws off its ciliated envelope, and creeps by the aid of the hooks
through the intestinal wall into the body<avity of the fish. Here
it develo{>s into a lar\'al, or rather an adolescent form. In Other
cases the infection of the first host is brought about by the ingestaon
A —• ^
J. ?J^4 v.v^^^.v;>. . .uj^j. A. , ,j^Aj^. >^j,j„ ,, ,^
Fig. 7. — Diagrammatic projections to exhibit the relatiotn of the
female genital ducts in Trematodes with those in Cestodes. A, in
endoparasitic Trematodes (Malacotylea). B, in ectoparasitic
Tiematodes (Heterocotylea). C, in Cestoda. CThe ovary (a)
kads into (M) the oviduct, which is joined at (g) by the duct of
the yolk-glands (A, A, Y). In B it is also joined by a paired
vagina A, ik, and by the " vitello-intestinal duct " (Laurer's
canal, /). In the Cestodes the vagina is present ( V) ; the canal
of Laurer (LQ is now vestigial (present in Cary^kyUapu m
the posterior vagina). The uterus {X in figure C) begins in
all cases at the shell gland (c, d) and may exhibit. a swelling
(R S) for the retention of the spermatozoa, n are sections oi
the intestine. (A and B from Lankester's Treatiu on Zoology,
part iv., C original.)
of proglottides or of eggs which aia disseminated along with the
faeces of the final host and subsequently eaten by herbivorous
or omnivorous mammals, insects, worms, molluscs or fieh. Man
himself, as well as other mammals, is the intermediate host of the
dangerous parasite. Taenia echinococcus, in countries where cleanli-
ness is neglected; the pig is the host of Taenia solium, and other
cases may be seen from the table at the end of this article. The
transition of the larva from the intermediate to the final host it
accomplished by the habits of carnivorous animals. The Elasmo-
branchs swalkm infected molluscs or fish; pike and trout devour
■mailer fry; birds pick up sticklebacks, insects and worms which
contain Cestode larvae; and man lays himself open to infection by
eating the uncooked or partially prepared flesh of many animals.
The peculiar feature of the larval history of Ostodes is the de>
velopment In most cases of a cyst or hydatid on the inner wait of
which the scolex is formed by invagination. The cyst is filled with
a toxic fluid and may bud off new or daughter scolkes. In this
way bUddenaslaiigeasaaocangeaodconuinittgcecondafybladdeca,
TAPEWORMS
411
mA 1HH1 a tooles, nsy viae ffom » tfogle embryo. We have,
m fact, a fonn of larval multiplication that recalls the development
of digcBetic Trematodes.
The eggs of Ceetodes Consist of oval or spherical shdls dJ, in.
D
Fig. 8. — Bothriocepkaltdae. A, a segment of Bothriocephalus lotus,
showing the generative organs from the ventral surface; sac.,
excretory vessels; e.. cirrus; c.p.^ cirrus pouch; s.<f., vas
deferens; v.o., vaginal opening; t., vagina; M.g., shell-gland;
atf., oviduct; ov., ovary; y.g., yolk-gland; yJ., its duct; «<.,
uterus; •.«.. uterine opening; the testes are not visible from
this side; (from Sommer and Ltfndots). B, C; marginal and
lateral views of the anterior part of B. cordatw, showing the
bothria; (from Lcuckart). D, ciliated embryo of B. lotus;
(from i^eudcart).
diameter), containing a fertilized ovum sorrounded usually by
many yolk-cells. The shell is thick, and operculate ia some forms;
thin, and provided with filaments^ in others: in the latter cases it
Buy cootam only a few yolk-granules suspended in an albumen-like
substance. The development of the six-booked embryo or " oncho-
Fic. 9. — Development of TattUa (from Leuckart). A, Cystkereus
bonis in beef; nat. size. B. invaeinated head of a CyUicercus
before the formation of the suckers. C. Invaginated head
of CyUicercus cellulosae, showing the bent neck and recep-
tacle r. D, stages in the development of the brood-
capsules in Bckinococcusi a, the thickening of the parenchyma
of the bladder; b, subsequent formation of a cavity in it;
t, devek>pment of the suckers; i, a capsule with one head
inverted into its cavity; e, a capsule with two heads.
sphere " takes place in the uterus. The ovum fint divides into
{a) a granular cell, and (6) a cell full of refringent nberules. The
former divides into (c) small cells or micromere% and {d) Urge cells
or megameres. {c) forms the body of the embryo, (b) ond (rf)
enclose it and form a covering. The embryo undergoes diffeien-
tiatioa into an outer layer of cells that produce a chitinoid coat.
a rokldle.ltver «f cells, and a central spherfcaf hestacantli body
closely enveloped by tbie mkldle ooat. In a few^ genera the plaoe
of the chitinoid coat b taken by a ciliary investment and in most
families the structure of the layen is characteristic
Arrived in the intestine of the intermediate host, the hooked
embryo is set free and works its way to some distant site. Here
it undergoes a change into a cystic or '* metacestode " state. A
cavity appears in its centre and it acquires a pyriform shape. The
thicker portion develops a terminal muscular rostellum and two or
four sucken, the thinner end (** tail ") is vesicular, more or less
elongated, and contains the six embryonic hopks. By a process of
infolding, the thicker end is partially invaginated. the midoie portion
or " hind-body " and the organism may now present a superficial
likeness to a cercaria. An excretory system develops, opening at
Fic. la— The development of a Cestode from a cysticercus (bladder-
worm or hydatid). A, the six-hooked embryo. B, portion of
the bladder (hind-body and tail), showing the invaginated por-
tion (scolex) and traces of the excretory system. C, further
stage in the devetopment of the Kolex. D. the entire bladder-
worm with scolex everted (drawn from Cystkereus Mformis,
common in the rabbit): a, scolex; 6, fore-body: c, nind-bodv
and tail. E, F. result of digestion of cysticercus in the stomach
of the dog. G shows formation of proglottides. (From Lan-
kester's Treatist on Zootomy, part iv.)
the base of the tail; nervous and muscular syAems arise: and
finally the rostellum and sucken become completely enclosed in the
sac formed by the lateral extension of the hind-body." When
swallowed by the final host such a " eysticercoid " larva evaginates
its Kolex, throws off its hooked vesicular tail, and begins to bud off
proglottides at its free end (fig. 10).
Such b the general history of Cestodes whose intermedbte host
is an Invertebrate. In roost other cases the tail is not distinguish-
able, and the body of the larva is separable only into a scolex in-
vaginated with a bladder (-> hind-body and tail). This form of
larva is known as a cysticercus. In some genera a " urocyst " is
formed, the tail of which gives rise to a new cyst and a fresh scolex.
The most remarkable feature of thb cystic development b the
formation in many genera of several internal buds withm a common
cvst, tach of whicn lorms an independent inverted scolex {Coenurus,
412
TAPEWORMS
^«hv«reiu): or these mtcrnal vedcles m*y bod off ft Urse number of
■cofices on cbeic exteriul surface (Slapkylocyslis).
^ Morpkoloty 9f liu Cestodes.^Witn regard to the vexed ques*
tions of the morphological nature and c( the affinities of the
Cestodes, divergent views are still held. One view, the monoaoic.
regards the whole development as a prolonged metamorphosis:
another, the polyzoic view, considers that not only is the Cestode
ft colony, the proglottides bein^ jxoduced asexualiy, but that the
scolex which buds off these individuals is itself a bud produced by
the spherical embryo or onchosphere. On this view, therefore, at
lean two asexual generations (embryo and scolex) alternate with
ft sexual one (pro^ottides) ; and in the case of ^phylccysHs the
cyst contains two asexualiy produced generations, so that in such
forms three stages (embryo, primary scolex-buds, secondary scolices)
intervene between the proj^ottis of a Cestode and that of its off-
q>ring. The polyzoic view is aWy championed by Braun (2) and (3).
The more valuable point of view is undoubtedly the monozoic
one In accordance with this we can regard the development as
an adaptive one and the scolex as invaginated for protective
FlO. II. — A, a Coenurus from the brain of the sheep; the numerous
scolices arise by invaginations of the bladder. 0, Echinococcus,
showing at a and h tne formation of secondary bladders, which
at e are forming scolices. At m the ideal mode of origin is
shown in order to illustrate the fact that the daughter cyst is
comparable to the fore-body of a cysticercua. (From Lankester's
Treatise on Zoology, part tv.)
bo
ih.
with diffuse oamotic feeding in the oftrrofv inteatinftl califtL TItt
origin of the repetition of the gonads has yet to be investigated.
The EffecU of Cestodes on their Hosts (Shipley and FeamsSdea U).)--
u By their presence. This depends largdy on the sution a«lopted
by the parasite. Cysticercus ceUulosae may be comparatively
innocuous in a muscle or subcutaneous tissue, but most hurtful
in the eye or brain. Of all parasites the one which by its mere
presence is the most dangerous is the larva of Taenia ecmsuKouus.
lu bulk alone (equal to that of an orange) causes serious disturb-
ances, and its chokre of the liver, kidneys, lungs, cranial cavity
and other deep-seated recesses, gives rise to profound alterations.
2. By their wtigrations, "tne miction of the Cestode-larvae
through the walls of the intestine into the blood of their host is
the cause of crave disturbances, due largely to the perforation of
the tissues, inflammation of the vessels and peritoneum, and other
effects of these immigrantSb
3. By Jeedint in their hosL The loss of nutrient fluid caused by
the presence ol intestinal Cestodes is probably slight, indeed, the
sharper appetite that accompanies their presence may be the means
of fully compensating for it. The tapeworm, Taenia saginata,
throws off eleven proglottides a day during its mature stage, and if
this rate of increase were matintained for a year the total wdght
of its progeny would be about 550 grammes. The broad worm,
Dibothriocephalus lotus, is similarly estimated to discharge 15 to
20 metres of proglotUdes, weighing 240 grammes. The loss of
substance represented by this growth is probably only of serious
account when the host is a young growing aninul that needs ftll
available nourishment.
4. By producing Toxins. It is generally admitted that Cestodes,
d larval, contain toxins ot great virulence, though
and in what organs these substances ftre produced
Injection of the fluid-extract of such worms into the
am of their host causes ^ve disturbniBce. Thus
ontains a leucomaine which sets up an urticaria;
uicollis occasions anaemia and death if injected into
the cystic fluid of the common Coemtrus serialis is
d b)r KirKhiaes to poison wolves. But the evidence
he view tnat tapeworms normally excrete toxin into
-. Jieir host in such amount as to occasion disease is
not generally accepted as conclusive. This evidence is, however.
strengthened by the results of recent work on changes in the blood
of patients suffering from helminthiasis. The occurrence of the
brtMkd tapeworm in man is often associated with anaemia of ft most
severe type. The coloured constituents of the blood ftre most
affected. New elements appear in addition to degenerative changes
in the normal red corpuscles. Large nucleated red blood-cells
make their appearance. The white Uood-cclls, or leucocytes,
undergo other changes. In hydatid disease there is, as a ruie. a
marked increase in the number of those white corpuscles whicJi
possess a specially staining affinity with the dye eosin, and arte
therefore known as eosinophile cdls. This change, which is called
eosinophilia, indicates the production of a noxious substance in
the blood. The fact of this increased leucocytic activity duriiig
the early suses, or the whole course of infection by Cestodes. S
indirect proof that these parasites do normally discharge toxic
substances into their hosts.
Classification of the Cestoda Merotoa
Order l.—Dibothridiata. Scolex with two " bothria," or modi-
fication thereof, usually devoid of hooks. Male and female copu-
latory ducts open by a common pore. Uterine pore present. Tlie
majority parasitic in fish. Selected forms: DiMhrtocephatms lotus
in man; Kussia. Switzeriand, southern France, North America.
Ligula, unsegmented externally, occurs in birds. Schi^ocephalus
becomes fully segmented in Casterosteus and mature in aquatic birds
(ducks, &c.). Trtaenophorus, indistinctly segmented, occurs in the
pike.
Order U.^Tetrapkyllidea (Tetrabothridtau). Scolex with four
out^owths forming organs of adhesion and probably also <rf kico-
motion. Uterine pore absent. Almost exclusively parasitic in
the intestine of Elasmobranch fish. The metacestode-urva occurs
free in the intestine of fish. Cephalopods and crabs, and is known
as Scoiex poiymorphus.
Order m.^DiphyOidea. Scolex with a teng head-stalk armed
with several rows of booklets. A rostellum and four phyllidia
united to form a pair. Few proglottides are developed. Selected
form: Echinobothrium affine in the intestine of Elasroobranchs. It
occurs immature in the gastropod Nassa.
Order IV.—Tetrarhyncha (Trypanorhyncha). Scotex with four
complex eversible proboacides. The adults occur in ElasmobrftiKh
fish, the metacestode encysted in Tdeosts.
Order W.^Telracoiytea (Taeniidae). Scolex with four suckers,
rarely hooked, and with a rostellum. Mostly parasitic in bomoio.
thermkr (warm-blooded) vertebrates. Selected forms: Taenia soltum,
intestine of man (fi^. 3, C). T. saginala (fig. 3) without booklets
on the rostellum; intestine of man. T. murtna, in the rat and
mouse, the adult in the lumen of the intestine, the larvae in the
villi. This species therefore undergoes no change of host. CystO"
taenia taemmms, intestine of dog and wolf, larva (a coenurus, fig. 1 1)
TAPIOCA— TAPIR
4»3
•■ the bruo of abccp; allied (orm% ooour matuiv in the dog and
larval in the rabbit. EcMinococfffer uhinocouus, a minute form
with only three to five proglottides, in dog. wolf, jackal. Larval
stags a moltUoeular sac (fig. ii B) iHth many tcoUces;- found in
■Mft* iiag«latef« canivoae^ rodeota and monkey*.
Tail* tf Cestodtsfouai im Man
Sp«ki.
Lm.
UmMdkteBatt.
Plerorercoid
Pike, perch, trout,
&c.
(Leuck.)
Unknowa
M
-
Cy«ticereoid
Trkkcdecks eanitf
Pmkxs€ffatu€ps;
P. irritans
HymeiuUpis dimituuua .
Cysticercu*
Aiapiajar-
inalis
Anisohbit
annmlipts
InMcu
Aciupinosa
Seaurus
strtatus J
A.«Ma(v.Sieb.). . .
CyfttScercua
Insects and myria-
pods
Cydc^, DiapUmtu
D<toatnea maiatascarensts
(Oav.)
Davamm (?) asiatica . .
CysUcercoid
Unknown
«.
^
Taenia sdium{^^). . .
Cystk^rtus uUu-
losae
SusKTofa
r. saHnnta (Gfltae) . .
r. em^nsa (WanJ) . . .
Cysticcrcus bans
Unknown
Bostaurus
„
...
Echinoeoceus
Man and domestic
veUrinvrum
cattle, sheep, pig
B. mvdHteadaris
T. kominis (v. Linst.) . .
Unknown
,~
LxTKlATURS. — (i) Leuckart. Ttu Parasita of M
1886); (2) Braun, The Animal ParasiUs of Man (
(3) /i,, Cestodes " in Braun's Kiassai u. Ordnungm ,
voL ii. (5894); (4) Shipley and Fcarnsides, " Effect
Jonm. Economic Biology, vol. L No. 3, 1906; (5) W 1
Lanhester's Trtaliu on Zoology » part iv. 1901; (6)
and J. Homelli Ceylon Pearl Oyiter Report, Lonij [
Society, part ii. p. 77, port iiL p. 49. part v. p. < ►
W. B. Spencer '^Gyrocotylc-Araphiptyches," Tr^ ,
Victoria. voL i. (1889) ; (8) S. Goto, " Homok)gy of i '
CeHtratU. f. BacL «. ParasiUnkunde, voL I4 (189, 1
Mrazek. '' Archigetes." VcrhamM, i, holm. AkaL
4897). Full refereocea to further litexature will be U \
woin.
Medkine.^ToT practical purposes we have only three varie-
ties of tapeworms to deal with as inhabitants of the hunan
alimentary canal: Taenia saginalaj the beef tapeworm;
Taetda nlium, the pork tapeworm; and Dibotkriocephalus
laSus, the fish tapeworm. The first of these is prevalent in
countries where much and imperfectly cooked beef is eaten,
and where cattle in their turn are exposed to the infection of
the tapeworm ova. Comparatively uncommon in Western
Europe, the Taenia saginata is common in Eastern Europe,
Asia and South America. It is calculated that in the North*
West Provinces of India s per ccnL of the cattle axe affected
with cysticerd owing to the filthy habits of the people. Measly
beef (that infected with the Cysticcrcus hovis) is easily recognized.
In Berlin the proportion of cattle said to be found ipfected on
inspection in 1893 was i in 67a. 0>ld storage for a period of
over three weeks is said to kill the cysticercus.
The tapeworm most frequently found b man in Western
Europe b the Taenia solium^ which is constant wherever pork
is consumed, and is more conamon in parts where raw or im-
perfectly coerced pork is eaten. In North Germany the mature
tapeworm was found on post-mortem examination once in every
200 bodies examined, while its embryo, the Cysticercus ceUn l osa e ,
was fooad in z in every 76 bodies. In France, Great Britain
and the Umted States the prevalence is not so great The
Dih0tkri0cepktUtt lotus is not fleBenHy foond eaecept in districts
bordering the Baltic Sea, the distrkU round the Frutco^SwisB
lakes nod Japan. In St Petersburg 15 per cent, of the in-
habitants are said to be affeaed. The eggs are free i4 fresh-
water lakes and rivers, where they enter the bodies of pike,
turbot and other fishes, and are thus eaten by man.
In many imtancea the eziitence of a tapeworm may not cause
any inconvenienoe to its host, and its preaeoce may be only made
known by the presence of the progk>ttides or mature segments in
the ttools. In the Taenia solium it takes 3 to 3} months from the
time of ingestion of the embryo to the passage of the matured
smaents, but in the rsaus sofuMla the time is only aboat 60 days.
Toe serments of the Taenia solium are usually given off in chains,
those of the Taenia satinata singly. In a number of cases there are
colicky pains in the abdomen, with diarrhoea or constipation and
more or less anaemia, while the Dibotkriocephalus lotus is capable of
prodociag a ptofound and severe anaemia clottely reaemblir^ pemi-
ctpus anaemuu The knowledge of the presnce <A the parasite
adversely affects nervous people and may lead to mental depressioa
and hypochondria. Nervous phenomena, such as chorea and epileptic
seizures, have been attributed to the presence of the tapeworm.
The prophylaxis is impcMtant in order to limit the q>read of the
parasites. All segments passed shoukl be burnt, and they should
never be thrown where the embryos may become scattered. Atten-
tion should be paid to the careful cooking of meat, so that any parasite
present should be killed. Efficient inspection of meat in the abat-
toire should eliminate a large proportion of the disesased animals.
In the treatment of a case where the parasite is already present,
for two days previous to the employment of a vermifuge a light diet
should be ^ven and the bowels moved by a purgative. For twelve
houre previously to its administration no food should be given, in
order that the intestinal tract should be empty so as to expose the
Upeworm to the full action of the drug. The vermifuge li gi\'en
in the early morning, and should consist of the liquid extract of
felix mas, male fern, one drachm in emidsion or in capsules to be
followed in half an hour by a calomel purgative. CastorK>il should
not be used as a purg^uve. Pomegranate nx>t, or, better, the
sulphate of ^letierme in dose of 5 grains with an equal quantity
of tannic aad, may be used to replace the male fern, in from xo to
80 per cent, of cases the entire tapeworm is expelled. The nead
must be carefully searched for by the physician, as shoukl it fail to
be brought away the parasite continues to grow, and within a few
months the segments again begin to appear.
TAPIOCA (a native Brazilian word), a farinaceous food sub-
stance prepared from cassava starch, the product ol the large
tuberous roots of the cassava or manioc plant (see Cassava).
Cassava starch, separated from the fibrous and nitrogenous
constituents of the roots, is spread, while in a moist condition,
upon iron plates, and with constant stirring exposed to such
heat as causes a partial rupture of the stardi granules, which
agglomerate into irregular pellets, becoming hard and trans-
lucent when cooled. In this condition the starch forms the
tapioca of commerce, a light, pleasant and digestible food,
much used b puddings and as a Uiickener for soups.
TAPIR, any existing representative of the perissodactyle
section of ungulate mammals with five front and three hind
toes, and no horn. Tapirs are an ancient group with many of
the original characters of the primitive Ungulates of the Oligocene
period, and have undergone but little change since the Miocene.
On the fore-feet the four toes correspond to the second, third,
fourth and fifth fingers of the human hand. The toes are
enclosed in hoofs, and the under surface of the foot rests on a
large pad. Tapirs are massively built, with short stout limbs,
elongated head, and the nose and upper lip produced to form
a short flexible trunk.
The five existing species may be grouped into two sections,
the distinctive characters of which are only recognizable In the
skull. (A) With a great anterior prolongation of the ossifica-
tion of the nasal partition, extending in the adult far beyond
the nasal bones, and supported and embraced at the base by
ascending plates from the upper jaw, forming the genus or
sub-genus Tapiretta. To this division belong two species,
both from Central America, Tapirus bairdi and T. iowi. The
former is found in Mexico, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica
and Panama; the latter in Guatemala, Nicaragua and Costa
Rica. (B) With the bony partition not extending farther
forward than the nasal bones {Tapirus proper). This includes
three species, T. indicus, the largest of the genus, from the
Malay Peninsala (as far north as Tavoy and Mcrgui), Sumatra
414
TAPTI— TAR
and Borneo, diatiqguiafaed by ita peculiar colontion, the head,
neck, fore and hind limbs being glossy black, and the inter-
mediate part of the body white, the height at the shoulder
from 3 ft. to 3 ft. 6 ins., and 4 ins. higher at the rump; T.
krrestris, the common tapir of the forests and bwlands of
Brazil and Paraguay; ^d T, rotUini, the Pinchaque tapir of
the high regions of the Andes. All the American species are
of a nearly uniform dark brown or blackish colour when adult;
but it is a curious circumstance that when young (and in this
the Malay species conforms with the others) they are con-
spicuously marked with spots and longitudinal stripes of white
or fawn colour on a dariier ground.
In habits all tapirs appear to be very similar. They are
solitaiy, nocturnal, shy and inoffensive, chiefly frequenting
the depths of shady forests and the neighbourhood of water,
to which they frequently resort for the purpose of bathing,
and In which they often take refuge when pursued. They feed
on various vegetable substances, as shoots of trees and bushes,
American Tapir {Tapirus).
buds and leaves, and are hunted by the natives of the' lands
in which they live for the sake of their hides and flesh.
The singular fact of the existence of animals so closely allied
as the Malayan and the American tapirs in such distant regions
of the earth and in no intervening places is accounted for by
the geological history of the race, for the tapirs once had a very
wide distribution. There is no proof of their having lived in
the Oligocene epoch, but in deposits of Miocene and Pliocene
date remains undistinguishable generically and perhaps speci-
fically from the modem tapirs (though named T, priscus,
T. arvernensis, &c.) have been found in France, Germany and
in the Red Crag of Suffolk. Tapirs appear, however, to have
become extinct in Europe before the Pleistocene period, as
none of their bones or teeth have been found in any of the
caves or alluvial deposits in which those of elephants, rhino-
ceroses and hippopotamuses occur in abimdance; but in
other regions their distribution at this age was far wider than at
present, as they are known to have extended eastward to
China (r. sinensis) and westwards over the greater part of the
southern United States of America, from South Carolina to
California. Thus there is no dif&culty in tracing the common
origin in the Miocene tapirs of Europe of the now widely
separated American and Asiatic species. It is, moreover,
interesting to observe how slight an amount of variation has
taken place in forms isolated during such an enormous time.
See PEBissoDACTYLa. (W. H. P.; R. L.*)
TAPTI, a river of western India. It rises in Betul district
of the Central Provinces, flows between two spurs of the Satpura
HiUs, ac^i» the I^b^fttiL of Klia&deah^ and thence through the
PtMi^% total length of 450 m. and
' i bet 3s m- pf its course
it is a tidal liver, but it only navigable by vessels of smftB
tonnage; and the port of Swally at its mouth, famous in Anglo-
Portuguese history, is now deserted, owing to silting at the
outflow of the river. The waters of the Tapti are wmhen
used for irrigation.
TAR, a product of the destructive distillation of organic sub-
stances. It IS a highly complex material, varying in its com-
position according to the nature of the body from which it is
distilled, — different products, moreover, being obtained ac-
cording to the temperature at which the process of distiUation
is carried on. As commercial products there are two principal
classes of tar in use — (i) wood tar, the product of the spedal
distillation of several varieties of wood, and (2) coal tar iq.v.),
which is primarily a by-product of the distillation of coal during
the manufacture of gas for illuminating purposes. These tars
are intimately related to bitumen, asphidt, mineral pitch and
petroleum.
Wdod Tar.— Wood tar, known also as Stockholm and as
Archangel tar, is principally prepared hi the great pine forests
of central and northern Russia, Finland and Sweden. The
material chiefly employed is the resinous stools and roots
of the Scotch fa (Pinus sylvestris) and the Siberian larch {Laris
sibirica), with other less common fir-tree roots. A large
amount of tar is also prepared from the roots of the swamp
pine {P. ausiralis) in North and South Carolina, Georgia and
Alabama, in the United States. In the distillatbn of wood a
series of products, including gas, tar, pyroligneous acid, acetone,
wood spirit (see Methyl Alcohol) and charcoal may be ob-
tamed, and any of these may be the primary object of the
operation.
The carbonisation of wood can be effected in two ways: (1) by
stacking and firing as in the manufacture of charcoal: tab method
is very wasteful as it is impossible to recover the valuable by-
products; and (2) by distilling from retoru, ovens or kilns (after
the manner of coke production from coal) : this method is more
economical as it leads to the isolation of all the by-products. The
retcHts may be horiaontal or vertical and the hcatmg effected by
any available fuel, or by the inflammable gases and less valuable
grades of tar obtained in previous operations. The condensing
plant b also of variable design: a common pattern consists of a
connected series of sUghtly inclined copper pipes contained In a
rectangular tank of water (sec Coal Tab). After settling the
distillate separates into three layers: the lowest consists chiefly
of tar and creosote oils with a little acetic add; the middle layer
consists of water, containing pyrolieneous add, wood spirit, acetone
with a little tarry matter; whilst the upper consists 01 light hydro,
cafbons. The tarry layer b run off by means of a cock near the
base of the tank, and is then distilled from retorts resembling coa!
tar stills. At first, between no* and 120* C, water and acetic add
comes over; then, between 120*— s^* C, the heavy or creosote oib;
the residue in the still b wood pitch, which finds application in
making briquettes, artificial asphalts, certain varnishes, &c. The
crude tar and pitch are also largely used as protective coatlags for
woodwork exposed to atmospheric conditions. The heavy oils on
further fractional distillation yield more acetic acid, and tnen mix-
tures of carbolic acid, creosols, &c
Wood ttf is a semi-fluid substance, of a dark brown or black
Owing to
ing I,
soluble in
colour, with a strong pungent odour and a sharp taste.
the presence of acetic acid, it has an add reaaion; it is
that acid, as well as in alcohol and the fixed and essential oils, Ac
Some varieties of tar have a granular appearance, from the presence
of minute crystals of pyrocatechin, which dissolve and disappear on
hcatingthe substance.
See P Dumesny and T. Noyer, Wood- Products, DistiUaUs and
BxtracU (Engl, trans. 1908).
Mtdicine.—Wood tar b used ta medknne under the name of Pix
liquida. Its preparation uuguentum pieis liquidat b composed of
wood tar and yellow beeswax. ExtcrnalW tar b a valuable stimu*
lating dressing in scaly skin diseases, such as psoriasis and chronic
ecsema. Internally wood tar is a popular remedy as an expectorant
in subacute and dnonk: bronchitis. It b usually given as tar water.
I part of wood tar being stirred into 4 parts of water and filtend.
Given internally tar is likely to upset the digestion; taken in laige
{quantities it causes pain and vomiting and dark urine, symptoms
similar to carbolic aad poisoning.
Coal tar b used in medidne as Fee itguula preparata. From it b
made Li^itor picis curbouis, prepared with tincture of quillab.
Coal tar u rarely prescribed for internal use. Its external use b
nmilar to that of wood tar: the Liquor carhonis detttgens, a pro-
prietary prepaiation, owes its properties chiefly to the contained
phenol. It b used in water as a k>tion for ricin diseases, and also in
an inhaler in the treatment of wbooping-cot^h, croup and bronchitis
TARA, VISCOUNTS AND BARONS— TARANTO
415
The ist ViKount Tan
was Thomas Preston (x 535-1655), a descendant o( Sir Robert
de Fiestoo, who in 1363 purchased the lands of Gonnanston,
Cou Meath, and who was keeper of the Great Seal in Ireland
some yeais later. Sir Robert's great-grandson, Robert Preston,
was created Viscount Gormanston in 1478; and the latter's
grest-grandsop was Christopher, 4th. Viscount Gormanston
(d. 1599), nrhose second son was Thomas Preston, Viscount
Taia. The latter was in the same Irish regiment in the
Spanish service as Owen Roe O'Neill, and distinguished himseU
in the defence of Louvain against the French and Dutch in
1635. Betweeh him and Owen Roe O'Neill there was from
the first intense jeabusy. Preston, who was appointed general
of Leinster, took a prominent and not unsuccessful part in
the war of factions that raged intermittently in Ireland from
164a to 165a. In 1650 Charles II. while in exile created
him Viscount Tara; and after his dq>arture from Ireland
in 165a he offered his services to Charles in I^uis, where he
died in October 1655. His wife was a Flemish lady of rank,
by whom he had several children, one of his daughters being
the aeoond wife of Sir Phelim O'NeilL His son Anthony
soccceded him as and Viscount Tara, a title that became ex-
tinct oa the death ol Thomas, 3rd Viscount, in 1674.
In 169X Meinhart de Schombeig, 3rd duke of Schombeig,
second son of William IIL's famous general, was created Baron
Tara, earl of Bangor, and duke of Lcinster, in the peerage of
Ireland, aU of which titles became extinct at his death without
sons in 17x9. The title of Baron Tara was again revived in
1800 in favour of John Preston of BcUintcr, Co. Meath, as a
reward for his vote in favour of the Union in the Irish House
of Comnkons, in which he sai as member for Navan. At his
death without issue in i8at, the peerage became extinct.
TABA, a village of Co. Meath, Ireland. It is celebrated
for the HiU of Taia, well known through Thomas Moore's
ballad, and for many centuries a rc^al residence and the scene
of gr^ meetings of the people. The hill, upon which five
highroads convMged from different parts of Ireland, is about
Sio ft. in height, and stands isolated. On its summit or flanks
ate six laths or circular earthworks, the largest of which,
called the king's rath (ratk-norn^th) encloses other works,
among idiich is the forradh or meeting-place, a flat-topped
Boiind. On this (but not in iu original position) stands a
pillar atone, which has been held to be the stone of destiny
on which the Irish kings were crowned. An oUong enckisure,
759 fu in length by 46 ft. in breadth, formed of earthworks, with
cntraacea at intervals on each aide, represents the banquet-
itg hftU. In the middle of the 3rd century a.o. King Cocmac
Mac Art, about whom there are many records in connexion with
Tara, Is saM to have founded here schools of military science,
kw and literature. In the time of St Patrick Tara is in>
dtcated as the chief seat of dniidism and Idolatiy, and in or
abeat 560 it was abandoned as a loyal residence, having fallen
under the cnxae of St Ruadan. In 980 the Danish power of
Meath was overthrown in battle here; in 1798 a severe defeat
of the insurgents took place here (atfth of May); and in 1843
the hill of Taia, as a site sacred to Irish traditions, was the
scene of one of Daniel O'Coonell's mass meetings in support ol
the repeal of the legislative union (tsth of August).
TABAFA i'Amr tbn ul-'Abd ul^fiakil] (6th cent.), Arabian
poet, who, after a wild and diasipatcd youth tp€p,i in Bahrein,
left his native land afur peace had been established between
the tribes of Bakr and Taghlib and went with his unck Muta-
faunmls (also a poet) to the omrt of the king of Hica, 'Amr ibn
Hind (died 568^9), and there became Gompanmo to the king's
brother. Having ridiculed the king in some venes he was sent
with a kuer to the ruler of Bahrein, and, fa accordance with
the instractions contained in the ktter, was buried alive. One
of hir poems k oootaioed io the Hcalhktt (^.a.).
Hu diwan has been published in W. Ahlwardt*s The Diwans «(f
Hu Six Ancunt ArMc Poets (London, 1870). Some of his poems
have been tranaUtcd into Latin with notes by B. Vandenhoff
" ' .1895). (C.W.T.)
TARAI, or T«uz («a " moist knd "), the sane of the sub-
montane strip of marshy jungle sUetching beneath the lower
ranges of the Himalaya in northern India. This strip may be
said to extend roughly from the Jumna river on the west to
the Brahmaputra on the east, thoujsh the term k now offidally
confined to a subdivision of Naini Tal district in the United
Provinces; area, 776 sq. m.; popuktion (1901) x 18,422.
At iu northern edge, where the waterless forest tract of the
Bbabar ends, a series of springs burst from the surface, and
these, increasing and uxuting in their progress, form the numerous
streams that intersect the Taral The Deoha is the great river
of the Tarai proper, and k navigable at PiUbhiU Ekpbants,
tigers, bears, leopards and other wild animak are found. Every-
where it k most unhealthy, and inhabited only by tribes who
seem proof against malaria. A krge portion Iks within Nepal.
TARAMTO (anc Tarentum, q.v.)^ a seaport of Apulk, Italy,
in the province of Lecce, 50 m. from that town VV. by N. by
road, and 68 m. by rail (44 m. W. by S. from Brindisi). Pop.
(1901) S0iS9a (town); 60,331 (commune). The city proper
k situated on a rocky island 56 ft. above sea-levd, which in
ancient times was a peninsuk, the isthmus on the west having
been cut through by Ferdinand I. of Aragon. Tbk kland
separates the Gulf of Taranto from the deep inlet of the Mare
Piccolo, and k sheltered by two other flat kknds, San Pietro
and San Paolo; the latter is occupied by a lighthouse. This
rock k the site of the citadel of the andent town; its popula-
tion k confined within small houses and narrow streets. Tlie
Stmda Garibaldi along the Mare Piccolo k inhabited by fisher-
men whose language retains traces of Greek. The cathedral,
dedicated to San Cataldo, an Irish bkhop, dating from the
xith century, has externally some remains of Saracenk Gothk;
internally it has been completely modernized, and the shrine
of the patron saint has been termed " an orgy of rococo.'*
Bdow it k an early Christian basilica excavated in 190X. There
k a fine museum in the former convent of San Pasquale con-
taining antiquities unearthed in the neighbourhood. Adjacent
k the Palazzo degU Uffizi, completed in 1896, containing various
public offices. To the south, outside the Porta di Lecce, k
the Citta Nuova, on the site of the mam part of the andent
town. The chief industry k the cultivation of oysters in
four laige beds in the Mare Piccolo; besides oysters, Taranto
carries on a laige trade in €ozte, a spedes of krge black mussel,,
which k packed in barrek with a special sauce. The otkn
trades are oUve-oil refining, barrel-making and soap-boiling{
com, honey and fruit are ktgely e]q>orted. Excellent fish
abound in the Mare Piccolo, ninety-three different species
being found. The ebb .and flow of the tide k distinctly vkibk
here, Taranto being one of the few pkces in the Meditenaneaa
where it k perceptible. In x86i the strategk importance of
Taranto was recognized by the Italkn government, and in
1864 a Naval Commission designated it as thkd maritime
arsenal after Spezk and Venke. Work was begun on the
arsenal in 1883 and continued as the finances of the state per-
mitted; it k capable of turning out new warships and of exe-
cuting repaks of all kinds for the Mediterranean squadron.
The arsenal extends for a mik and a half along the aoutbcm
coast of the Mare Piccolo, which constitutes its chief basin.
The receiving-dock and the anchorage for toipedo boats, with
its wide koding-stagr, form dependencies. The dock, 653 ft*
long, X30 ft. wide and 37 ft. deep, k divided into two compart-
ments, each capafak of containing a full-sized battleship, and
can be pumped diy in ei^ hours by two 600 h.p. steam pumps.
The Mare Grande k connected with the Mare Piccolo by a channel
875 yds. long, large enou^ to permit the passage of the krgest
battleship; the channd was bridged in 1887 by an iroo swivel
bridge, whidi when open leaves a passage way 196 ft broad. In
its prBKnt form the Mare Piccolo provides a weU-shdtered
ai^ffaontge, 36 ft. deep and 6325 acres in extent. The com*
merdal harbour lies S. of the railway station outside the Mare
PicQola In 1905 nearly^x8o.ooo tons of shipping cleared the port.
In 927 Tanmto was entirely destroyed by the Saracens, but
rebuilt in 967 by Nicephorus Phocas, to whom k due the
4X6
TARANTULA— TARASCON
coQStractkm of the bridge over the channel to the N.W. of the
town, and of the aqueduct which passes over it. The town was
taken by Robert Guiscard in 1063. His son Bohemond became
prince of the Terra d'Otranto, with his capital here. After his
death Roger n. of Sicily gave it to his son William the Bad.
The emperor Frederick 11. erected a castle (Rocca Impcriale)
at the highest point of the city. In 1301 Philip, the son of
Charles IL of Anjou, became prince of Taranto. The castle
dates from the Aragonese period. The tarantula (see below),
inhabits the neighbourhood of Taranto. The wild dance,
called tarantella, was supposed, by causing perspiration, to
drive out the poison of the bite. (T. As.)
TARANTULA, strictly speaking, a large spider {Lycosa
tarantula), which takes its name from the town of Taranto
(Tarentum) in Apulia, near which it occurs and where it was
formerly believed to
be the cause of the
malady known as
" tarantism." This
spider belongs to the
fomily Lycosidae, and
has numerous aiUies,
equalling or surpassing
it in size, in various
parts of the world,
the genus Lycosa being
almost cosmopolitan
in distribution. The
tarantula, like all its
allies, spins no web as
a snare but catches
its prey by activity
and speed of foot. It
lives on dry, well-
drained ground, and
digs a deep burrow
lined with silk to pre-
vent the infall of
GaUodci lucasii, an Andimd of the order loose particles of soil.
Solitugae, commonly but wrongly called y„ rl^ ««'«f*, u
tarantula in Egypt. ^^ "*«^ ^°^/' '*
covers the onfice of
this barrow with a layer of silk, and lies dormant underground
until the return of spring. It also uses the burrow as a safe
retreat during moulting and guards its cocoon and young in
its depths. It lives for seveiul years. The male is approxi-
mately the same size as the female, but in neither sex does
the length of the body surpass three-quarters of an inch. Like
all spiders, the tarantula possesses poison glands in its jaws,
but there is not a particle of trustworthy evidence that the
secretion of these glands is more virulent than that of other
spiders of the same size, and the medieval belief that the bite
o( the spider gave rise to tarantism has long been abandoned.
According to traditional accounts the first symptom of this
disorder was usually a state of depression and lethargy. From
this the sufferer could only be roused by music, which excited
an overpowering desire to dance until the performer fell to
the ground bathed in profuse perspiration, when the cure, at
all events for the time, was supposed to be effected. This
mania attacked both men and women, young and old alike,
women being more susceptible than men. It was also con-
sidered to be highly infectious and to spread rapidly from
person to person until whole areas were affected. The name
tarantella, in use at the present time, Mppli» both to a dance
stili in vogu
resembling i
necessary to
the middle aj
applied iadisc
in no way 1
Arachnid bd
America, foi
Avictilariid^
invariably called tarantulas. These spiders are very rnoch
larger and more venomous than the largest of the Lycosidae,
and in the Southern states of North America the spedcs of
wasps that destroy them haVe been called tarantula hawks.
In Queensland one of the largest local spiders, known as
Holconia immanis, a member of the family Clubionidae, bears
the name tarantula; and in Egypt it was a common practice
of the British soldiers to put together scorpions and taraottilas,
the latter in this instance being specimens of the large and
formidable desert-hauntmg Arachnid, Caleodes lucasii, a member
of the order Solifugac. Similarly in South Africa species of
the genus Solpuga, another member of the Solifugae, were em-
ployed for the same purpose under the name tarantula. Finally
the name Tarantula, in a scientific and systematic sense, was
first given by Fabricius to i Ceylonese spedes of amblypygous
Pedipalpi, still sometimes quoted as Phrynus htnatus. (R. L P.)
TARAPACA, a northern province of Chile, bounded N. by
Tacna, E. by Bolivia, S. by Antofagasta, and W. by the Pacific.
Area iS.ijr sq. m. Pop. (189s) 89.7S1; (1902, estimated)
101,105. It is part of the rainless desert region of the Pacific
coast of South America, and is absolutely without water except
at the base of the Andes where streams fiow down into the sands
and are lost. In some of these places there is vegetation and
water enough to support small settlements. The wealth of
Tarapac& is in its immense deposits of nitrate of soda (found oa
the Pampa de Tamarugal, a broad desert plateau between the
coast range and the Andes, which has an elevation of about
3000 ft.). The mining and preparation of nitrate of soda for
export maintain a large population and enga^^e an immense
amount of capital. Silver is mined in the vicinity of Iquique,
the capital The ports of the province are Pisagua, Iquique
and Patillos, from which " nitrate railways " nm inland to the
deposits. Tarapac& was ceded to Chile by Peru after the war
of 1879-1883, and was organized as a province in 1884.
TARARE, a town of east-central France, in the department
of Rhone, on the Turdine, 28 m. W.N.W. of Lyons by raO.
Pop. (1906) 11,643. It is the centre of a region engaged ia
the production of muslins, tarletans, embroidery and silk-plush,
and in printing, bleaching and other subsidiary processes. Till
1756, when the manufacture of muslins was introduced from
Switzerland, the town lay imknown among ihe Beaujolais
mountains. The manufacture of Swiss cotton yarns and
crochet embroideries was introduced at the end of the 18th
centuty; at the beginning of the xpth figured stuffs, open-
works and zephyrs were first produced. The manufacture
of silk-plush for hats and machine-made velvets was net up
towards the end of the 19th century. A busy trade is carried
on in com, cattle, linen, hemp, thread and leather.
TARASCON, a town of south-eastern France, in the depart-
ment of Bouches-du-Rhone, 62 m. N.W. of Maneilles by raiL
Pop. (1906) town, 5447; commune, 8972. Tarascon is situated
on the left bank of the Rhone opposite Beaucaire, with uhicb
it is conn'xted by a railway bridge and a suspension bridge.
The church of St Martha, built in 1187-97 on the ruins of a
Roman temple and rebuilt in X379-I449> has a Gothic spire,
and many interesting pictures in the interior. Of the original
building there remain a porch, and a side portal flanked by
marble columns with capitals like those of St Trophimus at
Aries. The former leads to the crypt, where are the tombs
of St Martha (1658), Jean de Goesa, governor of Provence under
King Ren6, and Louis IL, king of Provence. The castle,
picturesquely situated on a rock, was begun by Count Louis IL
in the 14th century and finished by King Ren^ in the 15th. It
arret stair and a chapd entrance, which are charm-
3 of t5th-oentury ardiitecture, and fine wooden
le building is now used as a prison. The h6tel-4e-
from the 17th century. The civil court *^l the
mt of Aries is situated at Tarascon, wUui also
commercial court, and fine cavalry barracks. The
es sausages are made here, and there is trade in fruit
petables. In Tartarin de Tarascon Alphonse Daudet
the provincial life of Tarascon. Its uneventfulncst
TARAXACUM— TARDIGRADA
417
b varied by the fair of Beuicaire, and It used to be the
aoeoe of the two fdtcs of La Tarasqtte, the latter in celebration
of St Maitha*a delivenuice of the town from a legendary
noattcr of that name. King Ren£ presided in 1469, and grand
exhibitions of ooatuine and strange ceremonies talce place
during the two days of the festival. Tarsscon was originally
a settlement ol the BCaasaliois, built on an island of the Rhone.
The mediewid cattle, where Pope Urban II. lived in 1096, was '
buOt on the Tunn of a Roman camp. The InhabitanU of
Taraaoon preserved the municipal institutions granted them
by the Romans, and of the absohtte power claimed by the
cooaU of Provence they only reoogniaed the rights of sovereignty.
Tarssoon played a bloody part in the White Terror of 18x5.
TARAXACUM, the name usually applied in medical practice
to the common dandelion (9.0.).
TARBBLL, EDHUIfD G. (1863- ), American artist, was
bom at West Groton, Mass., on the 36th of April 1863. He
WIS a pupil of the schools of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts
and of Boulaagcr and Letebwe, Paris, and became a distin-
guished painter of the landscape, of the figure, and of portraits,
winning various important prizes and medals at exhibitions.
In 1906 he was elected a National Academician, besides being
a member of the Ten American Painters, and he became in-
itiuctor of painting in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.
TARBERT, a fishing village at the head of East Loch Tar-
bert, an arm of the sea 00 the west shore of the mouth of Loch
Fyne, Argyllshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1697. The harbour,
though it has a narrow entrance, is absolutely safe and can
fhelicr the whole of the Loch Fyne fishing fleet. The pier for
the passenger steamers that call here is about | m. from the
village. The ooast of the bay is rocky and the cliffs are fringed
with young firs, the village itself being quite a pretty place.
The herring fishery— including a large trade in curing— forms
the only industry. The parish church occupies a fine situation.
Overlooking the harbour are the ruins of a castle built by
Robert Bruce in 1326. The isthmus connecting the districts
of Knapdale and Kintyre is little more than one mile wide,
and boats used once to be dragged across to the head of West
Loch Tarbert, a narrow sea hx:h nearly ten miles long. A
proposal to cut a canal across to shorten the sail to Islay and
Jura has never progressed further.
TARBB, a town of aouth*wcstem France, capital of the
department of Hautes-Pyrin^es, 98 m. W.S.W. of Toulouse on
the Southern railway. Pop. (1906) town, 20,866; commune,
35.869. Tarbes is situated in a beautiful and fertile plain, in
full view of the Pyrenees, on the left bank of the Adour, streams
from which are conducted through all parts of the town. The
lines of the Sonthcm railway from Morcenx to Bagn^res-de-
BtgDrre and Lourdes and from Toulouse to Bayonne cross here
Chief among the many open spaces is the Jardin Massey
(35 acres), given to his native town by a director of the gardens
of VersaiUes and containing a museum of sculptures, paintings
and antiquiiics. Near a small lake stands a cloister (15th
century) transferred from the abbey of St Sever*de'Rustan,
14 m. N.E. of Tarbes, and a bust of Th£ophile Gautier, a native
of Tarbes. The architecture of the cathedral, Notre Dame de
la SMe, is heavy and unpleasing, but the cupoU of the transept
(t4th century), the modem glass in the xzth-century apse, and
a rose window of the x3th century, in the north transept, are
worthy of notice. There is also a modernised Canndite church
originally built in the 13th century. Tarbes is a well-known
centre for the breeding of Ang^o-Arabian hones, much used
by light cavalry; and Its stud is the most important in the south
of France. The industrial establishments include tanneries,
tile-works, saw>mills and turners' shops. There are important
fairs and markets. Well-known race*meelings are held on the
Ukmb^e couise.
Under the Roman dominion Turbo, whkh was about xi m.
S.E. of the present town of Tarbes. was the capital of tlie
Bigerrionesi one of the sUlcs of Novempopulania. The
bishopric of Tarbes dates from the sth century, and in feudal
times iu bishops held the chief temporal authority, that of
the counts of Bigorre, of which Tarbes was capital, being limited
to the quarter of the town where their castle was built The
English held the town from X360 to 1406. In 1569 Tarbes was
burnt by Gabriel, count of Montgomery, and the inhabitants
were driven out. This happened a second time, but in August
1570 the peace of St Germain allowed them to return. Subse-
quently Tarbes was several times taken and re-taken, and a
number of the inhabitants of Bigorre were forced to take refuge
in Spain, but in 1594 the members of the League were finally
expelled. The English, under Wdlington, gained a victory
over the French near Taibcs in 18x4.
TARBU8R (Arab tarbSsk), the close-fitting, flat-topped and
brimless cap, in shape like a tnmcatcd cone, made of felt or
doth, worn by Mahommedan men throughout the East either
as a separate headgear or forming the inner part of the turban.
It is worn as the badge of a Turkish subject in Turkey and
ISgypt, where it is red in colour with a black or blue ^k tassel.
It is the same as the " fez " (see the plate illustrations to Imdia:
I Indian Costume),
TARDB, GABRIEL (1843-1904), French sociolo^st. was bom
at Sarlat (Dordogne) in 1843. Entering the legal proression,
he was for some time a juge d*tnstruciion In his native town,
becoming afterwards head of the statistical department of the
ministry of justice. He also held the professorship of modern
philosophy at the College de France in Paris, and was elected
a member of the Academic des sciences morales et politiques
in 1900. Attracted to the study of criminology by the oppor-
tunities of his profession, he gradually built up for himself
a reputation as an acute observer of the phenomena of the
subject, while at the same time he made striking and original
deductkms of his own. Special reference may be made to his
theory of "imitation" as outlined in Les Lois de Vimitation
(1890), and further elaborated in Logigue socicte (1895). He
also wrote VOpinion el h foule (1901); Les Transformations
du droit (1894); Les Transformations du pouvoir (1899); VOP'
position universe^ (1897) and Psyckologie iconomique (1902;
Eng. trans., Social Laws^ X899). He died in Paris in 1904.
See bibliocraphy of the sociological writings of Tarde In M. M
Davis, Psyckolotical Interpretations of Society (Columbia University
Press. 1009): also A. Matagrin, La Psyckologie socials de Cobrm
Twde (Paris, 1910).
TARDIORADA, apparently Arthropodous am'mals whose re-
lationship to the great classes of this sub-kingdom is masked
by degenerative modification. They are microscopical in size
and live in damp moss or water. The body is elongated and
furnished with four pairs of short, unjointed, stump-like legs,
each terminated by a pair of daws. The legs of the posterior
pair project from the hinder extremity
of the body and the anus opens bbtween
them. The mouth, situated at the op-
posite end and armed with a pair of
stylets, leads into an oesophagus, into
which the ducts of a pair of so-called
salivary glands open. Behind this
point there is a muscular pharynx or
gizzard, which communicates with the
wide intestinal tract. No organs of
circulation or lespiratton are known;
but the nervous system is well de-
veloped, and consists of a pair of
ganglia corresponding with the limbs
and connected by longitudinal commis-
sural chords. Anteriorly these chords
embrace the oesophagus and unite with
the cerebral mass which innervates the Uilnesium lardigra-
pair of eyes when present. The sexes rf««".Schrank.a,ovary;
«c not diainct. the «»uj organs bein, '^. JJ-'iSin^
represented by a pair of testes and a canal ;«...«• 1^
single ovary, which open together into
the posterior end of the alimentary canal. The Tardigrada have
been regarded as degenerate Acari largely on account of their
possessing four pairs of ambulatory limbs, which Is considered
4i8
TARE AND TRET— TAI
to be aa ArKhnicUn characteristic But they canoot be affiliated
with this order on account o£ the total suppression of the ab-
domen» of their hermaphroditism and of the communication that
exists between the generative organs and the alimentary tract.
These last characteristics also separate them essentially from
the Pycnogonida, some members of which resemble them to a
certain extent in having only four pairs of limbs, no gnathites,
no respiratory organs, a ganglionated ventral nervous system,
and the abdomen reduced to a mere rudiment projecting
between the last pair of legs.
Several genera and species of Tardigrada have been described,
perhaps the best known being Macrobiotus scknltui and Af i7-
nesium tardigradum. (R. I. P.)
TARE AND TRET, in commerce, allowances or deductions.
Tare is an allowance made from the gross weight of goods for
the box, bag or other wrapping in which the goods are packed.
It may be red/, ue. representing the actual weight of the wrap^
ping; customary f when a uniform or established rate is allowed;
average, when one or two packages among several are weighed,
and the mean or average of the whole taken; or super'tare^ an
additional allowance when the package exceeds a certain weight.
Tret is an allowance of 4 lb. in every 104 lb. of weight, made as
compensation for loss by waste. "Tare" comes through the
Fr. /are, cf. Sp. tara, from Arab, {arka, fark, throwing, casting —
the word meant originally loss, that which is thrown away;
" tret " is an adaptation of Fr. traite, Lat. trakere, to draw,
and meant a draught, transportation, also a payment on ex>
ports, an allowance on exportation.
TARENTUH (Gr. r&pas), a Greek city of southern Iul>
(mod. Taranto, q.v.), situated on the N. coast of the gulf of thi
same name, on a rocky islet at the entrance to the only secui
harbour in it. It was a Spartan colony founded about the da
of the 8th century B.C. (Jerome gives the dale 708) to relie*
the parent state of a part of its population which did r
possess, but claimed to enjoy, full civic rights. Legend rep
scnts these PariUniae (so they are called) as Spartans wit'
stain on their birth, but the accounts are neither clear nor c
sislent, and the facts that underlie them have not been cles
up. The Greeks were not the first settlers on the penins
excavations have brought to light signs of a pre-Hellcnic »
ment. To the Greeks Taras was a mythical hero, 6(
Neptune, and he is sometimes confounded with the
(official founder) of the colony, Phalanthus. Situated
fertile district, especially famous for olives and sheep, v
admirable harbour, great fisheries and prosperous manuf
of wool, purple* and pottery, Tarentum grew in pov
wealth and extended its domain inland. Even a grea*
by the natives in 473 B.C., when more Greeks fell thar
battle known to Heroidotus, di(l not break its prosperity
it led to a change of government from aristocracy to de
A feud with the Thurians for the district of the Siris w
in 432 by the joint foundation of Heradea, which,
was regarded as a Tarentine colony. In the 4t:
Tarentum was the first city of Magna Oraecia, and
and artistic culture at this time are amply attested
and splendid coins; the gold pieces in particular (r
than 360) are perhaps the most beautiful ever strucit
(see NuMiSMAncs). In the second half of the centui
was in constant war with the Lucanians, and did
ground without the aid of Spartan and Epirot
Then followed war with Rome (281) in conseq
injudicious attack of the mob on the Roman fleet <
of Tarentum and on the Roman garrison at Thui
tion of Pyrrhus, whom Tarentum summoned to
length, in 273, the surrender of the city by its E
Tarentum retained nominal h'berty as an ally of
Second Punic War it went over to Hannibal in a
severdy when it was retaken and plundered 1
who sold thirty thousand dtlzens as slaves. /
into decay, but revived again ajter receiving a c
' Large heaps of the shells of the murtx^
mussel, were visible on the shore before the cxtc
which rec
it was es i
Od., iiL I
it to be
it his t !
to the! .
One :
been t I
the N
of the
of th
and
Ital:
190 i
citi
X.o\
Qi
cr I
cr 1
TARGET— TARGUM
♦«9
He acqulktd a grett repQlation ad a lawyer, Icsb by prtetice In
the oottits than In a consultative capacity. He strenuously
oppMed the *' parlement Maupeou/' devised by the Chancdtor
Maopcou to replace the old judiciary bodies, and refused to
plead before it. He was counsel for the cardinal de Rohan in
the affair of the Diamond Necklace iq.t.)* In X785 he was
elected to the French Academy. In 1789 he was returned
as one of the deputies of the Third Estate in Paris to the statc»-
genenl, where he supported all such revolutionary measures as
the union of the orders, the suspensive veto, the dvil constitu-
tion of the clergy, &c. His eicessive obesity, which in the
Constituent Assembly made him the butt Sf the Royalists, had
prevented him from practising at the bar for some years before
1780, and when Louis XVL invited faim to undertake his de*
fence he excused himself on this ground. At the same time
he pilblished in 1792 some Ohfsenfations In extenuation of the
actioa of the king, from the constitutional point of view,
which in the circumstances of the time argued much courage.
For the rest, he took no part in public affairs during the Terror.
Under the Directory he was made a member of the Institute
(1796) and of the Court of Cassation (1798). He lived to colla-
borate in the earlier stages of the new criminal code. Among
his writings may be mentioned a paper on the gcain trade (1776)
and • Mimcire stir /'Mef dts ProlesiatUs eu Fnttce (1787), in
which he pleaded for the restoration of civil rights to the Pro-
testants.
See Victor du Bled, "Les avocats et TAcatj^mie Francaisc,** in the
Grand Revne (vol. il. 1899): H. Moulin, Le Palais i FAcad6mie:
Target el sw JauUuil (Paris, 1884): P Boullodie, Un awocat am
i5»— jiicU (Paris, 1893).
TARGET, a mark to shoot at, so called from its resemblance
in shape to (he "targe" or small round shield, particularly
the round wood and leather buckler, with metal bosses, and
k>ng spike protruding from the central boss, which was carried
by the Highland clans; at the back was a leathern sleeve in
which the left arm was inserted. In the 'tTth century, as body
armour ceased to be used, the infantry soldier often carried a
light shield of various forms which was known as a " target/'
which is a diminutive of targe; such soldiers were known as
** ur^leers." " Taige " is a word that has been the subject
of much etymological discussion. On the one hand is found
the 0.£. tarfie, with hard /, a shield, cf. Icel. targa, shield,
Urget, and O.H. Ger. Mario, frame, side, border; on the other
Is Fr. iarge, Sp. and Port, tarjo, Ital. tor^a, buckler, shield. The
soft and hard ;'s point to two distinct words. In Sp. and
Port., is found adarga, a square target or buckler, which is an
Arabic word, al darkal or darakal, a leather shield. The 0.£
and led. words can hardly have come from an Arab, source,
and the relation between the Vtfo words is an etymological
puzxie (see Skeat, Etym. DicL, 1910^. The target as a mark
to shoot at is, for arcbeiy,.a circular canvas-covered frame
stuffed with straw and marked with concentric rings surrounding
the centre or bull's-eye. For shooting with the rifle the target
is usuiilly square.
In the days of the amootb-boit musket, and for many years
after the introduction of small arms of precision, the targets
used in musketry training were of a " match " and not a
"service" character. The target was white with a black
bull's-eye (counting $ points) and two rings, invisible to the
firer, called the " iwier " and the "magpie," and scoring 4 and
^ tht |fit «f Mi;^*it5^ ^^ ^*^^ 'b« "outer" and counted
•-•LsJUtif •'^Aiii; 'riKiA 1 1 ^ji5 tjjg ijasis of all match shooting,
, service rines» and (with the trifling
1 4, the inner 3 and the magpie
\ 4a nilStaiy range practice,
jlj^ouettes on white
npromise between
the virtues of
r practices were
"-h army, and
estricted to
;d soUiers'
"refrt^er** oounet. The use of the bull's-eye to-day is to
teach the soldier to shoot uniformly, that is, to " group " his
shots closely. The posiUon of his shot group with liefoence
to the bull's-eye does not matter; if his group is comprised
within a 6 or iz-inch ring (at 100 yards range) he is passed 00
to more advanced practices at service targets. The latter are
no kmger coloured black-and-white, but are of the dull ootours
which are met with In the field, either brown hcad-and-shoulders
painted on a green-grey canvas background or brown silhouettes
held up against the face of the stop-butt. The National Rifle
Association in 19x0 followed the lead of the War Office to some
extent as regards the targets used at the Bisley meeting in
" service-rifle " competitions. For colleaive practices al the
more important military stations Urge areas of ground are
prepared with sflhouettes in entrenchments, dummy guns, &c.
Mechanical " running-man " end " disappearing " targets an
also used for training in snap-shooting and rapid fire. The
Urget used in naval gunnery is a huge floating frame of timber
dther fixed by buoys or anchors or towed at a distance by a
vessel (see Ordnance: ( Nepal Cuunery),
TARGUM. The Targums are the Aramaic translations— or
rather paraphrases— of the books of the Old Testament, and, in
thdr earliest form, date from the time when Aramaic superseded
Hebrew as the spoken bnguage of the Jews (see Hebrew
Lancuace). In their origin they were designod to meet the
needs of the unlearned ammig the people who had ceased to
understand the Hebrew of the Old Testament. In the absence
of any precise evidence on the point it is impossible to give
more than a rough estimate as to the period at whieh Hebrew,
as a ^token language, was finally displaced by Aramaic. It ia^
however, certain that the latter language was firmly estabU^ed
in Palestine in the xst century a.o. By that time, as we know
from many sources, Aramaic was not only the language in
common use, but had also received oflkial recognition,^ despite
the fact that Hebrew still remained the learned and sacred
tongue. Hence we may reasonably infer that the mass of the
people had adopted Aramaic at a considerably earlier period,
probably, as eariy as the 2nd century B.C., and that the need of
Aramaic translations of the sacred text made itsdf fdt but
little later. By the Jews* the introduction of Targums is
ascribed to Ezra; but this tradition, which probably owes its
origin to the Tahnudic explanation of Neh. vili. 8,' is incon-
sistent with the linguistic evidence furnished by the post-
exilic literature of the Old Testament, and must be rejected as
ufihistorical, if only because the process by which Aramaic
took the place of Hebrew was admittedly a very gradual oae.
The Talmudic tradition, however, is, doubtless, correct in con-
necting the origin of Targums with the custom of reading
sections from the Law at the weekly services in the synagogues,
since the need for a translation into the vernacular must first
have arisen on such occasions. As we know from the New
Testament, the custom of reading in the synagogues both from
the Law^ and from the Prophets* was well established in the
rst century a.d.: its introduction, therefore, will date from a
much earlier period. The practice of accompanying these
readings with a translation into Aramaic is, further, so generally
recognized by the 2nd century aj>. that the Mishaa* takes it
for granted, and merely inculcates certain regulations to be
observed by the Mttttrgemdn (translator), who had by this time
acquired a definite status. From it we learn that the Mtlwtp-
mdii, who was distinct from the reader, translated each verM
of the Law into Aramaic as soon as it had been read in Hebrew:
in the readings from " the Prophets " three verses might be
read at a time. Later regulations are also laid down in the
Talmuds in order to prevent any appearance of authority
attaching to the transUtion^ and also to ensure reverential
*Cf. Dalman. Die WorU Jesu, p. 2 f.; GrawmaUk des jid,-
patdst. Arcmdiseh, 3nd ed., p. 9 f.
' Sanhedriti, 216.; Jer. Meg., I.
» ffedarim, %7b: Jer. Mtg., iv.— "and they read in the book.
in the law of God. this is the Scripture, enw (R V. distinctly), thit
•Actsxv. ji.
• M^. iv 4^ 10,
i» the Tareuni."
* Luke IV. 16 f. i Acts xiti. 14. 37-
420
TARGUM
treatment on the part of the trftnalator.^ Elsewhere,* we only
find references to certain passages of Scripture, viz., the stories
of Reuben and Tamar (Gen. xxzv^ 32 and zzxviii.), the two
accotmts of the golden calf (Exod. xxxii.), the blessing of the
priests (Num. vi. 22 f.), the stories of David and Amnon (2 Sam.
xL, xii. and xiii.), wUch might be either read and translated,
or only read and not translated, or (according to a different
tradition) neither read nor translated. It is noticeable that
none of the passage cited conveys any rules or information
as to the character of the translation to be employed. Judging
by the contents of our existing Targums, and the Targumic
renderings given in Jewish literature, it is improbable that any
definite system of interpretation was ever formally adopted,
the rendering into the vernacular being left to the discretion
of the individual Meturgemdn. At first, no doubt, the translator
endeavoured to reproduce the original as closely as possible,
but, inasmuch as his object was to give an intelligible rendering,
a merely literal rendering would soon be found to be insufficient,
and he would be forced, especially in the more difficult passages,
to take a more elastic view of his obligations. To prevent
misconception he must expand and explain what was obscure,
adjust the incidents of the past to the ideas of later times,
emphasize the moral lessons to be learned from the national
history, and, finally, adapt the rules and regulations of the
Old Covenant to the conditions and requirements of his own. age.
As time went on the practice of introducing additional matter
of an edifying character grew in popular favour, and was
gradually extended. Thus, by degrees, the reprod*«ction of
the original text became of secondary importance, ana merely
served as a pretext for the discussion of topics that had little
or no bearing on the context. The method, by which the text
was thus utilized as a vehicle for conveying homiletic discourses,
traditional sayings, legends and allegories, is abundantly
illustrated by the Palestinian and later Targums, as opposed
to the more sober translations of Onkelos and the Targum to
the Prophets.
It would, however, be incorrect to suppose that the transla>
tion of the text was left entirely to the individual taste of the
translator. The latter is rather to be regarded as the repre-
sentative of the age in which he lived, and his interpretation
is to be taken as reflecting the exegesis of that period. That
there were certain limits beyond which the translator might not
venture, without incurring the censure of the authorities, may
be inferred from the few instances of translation which are
mentioned with disapproval in the Mishna and elsewhere.
Thus the rendering of Lev. xviii. 2X * by " Thou shalt not give
any of thy seed to an Aramean woman to make her conceive "
b censured, presumably because the prohibition of Molech
worship is thereby ignored.' In the same Mishnic passage it
Is forbidden to render Lev. xviiu 7 as if the text had " his
father " and " his mother."* Yet another translation (that of
Lev. xxii. 28) is mentioned with disapproval in the Jerusalem
Talmud,* though it has been preserved in the Targum Pseudo-
Jonathan ad loc.* A definite rule for guidance in translating
is apparently preserved in the Tosefta? where it is stated that
*' he who translates quite literally is a liar, while he who adds
anything is a blasphemer," Exod. xxiv. 10, ** and they saw the
God of Israel " is cited as an example. It is argued that the
literal rendering of this passage is inadmissible, because no
man has ever seen God; on the other hand, the insertion of the
word ** angel " before God would be blasphemous. The correct
rendering is stated to be " and they saw the glory of God."
But it is doubtful if the rule here given was ever intended to
• T0$, Jhfcf.. 3; J«r. }i€t^ iv. 1-3: Sola^ 396; Sopherim, xi. I.
xii. 7, xiv. a.
• Meg., is, 25ft; cf. Ginsburger, M.G.WJ., xKv. 1 f.
' Meg., iv. 9: d. JcT. Meg., iv. 9; Sanhed., ix. 1, where the
meaning b ^vcn as — " He who marries an Aramean woman and
raiseth up children by her raiseth up enemies to God " ; for another
explanation, see Ginsbuvger. M.C.W.J., xliv. 5 f.
« Cf. Berliner, rarctim OnMos, ii. p. 85 f-
• Meg., iv. 10. • Cf. Cinsburger, Ijc.
'r«f.J/<s.,end.
apply to more than the particular type of passage exemplified:
if it had been applied generally, it would have clashed with the
whole trend of Midrashic and Targumic paraphrase.
There can be little doubt that the Targums existed lor a
long time in oral form. They belonged to the class of tradi-
tional literature which it was forbidden to write down, and, so
long at least as the Targum tradition remained active, there
would be little temptation to coomiit it to writing. But it is
highly probable that this pfohibition, in the case of the Targums,
was mainly enforced with respea to those parts of the Old
Testament which were read in the synagogal services* f.f . the
Law and the PropKets, and that it was less rigidly observed
in regard to the other portions of Scripture: a wnttea trans-
lation of the latter would be of special value for the purpose
of private study. Hence there is no need to reject the traditioa
as to the existence of a written Targum on Job in the time
of GamaUel I.* (ist century aj>.), especially as refecenoes to
Targum MSS. occur in the Mishna and elsewhere.* But, as
Dalman has pointed out,** it was not these manuscripts, but
the living tradition of the learned which was recognized as
authoriutive throughout the period which doses with the
compilation of the Talmud. . . . The official recognition of a
written Targum, and therefore the final fixing of its text belongs
to the post-Talmudic period, sad is not to.be placed eadicr
than the 5th century.
I. Taxcums on thb PsirrATBrcB
(i) The Bo-called Targum of Oakeloa admittedly owes its
name to a mistaken relerence in the Babylonian Talmud."
In its original context, that of the Jerusalem Talmud,** the
passage refers to the Greek translation of Aquila. With the
exception of this one reference, the Targum is always hitro-
duced in the Babylonian Talmud by the phrase *'a» we tsans>
late" OiiaTWQna), or "our Targum" (pn ounn): it is pro*
babic, therefore, th^t the name of the author, or authors, was
unknown to the Babylonian Jews. _ It is first quoted under the
title of the Targum of Onkelos by Gaon Sar Shalom <d. a.d. 859).
According to Dolman,** its languMC differs in many matetxal paiw
ticulars from the Aramaic dialects oT the Palestinian and Babytonian
Talmuds, and is more closely allied to the biblical Aramaic. On
the linguistic side, therefore, we may regard Onkelos " as a faithful
representative of a Targum which had its rise in ludaea, the old
seat of Palestinian literary activity." It is not, however, to be
ref^arded as a reproduction in written form of a Palestinian trana-
lation, but rather as an official translation of the Law, in the
Judacan dialect, which was carried out in Babylon, probably
about the dth century a.d.: in its final form, according to
Dalman (/.c.) it cannot be eariicr than the 5th century. The
translation, as a whole, u good, and adheres very closely to the
Hebrew text, which has not been without its influence on the
Aramaic idiom; at times, especially in the poetical i»ssages. a
freer and more paraphrastic method Is employol, and the veiwm
shows evident traces of Halakhic and Haggadic expansion. The
Hebrew text used by the translators appears to have been practi-
cally identical with the Massoretic The version was held in high
esteem in Babylon, and. later, tn Palestine, and a special Massora
was made for it. The latest edition b Berliner's reprint (1884) of
the Edilio Sabbioneta (i557)>
Of all the extant Targums that of Onkelos afifords j)crhaps the
most characteristic and consistent example of the exegetical n«tbods
emplo\'ed in these works. Two principles may be said to have
guideo the translators. On the one hand, tney had, as their
primary object, to produce a faithful rendering of the oripnal
which at the same time would be intelligible to the people: for this
purpose a purely literal translation would be insufficient. On the
other hand, they regarded it as necessary to present the sacred
text In such a manner as best to convey the particohu' form of
interpretation then current. But later Jewish exegesb was espe-
cially conoemed to eliminate everything in the saaf" — *'* —
that might give rise to misconception with re^wct t» i
part of the unlearned. Hence we find various ex ~"
in the Tar^ms for avoiding any reference to-l
might be misunderstood by the people, at \" '
irreverence. Examples of this | *' *
(l) the insertion of " word " (mc
(m'sv) before the dixnoe name.
•Tor. Shaih.;
Sophertm, v. xv.
•Jgd. iv. 5,
TARGUM
42 1
_ ( trfHi men; (3)'tkeiMeitloa of the mepoaidon*' before**
(flnp)wBcoGo(l is the object of any action; (3) tneuseof tbepasnve
for the active voice, c^ OTp <Sj for jn' or nri; 'p rov for sov;
*■• for "Of. w, rr, ma; m for -vn; (4) the nae of periphiasis
for the more pronounced anthropomorphisnu, such as " to smell,"
** to taste.** or when the use of the stahu amsiructus might seem to
brine God into too close connexion with men or thin^; (s) the
use of different expressions, or the insertion of a preposition before
the divine name, when God b compared to man, or the same
actiofi is predicated of God and man; (6) the use of ** for nvr and
trhm^ and the rendering «^ or mpe when D*nSi denotes heathen
gods. Instances of this endeavour to maintain, as it were, a
respectful distance in speaking of God occur on every page of the
Targums, but cases also occur, by no means infrequently, where
human actions and passions are ascribed to God. The exi^na-
tioo of this phenomenon is to be found in the fact that antnropp-
morphisms, as such, were not necessarily avoided, but only in
those cases where th^ "^^^ ^ misunderstood by the pe '
(2) In addition to the Targum of Onkelos two other ' to
the Pentateuch are cited by Jewish authorities, undc les
of the rorgjun Jeruskalmi and the Taigum of Jonathan id.
Of these the former contains only portions of the F h^
and b therefore usually derignated the Fragmentary mi)
Tai^n}. In a )arf^ number of cases thb Targum givi f a
yanant rendering dt stn^ words: where longer passage
rks
it presents a very paraphrastic txanslation, and
of a late Haggadic composition. Its frajgmentary char
from the fact that it b simply a cdlection of variae lectiones and
widitioRS to the version of Onkdos, intended possibly for use at
puUic services.' That thb Targum was really mtended to supple-
ment that of Onkelos b shown by comparing the two texts. For
the former b frequently unintdl^ble without the latter, since it
offers no translation of those words, or clauses, for which it gave
the same rendering as Onkelos. On the other hand, the version of
Ookeios affords just the supfdementary material that b required
to restore sense to the shorter text. Moreover, in not a few cases
the Fragmentary Targum itself attaches to its variant rendering
the succeeding word from Onkelos. thus indicating that from this
point onwards the latter version b to be followed. More con-
dnsive stiH b the fact that in a number of old Mab*or MSS. we
find Tacyums to the Sons of Moses and to the Decalogue, in which
thb pfocesB has been fully carried out, the text of Onkebs being
given as well as the variants of the Fraemcntary Targum.
The second Jerusalem Tar^m, or the so<afied pseudo^Jonathan,
admittedly owes its ascription to Jonathan ben Uaad to the
inoorrect aolutioii of the abbreviated fonn by which it was fre-
qpently cited, via. •'n, or roffSMi Jenukalmi {rfmrt cam),
Thb Tafgum repcesents a later and more tuooescful attempt to
correct and suiM>lement the Targum of Onkebs by the aid of
variants deriveif from another source. ^It b not, however, a
nevbion of the Fragmentary Targum — for it b deariy independent
of that version — but b rather a paralld, if somewhat later, pro-
duction, in which the text of Onkelos b already combined with a
number of variants and additions. It b noticeable tiut thb Tar-
gum has been considerably influenced by the Targum of Onkelos,
and in thb respect, as in others, b far less trustworthy than the
Fragmentary Targum, as a witness to the linguistic and other
peculiarities of the source from which they were DOth derived. It
exhibits, to a marked dcsrce, that tendency to expand the text
by additions of every kino, which has been already noted as char-
acterbtic of the later stages of Targumic corai»sition. Homilies,
legends, traditional sayings and explanations, in fact every form
of Haggadic expansion are utilised by the Taigumist, so that at
times hb works convey tiie imp re ss t oo mote of a late Midrash
than of a tran^ilation. Thb impression b (uWyr confirmed^ by (a) a
comparison of the Talmud and later Midrashk: works with which
it has obvious points of contact, and (6) the historical alludons,
och OS the mention of Constantinople (Num. xxiv. 19), of a wife
and daucbter of Mahomet (Gen. xxi at), and the references to
Esau and Ishmad as representative liirorld-powerB (Gen. xlix. 36:
Deut. xxxui. 2: d. Fragm. Tg. to On. xlix. 2; Deut. xxxiiL 2).*
In its trai
rragm. Tg. to
f the Hebrew
pseudo-Jonathan b careful to
1 tar
t r||.
5 hi
( iry
« ^
« ire
f ily
t im
e ith
t ire
r wa
F im
a vi-
6 [u\
T an
(J tb
a !iii
5 id,
V rf
^ '£
t :nt
I Icf
] in
% be
c iry
a nn
t M-
evidence at our ^spqsal. in the middlc'of t^e 2nd' ceritury A.D.
R. Simon ben Gamaliel forbade the translation of the Pentateuch
in any language but Greek;' and this command was upheld by
R. 'Jonanan in the 3rd century. Even in the time of the later
Amoraim there b no mention of a written Palestinian Taigum,
though the oflidal Babyloruan Taivum b repeatedly referred to in
the Babylonian Talmud, in the Midrashira, and at times alsp by
Palestinian Amoraim. These considerations are sufficient to dis-
prove the theory of Gdger,* which has for so long been accepted
m one form or another, that the Targum of Onkelos was merely a
reproduction of the old Targum Jeruskalmi revised in accordance
with the " new Halakha" introduced by R. Aqiba. Yet it b
Impossible to hold that the Taiigum of Onkdoo was the oidy repre-
sentative of Taigum traditbn that existed amoiig the Jews down
to the 7th century a.d., the period to which the internal evidence
compels us to assign the Tatptm Jeruskalmi as used by the Frag-
mentary Targum and the meudo-Jonathan. We must rather
assume that a toterably fixed Taiigum tradition existed in Palestine
from quite early times. The bnguage employed in the Targum
of Onlcdoa is, admittedly, Palestinutn or Judaean, and sbica
hingnage and thought are ever dosdy allied, we may conjecture
that the current Judaean exegesis, which, in part at least, must
go back to the 2iid century a.d., was not without its influence 00
the Babykmian translation. Thb okl Targum traditM>n, however,
never reodved official recognition in Palestine, aad was unable,
therefore, to hold its own when the new Babyk>nian verakm was
introduced. We may infer that, as time went on, a reaction in
favour of the older renderings made itself felt, with the result that
these were collected in the form of variants and appended to OnkekM.
But the authority enjoyed by the Utter rendered it secure against
any encroachments; hence any later expansions, especially those
of a popular Haggadic character, luiturally found ttieir way into
the less stereotyped Tia^m JeruskalmL Unfortunatdy, we possess
but little material for controlling the texu dther of the Frag>
mentary Targum or of the pseudo-Jonathan. Of the, latter on^
one manuscript (Brit. Museum Add. 27031) b known tb exist, and
thb has been utilised by Ginsburger in hb Puudo-Jematkan (Beriin,
1003). The same scholar has also edited the POib manuscript (t 10)
of the Fragmentary Targum {Das FraemeHteiOkarnm, Berlin,
1899). to which he has added the variants from Cod. Vat. 440 and
the manuscripts at Nuremberg and Leipzig. In the same edition
B collected the various fragments 01 the Tarpm Jeruskalmi,
lich are to be found in the early editions of the Fienuteuch and
part also in various manuscript
IL Taocoms ow tbb Prophbts
The official Targum on the Prophets b stated by the Babyloniaa
dmod' to have been " said " by Jonathan ben Uxnel, the disciple
HUld, and b usually known, therefore, as the Targum Jemalkan,
sewhere in the Talmud, however, the quoUtk>ns from this
Li^m are pven under the name of Joseph bar Chijah, head of
• Meg. L II.
Nackgelassena SdrffUm, W,
*M.G.W.J.yA.
• Ursckrifi (185;
o8f.;/«diidk«'
pp. 162 ff., 451 ff..
" * •^(i87i).i«.p.85f.
424
TARIFF
TVMOr
lasting tin iMo; teoond, of libenl legisULtion» from i860 to
x88x; third, of revenioa to protection after i88x.
(x) During the first period the prohibitive legislation of the
18th century was retained, largely in consequence of the Napo>
leonic wars. The commercial treaty of X786 between Great
Britain and France has already been referred to as making a
breach in the restrictive system of the i8th century; and in the
early years of the French Revolution a similar wave of liberal
policy is to be seen. But the great wars led to the complete
prohibition of the importation of manufactures, teaching its
climax in Napoleon's Continental system. The system of pro-
hibition thus instituted, while aimed at Great Britain, was made
general in its terms. Hence the importation into France of
virtually all manufactured articles fram foreign countries was
completely interdicted; and such was the le^slation in force
when peace came in x8x5. This system doubtless was not ex*
pected to last after the wars had cnsed, but, aa it happened, it
did last until x86o. Successive govemmenu in France made
endeavours to break with the prohibitive system, but naturally
met with strong opposition from the manufacturing interests,
not prepared to meet the competition of Great Britain, whose
industries had made, and were continually making, rapid strides.
The political position of the governments of the Restoration and
of Louis Philippe was such that they were unwilling to forfeit
support by pulling measures in which, after all, th^ were not
themselves deeply interested.
(2) It was not until Napoleon m. bdieved it tq be to his
poUtiral advantage to strengthen friendly relations with Great
Britain by the moderation of the import duties
that the change was finally made- while the despotic
character of his government enabled him, when once
the new policy was entered on, to bring about a radical change.
After some secret negotiations, in which the English Com Law
agitator, Cobden, and the French economist, Cherbuliez, took
an active part, Napoleon was persuaded to enter on the famous
commercial treaty of i860, and virtually to force its acceptance
by the French legislature. In the treaty as finally framed duties
on most manufactured commodities were reduced to a range of
10 or 15 per cent., some iron manufactures, however, being left
at slightly higher rates. Before the treaty, all woollen and
cotton manufactures, all manufactures of leather, of l^rdware,
pottery, all glass ware, had been prohibited, while raw materials
and iuch manufactures as were not prohibited had been sub-
jected to heavy duties. The treaty thus made a radical change,
revolutionizing the tviff system of France. It did so with rda-
tion not only to the United Kingdom, but, in its after effects, to
the world at large. The French government at once set to work
to eater into similar arrangements with other countries, and
treaties were successively concluded in 1860-66 with Belgium,
with the ZoUverein (Germany), Italy, Switaerland, Sweden and
Norway, Holland, Spain, Austria. All these countries made
reductions of duty on French products, while France admitted
other products at the rates of the British treaty tariff. Thus a
network of ueaties was spread over Europe, leading to much
great freedom of trade and opening an era of freer international
exchange.
(3) This more liberal policy, however, probably never had
deep root in French public opinion. It received a check from
the Franco-German War of 1870-71. The treaty of
•jjjj** Frankfort in 187 1 contained, in place of the previous
ffiff detailed commercial treaty with Germany, the simple
"most favoured nation*' proviso.- The guarantee
which each country thus gave 'to the other of treatment as
favourable as that given elsewhere became irksome to France,
sore after her defeat in the war. More important, ho^Tver, in
undermining the liberal system, was the change in agricultural
conditions which began to set in in the decade of 1878-88.
Then the great improvements in transportation caused compe-
tition in agricultural products to be felt, especially from the
United States. Agricultural prices decOned; jgrfcyUural de-
pression set in. The agricultural . ^ .
indifferent about duties, , now 1^^^
against compctitkm tiom beyond the 9ttu- To this factor was
added the revival of national feeling and prejudice, wkh giow>
ing political complications and jealousies. Hence, by gradual
steps, the customs policy of France has become more and more
strongly restrictive. The fijst impoitaot step was taken in
1881, when a new general tariff was established, in which specific
duties replaced the ad valortm duties chiefly applied in the treaty
tariffs of x86o-66. The new rates were supposed to be no more
than equivalent to those replaced by them, but in £act were in
some cases higher. New treaty tariffs, less liberal tlxan the
earlier ones, were concluded with Belgium, Switzerlaxui and
Spain; while with other countries {e.g. Great Britain) a " most
favoured nation " arrangement was substituted for the pcevious
treaty rigime. These new treaty arrangements expired in
X893: even before that date, duties had been raised on grain
and meats; and finally, in X893, a new and more ^^
highly protective general tariff was established on ^nSt,
the recommendation of M. Mdine, with high duties on
agricultural products and raw materials as well as on manu-
factures, and with provisions for limited domestic bounties on
silk, hemp and flax. Nevertheless, some provision was made
for negotiations with foreign countries by establishing a mini>
mum tariff, with rates lower than those of the geikeral or
maTJmnm tariff, the rates of this minimum tariff bdng appli-
cable to countries which might make concessions to France
As a rule the minimiun tariff has been applied, alter negotia-
tion, and thus is. the tariff in practical effect; yet its rates are
still high, and, most significant of all, agricultural products are
granted no reductions whatever as compared witlx the maxi-
mum tariff, there being heavy and imrelaxed duties upon grun,
animals, meats aikd the like.
Germany. — ^The tariff history of Germany, up to the foonda-
tion of the German Empire, is the history of the ZoUverein
or German customs union; and this in turn is dosdy
connected with the tariff history of Prussia. In 1818 JJlJ"*
Prussia adopted a tariff with much reduced duties, iJ^!^
-under the influence of the Liberal statesmen then
still powerful in the Prussian government. The excitement
and opposition in Germany to the Prussian tariff led to customs
legislation by the other German states, some smaller sutes
joining Prussia, while the southern states endeavoured to form
independent customs unions. Finally, by gradual steps be-
tween X831 and x8j4, the complete ZoUverein was formed,
notwithstanding popular oppositiozL All the German states
formed a customs union, with free trade between them, except
so far as* differing internal taxes in the several states made some
modifications necessary. The customs revenue was divided
among the several states in proportion to population. The
tariff of the ZoUverein was, in essentials, the Prussian tariff of
1818, and was moderate as compared with most of the separate
tariffs previously existing. Within the ZoUverein, after 1834,
there was an almost unceasing struggle between the Protec-
tionist and Free Trade parties, Prussia supporting in the main
a Liberal poUcy, while the South German states supported a
Protectionist poUcy. The trend of the tariff poUcy of the.
ZoUverein for some time after X834 was towards protection;
partly because the specific duties of 18x8 became proportionately
heavier as manufactured commodities feU in price, partly be>
cause some actual changes in rates were made in response to
the demands of the Protectionist states. In 1853 a treaty
between the ZoUverein and Austria brought about reciprocal
reductions of duty between these two parties. After x866 a
change towards a more liberal poUcy was brought about by
the efforts of Prussia, which concluded independently a com-
mercial treaty with France, forcing on the other members of the
ZoUverein the alternative of either parting company jf^^^
with Prussia or of joining her in her relations with tmatr
France. The second alternative was accepted, largely ««tf to«r
because Austria did not vigorously support the South ^*y
Oerman states, and in 1865 the ZoUverein as a whole ^^.
conduded a commercial treaty with France, bringing about im*
jBOitgni reductions of duty. The regime of comparatively free
TARIFF
42s
tnuia Cbn csUbUdied lasted for about fifteen yeaa. After the
loundatioo ol the Geixnan Empire, the duties oC the Zollverein
becaine those of Gennany, and for a time the iiberal i^g^me
was maintained and extended, with respect to the tariff as with
respect t0 other matters. But in Germany* as in France, a
combination of political and of ecooomic (orccs led before long
to a reaction towards proteclioi^ Bismarck broke with the
National Liberals, who were the champions of free tmde; al
the same time the agricultural depression set in, and the agri-
cultural intecest demanded protection against American and
other foreign competition. The manufacturers, opecially of
iron, also manoeuvred for protection. The reaction came in
aS79, when duties were increased on manufactured articles as
nwtav well as on agricultural nrticlei. Other advmnoes of
fiMfcii- duty, were made in later years, especially on grain;
^JfA and thus the policy of Germany has become dis-
^^ tinaly Protectionist, though not to the same deipee
as in France. In 1893, however, the precise year in which
France gave up her system of commercial treaties, some modera*
tion was brought about in Germany's protective system by
commercial treaties with Austria, Ita^, Belgium, Switzerland,
and shortly afterwards with Russia. These treaties provided
for reductions of duties in all directions, the most important
cooces&ions being on certain agricultural products^ Thus the
duty on wheat, which had been gradually raised as high as
5 marks per hundred kilogrammes (roughly is. 3d., .ex about
30 c a bushel) was reduced to 3*50 marks fay the treaties* The
rates of these treaties were extended to a number of other
countries having "most favoured nation" relations with
Germany. The tariff system of Germany, however, at the
hfginning of the 20th century, remained definitely Protectionist.
In other important countries changes in policy have taken pbice
limlUr to thoie noted in Germany and in France. The era of
mo<!craced tariffs, which began with the ^at treaty of i860, lasted
», and was followed in Italy, Austria, Belgium,
for about twenty yean,
Switaertand and Spain
by a reverdon to pnDteetion, akhiMigh
usually to a km Kieh syatem of protection than had prevailed
before i86a The United Kingdom and Holland alone hekl con-
sl>tcntly and unfalteringly to the i>rinclple of free trade. The
factors which have brought about this reaction have been, as was
already noted, partly economic, partly politics] t on the one hand,
the prcswie of competition from distant couotries in agricultunl
products, a consequence chiefly of iniprayod transportation; on
the other hand, the revival of national sentiment and prejudice.
The UnUed 5/otor.-*-The Uriff history of the United States,
like that of European countries divides itself into two great
periods, before and after the year i860. But it is no more than
an accident that this year constitutes the dividing line in both
cases, the change in the United SUtes being due to the Civil
War, which so profoundly influenced the fiscal, economic and
political history of the country in all directiona. The period
before x86o may again be divided into thr^ sub-peiiods, the
first extending from 1789 to x8i6, the second from x8x6 to
about 1846, the third from 1846 to i860.
(i) The Tariff Act of 1789 was the first legislative measure
passed by the United States^ The Protecdonisu have pomtcd
to it as showing the disposition of the first CoDgicas to
ig/^ adopt at once a policy of protection; the Free TYaden
have pointed to it stmihirly as lowing a ptredilectkm
for their policy. Each had some ground for the claim. The
duties of the aa of 1789 were very moderate, and, as compared
with those which the United Slates has had under any sufase-
qucnt legislation, may be described as iroe trade duties. On
the other hand, the spirit of the act of 2789 was protective. It
had been the design of Madison, and of other firm supportets
of Che new coastltutkw, to adopt in 1789 a very simple measure,
designed solely to secure revenue. But the pressure from the
lepresentatives of some of the states, notably Pennsylvania
and Massadmaetts, oompeDed faim to incorporate iq the Tariff
Act certain spedfie duties bonowed from the Tariff Acts then
fa) force in these states, which had a distinctly protective aim.
Thus the act of 1789, altfaoo^ the dntics levied by it were
■Mdcxate, yet had a protective intent. Such in the main re-
nained the situation until i8<6, dotics being indeed raised from
time to time m order to secure man levcnoe, bnt the arranffr
ment and the general rate of the duties not bemg sensibly
naodilied. There was not at this time any considerable pubh'c
feeling on the subjca of protection, chiefly because during most
of the years of this period the Eastern sUtes, and especially
New England, where manufactures might be wqwrtrd to
develop fint, wexe profiubty engaged in an eztenshre ejqmrt
and carrying trade.
(9) After the dose of the Wax of 1812, however, a new spirit
and a new policy developed. With the end of the Napokonic
wars, the opportunities foe American commerce be* .^.^ „
came kss, while at the same time the ezpandii^ 'we-st*
popuhition necessarily led to diversified interesU at home. A
demand arose for two dosdy connected measures: protection
to domestic manufactures, and internal improvements. Pro'
tection was demanded as a means both of skiing yonng
industries and of fostering a home market for agtfcultuxal pro-
dttctSk The chief spokesman of the new movement was Hmiry
Clay, who remained throughout his life the constant advocate
of this so-called "American qrstem." Some disposition in
this direction showed itself as early aa x8x6, when tariff duties
were raised. Still greater changes were made in 1824, 1828,
and 1853. In 1824 duties wen considerably nised; and
thereafter the New England states, which so far had been
lukewarm in supporting the movement, joined in it unreservedly.
The tariff of 1828 was affected by some political manipulation,
whidi caused it to contain objectionable proviaioDs, and to be
dubbed "the tariff of abominations." But the so-caUed
abominations were removed in 1832, when the protective
system was ddfteratdy and cardiilly xeazranged. By this
time, however, the opposition to it in the Sooth had readied a
pitch so Intense that concessions had to be made. As a planting
and sbtvenmning region, the South Inevitably had no manu-
factures: it felt that its cotton was nore to find a foreign market,
and would gain little from the csublishment of a domestic
cotton mamifacture within the country; and it judged, rightly,
that the protective system brought it only burden and no
benefit. The extent of the burden was greatly exaggerated by
the leaders of the South, cspedally in the heat of partisan con-
troversy; and the subject was dosdy connected with the con-
troversy as to the ri^ts of the sUtes, and the endeavour of
South Carolina, under the infliienrf of Calhoun, to nullify the
Tariff Aa of 1832. The nullification movement led in 1833 to
the well-known compromise, by which the rates of duty aa
established by the Act of 1832 were to be gradually reduced,
reSching in 184^ a general levd of 20 per cent. The compromise
served its turn in allaying political bittemem and staving off a
direct conflict between the United States and South Carolina.
But the reductions of duty made under it were never cffcctivdy
earned out. In 1842, when the fioial so per cent, rate was to
have gone into effect, the Protectionists again had control of
Congress, and after a brief period of two months, during which
this 20 per cent, rate was in force, passed the Tariff Act of 1842,
which once more restored the protective system in a fonn not
much less extreme than that of 1832.
(3) Four years later, however, in 1846, a veiy considerable
chsnge was secured by the South, and a new era waa entered
on. Tlie Democratic party now was in control of jg^ jg^
legislation, and m the Tariff Act of 1846 established
a system of moderate and purdy ed vaiorem duties, in which the
protected articles were subjected, as a rule, to a rate of 30 per
cenL, In some cases to rates of 25 and 20 per cent. Hie system
then established has often been spoken of as a free trade system,
but was in leaUty only a wyvbtm of moderated protection. In
1857 duties were still further reduced, the rate on most pro-
tected commodities gohig down to 24 per cent., and remaining at
this comparatlvdy low level until the outbreak of the Civil War.
The second great period in the tariff history of the United
States opens with the Civil War. It is true that the first steps
towards a policy of higher protection were taken just before
the war began. In the session of 1860-61, immediatdy pre-
ceding the outbreak of the conflict, the Morrill Tariff Act wag
428
TARKANI—TARN
«■ iirterladM MtndMft bclilnd it* lite tbe Kwiclie-
kbh-tarim, Lashin-darya, Yitini>tariin, llek, and Toknz-tarinb
None of its roaxginal lakes is round in shape, but all are elongated,
ifrom N. to S or from N.W. to S.E. This is the general rule, but
there is a second series of lakes beside the river which are drawn
out from N.E. to S.W. These owe their existence primarily to the
action of the wind. Here too* in its delta, the Tarim overflows
into more than one chain oC a third category of lakes («■{. Avullu-
kol, Kara-kol, Tayek-kol, and Arka-kolJ. strung on one or other
of its anastomosing deltaic arms. These generally «ct as regulators
and clarifiera, the river emergmg from them with cr>'Btal-bright
Near the head of its delta the Tarim is joined from tfie N. by the
Koncheh-darya, a stream which issues friMn the lake of Bagrash-kul,
its ultimate source being the Khaidu-gol or Khaidyk-gol. which
drains the Yulduc valleys of the eastern Tian-shan Mountauns.
This river, which measures mo m. from the Bagrash-kul to the
Kararkoshun, serves, with the help of the poplar forest which grows
alons its left bank, as a dam to check the westward movement of
the aesert sands. Finally the Tarim enters, by a number of arms,
the series of shallow, dwindling lakes of Kara-buran, which serve
«■ a sort of lacustrine aate-room to the xcal terminal basin of the
river, the Kara^koshnn, which lies a Uttle farther to the £., in
40" N., 89* 30' E., at an altitude of 2675 feet above sea-Ievcl. In
i900;-ot Dr Sven Hcdin discovered several fresh desert lakes
formingto the N. of Kara-koshun, and branches of the deltaic arms
of the Tarim. or overflows of such tnanches, straining out in the
same direaion, facts which he interpreted as a tendency of the river
to revert to its former more northerly terminal basm of the old
(Chinese) Lop-nor.
The ihrer not only dwindles vastly between the oonflnence of the
Mc-m {*.£, 16,780 cubk ft. in the second in June) and its embouchune
in the Kara-lcoshun (5650 cub. ft. in the second), but keeps on
lifting its bed and its current, like the Po and the Hwang-ho, above
the level of the adjacent countnr. The total fall from the con-
fluence of the Ak-su-darya (3380 ft.) to the Kara-koshun (267^ ft.).
a distance of some 665 m., is onlv 705 ft., giving an aver^ of very
little mora than a foot per mile. The total length of the river
is probably somewhere near 1000 m. On the whole the Tarim is
step by step and year by year steadily but slowly working
its way towa^ the S.W., for all along its lower course it is accom-
panied by a belt, some 2^ cu wide, which lies at a lower level or
altitude than itself. In its actual delta this tendency is counter-
balanced by its incipient oscilbtlon backwards towards the N.,
towards the desiccated lake basin of the old Lop-nor. Although
the river drains the vast area of SM^ooo B4* ni., it a only from
Ij2,ooo wq. m. of this (48*8 per cent.) that it oerives any augmenta^
tion of volume. The remaining 182,000 sq. m. (51*2 per cent.) of
the potential catchment area fails to contnoute one drop of water,
being nothing but arid, rainless desert. Throughout the catchment-
basm of the Tarim the precipitation is governed by the general kiw,
that it increases from N. to S. and from £. to W. Hence, in con-
formity with this, the largest affluents are in the west. In general
•hape the basin of the Tarim is elliptical, but the lowest part lies
near the extreme E. end of the ellipse. " If the deepest part of the
basin \».y beyond the bng axb of the ellipse the symmetry^ would be
ideal; but, situated as it is at the southern foot of the Tian-shan,
it baa occasioned a dislocation towards the N. of the main stream
of the ayatem. ... If we compare the northern peripheral sone
firom the catchment area of the Kashgar-daiya to the catchment area
of the Kuruk-tagh, both inclusive, with the southern peripheral zone
from the catchment area of the Yarkand-darya to the catchment
area of the Astii»4agh, both again inclusive, we find that the former
has an area of 82,990 sq. m., and the latter an area of 89,550 sq. nu,
or, in other words, that they are approximately of the same size.
In the case of both the breadth decreases 00 the whole towards the
E., until they each terminate bi a narrow strip, the domain of
the Kunik-tagh on the one hand and that of the Aatin-tagh on the
other. But before they contract in this way the cones swell out
into the Khaidu-gol and the Cherchcn-darya and Kara-rauran
respectively. ... A corresponding symmetry can also be seen in
the rivers which gather on the encircling mountains into tlie de-
pression." *■ the Kashgar-darya balancing the Yarkand-darya, the
Ak-su-darya balancing the Khotan-daiya« the Koncheh-darya
balancing the Cherchen-darya, and so on.
The Tarim begins to freeee about the end of November and the
freezing advances upwards a^nst the current. \Vhen the ice of
the river thaws in the beginnmg of March it sets up a spring flood,
whkh in magnitude and volume falls little short of the flood caused
by the mdung of the snows on the mountains about the hcad-
■treami and f^ers of the river, and the course of which can be
traced all down the Tarim during the summer and autumn. The
river abounds in fish, especially in the lower part of its courK. Fish
forms the sUpk: food ot a large part of the nverine popubtion.
See Sven Hedtn, SeieiUi/u MesnUs oj a Journgy in Ctntro^ AtU^
189^1902 (vols. L and ii., Stockholm, i905-o6)« and Cm/rW Asia
and TiM (2 vols., London, 1903). G- T. Be.)
« Sven Hcdin, Scitniific Resuli
TAIIXAin» or Taikalambi, b ?at1itii tribe inUbNhig tbe
whole of Bajour (7.V.), on the boitfer of the Ncnth-West
Frontier Province of India. Subdivided into Mamunds, Isazal
and IsnaiUai, the tribe numben some too,ooo persons.
TARLBTOR, SIR BARASTRB (i754-i333)> English soldier,
was the son of John Tarleton (17x9-1773), a Liverpool merchant,
and was bom in Liverpool on the 3 xst of Augttst x 7 54. Educated
at Oxford he entered the army, and in December 1775 be sailed
as a volunteer to America with Earl, afterwards Marquess,
Comwallis, and his services during the American War of Inde-
pendence in the year 1776 gained for him the position of a
brigade major of cavahry. He was present at the battle of
Braadywine and at other engagements In 1777 and 1778, and
as the commander of the British lec^on, a mixed force of cavalry
and light infantry, he proceeded at the beginning of 1780 to
South Carolina, tendering valuable services to Sir Henry Clinton
in the operations which culndnated in the capttire of Chaileston.
He was responsible for a British victory at Waxhaw in May
1780, and he materially helped Comwallis to irin the bottle
of Camden in the succeeding August. He was completely
victoriotis in an engagement With Thomas Sumter at Fishing
Creek, or Catawba Fords, but was not equally successful when
he encountered the same general at Blackstock Hill in November
1780; then in January i78r, in spite of much personal valour,
he was. defeated with heavy loss at Cowpens. Having been
successful in a skirmish at Tarrants House, and having taken
part in the battle of Guilford in March 1781, he marched with
(^mwaQis into Virginia, and after affording much assistance
to his commander-in-chief he was instructed to hold Gloucester.
This post, however, was surrendered to the Americans with
Yorktown in October 1781, and Tarleton returned to Enghnd
on parole. In 1790 be entered parliament as nfcmber for
Liverpool, and with the exception of a single year he remained
in the House of Commons until t8x7. In r794 he became a
major-general; in 18x2 a general; and he held a military
command in Ireland and another in England. In x6x5 he was
made a baronet. He died without issue at Leintwardine ' in
Shropshire on the ssth of January 1833.
For some time Taricton lived with the actress Mary Robinson
(Perdita), and his portrait was painted both by Reynolds and by'
Gainsborough. Sir Banastre wrote a History of the Campaigns of
1780 amd 1781 in the Southern Proomces of North America (London.
1781), which, altliough of some value, is marred by the author's
vanity and by his attacks on Comwallis. It ^-as criticised by
Colonel Roderick Mackenzie in his Sfriclnrrs on Lieatenani-ColottH
Tarkkm's History (1781) and in the CormoaUis Corrtspondoaca.
TARLTOW, RICHARD (d. X588), EngUsh actor, was probably
at one time an inn-keeper, but in 1583, when he is mentioned
as one of the original company of queen's players, was already
an experienced actor. He was Elisabeth's favourite down,
and his talent for impromptu doggerel on subjects suggested
by his audience has given his name to that form of verse. To
obtain the advantage of his popularity a great number of songs
and wittidams of the day were attributed to him, and after
hb death TarUon's Jests^ many of them older than be, made
several volumes. Other books, and several ballads, coupled
his name with tbcir titles. He is said to have been the
Yorick of Hamlet's soliloquy.
TARN, a river of southern France, tributary to the Garonne,
watering the departments of Lozcre, Aveyron, Tarn, Hautc-
Caronne and Tam-cl-Garonnc, Length, 234 m. Area of basin.
5733 sq. m. Rising on the southern slope of Mt. Losere at a
height of 5149 ft., the Tarn flows westwanl and, having received
the Tamon, enters the gorge, famed for its beauty, which
separates the Caussc do Sauveterrc from the Causse M^jan.
Emerging from this cafion after a course of 37 m. It receives the
Jonte on the left and, still flowing through gorges, passes
between the Causse Noir, the Larzac plateau and the Causse de
St Affriquc (at the foot of which it receives the I>ourdou dc
Vabrc) on the left and the I^vezou range and the Plateau of
S6gala on the right. In this part of its course the most impor-
tant town is Millau, where it receives the Dourbie. At the
cascade of Sabo, above AIM, the river enters the plains and.
TARN-^TARNOWSO
429
•owing m a dnp bed, fiamn ABA »ad CtSBaCf tome dteace
below whicb, at the cnnfluciice ol tiM AgfiAt, it
weit-90ttkh*we9terly for a northtweateily ooune. At
Miboa tte Tamieceives tba TtMoaand 6 m. faiUMff on tiaitts
with die Aveynm. It tliea leacfaet MoiflBM^ a( m. bebw whacfa
it flowa^ ittto the Garonne^
. TASII* a depaitment of Mttth-westcm Fzance, focncd ia
1790 of the tfaxoe dleoesM of AU»» Castits and lavaur, belong*
ing to tbe province of fjingiifdor Fopu (1906) 130,531. Aiea,
M51 aq. m. Tani is bounded N. and £. by Aveyion, S.E. by
H^iauit, S. by Aude, S.W. and W. by Uante-Gaionne,lJ.W. by
Tani'Ct-GanNiae. The slope of tbe depactinent is frovi.esat
to wcsty end its geneiai cfaaiacter is moontainQiis or hilly; its
thne principal nages* the Mountains of Laosune,. the Sidobre,
and the Montngne Noire, belonging to the Cevennes, lie on the
soath<cast. The stony and wind-hlowa slopes of the fintp
Buacd are used Cor. ptotojage. The higheiA point of the mnge
and o( the department is the Pk de Monulet (about 4is» ft.);
several other suonnita are not much short of thiSr The granite*
stifewn plateaus of the Sidobre, from 1600 to sooo ft. Ugh^
separate the valley of the Agoftt from that of iu left-hand
afflnent the Thor6. The Mootagne Noire, on the southern
border of the department, derives its nsme from the foieata on
iu northern slope, and some of its peaks axe from 3000 to 3500 ft.
high. The limestone and sandstone foot-hiUs axe dotbed with
vixies and fruit trees, and are brokeu by deep alluvial valleys of
cxtnoidfnary fertOity. With the exception of a small portion
of the Mootagne Notre, which drains into the Aude, the whole
department belongs to the basin of the Garonne. The eastern
portion of tbe <department has the climate of Auvergne, the
severest in France, but that of the plain is Girondin. At
Albi' the mean tem p et atwe is 55". The rainfall, 39 or 30 ins.
at that phux, eneeds 40 ins. on theLacauneaad Montague
Noire.
The most noteworthy ptaces in the department are Albi, the
capital. Castits, Oaillac, Lavaur, Masamct and Cordes. which are
Kparately treated. Other places of ioterert are Buriats, which
bas niins cX an old church and chAt«au: Lisle d'Albi, a basUde
with a church of the 14th century; and Penne, which has ruins
of a fine medieval ch&teau.
TABS (O. Efig. Seme, Scand. ^n, li&m, tjirn, &c.), a name
applied in England (especially in the Lake District) and in
Scotland to small lakes or pools in mountainous districts^
cspedally to sudi as have no visible affluent streams. The
term isaometinies used also of a marsh or bog.
TABlf-BT-aAa01iN& a department of south-western France,
Kormed in 1808 of districts fonneily befenging to Guienne and
Gascony (Qucrcy, Lomagne, Axmagnac, Rouexgue, Agenais),
with the addition of a small piece of Languedoc. From 1790
to x6o8 its territory was divided between the departments of
Lot, Haute-Garonne, Tarn, Aveyron, Gera and Lot-ci-Garonnei
It b bounded N. by Lot, E. by Aveyron, S. by Tarn and Haute-
Garonne, and W. by Gers and Lot^ct-Garonne. Area, 1440
sq. m. Pop. (1906) i8a,sS3. The department is watered by
three rivers, the Garonne, the Tarn, which joins the Garonne
below Moissac, and the Aveyron, which flows into the Tarn
between Moissac and Montauban, dx\ndmg it into three dis-
tinct regions of hills. Those to the south-west of the Garonne
are a continuation of the phtesu of Lannemesan; ramifications
of the Cevenncs extend between the Garonne and the Tarn,
and between the Tarn and the Aveyron; the region to the
north of tbe continuous valley form^ by tbe courses of the
three rivers belongs to tbe Central Plateau. Tie t(mue or
limestone phitcau of (^ercy occupies the north-east comer of
the department and includes its highest point (1634 ft.)- The
lowfsl point (X64 ft.) h at the exit of the Garonne. The dhnate
b ndld and agreeable; tbe mean annual temperature being
aboQt $6** F. Rain falls seldom, but heavily, espcdally in
spring, the annual rainfall being 28 or 30 ins.
The wide alluvial valleys of the three large riven are most pro-
ductive. Cereals, eapedally iHieat, ouoxe and oats, occupy mone
than tww-tbirds of tne arable land of the department. The viae
XXVI 8
IS cvvywhcre cultivated and laige quaatities of papcs are eaported
a9 Ubia fruit. Pautoes are also grown. Plums and apricots art
abundant. The breeding of horses, especially for cavalry purposes,
is actively carried on; and the rearing of homed cattle, both for
diauriit and for fattening. Is also hapoitaut. Sheep, pigs, pouhiy
and, in a oiioor degvee, silk-worms, are ala» souroaa of profit.
The manufacturing uidustry is represented by flour-mills, metal-
foundries, tanneries, various kinds of «Ik-miUs. and manuiactorles
of linen, wool and paper. The principal exports are fniit, wine,
flour, tiufilcs lioa the Rouecgue, pouttry, phosphate* and Ihho.
gfaohic fsooe. Imports include raw amteriala for testile tadnstrica,
timber, iron, wood-pulp^ coal and agricultural produce. The canal
of the Garonne traverses the department lor 48 m. and the
Garonne and the Tarn furnish 8a m. of navieable waterway. Tlw
department ia served by the Ocleaaa and the Southern railways.
Tbedepvtntent forma the dioocie of Moouuban, and belodp to
the jumdictton of the Toulouse court of appeal, to. the atoaimit
(educational division) of Toulouse, and to the district of the XVIL
corps d'armde (Toulouse). It has 3 arrondissements (Montauban,
Moissac and CastelsanaaiD), 34 cantons and 195 communes.
Montauban. Moissac and Caslakanasin are the priMipal plaoaa.
Other towns of interest are St Antonia, which has tanneries and
manufactures <^ rough fabrics and is archaeologicatly important
for its possession of a massive hdtel de ville of the 12th century;
the otdsst in France; Bruniquel. which is splendidly aicuated over-
lookmg the valleys of the Aveyron and the Vire. and is dominated
by a medieval castle with a donjon of the nth century; Beaumont-
do-Lomagne, a curious bastidi of the 13th century with a fortified
church 01 the 14th century; Montperat-da-Quercy. which, has a
church of the same period, containing many precious antiquittttt
Varen, an ancient town of narrow streets and old houses with a
remarkable Romanesque church and the ruins of a castle of the
I |th and 15th centuries ; and Ginals, where remains of the Cisterdau
abbey of Beaulieu, founded in 1141, are still to be aeea.
TARNOPOt^ a town in Galida, Austria, 87 m. B.S.E. of
Lemberg by rail. Pop. (1900) 30,368, half of which are Jews,
Industry consists chiefly in corn-milling and the preparation o(
wax and honey. The principal trade is in horses, com and
other agricultural produce, and spirits. Tarnopol was formerly
a fortress, and rendered valuable services to Polish kings, who
in their turn conferred upon it important privileges.
TARNOW, a town in Galida, Austria, 164 m. Vf^,W. of
Lemberg by ralL Pop. (1900) 31,691, about 40 per cent. Jews.
It is situated on the river Blala, not far from its junction with
the Ihmajec, and is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop. It
possesses a cathedral in Gothic style, built in the xsth century^
with monuments of the Tamowski and Ostrogski families, to
which the town formerly belonged, and another church buUt
in 1454- On the Martinsberg, an eminence near the town,
stands the ruins of the old castle of the Tamowski family, and
a small church over 800 years old. Worth mentioning also
is the town hall, an old and interesting building. AgriojJtural
implements, glass and chicory are manufactured.
TABKOWSKI, JAN [called Magnus] (148^1561), Polish
general After a careful education beneath the eye of an ex-
cellent mother and subsequently at the palace of Matthew
Drzewicki, bishop of Przemysl, he occupied a conspicuous
position at court In the reigns of John Albert, Alexander and
Sigismund I. As early as 1509 Tamowski brilliantly distin*
guished himself in Moldavia, and took a leading part in the
great victories of Wisniowiec (1512) and Orsza (1514), where he
commanded the flower of the Polish chivaliy. To complete
his education he then travelled in Palestine, Syria, Arabia.
Egypt, and northern and western Europe. While in Portugal
he received from King Emanuel the chief command in tbe war
against the Moors, and Carles V. rewarded his services in the
Christian cause with the dignity of a count of the Empire.
Indeed, the emperor had such a high regard for Tamowski that
he offered him the leadership of aU the forces of Europe in a
grand expedition against the Turks. On the death of Nicholas
FirleJ m 1526 Tamowski became grand hetman of the crown,
or Polish commander-in-chief, and in that capacity won his
greatest victory at Oberlyn (22nd August 1531) over the
Moldavians, Turks and Tatars, for which he received a hand-
some subsidy and an ovation similar to that of an aftcient
Roman triumphator. Heartily attached to King Si^smund I.
and his son Sigfemund Augustus, Tamowski took the royal side
during the so-called KptwMa wcjna, or PouUrt War, oif 1537;
2a
430
TAROK—TARQUINIUS PRISCUS
and also In X548 when the turbulent stUchle tried to annul
by force the marriage of Sigismund Augustus with Barbara
Radziwill. lo 1553, however, we find him in opposition to
the court and thwarting as much as poasible the designs of the
young king. Nevertheless Tamowski was emphatically an
aristocrat and an oligarch, proud of his ancient lineage and
intensely opposed to the democratic tendencies of the aUchta,
A firm alliance between the king and the magnates was his ideal
of government. On the other hand, though a devout Catholic,
he was opposed to the exclusive jurisdiction of the bishops
and would even have limited the authority of Rome in Poland.
As a soldier Tarnowski invented a new system of tactics which
greatly increased the mobility and the security of the armed
camps within which the Poles had so often to encounter the
TaUrs. He also improved discipline by adding to the authority
of the commanders. His principles are set forth in his Com-
sUium Rationii BeUieae (best edition, Posen, 1879), whkh was
long regarded as authoritative. As an administrator he did much
to populate the vast south-eastern steppes of Poland.
' See Stanislaw Orzechowski. Life and Death of Jan Tamowski
(Pol.) (Cracow, 1855). (R. N. B.)
TAROK, a game of cards very popular in Austria* and
Germany, and played to a limited extent in some parts of
France. Special cards are used, and the rules are complicated.
The name Tarot was originally given by the Italians to a certain
card in the pack as early as the xjlh century, but was afterwards
applied to the game itself.
TAROM, a district of Persia, situated on the borders of
Gilan, north-west of Razvin. It is divided into upper and
lower Tarom; the former, on the right bank of the Ki^il Uzain
(Sefid Rud) river, is a crown domain; the latter, on the left
bank, forms part of the province of Kazvin. It produces much
cotton and fruit, and derives a considerable revenue from its
alum mines at Zajkanin. Most of the alum is exported to Russia.
It also has a few olive groves. The inhabitants are Turks.
TABPAUUN. or Takpauukg (as if larpdlini, from tar,
and paUing, a covering, Lat. paUa, a mantle), a heavy, well-
made, double warp plain fabric, of various materials, used
chiefly in the manufacture of covers for railway and other
waggons and for protecting goods on wharves, quays, &c. To
make it proof against rain and other atmospheric influences it
is generally treated with tar, though various compositions of
different kinds are also employed, especially for the finer fabrics
such as are used for covering motor-cars. These covers are
generally made of flax, hemp and cotton, and are very similar
to canvas — indeed, large quantities of canvas are made water-
proof, and then called tarpaulin. A very large quantity of
tarpaulin b made entirely of jute. The dilcf scats of manu-
faaure are Dundee, Arbroath and Kirkcaldy. Formerly the
word was tised as a sort of nickname for a sailor, the modem
" Ur " in the same sense being an abbreviation of it.
TARPQA, in Roman legend, daughter of the commander of
the Capitol during the war with the Sabines caused by the rape
of the Sabine women. According to the common story, she
offered to betray the citadel, if the Sabines would give her what
they wore on their left arms, meaning their bracelets; instead
of this, keeping to the letter of their promise, they threw their
shields upon her and crushed her to death. Simylus, a Greek
elegiac poet, makes Tarpeia betray the Capitol t6 a king of the
Gauls. The story may be an attempt to account for the Tar-
pdan rock being chosen as the place of execution of traitors.
According to S. Reinach, however, in Reoue arckidogiqw, xi.
(1908), the story had its origin in a rite— the taboo of military
spoils, which led to their being heaped up on consecrated ground
that they might not be touched. Tarpeia herself is a local
divinity, the manner of whose death was suggestckt by the
tumulus or shields on the spot devoted to her cult, a crime
being invented to accoimt for the supposed pimishment.
AuTROSlTixs.--Sir George C. Levm, Credibility of early Rffmon
Ristory\ A. Schwegler. Romiscke Geschiclite, bk. ix. io» ""v- • n;
Dion. Halic, U. 38-40; Plutarch, Romulns, 17'
Ovid. Fosfi, t. 261 : C. W. Mailer, f>«g. Hut r
TARQaiini (mod. Cdmeta Taw^teiHia, q.v.), an mucient dty
of Etruria, Italy, situated on a hill overlooking the S.W. coast
of Italy, about 5 m. N W. of it. The site of the Romao to«ii
b now deserted, its last remains bawng been destroyed by the
inhabitants of Cometo in 1307. Scanty remains of walling
and of buildings of the Roman period exbt above ground;
traces of a large rectangular pfaufom were found in 1S76, and
part of the thermae in 1829; it occupied the summit of a hiU
defended by ravines, called Piano di Civita. It seems pmbable,
however, that the original settlement occupied the site of the
medieval town of Cbmeto, to the W.S.W., on the further side of
a deep valky. Some authorities indeed consider, and very
likely with good reason, that thb was the site of the. Etruscan
city, and that the PiaiK> di Civita, which hcs further inland
and commands but little view ol the sea,, was only occupied in
Roman times. The case would be parallel to others in Elruria,
e.g. Civita Caslellana (anc. FaUrii) whid* also occupies the site
of the Etruscan city, while the Roman site, some distance away,
b now abandoned. The importance of Tarquinii to archaeo-
logists lies mainly in its necropoib, situated to the S.E. of the
medieval town, on the hill which, from the tumuli raised above
the tombs, bears the name of Monterozzi. The tombs them-
selves are of various kinds. The oldest are iambe a potao^ ot
shaft graves, containing the ashes of the dead in an urn, of the
Villanova period, the oldest of them probably pre-Etruscan;
in some of these tombs hut urns, like those of Latium, are found.
Next come the various kinds of inhumation graves, the most
important of which are rock-hewn chambers, many of which
contain well-preserved paintings of various periods; some
show close kinship to ardiaic Greek art, while others are more
recent, and one, the Grolta del Tifone (so called flora the
typfaons, or winged genii of death, re p r e s en ted) in which Latin
as well as Etruscan inscriptions appear, belongs perhaps to
the middle of the 4th century B.C. Fine sarcophagi from these
tombs, some showing traces of painting, are preserved in the
municipal museum, and also numerous fine Creek vases,
bronees and other objects.
Tarquinii is said to have been already a flourishing dty when
Demaratus of Corinth brought in Greek workmen. It was
the chief of the twelve dlies of Etruria, and appears in the
cariiest history of Rome as the home of two of Us kings, Tar-
quinlus Priscos and Tarquinius Superbus. From it many of
the religious rites and ^ceremonies of Rone are said to have been
derived, and even in imperial times a collegium of sixty harua-
pices continued to exist there. The people of Tarquinii and
Veil attempted to restwe Tarquinius Supcri>us to the throne
after hb expulsion. In 358 bjc, the citizens of TarcjuinS
captured and put to death 307 Roman soldiers; the resulting
war ended in 351 with a forty years' truce, renewed for a similar
period in 308. When Tarquinii came under Roman domination
b uncertain, as b also the date at which it became a munici-
pality; in 181 B.C. its port, Graviscae (mod. Porto Clementino),
in an unhealthy position on the low coast, became a Roman
colony. It exported winie and carried on onal fisheries. Nor
do we hear nmch of it in Roman times; it lay on the hilb above
the coast road. The flax and forests of its extensive territory
are mentioned by rlasmcal authois, and we find Turqutnii
offering to fumidi Scipio with sailcloth in 195 B.C. A bishop
of Tarquinii b mentioDed in aj>. 456.
See L. Dast!, ffotisie Storiche archeolagiche di Targutnia e Cometo
(Rome, 1878); G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etmria (London.
1883), L 301 sqq.; Notixit detli Seovt, passim, especially 1885,
513 aqq.} E. BomiaaQ in Corp. Jmser. JjU., xi. (Beilin. 1888), p. 510
,: C. Kfirte, sjg. "Eiruaker" in Pauly-Wisaowa, Realemcykl^
p6d%e, VL 730 sqq.
(T.As.)
TABQimilin PRISCUS. LUCIUS, fifth legendary king o(
Rome (6x6-578 B.C.). He b represented as the son of a Greek
xefngee, who removed from Tarquinu in Etxuria to Rome, by
the advice of hb wile, the prophetess TanaquiL Appointed
guardian to the sons of Ancus Mardus, he succeeded in sup-
plantiixg them on the throne on their father's death. He laid
ottt the Circus Mazimua» instituted the " great " gaoMS, buOt
TARQUINIUS: SUPEKBUBrr^^TARRAGCWA
431
tke r«tt tMROB (tflMem)«.4od faicfsn the ooMtnctiM of the
teinpb of Jupiter on tbe Capitol. He earned oa war lucoett-
f uUy actiost tbe Sabinea and flHb|tt0tt<d Latimn. He is mid
to have laased tbe niimbev of the leoaloiB to 300, and lohave
doubled tbe aiiaiber of the knighu iaee Niuvius* Amm). The
tntiodnctioa of auny of th6 iMigDi* both of inr and of . dvil
office is aa«0Md to bia idfla, and be was tbe fint io cdeboftte a
Roman ttiompb* after ffae £tcuKan fashion, in a lobe of purple
and tfiid^ and bo|ne on a ehanot drawn by four bonsa. Be
was asaa»initodat tbelBitigatioikof tbe sons of Aacua Masctus.
Tba Iccend ol Tarqunaua Priscus b in tbemaia a fepieduc>
tion of tboie o£ Hoauiua and TuUtts HoalilitB. His Corinthian
descent, invented by the Gieeks to eatahKsh a eloae amncdon
with Rome, is impomihie for dvoooloKicsl seasons; furtbec,
according to tbe genuine Roman tradition, tbe Taninfaui wen
of Etruscan, not Gieeir, origin. Thece seeras to have been
originally only one Tarqulnius; later, wben a connected story
of tbe l^mdary period was coutmcted, two (distinguished as
tbe "Eider" and tbe *' Proud'*) Were introduced, sepaimted
by tbe rdgn of Servii^ TuHins, and tbe name of both was con*
aected with the same events. Thus, certain public worbs were
asid to have been begun by the earlier and finisbcd by the later
king; both instituted games, acquired tbe Sibylline books,
and leoisBBixed tbe army.
For the constitutional reforms attributed to Tarqufnttis, see
9f Rome, i.; E. Pais. Sloria di Roma, i. (1898), who identiBes
Tarqtitntus with Tarpeius, the eponymus of the Tafpeian rock,
subsequently devdoped into the wicked king Tarquhiius Saperbus.
Anrieot authorities:— Livy L 5<t-4i; Dion. HaL iii« 46>73; Ci6
4c R£pubu, ii. aoo.
TARQUimUB SUPBRBUS, tOaOS, son of Ludus Tasquinius
Priscus and son*in<law of Servius Tulitus, tbe seventh and last
legendary king of Rome (sM'S^ bx.)* On bis. accession be
proceeded at once to repeal the recent refonna in tbe constitn*
tion, and attempted to set up a puns despotism.. Many senators
were pat to death, and their places remained unSUcd; the
lower dasMS were deprived of their arms and eupbjfed'in
erecting splendid monuments, while tho aimy was recruited
from tbe king's own retainers and from the forces of foreign
allies. The completkMi of tbe-fortress*temple on tbe Capitoline
confirmed bis authority over tbe city, and a fortunate marriage
of his son to the diughter of Octavios MamUius of Tusculum
•ecured him powerful assistance in the field. His reign was
characterised by bloodshed and violence; tbe outrage of his
ion Sextos upon Lucretia {q.v.) pcedpttated a revolt, which led
to the expulsion of the entire family. All Tbrquiaius's efforts
to force his way back to the throne were vain (lee Foisena),
and he died in exile at Cumae.
In the story certain Greek elements, probably later additions,
may easily be distinguished. Tarquinius appears as a Greek
* tyrant " of tbe ordfanry kind, who surrounds himself with a
bodyguard and erects magnificent 'baildiii0S to keep the people
employed; on the other hand, an older tradition represents
him ss more like Romulus. Hiis twof<dd aspect of his character
perhaps accounts for tbe making of two Tarquinil out of one
(see TAEQUINIU8 P118CU&). The stratagem by which Tar^
quinius obtained possession of the town of Gid>ii is a mere
fiaion, derived from Greek and Oriental sources. According
to arrangement, his sod Sextus requested the protectioh of
the Inhabitants against his father. Having obtained their
confidence, h< sent a mes s e n ger to Tuquinlus to inquire the
next step. His father made no reply to the messenger, but
walked up and down his garden, striking off the heads of the
tsUest poppies. Sextos thereupon put to death all the chief
men of the town, and thus obtained the mastery. The stratagem
of Seoctus b that practised by Zepyrus b the case of Babylon,
wbUe the episode of the poppy-heads is borrowed from the
advice given by Thra^ulus to Periandtt (Herodotus iii. 154,
v. 92). On tbe other hand, tbe existence in the time of
Dkmysiuf of Halicamassus ol a treaty tonduded beinwtai
Taiqabbia'and tbe infaabitanto of GabH, ahowi tlttt the town
came under fats dominion by formal agreement, not, as the
tradition stales, by tiescbery and violence. The embassy to
Delphi (see Baorosj Loavs JuNttfs) cannot be historical,
aboe at tbe time there was no commtuHcatkm between R«ob
and the mainhmd of Greece. Tbe well-known story of Tax -
quinius's repeated refusal and final consent to puxcbase tbe
Sibylline books has its oiiguk in tbe fact that tbe building of
OtA temple of Jupiter Capitdbnus, m vbicb they were kept,
was ascribed to him. Tbe trsditionai account of bis expulsion
can hardly be Uatoiicsl. A oonstitutional revolmion, involv-
ing sucbfar-Beacbiag changes, is not likely to have been carried
out in primitive times with so little disturbance by a simpfe
lesolutioa of tbe people, and it pcobably points to a riring of
Romans and Sabines against the dondnkm of an Etruscan
family (Tasquinit, Taschna) at that time established at Rome.
For a criticaf examination of the story see Schweeler, RdmiseJIt
Cesckickte, bk. xvui.; Sh G. Cotnewall Lewis* €n£baiiy if tarfy
Roman History, ch. Ii; E. Paia, Storia di Roma, i. (rte8); and,
for the political character oC.hia reign. RoAia: Anctemf HUlor^.
Ancient authorities:— Li vy L 21 ; Dion. HaL v. l-vi. 21.
TARBAOONA* a. maritime province m tbe noxtb-caat of
Spain, iormed in 1833 from tbe southern part of tbe pcovince
of Catalonia, and bounded on tiw S£. by tbe Meditenrnwan,
N£. by Barcekma, N. by Lerida, W. by Saiagossa and Temd,
and S.W. by Castellon de la Pkma. Pop. (1900) 337,964;
area, 2505- sq. m. The Ebro fiovs through the southern portion
of -the province, and the other chief streams are the Gaya and
tbe FiancolL These thiee riven flow south uao the Medi-
terranean. Below TUrtosa, the Ebro terns a conspicuous
marshy delta jutting out into the sea, but elsewhere the even
south-westward curve of the coast-line is unbroken by any
noteworthy beadbnd or mdentatkm. The province, although
mountainous, is naturally fertile. Tbe bills are dotbedwith
vineyards, which produce excellent wines, and In the valleys
axe cultivated all kinds of gi^sin, vegetables, rice, hemp, flax
and silk. ODve, orange, filbert and almond trees reach great
perfection, and the mountaina yield rich pastures and timber
trees of various kinds. The climate is temperate on the coast
and in the centre, ookl In the highlands, very warm and damp
in the valleys and on the banks of tbe rivets as they near the
sea. Manufactures are weU advanced, and comprise silk,
cotton, linen and woollen fabrics, velvet, fek, soap, leather
and spirits. There axe also many potteries and cooperages,
and flfxir, paper and oil miBs. Silver, copper, lead and oUicr
minerals have befen found, and quarries of marble and jasper
are worked in tbe hiUs. The fisheries produce more than
£20,000 yeariy. There axe Upwards of 250 m. of raihraya,
which link together all tbe large towns, and include tbe im-
portant main lines along the coast and up the Ebro valley.
The dties of Tarragona (pop., X900, 23,473) and Toriosa (24,452),
which are the principal seaports, and the towns of Reus (26,681)
and Vails (12^625) are described in separate articles. Mont»
blanch (5243) is the only other town with a population ex-
ceeding sooo. The people of Tarragona are, like almost all the
inhabitants of- Catalonia (f.v.), hardy, oiterprising and in-
dustrious, Altbofgh the birth-rate considerably exceeds the
desth'rate, the populatbn tends to decrease slightly, as many
families emigrate.
TABRA0ONA (anc. Tarra£o),tht capital of the Spanish pro-
vince of Tarragona, a ilourislmig seaport, and tbe scat of an
archbishop; at the mouth of the river Frsncoli, 63 m. by rail
W.S.W. of Barcelona, in 41^ rc^ H. and o" so' E. Pop. (1900)
23,423. Tarragona is on the coast railway from Barcelona to
Valencia, and is connected with tbe Ebro Valley Railway by a
branch line to Reus. The picturesque old town, with its dark
and steq> ^ky%, occupies a fugged hill which rises abruptly
from the sea to an altitude of about 590 ft. Its highest pouit,
where the ancient dtadd stood, is crowned by the cathedral,
the seminary for pricsu, and the palace of the archbishop, wlio
shsres the title primate of Spain with the archbishop of Toledoi
Many of the houses in this quarter are very old, mkI are built
+32
TARRASA— TARRING AND FEATHERING
putly of RomAn masooiy; one tuch fragment, immured in
the palace waU, is inscribed with t]ke epiUph oC a charioteer
{auriga) who, it says, would tather have died in the circus than
of fever, li^uaive ruined walls endrde the old town. Their
lowest ooufse it " Cydopean," consisting of unhewn blocks
about IS ft. long and 6 ft. wide; Roman masonry of the
Augustan age is superimposed. The six gates and the square
towem are also, to a great extent, " Cydopean." The pabce,
Itself a bttOding 6f the early 19th century, has an old fortified
tower, and there are barracks and forts in the dty ; but Tarra>
gpna can no longer be regarded as a fortress capable pf with-
standing modem artillery, although it is offidaily classed as
such.
The new town, divided from the old by one broad and shady
avenue, the Rambla de San Carlos, and intersected by another,
the more modem Rambla de San Juan, extends to the west and
south along a low promontory which juts out into the Mediter-
ranean. Its outlying districts merge into the Camp de Tarra-
gona,.a plain planted with vines and walnut, almond and olive
groves. Tarragona cathedral is one of the noblest examples of
early Spanish art. It is 320 ft. long and 103 ft. broad, and con-
sisted originally of a nave, aisles, tsansepts witb an octagonal
lantern at the crossing, and an apsidal diancd. Several exterior
chapels were added in later times, and on the south-east stands a
X4th*century staple raised on a Romanesque tower. The east
end was probably begun in 1x31 on the ruins of an earlier church,
but the main body of the building dates from the end of the
X2th century and the first half of the X3th, and is of transitional
character,-Ahe exuberant richness of the sculptured capitals
being admirably kept in subordination by the Romanesque sim-
pUdty of the general design. Considerable changes were intro-
duced at a later date; and the present west end of the Have
cannot have been completed till late in the X4th century. On
the north-east side is a doister contemporary with the church,
with which it communicates by a very fine doorway. The
doislcr contains much remarkable work, and the tracery of the
windows bears interesting marks of Moorish influence. Two
other noteworthy c)iurchcs in the dty are San Pablo and Santa
Teda la Vieja, both of the X2th century. There is a fine Roman
aqueduct; the Roman amphitheatre was dismantled in 1491 to
furnish stone for the eastern mole, though a few rows of seats
are left near the sea-shore; and the museum contains a large
collection of Roman antiquities. The Torro6n de Pilatos is
said to have been the palace of the Emperor Augustus; it was
partly destroyed by the French in xSxx and now serves as a
prison. Its name is connected with an old tradition, that
Pontius Pilate was a native of the city. Tarragona has also
many public buildings, induding the law courts, several hospitals,
a provincial institute, training schoob for teachers, and offices
of the provincial and munidpal govenuncnts. When the
monks of the Grande Chartreuse were compelled to leave
France, they settled at Tarragona in 1903, and established a
liqueur factory; ao,ooo cases of liqtieur were exported in 1904
and 39,000 in X905. A characteristic feature of Tarragona is
the number of its underground storehouses for wine (bodegas);
wine is exported in large quantities. There is a British steel file
factory; chocolate, soap, flour, unnware, paper, pipes and
salted fish are also manufactured. The harbour is at the ex-
treme south-west of the new town. It was originally protected
by a Roman breakwater, which was destroyed iA- the tpth
century. The eastern mole, founded in 1491 and frequently
enlarged, terminates in a lighthouse. Its length was 1400
yards in 1904, when the construction of a new section was
begun. In each of the five years 190X-S abont 870 ships of
580^000 tons entered the poit. Wine, ofl, nuts, almonds and
small quantities of lead and pig iron ar6 exported; the imports
ittdude coal from Great Britain, grain from the Bfabck Sea,
staves and petroleum from the United States^ dried codfish
from Norway and Iceland, guano and phosphates* Close to the
harbour and at the mouth of the Franoolt is the fishermen's
quarter (barrio de pescadorts)^ in which most oC the houses ajfe
coloured pale blue.
Hir/ory.— Tanaoo, the capital of the Iberian Cttwtani, many
of whose coins are extant, was one of the earliest Roman strong*
hold» in Spain. It was captured hi 318 b.c by Gnaems anl
Publius Coraeiius Sdpio, who unproved its harbours and en-
larged iu walls. A Roman monument on a hill 3 m. E. ii
known as the Sepulcro de los Esdpiones, and locally believed to
be the tomb of the Sdpkw, who were defeated and slain by the
Carthaghuans under Hasdrubal Barca In srs B.a The battle
tpok place at Antiorgis, the modem Alcafiis in the pnvkice of
Terud; there is' no good reason to beUevis that the bodies of
the Sdpios were conveyed to Tarragona for bnrisl, nor Is the
monument older than the xst century ajd. As the Oolonia
Triumphalis, so called to commemorate the victories of Julius
Caesar, Tarrace was made the seat of one of the four assise
courts {comeului juridid) established in Hispania Citerior.
Augustus spent the winter of 26 BX^ here, and made Tarraco the
capital of the whole province, which received the name of
Hispania Tarraconensis. A temple was buflt in his honour.
It was afterwards restored by Hadrian (a.d. XX7-X38), and the
dty became ibe Spanish hadquarters of the wordup of the
goddess Roma and the ddfied emperors. Its flax tcade and
other industries made it one of the richest seaports of the
empire; Martial and Pliny celebrated its dimate and its wines,
and the fragmentary remains of temples, baths, amphitbeatre
and other Roman buildings bear witness to its prosperity. It
became an archbishopric in the sth century.
To the Romans the Visigoths under Euric succeeded in 4S7,
but on thdr expulsion by the Moors in 71 x the dty was
plundered and burned. It was long before the ruins were again
inhabited, but by 1089, when the Moors were driven out by
Raymond IV. of Barcelona, there must have been a certain
revival of prosperity, for the primacy, which had been removed
to Vich, was in that year restored to Tarragona. In xxt8 a
grant of the fief was made to the Norman Robert fiurdet, who
converted the town into a frontier fortress against the Moors.
In X70S the dty was taken and burned by the British; in x8ii,
after being partly fortified, it was captured and sacked by tb^
French.
TARRASAf a town bf north-eastern Spain, in the provii^e
of Barcelona, 6 m. W.N.W. of Sabadell on the Barcelona-
L^rida railway, and in the midst of a narrow plain surrounded
by mountain. Pop. (x9ao) 15,956. Tarrasa was a Roman
munidpality, and a bishopric from the sth century to the
Moori^ invasion in -the 8th. It was raxed by the Moors and
rebuilt later by the Christians. There are three andent
Romanesque churches, in one of which, San Migud, some
Roman pillars are incorporated. Tarrasa is now mostly a
modem industrial town, with fine public buildings, including
the royal college, built in 1864 for 450 students besides day
scholars, the school of arts and handicrafts, the industrial
institute, chamber of commerce, hospitals, town hall, dubs,
theatres and noany large textile factories. Grain, wine, oil
and fmit are produced in the district, and there is a munidpal
farm, founded in 1885, for experiments in viticulture.
TARRING AHD FBATHERINO. a method of punishment at
least as old as the Crasades. The head of the culprit was
shaved and hot tar poured over it, a bag of feathers being after-
wards shaken over him. The earliest mention of the punish^
ment occurs In the orders of Richard Cccur de Lion, issued to
his navy on starting for the Holy Land in 1191. " Concerning
the lawes and ordinances appointed by King Richard for his
navie the forme thereof was ths . . . item, a thicfe or fdon
that hath stolen, being lawfully convicted, sbal have his head
shome, and boyUng pitch poured upon his head, and feathers
or downe strawcd upon the same whereby he may be knowen,
and so at the first landing-place they shall come to, there to
be cast up " (trans, of original statute in HaklnyCi Y^yoits,
ii. 2i>. A later instance of this penalty being inflicted is given
in Notes and Queries (series 4, vol. v.), which quotes one James
Howell writing from Madrid, In X633, of the ** boisterous Bishop
of Halvcrstadt,'* who, " having taken a place where there were
two monasteries of nuns and fdaxs, he caused divert leather
TARRYTOWN— TARSUS
433
beds to be rapped, and aD the teathen thrown into a great liall,
vhitlier the nims and (nan tvcre tlufust naked with their bodies
ciled and pitched and to tvmble among theae feathen, which
makes them here (Madrid) praage him an ill-death." In 1696
a London bailiflf, wIm attempted to serve process on a debtor
who had taken refoge within the peeeincts of the Savoy, was
tarred and feathered and taken in a wheelbanow to the Strand,
where he was tied to the Maypole which stood by what is now
Somefset House. It is probable that the punishnwat was never
regarded as legalised, but was always a type of mob vtn-
geanccu
TARRTTOWN, a village of Westchester county, New York«
on the E. bank of the Hudson river, opposite Nyack, with
which it is connected by feiry, and about 25 m. N. of New York
Gty. Pop. (1890) 3562; (1900) 4770. of whom 984 were
foreign-bom and 191 were negroes; (1910, U.S. census) 560a
Tarrytown is served by the New York Centrsi and Hudson
River railway, and by interurban electric lines connecting it,
via White Plains, with New York City. It is situated on a
sloping hill that rises to a considerable height above Tappan
Zee, a large eipansion of the Hudson river, and is built prin-
cipally along either side of a broad and winding country high-
way (laid out in 1723) from New York to Albany, called the
Ring's Highway until the War of Independence, then called
the Albany Post Road, and now known (In Tarrytown) as
Broadway. South of the village is '* Lyndhunt,'* the esute
of Miss Helen Miller Gould, and to the N.E. is Kaakout
(originally •* Kijkuil," that is, " lookout," the name of a high
promontory), the estate of John D. Rockefeller. In the village
arc the Hackley School (1899), Irving School (1837), Repton
School and the "Castle" School for giris; a Young Men^s
Lyceum (1899), with a public library (8000 volumes in 1910)
and the Tarrytown Hospital (1892). In the vicinity there are
large nurseries and market-gardens, and automobOes are manu-
factured in the village. Tarrytown stands on the site of a
Weociuaesgeek Indian vfBage, Afipconk (the place of elms),
burned by the Dutch in 1644. T1)e first settlement of whites
was made about 1645. There were perhaps a dozen Dutch
families here In 1680, when Frederick PhHipse (formerly known
ss Vredryk Flypse) acquired title to several thousand acres
in Westchester county, called Fhilipse Manor. He buUt, partly
of brick brought from Holland, a manor-house (on a point of
land now known as Kingsland's Point, a short distance above
the present village), a miU and a church, at the mouth of
Sleepy Hollow, some three-quarters of a mile above the village;
Dr Hamilton Wright Mabie has written: " There is probably no
other locality in America, taking into account history, tradition,
the oM church, the manor-house and the mill, which so entirely
conserves the form and spirit of Dutch civilization In the New
World.'* During the War of Independence Tarrytown was the
oentie of the " Neutral Territory " betwen the lines of the
British and C6ntineotal forces, and was the scene of numerous
conflicts between the "cowboys" and "skinners," bands of
unorganiaed partisans, the former acting in the name of the
colonies, and the latter in that of the king. On the post road,
on the 34th of September 1780, Major John Andr£ was captured
by three Continentals, John Paulding, David WiOiams and
I&Mc Van Wert; to commemorate the capture a marble shaft
sarmounted by a bronze statue of a Continental soldier has
been erected on the spot. Tarrytown is described m the Sketch
Book of Washington Irving, who lived and died at " Sunnyside,"
within the liroiu of Tarrytown. waa long warden of old Christ
Church, and is buried in the Old Sleepy HoUow burying-ground,
which adjoins the Dutch Church, and in which Carl Schura
also is buried. Tarrytown was incorporated as a village in
1S70. Its name is probacy a corrupt form of the Dutch
** Tarwen docp " (wheat town).
See H. B. Dawson, WestckeOer Connie U ike Awuriean Hoolu-
tipn (New York, 1886): and an article by H. W. Mabic in L. P.
Powell's HisUfric Ttnmt ojUf BiiddU StaUs (New York, 1899).
TAR8I1B, the Angliciaed form of the scientific name of
a small and aberrant lemur-like animal, Tartims sp^elmm.
InhihUng the Maiky Peofamilis and Uaiids, and tyiiUytog a
famBy. The naaae tanier itfen to the great donffUion of
two of the bones of the tarsus, or ankle, and sptelrum to the
huge goggie4ike eyes and attenuated form which constitute
two of the most distinctive features of this weird little cxeaturs.
In organisatioa the tanier deparu markedly from other lemuxi
as regards several partkulan, and thereby approximates to
monkeys and apes. Rather anisUer than a squirrel, with dusky
brown for, the tassier has immense eyes, large ears, a long thin
taU, tufted .at the end, a greatly elongated tarsal portion of
the foot, and disk-like adhesive surfaces on the fingers, which
doubtless assist the animal in maintaining iCs position 00 the
boughs. Four species of the genus aie now recogniaed, whose
range includes the Malay Peninsuhi, Java, Snmatra, Borneo,
Celebes and some of the Philippines. The tanier feeds chicBy
on insects and lizards, sleeps during the day, but is tolerably
active at night, moving chiefly by jumping from pbice to place;
an action for which the structure of its lund4egs seems pait
ticularly well adapted. It b rare, not mote than two being
generally found together, and only brings forth one young at a
time. (See PaiMATES.) (R.L.*)
TARSUS (mod. 7<rsM»), an ancient city In the fertile plain
of Cilicia. The smaB river Cydnus flowed throtigh the centre
of the town, and Its cool swift waten were the bosust of the dty
(though visitors like Dkm Chrysostom thouf^t k far hiferior
to the rivers of many Greek dties). The harbour, Rhegmn,
below the dty, waa originally a bgoon, though it is said also
to be suppBed by springs of its owtl The C^nos flowed into
the hike (where were the arseiuds) and thence into the aea,
about ro m. from Tarsus. The dty is first mentioned on the
Black Obelisk, aa captured by the Assyrians along with the rest
of Cilicia about 830 B.C. It was probably an old Ionian colony,
settled Oike Malhis) tmder the direction of CUrian ApoUo. Its
importance was due (i) to its excellent and safe harbour, (2) to
lu possession of a fertJQe territory, and (3) to Its command of
the first waggoiHroad made aooM Mount Tauras, which wai
cut through the Olidaa Gates, a narrow gorge 100 yards in
length, originally only wide enough to carry the waten of a
small affluent of the Cydnus. The greatness of Taous tested
therefore mainly on the two great engineering works, the harbour
and the road. That the hitter was due to Greek influence iai
ahown by the village Mopsucrene on the southern approach to
the Gates: Mopsus was the prophet of Clarian Apollo. Few
mountain parses have been so important In history as this
road (seventy miks in length) over Taunis. Many armies have
marched over it; those ^ Cyras the Younger, Akzander the
Great, Cicero, Septimxus Severna and the First Crusade may
specially be mentioned.
Tarsus is most accessible from the aea or from the east. Even
after the ** CiUdan Gates " were cut, the crossing of Taurus waa
a difiicult ^>ention for an invading army (aa Xcix>phoar and
Arrian show). Hence Taruan hist6ry (where not determined
by Greek maritime relations) haa been atrongly affected by
Semitic influence, and Dion Chrysostom, about aj>. ixa, saya
it was more like n Phoenidan than a Hellenic dty (which it
claimed to be). After the Assyrian power decayed, princes,
several of whom bom the name or title Syennesis, ruled Tanas
before and under Penaan power. Persian satraps governed it
in the 4th century B.&; and struck coina with Aramaic legends
there. The Seleudd kings of Syria for a time kq>t'it in a state
of servitude; but it waa made an autonomous dty with addi*
tlonal dtiaens (probably Argive Greeks and Jews) by Antiodius
rV. Epiphanca hi 171 bx.; and then it began to strike iu own
coins. It became one of the richest and greatest dties of the
East under the Romans after 104 bx., and waa favoured by
both Antony and Augustus: the reception there by the former
of Cleopatxa, who sailed op to the dty hi a magnificent vessel,
was a striking historic event. In spite of its oriental cfaamaer,
it maintained a university when Greek phOoaophy was Uught
by a series of famous Tarsians, who inflnenoed Roman history.
Chief among them waa Athenodorus Omanitcs (f.v.), teacher
and friend of Aogostas for many years, a man of oenrsge and
434
TART— TARTAOLIA
power, who remoddled tbe Tkniui tonsCttitkm (maiiag it
timocnrtic and oligarchic). The picture which Philostratus, in
his biography of ApoUonias Tyanensis, draws of the Tarsiaos
as vain, luzurious and illiterate, represenu the general Graeco*
Jtonuui conception of the dty. The legend which was believed
to be graven on the statue of Sardanapahis at Ancfaiide (la m.
S W. from Tarsus) might have been the motto of most Taisians:
^ Eat, drink, pby, for nothing else is worth this (gesture)"
(referred to by St Pftul, x Cor. zv. 32). The statue was pro>
bably an archaic woxfc, with Hittite or cuocifonn inscription,
representing a 6guTe with right hand raised: the letters and
tbe attitude were misunderstood; the figure was supposed to
be- Snapping the Angers and uttering this expression of effeminate
and weary sensualism.
Tarsus depended for its greatness on commeree» peace and
prdcrly government. It was not a strong fortress, and could
sot be defended during the decty of the empire against bar-
barian invasion. The Arabs captured the whole of Cilida
shortly after aj>. 660; and Tarsus seems to have been a ruin
for more than a century after the conquest But Harun al-
Rashid rebuilt its walls in 787, and made it the north-western
capital of the Arab power in the long wars against the Byzantine
empire. All the raids, which were made in Asia Minor re-
gularly, year by year, sometimes twice in one year, through
the Cilidan Gates and past the fortress Loulon, issued through
the north gate of Tarsus, which was called the " Gate of the
Holy ^^ar." The western gate is still standing, and is mis-
named " St Paul's Gate." The caliph Mamun died on such a
foiay in ajx 853, having caught a chiU at a great spring north
of tbe Cilictan Gates bttide Ak-Keupreu.« He was brought to
Tarsus where (like the emperor Tacitus) he died, and (hke tbe
emperor Julian) was buried. His illness recalls the fever which
Alexander the Great contracted from bathing in tbe Cydnus.
Nicepfaorus Phocas reconquered Tarsus and all Cilicia for the
empire in A.D. 965. In the First Crusade Baldwin and Tancred
captured Tarsus.- A.D. 1099, and there the two leaders bad a
serious quarrel. It formed part of the kingdom of Lesser
Armenia for great part of the three centuries after a.d. it 80^
and it was fortified by Leo II. and Hethoum I. But Turkoman
and Egyptian invaders disputed its possession with the Greek
emperors and Armenian kings and with one another. Finally
it passed into Ottoman hands about the beginning of the i6th
century.
'Most of the successive masters of Tacsus had their own
legends about its origin, usually with a religioua character
justifying and explaining their possession of the city. The
Assyrian Sardaaapalus, the native gcd Sandan, the Greek hero
Perseus, the Greek god Heracles, are all called founder of
Tarlus. lapetus, ue. Japhet, lather of Javan " the Ionian,"
was called the grandfather of Cydnus, who gave name to the
river. A cnriouB ceremony was practised an honour of Sandan
(identified with the Greek Herades): a pyre was periodically
erected and the god was burned on it. It is said that the
original name of the dty was Parthenia, which suggests that a
virgin goddess was worshipped here as in so many shrines of
Asia Minor and Syria: the virgin goddess Athena appears on
Tartian coins. The Baal of Tarsus is named jn Aramak letters
on many of its coins in the Persian period.
The ruins of the andent city are very extensive, but they are
deeply buried, and make little or no appearance above the
surface except in the Dunuk Taah (popularly identified as the
" Toakb of Sardanapalus," a monument which, however, was
4t .Wbiale, not at Tarsus). This shapdeas mass of concrete
«a» |>iobably the substructure of a Graeoo-Roman temple,
iKia which the marble coating has been removed. The modern
«««» has considerable bacaars and trade; but the dimate is
vwy gy^iessivc, owing to the proximity of vast marshes which
ju^Hpyi the sitt of the harbour and the lower part of the original
^Mki* cotan^ The river was diverted from its former course
7» 'itaiuuaa in the 6th century. Thit^ uion was
wf «> ;iMy ol the surplus waters ' prevent
> I iw^ in Ihe dty, not to d« uras its
chief pride and boast; but gradually the ncgkct of i
centuries allowed the channd in the dly to beosme blocked by
accumulation of soil, and now the whole body of water flows la
the new channd east of the dty, except what is drawn oil by an
artifidal irrigation course to water the gardens on the vcstem
aide of the dty. The population is about 25,000^ induding,
besides Turks and Syrian Moslems, also Armenians, Greeks.
Syrian Christians, Persians, Afghans, Ansaria (mostly i^rdeneis)
and even Hindus. There is a bige American miaalon school
called St Paul's Institute^ giving a very comprehensive edu-
cation to Armenians and Greeks drawn from an extensive
district.
The literature regarding Taraus Is acancy, and few andent in*
script ions have been published. See W. B. Barker, ^efef wni
Penates: G. F. Hill in the British Museum Catalogue of Coins; Stx
in Numismatic Chronicle, 1884, pp. 1^2 ff.. 1894. pp. 329 ff.; E.
Babdon in the Cacaloeue Bibl. Nat., ^' Perses Achtoieniides **; the
numtsmattc woricsof B. v. Head. F. Iroboof Blumer.&c; Waddiimtm
jtt BuiUtin ds Corr. Hell,, vif. pp. 2S2 R.; Ramsy, Cities ^ St Patd
L'9^7)i PP* S5~245. and " Cilicia, Tarsus and the Great Taurus
Pass " in Geatrapkical Journal (1903). pp. 357-4io; R. Heberdey
and A. Withdm, " Reiaen in Kifikiefl (in the Denkfekriflen. 4.
kais. Akademte fVien, 1896, xliv«)* with works of other tiavdloa,
especially V. Langloisand Macdonald Kinneirv Callander in Jonrmal
of Hellenic Studies, 1904. pp. 58 R., studied Dion Chiysostom's two
Tarsian Orations. (W. M. Kk.)
TART, a dish of baked pastry containing fruit, a fruit pie;
also a small open piece of baked pastry with jam placed upon
it. The word was adapted from the O.Fr. UuU\ the older form
must have been tprte, as is seen in the mod. Fr. UmrU and the
diminutive tortd or torieau; the origin is the Lat. iorta, twisted
{lorqiwre, to twist), used of a cake in Med. Lat., the paste or
dough of cakes or tans bdng rolled or twisted. The alteration
of the vowd is also seen in Ital. tcrkra. In English there Is
some confusion with " tart," sharp, acid, bitter, which comet
from O.E. teart, sharp, severe, properly " tearing," from Uran,
to tear; cf. " bitter," from " to bite."
TARTAGUA, or Tartauea, MICCOLb (c. i5o6-x559)>
Italian mathematidan, was born at Bresda. His childhood
was passed in dire poverty. During the sack of Bresda in 151 a,
he was horribly mutUated by some Frendi soldiers. From
these injuries he sk^wly recovered, but he long continued to
stammer in his speech, whence the nickname, adopted by
himself, of " Tartaglia." Save for the barest rudiments of
reading and writing, be tells us that he had no master; yet we
find him at Verona in 1521 an csteeracd teacher of mathe-
matics. In 1534 he went to Venice. For Tartaglia's discovery
of the solution of cubic equations, and his contests with Antonio
Marie Floridas, see Algebra {History). In 1548 Tartaglia
accepted a situation as professor of Eudid at Bresda, but
returned to Venice at the end of eighteen months. He died at
Venice in 1559.
Tarta«lia*s fint printed work, entitled Uium. saaum (Vcaioe^
IS37). dealt with the theory and practice of gunnery. He fooad
the elevation giving the greatest range to be 45*. out failed to
demonstrate the correctness of his intuition. Tnaeed, he nex'er
shook oflF the erroneous ideas of his time regarding the paths of
projectiles, further than to see that no port of then could be a
straight line. He nevertheless inaugurated the sdentific treatment
of the subject. His QuesUi et invenzioni diverse, a collection of the
author's replies to questions addressed to him by persons of the
most varied conditions, was published in 1546, With a dedicatioa
to Henry VI II. of En^nd. Problems in artdlery occupy two out
of nine books; the MXth treats of fortification; the moth gives
several examples of tbe solution of cubic equations. He published
in 1531 RegMa t/entraU per soUetare ogni afondata nne, iniitdata
fa TrtwaffiaAi IwMtuiciu (an allusion to his personal troubles at
» "' ' -^ ^ ' ' raising —*--- •^■-
Bresda). aetrine forth a method lor raising ^_
dcacribiiw the dlvios^-bell, then little known in western Europe. He
pursued the subiect in Ragionamenli sopra la Travagliata Imentiomt
(May 1551). His largest vfork.Ttaitaio gentrale di numeri 9 misuret
h a comprehensive mathcmatKal treatise, including arithmetic,
geometry, mensuration, and algebra as far as quadiaric equations
rVeniee. 1556, 1561^. He published the 6rat Julian translatkm of
budid (1543), ^1^ *^^ eariiest version from the Greek of some
of the prtnopal works of Archimedes (1^3)* These Included the
tract De tns^entibus aquaejOS which his Latin now hoMs the place
of the kMt Cveek text. Taitagloi daimsd the faiventioB of the
TARTAN— TARTAR
435
Tartaglia** own account of bit etriy life is coataioed in hii
Quesiti, Ub. vi. p. 74. See also Buoocoropaeni, Julomo ad aui
Uiiamento inedito di N. Tartaglia (Milan, 1881); Rossi. Elon
di Bresciana iUustri^ p. nW. Tartaglla't writinffs on gunnery
were translated into ^fwlish by Lucar in 1588, and Into French by
Rie&lini845.
TARTAN (from F. Hretoine, " limie-wolsie,'' Sp. HHUUla,
a kind M woollen cloth, perhaps so called from iU thimiess
and llghlneaa, cf. Sp. tiriiart to tremble with cold), a worsted
doth woven with alternate stripes or bands of coloured warp
ftnd weft, 90 as to form a chequered pattern in which tbe
oolottTs alternate in "sets" of definite width and sequence.
The weaving of particoloured and striped doth cannot be
daimed as pecuDar to any spedal race or cotmtiy, for indeed
such checks are the simplest ornamental form into which dyed
yams can be combined in the loom. But the term tartan
is specially applied to the variegated cloth used for the prin-
dpal portions of the distinctive costume of the Highlanders
of Scotland. For this costume, and the lartan of which it is
composed, great antiquity is claimed, and it b asserted that
the numerous clans into which the Highland population were
divided had each from time to time a spedal tartan by which it
was distinguished. After the rebellion of 1745 various acts of
pariiament were passed for disarming the Scottish Highlanders
and for prohibiting the use of the Highland dress in Scotland,
under severe penalties. These acts remained nominally in force
till 178a, when they were formally repealed, and since thai
time dan tartan has, with varying fluctuations of fashion, been
a popular article of dress, by no means confined in Its use to
Scotland alone; and many new and imaginary "sets" have
been invented by manufacturers, with the result of introdudng
confusion in the heraldry of tartans, and of throwing doubt
on the reality of the distinctive "sets" which at one lime
undoubtedly were more or less recognized as the badge of
various dans.
Undoubtedly the term tartan was known, and the material wm
woven, " of one or two colours for the poor and more varied for
the rich," as early as the middle of the 15th centurv. In the
accounts of John, bishop of Gla^ow, treasurer to King James III.,
in 1471. there oocun, with other mention of the material, the
following. — " Ane cine and ane halve of blue Tartane to lyne hia
gowne 01 cloth of Cx>ld." It is here obvious that the term is not
restricted to Oarticotoured chequered textures. In 1538 accounts
went incurred for a Highland dress for King Tames V. on the
occasion of a hunting esocorsion in the Hiehlanas, in which there
«r» chaigcs for " yanant cullorit velvet," for " ane achort Heland
coit," ami for " Hclaod tartane to be hose to the kinge's grace."
Bishop John Lesley, in his Dt oriunt, wioribuf, el rebus gestis
Scotomm, published in 1578, savs of tnc ancient and stiTI-uscd dress
of the Highlanders and Islamfers. " all, both noble and common
people, woce mantles of one sort (except that the nobics preferred
those of several colours)." Ceocge Buchanan, in his Renim SccU-
eamm Jdstoria (1582). as translated by Monypenny (1612). says of
Ae Highlanders, " They delight in marled clothes, specially that
have any long stripes of sundry cotours; they love chiefly purple
stud blue. Their piedeccssors usied short mantles or plaids of divers
colours sundry ways divided; ahd amongst some the same custom
H observed to th» day." A hint of clan tartan distinctions is
given by Martin Martin in his Western Ides of Scotland (1703). which
work also contains a minute description of the dress of the High-
landers and the manufacture of tartan. " Every isle." he obser^^
** differs from each other in their fancy of making plaids, as to the
stripes in breadth and cdoura This humour is as different through
the mainland of the Highlands, in so far that they who have seen
those places are able at the first view of a man's plaid to gu^sa the
place of his residence."
The fallowing lines gfve a bfief description of the colourv of the
tartans of the principal dans. The kilt-tartaa colour is giv«n in
each case; the plakl-tartans vary in slight particulars.
Ctmpbett of Breadaibane, light green, crossed with darker green.
the stripes broad with narrow edging of yellow. CampSett of
Argytl, light green crossed with dark green, narrow independent
cross lines of white. Oameront brick-red with broad chequered
cross of same colour, edged white and with broad centre of ground
cdour. tao independent cross lines of green. Forbes, yeHow green,
crossed with broad dark-green lines, centred black. indepen<^t
cross lines yellow. Fraser, red eround. main cross lines red with
deeper red centre edged with blue, independent cross lines t)lue.
CordoH, dark blue-gieen ground, with bruad cross lines of lighter
green, narrow centre line yellow. Graeme, light green ground.
cross e d with darker green in small chequer, indc^pendent cross
nnis duk men. Gmnt, aenlet, with brand black-cdfeed seaiftt
crossings, bloek independent cross lines. Macdonald of ^ontarry
and Keppock, red, with open broad blue cross lines, and two inde-
pendent blue crossings. Macdonald of Clencoot green with braid
dark-grtfn crossing, the whole covered with fine red lines. Mac-
dark-man crossing, the whole cc. ^
doHoSd of ^lanranald, light green with broad dark-green crossing,
covered with fine red lines. Maceregor, scarlet, with narrow scarlet
cross lines, edged and centred blue, widely spaced. Moekintotk,
red with blue-edged and centred croasiags of red, and independent
blue cross lines. Mackamo, blue^reen, broad crossing of same
colour with. darker et^ges, independent cross lines, alternately red
and white, ovtr the main crossings. Mocleod, green, with dark-
Sery other square, a red line,
r grey baxa at croasinga* the
wl dependent ^inea. Munro. red
wi hues forromg a check of black
ar rossings of darker green, inde-
pc deep coloured crossings with
sc k indepeadent lines.
r Ika Oams of Scdihnd (iSso);
un (184a); R. R. M'lan, CfaHS
J. Grant, Tartans of the Clans
'i
TARTAR, the name commonly applied to crude add
potassium tartrate or "bitartrate of potash." 'BK{QMO%i,
During the process of fermentation wines deposit a crystalline
crust of argol; this, after being roughly purified by recrystal-
lization, is known as tartar, and when further purified and
freed from colouring matters becomes "cream of tartar,"
aho called technically " cream." With the {atrochendsts tartar
was a generic term which included both this tnrUirus vini and
various substances obtame^ from it, and even salts, such as salt
of sorrd (potassium oxalate), that resembled it. Thus soifixum
lartan was potassium carbonate, whidi on exposure to the ad*
ddiquesces to oleum tartan per delirium; neutral potassium
tartrate was called tortartts tartarisalta, because it was prepared
by neutralizing on^inary tartar with the sal fixum; tarlarus
ehalybeatus was a preparation with iron; and spiritus tartan,
used by Paracebus. was prepared by dry distillation of tartar.
Paracdsus also used the term In a still wider sense to signify
abnormal predpitatcs or sediments dqxjsited from animal
secretions; the same idea is apparent in the popular applica-
tion of the word to the salivary calculus which forms on the
teeth.
Cream cf tartar is prepared by dissolving granulated argol in
boiling water and allowing the solution to stand. The dear liqukl is
then drawn off and crystallized. The slightly coloured crystals
thus obtained are redissolvcd in hot water, the colouring matters
got rid <A by means of pipeclay or egg-albumen, and the solution
Itered and crystallized, the name " crcan of tartar " being originally
applied to the crust of minute cr>'5tals that form on its surface as tt
cools. The salt crystallizes in masses of small, hard, colourless, trans-
parent, rhombic prisms. It is prDcipitated when an excess of a
potassium salt is added to a solution of tartaric ackl, but it dissolves
m mineral acids, and in alkalis and alkaline carbonates. Solutions
of boric acid or borax dissolve it freely, forming^ soluble cream of
tartar, which is a white powder permanent in the air when made with
the acid, but deliquescent when borax is employed. Its slight solu-
bility in alcohol e9d>lains why it is deposited by wines as they
mature. One part by weight of the salt dissolves in 15^ parts of
boiling water, opt at lower temperatures the solubility is greatly
diminished, and at o* C. about ai6 parts of water are requireo.
When heated it is decomposed with formation of potassium car-
bonate and carbon, inflammable ^ses having an odour of burnt
bread beim; evolved. The salt i« used for the manufacture of
tartaric acid: it is also employed in the mordant bath for wed-
dyeing, with powdered chalk and alum for cleaning silver, and fot
the preparation of effervescing drinks and baking-powder. In
medkine as potassii tartras acidus it is of some slight importance as
a diuretic and purgative. The more soluble normalsalt, Ks(C4H^«),
is used for the same purposes: it is form«f by dissolving powdered
cream of tartar in a hot solution of potassium carbonate. If sodium
carbonate is substituted the result is KNa(C4H/D«), or Rochelle
salt.
Tartar emetk (potassium antimonyl tartratc)K- (SbO)C4H^«-^HiO.
Thi« substance has been known for a long period, bdng mentioned
by Basil Valentine. It may be prepared hy wanning 3 parts of
antimonious oxide with 4 parts of cream of tartar, in the presence
of water, replacing the water as it evaporates; after digestion is
complete, the solution is filtered hot. Powder of algaroth {q.v.)
rnay be used in t>kk» of the antimony oxide. Tartar emetic ctyirtal-
lizes in small octahcdra. which lose their water of crystallization
gmdualTv on exposure to air. and become opaque. It is soluble in
14- 5 parts of cold water and 1-9 parts of hot, the tonitio*- *»—- ^—
436
TARTARIC ACID— TARTINI
an add reactson to Utnuia. It poiiHiei « nauseoos mecalHc taste
luid produces vomiting when taken internally, whibt b laige doaes
it is poisonous. It is used modtcinally. and also as a mordant in
dyeing and calico-printing.
TARTARIC ACID (dihydrozy-sucdnic add), QHcOb, or
HQiCCH(OH)CH(OH)CQtH. Four adds of this composi-
tion are known, namely dextro- and laevo-tartaric adds,
racemic add and meaotartaric add, the two last being optically
inactive (see Steueo-Isoicesisii). Their constitution follows
from tbdr formation from dibroraosucdnic add and from their
S3mthe^ from glyoxal ^anhydrin, these two methods pro-
dacing the inactive raoemic form whidi may then be split into
the' active components. Dextnv-tartaric add occurs in the free
state or as the potassium or calcum salt in grape juice and in
various unripe fruits. During the alcohoCc fermcnlation of
grape juice it is deposited in the form of an impure add
potassium tartrate which is known as argol, and when purified
as cream of Urtar. For the preparation of the add the crude
argol is boiled with hydrochloric add and afterwards precipi-
tated as caldum. tartrate by boiling with milk of lime, the
calcium salt being afterwards decomposed by sulphuric acid.
It may also be obtained (together with racemic acid) by oxidiz-
ing milk sugar, saccharic acid, &c., with nitric add, and by the
reduction of oxahc ester with sodium amalgam (U. Debus, Ann.,
1875, 166, p. X09). It crystallizes from water in large prisms
which melt at 16^170° C., and on further beating gives an
anhydride and finally chars, emitting a characteristic odour and
forming pyroxacemic and pyrotartaric adds. It behaves as
a reducing agent. Chronic add and potassium permanganate
oxidize it to formic and carbonic adds, whilst hydrogen peroxide
in the presence of ferrous salts gives dihydroxymaleic add
(H. J. H. Fenton, Jour. Ckem. Soc., 1894. P- 899; 1895. pp. 48,
774; 1896, p. 546). Hydriodic acid and phosphorus reduce it
to malic add and finally to sucdnic acid. Calcium* chloride
gives a white piedpitate of caldum tartrate in neutral solutions,
the precipitate being soluble in cold solutions of caustic potash
but re-prcdpitated on boiling. It prevents the predpitation
of many metallic hydroxides by caustic alkalis. It carbonizes
when heated with strong sulphuric add, giving, among other pro-
ducts, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. A small crystal
of oxalic add added to concentrated sulphuric add containing
about I per cent. 61 resordn gives a characteristic violet red
coloration.
Laevo-tartanc add Is identical In its chemical and in
most of its physical properties with the dextro-acid. differing
chiefly in its action on polarized light, the plane of polarization
being rotated to the left. By mixing equal quantities of the two
• • I Ijcat ' ■
forms in aqueous solution
ual qi
Jived
b evolved and racemic acid.
of tumaric acid with potassium permanganate; by the action of
silver oxide on dibromosucdnic add,* and by toe oxidation of
mannite. dulcite. inulin, &c., with nitric acid. In the anhydrous
state it melts at 205-206* C. Mcsotartaric acid b formed when cin-
chonine tartrate is heated for some time at 170* C. (L. I^steur,
Ann.^ 1853. 88, p. 212); by beatine tartaric or racemic add for
some time with water to 165* C; by the oxidation of laevulose;
and by the oxidation of phenolor maleic add with an alkaline solution
of potassium permanganate (O. Doebncr, Ber., 1891. 24, p. 1755:
A. Kekule and FL Anschutz, lUff., t88i, 14, p. 714). It crystallizes
in prisms^ and in the anhydrous state melts at 140* C. On pro-
longed boiling with aqueous hydrochloric add it yields racemic acid.
The sodium ammonium salt is not capable of decomposition into
its optical antipodes, as is sodium ammonium raccmate.
Tartaric add as used in medicine b derived from potassium acid
tartrate. Its impurities are l^d. oxalic add, lime and potassium
tartrate. It b incompatible with potassium, calcium, mercury and
vegetable astringents. Tartaric acid Is rarely Used alone, but b
contained , in pda/a qwniiuu sulphatis and in Seidliu powder
(see SoDiOM). and is a constituent of many proprietary granular
effervescent prejtarations. If taken in overdose or w a concentrated
form tartaric add produces severe gastro-enteritis. In these cases
lime-water, alkalb and magnesia should be used as antidotes, and
opium may be required.
TARTARUS, in Gfeek mythology^ the aoft of Aether and Gaea.
father of Xyphoeus >^d Iheytol^^te^e^M Uie word
denotes m uodeigvtiitta^ MflUHHBilHlMBM'kBll!^ t^
below heaven, in which those who rebeOed against the will
of Zeus were confined. In later writers Tartanis » the place of
punishment of the wicked after death, and is used for the
underworld generally. Cf. ABvaa,
TARTINI, GIUSEPPE (1692-1770), Italian vkdinist, com-
poser and musical theorist, was bom at Tirano in Istria on the
X2tb of April 1692. In early life he studied, with equal want of
success, for the church, the law courts, and the profession of
arms. As a young man he was wild and irregular, and he
crowned hu improprieties by clandestinely marrying the niece
of Cardinal Comaio, archbishop of Padua. The cardinal re-
sented the marriage as a disgraceful mesalliance, ^d denounced
it so violently that the unhappy bridegroom, thinking his life in
danger, fled for safety to a monastery at Assisi, where his
character tmderwent a complete change. He studied the theory
of music under Padre Boemo, the oiganist of the monastery, and,
without any assbtance whatever, taught himself to play the
■violin in so masterly a style that hb performances in the church
became the wonder of the neighbourhood. For more than two
years hb identity remained undiscovered, but one day the
wind blew aside a curtain behind which he was pkiying, and one
of hb hearers recognized him and betrayed his retreat to the
cardinal, who, hearing of hb changed character, readmitted him
to favour and restored him to hb wife.
Tartini next removed to Venice, where the fine violin-playtng
of Veracini exdted hb admiration and prompted him to repair,
by the aid of good instruction, the shortcomings of his own self-
taught method. He left his wife with relations and returned to
Ancona, where he studied for a time. In 1721 he returned to
Padua, where he was appointed solo violinbt at the church of
San Antonio. Txom 1725 to 1725 he acted as conductor of
Count Kinsky's private band in Prague. In 1728 he founded a
school for violin in Padua. The date of hb presence in Rome
does not seem to be dearly established, but he was in Bologna
in 1739. Afterwards he returned to his old post in Padua, where
he died on the t6th of February 1770.
Tanim"s compositions are very numerous, and faithfuDy
illustrate his passionate and masterly style of execution, which
surpassed in brilliancy and refined taste that of all hb contetn*
poraries. He frequently headed hb pieces with an explana*
lory poetical motto, such as " Ombra cara," or ** Volgete A riso
in pianto o mie pupille.** Concerning that known as // Trilto
del DUtolo, or The Devil's Sonata^ he told a curious stoiy to
Lalande, in 1766. He dreamed that the devil had become his
slave, and that he one day asked him if he could play the violin.
The devil replied that he beb'eved he could pick out a tune, and
thereupon he played a sonata so exquisite that Tartini thought
he had never heard any music to equal it. On awaking he tried
to note down the composition, but succeeded very imperfectly,
though the DeviVs Sonata Is one of his best productions.
Tartini b historically important as having contributed to the
science of acoustics as wdl as to musical art by hb discovery (inde-
pendently of Sorge. 1740, to whom the primary credit b now given)
of what are still called '' Tartini's tones (see Sou
or differentbl tones.
ouNoaad HsAaiMc),
The phenomenon is this: — ^when any two notes are produced
steadily and with great intensity, a third note b heard, whose
vibration number b the difference of those of the two primary notes.
It follows from this that any two consecutive membera of a harmonic
series have the fundamental of that aeries for their difference tone
^-thna, ^. the fourth and fifth harmonic, produce C. the prime or
genecator, a^ the interval of two ocUves under the lower of those
two notes; qi the third and fifth hamonic. produce C, the second
harmonic, at the interval of a 5th under the lower of those two
notes.^ The discoverer was wont to tell hb popib that their double-
stopping was not in tune unless they could hear the third note;
and Henry Blagrove (i8ii->i872) gave the same admonition. The
phenomenon has^ocher than technical significance; an experiment
by Sir F A. G. Ouaeley showed that two pipes, tuned by naeasure-
meat to so acute a pitch as to render the notes of both inaudible
human eare. when Uown together produce the difference of tone
. and th* ' •-'••'.
. .^maries. and this verifies the fact of the infinite
upward range <m sound which transcends the perceptive power
01 human organs. The obverse of this fact b that of any sound
baiog deepened by an 8th if the length of the string or pipe vhadi
the inaudibb prii
<rf a
TAS-DE-CHARGE— TASMAN
4-37
I it be ibaUed. Tlie h« it witkmit «a«|itioii ttuDugbout
Ike oompftw in which our ears cmn (fisdngukh {ihch, and ao, of
MOBHity, a striog of twice the lensth of that whose vibratioas
ioduce the ifcipiil pcneivable souiid miiat stir the air at each a
ate as to came a tooe at an 8th below that lowest aodible aote.
It is heoce manifest that, however limited our sense of the range of
musical sound, this range extends upward and downward to inmuty.
Taftku made his. absMfvatiDns the basis of a theoretical system
which he set forth in his Trottsfe di Mmtiea, suo$tdo to sera scututa
idTArmomia (Padua. 1754) and DH Prmaptj dtlF ArmMm UwM'
cole (Padua^ I767)- He also wrote a Trattato dtlU Appog^aimre,
' printed in French, and an unuubT* *^'^ — *' " "
I rrv p tnwmi, the MS. of which baa
posthumousfv printed in French^ jand an iminiblifthed worle, DdU
vMnwM* the MS. of which baa been lost.
TAS-DB-GHAROB^ a Frencb term in architectuie. for which
there is no equivalent in English, given to the lower couxses of
a GotUe vauh, which are laid m hoilxoBtal coiuies and bonded
into the wall, forming a solid mass, they generally rise abovt
«ne-third of the height of the vault, and as they project forwards
they lessen the span to be vaulted over
TASHKBirr, or Tashkemd, one of the largest and most
important dtks of Russian Central Asia, and capital of Russian
Turkestan, sitnated in the valley of the Chirchik, some 50 m.
above its confluence with the Syr-darya, in 40* so' N., 69* x8' £.
It is connected by rail with Krasnovpdsk (1085 m.) on the
Caspian, and since 1905 with Orenburg (1150 m). The dty,
formerly enclosed by walls (now ruinous), is surrounded by
hizariaat gardens, and its houses are buried among the fruit
and other trees which grow alongside of the irrjgatkm canab.
The buildings, which are of stone and sun-dried bricks, are
mostly low, on account of the earthquakes which frequent^
dbtuib the region. The native dty in 1871 had 78,130 in-
habitants, and in 1897 156,4x4, mostly Svts, wiih Usbeg^,
Kirghiz, Jews, Russians and (Annans. Ihe Russian dty,
to the south-east, dating ftom 1865, has dean, broad streets
lined with poplars, and canals, the low, pleasant-looking houses
being surrounded by gardens. In r875 its population, ex-
dnsive of the miliury, was 4860, mostly Russians, and in zgoo
about 25,000. Tashkent has a public library containing a
valuable collection of works on Central Asia, an astronomical
qbe nvatoiy and a museum.
TJhiHKURBHAM, or Khulv, a khanate and town of Afghan
Turkestan. The khanate lia between Runduz and Balkh.
Xhe ancient town of Kbulm stood in the Oaus plain, surrounded
by orcharda of famous productiveness; but it was destroyed
by Ahmad Shah AbdaH, who founded Tkshkurgfaan hi the
middle of the i8th century, and took all the inhabitants away
from Rhulm to populate it. Ancient Khulm ia now only a
mass of ruins; hut Xashkaughan, lying two or thisa miles to
the south of it, baa become the great trade-mart of Afghan
T^kestan and second only in importance to Maxar-i-Sharif,
the military centre of the province; while it is much htrger
and more prosperous than the ktter place. At Tashkwghan
the caravaat fiom India and Bokhara meet, and from here the
oMfchandiie is distributed all over the country. A hill fortress
dominates the town and overlooks the debouchment of the
mad from Haibak and Kabul into the phdns of the Ozns.
TA8HAM, ABEL JAMKEOON («. 160^1659), the greatest
of Dittdl navigators, the disooverer of Tasmania, New Zealand,
the Tonga and the Fi|i Islands, and the first drcnmnavigator
of Anstialia, was bom at Lutjegast in Groningen, about 1603.
In r634 we first meet with htm in the East Indies, saHhig from
Batavia (FA. 18) to Amboyna. On the jeth of December 1636
he sailed from BaUvia for home; reached Holland August i,
1637; started on his return to the East April 15, 1638; and
reappeared at Bauvia October it, 1638. On the snd of
June 1639 Tasman, along with Matthew (Matthijs Hendrfossen)
Qoast, was despatched by Antony Van Dlemen, governor*
general of the Dutch East Incfiea (1636-45), on a voyage to
the noitlhwesteni Pacific, In quest of certain " islands of gold
and stiver," supposed to lie in the ocean east of Japan. On
this voyage Tasman and Qoast visited the Philippines and im*
proved Dntch knowledge of the east coast of Luzon; they also
discovered and mapped various islands to the north, apparently
tht BonSn ardripelaifD. Sailing on to N. and K. hi seardi of
the ides of pitdous metalb. they ranged about frtdttaslr itt
the nortjiem Padfic, at one time believing themadves to be
600 Dutdi miles east of Japan. After this the voyage was
continned ahnoat oomtantly westward, but in varying faititudes.
reaching as high aa 4^^ N., always without success. On the
15th of October the navigators decided to retun, and, after
touching at Japan, anchored at the Dutch fortress-aUtion of
Zedandia in Formosa on the afth of November 1639. After
tiiis Tasman waa engaged in operations in the Indian seas
(sailing to Formosa, Japui, Cambodia, Palembang. ftc, as a
merchant captain In the service of the Dutch East India Com-
pany) unta 1642, when he set out on his first great " South
Land" eipeditien. THi waa planned and organized by
Governor Van Diemen, who cherished great schemes for the
extension of the Dutch colonial empire. Several Dutch ttav{>
gatois had already discovered various portions of the north
and west coasCs of Australia (as in 1605-06, 1616, 1618-19, 1622,
1627-38, &C.), but Tasman now first showed that this great
South Land did not stretch awa/ to the southern pole, but
was entirdy endrcled by sea within comparativdy moderate
limits. Ssihng from Batavia on the 14th of Angust 1642
wHh two vemds, the ** Heemskerk " and *' Zeehaen,'' and calling
at Mauritius (September 5 to October 8), Tasman sailed first
S., then E., almost seven weeks, and on the 24th of November
sighted (in 42* 25* S., as'he made it) the hmd whidi he named
Antkoonij van Ditmen^s iafiAt after Van Diemen, now called
Tasmania. He doubled the land, wUch he evidently did not
peredVB waa an Island, coasting its southern shores, and,
runnmg up Storm Bay, anchored on the tst of Decembd
in F^rederick Hem/s Bay, on the east coast of Tasmania
(in 43" «o^ S., according to his reckoning)— so named after
Prince Frederick Henry of Nassau, then the head of th^
Dutch republic There he set up a post on which he hoisted
the Dutch flag. Quitting Van Dlemen's Land on the sth of
December, Tasman steered £. for the Sdomon Idands, and on
the 13th of December discovered (in 42* 10' S., as he tedsoned)
a *' high mountainous country," which he called StaUn hn4i
(** Land of the SUtes," i.e., of Holland, now New Zealand).
Tasman 'and his company believed the newly discovered land
to form part of the same gtrcat antarctic continent as the other
Stakn kmdt which Schouten and Lemalie had sighted and
named to the east of Tierra dd Fuego. Cruising up N.E.
along the west coast of the South Island, he anchored on the
i8th of December in 40* 50^ S., at the entrance of a " wide
opening," which he took to be a " fine bay " (Cook's Strait).
He gave the name of Uoorienaan {Murderers, now softened
to Utssaere) Boy to this spot, where several of his men were
killed by the natives (December 19). From Murderers' Bay
Tasman sailed S.E. along the south shore of Cook's Strait,
apparently getting into Blind or Tasman Bay, but not dis-
covering the full extent of the strait here dividing New Zealand
into two main islands. Returning westward he then coasted
the west aide of the North Island, tail, on the 4th oi January
1643, he came to the northern extremity of New Zealand, in
54* 35' S. (in his reduming). Thence he bore away to N.N.E.,
at first intending to keep that course for 30* of longitude from
North Cape, New Zealand. On the 19th to asth of January,
u> 93* SS'i 91* 20', and ao*' x/ S. (Teaman's reckonings),
he discovered various IsUnds of the Tonga or Friendly group,
especially Amsterdam (Tongatabu), Middelbujg (Eva), aiid
Rotterdam. Here the ships took in water and provisions,
which they had not done since leaving Mauritius, and the
crews went on shore for the first time since leaving Van Dlemen's
Land. Rotterdam Island they explored with some care.
Thence Tasman steered N. and W., reaching on the 6th of
February the eaatem part of the Fiji archipelago (in 17* 29' S.,
by his reckoning, which he called Prince William's Islands
and Heemskerk's Shoals; on the 23nd of March be sighted the
islands of Ontong Java (in $* 2' S., according to Tasman, and in
sso"" 30^ E^ Greenwich)* On the xst of April he was near the
north-eastern extremity of New Ireland (Neu Mf '
■dstaken by Urn for a part of New Guinea, in 4<f
438
TASKfANIA
point Imowii to the Spaaiards as Cabo S. Mafia, Tlicnce lie
passed westward along the north oi New Ireland, New Hanover,
New Britain (Neu Pommem) and New Guinea. He reached
the western extremity of New Guinea on the iSth of May;
Schouten's Islands were noted to the south of the vcaaeb'
course on the cath of May. Tasman's tnck« lying between
New Guinea and Halmahen (Gilolo), then brought him south
to Ceram; he passed through the narrow strait between
Celebes and Euton on the 27th of May, and arrived at Batavia
on the 15th of June 1643 ^^^ & ^^^ months' voyage. The
materials for an account of Tasman's important second voyage
in 1644 are scanty, but we know he was instructed to obtain
SL thorough knowledge of Staten Land and Van Diemen's Land,
and to find out " whether New Guinea is a continent with the
great Zuidland.or separated by channels and islands," and also
" whether the new Van Diemen's Land is the same continent
with these two great countries or with one of them." In this
voyage Tasman had three ships under his command, the " Lim-
men," " Zeemeeuw " (or " Meeuw "), and " Brak " (or " Bracq ").
His course lay along the south-west coast of New Guinea; he
mistook the western opening of Torres Straits for a bay, but
explored (and perhaps named) the Gulf of Carpentaria: lor
the first time the coast-line of this great bay was mapped with
fair accuracy. Though preceded by Jansz (1606) and Carstense
(1625) on the east shore of the gulf as far as 17° S., Tasman
first made known the south, and most of the west, coast. Be-
yond this he explored the north and west coasts of Australia
as far as 22° S., and established the absolute continuity of all
this shore-line of the " Great Known South Continent "; his
chart gives soundings for the whole of this coast. Tasman's
;u:hievements were coldly received by the Dutch cobnial
authorities; but on the 4th of October 1644 they rewarded
him with the rank of commander (he had frequently enjoyed
the use of the title already). On the 2nd of November 1644
he was also made a member of the Council of Justice of Batavia.
He was a member of the committee appointed on the i8th of
April 1645 to declare a truce between the Dutch East India
Company and the viceroy of Portuguese India. In 1647 he
commanded a trading fleet to Siam, and in 1648 a war-fleet
sent against tbe Spaniards of the Philippines (May. 15, 1648, to
January 1649). By 1653 he had quitted the company's service,
but still lived, apparently as one of its, wealthiest citizens, in
and near Batavia. His will, made the xoth oi April 1657,
seems to have but slightly preceded his death, which probably
happened before October 2a, 1^9, and certainly before
February s, 1661.
See Stebold's paper in L$ U^itpur dds Itides-Orienida et Ocei*
detOaUs, 1848--49, pt. L p. 390; the paper on Tasman by C. M.
Dozy in Bijitag/m M de Tool-, Land-, en Volkenkunde van
ffederlandsch-Indk, sth series, vol. U. p. 308: R. H. Major. Early
Voyages to . . . AuskaUa (London, Hakfuvt Society, 1859), especially
pp. xciii.-ciii., 43-58 (here are printed tne inatnictiona tor Tasmaii
and hu colleagues on the voyage of 164^): G. CoUingridge,
Discovery of Austrdia (Sydney, 1895), espectally pp. 338-40, 279-
80; ana, above all, J. E. Heeres and othere, Tasman's JonhuU . . .
facsimiles of the original MS. .... trith . . . Mf§ ... .•f ... .
Tasman, &c (Amaterdam, i898)-^ere Che lAjh of Tasman, wHh
its appendices; u» Kparately paged (163 pp.). See also Aanded dor
Nederlanders «if de Ontdekking van Austraii, 1606-1765 (in Dutch
and Engliih, Leiden and London, 1890). especially pp. vi., viii.,
xii.-«v., 7aj the valuable summaiy of the voyage of 1642-43 in
the anonymous AccomU of seoerai UU* Voya§u and Dtscom
Cbcginning with Sir John Narborough's), London, 1711, with si
title. Relation of a Voyage ...of Captain Ahd Jansen Tasn
(originally extracted from his journals by IMrk Rembrantse
Dutch, published in English In Dr Hook's coltectiotts) ; also 1
Oiscoeery of Van piemenle Lemd^ in t&43, by James Backhei
Walker (Hobart, 1891). A draft journal of the voyage of 164s-
piDbably made by a sailor on the expedlrion, is in the state archr
at The Hague. There ate also several copies made from Tasma
official journal; the best of these (the oilgbal fair copy) b rep
duoed hi Hceras* Tasman* t Journal, 1808, noticed above.
An original chart of Tasman's. made after the voyage of 16
has been discovered and is in the possession of F'nnce Rob
Bonaparte. Before this discovery reliance was placed on an
eellent copy, probably made about 1687. by Captain Thon
Bowrey (art. 12 in the miscell. MS. collection marked 5«a in 1
British Museum London). This gives the tracks of both the voysj
1649-43 and 1644, ami tte aoondiria off thm -~_^
Witaen, of Noord on Oost Tartarye faune <i705)t p«ao>»«B « wirt
record of ceitatn observatioos made in Tamnsus • voyage of to442
between 13* 8' and 19* 35' S. (and mRpm^tmaMiety betwreen im*
io'andi20*E.,G«eenwichT Thiswastrassalatcxlby A. Datnnnpie.u
bis Papm (reprinted m R. H. Major, BmHr Vayagaa «9 . . . Aptiralea,
acvilL-xcix.).' Basfl Thoasoo. Dmtrstmms ^ m Psrema Mmtster
(Edinburgh. 1894), p. tit. Ac. records thmt Cfae semenibfrafice of
Tasman's visit to tne Tonga Islands attill etemams ** fveah to the
smaUesc detaib " among the natives. (C. R. B-)
TASMANIA, a British cobnial statte. Corniii^ part oC tlie
AustraUan Commonwealth. It is compoaed of tlie island of
Tasmania and its adjoining islands, and ia sep«nLted from the
Australian continent on the aoath-east by 3aas Strait. The
Island of Tasmania is triangular in ahape» •'•*,*^!?^ii-'
(with the other islands 26,215 ^- ™«^» "^ "^ ^^
and 245 m. fiom E. to W. .
Coastal Features.— The southern portkak d "*5;|^|^
of Tasmania is remarkable for its plcturetaoA^^^
headlands. The principal inlet ia ^\<^^
well-defined arms. The most «a«" "* *
between Forestier's Peninsula i
middle arm i$ Frederick Henry "B
of the Derwent. It is on thi» f*
of the isla nd^ Ja situated. B^aa^
r
TASMANIA
439
aad aevenl nullar fdeaiiiflL Noctli of this thete are aevenl
p t'mnii i mt headUnds. Hie wett coast tenniaates at Oipe
Gariin, dppaeite which are the fnmp known by the name of
Banter's Islands. Going eastward along the north ooait
CSrcular Head is met with, a narrow peninmhk running out lor
suK miles and terminating in a rocky biu£f 400 ft. high. Fuithec
east are Emu Bay, Port Fredexick, Port Sorell and Port
J[>alr7Biple, into which flows the Tamar river, on which
LAUBceston b situated. In Bass Strait are several large
islands belongvig to Tasmania; King's, Flinders, Cape Barren
sum! daxke Islands are the largesL Flinders Island has an area
of 5S3iOOo acrea. Among the riven flowing northward to Bass
Strait are the Tamar, Inglis, Cam, Emu, Blyth, Forth, Don,
ICersey, Piper and Ringarooma. llie Macquarie, recdvhig the
Elizabeth and Lake, falls into the South Esk, which unites with
tiae North Esk to form the Tamar at Launceston. Westward,
fallins into the ocean, are the Hsllyer, Arthur and Pieman.
Ttm King and Gordon gain Macquarie Harbour; the Davey
Spring, Port Davey. The centrsl and southern districts
i dxained by the Derwent from Lake St Qalr— its tributaries
; the Nive, Dee, Clyde, Ouse and Jordan. The Huon falls
iaato D'Entrecastcauz Channel. The main axis of the Great
CoffdiUera— so termed originally by Sir Roderick Murchison^
iKvdesing the eastern coast-line of Australia, may be traced
acroaa Bass Strait in the chain of islands forming the Fumeaux
■Bad Kent gronp, which almost continually link Tasmania with
^raaon's Promontory, the nearest and most southerly part of
the Australian mainland. Tasmania is wholly occupied by the
Tmmtfirafinns of this chain, and in itself may be said to embrace
ome and all of iu chaiacteristk features.
Taldflg a tund near Lake Feigos, to the esst of Lake St
Olair. the obterver will find himself ncariy in the centre of an ex^
Ccasive plateau, with an elevation, especially on the northern side,
off between three and five thousand feet above the sea-levd. This
oevated plateau extends from Dry's Bluff in the north to the Denison
Raace in the south-west, and atthou^ often receding at points
•atacent to the toorces of the principal rivers, invariably presents
^bold crested front to the north, west aad east. At iu greatest
oe^tion it is comparatively level, and contains many extensive
Matawrater basins, such as Lake Augusta, Lake St Clair. Lake
So^H, Lake Echo. Lake Cre«»it, Arthur's Lake and the Great Lake.
s he «n ai]gnal cresu of this mountain tableland, together with iU
"PP^. surisce, are known locally as " Tiers," and have a very com-
mandang awect in the neighbourhood of Longford, Westbuty. Dcky
s yne a nd Chudleigh. The extent of the prindp^ elevated plateau
rV.5^ appreciated when we consider that it maintains its general
iI£Sf*!i*^ • JS^r'y direction from Dry's Bluff (4357 feet) on the
Kvxis CO Cradle Mountain (5069 feet) in the north-west, a distance
les; from Dry's Bluff in a south-westerly direction
■|^ a distance of over 60 miles; and from Dry's
of
(tended
Plains,
dtitude
or less
ng out
ere and
I peaks.
\7 feet)
iracter.
it) and
astand
south,
e roost
lin and
princi-
restem.
in the
Recent
« been
anying
id were
te most
poor or
autiful.
rooun-
and its
;)ecially
plendid
^
of Ross a Ww aadj B w n ww Aiw fa Sytlaad, from the pictawsqua
character of the blue, white, and puddbh crystalline pcaka aad the
fa nt asti c outUnss of the moontam laages which rise abruptly to a
ksisbt of fram aooo to nearly yioo feet above the Buttoa Gram
Hafas. cr. A.
Ceofegy.— ^Tasmanfa U, geotogfcafly, an oo^er of die Anstraliaa
continent. It is most intunately connected with Vktorfa, from
which it was only separated by the foundering of Bass's Strait in
late PUocene or early Pleistocene times. The precise date of the
separation is fixed as later than the Mk)cene. since the fringe of the
marine Miocene depodu along the southern coast of ^^ctoria b
broken, from Flinders to Alberton; and this gap was no doubt doe
to the subsidence of the land, of which the isfands in the Bass Strait
are remnants, whkh then connected Tasmania with the continent.
The latest date for the existence of diis connexbn is given by the
sbsenoe from Tasmania of the din|»a the lyre-bird and the giant
marsuiMals; so that the Isolation of Tasmania was earlier than the
arrival of those animals in south-eastern Australia. That it was
not much earlier b ithown by the fact that some still living spedes
of mammab. such as the thyladne, exbted before the separation.
The geological sequence ia Tasmania is full, and the island contains
a better series of Carboniferous rocks than b found fa Victoria. The
nucleus of the island b a block of Archean rocks, which are not,
so far as b known, extensively exposed. The most certain repre-
sentatives of the Archean are the gneiss and schists of the Cfove
river and the upper Forth, and the hornblende-schists, which are
Reposed m the nver valleys on the tnargins of the central plateau.
The Mount Lyell schists which underlie the West Coast Range, and
the quartzites of Port Davey on the western coast, have abo been
regarded as Arehean. The Lower Palaeosoic systems begin with
the Cambrian, which are found in northern Tasmania near Latrobe|
and contain Cambrian fossib as Dikelocephalus Tasntankus and
CoHCcepkalites stepkensi. The Ordo^ndan system has not been
certainly identified: but probably many of the slates and quartzites
in north-western Tasmania and of the mimng fidd of Beaconsfield
on the estuary of the Tamar. are Ordovidan. The Silurian system,
however, b wdl developed m north-western Tasmanb, and b
represented by slates, limestones and sandstones yielding a dis-
tinctively Silurian fauna. The rocks are best known by the lime-
stones in the lead miningfidd at Zeehan, and the afates, induding
the tin mine of Mount Bischoff.
The Devonbn system b best represented by the masdve con-
glomerates and quartzites, which form the West Coast Range
extending from Mount Lyell on Macquarie Harbour, through Mounts
Juloes, Owen, Lyell, Murchison and Geikie, to Mount Bbck. These
mountains consist of detached remnants of a sheet of quartz con-
glomerates, tnterbedded with sandstones, con^ning crinoid stems
and obscure brachiopods. They rest unconformably on the SOurian
rocks on the King river and to the west are faulted against the
schists t^ a powerful overthrust fault, travcrdng the Mount Lydl
copper field. A northern extension of these conglomerates fonhs
the Dial Range near Bumie. The Devonian period, as in Victoria,
was marked oy a series of granitic intnisions, which altered the
<Ader beds on the contact, while the ouartz-porphyxy dikes, whkh
are intrusive in the Silurian rocks at the Mount Bischoff tfa mine,
doubtless belong to this period. The Caxboniferous system begins
with a scries o« marine limestones, shales and grits, induding a
rich Lower Carboniferous fauna. The Carix>niferou8 rocks occupy
the whob of the south<eastem comer of Tasmania; and one outlier
occure on the northern coast in the Mersey Valley. Thb fonnarion
helps to build up the central plateau, and a band outcrops around
its edge. The Upper Carboniierous indudes beds of shale and coal;
but tooudi the coal b good, the seams are thin and have not been
much wornd. The Coal Measures are covered by marine shales with
numerous bryozoa; and, on the horizon of the Creu Coal Measures.
of New South Wales, b a bed of Carboniferous gladal depodts.
The Mesosoic system b not well devefaped. It b usually regarded
as bcipnning witti a fresh-water series containing the remams of
fish and bbyrinthodonu: but as it also contains VerUbraria it is
probably Palaeozoic; and thb series b covered by sandstones and
shales which are pro^bly of Triassic age. The most conspicuous
member of the Mesosoic group b the sheet of dbbase and dolente.
made up of laccoUtcs and sjfls. which coven most cf the central
plateau of Tasnuinia. These rocks form the pronunent scarps.
known as the Tiers, on the edge of the ptatesu, and its outliers, such
at Mount Wellfagton near Hobart. and the Eldon Range. This
sheet of dbbase has been rsgsnkd as Carboniferous; but. according
to W. H. Tweivetrees. it b probably Creuccous. The Camosoic
system indudes at Table Cape an outcrop of marine beds probably
of Oligooene age. Lower Caioozoic lacustrine beds with fossil pbnts.
of the same age as those which underlie the oMer banlts of Vktona.
occur in the valleys of northern Tasmanb. The Camows: senss
indudes many igneous rocks. The tinguaites and sflhrsbergites
of Port Cygnet, south of Hobart, may Be of thb agt: *2y,J2
intrusive In Carboniferous rocks, and there is no exndence 01 tnew
precise date; but their resembbnce to the rocks associ«ea wit*
the geburiteHfactte of Vktoria suggests that }^jy ,^X
the besinnfag of the Cainozoic volcanic penod of jwn
Australia. North-western Tasmania in Pleistocene tm^
440
TASMANIA
extei»n« wriM of slacieri, of vhidi the Umer mominM were de-
posited only about 400 feet above sea level.
The information as to the geology of Tasmania up to iSM is
collected in R. M. Johnston's SystemaHc Acamnt cf the GeUcry ef
^ _ -74.
mining Uteratuie is given in the reports of 'the 'Mines Depart-
ment, and special reports issued In the Paxliamentary Papers; and
the economic and general geology are described in reports issued
periodically by the Geological Survey, under W. H. Twdvetrees,
and in papers published m the Proceedings of the Royal Society
of Tasmama. The Mount Lyell mining field is described, with
some account of the neighbouring districts of Western Tasmania,
in J. W. Gregory. The Mount Lyeu Mining Field (Melbourne, 1904).
The glacial geol(^, with a summary 01 the literature thereon, u
described by the same writer in the Quarterly Journal of the Ceo-
logical Society, 1904, voL Ix.. pp. 7-B, 37-53- (J- W. G.)
OiJiMltf.— Tasmania poeeesscs a very temperate and healthy
climate. The mean temperature of the year, as estimated from
-' *:-.— »_*>...^:..» k^^ir ty* *ajv :> oKAfi* e/».|Q«^ The mean
latlands, which is
, sea-level. 5i'76?.
Snow is rarely seen except in the mountains. The average tem-
perature at Hobart of January, tin hottest month, is 63^ and of
July, which is rold-winter. 45* The western prevailing winds—
^rticularly the north-western — carry the rain-bearing clouds.
The elevation-divide between the western and eastern parts of the
island rises generally to a height of between 3000 and 5000 ft., and
consequently the parts to the east of such hdghts receive much
less precipiution than those to the westward. The general average
for the eastern district over a period of years was 2a'07 inches; for
the western. 37-55 inches; and for Tasmania 26>69 inches.
/Zoro.— The vegetation which prevails among the older schistose
focks of the west and extreme south presents a totally difFerent
appearance to that which occun in the more settled districts of the
east. The western v^etation. as compared urith that of the east,
presents as marked a contrast as do the prevailing rocks upon whk:h
It flourishes. The characteristic^trees and shrubs of the west include
the foUowti
Euc\.
Orites, - -
the plains and rocky ridKes, where not artiiicially cleared, arc
occupied by shaggy and often sombre forests mainly composed of
the Iwlowing genera: Ettco/y^ia (gum tree), Casuarina, Bursaria,
Acacia^ Leptospermum, Dnmys^ Melaleuca, Do^Umaea, Nototea,
Exocarpus, Hakea, Epacris, Xanthorrhoea, Frenela. The mountain
slopes and ravines 01 the east have a well-nmrked vegetatran. In
character It is more akin to, and in many cases identical with, that
of the west. The tree fern (Dicksonia antarctica) in the mountain
ravines is especially remarkable. The following genera are also
found in sucn positions in great luxuriance, viz. : Fagus, Anopterus,
Phebaliumt Eucalyptus, Jcichea, Cyatkodes, Pomaderris, Prostan-
fhera, Boronia, Caullherta, Correa, Bedfordia, Aster, Areheria,
Atherosperma, Stc In the extreme west the trees and larger shrubs
do not appear to ascend the schistose rocky mountain slopes of the
central and eastern parts.
Fauna. — Animal hfe in Tasmanb b rimilar to that In Australia.
The dingo or doe of the latter is wanting; and the Tasmanian devil
and tiger, or wqIi, are peculiar to the island. The Marsupials indude
the Macropus or kangaroo; the opossums, Phalangista vulpina and
P. Cookii; the opossum-mouse, Dromicia nana; Peramdes or bandi-
coot; Hypsiprymnus or kangaroo rat; Phtucohmys or wombat:
while of Monotremata there are the Echidna or fwreuf^ne ant-eater
and the duck-billed platypus. The marsupial tiger or Tasmanian
wolf (Thyiacinus cynocephalus), 5 ft. long, is yellowtsh brown, with
several stripes across the back, having short stiff hair and very
short legs. Very few of these nocturnal carnivores are now alive
to trouble flocks. The tiger^at of the colonists, with weasel legs,
iHiite spots and noetumal habits, is a large species of the untameabie
native cats. The devil (Dasyunu or Sarcophilus ursinus) is blacky
with white bands on neck and haunches. The covering of this
aavage but cowardly little night-prowler b a sort of short hair, not
fur. The tail is thick, and the bull-dog mouth ie formklable.
Among the bitds of the island are the Mglcv hawfc, petre!* owl,
finch, peewit, dbmond bird, fire-tail, robin, emu-wren« crow,
swallow, magpie, blackcap, goatsucker, quail, groand dove, parro^
lark, mountam thrush, cuckoot wattlebiid, whUtling dock, honey*
bird. Cape Barren goose, pengmn duck, waterbon, aaipe, albatross
and laughing jackass. Snakes are pretty plentilal in acniba;
the liaarda are haimlesi; Inaecta, tnougn aiDular to Anstvalian
ones, are far less tipubfeaooe; many are to be adnlnd lor thdr
great beauty.
PopiiiaH&h.^Ax the begixmiBgof * " ""^ ^* contained
itt^wo people, ^ving a dcmlty df tare nule.
^iMpnUtioa 19 ^7fl^«ift iflft/ Mount
atagjjjiW
the outflow, for in z88o the populatton was itfll bdow ti 5^000.
During the nest two decades there was a substantial advance^
In 1890 it had reached i45i9oo, and in 1900, ij2jql6a. Like all
the Australian states, Tasmania shows a decline in the blttln
rate; in 1905 the births were 5256—36 less than in 1904— wUcli
gives a rate ol 29*33 per 1000 of mean population.
The climate b probably more healthy than that of any of the
Australian sutes, although, owing to the huge number of cid people
in the colony, the death-rate would appear to put Tasmania on «
par with New South Wales and South Australia. The deatb-rate
per 1000 of population, whk:h was 16*52 In the period 1876-80, had
fallen to 11 'Oi in the period i90i-*5. There has therefore been a
gradual and substantial improvement in the health conditiaina of
the state. The annual marriage^rate was for many yean consider-
ably below the average of Australia generally, a condition sufficiently
accounted for by the continued emigration of men unmarried and
of marriageable ages; this emigration had ceased in 1900, and the
marriage-rate may be taken as 7*8 per thousand. The chief towoa
are Hobart (pop. 35.000) and Launoeston (pop. 23,500).
AdminislrdliaH.'^As one of the states of Australia, Tasmania
returns six senators and five representatives to the federal
parliament. The local constitution resembles that of the other
Australian states inasmuch as the executive government of
four minbters b responsible to the legislature, which consbt*
of a legislative council and a house of assembly. The former
b composed of eighteen members elected for six years. Electora
of the council must be natural-bom or naturaHzed subjects of
the king, twenty-one years of age, resident in Tasmania for
twelve months, and possessing a freehold of the annual value
of £10 or a leasehold of the annual value of £30 within the
electoral dbtrict; the property qualification being waived in
the case of persons with university degrees or belonging to
certain professions. Members of the council must be not less
than thirty years of age. The house of assembly consbts of
35 members elected for three years. Every resident of Tasmania
for a period of. twelve months who b twenty-one years of age,
natursl-bom or naturalized, b entitled to have hb name placed
on the electoral roll, and to vote for tbe district in which be
resides. The franchise has been conferred on women.
Education. — ^Half the oopulation are adherents of the Chutcb of
England, and about iS per cent. Roman Catholics; Wedeyana
number neariy 16 per cen^, and Presbyterians about 6| per cent.
Instruction is compulsory upon children over seven yeare of age
and under thirteen yean in the towns of Hobart and Launccstooy
but not in the rural districts. Special religious instruction ia
allowed to be given after school houn by teachere duly 1 ^
by the various religious denominations, and this privileM b sosoe-
wnat extensively used by the Chuirh of England. *»» schools
are not free, as small fees are charged; but these are not enforeed
where parents can reasonably plead poverty. In loo*^ there were
343 state schools, with 19,000 pupils on the roll, and admm ist eii eU by
600 tcachen; there were also 180 private schools, with 310 teachcn
and 9000 scholars. The net expenditure averages £3. i^ sd. per
child in average attendance, indusive of what » *pent m tbe up-
keep of school buildings and on new schools. The university of
Tasmania has an endowment of £4000 and a revenue fran other
sources (chiefly fees) of from £1 100 to £3000. The students attend-
ing lectures in 1904 were 63, of whom 51 matriculated, and the
number of degrees conferred to the close of that year was i8q,
the great majority of these degrees being granted ad nmdem
gradum.
f tnotiee.— The rennemie b chiefly obtained through the custom-
house, but the federal tariff has had the effect <» coasideraUy
reducing the receipts from thb source. In 1905 the state raised
g 53.681 on account of the public revenue, which b equal ta
. 13s. 3d. per inhabitant; of thb sun £359^099 waa the excess
of Commontrealth collections over expenditure, and £2i6^9S3 from
other taxation: the railways returnea £345,0491 while from public
lands was obtained £63.088, and from other sources £43*504- The
expenditure was £840,185, thus distriboted: railway working
expenses, £171.619: public hsstructkm, £67,a^: intcscst and
charges upon debt. Including sinking funds, £349.090: and other
services £3S3.07S The interest and other debt chaises oome to
£1. 18s. 9d. per inhabitant, and represent 4l*» per cent, of the
expenditure of the sute. The pubhc debt in tiie year IQ06 stood
St £9,471.971. of which £7.830»3So waa held in London; thb
per inhabiti
represents £5S, 6s.
itaat. In 1871 it was £i»3i5.aoo» in
ad otibcr. public wocks.
Off due to tne rapia extension 01 ranway
The CRpendkuie iipon worics may bo
TASMANIA
441
i^U3,589, and ulegraphs.
-^ vto, nilirayt,
£142,410: and that 00 worlu not
For local goven
yielding revenue. £4.970,018. For k>cal government purposes
Tasmania is divided mto municipalities, town boards, and road
trusts. The rate* are assessed on an assumed annual value, which
m i«QO was £i»4i7«547t oorremnodinf to a oapitalvalue ol aimanfe
». The bulk of the rave
of 6a,QQO^ooa The bulk of the rsveoue of the local gowmincat;
bodies is obtained from rates. The sources of revenue in 190^
were: government endowment, £5355: local rates. £71.020; and
other aouitcs. £83.187. The outstaMlAg loans or munidpalities
anoimt to £697.13(3.' of which the fpreater portion is leprasented by
the iwfchrrdnesa olthe two chief aties> Hobart and LauAcestoo.
Dtifaue, — Tasmania being a portion of the Commonwealth of
Australia, its defence is undertaken by the federal government.
The strength of the local forces is about 1500 ofEccrs and men.
J/nttar. — Mining is now the foremost industry, the gross pro-
duction In lOOS being valued at £1,858,216 as compared with
/1.SOOXI00, toe mine of agxienltunl pixxluction. which is neat
m naportanccb Tasmania prpduoea cold, tin, silver, copper and
coal, and in 1905 the production of these minerals was valued at:
gold. £313.380; stiver and silver-Icad, £465.004; copper, £672.010;
'■ ' ' ■' Beaconsfiela is the chief gcHdfield.
tin. £^6.092 ; and coal. £44.t94-
26 BUies north-west of Launceaton. There are about 1500 pjeraons
employed miaing for gokl on the various fields. The Mount Zcefaan
and bundas districts produce almost the whi^ of the silver at the
l^csent time, and most of the ore is sold to agents of the Australian
and German smelting works. Tasmania is the largest producer
of tin in Australasia, and a very large pioportioii of the tin hitherto
produced has been obtained from alluvial deposits, the lodet.
czcept at Mount Bischoff, having, comparativdy speaking, been
neglected. The Mount Bischoff mme, which is worked as an open
quarry, is the lai'gcst producer of tin, and (with an ormiial capital
of £3ojooo^ Ins paid over two millions sterling fai dividends. The
oumber of tin miners in the state is about 1170. Tasmania also
takes the lead amongst the states in copper imxiuction: in X896
there was a small production of £1659; in 1897 it grew to £317.437>
in 1898 to £378.563, in 1809 to £761.880, and in ipoo to j^Lboo;
and although the production has since been considerebU
' redoced
biy
it is still a great industry* This expansion was chiefly due to the
enterprise Si the Mount Lyell Mining and Railway Company,
whose mine b situated at Cormanston. Coal-mioing is carried
on in various districts of the island, but the principal mines are
at Mount Nicholas and Cornwall, in the Mount Nicholas lUnge;
the output of the field is inocaaing, but no export trade is
at present possible, the mbes being situated too far from the sea-
board. The number of men employed in coal-mining is 150, and
the output about 52.000 tons per annum.
Maattfactiires are on a small scale, the aumber of establidinicnts
being about 440^ and the hands employed ^fxo,
Atnemilmn^'^Mttr being much m^lected. agriculture received
renewed attention ixT "" ^'^' '-"- '
the area under crop
named there hawbeen no increase, and the area cultivated may l
placed at about 250,000 acres. The area under crop, at intervals of
ten years, was as follows: 1861. 163,385 acres; 1871, i55>o<6 acres;
1887, 148.494 acres; 1891, 168.121 acres; and 1901, 224.353 "Ccs.
Wheat is the principal crop, and the yield b larger per acre and less
variaUe than that of the Australian states: tor the fifteen years
ending with 1905 the average ykkl was 18*9 bushels per acre,
ranging between 15 busheb m 1894 xul 27 bushels in 1899. The
much above the Aiatralian average, and ma^ be
} bushels higher
' : crops, and
BOW that thb fruit has found an opening tn the British market, re>
newed attentkm b beins: devoted to thr industry. In 1905 there were
12.683 acres of applea, 2096 acres of pears, iiii acres of apricots,
1123 acres of plums. 426 acres of cherries, 498 acres of peaches.
ranging uciwvcn »o **''*
oat crop is also much i ,
set down at 30 busheb an acre, but an average of s bust
b not infreouent. Tasmania b renowned for its fruit <
BOW that this fruit has found an opening in the British t
2000 acres of strawberries, gooseberries and raspbenikn, and t T07
"" ' lar Included 1,100,000
...... nearly 170,000 bushicb
of other fnut. Tasmania finds iu best markets for fruits in New
acre* of eunanta. The crop for the
bMbeb of apples. 75.000 bushi
leb of pears, aad nearly
South Wales and in Great Britain. The total value of the produce
of Tasmanian farms now exceeds £1,250,000. which is cquhralcnt to
£4. 17s. 5d. per acre cultivated.
Tasmania shows a decline in sheep-facceding, yet the slate, is
sinKularly well adapted for sheep-raising, and its stud flocks are
wefl known and annually drawn upon to improve the bro^ in the
other states. Nor have the other branches of the pastoral industry
shown mudi expansion, as the following table will show:-»
l86t
1871
1881
1891
1901
»90S
87."4
101.540
130.526
167J666
165.516
206.211
22.II8
»3.054
25.607
31.362
31.607
37.»oi _
S««.
40.841
52,863
49.660
73.S»o
68.291
72.810
Gmmmmk.— The sUppiac i n cmie d eoiuiderably 'after 1896,
Hobart b now a place oicaO for several of the Eurt^iean steamship
lines, and the state b becominff increasingly popular as a summer
resort for the readents of Melbourne and Sydney. The growth
of the shipping trade will be seen m the following ubie. which also
gives the mports and exporta at ten-yearly intervab:—
1861
X871
1881
1891
1900
T905
Tons.
113,610
107,271
192.024
018,963
f.056,256
1431.144
a,05x.904
2.073.657
2.65«.7S4
£
90S.463
' 740.638
1.555.576
1,440.818
2,610,617
3,711,616
Tasimnia does a laige trade with Victofia and New South Wale*
as well as with Great Britain. The principal exporta in 190^ and
their values were: wool, £401.958; gold. £187.873; tin and ore,
£257.256; silver and ore, £318,971; copper. £569.052; farm, fruit
and vegetable products, £477,866; timber. £78,380. The imporu
represent £14. 15a. lod. and the exporu £20, 14s. per inhabitant.
Toe chief ports of the state are Hobart, where the shipping entered
in IQ05 amounted to 645,000 tons, and Launceston. 223.000 tons;
Strahan on the west coast Itas also a considerable trade.
/eoslimyr.— The railways open for tra£fic in 1005 had a length of
619 Bulesk of which 463 were government and 156 private liucst
The progress of railway construction will be seen from the following
figures: open for tranic, 1871, 45 miles; 1881. 168 miles; 1891,
425 miles; and 1905, 619 miles. The railways, both state and private,
are of 3 ft. 6 in. gauge. The capiul expended on government linea
up to IQ05 was £3.9301^: the groia earning! in that year were
£243,566, and the working expenses £171,630; leaving i&ip9i36 aia
the net earnings. Thb last-mentioned sum b equal to 1-83 per
cent, on the capital expenditure; and as the average interest upon
outstanding loans is 3*73 per cent., the railways are carried on at
a loss of 1*9 per cent. The private railways show somewhat better
returns; the Emu Bay and Mount Buchoff line, 103 miles in
length, constructed at a cost of £56^^165, returned in 1904 about
3'22 per cent., and the Mount Lyctf Company's railway, 22 miles
iong, costing £no,333, returned nearly 6 per cent.
The roads maintained by the road trusu and boards of the colony
extend over 7695 mika, of which 4146 were macadamised; the,
annual expenditure thereon,is over £35,768.
Posts and TeUgrapks. — ^There were 379 post offices and receiving
offices in 1905, and 327 telegraphic sutions; 12,616,000 postcards
and letters, 2,800.000 packeu^ and 7,200,000 newspapere were
received and despatched. The postal revenue amounted to £1 16.132^
and the expenditure to £109.389; these sums include telcsraph
and telephone business. The telegraph messages sent numDcred
496,000. The telephone system is being rapidly extended, and
at the beginning of 1906, 1371 miles of line were being worked.
BamkiKg, — ^Tbere ace four banks of issue, of which two are local
institutions; their united assets average £3.576.700. The note
circulation b about £150,000, and the deposits £3,520,000, about
half bearing interest.
History. — ^Tasmania, or, as it was originally called. Van
Diemen'ft Laxid, was dbcovered in 1642 by the Dutch navigator
Tasman iq,v.) who named the territory, after his patron, Van
Diemen. The island was subsequeotiy visited in 1772 by a
French naval officer, Captain Marion du Fresne; in 1773 by
Captain Furncauz, of the Britbh man-of-war " Adventure "; in
1777 by the great circumnavigator Captain Cook; by BUgb
in 1788, and again in 1792, when he planted fruit trees. In the
same year the French navigator D'Entrcca s t e a u x visited the
south portion of the island aad surveyed the coast. In X79S
Bass sailed through the strait which now beats his name, and
discovered Van Diemcn's Land was an island. In x8oo the
French explorer Baudin, in command of the ships " G6ographe "
and " NaturaUste," surveyed the south of the island, and reports
of hb proceedings having reached the British officials at Sydney,
they determined to forestall the French and take possession
of Van Diemen's Land.
In 1802 the " Cumberland ," a small schooner, landed at King's
Island in Bass Strait, and in 1803 Lieutenant Bowen was sent
by Governor King of New South Wales to form a scttlonent on
the south coast of Van Diemen's Land. He ha-*
ships, the^' Lady Nelson " of 60 tons and the
of 306 tons, three offidab, a lance-corporal
of the New South Wales Corps, six free mc
, convicts* togeth^ with an sdequaU sui^ply
44*
TASSIE
Uoded at Riadon, neir Hobart, fthtm ht was joioed shortly
afterwards by fifteen soldiers and forty-two convicts. In 1807,
Colonel Paterson occupied Fort Dalrymple on the north side
of the island. Dvuing the same year Colonel CoUins, who had
failed in an attempt to colonize the shores of Port Phillip, trans*
fcrred his soldiers, convicts and officials to the neighboiirhood
of Hobart, and was appointed commandant of the infant settle-
ment. Provisions were scarce and dear, communication with
the rest of the world was infrequent, and in 1807 the commom'ty
was threatened with starvation, and flour was sold at £200
per ton. The difficulties of the settlers were increased by the
hostility of the blacks. The first collision took place at Risdon,
a few days after the landing of lieutenant Bowen's expedition,
and for this the white settlers were entirely responsible.
Hostilities between the races were incessant from i8os till 1830.
An attempt was made m the year 1830 to drive the natives to
one comer of the island, but without success. In U» following
year, however, Mr George Robinson induced the remnant of
the blacks to leave the mainland snd Uke refuge, first in Sooth
Bruni and subsequently in Flinders Island, their nUmbers
having then diminished from 5000, the original estimate of the
aboriginal population, to 203. In 184a thete were only 44, in
1854 they had diminished to 16, and the last pure-blooded
Tasmanian died in 1876, at the age of seventy-six. There are,
however, a few persons possessing more or less aboriginal blood
in some of the islands of the Bass Strait
Some persons who had settled at Norfolk Island when that
island became a penal depot were transferred to Van Diemen's
Land in 1805. But the growth of population was extremely
slow, and in 180S a census showed that there were only 3340
people on the island, including officials, miUtary and convicfts,
and whatever measure of prosperity was enjoyed by the free
inhabitants arose from the expenditure by the imperial govern-
ment upon the convict settlement. In the year named settlers
began to arrive. To every free immigrant was given a tract
of land in proportion to the amount of capital brought by him
to the colony— the possession of £500 entitling the holder to
640 acres, and so in proportion, a very liberal view being taken as
to what constituted capitaL To every free settler was assigned,
if desired, the services of a nimiber of convicts proportionate
to the size of his holding. These were fed and clothed by the
settler in return for their labour, and the government was re-
lieved of the expense of their support and supervision. The
assignment system was eventually abandoned in consequence
of iu moral and economic evils, but it cannot be denied tjut
while it lasted the colony made substantial progress. In 1821
the population had grown to 74«>; the sheep numbered
128,468; the cattle, 34,790; horses, 550; and 14.940 acres
of land were under crops. As the number of free settlers in
the colony increased an agitation arose for more political
freedom and improved administration; espedaOy was there a
demand for a free press and for trial by jury. These requests
were gradually granted. Courts of justice were substituted in
1822 for courts-martial; and in. 1^25 the colony was made
independent of New South Wales, Colonel Arthur being ap-
pointed governor. In 1828 the Van Diemen's Land Company
commenced sheep-farming on a large scale in the north-west
district of the island under a charter granted three years before,
and hi 1829 the Van Diemen's Land EsUbHshmenl obtained a
grant of 40,000 acres at Norfolk Plains for agriculture and
grazing. In 1834 Portland Bay, on the mainland of Australia,
was occupied by settlers from Van Diemen's Land, and in 1835
there was a migration, large when compared with the popula-
tion of the island, to the shores of Port Phillip, now Victoria.
At that date the population was 40,172, a large proportion
being convicts, for in four years 15,000 prisoners had been
landed. The colony was prosperous. *^"* •'•- ' — lettlers were
not at all satisfied with the sys* and an
aptation commenced in Van Dir s in New
South Wales, for the introdueti ithutions
and the abolition of transports! abolished
in New South Wales In 1840, Jand w«a
the reeeptade for ail oonvfcts not only from the ViriteiS
Kingdom, but from India and the colonies, and it was not until
1853 that transportation to Van Diemen's Land finally ceased;
in the same year representative institutions were introduced,
the name of the colony was cha nged to Tasmania, and tliree
years later the colony was granted responsible government.
The discovery of gold in Victoria produced a very remark-
able effect upon Tasmania. All lunds of produce brought
fabulous prices, and were exported to Viatoria in such quantities
that the exports rose from a value of £665,790 in 1851 to
£1,509,883 in 1852, and £1,756,316 in 1853, whfle the popula-
tion diminished in almost equal ratio. It was estimated that
in 1842 there were 38,000 adult males in the colony, but in
1854 their numbers bad diminished to 22,261. For many years
the island was inhabited by greybeards and children; the
young men and women of all classes, so soon as they had reached
manhood and womanhood, crossed Bass Strait, and entered
upon the wider life and the more brilliant prospects which first
Victoria, and subsequently New South Wales and Queensland,
afforded them. It was not till the sixties that Tasmsnia em-
barked upon a new period of prosperity. In the early days little
was known about the western hialf of the island. lis mineral
wealth was not suspected, although as far back aa 1850 coal
of fair quality bad been found between the Dee and the
Mersey rivers, and gold had bten discovered in two or three
localities during 1852. In i860 two expeditions were equipped
by the government for a search for gold and other minerals, and
although it was some years before there was any important
result, the discoveries of these explorers directed attention to
the mineral wealth of the island.
The political history of the colony after the inauguration of
responsible government, until it became in 1901 one of the
states of Federated Australasia, was not important. State aid
to religion, which was given to any denomination which would
receive it, was abolished; local sdf -government was extended
to the rural as well as to the urban districts; a policy of semi-
protection was introduced; the island was connected by a
submarine cable to the mainland of Australia, and thence to
the rest of the civilised world; and the population, which was
only 99,328 in 1870, was neariy doubled. Like her neighbours,
Tasmania organized a defence force, and was able to send a
contingent to South Africa in 1900. (T. A. C.)
AuiHoaiTiBS.— J. Bonwkk, DaSy Life end Ongin vf the 7Vi«-
manians (London, 1870) : J. Fehton. A History 0/ Tosmanut (Hobart,
1884); Su- loscph Dalton Hooker, On tkt Flora «/ Australia;
its Origin^ AMniiitSt and Distribmticns. An Introductory Essay to
Ike Flora of Tasmania (London, 1859): T. C. Just, Tasmantana;
a Dtscriptton of the Island and its Besonrats (Launoeaton. 1879):
J. L. Gerard Krefft, Notes on the Fauna «f Tasmania (Sidney.
1B68): George Thomas Uovd, Thirty-thrte Years in Tasmania
and Victoria (London, 1862); Mrs Louisa Anae Meredith. My
Home in Tasmania; or, Nine Years in Australia (New York.
1853): Tasmanian Friends and Foes^FeatHered, Fnrred, and
Finned (Hobart. 1881): Royal Society of Tasmania, Papers and
Proceedings (Hobart): H. Ling Roth and M. £. Butler, The
Aborigines of Tasmania (2nd ed. Halifax. 1899).
TAS5IB, JAMES (x73S-x799)» Scottish gtrm-engraver and
modeller, was born of humble parentage at PoUokshaws, near
Glasgow, in 1 73 5. During his eariier years he worked as a stone-
mason, but, having seen the collection of paintings brought
together in Glasgow by Robert and Andrew FouUs, the printers,
he removed to Gbsgow, attended the academy which bad been
established there by the brothers Foulis, and became one of
the most distinguished pupils of the school. Subsequently he
visited Dublin in search of commissions, and there became
acquainted with Dr Quin, who had been experimenting, as
an amateur, in Imitating antique engraved gems in coloured
pastes. He engaged Tasue as an assistant, and together they
perfected the discovery of an "enamel," admirably adapted
by its hardness and beauty of texture for the formation of gems
and medallions. Dr Quin encouraged his assistant to try his
fortune in London, and thither he repaired in 1766. At first ho
bad a hard struggle to make his way. But he worked on steadily
with the BMaUst case aad accuracy, scnipulously destwying aU
TASSD
443
» »M *-*- M^MBA - « »■ *- - -- t til il*il>iit !■ ^« ■ f^ffa Jh»-
cMT dcCectiveL Gmliully the beauty and axtisdc character of
his productiooa came to be known. Ha received a oemmiaBoa
from the empicaa of Russia for a ooHection of about is^ooo
examples; all the richest cafauieU in Europe were thrown .open
U> hiBB for purposes of study smd reproduction; and his oopits
were ficqumtly sold by fraadulcnt dealers aa the original ferns.
He exhibited in the Royal Academy from 1769 to 1791. In
Z77S ^ published the fitet catalogue of Us worhs» a thin
paoaphlct detailing sfts6 itena. This was followed in 1791
by a large catalogue, in two Tohimea quarto, with ilhtstrations
etched by David Allan* and deacriptive tect in English anl
French by Rudolph Eric Raspe, emanerating nearly .16^000
pKcea.
In addition to his impressions from antique gems, Tassie
executed many large profile medaUion porlraita of his con-
temporaries, and these form the most original and definitely
ttrtistic class of his works. They were medrilfd in wax fmm
the life or from drawings done from the Ufe, andr-when thia was
impoasiUeWrom other authentic sources. They were then
cast in white enamel paste, the whole medalliMi bong
sometimes executed in this material; while in other cases the
head only appears in enamel, relieved against a background ef
ground-^aas tinted of a subdued colour by paper placed behiad.
Hh first large enamel portrait was that of John Dolbon, aon of
Sir William Dolbon, Bart., modelled in 1793 or 1794; and the
series possesses great historic interest, as weH as artistic value,
including aa it does portraits of Adam Smith, Sir Henry Raehum,
Dts James Beattie, Blair, Black and Collen, and many other
celebrated men of the huter half of the x8th century. At the
time of his death, m 1799, the collection of Tasaie's works
numbered about 20,000 pieces.
His nephew, Wiiuam Tassib (x777*i86o), also a gem-
engraver and modeller, succeeded to James Taasic's business
and adiled largely to his collection of casts and medallions.
His portrait of Pitt, in partiadar, was very popular, and cir-
culated widely. When the Shakespeare Gallery, formed by
Alderman Boyddl, was disposed of by bttery in 1805, William
Tassie was the winner of the prize, and in the same year he
sold the pictures by auction for a sum of over £6000. He be-
queathed to the Board of Blannfacturea, Edinburgh, an extensive
and valuable collection of casts and medallions by his uncle and
btmaelf, along with porttaiu of James Tassie and his wife by
David Allan, and a series of water<olour studies by George
Sanders from pictures of the Dutch and Flemish schools.
0* M. G.)
TASSO, TDRQUAIO (iS44«*xS95)> Italian poet, was the son
of Bernardo Tasso (i491-xs69)» • nobleman of Bergamo, and
his wife Porzia de' Rossi. He was bom at Sorrento on the
nth of March 1544. His father had for many yesrs been
secretary in the service of the prince of Salerao, and his mother
was closely connected with the most illustrious Neapolitan
families. The prince of Salerno came into cdUisian with the
Spanish government of Naples, was outlawed, and was de-
prived of hia hereditary fiefs. In this disaster of his patron
TasBo's father shared. He was proclaimed a rebel to the aUte,
together with his son Torquato, and his patrimony was
sequestered. These thiog^ happened during the boy*s child-
hood. In 155a he was living with his mother and his only
sister COrnclia at Naples, pursuing his education under the
Jesuits, who had recently opened a school there. The precocity
of intellect and the religious fervour of the boy attracted general
admiration. At the age of eight he was already famous. Soon
after this date he joined his father, who then resided in great
indigence, an exile and without occupation, in Rome. News
reached them in 1556 that Foraa Tasso had died auddcnly
and mysteriously at Naples. Her husband was firmly convmced
that she had been poisoned by her brother with the object of
getting control over her property. As it subsequently happened^
Fbcxia'X esute never descended to her son; and the daughter
Cornelia married below her birth, at the instigation of her
maternal relativeSb Tssso's father was a poet by predilection
and a ptuto f to i i al eomUcr. Wften^ therefore, an opcamg at
the oQUrt of Urbino offend in 1557, Bernardo Tasso gbdiy
accepted it. The youikg Torquato, ia handsome and brilliant
lad, booame the companion Sn spocta and atudiro of Francesco
Maria diUaRovere, heir to the dukedom of UrUnou At Uibino
a sodely of cultivated men pursued the aasthetiral and literary
studies which wen then in vogue. Bernardo TasM> rend cantos
of hia AmaHgi to the duchess and her ladies, or distussed the
mtriu of Homer and Virgil, Ttissino and Aridato, with the duke's
libniisns and <secKtaiics. Torquato grew up in an atmosphere
of refined luxufy and iomewhat pedantic critldsm^ hotfa of
whicb gave n peimaoeni tone to his charactei. At Vcnke,
whither his father went to auperintend the printing of the
AiHodigi <is6o>, these ffifluencea continued. He Ibund Uaself
the. pet and prodigy of a distinguished literary dide. But
Bernardo had aufoed In his own caner so seriously from addic»
tion to the Moan and « prince that he now determined on a
lucmtive pvafession for his son. Torquato was sent to atudy
law at Padua. Instead of applying himself to law, the young
man bestowed al hia attention upon philosophy and poetry.
Belon the end of rs6i he had produced a nainUve poem called
•lUmaUot which was meant to combine the regularity of the
Virgilian with the attmcttona of the romantic epic In the
attainment of this object, and in all the minor qualities of style
and handling, RimU« showed such marked origmality that Its
author wal proclaimed the most promising poet of his time;
The flattered father allowed St to be printed; and, after a
short period of study at Bologna, he consented to his son's
entering the service of Cardimil Luigi d'Este. In 1565, theui
Torquato for the first time set foot in that castle at Ferran
which was destined for him to be the soene of so many gloriea,
and such cruel sufferings. After the publication of RinaUo he
had expressed his views upon the epic in some Discmtrses #» Ik*
Art of Poelry, which committed Mm to a distinct theory and
gained for h^ the additional celebrity of a philosophical critic.
The age was nothing if not critical; but it may be esteemed a
misfortune tbr the future author of the Ctrusalemme that he
should have started with pronounced opinions upon art.
Essentially a poet of impulse and instinct, be was hampered in
production by his own rules.
The five years between 1565 and iS7o seem to have been
the happiest of Taiso's life, akhough hia father's death in 1569
caused bis affectionate nature profound pain. Young, hand-
some, acoompliahed in all the exeedscs of a well-bred gentleman,
a cc ustomed to the aodety of the great and learned, illustrious
by his published works in vtnt and prose, he became the idol
of the most brilliant court in Italy. The princesses Lucreaa
and Leooora d'Eate, both unmarried, both his seniors by about
ten years, took him under their protection. He was admitted
to their familiarity, and there is some reason to think that
neither of them was indiHerent to him personally. Of the cele-
brated story of hia love for Leonora this is not the place to
speak. It is enough at present to observe that he owed much
to the constant kindness of both sisters. In 1570 he travelled
to Paris with the cardinaL Franknem of speech and a certain
habitual want of tact caused a disagreement with his worldly
patron. He left France next year, and took service under
Duke Alfonso U. of Ferrara. The most important events in
Tasso's biography during the following four years are the publi-
cation of the Aminfa in 1573 and the completion of the CenuO"
kmmt Lihenta in i574> T^ Aminta is a pastoral drama of
very simple plot, but of exquisite lyrical charm. It appeared
at the critical moment when modern music, under Palestrina's
impulse, was becoming the main art of Italy. The honeyed
melodies and sensuous melancholy of Aminla exactly suited and
interpreted the spirit of its age. We may regard it as the
most decisively imporUnt of Tasso's compositions, for its influ-
ence, ia opera and caoUt», was felt through two jyificssive
cent uries. The Gerusolemwu Libaata occupies
the history of European literature, and is a
work. Yet the commanding qualities of thif
which revealed Taaso's individuality, and
AAJL
T I 'I
TASSO
fmnwdiately pass into the link of classics, bdoved by the peopk
no less than by peraons of cultuve, axe akin to the lyrical graces
of Aminia. It was finished in Tasso's thirty-first year; and
when the MS. lay before him the best part of his life was over,
his best work had been abeady accomplished. Ttoubles imme-
diately began to gather round him. Instead of having the
courage to obey his own instinct, and to publish the Cefusa^
iemme as he had conceived it, he yielded to the critical scrupu-
losity which formed a secondary feature of his character. The
poem was sent in manuscript to several literary men of eminence,
Tasso expressing his willingness to hear their strictures and
to adopt their suggestions unless he csould convert them to
his own views. The result was that each of these candid
friends, whUe expressing in general high admiration for the
epic, took some exception to its plot, its title, its moral tone,
its episodes or its diction, in detail. One wished it to be more
regularly classical; another wanted more romance. One hinted
that the Inquisition would not tolerate its supernatural machi-
nery; another demanded the excision of its most charming
passages—the loves of Armida^ Clorinda and Erminia. Tasso
had to defend himself against all these ineptitudes and pedan-
tries, and to accommodate his practice to the theories he had
rashly expressed. As in the RitujidOj so also in the Jerusalem
Ddioered^ he aimed at ennobling the Italian epic style by pie-
serving strict unity of plot and heightening poetic diction. He
cliose Virgil for his model, took the first crusade for subjea,
infused the fervour of religion into his conception of the hero
Godfrey. But his own natural bias was for romance. In spite
of the poet's ingenuity and industry the stately main theme
evinced less sponUneity of genius than the romantic episodes
with which, as also in Rinaldo, he adorned it. Godfrey, a
mixture of pious Aeneas and Tridenline Catholicbm, is not the
real hero of the Gerusalemme. Fiety and passionate Rinaldo,
Ruggiero, melancholy impulsive Tancredi, and the chivalrous
Saracens, with whom they dash in love and war, divide our
interest and divert it from Goffiedo. On Armida, beautiful
witch, sent forth by the infernal senate to sow discord in the
Christian camp, turns the actwn of the epic. She is converted
to the true faith by her adoration for a crusading knight, and
quits the scene with a phrase of the Virgin Mary on her lips.
Brave Clorinda, donning armour like Marfisa, fighting in duel
with her devoted lover, and recdving baptism from his hands
in her pathetic death; Erminia seeking refuge in the shepherd's
hut— these lovely pagan women, so touching in their sorrows,
so romantic in their adventures, so tender in their emotions,
rivet our attention, while we skip the battles, religious cere-
monies, conclaves and stratagems of the campaign. The truth
Is that Tasso's great invention ts an artist was the poetry of
sentiment. Sentiment, not sentimentality, pvcs value to what
Is immortal in the Gerusalemme. It was a new thing in the
i6th century, something concordant with a growing feeling for
woman and with the ascendant art of music. This sentiment,
refined, noble, natural, steeped in melancholy, exquisitely grace*
fol, pathetically touching, breathes throughout the episodes of
the Gerusalemme, finds metrical expression in the languishing
cadence of iu meUifluous vexse, and sustains the ideal life of
those seductive heroines whose names were familiar as house-
hold words to all Europe in the X7th and i8th centuries.
Tasso's self-chosen critics were not men to admit what the
public has since accepted as incontrovertible. They vaguely
felt that a great and beautiful romantic poem was imb^ded
in a dull and not very correct epic. In their nneasiness they
suggested every coune but the right one, which was to publish
the Gerusalemme without further dispute. Tasso, already over-
worked by his preoodoos studies, by exdtlng court-life and
exhausting literary induitiy, now grew almost mad with worry.
His health began to faO him. He complained of headache,
suffered from malarious feven, and wished to leave Ferrsra.
The Cerusakmme was laid In manuscript upon a shelf. He
opened negotiations wftl^the court of Flairenee for an exchange
ofservke. TWl fntapTAiMvkft ^ F«mn. Alfonso hated
ooiMi^f'aailllldHHflHM'ilV^^ ^ ^ i^val diicby*
He thought, n aweu v er , that. If Ttsao weae aflowcd to co, the
Media would get the coveted dedication of that aheadyiamoas
epic Therefore he bore with the poet's humours, and so
contrived that the latter should have no ewnae for quitting
Ferrara. Meanwhile, tlirough the years rsTSt >S76, 1577,
TksBo's health grew worse. Jealoasy inspired the coniticrs
to calnnmiate and insult him. His irritable and sospidons
temper, vain and sensitive to slighu, rendered him only too
easy a prey to their malevolenoe. He became the subject of
ddusions,— thought that his servants betrayed his confidcace,
fancied he had been denounced to the Inquisition, expected
<Uily to be poisoned. In the autumn of 1576 he quarrelled
with a Fenarese gentleman, Maddafe, who had talked too
freely about some love affair; in the summer of 1577 he drew
his knife upon a servant in the presence of Lucreda d'Este,
duchess of Urfoino. For this excess he was arrested; but the
duke released him, and took him for change of air to hh. country
seat of BelriguardoL What happened then is not known.
Some biographers have surmised that a compromising Uais^u
with Leonora d'Este came to lii^t, and that Tasso agreed to
feign madness In order to cover her honour. But of this there
is no i»roof . It is only certain that from Belriguardo he vetunied
to a Franciscan convent at Ferzara, las the express pmpose of
attending to his health. There the dread of being murdoed
by the duke took firm hold on. his mind. He escaped at the
end of July, disguised himself as a peasant, and went on foot
to his sister at Sorrento.
The truth seems to be that Tksso, after the beginning of
1575, became the victim of a mental malady, which, without
amounting to actual insanity, rendered him fantastical and
insupportable, a misery to himself and a cause of anxiety to
bis patrons. There is no evidence whatsoever that this state
of things was due to an overwhelming passion for Leonora.
The duke, instead of acting like a tyrant, showed considerahle
forbearance. He was a rigid and not sympathetic man, as
egotistical as a princeling of that age was wont to be. But to
Tasso he was never crud — ^hard and unintelligent perhaps, but
far from being that monster of ferodty which has been painted.
The subsequent history of his connexion with the poet, over
which we may pass rapidly, will cartobomte this view. While
at Sorrento, Tasso hankered after Ferrara. The court-made
nuin could not breathe fredy outside its charmed cixde. He
wrote humbly requesting to be taken back. Alfonso consented,
provided Tasso would agree to undergo a medical course of
treatment for his melancholy. When he returned, which he
did with alacrity under those conditions, he was well lecdved
by the ducal family. All might have gone well if his old
maladies had not revived. Scene followed scene of irritabHiiy,
moodiness, suspicion, wounded vanity and violent outbursts.
In the snmmer of 1578 he ran away again; travelled throu^
Mantua, Padua, Venice, Urbino, Lomberdy. In September he
reached the gates of Turin on foot, and was courteously enter-
tamed by the duke of Savoy. Wherever he went, " wandering
like the world's rejected guest," he met with the honour due
to his illustrious name. Great folk opened their honscs to him
gladly, partly in compassion, partly in admiration of his genius.
But he soon wearied of their society, and wore their VMw<«f*f
out by has querulous peeviahnessw It seemed, moreover, that
life was intolerable to him outside Ferrara. Accordingly he
once more opened negodatioos with the duke; and in February
1579 he a^un set foot in the casde. Alfonso was about to
contract his third marriage, this time with a princess of the
house of Mantua. He had no diildien; and, unless he got
an heir, there was a ptobabOity that his state would fall, as
H did 8nbBeqnentIy« to the Holy See. Hie nuptial festivals,
on the eve of which l^isso arrived, were not Iheiefbre the
ooonion of great v^oidng to the dderiy bridegroom. As a
fortora hope he had to wed a third wife; but his heart was not
engaged and his expectations were far from sanguine. Tasso,
preoccupied as always with his own sorrows and his own sense
of dignity, made no allowance for the troubles of his master.
Rooms bdow his laafc, he thought, had been assigned liin.
TAsao
44S
Tbe princesses did not want to sec kink Thedvke wascwfed.
Without exerclsio^ common palieocc, or giving his old Irioods
the beoefit of a doubt, he broke into tecm& of open abuse,
behaved like a luoajtic, and was sent off without ceremony to
tbe madhouse of St Anna. This happpied in March 1579;
and there he «mained until July 1586. Duke Alfonso's locig«
sufTerance at last had given way. He firmly believed that
Tasso was insane, and he felt that if he were so St Anna was
the safest place for him. Tasso had put himself in the wrong
by his Intemperate conduct, but far more by that mcompre-
hensible yearning after the Ferrarese court which made him
return to it again and yet again. It would be pleasant to
assume that an unconquerable love for Leono^ led him back.
Unfortunately, there is na proof of this. His relations to her
sister Lucrezia were not less intimate and affectionate than to
Leonora. The lyrics he addressed to numerous ladies are not
kss respectful and less passionate than those which bear .her
name. Had he compromised her honour, the duke would
certainly have had him murdered. Custom demanded this
retaliation, and society approved of it. If therefore Tasso
really cherished a secret lifelong devotion to Leonora, it remains
buried In impenetrable mystery. He did certainly not behave
like a loyal lover, for both when he teturjied to Ferrara in 1578
and in 1579 he showed no capacity for curbing his peevish
humours in the hope of access to her society.
It was no doubt very irksome for a man of Tosso's pleasure-
loving, restless and self -conscious spirit to be kept (or more
than seven years in confinement. Yet we must weigh the faas
of the case rather than the fancies which have been indulged
regarding them. After the first few months of his incarceration
he obtained spacious apartments, received the visits of friends,
went abroad attended by responsible persons of bis acquaint-
ance, 4nd corresponded freely with whomsoever he chose to
address. The letters written from St Anna to the princes and
cities ol Italy, to warm well-wishers, and to men of the highest
ftputatfon in the world of art and learning, form our most
▼Enable source of information, not only on his then condition,
but also on his temperament at large. It is singular that he
spoke always respectfully, even affectionately, of the duke.
Some critics have attempted to make it appear that he was
hypocritically kissing the hand which had chastised him, witb
the view of being released from prison. But no one who has
impartially considered the whole tone and tenor of his epistles
wiU adopt this opinion. What emerges clearly from them is
that he laboured under a serious mental disease, and that he
was conscious of it.
Meanwhile he occupied his uneasy leisure with copious com-
positions. The mass of his prose dialogues on philosophical
and ethical themes, which is very considerable, we owe to the
years of imprisonment in St Anna. Extcpt for occasional
odes or sonnets — some written at request and only rhetorically
interesting, s few inspired by his keen sense of suffering and
therefore poignant — ^hc neglected poetry. But everything
which fell from his pen during this period was carefully pre-
served by the ItaUans, who, while they regarded him as a
lunatic, somewhat illogfcally scrambled for the very offscourings
of his wit. Nor can it be said that society was wrong. Tasso
had proved himself an impracticable human being; but he
remained a man of genius, the most intcr^ting personality in
Italy. Long ago his papers had been se<)uestcred. Now, in
the year rs8o, he heard that part of the Gerusalcmme was being
pubUshed Without his permission and without his corrections.
Next year the whole poem was given to the Mftorld, and in the
foUowfng dx months seven editions Issued from the press. The
prisoner of St Anna had no control over his editors; and
from the master^cce which placed him on the level of Petrarch
and Ariosto he never derived one penny of pecuniary profit.
A rival poet at the court of Ferrara undertook to revise and
re-edit his lyrics in 1582. This was Battlsta Guarini; and
Tasso, in his cell, had to allow odes and sonnets, poems of
personal feeling, occasional pieces of compliment, to be collected
and emended, without lifting a voice in the matter. A few
ycMS later, in t^St tv» Flolenllme pedants o£ the Delia Cmsca
academy dectaifed wac agaimt the CenaaUmme. Tbey loaded
it with insuhs, wbi«h seem to th«ae who raad their pamphkis
now mere paiodies of critkisin. Yet Tasso fell bound to reply;
and he did so with a moderation and urbanity which prove
him to have been not ooiy in luU poasesaioo oC his teasomng
faculties, but a. gentleman o£ noble manners abo. Certainly
tbe histoiy of Tasao's incarceratioo at St Anna i&coetomake
us pause and wonder. Tbe man, like Hamlet, was distnugbt
through ill-accommodation to his circumstances and hh age;
brain-sick he was undoubtedly; and this is the duke d Femua'fe
justification for tbe treatment be enduced^ in the prison he
boce himself pathetioilly, peevish^, but never vignoibly. He
showed a sin^iJar indifference lo the fate of his great poem, a
care magnanimity in dealing with its detraaors. His' own
personal distxess, thati teirible m^tM «t imperfect insanity,
absorbed him. What lemained overt Untouched by the malndy,
unoppressed by his consdousnett thereof, diaphiyed a sweet and
grave]ty-taned humanity. The oddest thnig about his life in
prison b that he was always trying to pbce his two nephews,
the sons of his sister Cornelia, in court-service. Okie of them
he attached to the duke of Mantua, the ot^er to (he duke of
Parma. After all his father's and his own knons of life, he
had not learned that the court was to be shunned like Ciios
by an honest nuui. In estimating I>uke Alfonso's share of
blame, this wilful idealisation of the court by Tasso onist be
taken into account. That man is not a tyrant's victim who
moves .heaven and earth to place his sister's sens with tyrants.
In xs86 Tasso left St Anna at the selidtation of Vincenso,
Gonzaga, prince of Mantua. He followed his young deliverer
to the city by the Mincjo, basked awhile in liberty and courtly
pleasures, enjoyed a splendid reception from his paternal tows
of Bergamo, and produced a meritorious tragedy called T^rrit^
mondc. But onfy a few months haf] pas^ when he grew
discontented.^ Vinccnzo Gonzaga, succeeding to his father's
dukedom of Mantua, had scanty leisure to bestow upon the
poet. Tasao felt neglected. In the autumn of 1587 we find
him journeying through Bologna and Loreto to Rome, and
taking up his quarUrs there with an old friqad, ScffMcnetieiUflga,
now patriarch of Jerusalem. Neat year he wandered off to
Naples, where be wrote a dull poem on MwU Oiiveta, In 1589 '
be returned to Rome, and took up, his quarters again with the
patriarch of lerusalem. The servants found him insufferable^
and turned him out of doors. He fell ill, and went to a
hospital The patriarch in 1590 again received him. But
Tasso's restless spirit drove him forth to Florence. Tbe Floren-
tines said, " Actum est de eo." Rome once more, then Mantua,
then Florence, then Rome, then Naples, then Rome, then
Naples— such is the weary record of the years 1590-94, W«
have to study a veritable Odyssey of malady, indigence and
misfortune. To Tasso everything came amiss. He had the
palaces of princes, cardinals, patriarchs, nay popes, always open
to him. Yet he could rest in none. Gradually, in spite of all
veneration for the saccr votes, he made himself the laughing-^
stock and bore of Italy.
His health grew ever feeUer and his genius dimmer. la
1592 he gave to the public a revised version of the GerusaknuHe.
It was called the CcruscUmme Conquisiata, AH that made the
poem of his early manhood charming he rigidly erased. The
versification was degraded^ the heavier elements of the plot
underwent a dull rhetorical development. Puring tbe same
year a prosaic composition in Italian blank verse, called Le
SetU CiorjuU:, saw the light. Nobody reads it now. We only
mention it as one of Tasso's dotages^a drea^ amplification
of the fir^t chapter of Genesis.
It is singular that just in these years, when mental disorder,
physical weakness, and decay of inspiration seemed dooming
Tasso to oblivion, his old age was cheered with brighter rays
of hope. Clement VIIL ascended the papal chair in I592> He
and his nephew. Cardinal Aldobrandini of St Giorgio, deter-
mined to befriend our poet. In 1594 they invited him to
Rome. There he was to assume tbe crown pf bays, as V-* ^"^
446
TASSONI— TASTE
had assumed it, oa the CapUoL Worn out with illMss, Ttaso
reached Rome in November, The ceremony of his coronation
was deferred because Cardinal Aldobrandlni had fallen ill. But
the pope »Bicned him a pension; and; under the pressure of
pontifical remonstrance, Prince Avetlino, who held Tksso*s
maternal csute, agreed to discharge a portion of his claims
by payment of a yearly rent-charge. At no time since TassO
left St Anna liad the heavens apparently so smiled upon him.
Capitohan honours and money were now at his disposal. Yet
fortune came too late. Before the crown was worn or the
pensions paid he ascended to the convetit of St Onofrio, on a
stormy ist of April in 1595. Seeing a cardinal's coach tofl up
the steep Tzasteverine Hill, the monks came to the door to greet
it. From the carriage stepped Tasao, the Odysseus of many
wanderings and miseries, the singer of sweetest strains sliU
vocal, and told the prior he was come to die with him.
In St Onofrio be died, on the 25th of April 1595. He was
just post fifty-one; and the last twenty years of his exist-
ence had been practically and artistically ineffectual. At the
Age of thirty-one the CtrusaUmme^ as we have it, was accom-
plished. The worid too was already ringing with the music of
Aminla. Hore than this Tasso had not to give to literature.
But those succeeding years of derangement, exile, imprison-
ment, poverty and hope deferred endear the man to us. Elegiac
and querulous as he must always appear, we yet love Tasso
better because he suffered through nearly a quarter of a century
of slow decline and unexplained misfortune. (J. A. S.)
Taken altogether, the best complete edition of Tasao's writings
is that of Rofim (Pisa), in 33 vols. The prose works (in ^ vols.,
Florence Le Monnier, 1875) and the letters (in 5 vola.. same pub-
lisher, 1853} were admirably edited by Ccsare CuastL This edition
of TassoiB Lettert forms by far the most valuable source for his
biography. No student can, however, omit to use the romantic
memoir attributed to Tasso's friend, Maichcse Manso (printed in
Rosini'ft edition of Tasso's works above cited), and the important
Vila d» Torquato Tasso by Serassi (Bergamo. I79d). See also
Solerti's Life. (1895), his editions of the Opert Minon in versi (iSoi
et seq.)« and Cerusalemme (1895). and his bibliography, in the
Rivisla biblioteche e ardim (189s), on the occasion of the celebration
of the tercentenary of Tasso's death.
TASSONI. ALBSSANDBO (xs6s-x635), Italian poet, was a
native of Modena, where he was bom and died. From 1599
till 1608 he was secretary to Cardinal Ascanio Colopna, and in
this capacity saw some diplomatic service; he was afterwards
employed for some time in aimibr occupations by Charles
Emmanuel, duke of Savoy. His best-known literary work is a
burlesque epic entitled La Seukia RapitOf or '*The Rape of
the Bucket " (1622), the reference being (0 a raid of the Modenese
upon the people of Bologna in 1335, when a bucket was carried
off as a trophy. As in Butler's Budibras, many of the personal
and local aJlusiottS in this poem are now very obsctire, and are
apt to seem somewhat pointless to the general reader, but, in
spite of Voltaire's contempt, it cannot be neglected by any
systematic student of Italian literature (see Carducci's edition,
1861). (Xher characteristic works of Tassoni are his Pensieri
Dnersi (16x2), in which he treats philosophical, literary, his-
torical and scientific questions with unosual freedom, and his
CoHsiderazioni sopra U Pelrarcka (1609), a piece of criticism
showing great independence of traditional views.
TA8TB (from Lat. laxare, to touch sharply; taniere, to
touch), in physiology, the sensation referred to the mouth when
certain soluble substances are brought into contact with the
mucous -membrane of that cavity. By analogy, the word
" taste " is used also of aesthetic appreciation (see Aesthetics)
and a sense of beauty — commonly with the qualifications " good
taste " and *' bad taste."
The physiological sense is located almost entirely fn the tongue.
Three di^xnct sensations are referable to the tongue — (z) taste,
<2) touch, and (3) temperature. The posterior part of its
surface, where there is a A-shaped group of large papillae,
called drcumvallate papiDae, suppHed by the glosso-phaiyngeal
nerve, ^d the tip and margiosh of the tongu^, covered with
filiform (touch) papillao and fuo|Hotnt padUie^ are' Ae chi^
localiiies whoe tasta is JAlMlttftJ^mJiMCdku in the
gkMSo-palatlne arch and the lateral part of the soft palate.
The middle of the tongue and the surface of the hard palate
are devoid of taste. The terminal organs of taste con^ of
peculiar bodies named taste-bulbs or taste-goblets, discovered by
Schwalbe and S. L. lovte m 1867. They can be most easily
demonstrated in the papillae foiialae, \siTgs oval prominences
found on each side near the base of the tongue in the rabbit.
E^ch papilla consists of a series of laminae or folds, in the sides
of which the taste-bodies are readily displayed in a transverse
section. Taste-bodics are also found on the lateral aspects of
the drcumvallate papillae (see Fig. i), in the fungiform papillae.
^
Fig. X. — ^Transverse section of a cincumxrallate papilla: W. the
Lpilla; V, V, the wall in section; R, R, the circular dit or f(»sa;
K, the taste-bttlbs in position; N. N, the nerves.
in tne papillae of the soft palate and uvuia, the under surface
of the epiglottis, the upper part of the posterior surface of the
epiglottis, the inner sides of the arytenoid cartilages, and even
in the vocal cords.
The taste-bulbs are minute oval bodies, somewhat Eke an
old-fashioned Florence flask, about tU mdi in length by •!« in
breadth. Each consists of two sets of cells — ^an outer set»
nudealed, fusiform, bent like the staves of a barrel, and arranged
side by side so as to leave a small opening at the apex (the
mouth of the barrel), called the gustatory pore; and an inner
set, five to ten in number,
lying in the centre, pointed at
the end next the gustatory
pore, and branched at the other
extremity. The branched ends
are contmuous with non-roedul-
lated nerve fibres from the
gustatory nerve. These taste-
bodies are fotmd in immense
numbeis: as many as 1760
have been counted on one
drcumvallate papilla in the
ox. The proofs that these are
the terminal organs of taste
rest on careful observations
which have shown (i) that ^^^^ ^,,^
taste b only experienced when ta8tc>ccU&
the sapid substance is allowed Fic. 3.— d. Isolated protective
to come into contact with the cdl; e, taste<ell.
taste-body, and that the sense
is absent or much weakened in those areas of mucous
membrane where these are defident; (2) that th^ are
most abundant where the sense is most acute; and (3) that
section of the glosso-pharyngeal nerve which is known to be
distributed to the areas of mucous membrane where taste is
present is followed by degeneration of the taste-bodies. At the
same time it cannot be asserted that they are absolutely
essential to taste, as we can hardly suppose that those animals
which have io special taste-bodies are devoid of the reuse.
Evidence is accumulating that taste depends on nervous
impulses exdted by chemical change. Substances that have
taste must be soluble. Chemical changes are in all probability
set up in the taste-cells, or in the processes connected witli them.
Some progress has been made in the atumpt to csuUiab a
R
Fic. 2. Fic. 3.
Fig. 2.— Isolated taste-bulb:
D, supporting or protective celhi;
K, uiKier end; E, free end, open,
with the projecting apices of the
TASTE
447
conD£3uoii between tht cbefnlcsi conposltfoii Kit Bi^nd MMUmcei
and the different ki&da. of taste to which tbey may give rise.
Thus adds are usually sour; alkaloids have a peculiar soapy
tast«; salts may be sweet, like sugar of lead, or bitter, like
sulphate of magnesia; soluble alkaloids, such as qidnine or
strychnine, are usually bitter; and the higher alcohob are more
or leas sweet. Substances which taste sweet or bitter often
contain definite groups in the molecule, especially in the
hydroxyl (HO) and amido (NHO groups. By altcrfaig the
chemical composition of a subsUnce having a characteristic
taste (rhanging the position or relations of the radicles), the
sabstanoe may become tasteless or intensely biUer. The
sensatkm of taste may also be excited mechanically, as by
smartly tapping the tongue, or by the stimulus of a continuo.us
current. In the latter case electrolytic change may be the
egiting cause; but that the sense organs may be stimulated
electrically fe proved by the fact that npidly intcfnipted in-
duced currents, which produce b'ttle or no electrolysis, may also
excite taste. Sensations of taste are heightened by maeasing
the area of the tongue affected, and by mechanical stimulation,
as when the tongue b piessed against the lips, cheeks or palate.
A temperature of about 46° C. is most favourable, either ex-
treme heat or cold apparently benumbing the sense for a time.
Gustatory sensations affect ttch other: that is to say, a strong
taste will affect the taste of another body uken immediately
after it. Thus sweetness will modify bitterness, and sourness
will modify both. Moreover, the application of a sapid sub-
sunce to the tongue will affect taste in other parts. If the same
taste is excited on each side of the tongue, although there are
two sets of gustatory nerves, one for each lateral half, the
sensations are blended into one; while if two different sub-
stances, say one sweet and the other bitter, are simultaneously
anilied, one to each side, the observer can distinctly diffexen-
tiate the one from the other.
Tastes have been variously dassified. One of the most
useful classifications is into sweet, bitter, acid and saline tastes.
Instable substances, when brought into contact with the
tongue, give rise to feelings of touch or of temperature, but
ezdte no taste. If solutions of various substances are gradu-
ally diluted with water until no taste is experienced, G. G.
Valentin found that the sensations of taste disappeared in
the following order— syrup, sugar, common salt, aloes, quinine,
sulphuric sicid; and Camerer foimd that the taste oif quinine
still continued although diluted with twenty times more water
than common aalL The time required to excite taste after
the sapid substance was placed on the tongue varies. Thus
saline matteis are tasted moat ra|udly ('17 second), then sweet,
acid and bitter (-358 second). There are many curious examples
of subsunces of very different chemical constitutions having
similar tastes. For example, sugar, acetate of lead and the
vapour of chknoform have all a sweetish taste. A temperature
of from so'* to 90* F. is the most favourable to the sense, water
above or below this temperature either masking or temporarily
paralysing it.
As a general rule, bitter tastes are most acute at the back of
the tongue, near iht circumvaHate papillae, and sweet tastes at
the tip, but there are considerable individual variations. Some
persons tasu both bitter and sweet substances best at the back,
while others taste bitter thhigs at the tip. Many expericnoe
salt tastes best at the tip, and add tastes at the sides of the
tongue. When we conskler iha t there are three kinds of papillae
on the surface of the tongue, one would expect to meet with
different degrees of sensitiveness to diffeieni tastes, even while
we admit that the papillae may also have to do with sensations
of touch and of temperature. By experimenting with fine
capillary tubes conLainiag sapid substances, observations have
been made with individual papillae. Some are found to be
sensitive to many tastte, othen to two or thne. others to only
one, while others are insensitive to taste altogether. Agahi, it
has been found that a mixture of sapid substances, say of
quinine and sugar, may taste sweet when appKed to one papilla
and biitcr when applied to another. The inference must be
that there aie spedal temiMl Mgus ior difieratt tastes.
Ataondng that there see different kinds of t«ste<db» it night
be possible to paralyse some witbeut affecting others, and thus
different sensations ol taste sighl. be discriminated. This has
been done by the use of the leaves of a common Indian plant,
Cymn0ma tyheskt. If some of these be chewed, it has been
found that bitters and sweets are paralysed (neither quinine
nor sflgar giving rise to Hnsatjon), while adds and salines are
unaffected. A^in, certain strengths of decoctions of the
kayes appear, to paralyse swoeu sooner than bitten. These
eAMrvalioBS show the eaisten o e of different taste-ceUs for
sweets, bitt«s, adds and salines; and it is clear that the
region of the tongue most richly supplied with taste-cells
sensitive to sweets will reload best to sweet suhsUnces, while
another regk», supplied by taste-cells sensitive to bitten, will
ropond best to bitter, substances. In like manner the argu-
ment may be applied to other tastes. Suppose, again, a sel
of taste*oeUB sensitive to bitter suhstances: it is .conccsvable
that in whatever way these were irritated, a hitter taste would
result. If so, a sukatance whidi, applied to one part of the
tongue, wouM cause a sweet sensation, might cause a bitter il
applied to a part of the tongue rid4y 6iq>plied with tas^e*cdls
sensitive to bitten. This may explain why sulphate of Bwgnesia
excites at the root of the tongue a bitter taste, while applied
td the tip it causes a sweet or an add taste. Saccharine, a
peculiar tohiene derivative, in like manner js sweet to the tip
and bitter to the back of the tongue. It has also been found
that if the sweet and hitter tasle-cells are paralysed by
Cywmema^ electrical irritation of the tip by a weak interrupted
current does not give rise to an add taste mixed with sweet,
as it usually does, but to senaatieas somewhat different, w)itch
may be described as metallic or salt or acid. This experiment
indicates that the action of the intcn-upted current on the
terminal oigan is analogovs to the action of sweet or bitter
substances (Shore). No direct observations of importance have
yet h<en made on single circumvallate painUae. Further
esperimests with capiUary tubes show that fungiform papillae
destitute of taste buds, and areas of the suriace of the tongue
having neither papillae nor taste buds, may still, when stimulated
by sapid substances, give rise to tastes. Taste h often associated
with smell (^.v.), giving rise to a sensation oljlnotir, and we are
frequently in the habit of confounding the one sensation with
the other. Chloroform excites taste alone, whilst garlic, asa*
loetida and vaniUa exdte only smelL This is illustrated by
the familiaf experiment of blindfolding a person and touch*
ing the tongue suoeessively with slices of an apple and of an
onion. In these drcumstances the one cannot be distinguished
from the other when the nose is firmly dosed. Taste ipay be
educated to a rensarkable extent; and careful observation-*
along with the practice of avoiding all substances having a very
pronounced taste of having an irritating effects-enables tea*
tasten and wine-tasten to detect slight differences of taste,
more especially when combined with odour so as to produce
ihvour, which would be quite inappreciable to an oidinary
pahte. As to the action of electrical currents on taste,
observen have arrived at uncertain results. So long ago as
1753 J. G. SuUcr stated that a constant current caused, more
espedalbr at the momenu of opeaing and of closing the current^
a sensation of acidity at the anode (+ pole) and of alkalinity at
the katode (—pole). This is in all probability due to electro-
lysis, the decomposition prodarts exciting tlie taste-bodies.
Rapidly interrupted currents fail to excite the sense.
Disease of the tongue causiiv unnatural dryness may blcrlere
with taste. Substances circulating in the blood may give rise
to subjective sensations of taste. Thus santonine, morphia
and biliary products (as in jaundice) usuaUy cause a bitter
sensation, whilst the sufferer from diabetes is distressed by a
persistent sweetish taste. The insane frequently have sub-
jective tastes, which are real to the patient, and frequently cause
much distress. In such cases, the sensation is excited by
changes in the taste-centres of the brain. Increase in thp •
of taste b called kypergtuMt diminution of it h^9r
44$
TATA— TATARS
iu entire loss ageusia. Rofe eucs ocxnir where tBere is a nb*
jcctive taste not associated with insanity nor with the drcuht-
tion of any known sweetish matters in the blood, possibly
caused by irritation of the gnstatoty nerves or by changes in
the nerve centres.
For the anatomy of the organs of taste, see the ankles MotrrH
and ToNcuB. (J- G. M.)
TATA« JAMSBTil HASARWAWJI (1839-1904), Panee
merchant and philanthropist, was bom at Nosari, in the sute
of Baroda, in 1839, and went as a boy to Bombay, where he was
educated at the Elphinstone College. In 1858 he entered his
father's office, and began a commercial career of the highest
eminence, beginning with cotton mills at Bombay and also at
Nagpur, and ending with the formation of a company to woric
the iron ores of the Central Provinces on modern principles.
One of his best-known achievements was the lowering of the
freights on Indian goods to China and Japan, as the roult of a
long struggle with the Nippon Ynsen Kaisha Co. He abo faitro-
duced a silk industry after Japanese methods into Mysore, and
built the 1^] Mahal h<^ in Bombay. But h& greatiest bene-
faction is the endowment of a research institute at Bangalore.
He died at Nauhdm, in Germany, on the 19th of May 1904.
TATAR PAZABJIK, or Tatar Bazasdjik, a town of Bui*
garia in Eastern Rumelia; on the river Maritza, and en the
Sofia-Constantinople railway, 74 m. E.S.E. of SolUi and 33 m. W^
of Philippopolb. Pop. (1906) 27,549. Situated at the junctioQ
of several roads, Tatar Pazarjik began to acquire coamieitial
importance in the 15th century. Rice, millet and tobacco are
largely cultivated in the surrounding lowlands, and there is
some trade in cocoons and wool.
TATARS (the common form Tartars is less correct), a name
^ven to nearly three million inhabitants of the Russian empire,
chiefly Moslem and of Turkish origin. The majority—in
European Russia— are remnants of the Mongol invasion of
the 13th century (see Mongols), while those who inhabit
Siberia are survivals of the once much more numerous Turkish
populatidn of fhe Ural-Altaic region, mixed to some extent
with Finnish and Samoyedic stems, as also with Mongols.
The name is derived from that of the Ta-ta Mongols, who in
the sth century inhabited the north-eastern Gobi, and, after
snbjugatiOn in the 9th century by the Khitans, migrated south-
ward, there founding the Mongol empire under Jemgbu Kra:i
iq.v.) . Under the leadership of his grandson (Batu) they moved
westwards, driving with them many stems of the Ttekish
Ural-Altaians towards the plains of Russia. The ethnographical
features of the present Tatar inhabitants of European Russia,
as well as their language, show that they contain no admixture
(or very little) of Mongolian blood, but belong to the Turkish
branch of the UraI*Altaic stock, necessitating the conclusion
that only Batu, his warriors, and a limited number of his
followers were Mongols, while the great bulk of the 13th century
invaders were Turks. On the Volga they mingled with remnants
of the old Bulgarian empire, and elsewhere with Finnish stems,
as well as with remnants of the ancient Italian and Greek
colonies in Crimea and Caucasians in Caucasus. The name of
Tatars, or Tartars, given to the ihvaden, was afterwards ex-
tended so as to include different stems of the same Turkish
branch in Siberia, and even the bulk of the inhabilanU of the
high plateau of Asia and its N.W. slopes, described under the
geheral name of Tartary. This last name has almost dis-
appeared from geographical tfterature, hut the name Tatars,
in the above limited sense, remains in full use.
' The present Tatar inhabftantt of the Russian empire form three
large groupe— thote of European Russia and Poland, those of
Caucasus, and tfaoae of Siberia. The discrimination of the separate
stems mdoded under the name is still far from completion. The
following subdivisions, however, may he regarded as established.
(1) The fCazafl Tatan. descendatits oF the iGpchaks settled on the
Volga in the «ttli ttaM% «*e«'%y «ii«tal with survivon of
the old BulgaffiM mnmi^/e^itmMkfmMmu They number
about half a fldHMt^HJHMMMi fj^mi* a^Wt 1110,000 la
each 01 tf« jBdHj^H^^^^KiHBXiMiiiL and ibout ,
IrlUve
2«>.ooo hi
miKiated toRyaiaft, «r ha>« been settled as pciaonen in the i6cb
and 17th centuries in LJtbuania (Vilna, Grodno and Podolia] ; and
there arc some 2000 in St Petersburg, where they pursue the calKngs
of coachmen and waiters in restaurants. In Poland they conalitvle
I per cent, of the popttlation of the district of Ptodk. The Kaaai
Tatars apeak a pure Turkish dialea; they are middle-sixed, broad-
shouldered and strong, and mostly have Slack eyes, a straight nose
and salient cheek bones. They are Mahommedans; polygamy is
practised only by the wealthier classes and is a waning institutioa.
Excellent agriculturists and gardeners, vecy laborious, and havanc
a good reputation for honesty, they live 00 the best terms with their
Russian peasant neighbours. The Bashkirs who live between tb**
Kama, Ural and Vo^ are possibly of Finnish origin, but now speak
a Tatar language and have become Mahommedans. (2) The
Astrakhan Tatars (about 10,000) are, with the Moavol Kalnnicki^
all that now remains of the once so powerful Astrakhan empue.
They also are agriculturists and gardeners; while some 12.000
Kundrovsk Tatars still continue the nomadic life of their ancestors.
(3) The Crimean Tatars, who occuoied the Crimea in the 13th
centmy, have preserved the name of their leader, NosaL Dnringthc
tSth, 16th and 17th centuries they constituted a rich empire, which
prospered until it fell under Turkish rule, when it had to suffer much
from the wars fought between Turkey and Russia for the possession
of thepcninsula. The war of 1853 and the laws of 1860-63 ^nd 1874
caused an exodus of the Crimean Tatars; they abandoned their
admirably irrigated fields and gaidens and moved to Turicey, ao
that new their number falls below 100,000. Those of tlw south
coast^ mixed with Greeks and Italians, are well known for their
skill in gardening, their honesty and their laborious habits, as well
as for their fine features, presenting the Tatar type at its beat.
The mountain Tatars closely resemble Jthose of Caucasus, while
those of the stajpes— the Nogais— are decidedly of a mixed origin
from Turks and Mongols.
The Tatars of Caucasia, who inhabit the upper Kubafl. the steppes
of the lower Kuma and the Kura^ and the Araa, number about
If3^t00o. Of these (^) the Nogais on the Kuma show tiaoes of
an intimate mixture with Kalmucks. They are nomads, support-
ing themselves by cattle-breeding and fishing; few are agricul-
turists. (5) The Karachais (18,500) in the upper valleys about
Elburz live by agriculture. (6) The mountam Tataxa (about
8^,000), divided into many tribes and of an origin still andeter-
mined, are scattered throughout the previocea of Baku. Erivan,
Tiflis, Kutaia, Daghestan. and partly also of Batum. They are
certainly of a mi«d origin, and present a variety of ethnological
types, all the more so as all who arc neither Armenians nor Russians,
nor belong to any distinct Caucasian tribe, are often called Tatars.
As a rule they are weU built and little behind their Caucasian
bietbreiu ^ They are celebrated for their excellence as gardeners,
Mriculturists, cattle-tenders and artisans. Although most fervent
Elites, they arc on very good terms both with thdr Sunnite and
«'ith their Russian neighbours. Polygamy is rare with them, aiid
their women go to work unveiled.
The Siberian Tatars are eatinated (1895) at Sofioo of Turld
stock and about 40,000 of mixed Finnic stock. They occupy three
distinct regions— a strip running west to east from Tobolsk to
Tomsk, the Altai and Its spurs, and South Yeniseisk. They
orii^nated In the agglomerations of Turkish stems which in the
region north of theTUtai reached some degree of culture between
the 4th and the 8th centuries, but were subdued and ensJaved by
the Mongols. They are difficult to classify, for they are the result
of somewhat recent minglings of races and customs, and they are
an more or less in process of being assimilated by the Rusnane, but
the following subdivisions may be accepted proviaonally. (7) The
Qaraba Tatars, who take their name from one of their stems
(Barama). number about 50,000 in the government of Tobolsk and
about 5000 in Tomsk. After a strenuous resistance to Russian con-
quest, and much suffering at a later fseriod from Kirghis and Kahnuck
raids, they now live byagricultore, either in separate viHages or akmg
with Russians. /8) The Cholym or Chuljfm Tatan on the Cholym
and both the rivets Yus speak a Turkish langua&e with many
Mongol and Yakut words, and are more like Mongols than Turks.
In last century they paid a tribute for 2550 arbaletes. bat they
now are rapldfv becoming fused with Russians. (9) The Abakan
or Minusinsk Tatars occupied the steppes on the Abakan and Yns
in the 17th century, after the withdrawal of the Kirghizes, and
represent a mixture with Kaibals (whom Castr^n considers as partly
of Ostiak and partly Samoyedic origin) and Beltln--alsoof Finnish
origin. Their language is also mixed. They are known under the
name 01 SagaisL who aumbeied 11,720 in 1864, and are the purer
Turkish stem of the Minusinsk Tatars, Kaibals, and Kisfl or Red
Tatars. Formerly Sharoanists. they now are, nominally at least,
adherents of the Greek Orthodox Churdi, and support themselves
mostly by cattle-breeding. Agriculture is spreading but shmly
among them: they stiU prefer to plunder the stores of bulbs of
Idlimm MartagpH, Patonia, and Er^ronium Dens ewis laid up by
A^ steppe mouse (Mus tociatis). The Soyotes, or Soyons. 01 the
Sayan mountains (esrimatcd at 8000), who are Finns mixed with
Turics the Uryankhes €^ north-west Mongolia, who are of Turkish
origin but follow Buddhism, and the KarBga«ies» alfo^ Turkaab
TATE, SIR H.~^TATE, R.
4+9
origin and mudi like the KifgUaciL but reduced nov to a few
hundreds, are akfn td the above. (i<!9 The Tatars of the northern
dopes of the ^tai (nearly 30,000 in number) are of Finnish origin.
They coinpriae soaie hnndreds of Kumandintses^ the Lebed Tatars,
the Chenvevyie or Black-Forest Tatars and the Sbors (11,000),
descendants of the Kuznetsk or Iron*Smith Taurs. They are
chiefly hunters, passionately loving their taiia, or wild forests, and
. . , .. . r..^ ^ rehgion and tnbal orgaoization into
Inve maintained their Shaman
SMAJkr. They live partly also on cedaiwmtts and hoiiey collected in
the forests. Their dress is that of their former nilers, the Kahnucks,
and their language contains many Mongol wordSk (11) The Altai
Tatars, or "^Altaians," comprise — (a) the Mountain Kalmucks
'77,000), to whom this name has been given by mistake, and who
have nothing in common with the Kalmucks except their dress and
ande of life, iriuie they speak a Turkish dialects and <6) the Teleutes,
or Tdienghites (5800), a remainder of a formerly numerous and
m-arlike nation who have migrated from the mountains to the
lowlands, wbero th^ now live along ^th Russian peasants.
Although Turkestan and Central Asia were formerly known as Inde-
pendent Tartaiy, it is not now nsuai to call the Sarta, Kirghiz and
other inhabitants of those countries Tatars, nor is the name limial^
given to the Yakuts of Eastern Siberia.
It is evident from the above that the name Tatars was originally
applied to both the Turkish and Mongol stems whkfa Invaded
Europe sue centuries ago, and ^radualty eactended to tha TuHtish
stems mixed with Mongol or Fmnish blood in Siberia. It is used
at present in two senses: (a) Quite loosely to designate any of
the Ural-Altaic tribes, except perhaps Osmaniis, Finns and Magvars.
to whom it is not generally applied. Thus some writers talk of
the Manchu Tatars, (b) la a more restricted sense to designate
Mahommedan Turkish-speaking tribes, espcciallv in Ruseia, who
never formed part of the Scljuk or Ottoman Empire, but made
independent settlements and remained more or less cut oflf from
die politics and civilization of the test of the Mahommedan world.
AoTBORmBS.-~The literature of the subject is very extensive,
and bibliographical indexes may be found in the Gecgraphical
DSHmary of P. Semenoy, appended to the articles devoted re-
cpectivdv to the names given above, as also in the yearjy Indexes
IV lu uic ii<uHC9 Kivcn iiuuvc-, as ai!«9 m inc veariy jinvej€l
irtezhov and the Oriental BiMiograpfi^ of Lucian &herman.
Besides the well-known works of Castr6n, whkrh are a very rich
•ooice of information on the subject, Scbiefncr ^t Petersbuig
academy of science), Donner, Ahlqvist and other exploren of the
Ural-Altaians, as also those of the Russian historians Soloviev,
Kostomarov, Bcstuzhcv-Ryumin, Scha(>ov, and Ilovaiskty, the
foRowinff containing valuable information may be mentioned:
the publications of the Russian GeogFaphkai Society and its
brancnes; the Russian Elnograpkicheskiy Sbomiki the IzKStia of
the Moscow society of the amateurs of natural scieocc; the works
of the Russian ethnographical congresses; Kostrov's researches on
the Siberian Tatars in the memoirs of the Siberian branch Of the
BCOj^phical society j Radio v's Reise durck den Altai, A us Sitirienl
• Picturesque Russia " (2luvopisnaya Rossiya) ; Scmcnov's and
Potanin's Supplements to Ritter's Asienj Harkavi's report to the
cougica a at Kazaif; Hartakhai's "Hist, of Crimean Tatars," in
Vyatnik Evtopy, 1066 and 1867; " Katchinsk Tatars." in Izoestia
Russ. Ceogr. Soc., xx., 1884. Various aattered articles on Tatars
will be found in the R€vue orientate Pour ks Etudes Oural-AUaioueSt
and in the publxations of the university of Kazan. See also E. H.
Parker, A Thousand Yean oj the Tartars, 1895 fchiefly a^ summary
of Chinese acxounts p( the early Turkish and Tatar tribes), and
Skrine and Ross, Heart of A sia (1899). (P. A. K. ; C. El.)
TATK» SIB HENR7, Bart. (18x9-1899). English merchant
and founder of the National Gallery of British Art, was bom
at Choiley, Lancashfre, in 1819. His father, a minister of
religion, put him into bu&iness in Liverpool. He became a
prosperous sugar-broker, and about 1874 removed to London,
whcxc he greatly increased the operations of his firm and made
" Tate's Cube Sugar ** known all over the woHd. He had eariy
in his career begun to devote large sums of money to philan-
thropic and educational purposes. He gave £42,000 to the
Liverpool University College, founded in 1881; and a stiU
larger sum to the Liveipool hospitals. Then, when he came
to London, he presented four free pubb'c libraries to the parish
of Lambeth. His interest in art came with later years. He
was at first mady a regular buyer of pictures, for which he
buflt a large private gallery in hb house at Strcatham.
Gradually his gallery came to contain one of the best private
collections of modem pictures in England, and the owner
naturally began to consider what should be done with it after
bis death. It had always been his intention to leave ft to the
nation, but in the way of carrying out this generous desire
there stood several obstacles. The National Gallery could not
have accepted more than a selection from Tbte's pictures, which
were not all op to the standard of Tkmfalgar Square; and even
when he offered to bofld a nar gdtery I6r them, it vaa found
difficult to secure a suitable site. What Tate offered was to
spend £80,000 upon a building if the government would pro*
vide the ground; and in 1892 this offer was accepted. A new
gallery^ cooUoUed by the Thistees of the National GaUeiy, wu
built on the site of Millbank Pdson. The gallery was opened
on 2tBt July 1897, and a large addition 10 it was completed
just before the donor died. It contained sixty-five lectures
presented by him; nearly all the English pktuxcs from the
National Gallery painted within the previous eighty yean; the
pictures purchased by the Royal Academy wuier the Chantrey
Bequest, which had pievimuly hung in South Keasingtoti
Museum; and seventeen large works given to the nation by
Mr G. F. Watts, R.A. Mr Tate was created a baronet in the
year after the Xste Gallery had been opened. He died at
Streatham on the 5th of December 1899.
TAm JAMBi (i77X'-x843), Eiie^ish classical scholar and
schoolmaster, was bom at Ridimond in Yorkshire on the ixth of
June 1771. He was educated at Richmond school and Sidney
Sussex CoBege, Cambridge (fellow^ X795).. From 1796 to 1833
he held the headmastetship of his <4d school, being then
appointed canon of St Paul's and vicar of Edmonton. He
died on the md of September 1843. The work by which he
is chiefly known is bis HcraHus RestUutus (1832). .
TATE» HAHUM (i652*-i7x5), English poet laureate and
playwright, was bom in Dublin in 1652. He was the son of
Faithhil Teate (as the name was spelt), who wrote a quaint
poem on the Trinity entitled Ter Trio, Nahum Tate wa^edu-
cated at Trinity College, Dublin, graduating BA. in 1672. He
published a volume of poems in London in 1677, and became
a regular writer for the stage. BnOus of Alia, or The En^
dunied Jjnefs (1678), a tiagedy dealing with Dido and Aeneas,
and Tic Loyal Gemeral (x68o), were folloised 1^ a series of
adaptations from Eliaabethan dramas. In Shakeq)eaie's
Richard II, he altered the names of the personages, and changed
the text so that eveiy scene, to use his own words, was " full
of respect to Majesty and the dignity of courts"; but in spite
of tbtte precautions T)te Sicilian Usurper (z68i) was suppreuied
on the third representation on account of a possible polilical
interpretation. King Lear (1687) was fitted with a happy
ending in a mattiage between Cordelia and Edgar; and Corio-
lonus became the Ingratitude of a Commonwealth (1682). From
John Fletcher he adapted Tke Island Princess (1687); ^m
Chapman and Marston's Eastward Ho he derived the Cuckold's
Haten (1685); from John Webster's White Devil he took
Injured Ltfpe, or Tke Cruel Husband {pr. 1707); and Sir Aston
Cockayne's Trappolin suppos'd a Prince he imitated in Duke
and no Duke (1685). TaU's name is chiefly connected with
these mangjled versbns of other men's plays and with the
famous New Version of tke Psalms of David (1696), in which
he collaborated with Nicholas Brady. A supplement was
licensed in 1703. Some of these hymns, noubly "While
Shepherds watched," and " As pants the hart," rise above the
general dull level, and are said to be Tate's work.
Tate was commissioned by Dryden to write the Second Part
of Absalom and AckUopkel. The portraits of Elkanah Settle
and Thomas Shadwell, however, are attributed to Dryden, who
probably also put the finishing touches to the poetn. Of hb
numerous poems the most original is Panacea^ a poem on Tea
(1700). In spite of his consistent Toryism, he succeeded
Shadwell as poet laureate in 1692. He died within the precincts
of the Mint, Southwark, where he had taken refuge from his
creditors, on the Z2th of August 17x5.
TATE, RALPH (1840-1901), British gedogst, was bora at
Alnwick in Northumberland in 1840. He was a nephew of George
Tate (1805-X871), natnrah'st and archaeologist, an active member
of the Berwickshire Naturalists' Club. He was educated at the
Cheltenham Training College and at the Royal School of Mines,
and in x85x he was appointed teacher of natural science at
the Philosophical Institution in Belfast. He there studied
botany, and published his Flora Belfastinesis (i86«)r — * *—
also investigated the CreUceous and Uassic rock
4-52
TAUCHNITZ— TAUNG-GYI
performed. Thus in Polynesia it is begnn in or tbont the-
twelfth year, and becomes thus a mack of puberty; while
among the Aabs and the Kabjles of Algeria infants are tattooed
by^ their mothecs for simi^ ornament or as a moans of recog-
nizing.them. The American Indians bore from their initiation
at puberty the mark of the personal or tribal loUm, which at
once represented the religious side oC their life, and served the
practical purpose of enabling them to be known by friendly
tribd. Among the Australians Uttooing served as a mark of
adoption into the family or tribe, the distinctive emblem or
kobanghebig scarred on the thighs.
Tattooing is regarded, too, as a mark of courage. A Kafllic
who has been a successful warrior has the privilege of making
a fong incision in his thigh, which is nibbed with dnders until
sufficiently discoloured. Elsewhere tattooing is a sign of mourn-
ing, deep and numerous cuts being made on face, breast and
limbs. Among the Fijians and Eskimos the nntattooed were
regarded as risking their happiness in the future world. Some
of the most remarkable examples of tattooing are those to be
found among the Laos, whose stomachs, tlughs,legs and breasts
are often completely covered with fantastic animal figures like
those on Buddhistic monuments.
The rudest form of tattooing is that practised specially by
the Australians and some tribes of negroes. It consisu in
cutting gashes, arranged in patterns, on the skin and filling
the wounds with clay so as to form raised scars. This tattooing
by scarring as compared with the more common mode of prick-
ing is, as a general rule, confined to the black races. Light-
skinned races tattoo, while dark practise scarring. In Poly-
nesia the art of tattooing reached its highest perfection. In
the Man^uesas group of islands, for example, the men were
tattooed all over, even to the fingers and toes and crown o(
the head^ and Ms each operation took from three to six months,
beginning at virility, a man must have been nearly thirty before
hn body was comi^tely covered. In New Zealand the face
was the part most tattooed, and Maori beads so decorated were
at one time in much request for European museums, but they
are no longer obtainable in the colony. In Japan, where it
became a high art, tattooing was neither ceremonial nor sym*
bolkaL It was in lieu of clothing, and only on those parts of
the body usually covered in civilized countries, and in the case
of those only who, Uke the jinrikisha-mcn, work half naked.
The colours used are black, which appears blue, made from
Indian ink, and different tints of red obtained from cinnabar.
Fine sewing-needles, eight, twelve, twenty or more, fixed together
in a piece of wood, are used. A clever Uttooer can cover the
stomach or back in a day. As soon as the picture is complete,
the patient is bathed in hot water. The AInus, on the other
hand, tattoo only the exposed parts of the body, the women,
unlike the Japanese, being frequently patients. The tattooing
instruments used in Polynesia consisted of pieces of sharpened
bone fastened into a handle, with their edges cut into teeth.
These were dipped into a solution of charcoal and then driven
into the skin by smart blows with a mallet. During the opera-
tion, assistants, usually female relatives, drowned the cries of
the sufferer with songs and the beating of drums.
Under the influence of civilization tattooing is losing its
ethnological character, and has become, in Europe at least, an
eccentricity of soldiers and sailors and of many among the
bwer and often criminal classes of the great cities. Among
eight hundred convicted French sokliers Lacassagne found
40 per cent, tattooed. In the British army till 1879 the letters
I ' ~ ----- - - -J
8tcfleot3rped edltsoas of the Greek and Roman danics. The
business was carried on by his son, Kari Christian Phillipp
Tauchnitz (i 798-1884), until 1865, when the business was sold
to 0. Holtae. He left large sums to the dty of Lciptig for philan-
thropic purposes. Christian Bemhard, Freiherr von Tauchnlta
(r8i6^895), the founder d tke existing firm of Bemhard
Tauchnita, was the nephew of the first-mentioned. His printing
and pnblishing firm was started at Leipzig in 1837. The Library
of British and American .Authors, so familiar to traveUens on the
continent of Europe, was begnn in i84r. In 1908 the coUection
numbered over 4000 volumes. In 1868 he began the CoUection
of German Authors, followed in rB86 by the Students' Tauchnita
editions In x86o he was ennobled with the title of PrdJurr
(Baron), and in 1877 was made a life member ol the Saxon
XJpper Chamber. From 1866 to 1895 he was British Consul-
Geoeral for the kingdom and duchies of Saxony. He was
succeeded in the buoness by his son. Christian Karl Bepibard,
Freiherr von Tauchnitz.
TAUIiAlfTII, in andeot geography, an Illyrian people in the
neighbourhood of Epidamaus (Thuc i. 34). They woe origin-
ally powerful and independent, under their own Ungs. One of
these was Glaucias, who fought against Alexander the Great,
and placed Pyrrhus* the infant king of Epinis, jwhom he had
refused to surrender to Cassander, upqn the throne (Plutarch,
PynkuSf 3). Later the Taulantii fell under the sway of the
khigs of Ulyria, and when the Romans were carrying on war
against the Illyrian queen, Teuta, they were unimportant.
TAULEB, JOHANN (e. 1300-1361), German mystic, was bom
about the year 1300 in Strassburg, and was educated at the
Dominican convent in that^ dty, where Meister Eckhart, who
greatly influenced him^ was professor of theology (x3is>i32o)
in the monaster}' school. From Strassburg he went to the
Dominican college of Cologne, and perhaps to St James's
College, Paris, ultimately returning to Suassburg. In 1324
Stras$>urg with other cities w^as placed under a papal interdict.
Legend says that Tauler nevertheless continued to perform
religious services for the people, but though there may be a
germ of historical truth in this story, it is probably due to the
d(^re of the 16th-century Reformers to enroll the famous
preachers of the middle ages among their forerunners. In
X338-1339 Tauler was in Basel, then the headquarters of the
" Friends o£ God " (see MysTiasii), and was brought into
intimate relations with the members of that pious mystical
fellowship. Strassburg, however, remained bis headquarters.
The Blad(. Death came to that city in 1348, and it is said
that, when the dty was deserted by aU who could leave it,
Tauler remained at his post, encouraging by sertnons and
personal visitations his terror-stricken fcllow-citizens. His cor-
respondence with distinguished members of the Cotlcsjrcunde,
especially with Margarelha Ebner, and the fame of his preach-
ing and other work in Strassburg, had made him known
throughout a wide drde. He died on the i6th of June 1361.
The well-known story of Tauler's conversion and discipline
by " the Friend of God from the Oberland " (see Nicholas of
Basel) cannot be regarded as historical. Taulcr's sermons ate
among the noblest in the German language. They are not so
emotional as Suso's, nor so speculative as Eckhart's, but they
are intensely practical, and touch on all sides the deeper
problems of the moral and spiritual life.
Tauler's sermons were printed first at Leipzig In M98, and re-
printed with additions from Eckhart and others at Basel (152a)
and at Cologne (1543)- There is a modern cditioa by JuUus
Hambeiger (Frankfort, 1864). and R. H. Hutton published Taulcr's
Sermons lor Festivals under the title of The Inner Way. See
Denifle. Dos Buck von geisUuher Armuth (Strassbuf«. »87y: Cail
Sdimidt. Johann Tauter 9on Stmssburi (Hamburg, ta^i): S. Wink-
worth, TamUr's Life and Sermens (London. 1857); R. A. Vauahan.
Hourw vfttk the Mystics, 3rd ed., vol. t. pp. aia^iOT': Preger's Cesck,
der deutscken Mystik im Uittrhlter, vol. iii.; W. R. Inee. Ckristian
l/tyslicism: R. M. Jones, Studies in Mystical Mipon (1909).
TAUKihOYI, the 'headquarters of the superintendent and
political ofiicer, southern Shan States, Burma. It is situatecl
in 96® 58' E. and 20' 47' N., at an altitude of about 5000 ft., in
a dcpraued plateau on the crest of the Sintaung hills. It is in
TAUNTONi BAR0N~-TAUNTON
♦5$
BaupwfrMandal^ xmilinqr, «tk wiucb it u OomXcted by •
CBXt-raad. The civHtutJoa datn from 1894, wfam then wcM
only a few Tauogthu. huts od the^iits. Thooe were in i^oi^
npvnudft of a th^aMwi hoaea,- niaay cf them mh<i»aBfiimy
bttiitofbckib Sines 1906 UiesouUkmiSfaaii States have been
paxiaoned by miUtaiy poliQe» whoea bea4v>utctt am in Taiiiig-
ggrL Theatatkmiatoa'CeniJdeiablaezteiitaoQaunMcial^^pte
lor the coontfy behind, and there are flaanj ttnivccMl mpfijr,
ibopa of most aatioDalitiea (except Britliibh^AsstiiaB».ChiiNSB»
and ladiaa. The fiveHlay baisar is the trading .idaet of the
aativca of the countiy. A spedal qMarter.oontaina the tenir
poraiy nsideMom of the chiefs When they visit head<|iMMterft,
and then is a school for theik sons..'- An CBchard for cipeci-
aeiital coltivataon lua met with consideraUe suoecHk The
average shade maximuin tempecature is 84* ; the minimmiiag'^.
TAUMTOII, HENRY LABOUCHER^ Baron (1798-1869),
EagUah politician, came of a French Huguenot family, which»
OB leaving France, settled fai HoUi^nd. His father, Fteter
Caesar Laboucfaere, merchant^ was a partner in the wealthy
Amsterdam banking firm of Hope & Company, > be went to
live in Engbnd, and manied.a daughter of Sir Francia Baring.
Henry was his elder son, while a younger son, John, was the
father of the later well-known Radical member of parliament
and proprietor of Truth, Henry Labouchere (b. .1831). He was
educated at Winchester and Christ (^urch, Oafordf and entered
the House of Commons as a Whig in 1836. From 1830 to 1858
he sat for Taunton, Somerset. After filling Various minor
offices, be became president of the Board of Trade in tts^-Aii
and in 1846 he was dnef secretary for Irebmd. In 1847-53
be was again president cf the Board of TndOy and from 1855
to 1858 secretary of state for the odonies. In 1859 he was
created Baron Taunton, but on his death, cjn the X3th of Ju^
1869, the title became extinct,
TAUMTOir. a municipal and parUamentaiy borongh and
market town of Somersetshire, Eng^d, on the tiver Tone,
163 m. W. by S. of London by the Great Western railway.
Fop. (xpor) sito87. Standing in the beautiful vaQey of
Taunton Dene, the town b chiefly built on the south side of
Che river. lu three mun streets, broad and regular, toavtrgp
apon a triangular space called the Parade, where there is a
■isrket croas^ The parish church of St Mary Magdaleni* is
One of the finest and largest Perpendicular churches in Engbnd.
Remnants of Norman work are preserved in the chancel arch,
and of Early English work in the north aisles and transepts.
The tower, noteworthy for its union of elaborate ornament
and lightness ol effect, exceeds 150 ft. in height. There are
double aisles on each side of the nave, and the vhole interior
is admirable in its harmony of design and colour. Little is
left of an Austin priory esubliahed in the reign of Henry L
by Wi&iam Giflard, bishop of Winchester, who also built the
castle, now a mtiseum for prehistoric, Roman and medieval
antiquities. Taunton castle, though largely rebuilt In r496,
embodies the remains of a very early fortr^ while its wtils
and keep date from the rath century, its towers and gatehouses
from the 13th or r4th. At the Restoration it was dismiintlrid
and its moat filled in. Among the schoob is a grammar school
founded in rsaa by Richard Fox, bishop of Wmchester. There
aie also puUic gardens, assembly rooms, alftiihmisfs, a town
hall, market hall, a hospital founded in 1819 to commemorate
the jubilee of Oorge HI., and a shire hall containing a series
of marble basts representing, among Other SomecBct worthies.
Admiral Blake, John Locke the phUMopher, the Puritan leader
Pym, Bishop Ken, and Speke the African ezplonr. The local
industries are silk, linen and glove m an uf actures, iron and brass
founding, ooachbuilding, cabuaetmaking, malting and brewing;
while Taunton Dene fe famous as a rich agricidtural district.
^Tlie Amtterdam Hopes were doccnded from Heniy Hope, son
of a Scottish mcfchant, and younger brother of Sir Thoroaa Hope
(d. 1646), the famou* Scottish bed-advocate, ancestor of the carls
cf Hopctoun Onarauess of Linlithgow, q.9.). Among his descen-
dants was Thomas Hope (1 770-1831), iatl»cr of A. J. B. Bcresfovd-
Hope (1820-1887). pobtkriao and author.
Vm paiHvnqntaqr boimiglfc'af l^witon returns on* member*;
The town is sovecoed by a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen
oeunciUoia. Axeay 1393 acres.
There was.peifaaiis a Remaoo-British viUage near the suburb
of Holwayi and Taunton (Tanton, Tantone, Tauotone) was a
ptoee of considerable importanoe in Saxon times. King lae
threw up an earthen castle bere about 7001 and a monastery
was founded befom 904* The bishops of Wiadicster owned
the manoTt .and obtaMl the first charter fop their " men of
Xauiltoa " from King Edwaxd in 904, freeing them from all
vKfti and oomity tribute. At some time betore the Domesday
Survey Taunton had hecone a borough with very conriderablci
privileges, gpmned by « portreeve 4«>pointed by the bishops.
It did not obtain « cfairter of inoorpoistkm uittil that of ifia?,
which was nnewed in 1677, The oorpocation exjated until
i79s« irfaen the charter lapsed 4>wing to vacancies in the number
of the ooiporate body, and Taunton was not reinooiporated
until 1877^ -Farliamentary represenUtion bci^ in ragg, and
two BMmbecs were returned until 1885. A fair on the 7th of
July was held under a diarter of 1256^ and therq axe now two
fakn ycMy» on the 17th of June and the 7th of July. The.
Saturday market for the sale of corn, cattle and provisiona
dates from before the Conquest. There is also asmaller market on
Wednesdays* The medieval fairs s^nd marketa of Taunton were
celebrated for the sale of woollen cloth called " Tauntons" made
in the town. On the decline of the west of England woollen Indus*
try, silk-weaving was introduced at the end of the i8th oentuiy^
See Viehna CitiUy Hutary, Somersai Toulmen's Bislory ^
TamtMt edited by James Savage (1830).
TAUMTOV, 4 dty and one of the oounty-«eats of Bristol
county, Massachusetts, U.$ JV«, at the head of ocean navigation
on the Taunton river, 17 m. above its .mouth, about 35 m..S. of
Boston* and about 14 m. N. of Fall River. Fop.. (1890) 2%^^!&;
(1900) 3x«o56» of whom 19x40 were lord«B-bora, 3844 being
Irish, -2366 French-Canadians, Z144 English, aj»d 801 English-
Canadians; (1910, U,S. census) 34tSS9* Taunton is. served
by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railroad (014 Colony
Branch) and by interurban electric railways connecting with
Fail River, New Bedfordt Providence and. Boston. The
dumnel of the Tannton river has been deepened and widened
.by the Fedcial govtanment, and in 19x0 veisels of 11 ft. draft
could reach the dty at high water (mean range of tide at
Taunton, 3*4 ft.). Within the corporate limiu of the city,
which has a land area of 44*25 s<i. nu, there are six villages-r
Hopewell, Britanniaville, Oakland, Whittenton, East Taunton
and the Wdr. Taunton Green, a rectangular stretch of land
fringed with lofty elms, the " common " of the New England
town, about which is the business portion of the modem city,
is I m. from the Weir, the port of the city.
The dty contains interesting specimens of colonial or early
X9tb<entury architecture. Among the modem public buildings
are the handsome granite County Court House (1895), facing the
Green, the Public Library building (given by Andrew Carnegie),
the registry buildiag, the county gaol, the. dty hall, the post
office, an old ladies' home, an emergency hospital, the Morton
Hospital, occupying the fine old residence of Governor Marcus
Morton, and the Y.M.C.A. building. The Bristol County Law
Library and Old Colony Historic Society (incorporated in
1853 and organized in 1854) possess valuable collections of books,
and the latter has a coUection of portraits and antiquities.
Bristol Academy (x79»; non-secutian) is a well-known pre-
paratory school, and there is also a commerdal school— the
Bristol County Business College. At Norton (pop: in 19 10,
S544), direcUy N. of Taunton, and formerly within its boundaries,
is Wheaton Seminary (1834) for girls. Among social dubs are
the Winthrop Oub, the Bristol Club, the Taunton Boat Club,
the Yacht Club, and the Countiy Club. A good water-supply,
owned by the dty, is obtained from neighbouring lakes and
ponds, along the shores of which are many smnmcr cottages.
Taunton was one of the first dties in the United States to own
and opente its own electric lighting plant, whic^
from a private corporation in 1897. Its indust-
454
TAUl^DS-;-TAUP
b«gftn witli the establ&IiBieiit of iro m ior to in i§if6) the pbat
then opened continued in active operation for about ats yean.
Brick-making and shipbtulding were two of the early industries;
the latter, formerty veiy important, has now been abandoned.
The manufactures to-day are extensive and varied. The
aggregate value of the factory product in 1905 was $13,644,586,
an increase of i8>2 per cenL over that of i^oa Of this amount
the value of the cotton manufactured was $6,141, 598-, or 45 per
cent, of the whole. Herring fisheries give occupation during
a part of the year to a considerable number of workeis.
Taunton has a prosperous jobbing trade, and large shipping
interests, the Coastwise trade being particularly important.
Tkunton was founded in 1658, when the territoiy was pur^
chased from Maasasoit by settlers from the Massachusetts Bay
Colony, and became the frontier town of Plymouth Colony.
Myles Standi^ waa engaged on the original survey. • But then
had been earlier settlers in the R«io&— at "Tecticutt"
(Titicut), which later became part of Tkunton. The settlement
at Taunton was at first known as Cohannet, but the present
name—from Taunton, Somerset, England, the home of many
of the settlers— was soon adopted. The town was incoiporated
in X639. In 1671 it was the scene of a meetlAg between Gov.
Thomas Prince and King Philip, at which a treaty was dnwn
up. During King Phil^'s War, Taunton was a base of opera-
tions for Pljnnouth Colony troops under Gov. Josiah Winslow.
In 1686 Taunton was one of the towns which refused to comply
with Sir Edmund Andros's demands for A tax levy. For some
years Thomas Coram, the philanthropist and founder of the
London Foundling Hospital, was engaged in the shipbuilding
ihdustry here. In 1774, after the passage of the Bdston Fort
Bill, the people of Tbunton showed th&r sympathy for Boston
by raising on the Green a red flag on which were ihscribed thr
words "Liberty and Union." The leader of the patiiotf
party at this time was Robert Treat Paine, to whose memory
bronae statue has been erected; During Shays's rebellion t'
Taunton court-house was twice besieged by insurgents, who wi
each time dispersed through the molute action and firas
of Gen. David Cobb, one of the judges. The -event is oonune
rated by a tablet on Taunton Green. In Berkley, which 1
1735 was a part of Dighton (Taunton South Purchase, sepai
from Taunton in 17x2), is the famous Dighton Rock, wi<
scriptions long erroneously supposed to have been ma'
Norse discoverers of America, but now known to be the
of Indians. Taunton was chartered as a dty in i2f
1909 a new city charter was adopted, under which the
and nine coundlmen (elected at large) were the only dty
elected at any dty election, candidates for these of
nominated by petition; the mayor appoints, subjec
approval of the council, a chief of police and a dty solii
See S. H. Emery. History of TaunUm from its SeitUt
Present Time (Syracuse. N.Y.. 1893); D. H, Hurd. HisUff
County (Philadelphia, 1883) ; Quartor MiOeunitdCekbratioi
1889).
TAUmrS. a wooded mountain range of Gttm
Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau and the gia*
Hesse-Darmstadt. It lies between the Rhine ar
on the S. and the Lahn on the N., and stretches r
and W. Its southern slopes stand 5 to 10 m. I
Main, but -leave only a very narrow strip of low gr
the Rhine, and from Bingen downwards they ov
predpitous crags, many ^ which are crowned v
tuins. It has an average elevation of 1500 f
peaks occur in the east, where the imposing d
Feldberg (2887 ft.), Kldner Feldbeig (9714 i
(26x8 ft.) dominate the Wettenu and the va
Above the Rheingau, or the slopes which sti
Rhine between Biebrich and Bingen, the
1500 to X700 ft. The geological core of the
primitive argillaceous schists, capped by qr
through in phtces by basalt. On the northr
on the whole gently towards the Lahn, the -
a cbnsidecftble devebpme&t. T
everywhere ^
beeches. Tl
vineyards, <
vineyards <
brands of 1
Marcobrur
and other
vintages
number
attcact V
Hombui
Nauhei
expovt<
damat
of Fa]
K6ni|
Ah
Kun
renu
dec
AU
an<
cer
E'
I,
h
TAURSLLUS— TAUKOBOUUM
455
to Whke Umd in tha Bar of Fkdty. Tlw vpper WMItto
cDtcis the lake &»iii the aonlh netr Tokaano, whmt tlnie iM
nocher eoOectioD of spda«i» ft& The river fom asroal
fee iifla and lapida below the lalw*
TAIIBBUUDI* MMOUOa (iS4r^6o6)» GecnaB phiioaDpha
and theolociaii, «as bom at MOnpdgud. He i«ad thcoloor at
Tafamgen and medf dne at Bead, where he lect ved on phyaical
eciaBoe. He snbee^aktlj became pmitmor of medidne at
Altdod. where he died hi 1606. He attacked the dommaiit
Axjetotdhuniiii of the th&e^ aad endeavooied to oonstruct a
phOoeophy which ahoitld haimomze faith and hnowledge^ and
bridge over the fhmrt fpade by the fiiat Acnnatfaice wntoa
who foflawed Ponponaasi. Srhnhmrtriim he tondeeBned on
eeooimt of ita iin()tiieetioidng enhmheion to Aristotle. Taeidhie
I— jwfaAi^ the neeeirity ci going back to Chrietianity itadf,
as at once the superstneture aad the jiiitification of pfailoM>pfay.,
His chief worin ^fH9 PkibsopkiM Trkmplkms (f 573); Synopsis
MttapkjskaeArutottUs{t^)l Dt Esmm Aakniitale h6i^)i and
a trestiM vritttn in criticuiD of CaeailpiaiM entitled um«o« Alpu
(1597). See Sciunkl-Schwanenburx, Ntcalaut TaMrsOus (i860 end
1864).
TAUBI. the earUeat known fakhabitauts of the mounteinoua
»nih coest of the Crimea (Herodotus hr. lojj). Nothing is
certain as to their affinitiea. They probably represent an old
popidarion pezfaaps oonnected with sobm Cancasus stock; in
finle of the rssemblance of the naaac Tauriad ^hey are not
likdy to be Cdta. They were foaaoBB in the andent worU
for their maiden goddess, identified by the Greeks with Artemis
Taoropobs or IpUgeneia, whom the 90dde« waa said to have
brooght to her shrine at the moment when she was to hsve
been ssolfiasd at Aulia. Orestes soviet hn sister, and almost
feU a victim to the Tamic custom of sarrifiring to the maiden
shipwrecked stnngeis, a res! custom which wsa the ground
of the whole myth. His adventures were the subject of plsys
by Euripides and Goethe. Towasds the end of the end century
axL we find th« TSuri dependent alliea of the Scythian, kfeg
Scfliftna, iriio from their haifaour of Symbobn Portua or
Pabcioin (Baladavm) harassed Chersonese (9.9.). Their kter
histoey is unknown. CE- H. M.)
TAVBIDA. a government of southern Russia, induding the
peninsola of Crimea and a tract of mainlaiid dtuated between
the lower Dnieper and the coasts of the Black Sea and the
ScaofAaov. It is bounded by these two seas on the S., while
it has on the N. the governments of Khenon and Ekateriaoflisv.
The area Is 74rS$^ «h m.^ of which 9704 sq- »• bdeng to the
Crimea. The continental part consists of a gently undulating
steppe (from ses^kvd up to 400 ft. in the nortlwenst) of bhdc
earth, with only a few patches of sahne day on the shores of
the Scvash or Putrid Sea, and sand akmg the kwer Dnieper.
The government is drained by the Dnieper, which flows along
the froBiier for t8o m.» and by two minor streams, the Moloch-
aaya and Berda. Many small lakes and ponds occur in the
north, as wdl as on the Kmbum peninsula, at the mouth of
the Dnieper, where salt is made. There are no forests. The
dniate is contmentsl, and resembles that of cettitl Crimea
aad KhecSDn. The population, in 1906 was estimated at
i^34,7Qeu The contfatental portion, although less aixcd than
that of the peninsula, consists of Great and Little Russians,
who eoBStitute 63 per cent, of the whole, Germane (5'4 per
cent), Bulgsrians (a-S per cent.), Jews (5-8 per cent.), aad
Anasniana. The chid occupation of the people is agriculture,
anAsifiy avsflable patch of land has been brought under the
' t s<|OD no less than 45 per cent, of iu area waa under
The principal crops are cye^ wheat, oau.
Tobacco is also grown, snd over 31,000
' , while gardcBB citend to seme 15.500
-.iiye^tock breeding b extensivdy engaged
^ f wdnersl rslMd, but the iron fndQstty, and
\ of agricultural machinery <«.;. at-
devdopcd. The export trade is con-
bdng Sevastopol, Eupatoria, Theo-
j Sea. aad Aaov and Berdyansk
en the Sea of Aaotv, Th^ fisfaeriss ahmg the toast are active.
Manufactures aae insignifiranr, bat there is a brisk export trsde
in gnun, salt, fish, wool and taUow. The govcruaent Is
divided hito eight districts, the chid towns of which are Sln^
tenopdl, capital of the 0Dvcinnisnt» Eapatoria and Theododa,
in Crimea* and Alcsfald, Berdyansk, Mditopol, Fsekop «ad
YalU on the oonthmnt.
TAURIMI, an andenft Uguriss people^ althovgh the mmt
may be of Celtk: orighi, who oocupiwd the upper valley of the
Padus (Po) hi the centre of the modem Piedmont. In 318 B.C;
they were attacked fay Hamrihal, with whose friends the
Insnbres they had a kmg^taading ieud, and their chid town
(Tatoasia) was captured after a three daya' si^ge (Pblybhis iiL
60^ 8). As a people they are rardy mentioned in Mstoiy. It
is not known when they definitely became aobieot to the
Romans, nor when the colony of QuUa) Aagosta Taurinorum
(Torino, T^irin) waa fi>unded m their territory (peobehly by
Augustus after the battle of Acthun). Both livy (v. 34) and
Strabo(iv.pk S09) ipeak of the country of the Taurmi as hidud*
ing one of the passes of die Alps, which points to'« wider use
oft
See H. Niaaen, lialiscke Londeshmd*, n. (1909), p. r^; aad
ancient authoritses quoted hi A. HoUler, A lteMUt k tr SpnuktOatB,
& (1904)*
TAUROBOUVH, the sacrifice of a buK, usually in con-
nexion with the worship of the Great Mother of the Gods^
though not Unrited to it. Of oriental origin, its first known
performance in Italy occurred in A.o. r34, at Puteoli, in honour
of Venus Cadestis. Prudentfus describes it in PemUfhanen
(x., xo661f.): the priest of the Mother, dad in a toga worn
ctndu GahiMt with gdden crown and fillets on his head, takes
his place in a trench covered by a platfonn of planks pierced
with fine holes, on which a bull, magnificent with flowers and
gold, is slam. The blood rains through the platform on to
the priest bdow, who recdves tt on his face, and even on bis
tongue and pakte, and after the baptism presents himsdf
before his fdlow-worshlppers purified and regenerated, and
recdvts thdr salutations and reverence.
The taurobolium in the snd and 3rd centuries waa usually
performed as a measure for the welfare of the Emperor, Empire^
or community. Its date frequently being the 34th of Mardi,
the Eiia Sanguinis of the annual festivd of the Great Mother
aad'Attis. In the late 3rd and the 4th centuries its usual
motive waa the purification. or regeneration of an individud,
who was spoken of as rtnatus in aetemumy reborn for eternity,
in consequence of the ceremony (Q^p. Insc. Lat. vi. 510-513).
When its efficacy was not eternal, its effect was considered to
endure for twenty years.' It was abo performed as the ful*
fihnent of a vow, or by eommand of the goddess herself, and
the privilege was Umited to no sex nor cUtss. The pbiccL of
its performance -at Rome was near the rite of St Peter's, in
the excavations of which aeverd altars and inscriptmns com*
memoratfveof taurobolia were discovered.
The taurobolium was 'probably a sacred drama symbollzhig
the rehttions 61 the Mother and Attis {q.v.). The descent of
the priest mto the sacrifidd foss symbolized the death of Attb,
the withering of the vegetation of Mother Earth; his bath of
blood and e m e rge nce the restoration of Attis, the rebirth of
vegetation. The ceremony may be the sinritualised descent
of the primitive orientd practice of drinking or bdng baptired
in the bh>od of an animd, based upon a bdtd that the strength
of brute creation could be acquired by consumption of its sub-
stance or contact with its blood. In spite of the phrase renains
in aeternumf there is no reason to suppose that the ceremony
was in any way borrowed from Christianity.
See Efperandieu. InscHpfums dc Lectdun (1893). pp. 94 ff-S
Zippd. FesiKknfi *nm DodorjuMaMm, Ludwie Friedttader. 1893*
p. 489 (.; Showcrman. Tke Great Mother cftJu Cods. BylUttn d
lh€ Univenity oj Wisconsin, No. 43. pp. 380-84 <M^ '
Hepding, Attis, Seine Mytken und Sein Ktdt (G
168 ff., sot; Cumont, Le TawobtU et U CidU
d'ksthitB a i$ kmraimn nUgftsutt. vL, Ma a.
+56
TAURU&-TAVERNIBR
TAURUS (" the B«U **), in asboMmy, the second sign of
the zodiac (9.V.)) denoted by the symbol *^. It is also a con-
stellation of vexy great antiquity, the Pkiadea and Hyades,
two star dnsterS) being possibly referred to in the Old TesU<
ment; Aldebaran, a star, is mentioned by Hesiod and Homer.
Ptolemy catalogued 44 stios, Tycho Brahe 43, Hevdius 51.
The Greeks fabled this constellation to be the bull which bgre
Eucopa across the seas to Crete, and was afterwards raised to
the heavens by Jupiter, a Tonrif or Akiebaran, is a brilliaiit
star of a reddish colour and magnitude lo; this star is the
principal object of the group named the Hyades, named after
the seven daughters of Atlas «nd Aethra — Ambrosia, Coronis,
Eudora, Pasitho6, Plexaxis, Pytho and Tycho-*fabled by the
Greeks to have been transformed into stars by Jupiter for
bewailing the death of their brother Hyas. Another star group
in this constellation is the Pleiades. X Taftri is an " Algol "
variable^ varying in magnitude from 3*4 to 4'S. Nebula M.i
Touri is a famous " crab " nebula, so named by Lord Roeae
from its cUwlike protuberances; it is the first of the series of
nebula on the enumeration of Messier.
TAUSEN, HANS (1494-1561), the protagonist of the Danish
Reformation, was bom at Birkende in Funen in 1494. The
quick-witted peasant lad ran away from the plough at an early
age, finally settling down as a friar in the Johannite cloister erf
Antvorakov near Slagelse. After studying at Rostock and
teaching there for a time and also at Copenhagen, he was again
sent abroad by his prior, visiting, among other places, the
newly founded university of Leyden and making the acquaint-
ance of the Dutch humanists. He was already a good linguist,
understanding both .Latin- and Hebrew. Subsequently be
translated the books of Moses from the originaL In May 1523
Tausen went to Wittenberg, where he studied for a year and a
half, when he was recalled to Antvorskov. In consequence of
his professed attachment to the doctrines of Luther he was
first imprisoned in the dimgeons. of Antvorskov and thence
transferred, in. the spring- ol 1525, to the Grey Friars' cloister
at Viborg in Jutland, where he preached from his prison to the
people assembled outside, till his prior, whom he won over to
his views, permitted him to use the pulpit of the priory church.
At Viborg the seed sown by Tausen fell upon good soiL Several
young men in the town had studied at Wittenberg, and the
burghers, in their Lutheran "zeal, had already expelled their
youthful Bishop Jdrgen Friis. Tausen's preaching was so
revolutionary that he no longer felt safe among the Frandscans,
so he boldly discarded his monastic habit and placed himself
under the protection of the burgesses of Viborg. At first he
preached in the parish church of St John, but this soon growing
too small for him be addressed the people in the market-place
from the church tower. When the Franciscans refused to
allow him to preach in their large church, the mob broke in by
force. A compromise was at last arranged, whereby the friars
were to preach in the forenoon and Tausen in the afternoon.
The bbhop, very naturally averse to these high-handed pro-
ceedings, sent armed men to the church to arrest Tausen, but
the burghers, who had brought their weapons with them, drove
back" the bishop's swains." In October 1526 King Frederick I.,
during his' visit to Aalborg, took Hans Tausen under his pro-
tection, appointed him one of his chaplains, and charged hhn to
continue for a time " to preach the holy Gospel" to the citizens
^f Viborg, who were to be responsible for his safety, thus identify-
ing himself with the new doctrines in direct contravention of
the plain letter of his coronation oath. Tausen found a diligent
fellow-worker in Jdrgen Vibcrg, better knowaas Sadoh'n, whose
sister, Dorothea, he married, to the great scandal of the Cathob'cs.
He was indeed the first Danish priest who to<^ onto himself a
wife. He was also the first of the l e ftitn^ia, «)io used Danish
instea
Intro
tainl]
But 1
write
hise
at Viborg as a pifater, being little mora than adaptations oC
Luther's 9pusctda» He continued to preach in the Grey Frian*
chuicfa, while Sadelin, whom he had " consecrated " a priest,
officiated at the church of the Dominicans, who bad already
fled from the town. The stouter-hearted Frandacans only
yielded to violence persisttotly applied by the soldiecs whom
their opponents qnartered upon them. In 1529 Tausen's
** mission " at Viborg came to an end. King Frederick now
recommended him to Copenhagen to preach heresy at the
church of St Nicholas, but here he found an* able and intrepid
opponent in Bishop Rdnne. Serions disturbances thereupon
ensued; and the Protestants, getting the worst of the argu-
ment, silenced their gainsayets by insulting the bishops and
priests in the streets and profaning and devastating the
Catholic churches. A Herredagf or* Assembly of Nobles, was
held at Copenhagen on the snd of July 1530, ostensibly to
mediate between the two conflicting confessions, but the king,
from policy, and the nobility, fronk covetousness of the csUtes
of the prelates, made no attempt to prevent the excesses of
the Protestant rabble, openly encouraged by Tausen. On the
other hand, the preachers failed to obtain the repeal of the
Odense recess of 1527 which had subjected them to the tpiritual
jurisdiction of the prelates. On the death of King Frederick,
Tkusen, at the instance of R6nnc, was, at the Hemdag of 1533,
convicted of blasphemy and condemned to expnlsBn from the
diocese of Sjaelkind, whereupon the mob rose in arms against
the bishop, who wotild have been murdered but for the
courageous intervention of Tausen, who conducted him home
in safety. The noble-minded ROnne thereupon, from gratiCode,
permitted Tausen to preach in all his churches on condition
that he moderated his tone. On the final triumph of the Re-
formation Taxisen was i^ipointed bishop of Ribe (X543), an oflioe
he held with great seal and fidelity for twenty yean.
See Suhr, Tausens Lemtt (Ribe, 1836) ; DanmarkM Bitp Hisloru,
voL iii. (Copenhagen, 1897-1905). <iL N. B.) .
TAUSSIG, FRANK WILUAM (XS59- )i American econo*
mist, was bom at St Louis, Missouri, on the aSthitf December
X859. He was educated in his native dty and at Harvard
University, where he became professor of political Economy
in X893. He has made a particular study of finance, and has
written Tanff Hishry of the United States (1888); The Siher
Situation in the United StaUs (1892)', Wages and Capital (1896).
He was for some time editor of the American Quarteriy Jonnud
of E conom ics.
TAUTPHOBUS* JEMniA. Baxoness vor (1807-1893),
British novelist, was bom at Seaview, Co. Donegal, on the >3xtl
of October 1867, her inaiden name being Montgomery. In
1838 she married the Baron von Tautphoeus of Marqoartstein
(1805-1885), chamberlain to the king of Bavaria, nnd in
Bavaria she passed most of the rest of her Hfe. She was the
author of several novels, written in English, describing South
German life, manners and. history. The Initials (1850), Quiis
(1857), and At Odds (1863) are the best known of these. She
died on the 1 2th of November 1693.
TAVASTEHUS, a province of Finland, bounded by the
provinces of Nyhmd, Viborg, Vasa and St Michel. Pop. (1904)
3r7,326. The province is largely unproductive, much ol the
surface being composed of hills and lakes, but in favourable
districts agriculture is sucessfully pursued, and there is ■
school of agriculture and an institute of forestry.
TAVERN, the old name for an inn, a public house where
liquor is sold and food is supplied to travellers. It is, however,
now usually applied to a small ale-house where liquor only is
supplied. The word comes through Fr. from Lat. tabema^ a
booth,, shop, inn. It is usually connected with the root seen
in " tabuk," board,, whence Eng. " Uble." and thus meant
nally a hut or booth made of planks or boards of wood.
LVERNIER, JEAN BAPTISTB (1605-1689), French
sUer and pioneer of trade with India, was bora in x6os
'aris, where his father Gabriel' and unole Mckliior, Pro-
.nts from Antwerp,. pursued the profession of geographers
engravers. The conversations he heard in his father^
TAYIRA-^TAVISTOC3K
+57
koose iDspitU Taveraier «pltli an eufjr doire to tnTcl, ud b
his sizteoith year he htd already ^ted England, the Low
Countries and Germany, and seen something of war with the
imperialist Oohmel Hans Brennert wliom he met at Nuremberg.
Four and a haJI ynrs in the household of Brenaec's onde, the
Tkeroy of Hmigary (i62^s9>y and a briefer oonncsion in x6f9
with the doke of Hethd and his father the duke of Nevcrs,
prince of Mantua, gave him the habit of courts, which was
mvaluable to him in later yean; and at the defence of Mantna
in 1629, and b Germany m the following year with Cefond
Walter Butler (afterwards notofioua through the death of
Wallenstein), he gained some military experience. When he
left Batler to view the diet of Ratisbon In 1630, be had seen
Italy, Switaeriand, Germany, Poland and Hungary, as well as
France, England and the Low Countries, and spoke the prin-
cipal languages of these countries. He was now eager to visit
the East; and at Ratisbon he found the opponnnlty to jofat
t«io TVencfa fathers, M. de Chapes and M. & St Llebau, who
had received a mission to the Levant. In tfaelr eompony he
readied Constantinople early in 163 r, where be Spent eleven
ononths, and then proceeded by Tokat, Erserum and Erivan
to Persia. His farthest point In this lirst journey was Ispahan;
he retumecl by Bagdad, Aleppo, Alexandretu, Malta and Italy,
and was again in Paris in 1633. Of the nest five years of hit
Efe notliing is known with certainty, but it was probably during
this period that he became controller of the household of the
duke of Orleans. In September 1638 he began a second Journey
(163S-43) by Aleppo to Persia, and thence to India as far as
Agra and Golconda. His vntt to the court of the Great Mogul
and to the diamond mines was connected with the plans realized
more fully fn his later voyages, in which Tavemicr travelled as
a merchant of the highest rank, trading in costly Jeweb and
other pvecious wares, and finding his chief customers among
the greatest princes of the East. The second journey was
foUowed by four others. In his third (1643-49) he went as
far as Java and returned by the Cape; but his relations with
the Dutch proved not wholly satisfactory, and a long lawsuit
on his return yielded but imperfect redress. In his list three
journeys (r6sT-ss, 1657^9, 1664-68) he did not proceed beyond
India. The details of these voyages are often obscure; bnt
they completed an extraordinary knowledge of the routes of
ovcriand Eastern trade, and brought the now famous merchant
mto dose and friendly communication with the greatest Oriental
potentateOi They idso secured for him a large fortune and
great icputation at home. He was presented to Louis XIV.,
** in whose service he had travelled sixty thousand leagues by
land," received letters of nobility (on the i6th of February
1669), and in the following year purdiased the barony of
Aubonne, near Geneva. In i66» he hod married Maddeine
Goiase, daughter of a Parian jeweller.
Thus setUed in ease and affluence, Tavemfer occupied him-
self, aS it would seem at the desire of the king, in publishing
the account of his journeys. He hod neither the equipment
nor the tastes of a scientific travdter, but in ill that referred
to co mm erce his knowl e dge was vast and could not fail to be
of modi pufcHc service. He set to work therefore with the old
of Samuel Chappuseau, a French Protestant littCratcur, and
produced a Nowette Rdatum de PInttfieiMir du Sing du Cramd
Sapiemr (410, Paris, 1673), based on two visits to Constanti-
nople in bis first and sixth journeys. This was foBowed by
U Six Voyages de J. B. Taeemkr (t vols.-4to, Paris, 1676)
and by a supplementary BetneH de Fkitiema RdaHem (4to,
Paris, r679), fai whidi he was asnsted by a certain Li Chapdle.
This last contdns an account of Japan, gathered from lAerchants
and others, and one of Tongking, derived from the observations
of hh brother Dadel, who had shared his second vojrage and
settled at Batovia; it contained also a violent atfid: on the
agents of the Dutch East India Company^ at iThose hands
Tavemfer had suffered more than one wrong. Tids attack
was elsAoraCdy answered in Dutdi by H. von Qudlenburgh
iVmdieUB Botamue, Amst., 1684), bnt mode more noise
i Anaauhl drew bom it some natefiol anfavourable to
PiotestoHtlBn Ibr his Afeb^ few Us CatMi^ues (t68f ), and s6
brought on the traveller a ferodous onslaight in Jurieu*s Brprli
de if. AmoMid (1684). Tavemler made no reply to, Jarieu; bfe
was in fact engaged in weightier matters, for in 1684 he travelled
to BesUn at the inviutton of the Great Elector, who commis-
sioned h&n to oigonise an Eastern trading company— a project
never reotted. The doshig years of Tavemler^ life ore obscuiv;
the tfane was not favourable for a Protestant, and It has even
befti supposed that he passed Some time in the Bastille What
h certain is that he left Paris for Switzerland in 1687, that in
X689 he passed through Copenhagen on his way to Persia
through Muscovy, and that in the same year he died at Moscow.
It appears that he had still business relatk>ns In the East, and
that the neglect of these by his nephew, to whom they were
Intrusted, had dctemdned the indefatigable oM man to a fresh
jonm^.
Tavemier's travels, though often reprinted and transhted, hav«
two defects: the author uses other men's material without dis-
tinguishing it from hb own ohsGrvatiom; and the mrmtive is
BDuich coolusixl by his plan of often deserting the chronological
order aodgiving instead notes from various journeys about certaia
routes. The latter defect, h Is true, while it embarrasses the bio>
grapher, b hanfty a blemish in view of the object of the writer,
wlio aonght nunniy to furnish a gukle to other menibansa. A caiefal
attempt to disentaodc the thread of a life still ia nuny parts obscure
has been made by Charles Joret. Jtan Baptifte Taosrmer d'aprks des
Documents Nouteaux, 8vo, Paris, 1286, where the literature of the
subject Ts fully given.
See also am English translation of Tavemier's account of hii
tcaveis so faras nlatiogto India, by V. Bail, 2 volfc (1889)*
TAVnUU a seaport of southern Portugal, in the district of
Faro (formeriy the province of Algarve); at the mouth of the
river Seen, 2r m. E.N.E. of Faro. Pop. (1900) ia,X75. The
harbour is protected by two forts, and the public buildings
include a Moorish dtadel, a Renaissance diui[di, and a ruined
nunnery founded by Khig Emanuel (1495-1521). Tivira hai
sardine and ttmny fisheries, and carries on a considerable coasting
trad e^ Exce llent fruit b grown in the neigfabourhood»
TAVISTOCK, a market town in the Tavistock parliamentary
division of Devonshire, England, in the vslley of the Tavy, on
the western border of Dartmoor; x6| m. N. of Plymouth, on
the Great Western and the London and Southwestern railways.
Pop. of urban dbtrict (r90i), 4728. There* are some, remains
(including a portion in the square, now used as a public library
established in 1799) of the magnificent abbey of St Mary and
St Rumon, founded in 961 by Orgar, eari of Devon. After
destruction by the Danes in 997 it was restored, and among
its famous abbots were Lyfing, friend of Canute, and Aklred,
who crowned Harold II. and WHliam, and died archbishop of
York. The abbey dnirch was rebuilt in 1285, and the greater
part of the abbqr in X457~58. The chnrch of St Eu^aduus
dates from 13x8, and possesses a tofty tower supported on four
open arches. WitMn are monuments to the Glanville and
Bourchier families, besides some good stained glass, one window,
being the work of William Morris. Kdly CoUege, near tbe
town, was founded by Admiral Benedictus Marwood Kdly,
and opened in 1877 for the education of hb descendants and
the orphan sons of naval offlccn. Mines of copper, manganese^
lead, silver and tin are in the ndghbourhood, and tbe town
possesBes a considerable trade in cattle and com, and industries
in brewing and iron-founding. The mim'ng industry generslty
has declined, but there is a trade hi antnie, eztiocted fron
the copper ore.
The early history of Tavistock (Tavistoke) centres round the
abbey of St Rumon. Both town and abbey were socked by
the Danes in 99^, but were shortly afterwardi rebuilt, ind the
latter at the time of the Conquest ranked as tbe Wealthiest
house in Devon, mdoding the hundred and manor of Tsvistodt
among its possessions. Tavistock was governed from befoee
the Conquest by a portreeve, who fa the i/*b
assisted by a select coimdl of burgesses, t'
Masters c^ tlw Toune and Parish of Tav!
two members to parliament as a bonmgh
prived of one BieBiber fay the act of 1867, an
4-58
TAVOY— TAXATION
by that of 1885, but no chatter of corporatkm was granted until
1683, when Charles II. instituted a governing body of a mayor,
twelve aldermen and twelve assistants; with a recorder, deputy
recorder, common clerk and two serseani»^t-mace. A market
on Friday and a three days' fair at the feast of St Rumon were
granted by Henry I. to the monks of Tavbtock; and in 1554
two fairs on April aj and November 28 were granted by
Edward VI. to the earl of Bedford, then k»d of the manor. In
the 17th centuiy great quantities of doth were sold at the
Friday market, and four fairs were held at the feasts of
St Michael, the Epiphany, St Mark, and the Decollation of
St John the Baptist. The charter of Charles XI. instituted a
Tuesday market and faixs on the Thursday after Whitsunday
and at the feast of St Swithin. In 1823 the old fairs were
alx^hed in {avow of six fairs 01^ the second Wednesdays in
May, July, September, October, November and December.
The Friday market is still held. Tavistock was one of the four
stannary towns appointed by charter of Edward I., at which
tin was stamped and weighed, and monthly courts ivere held
for the regulation of mining affairs. It was also the site of
one of the eadiest printing-presses, and copies of the stannary
laws and of a translation of fioethius issued from the Tavistock
press in the reign of Henry VIII. are preserved in Xxeter College
library. The decay of the woollen industry at Tavistock was
attributed by the inhabitanu in 1641 to the dread of the Turks
at sea and of popish plots at home. The trade is now extinct.
The copper«mining industry has much declined. The Royalist
troops were- quartered here in 1643 &fter the defeat of the
Parliamentary forces at Bradock Down.
See Victoria CouiUy History, Detonshire; A. J. Kempe. Notices
of Tavistock and its Abbey (London, 1830) ; R. .N. Worth. Calendar
0/ Tavistock Parish Records (Plymouth, 1887).
TAV07» a town and district in the Tenasserim division of
Lower Bunna. The town is on the left bank of the river of
the same name, 30 m. from the sea. Pop. (1901) S3,37i.- It
carries on a considerable coasting trade with other ports of
Burma, and with the Straits Settlements. The chief iadustry
is silk-weaving, but there are also rice and timber millSb
The district has an area of 5308 sq. m. It lies between Siam
and the Bay of Bengal, enclosed by mountains on three sides,
via., the main chain of the Bilaukuung on the east, rising in
pUocs to 5000 feet, which, with its densely wooded spurs, forma
an almost impassable barrier between British and Siamese
territory; the Nwahlabo in the centre, which takes its name
from its loftiest peak (5000 ft.); and a third range, under the
name of Thinmaw, between the Nwahlabo and the sea-coast.
The chief rivers are the Tenasserim and Tavoy, the former
being formed by the junction of two streams which unite near
Met'ta; for the greater part of its course it is dangerous to
navigation. The Tavoy is navigable for vessels of any burden.
It is interspersed with many islands, and with its numerous
amaller tributaries affords easy and rapid conununication.
The climate is on the whole pleasant. The annual rainfall
avenget 228 inches. Pop. (igoi) 1:09,979, showing an increase
of 16 per cent, in the decade* The staple crop is rice. Forests
covet an area of nearly $000 aq. in,| 9f vdiich 960 sq. m. are^
" reserved. "
Tavoy, with the rest of Tenasserim, waa handed over to the
British at the end of the first Burmese war in 1824. A revolt
broke out in 182^ headed by the former governor, which was
at once quelled, and since then, the district has remained un^
disturbed.
TAWDB7. an adjective used to cfaaraaeriae cheap finery..
and espedally thincm which ututAt^ in A idhcftn «av than which
is rich or coal
elegance have
in the phrase
of St AudK]
Etheldreda, ?
accepted that
at St/ Audrey*
|» Urn WwM9 i
the story that the saint died of a sweQiBg tn the threat, wUdi
she took as a judgment for having worn fine necklaces in her
youth.
TAXATION (from " tax,*' derived, through the Frendw from
Lat. laxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same
root as langfirtt to touch), that part of the itsvcnue of a state
which is obtained by compidiory dues and chaxigeft upon its
subjects. The state may have revenue from property of iu
own. In past times cne of the principal sources of the revenue
of the sovereign was in fact property of some sort, of which
the trown lands in Great Britain, still administered by the
government, are a remnant. In other countries, even at the
present time, there is a large public domain yidding revenue.
Local authorities also largely own property frott which a re-
venue is obtained. But as a rule, and in spite of what has often
be^n the practice in the past, and of exceptions which may still
exist in some countries, a government obtains the money re-
quired for its expenses by means of taxation. Some of the
apparent exceptions, moreover, appear to be only exceptions
in name. It is contended, for instance, that the revenue from
land obtained by the government of India is in reality of the
nature of a land rent— a species of property owned by the
government. But the faa of a government levying so general
a charge may be held ipso facto to convert the charge into a
tax, having much the same economic effects and oonsequoices
as a tax. When, moreover, a state receives a revenue from
property, some of the economic consequences may be the same
as if it received the money by means of a tax. In both cases
there is absorption and administration by the state of so much
of the income of the conununity, and it may be a question
whether the private ownership of the property would not be
more expedient both for the state and its subjects than sute
ownership is, in spite of the apparent advantage to all concerned
in the state getting so much of its income without the conor
pulsion of a tax.
The DiJeretU Kinds of Taxes.^Jn the economic development
of states taxes have come to be grouped in different ways,
according to variations in the method of levying them or the
means <rf enforcing compulsion or other differences. One of
the most usual divisions is into direct and indirect taxes. Taxes
are distinguished as direct, because they are charged directly
upon the tax-payer from whose income they are supposed to
be taken. Indirect taxes are those where it is recognised from
the beginning that the individual who pays in the first instance
usually passes on the charge to some one else, who may again
pass it on until it finally reaches the subject who bears the
burden. The income tax, a direct charge upon all incomes above
a certain limit, is the principal type in the United Kingdom
of a direct tax. In France there is a group of taxes known by
that name — a land tax, a personal and furniture tax, a door
and window tax, and a trade licence tax. In the United States
there are mainly assessments of -the capital value of property,
always for sUte and local purposes only, and not for the
central government. Among the indirect taxes the most
important are excise and customs duties upon articles of general
consumption, the prihdpal articles almost everywhere being
q>irits, beer and tobacco. Sugar, tea, coffee and cocoa are
also among the articles commonly selected. In essential
character there is no difference between excise and customs
duties^ except that excise duties are levied upon articles of home
production, and customs upon articles imjwrlcd from abroad,
or brought into one part of a country or empire from another
part; but excise duties on the whole arc considered more likely
to interf<>re with trad*, in o^tosequcnce of the necessity of super-
e articles affected. Next mimpori-
we have duties levied by means of
nr charges at the time <rf revering
m is necessary for the purpose
. in one case upon the article at a
ion and in the other upon a trans-
»ed on by the first payer to others.
^ cUsscd in the United Kingdom
TAXATION
upon tratoB, ahhoof^ aufib HoHwct
!»ffc Httan ttttt _
* ™*?. ««« nckontd «iii«ct taxes.
i^ divwon mto doect and indirwrt fa, however, &r from
«v«. io take fixst tlie dirwt taxes. The iaoome tax ilseU
•ufli Ifi!!? "^' ""^y P««* t® the stale dix^ay by the peraoa
JwoiwiwaeHMJomeiteoinei. It is paid, ia the fint instance,
*?«« «?e Qi land or hauica, by the oceiipier, and where the
wnqiieriaatniaiititisxecoveRdbyhimiramtheowocr. la
^(^ of jomt-^tock ooiBpaiiica Ae oompany pays the state,
m OMocU the araoimt bom the individual owners of stocks
«w sfcarea out of whose moamea. the amount oomea. The
utmiate payer ia these caws fa no doubt xeached without
^y or many atcpa, but the poocess fa not quite dixect. It fa
u» same with ratea. A householder fa aasessed aa occupier,
!r'?kr "^^ ^ " compounded for," and reaUy know nothiag
« the payment, though it fa snppoBtd to cone out of hfa incooMu
in the caae, agaiii, of a long-estahUsbed iaad tax or rate many
^^^<» nay arise aa to whcfeher the persoa who fa considered
to bear the burden in the first instance veaUy bears ilia the end.
^ tt contended by some that the tax hecocnea in the nature o£a
r«&t-chaivs upon the property affected, and that the state
i^y acu aa landowner m levyins the cliar0e Just as it does in
[Iteming the rent of cmwn bmds, and with sinilaf eoonomic
"Kidenta a^ oonaequenoek Thua the direct taxes io called
nay frequently be no more direct than any others.
Aa reganla indirect taxes, again, there appear to be 'some
OSes at least where it b by no means certain that the charge
■* P^wd on; aUmp duties, for lastaace, especially where
moderate in amount, may. have the effect of diminfahing pro
fB^te the pioftu in business of the peisoa paying them, or the
ii^piMBe whicii he enjoys. Where they are heavy, aa^ for instancf,
^th the FVeach re^tration duties on the transicr. of property,
thoc appeals to be little doubt that they constitute a deduce
tion from the price which- a. seller reoetves, and thus they are
direct — WMghi Sometimes abo, when a charge upon a com-
loodity is not of such a fi^ire as to be easily divisible among the
^^^auy unite of retail consumption, so that it can be passed
on to a oonsumer of the artidea in the form of an increased
pHce, it may remain fixed upon those who first pay it, Kt least
far a time. Thfa fa supposed to have actually happened with
the increaae of the beer duty in the British budget of 1894 by
^ per bamt-^^ sum winch would not when divided by the
pmts in a barrel amount to the amattest coin of the realm.
When the multure tax, a tax upon milUng grain, was imposed
in Italy many yean ago, it was found that no corresponding
increase took place ia the price of flour and bread. The trade
ictt into the hands of the milkcs on a large stale, who paid the
tax out of their increased pmfits from farger business, while
the smaller millere were crushed out; so that thfa waa mani^
fcttly the case of a tax, ao caUcd' inditect, where the wholta
famfen really fell on those who paid tim charge ia the first
iasiaace, and who in theory were supposed to pam it on to
othexs. Even in the case of indirect taxea, therefore, these are
important exoeptioas to the rule that they are indirect.
Hie divfaien oC taxea into dfaect and indkect fa thus based
on no real intrinsic difference. It fa a daiaificatkm for con-
y^atnee^ aalce, adopted upon a rough observatioa of conspicuous,
or spparendy cenapicuooa, differencea.in the mode of levying
taa, and aothhig more. The division, nevertheless, cannot be
Tin» over without mention, aa it fa not on|y a common one m
f«Majc writing, but it figures largely m budget sUtements,
jBuncsai acooonta, and finance admsteisf speechea— especially in
^i.j^^ 5^'W'''^ ««(> ^^^ancfc In the United Kingdom the
^^^^ !««» made famihar by fne4iade dfacussioas.
lor fnrffmi'*'" ^ ^^ shape of income tax was substituted
l^^jJ'J]^^ taxation previously levied, in order to relieve tiade
mbnebJr^?^ of duties and chargs whidi had become aU-
*Kribedoifc/".L ***** **"* <^«»ct taxes above refexied to are
*>ubt, thrafl^ ** ^^oet, havhig been originidiy. there fa littfe
^'^^y *> Sfc? i"!I"^ ®* fovemment moome; and there fa
***«*«fcWd^!rJ*^ «>«Bfnation of certahi heads of revenue as
^"^*<MflsramrfWaci6f.»« Baceal^ in bui|get debates ia
459
Engbod tfaeid haahcte much comparisob of the ttMunu yielded
at different times by direct and indirect taxes respectively.
Other general cUstificatieos of taxes have also been attempted,
aa, for iosuoce, Uses upon real property, and taxes upon
personal property, «nd so on. Classification fa indeed only
too easy. A^pplying a characteristic common to some taxes,
we can make a group of them, and set them against a group
of all the other taxes Jumped together. Such dassificationa
are, however, uninstructive, and it has been found pnctically
necessary in fin a ncia l writing to take (he principal taxes 1^
namCf or by such a general grouping aa that of import or staxnp
duties^ and then describe theic nature, chancteristics and
ioddenoe. In thfa way each country haa a grouping of its
own, though there b a common likeness, and the experience
and practice of one country aasfat the financial study of another.
As Adam Smith remarks, there fa nothing in which govern-
menta have been so ready to bam of one another aa in the
matter of new taxes.
Descriptions of roxer.—FoIlowing. the practice of authors on
fiaaiKe, we may give a ahort aocount of the principal taxes
m the United Kingdom, with r^erencca far passing io points
of comparison or contrast with the taxea of other countries.
See, however, abo the article on EttGuan Fivamcb.
The income tax (9.9.) for many years haa been the most
prominent, and btieriy it has been the most productive, single
tax. Its technical name fa the property and income tax, but
it fa essentially a charge upon all incomes or profits, whether
arising from property, or from the remuneration of personal
services, or from annuities, income being api^ied with the
widest possibb meaning. As originally instituted in April 1798,
daring the i^cat .war with France, under the name of a " tripli*
cate assessment," it waa rather a consolidation of various
assessed taxes levied upon the luxuries of the rich and upon
property, than a wholly new tax. In December of the same
year thfa impost waa repealed, and a true income tax of 10 per
cent, established on aU incomca over £60, with abaiementa
between £60 and £aoo. It was intended as a tcooporary (ox
for war purposea only, and was repealed in zSm, but was re-
imposed when the war recommenced m 2803, with the limit
of abatement reduced to £tso. So odious was it that parlia-
ment in 1815, when the war came to an eiul, ordered the destruc-
tion of the documaits jebting to it. Its efficiency as an instru-
ment of prodocuig revenue was, however, so great as to lead to
iu revival in 1842, when Sir Robert Peel inaugurated hfa great
free*trade reform and awept away duties on exports, duties on
imported raw nmterial, and other imposts hampering the Uade
of the ooMot^. The inteatioo again waa that the tax should
be temporaiy, but although the frte-trade work was practl*
cally compktcd in the ear]^ 'sixtica, and Idr Gladstone went
so far as to dissolve parliament ia 1874 "wiih a promise that^
he would abolish the tax if hfa party were returned to power,'
it haa become a permanent impeet. The reasons are that with
the Ux at a low rate it haa been found much less Intobrabb
than during the Napoleonic War, when it waa at the rate of
IO per cent., whib the pressure of the tax has abo been greatly
mitigated by placing very high the minimum income subject
to it, and giving abatemenu upon the bwcr taxabb incomes.
These expedients have aiace been carried much farther. The
tax, if kept at a low rete, imdoubtedly fulfib a useful function
as a revenue reserve for cmeigettcies, on account of the esse
with which it can be put up and down without dfaturhing
trade. But in recent ycaia, by rising to the rete of is. ad. per £,
it has been felt more heavily, and at thfa height fa decidedly less
elastic. As regards thfa tax at beat there fa no questjon of its
" directnem " in a lenae, as It b ao contrived that it can hanliy
be passed on by those who are struck at, though they are not
always the same aa those who pay in the first instance, •» has
abtady been pomted out. There have been great complaiiHs
abo of injustice by the poasesaora of temporary and -- — ^' —
incomes, who have to pay the same rate of tax 1
of permanent incomes from property, although th"
have bees diminished Io some amatt extent by
46o
TAXATION"
the minionmi limit of the income aawssed and Ibe increase of
the principle of abatements.
The varieties of income charged being very great, and spedal
claims for cowdderation having been set up at diffetent times,
the result has been the formation of an income tax code, defining
the methods and rules for assessing the different classes of
profits and income, and prescribing the way in which abate-
ments and exemptions are to be obudned. A leading peculiarit y
is the avoidance of special inquisition into the aggregate of
individual incomes. Although it is called a direct tax, the
method of levy, as far as property is concerned, is upon the
profits at their source, and not as they are distributed vnong
the receivers. The question of the amount of individual
incomes only comes before the authorities when claims for
exemption and abotcfment are made. The eharacter of the tax
is accordingly much less odious than it would be if an account
of individiud incomes were invariably demanded, as was the
case in the United Sutes during the CivU War, when an income
tax existed for a short time.
Other taxes grouped with the income tax by the authorities
are house duty and land tax, but they are unimportant by
comparison. The house duty replaced a window tax and other
charges which were formerly not unimportant, especially in
the interval betweeh 1815 and 1843, when there was no income
ux. It is a charge upon the occupiers. of houses, mainly
dwelling-houses, according to the amount of rent, the rate upon
dwelling-houses ranging from 3d. to pd. in the £, and the yield
being about £1,750,000 per annum. The incidence is probably
much the same as that of the income tax itself, though ihtte
are curious questions as'to the ultimate incidence as between
owners and occupiers of houses. The knd tax is quite un-
important, being an andent tax upon an old assessment which
has long become obsolete, and it interests economists most of
all by the illustration it furnishes of what may be called a rent-
charge' tax — a tax, that is, which has been so long in existence
and so fixed in iu basis that it becomes in reality a charge
upon the property, and not a direct burden upon the person
who pays it, as the income tax is upon tlie person who pays
it or for whom it is paid. In 1897 the basis of the tax was
varied, but not in any way to affect the principle just stated.
The next great group of taxes is that of the excise (qjt,)
and customs duties upon commodities. Exdse duties are
charges upon commodities produced at home on thdr way
to the consumer, and customs duties in the United Kingdom
are charges upon oommodities brought into the country from
abroad; and they are of essentially the same nature. Not
only so, bat excise duties and customs duties are in some cases
supplementary to each other, like articles being produced at
home and imported from abroad, so that for the sake of the
revenue they have both to be taxed alike. Of this in the
British system spirits are the best instance.
Export duties, it may be obser\'ed, are not Important in
systems of taxation generaUy, as there are few articles where
the charge will not really fall on the wages of labour and profits
of capital within the country imposiog them; but opium
grown in India is a weH-known exception, and in the West
Indies export duties on principal articles ^ production, In spite
of their incidence, have be^ found a convenient soor^ of
revenue.
The list of commodities selected for taxation ih the English
fiscal system, under Free Ttade, is very small. Few countries
have so short a list of import duties, but this is in consequence.
of their design to give protection, which raises totally difiercbt
questions from those of tevenue.
The next large group of taxes Is that of the stamp dntles
(q.f.). The principal items are those derived from a knmp 06
id. upon each cheque r ' " '' ^ ^
variety of charges on c
dpatty on the price pa]
of stoc4cB ind shares, ai
charges on fotvi^ boi
advaatage they have it
- -M r ^>.
through their passing on sale or mongage-ftom hand to hand.
The essence of the compulsion in tiie case of stamp duties is
the invalidity of the docimients in courts of law unless the
stamp is a£Bixed, besides Uabili^ to penalties for not a&xing
the prop^ stamps As things go in matters of taxation,
English stamp duties are low^ In France, besides the stamp
duties, there are charges on the transfer of red property amount-
ing to about 6 per cent, on the official vegistsation of the transfer
which is necessary to make it effective.
We come next, in dealing with taxation, to a group of ichargea
about which the question has been raised as to whetiiet they
are, properiy speaking, taxes or not» These are the post office
charges, and the charges for telegraph service, including tele-
phonis. In the classification of the revenue in English budgets
and in official returns these charges are deliberately separated
from the above sources of the levenue described as taxes, and
classed with '* revenue derived from other sources." The
correctness of this procedure is questionable. According to old
usage, the post office was made a state monopoly for the express
purpose of levying taxation by means ^ it. In France the
posuge on letters is still called the toxe des UUres. There is no
doubt also, that when postage on letters is charged at the rate
of id. each, where the cost of collection and delivery, as in the
metropolis, is perhaps not more than a tenth of a penny, it is
difficult to distingxiish the levy from that of any other tax.
Hie excuse, as a rule, may hold good, that the postal charge
is only a reasonable one for service rendered, so tiial the net
income of the post office really resembles the profit of a bosiness*
but the element of taxation appears undoubtedly to enter.
The same remark would appfy to the charges for passenger
conveyance and goods freight made by governments wl^
carry on railway business, as in Prussia, India and the Aus-
tralian states. In strict theory, where the goHmrnetU makes
a charge, it levies a tax. The reasonableness of the charge
in a given case is to its credit, but the features of monopoly
and compulsion on the tax-payer make the charges difficult
to distinguish logically from other taxes. The facts are not
in dispute, however they nay be described. If the govern-
ment derived a large incmne from post office and tekgra|>h
service in excess of the amount expended, the whole income
would be generally, and not improperly, described as taxation;:
but consideration, of course, m\ist be given to the difference
made -by the working of the service generally for the public
advantage rather than for purposes of revenue.
Another souree of revenue in British imperial finance & that
from fees in courts of justice, patent stamps and the like, which
is usually dassified, like the income of the post office, as revenue
derived from other sources than taxes. The amount is not
large, though lufortunately it is not exactly known, owing to
the fees being treated in many cases as e^Ara iccetpts, and
deducted from the expehditure of the departments!^ whkh
they are received, so that this part of the national expenditure
is not shown in the accounts at alL The proceeding appears
to be quite incorrect, whatever excuse there may be for treating
revenue 13ce that of the post office as non*tax revennti. Fees
levied on proceedings in courts of justice are not only taxes
but taxes of the worst sort. They received the spedal con-
demnation of Jeremy Bentham. It is a blot on British finance,
therefore, that this part of the taxation is treated as if it were
not taxation at all, and largely concealed from view m the
way described.
Last of all, we have to notice among the imperial taxes the
estate (qjt.) or death duties, as they are called— the charges
made by government on the transfer of property from the dead
to the living. These have been considerably increased in
iamount* Various, interesting Questions arise regarding them.
. .^ ... ^ apparently taxes upon the dead, aft they
xqnest, but they are felt by the living who
as if the burden of taxation fell on (hem.
a stnnger receives Ibe estate of a deceased
ray of viewing the tax would appear to be
d jaeopeity claimed hy ihc sute against a
TAXATION
461^
stnnger who tano rig)it la Ihe nutter tatupt dM whidk tte
sute givtt him, so that it is haniiy a Ux at all, ss tbs ivord is
ysualiy mdentood; but wbea the estate is received by. the
aear relatives of the lieceased who were sobastlng «ipon it
even before his death, it is undoubtedly Idt as a tax by them,
and operates as a tax. It is- even at times a very burdensome
tax, falling apoD a family when its aoaroes of income ase other*
wise diminished, while it has the «lemerit of striking a small
number annually instead of being diffused equailjC Death
dnties also raise the question as to their being taxes upon
capitaL They are of laige amount, even at the lowest rales
of I to 4 per cent, upon the capitsl chaigedy and they have to
be paid at such times as to cause their being paid out of capital
and not out of teoome, so that their tendency is to diminish
the capital available for productive enterpriaes.
Lacai r<iMlu)fi.— Besides the above iwenue from taxatwa
for imperial purposes, hrge amouuu are ndsed for local par-
poses. The local authorities derive a large income froas private
property, and from monopolies soch as water, gas, electric
light, telephones and tramway service, which th^ cany on,
and on which the same observations may be mads as on the
post oftce and telegraph services; but in additibn there is m
krge amount of taxation. The principal poRfoa df tUs taxa-
tion consbts of rates, that isy a direct charge upon the Uicome
or rental of real property, such as lands, bouses, raUwaiys-and
mines, but mainly lands and houses. Rates aM even a more
important factor in direct taxation than the income tax, and
they have given rise to even greater complaints and discussion.
In 1890 a special royal commission was appointed, under the
chairmanship of Lord Balfour of Burkigb, to consider Uie
problems of the rates; it ouMle several eUboiate reports, the
final one appearing in 1901. The most important questions
raised in a scientific view appear to be the misoonceptian of
the whole problem of local taxation l)y govesnmenta. Rates
were originally imposed, there is little question, when the
intention was to tax all local Incomes equally, and thia is still
the intention in the local taxation of the United States as well
as the United Kingdom. Rales were unposed, therefore, on
all kinds of property and the income arising from them, just as
they are imposed in the United States on the capital of the
property itself. But it has been found in pnctke that for
various reasons only real property, which is visibly local and
cannot be moved away, oLn be assessed and made to pay. The
owners of real property, however, continually urge that they
arc unfairly treated, and that other property should be rated.
Next there has been misconception, arising from the same cause,
in the constant attempt to charge the occupier of lands and
houses with rates, although the real effect of the rates must be,
as a rule, to diminish the value of the property affected like an
old-established land tax, so that rates, properly speaking, do
not fall upon cither owner or occupier. It would be hard,
however, to persuade the mass of occupiers in Engkmd that
they do not pay the rates, so that the expedient of dividing
the rates between owner and occupier, though it cannot affect
their real incidence to a subsUntial extent, oonstmitl)^ finds
favour. The confusion has been Jurther increased of late years
by attempts, as far as towns are concerned) to find a new sub-
fcct of taxation in what are caflcd sUevatuis, as if rates them-
selves were not in reality an appropriation by the state of a
portion of the whole value of the property, subject to which all
the other interests exist. It would be impossible here even to
state all the questions that have arisen about rates; but the
essential confusion caused by the neglect of practical men to
study the natural history of taxation, as it may be called, must
be obvious tcr every student. The frank recognition that local
income taxes arc impossible, and that taxation on property
for local purposes can only be appfied to real property, where it
becomes, usually or frequently, in the nature of a rent-charge,
would have saved the legislature and the public an infinity of
laborious discussion.
Other taxes for local purposes comprise dues and tolls, such
as harbour dues, where the money Is required for such fi definite
XXVI 8*
poxpota as a hattooi; matnUhwd at the cipetise of the traffic
accommodated. Here again the question arises aa Co whethes
the tax is a men aimputooEy charge or payment for a wnrice
rendered. Among thoe toUa may perhaps be induded some
duBves in the aatoxe of 0eiroi dues, imposed on commodities
entering a town, but not to a grcatextent. Such does, in the
nature of- cnstama, are vciy common in oantlnental dties^ and
yield large revenue to the local authivities, althoui^ they have
been very geaferally, if not quite luuvexsally, abolished in the
United Kingdom. They have been regarded with much dislike
t^r-mftst economists,, and souk dues of the kind wlpch existed
la Londen, vii.» dues on coal and wine Imported, and metags
dues on grain, were much Imfnaed until their fifial abolition in
recent yeaza. When of modemte aoconnt, however, dots of
this sort appear no more objectionable, than harbour dues
already mentioned, or any other modctate charges on transact
tiona. If of large amomt and very numerous, they hamper
trade, as all taxation tends to do, but that ia no season for
coodetinhng them speciallyt when the choice lies between them
and otiwr fonni of taxation.
In addition, we have to ikAice oertaiii taxes which up to
19x0-11 were levied by the British government and distributed
to the local authorities, just as in France the government
levies certain direct taxea, or emtimes additiotmeUes, added to
its own direct taxes for the benefit of the local authorities;
These taxes were additional beer and spirit dues (customs and
excise), exdse licences, and share of ptobate and estate duty.
The- remarks already made on the corresponding taxes levkd
for imperial purposes of coorae apply to these. ExoeplioBally,
it may be added, aa regards the licence taxes, which occupy
quite an inferior place* in the British system- of taxatkm.fef
imperial purposes, that the question wh^her some of them are
not really direct in their incidence on the first pervm charged
may also be raised, although they ate dasaed with indirect taxc&i
Many of the Keenccs are those of brewers, distilkn and
pablicans, and others in trade, and are paid out of the general
ptofiu of the business, so that they can hardly be passcd'on to
the consumers, while other Bcenoes arv for shooting, for employ-
ing carriages and men-servants, and for similar objects, where
the charge on the payer is direct.. This may be the place td
mention that ia othet countries, as in France, the licence duties
on tradeis are more general than in the United Kingdom, and
are levied on an elaborate scale, acoording to the sixe of popula-
tion of the town where the business is carried on, and the rent
paid for the premises. Th^ take the place, to some, extent,
of the income tax, and are usually dassed witA the direct taxes^
The peeuliarity of taxes whidi an levied by the imperial
authority and diatributed among the local autboritiea. for dis*
bursement deserves notice. There ranst be a genersl cause for
such an arrangement when we find it to have been in existence
in France and other countries, and to have been introduced
into the United Kingdom. And this cause no doubt b the
need of the local authorities, and the difikulty of letting them
have taxes of their own to levy which do not interfere with
the imperial monopoly. The arrangement b obviously objec*
tionable on the score of its conducing to local extravagance, as
local authorities are not likdy to be so economical with money
that comes to them from the outside, as it were, as they would
be with money directly taken from their own pockets. Local
authorities receive other subventions and aids from the central
government besides the proceeds of these taxes, so that their
appropriation for bcal needs is related to a Urge question which
belongs, however, to the general subject of local govexninrat,
and not so much to the sp^ial subject of .taxation.
' Incidtnu 0/ raxo/Mis.— In describing the prindpal taxes
which are employed in the United Kingdom to provide for
the national expenditure, observations have necessarily been
made upon the inddence, probable or assumed, npon the taxr
payer, and on.Ahe question how far they may fall equally on
the whole community without any special inddence being
traceable. The incidence of taxation is, however
subject for discussion, and is connected with t
462
TAXATION
issues, such as that of Ftee Trade, which «re:of deep interest
to economic students.
The starting-point of discussions as to incidence of taxation
is a classical passage in Adam Smith's Weaitk of Nations (book v.
chap, ii.), where he lays down the following maxims with regard
to taxes in general: x. The subjects of every sUte ought to
contribute towards the suj^xtrt of the government, as nearly
as possible, in proportion to their re^)ective abilities; that b, in
proportion to the revenue which they respectively enjoy under
the protection of the state. 3. The tax which each individual
is bound to pay ought to be certain and not arbitrary. 5. Every
tax ought to be levied at the time or in the manner in whi<^
it is most likely to be convenient for the contributor to pay
it. {Adam Smith specially praises indirect taxes on com-
modities under tlm head, because the consumer " pays them
by little and little as he buys the goods," and " it must be hb
own fault if he ever suffers any considerable inconveniency
from such taxes."] 4. Every tax ought to be so contrived
as both to take out and keep out of the pockets of the people
as little as possible over and above what it brings into the
public treasury of the sUte. [This last passage is specially
directed against taxes which are expensive to collect, or His*
courage trade, or offer temptation to smuggling, or subject
people to frequent visits of the tax-gatherer. J These maxims
have commanded tmiversal assent, as they are obviously the
common sense of the subject.
It may be observed, however, that while general maxims are
easy, the applicauon presents difficulties, and since Adam
Smith wrote, and especially in modem times, new questions
of some interest have been raised. Adam Smitb docs not go
minutely into the incidence of taxation. Taxes in his view
must come out of rent, or profit, or the wages of labour; and
he observes that every tax which falls finally upon one only
of the three sorts of revenue "is necessarily unequal in so Ur
as it does not affect the other two," and in examining different
taxes he disregards as a rule this sort of inequality, and con-
fines his observations " to that inequality which is occasioned
by a particular tax falling unequally upon that particular sort
of private revenue which is affected by it.'' Recent discussion,
however, has gone rather to the point which Adam Smith
neglect^ that of inequality generally, not merely as between
different sorts of income, but as between individuals and classes.
The whole burden of taxation, it is maintained, should fall
equally upon classes and individuals as far as possible^ and,
if necessary, taarcs falling equally upon special sources of private
revenue should be balanced against each other in order to
obtain the desired result. AJong with this view has arisen
the question whether the burden of taxation should not be
progtesivo^-^e proportion of the siun taken by the state from
the tax-payers increasing with the wealth of the individual;
because ability to pay taxes is assumed to be not in proportion
to, but to increase with the size of, the income.
What opbiion should be held regarding this modem view
as to equality in taxation, which differs so widely from any-,
thing countenanced by Adam Smith, though his language is
echoed in it? The answer musi be that, however sound, the
view is for the most part far too ambitious. One difficulty is
caused by the large proportion of the taxes in almost every
system of taxation, and at any rate in the British system,
where the exact incidence fa in no way traceable, or where
there !s no sort of general agreement as to the incidence. The
whole of the British revenue from post office and telegraph
service, and th6 whole of the stamp revenue, are derived from
charges whose exact incidence cannot be traced. We have
seen, indeed, that doubt is even felt as to whether post office
and telegraph charges can be treated as taxes at aU. Again,
the death duties are in a distinct category, these duties falliog
each year not on a particular dass of the oommunity, or a
particuhir kind of property, but on a. lew ladividu^ only,
who are in some cases trf»»»^ «*«r#f*lv. wKiU tdium* ma.M hava
no cause of complaint.
be laid, the balancp will
which the indhoduals bebng, and the prapertjr tSiey own, wiH
be visited fai turn, so that thia taxatk>n sfaouki be credited to
them in an account of the Incidence of taiies generally; but
fifty years is altogether too long a period for nch adjnstmenU
to be made. Thus a very large proportion of the total revenue
cannot be made available for an account showing the p^^-M^tht
of taxatwn. There remain principally the moome taac and one
or two minor " direct " taxes, and the customs and excise
duties. These, it is said, can be distributed among different
classes of tax-payers, because the income tax falls on the owners
of incomes of all kinds of property subject to the duty, if their
incomes are above a certain limit, while the incidence of atstoma
and exdse duties can be ascertained by inquiries as to the
consumption of dutiable articles by different classes. Even
here, however, formidaUe difficuhies are presented. The
payers of income tax, unfortunately, are not one class but
many, and although the rate of duty is the same, the defini-
tion of income seems imperfect, so that many pay on a much
larger assessment of inoome than seems fair in comparison
with other incomes of nominally the same amount, but really
of much greater value when all deductions from the gross sum
are fairiy reckoned. If all who pay inoome tax are lumped
together and contrasted with those who do not pay, then there
is a false division to begin with, and there is so far no means
of establishing equality or inequality. As regards indirect
taxes, again, there a|>pears no small difficulty in ascertaining
the relative consumption of different classes, for the simple
reason that in the same daas so called the habits of oonsump*
tion differ widely. It is only by a wide extension of the term
" working man," for instance, that a class whidi includes a steady
mechanic earning 30s. to £a a week, who is frequently a total
abstainer, and a labourer of inferior capacity and character earn-
ing 15s. to 20S. a week, and who is m»/ a total abstainer, can be
spoken of as one, and credit given to the 01M class for so much
taxation on spirits, beer, tobacco, wine, tea and sugar. There
are also geographical differences of a serious kind. On the
other hand, the consumption by the income tax psyiog classes
of customs and excise articles must vary indefinitely amongst
themselves, according to personal habits, sise of families, and
even their geographical distribution. A further difficulty is
furnished by a question as to whether the employer of domestic
servants who gives them their board does or docs not bear the
burden of the duties on the articles which they consume, and
which be buys for their use. Theoretically the burden falls
on them as consumers. Thqr would have more real wages, it
is said, if the price of the articles they consume was not raised
by taxation. But practically most employers are convinced
that they pay the taxes for their servants. To establish,
therefore, any fair account of the incidence of indirect taxes
on different classes of the community, real classes being dis-
tinguished, and not a mere rough grouping into so-called classes
of units who are altogether heterogeneous, is probably beyond
the skill of man.
AU this is evident on a view of imperial taxation alone. In
studying equality, moreover, local taxation must be brought
into view, with even more impracticable differences of opinion
as to the real incidence of the taxation. The moment rates
are brought into question it is seen at once how impossible
it would be to establish equality among tax-payers, when
owners on one side and occupiers on the other claim that they
each bear the burden of the same taxes, and economists favour
the opinion that much of the burden is in the nature of a rent*
charge on the property, and in any case is equally diffused over
the whole community. . .
Adam Smith was thus not altogether badly advised in not
carrying his investigations into the equality of taxation farther
than he did. There was another reason for his so doing in the
heaviness of the burden of taxation at the time he wrote,
governments exacting as much as they could, and being only
desiraufi of finding the easiest means of doing so. It is the
icsa of taxation in recent years which has suggested
ility of comparing the relative. burdens of different
TAXATION
463
, «iifdi ^pcndd' licve Mttncd quite hopdctt ^vfth ft Ingh
1«*«»»«^ uid aa iaunense variety of high tases. Tbfl oondmion
that with good taxes long. cstabUihed the burden of tazatioa
tends to become equal over the whole oominunity wis certain^
not ill founded in the dfcvmatances of fonnet times^and may be
accepted as txiie even in the present day.
As to progressive tasation baaed on the assumption that
equality r e qui ie s a kiger proportionate charge upon a big
income than on one of a smaUer amount, the practical applica-
tion of the prindpie, if true, would be imposable. A great
deal BMR would need to be known than is now known as to 4he
effect of taxes on different classes, and the aggregate ambunt
ef diffeicat inoomes, before such. a task could be undertaken.
If there is a greater proportionate charge akcady on the hucer
incomes, nothing more need be done» and we cannot lupow that
t^ere is not. As to the justice of snch a pregieasive tajc,'theie
is a ooouBon opinion in its favour among eoononSits^ at least
to the extent of exempting a certain minimum of subsisteace
from tajEatk>n; but the present writer, after accepting this
view in early life on the authority of Mill, must no^ express
the greatest doubt. The klcal is equality, and no measure of a
minimum of subsistence can really be devised.
Of coarse there may be single taxes which are pnsgressive
in form, such as the licence tax in France, or the inoome lax
in Great Britain, where progression ia established by abatoi'
sMats, or the death duties, where progression by scale is very
common. But snch progression may arise in n different way
end on different principles from those proposed in defence of a
general system of progressive taxation. It may be expedient
for >*aUtifing taxation and -roughly redressing palpable in-
equalities, and may be adopted for that purpose and no other.
Statistical inquiries as to the incidence of taxation or of
particular taxes, though ideal or even approximate equality
of a palpable arithmetical kind is practically unattainable by
governments, are not altogether to be put asMe. The informa-
tion thus obtainable may be useful as far as it goes, indicating
the directions in which the burden of taxation may pros, and
forming a guide of some utility when changes of taxation are
rontemplated. CakuUtiona, for instance, as to what people
at the lower levels of the income tax most pay because they
kippcn to be struck by every sort of tax as no other class is,
and calculations as to the freedom from taxation of large
numbers of other dasses whose habits of consumption and
living enable them to escape the tax-gatherer as the class to
which they belong cannot generally do, may help a finance
minister in the selection of taxes to be repealed or reduced
or to be newly imposed. With every effort after eqdality he
must fan to satisfy allfliut friction may be dimiMsfaed and the
irork of carrying on government quietly and steadily facilitated.
Taxes and Free Trade. — ^Tdxation ought not to interfere
with trade if possible, and the object of Adam Smith's maxims,
as we have seen, was largely to erect aagn-posts warning finance
ministers against the kind of taxes likely to harass trtiders.
There has been much discussion, however, on free trade since
Adam Smith's time, and the fat-reaching nature of his warnings
is not even yet generally understood. There will probably be
general agreement as to the wisdom of avoiding taxes which
are uncertain and arbitrary, or which involve frequent visits
of the tax-gatherer; but so far from there being a genera]
assent in all countries to his maxims as to the expediency of
avoiding taxation, which takes more from the tax-payer than
what comes into the hands of the government, this is the very
characteristic of duties deliberately imposed by most govern-
ments for the purpose of inlcrfcring with trade, and frequently
called for even in the United Kingdom with a simikr objedt.
In a queitioa of taxation, however, for the purpose of meeting
the expenses of the government, all such duties must be ruled
out. Taxes, as instruments for advanchig the ^irosperity of a
country, are things unknown to the study of 'taxation " in
the proper sense of the word. The only proper object of Uxa-
tion is to meet the expenses of the state, and when taxes are
used primarily or mslnly for some other objea they cao only
be JntUted by political mA economic reasoiis of « dlffenai ocder
from aaylhlag that has been under discussion.
Ob this ground, in an account of taxation proper, one might
avoid discussing altogether the question of irregular or jllegili-
maietaxatkm. But the subject is of too much popular interest,
perhaps, to be passed over altogether. Generaliy, then, it may
be affirmed that taxarion in its essential nature cannot be
thought of as a good instrument for promoting trade and the
advancement of a country. So far as it operates at alt, it
operates by diverting trade from the channels ia which it would
naturally flow into other channels, and this diversion of uf
dustry, so far as it goes, mtist involve loss. People are induced
to do things they would otherwise leave alone, or to leave akme
what they would otherwise do,. because money is given to them
out of the pocketa of the tax-payers to make it worth their
while to do so; but there is palpably loss and not profit in the'
pDOQsediog. It is urged that in time industries are set up that
wotdd not Otherwise have existed, and population thereby
attracted, this being especially the argument for protective
duties in new countries;, but even so, there is loss to set against
the final gain, if any, and we have not yet had an account in
which a bslance of loss and gain is*attempted. The presump-
tion is that on bahince there Is loss. In new countries especially
tire diversion til industry from its natural development cannot
but be misducvQiis, wrong manufactures and industries being
set up at the expense of the whole community, instead of those
manufactures aiid industries which would be most profitable.
There is moce to be aaid for the political argument which
induced Adam Smith to favour navigaUon laws, giving a pre-
ference to national shipping in nalidnal waters, and for a
similar political argument in hivour of duties on agricultural
produce imported into the country, on the ground, as regards
navigation, that the prosperity til the shipping industry in
partkular was essential to the safety of the country, sad on
the ground, as regards duties 00 agricultural produce, that the
maintenance of a larger rural population and of a larger agri-
cultural production than would exist under natural coaditionB
of perfect free trade was essential to the welfare of the state
and even to its very existence in the possible event Of a temporary
defeat at sea and a partial blockade of the coasts. This is not.
the place to discuss such political problems, but. there is no
question of free trade theory involved if the cost to the. com-
munity of any siich taxation is frankly acknowledged.
Sir John A. Macdonald, the great protectionist prime ministfT
of Canada, fai a conversation with the present writer in i88a,
avowed without hesitation that protectionist taxation ia
Canada was indefensible on economic grounds, and he defended
it exclusively for political reasons. Politically one might differ
from him, bat economists as such must cither be silent when
political reasons are alleged for taxes that are against funda-
mental maxims, or must be content to point out the cost of the
taxes in order that the communities concerned may decide
whether the objea in view is obtainable by means of the taxa-
tion, and is worth the price.
A great deal has been said as to taxes teirmed "dmnter-
valllng duties," which are called for In order to defend ir«e
trade itself against the protectlontet bounties of foreign govern-
ments. Such duties are obviously taxes outside the limits
to be considered in a question of taxation proper. They are
to be imposed for other purposes than revenue. As to thedaim
for them that they wffl restore free trade conditions by nullify-
ing the foreign bounties which have caused a disturbance of
trade, this is really in the nature of a political reason. A
country which is so devoted to free tnde that it not only
practises free trade Iteelf but endeavours to convert others b^
nullifying their protectionist measures as far as it can, even with
immediate loss to itself, departs from the guidance of sdf-
hiterest so far; but Its political action may be justifiable in
the kmg run by other considerations. It seems right to point
out, however, that countervailing duties, widr*
differential duties of a special khid, are not thi
they are supposed to be for aallif ying loreig
464
TAXTOERMY
«cpci1e»nce of differential duties in former times (s altogether
against them; and that they cannot be enforced without
certificates of origin and other causes of harassment and con-
fusion in the conduct of trade.
The extent of the interference with trade, in regard to par-
ticular taxes, is also a nuitter of importance. A particular
tax is not necessarily to be condemned because it takes a little
more out of the pockets of the people than what the government
receives. Such a defect is a ground for consideration in weighing
a particular tax against others, but it is otify one inconvenience
among many incidental to all taxes.
Some English applications of free trade theory in recent times
in the matter of import duties have been pedantic — the aboliticm
of the shilling com duty in 1869 by Robert Lowe (Lord Sher-
brooke) being typical of this pedantry, though it is not the only
instance. No doubt,, in theory, this duty, being levied on the
import only and iMt on the home production <^ com, took from
the tax-payer a shilling on every quarter of grain produced at
home which did not go into the exchequer. Par contra the tax
was wholly unfelt, a shilling a quarter only affecting an average
family of four persons to the extent of three shillings per annum,
or about three farthings a week, while it was paid little by little,
as Adam Smith explains with regard to indirect taxes in general.
The amount yielded, moreover, was considerable, being equal
to a penny on the income tax, which it is desirable to maintain
as a reserve of taxation. When we balance advantages and
disadvantages, therefore, the repeal of the com duty and similar
measures would appear to have been sacrifices of revenue
without adequate reason.
RaUs of Taxation.^^ApQXt from the merits or demerits of
particular taxes or groups of taxes, and the questions as to
inequality, injury to trade, and the like already discussed, the
aggregate of taxation, or rather revenue, of a state may be con-
sidered in the most general way, having regard to the prt^r-
tion appropriated by the state of the total income of the com-
munity, and the return made by the state therefor. Here
there are the greatest variations. At one time, for instance,
during the great wars at the begiiming of the xgth century, it
was ^culated that the British government expenditure, and
the corresponding revenue, mostly raised by taxation, were
each equal to about one-third of the aggregate of individual
incomes — that is, as £90,000,000 to about £370,000,000. Pro-
portions even higher have not been unknown in hbtory, and
it is probable that in Russia, India, Egypt, and in other countries
at this moment, in time of peace, the proportion may amount
to one-fotirth or one-fifth. On the other hand, some years ago
in the United Kingdom, before the high expenditure on army
and navy began, and before the South African war of 1 899-1 902,
it is probable that with an outlay of less than £100,000,000 by
the central government, the proportion of this outlay to the
aggregate income of the peopile was not higher than onC"
fourteenth. At the beginning of 190a, when the South African
war was closing, the normal peace expenditure, even reckoned
at £160,000,000, did not exceed ont-tentk^ while even peace and
war expenditure* together in 1901, uking them as close on
£300,000,000, did not exceed on^-cigklh.- These varying pro-
portions, however, mean different things economically, and it is
of obvious interest that, besides questions as to particular taxes,
the broad effect of the whole burden of taxation should also
be discussed.
The important points in this connexion appear to be: (x)
Very large appropriations can be made by the sute from the
revenue of its subjects without permanent injury. The com-
mtmiiy thereby suffers, but the land and fixed capital remain,
and when the high government expenditure ceases individuals
at once have the benefit, subject to possible disturbance at the
moment of transition, when many persoi
state return to private employment. (3
ordinary times appropriates one-tenth or
of aggregate individual incomes is mud
than a state absorbing one-fourth, one-thii
proportion. It has much laz;^ resouro
available if time were given to develop them*. (3) When the
proportion becomes one-tenth or less it is doubtful whether the
sUte can do best for its subjects 1^ making the proportion
still k>wer, that is, by abandoning one tax after another, or
whether equal or greater advanti^ would not be gained by
using the revenue for wise purposes under the direction of the
state, such as great works of sanitation, or water supply, or
public defence. In other words, when taxes are very xnoderate
and the revenue appropriated 1^ the state is a small part only
of the aggregate of individual incomes, it seems possible that
individuals in a rich coimtry may waste individually resources
which the state could apply to very profitable purposes. The
state, for instance, could perhaps more usefully engage in some
great wotks, such as establiihing reservoirs of water Ua the use
of town populaUons on a systematic plan, ^xt making a tunnd
under one of the channels between Ireland and Great Britaix^
or a sea-canal across Scotland between the Clyde and \h» Forth,
or purchasing land from Irish laixilords and transfendog it to
tenants, than allow money to fractify or not fmctify, as the
case may be, in the pockets of individuals. Probably there are
no works more beneficial to a community in the long run than,
those like a tunnel between Ireland and Great Britain, which
open an entirely new means of conununication of strat^cal as'
well as commercial value, but are not likely to pay the indixndual
entrepreneur within a short period of time.
Authorities. — See also, for taxation and taxes in different
countries, the separate articles on the finance under the heading of
each countrv; and the articles on Free Trade, Protection and
Tariffs. The following short list of authors may be useful to the
student: — Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations; Ricardo-M'Culloch,
Principles of Taxation; Mill, Principles of Political Economy;
Bastable, PuUic Finance; E. R. A. Seligman, Shifting and Imcidenca
of Taxation (and ed., 1899): Gamier. Traiti de Finances; Cohn,
System der National-Okouomie; Wagner, Finansanssenschaft:
Roscher, System der Finanswissenschaft, (R. Gs.)
TAXIDERMY, the art of preserving the integument, together
with the scales, feathers or fur, of animals. Little is known
of the bcginm'ngs of the practice of the " stuffing " or " setting
up " of animals for ornament or for scientific purposes; and it
is highly probable, from what we gather from old works of
travel or natural history, that the art is not more than some
three hundred years old. It was praaised in England towards
the end of the zyth century, as is proved by the Sloane 'collec-
tion, which in 1725 formed the nucleus of the collection of
natural history now lodged in the galleries at South Kensington.
It was ni6t until the middle of last century that "hny treatise
devoted to the principles of the then little imdcrstood art *.vas
published in France, R. A. F. R&iumur's treatise (1749) being
probably the first. This was followed at intervals by others in
France and Germany, until the beginning of the X9th century,
when the English began to move in the matter, and several
works were published, notably those by £. Donovan,* W.
Swainson,' Capt. Thomas Brown* and others. These works,
however, are long since inadequate; and at the Great Ex-
hibition of X85X, the Germans and French taught British taxi-
dermists the rudiments of scientific treatment of natural
objects. The demands of sportsmen for the due preservation
of their trophies, and the requirements of the great museums
in every civilized country, have rapidly transformed a crude
handicraft into an elaborate art, and the finest modem results,
as produced by a private firm like Rowland Ward in England,
or the expert staff of the American Museum of Natural History
in New York, leave almost nothing to be desired. The rapidly
recurring editions of Rowland Ward's handbook* supply a
guide to the amateur specially useful as indicating what may
be done in the field; John Rowl^'s little manual * supplies
^InshMOieiRUr.QmtlikJmiFnsiniH Various Suiiitcts of
Ing Suijecti of
TAXroERMY
+65
■Ofe detaff as to irfiaC may be date in the worishop;
Montague Browne's elabotate treatise' xemains a standard
work, whflst WilBam T. Horiiaday* has supplied a very full
acantnt of the excellent American methods which he has done
so fngfh to develop.
The first principle 0Ovetxi!Bg the art is that, after the specimen
has been procured, in as fresh and dean a state as may be,
ft aiiaald Imve the skin stripped from the body in such a manner
as not to disturb the scales if a fish or a reptile, the feathers if
a bird, or the fur or hair if a mammaL To do this correctly
re quir e s a small stock of tools, as well as a great amount of
patience and perseverance. Ibe appUances comprise several
sharp knives (some pointed and some obtuse), a pair of sdssors,
a parr of pliers, a pair ef nippers or "cutting-plieis," some tow,
wadding, needles and threaid, also a "stuffing-iron," some
crooked airis, a pair of fine long flat-nosed pliers, and a camel-
hafr brash. The preservative compound is often the oiigiaal
(Biooeur's) ** arsenical soap," made by cutting op and hoiling
J lb of white soap, to which la oz. of salt of tartar and 40s.
of powdered lime (or whitiog) are added when dissolved; to
tlm mixture, when nearly cold, 3 lb of powdered arsenic and
$ox. oi eanq>hor (the latter previously triturated in a mottar
with i^riU of wine) are added. The mixture is put away in
small jars or pots for use. like all arsenical preparations,
this is exceedingly dangerous in the hands of unskilled persons,
often causing shortness of breath, sores, brittleness of the nails
and other symptoms; and, as arsenic is rea&y no protection
against the attacks of insects, an effident sulntitute has been
invented by Brownev composed of i lb of white curd soap
aod 3 fl:» of whiting boiled together, to which is added, whilst
hot, 1^ OS. of chloride of lime, and, when cold, i oz. of tincture
of nuuk. This mixture is perfectly safe to use when cold
(ahhoQgh when hot the fumes should not be inhaled, owing
to the ddorine i^ven off)y imd is spoken of as doing its work
efficiently. Sohitions of corrosive soblimate, often reoom*
mended, are, even if efficient, dangerous la the extreme.
Po w der s consisting of tannhii, pepper, camphor, and burnt alimi
are rwrnrt*^** used for ** making skins," but they dry them too
rapidly for the purposes of " mounting." Mammals are best
preserved by a mixture of i lb of burnt ahm to } B>of salt-
petre; this, when intimately mixed, should be well rubbed into
the skin. Fishes and reptfles, when not cast and modelled,
are best preserved in rectified spirits of wine; but tlds^ when
economy is desired, can be replaced by "Mailer's solution"
(bidinnnate of potash a ox., sulphate of soda x ox., disiSSed
water 3 pints) or by a nearly saturated solution of chloride of
line. The cleaning of feathers and furs is performed by rubbing
them ligbtly with wadding soaked in benadliae, afterwards
dostiBg oa plaster of Paris, which is beaten out, when dry,
with a bunch of feathers.
The preparation and moantlng of bird spedmeos, the objects
.Boat nsnal^ adected by the amateur, are performed iotliefoUi
log manner. The specunen to be operated upon should have
efoUow-
_^ ^ . , ^ have its
oastriU and throat closed by plugs of cotton-wool or tow; both
vins-booes afaould be broken dose to the body, and the bird laid
1 table 00 vu back; and, as birde-^espeoolly white-breasted
shook! Kldom, if ever, be opened on.the faremt* an inciaioa
be made in the skin unoer the wing on the side most
damaged, from which the thigh protrudes when pushed up slightly;
tkb i« cot thnnigh at its junction with the body, when the knife
I ^_ .._ *.! 1^_ t aU:- .._•« *U^ — S-.- t-^-^-y^
k
w
>g
g
cottlag the eyes or the eydlds, but by cautious managemeat. to
cut the membranous sldo over those parts, so that the eyes are
easily extracted from the orbits without bursting. The skin should
be freed down nearly to the beak, and then the back of the head,
with neck attached, should be cut off, the brains extracted, all the
flesh deaied (v^m the skull and from the booea of the wings, lees
and tail^ the skin painted with the preservative, and uitmutdy
turned mto its proper position. When " skins ** only are to be
made for the cabinet, it is sufRdent to fill the head and neck with
chopped tow, the body with a false one made of tow, tightly packed
or loose according to the genius of the preparer, to sew op the skin
€4 the stomach, and to place a band of paper lightly pinned around
the body over the breast and wings, and allow it to remain in a
warm poation, free from dust, for several days or weeks, according
to the size of the spedmen. It diould then be labelled with name^
sex. locality aod date, and |nit away with insect powder around it.
When, however, the qsecimen is to be " mounted," the opera-
tions should be carried up to the point of returning the skin, and
then a false body of tightly wrapped tow is made upon a wire
pointed at its upper end. This is inserted throueh the indsion
under the wing, the pointed end going up the noac aod through
the skull to the outside. When* the unjtation body resu within
the skin, pointed wires are thrust through the soks of the feet, up
the skin of the back of the legs, and are finally clenched in the
body. Wires are also thrust into the butts of the wings, following
the skin of the under turfacc, and also clenched through into the
body. A stand or perch is provided, and the bird, beiag fixed
upon this, is, after the eyes have been inserted, arranged in the
mt^st natural attitude which the skin of the taxidermist can etve it.
Mammals are cut atong the stomach from nearly the middle t6
the brcatt. and are skinned by worldng out the hind legs first*
cuttiifg them off under the skin at the junction of the femur with
the tibia, and carefully stripping the skin off the lower back and
frc ail is reached, the flesh and bones of which art
pu skin, leaving the operator free to follow on up the
ba until die fore legs are reached, which are cut off
in The neck and head are skinned Out down to the
ini le lips and nose, great care being exercised not to
cu tions of the ears, the ej^elids, the nose or the lips.
T) rleared off, and the brain and eyes extmcted, the
sk »e to the skin by the inner edges of the lips. M
th 96 trimmed from the bones of the ksgs. The head,
be bere the flesh was removed, by tow and day, is
rei lie skin. A long wire of sufficient strength is
tit 'ith tow, making a long, narrow body, throueh
wl thrust by the skin of the soles of the feet. The
kf oes bdng wrapped with tow and day into shape,
th te wires are pushed through the tow body and
cl( and the body are then Dcnt into the desired
pc — -.., delled up by the addition of more tow and day,
until the contours of the natural body are imitated, when the
stomach is sewn up. A board is provided upon whk:h to fix the
spedmen, artificial eyes arc inserted, the Ups. nose and eyelids fixed
by means of pins or '* needle-points," ana the specimen is then
placed in a warm ntuation to dry.
Reptiles, when small, have thetf skin removed by cutting away
the attachment of the skull to the cervical vertebrae, and by turn*
ing the decapitated trunk out at the mouth by delicate roanipular
tion. When large . they are cut along their median line, and
treated in the same manner as mammals.
'Fjshesi after being covered 00 their best dde with paper oc
muslin to protect the scales, are c«t along the other side from the
tail to the gills, and are skinned out bv removing " cutlets," as
large as is possible without cracking the skin, which, indeed, should
be lotpt damp during work. After bdng cured with a preservative.
they are filled with sawdust or dry plaster of Paris, sewn up, turned
over on a board, the fins pinned out. and the mouth adiuatedt
and, when perfectly dry, the plaster may be shaken out.
The new school of taxidermists, with new methods, whose
aim is to combine knowledge of anatomy and modelling with
taxidermic technique, has now come to the front, aU processes
of "stuffing" have been discarded In favour of modelfing.
Within the limlu of an article like the present it is Imposslbfe
to do more than glance at the intricate processes involved hi
this. In the case of mammals^ after the skin has been com-
pletely removed, even to the toes, a copy Is made of the body;
posed as in life, and from this an accurate representation of
form, iadnding drftitarhm of mnsdes, te., is built np in Hgbt
materials, and known as* the " manikin "; the modd Is then
tovered with skin, which Is damped, and moulded to follow
every depression and prominence, the manikin, before having
the akin put on it, frequently being covered complex'-* ~^'
thh» layer of clay; the study is then suffered
ttodels having been inade» j& the case of large a
muooofl membrane of the jaivs, palate, tongue and lips, tbese
I are truthfully reproduced in a plastic materiaL Tlie ordinary
glass eyes are discarded, and hollow globes, specially made, are
hand-painted from nature, and are fixed bi the h^ so as to
convey the exact expression which the pose of the body demands.
Birds, if of any size, can be modelled in like manner, and fishes
are treated by a nearly identical process, being finally coloured
as in a " still life " painting.
To give a life-like representation, attention ^ also paid to
artistic "mounting." By this is meant the surrounding of
specimens with appropriate accessories, and it is well exemplified
by the work shown in the natural hbtocy museum at South
Kensington, where, for example, birds are arranged as in a
state of nature.
The great American museums have extended a similar, method
to the mounting of even large mammals, whilst they have made
bird groups naturally still more life-like by panocamic back-
grounds and top and side Kghting of the cases. (M. B.)
- TAT, the longest river in Scotla^id. From iu source in Ben
Lui (3708 ft.), a mountain on the borders of Perthshire and
Argyllshire, it pursues a mainly north-easterly direction to
Logierait, where it curves to the south by east as far as Dunkdd;
there its course turns to the south-east to the mouth of the
Isla, where it bends towards the south by west to the vicinity
of Scone. From this point it makes a sharp descent to the
south by east beyond the county town, when it sweeps south-
east to near Newburgh in Fifeshlre, where it again faces the
north-east as far as Breughty Ferry, whence it flows straight
eastwards into the North Sea, off Buddon Ness in Forfarshire,
after a total run of X17 miles. During the first xx miles it is
known as the Fillan and discharges into Loch Dochart. From
the lake it emerges as the Dochart (13 m.), which enters Loch
Tay at Rillin;. Flowing through the loch for X4I m., it issues
at Kenmore under its proper name of Tay. From hence to the
sea its course measures 78) m., from which we may deduct
25 m. as the length of the Fixth of Tay (which begins at Caxmie-
pier Ferry), leaving 53I m. as the length of the stream between
Kenmore and the mouth of the Earn. Its principal affluents on
the right are the Bran, Almond and Earn, and on the left the
Lyon, Tummel ^nd IsUu Abng with its tributaries, therefore,
it drains all Perthshire and portions of Forfarshire and Argyll-
shire, having a catchment basin of 3400 sq. m. In many parts
the current is impetuous, and in flood has occasionally wrought
much havoc, certain of the inuxulations being Mstorically
important. Its mean discbarge of water every minute is
estimated to amount to 373,000 cubic ft., a Urger outpour
than that of any other stream in the United Kingdom. Vesseb
make Dundee at all stages of the tide, and the estuary is navig-
able to Newbur^ by vessds of 500 tons, and as far as Perth
by ships of 300 tons. The navigation, however, is seriously
obstructed by shifting sandbanks. The estuary varies in width
from I m. at Cairniepier Ferry to fully 3 m. at its mouth. The
principal points on the river are Crianlarich on the Fillan (with
sutions on the West Highland and Callander to Oban railways),
Luib and Killin on the Dochart, Kenmore, Aberfddy, Donkeld,
Bimam, Stanley, Scone, Perth and, on the north shore of the
firth, ExTol, Dundee, Broughty Ferry and Monifieth, and, on
the south shore, Newburgh, Newport and Tayport. It is
dose to Luocarty statko,~4 m. N. of Pferth, forlfce ntifidil
breeding of saknon, the fish being liberated from the poods
about the age of three years. In respea of riparian sceaerf
the Tay as a whole is the most beautiful river in Scotland, die
stretch between Logierait and CargjU, particularly the reaches
above and below Dunkeld, being univeraaUy admired.
TAT, LOCH, the largest lake in Perthshire, Scotland. It is
situated about the middle of the county and has a flaUened
ogee form, with a general trend from NX. to S.W. It b X4I m.
long from Killin at the head to Kenmore at the foot, from i m.
to fully I m. wide. The maximum depth is 508 ft, the mean
depth 300 ft. The lake lies 355 ft. above the sea, coven an
area of 6550 acres, or over 10 sq. m., and has a drainage basiB
of 23 a sq. m., indudmg the overflow from Lochs Dochart aod
Tubhair. It receives at Killin the rivers Lochay and Dochart
and disdiarges by the Tay at Kenmore. Ben Laweis (3984 ft.)
rises near the left bank. There axe piers at Killin, Ankonais,
Lawets, Ferxian and Kenmore, at which the steamers call dariag
the tourist season; ferries at Ardeonaig and Laweis; and a
coaching road on the left shore and a somewhat longer and mote
hilly road on the rij^t. At the foot of the lake is an island
containing the ruins of the priory which was founded in xiai
by Alexander I. in memory of his wife Sibylla, daughter of
Henry L She was buried here... Loch Tay enjoys great repute
for iu salmon-fishing.
TATABA8, a town of the province of Tayabas, Lumn,
Philippine Islands, 8 m. N. ol Lucena, the capital. Pop- oi
the municipality (1903) 14,740. Tayabas is picturesquely
situated on the slopes of the extinct volcano Banijao, and
commands a magnificent view of the surroimding country,
which is extremely fertile, and is planted in riee aod coconuts.
Its climate, although cool, is very unhealthy, maligiumt malarial
fevers causing a high death-rate. It has a church and coovent
of large size and massive construction. During the revolt of
1896 a Spanish garrison occupying these buildings withstood
a siege of fifty-ei^t days, at the end of which time it was
forced to surrender by lack of food. Tagalog aod Bicol are
the languages spokeiL Until xpox Tayabas was the capital
of the p rovin ce.
TATGBTUS (Tatyeros or Ta^tro^t mod. St Elias or Pente-
daktylon), the highest mountain ridge in the PelopoDDese,
separating Laconia from Messenia. Height 7900 ft The
highest point is H. Elias; here horses axe said to have been
sacrificed to Helios.
TATLOIU ANN (X783-X866), afterwards Mrs. Gilbert, aad
TATLOR, JANE (X783-X834), English wrilen for children,
daughters- of Isaac Taylor (x7S9*x839), were bom in London
on the 30th of Jaimary 178a and the a3rd of September 17S3
respectively. In 1786 the Tayk>rs went to live at Lsvenham
in Suffolk, and ten years later removed to Colchester. Jane was
a lively and entertaining diild, and composed plays and poems
at a very early age. Their father and mother held advanced
views on education, and under their guidance the girls were
instructed not only in their father's art of engraving, but in
the principles of fortificatioiL Their poems were written in
short intervals in the round of each diay's occupations. Ann
introduced hersdf to the pubUshers Darton and Htx^rey by a
rhymed answer to a puzzle in the Minor's Pocket BtJAJJJftJOi
¥
TAYLOR, BAYARD— TAYLOR, BROOK
467
Tmn^t Wmdwivi Uagk Lankm; of. The Wofid Twn§i
Upsids Dawn (1810), and Orighal Hymns /pr Smd4ty School
(i6ia). In 18x3 AoB married a Coogregational minister, the
Rev. Josiah Gilbert, and Jane went to live at Hfracombe with
her brother Isaac In 18x6 Jane returned to Oogar» where the
fajoily had been settled for some yMis, and died there oa the
ijtb of April i8a4. Mrs Gilbert died at NottinghAm on the
aoth of December 1866. Both sisters wrote alter their separa^
tion, but none ol their later works had the same vo^e. Jane
showed more wit and vivadty than her sister, notably in the
ConSriknUono oj Q. Q. (a vols., 1824)1 vui in Display, a TaUJor
FoiMf PoofU (1815); but, though she was generally supposed
to be the chief writer of the two, some ol the most famous
pieces in tlieir joint works, such as " I thank the goodness and
the grace," " Meddlesome Matty,"!' The Notorious Ghitton,*'
&c., are by Ann.
The belt odidon of the Psoicai Works of Che sisters is that of
1877. Thete ia an excellent edition (1903) of the Orifjuul Poems
and Others, by Ann and Jane Taylor and Adelaide O'Keeffe, edited
by E. V. Lucas, with illustrations by F. D. Bedford.
Abundant information about Ann and Jane Tayior is to be
fo«iid in: AutolHotrai>kf and Other Memorials of Mrs CUberi
U voifi., 1874)* edited by her son Josiah Gilbert; Isaac Taylor.
Mewuirs ... 0/ J<uu Taylor (a vols., 1S25), and the collection by
the same editor entitled The Family Pen: Memorials . . . of the
Taylor Family of Ongar, vol. ii. (1867).
TATU>B> BAYARD (1825*1878), American author, was bom
at KenaeU Squaie in Chester county, Pennsylvania, on the
iith of January 1825. The son of a weU-ta<io farmer, he re*
cdved his early instruction in an academy at West Chester,
and later at Unionville. At the age of seventeen he was ap*
prenticed to a printer in West Chester. A little volume, pub-
lished at Philadelphia in 1844 tmder the title Ximem^, or the
Battle of the Sierra Moreno, and other Poems, brought its author
a little ouh; and indirectly it did him better service as the
mcmsA of his introductite to The New Yorh Tribune. With the
money thus obtained, and with an advance made to him on
account ol some journalistic work to be done in Europe, " J. B.
Tay&M' " (as he had up Co this time signed himself,. thou|^ he
bore no other Chxistkn name than Bayard) set sail for the East.
The yoong poet spent a happy time in roaming through certain
(fistricu of England, Ftance, Germany and Italy; that he
was a bom traveller is evident from the ^ct that this pedestrian
tour of almost two years cost him only i\co>. The graphic
acoouttU which he sent f nom Enrope to The Nod Yoth Trihune,
Tie Saimrday Bsening Post, and The United Si§tes CaaetU were
so highly appreciated that •on Taylor's return to Asdexica he
was advi*d to throw his articles into book form. In 1846,
accordingly, appeared his Views Afoot, or Enrobe seen with
Krsapmch and Stag (2 vols., New York). This pleasant book
had ooBsidentble popularity, and its author now found himself
a rrrogniaed man of letters; moceover, Horace Giedey, then
editor of ihe Tribune, placed Taylor on the Tribune staff (1848)
tlms securing him a certain if a moderate income. His next
iooracy, made when the gokl-fever was at its height^ was to
California, as correspondent for the Tribuste; fxom this ex-
peditioB lM^.rctumed by way of Mexico, aiKi, seeing his oppor-
tinny, puMbhed (2 vols^ >tew York, 1850) a highly successful
' ' ' »vds» encilled, El Dorado; or, Aduntitres in the Path
'^ ' ' •^--j been sold
, within a
Iways con-
pea delight
Nile. He
BDBory with
jilttfwards
d, towards
PalesUne, AHa UwUr, SieHy and S^n (1854); ml A VisU
(o India, China and Japan in the Year 1853 (185s). On his
return (December 20, 2853) from these various joumeyings he
entered, with marked success, iqwn the career of a public
lecturer, delivering addresses in every town of importance^
from Maine to Wisconsin. After two years' experience of this
lucrative profession, he again started on his travels, on this
occasion for northern Europe, his special object being the
study of Swedish life, language and literature. The most
noUworthy result was the kng narrative poem Lars, but hii
"Swedish Letters" to the Tribune were also vepublished»
under the title Northern Travel: Summer and Winter Pictwet
(London, 1857). His first wife, May Agnew, died (1850) within a
year of her marriage, and in October 1857 he married Maria
Hansen, the daughter of Peter Hansen, the German astronomee.
thpensuingwinterwasspent In Greece. In 1859 Taylor once more
traversed the whole extent of the western American gold region,
the primary cause of the journey lying in an invitation to
lecture at San Francisco. About three years later he entered
the diplomatic service as secretary of legation at St Petersburg,
and the following year (X863) became charg6 d'affaires at the
Russian capital. In 1864 he returned to the United Sutes
and resumed his active literary labours, and it was at this
period that Hannah Thurston (New York, 1863), the fiat of bis
four novels, was published. This book had a moderate success,
but neither in it nor in its successors did Bayard Taylor betray
any special talent as a novelist. In 1874 he. went to Iceland, to
report for the Tribune the one thousandth anniversary of the fixst
settlement there. In June 1878 he was accredited United States
minister at Berlin. Notwithstanding the resistless passion for
travel which, had always possessed him, Bayard Taylor was (when
not actually en route) sedentary in his habits, especially in the
later years of his life. His death occurred on the 19th of
December, only a few months after his arrival in Berlin.
Taylor's most ambftious prodoctions in poetry — bb Masque of
the Cods (Boston, 187a), PrineoDeuhaUon; a lyriod drama (Boston.
1878). The Picture 0! St John (Boston* i86i6). Lars; a Paslorei
«/ Norway (Boston, 1873), and The Prophet: a tra^ed^ (Boston,
1874] — are marred by a ceaseless effort to overstram his power.
But ne win be remembered by his poetic and excellent translation
of Faust (2 vols., Boston, 1870-71) in the origtaal metres. Taylor
folt, in all truth, " the tormentaod the ecsta^ of verse "; but, as
a critical friend has written of him, " his nature was so ardent, so
full-blooded, that slight and common sensations intoxicated him,
and he estimated their effect, and his power to transmit it to others,
beyond the true value." He had, from the earliest period at which
he began to compose, a distinct lyrical faculty: so keen indeed was
his ear that he Dccakme too insistently haunted bv the music of
others, pre-eminently of Tennyson. But he had often a true and
fine note of his own. His best short poems are " The Meum-
psychosis of the Pine " and the well-known Bedooin love-song. In
His critiod essays Bayard Taylor had himself in no inconsiderable
def— *--* *-- wrote of as " that pure poetic insight which is the
vit riticism." The most valuable of these prose disser*
tai Studies in German Uteraturt (New York, 1879).
Cc >n« of his Poetical Works and his Dramtatic Works
wc at Boston in 1888; his Lifs and Letters (Boston,
2 1 ere edited by his wife and Horace E. Scudder.
;rt H. Smyth, Bayard Taylor (Boston, 1896), in the
" i n of Letters " series; and W. D. Howells s Literary
Fr putintances (1900).
TAYIAR, BROOK (1685-1731), English mathematician, was
the son of John Tajdor, of Bifrons House, Kent, by Olivia,
daughter Of Sir Nicholas Tempest, Bart., of Durham, and was
bom at Edasonton in Middlesex on the i8th of August 1685.
He entered St John's College, Cambridge, as a fellow-commoner
in X70t, and took degrees of LL3. and LL.D. respectively
in X709 and 1714. Having studied mathematics under John
Madnn and John Keill, he obtained in 1708 a lemarkable
sohition of the problem of the " centre of oscillation," which*
however, remaining unpublished until May 2714 {PkiL Trasts^
voL nviii. p. n), his claim to prk>rity was unjustly disputed
by John BemouUi. Taylor's Methadus lucrementomm Directa
ei Jntersa (London, 171 5) added a new branch to the hifljser
mathematics, now designated the " calculus of finite diffr-
Amoag other f^y******* applications, he used it to ''
4^6
TAYLOR, «IR HENRY
the form 6t movement of a Vibratias string, by him finft suo
cessfuUy redaced to mechanical piindples. The same work
contained the cetebrated formula known as *' Taybr's theorem "
(see iNraoTEsncAL Calciilus), the importance of which re-
mained unrecognized until in^i when J. L. Lagrange realised
iu powers and termed it **U principal fondcmetU dm calctd
dijffinntid."
In his essay on Linear Perspedhe (London, 1715) Taylor set
forth the true principles of the art in an orignud and more
general form than any of his predecessors; but the work
suffered from the brevity and obscurity Which affected most of
his writings, and needed the elucidation bestowed on it in the
treatises of Joshua Kirby (1754) and Daniel Foumier (1761).
Taylor was elected a fellow of the Royal Society eariy in
r7x>, sat in the same year on the committee for adjudicating
the claims of Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnita,
and acted as secretary to the society from the X3th of January
17x4 to the sist of October 1718. Fiom 27x5 his studies took
a phikssophkal and religious bent. He corresponded, in that
year, with the Comte de Montmort on the subject of Nicolas
Malebranche's tenets; and unfinished treatises, "On the
Jewish Sacrifices *' and " On the Lawfulness of Eating Blood,"
written on his return from Aiz-la-Chapelle in 17x9, were after-
wards found among his papers. His marriage in X7ax with
Miss Btydges of WaQington, Surrey, led to an estrangement
from his father, a person of somewluit morose temper, which
terminated in 1723 after the death of Uie lady in giving birth
to a son. The ensuing two years were spent by him with his
family at Bifrons, and in 1725 he married, with the paternal
approbation, Sabetta, daughter of Mr Sawbiidge of Olantigh,
Kent, who, by a strange fatality, died also in childbed in 1730;
In thfe case, however, the infant, a daughter, survived. TViylor's
fragile health gave way; he fell into a decline, died on the 29th
of December 1731, at Someiset House, aitd was buried at
St Ann's, Sobo. By his father's death in 1729 he had inherited
the Bifrons estate. As a mathematician, he was the only
Englishman after Sir Isaac Newton and Roger Cotes capabk
of holding his own with the Bemoullis; but a great part of
the effect of bis demonstrations was lost thiou^ his failure
to express his ideas fully and deady.
:A posthumous work entitled ConUmHatio PhSosof^nca was
printM for private circuhition in r793 by nis grandson, ^ir WlUam
Voune, Bart., prefaced by a life of the author, and with an appendix
containing letters addressed to him by Bolingbroke, Bossuet, &c.
Several short papers by hiin were published m PhU. Trans., vols,
xxvii. to xxxii., including accounts of some interesting experiments
in magnetism and capillary attraction. He issued in iy\^ an im-
proved version of his work on perspective, with the title New
Principles of Linear Perspective, revised by Colson in 1749, and
minted again, with portrait and life of the author, in 1811. A
French translation appeared in 1753 at Lyons. Taylor gave
{Methodus Incrementorum, p. ioS) the brst satisfactory investigation
of astronomical refraction.
Sec Watt. Bibtiotheca Britannica; Hutton, PhU. and Math.
Dictionary, F6tis, Biog. des Musiciensi Th. Thomson, Hist, ef Ihe
R. Society, p. 302; Grant, HisL Pkys. Astronomy, p. 377; ^Iarie,
Hist, des Sciences, vii. p. 231; M. Cantor, Geschiau der Mathe-
matik,
TAYLOR. SIR HENR7 (i8oo-x886), English poet and political
official, was bom on the i8th of October x8oo, at Bishop-
Middldiam, Duiham, where his ancestoa had been small
landowners for some generations. His mother died while he
was yet an infant, and he was chiefly educated by his father,
a roan of studious tastes, wbo, finding him less quick than his
two elder brothers, allowed him to enter the luivy as a midship-
man. Finding the life uncongenial, he only remained e^ht
months at sea, and after obtaiiiing his discharge was appointed
to a clerkship in the storekeeper's office. He had scarcely
entered upon his duties when he was attacked by typhus fever,
which carried off both his brothers, then living with him in
London. In three or four years more his office was abolished
while he was on duty in the West Indies. On his return he
found his father happily married to a lady whose interest and
sympathy proved of priceless value to him. Through her
he became acquainted with her cousin, IsabeUa Fenwidci tJia
neighbour and intimate friend of Wordsworth, who introdooed
him to Wordsworth and Southey. Under these influfwrs he
lost bis early admiration for Byron, whose Khool, whatever its
merits, he at least was in no way calculated to adom, and his
intellectual powers devetoped rapidly. In October 1822 he
published an article on Moore's irisk Mdodies In the Quarterly
Rfmem. A 3rear later he went to London to seek his fortune
as a man of letters, and met with rapid 8u6ceM» though not
precisely in this capacity. He became editor of the Lnden
MagaUnet to which he had already contributed, and in Jaimarf
1824 obtained, through the influence of Sr Heniy HoOand,
a good appointment in the Colonial Office. He was immediately
entrusted with the preparation of oonfliieatial state papers,
and his opinion soon exerdsed an important influence on the
decisions of the secretary of state. He visited Wordsworth
and Southey, travelled on the Continent with the latter, and at
the same time, mainly through his friend and official ooQeagne,
the Hon. Hyde Villiers, becsme intimate with a vexy diffeient set,
the younger followers of Bentham, without, however, adopting
their opinions—" young men," he afterwards reminded Stuart
Mill, " who evexy one said would be ruined by their independ-
ence, but who ended by obtaining all their hearts' desires,
except one who fell by the way." The reference is to Hyde
Villiers, who died prematurely. Taybr actively promoted the
emancipation of the slaves in 1833, and became an intimate
ally of Sir James Stephen, then counsel to the C<^f?ni«l OiEce,
afterwards under^secxetaxy, by whom the Act of Emandpatioa
was prindpaliy framed. His duties at the f^ftl^ufy' Office wese
soon afterwards lightened by the* appointment of James Sped-
ding, with whom be began a friendship that laated till the (nd
of his life.
His first drama, Isoac Comnemu, EUzahetban in tone, and
giviikg a lively pktuxe of the Byzantine court and people, was
pnbl^hed anonymously in x8a8. Though highly pulsed by
Southey, it made little impression on the poblk. PkHip sw
AftaMe; an ehU)otate poetic dcaina, the subject of wldcfa hsd
been recommended to him by Southey, was began in x8s8,
published in 1834, and, aided by a laiulatoxy criticism from
Lockhart's pen in the Quarterly ^ achieved eztxaordinafy sooccss.
Its great superiority to Tayb?s other works may be eiplained
by its being to a great extent the vehicle ol his own ideas snd
feelings. Artev«lde's: early love experiences itpiodnoe snd
traas^guxe his own. £tfvm Ac Pair (1842) was less waxmly
reoeiv^; but his character of Dunstan, the ecdesissticsl
statesman, is a fine psychological study, and the i^y is full oC
bistoRoal interest. Meanwhile he had married (1839) Tbeodosia
Spxing-Rice, the daughter of his former chief Loid MontiBBgie,
and, in oonjunction with Sir James St^en, had taken a leading
part in the abolxdon of negro apprentkeshjp in the West Indies.
The StaUsmaUt a volume of essays suggested by his official
position, had been published hi 1836, and about the same tine
he had written in the Quarterly the friendly notices of Wordsp
worth and Southey which did much to dispel the cooventioDal
ptejodices of the day, and which were publidied hi 1849 ^"^
the somewhat misleadiing title of Notes from Bookt.
In X847 he was offered the under-sectetaryship of state foi
the colonies, which he decUaed. Notes from L^eud fkt Em
of the Conquest appeared in this year; and an expeil^^t'J
romantic comedy. The Virgin Widam, aftdwards uil KI|g-j
Sicilian Summer ^ was pnblkhed in 1850.
play I had written," says the author; " iad fj
why people would not be pleased* wUh f ""
work was St Clements Bte^
he was made K.C.M.G* ^'i
1872, though oonttmhig t^\
hot days were wpttm/^^
universal rvqwot^^r^
been analbir*^
the extiepr-
Ca-
TAYLOR, ISAAC-^TAYLOR, JEREMY
469
fittk by the egotism pardonable In a poet and the garralky
iiatiml to a veteran, is in the main a plnsing and faithful
picture of an aspiring youth, an active maturity, and a happy
aod hoDoaied old age.
Tayior** ArkveUt cannot biL to impieas thoae who read it
as the work of a poet of considerable distinction; but, perhaps
for the very reason that be was so prominent as a state official,
be has not been accepted by the world as more than a very
accomplished man of letters. His lyrical work is ia general
laborioualy artificial, but he produced two well-known songs—
" Quoth tongue of neither maid nor wife " and " If I had the
wings of a dove."
Tayto-** AiOobiotrapky (2 vols. 1885) should be supplemented by
hb Cprresp0iid4itc* <i888). edited by Edward Dowden. Hit Wprks
were collected in five volumes in 1877-78.
TATiOR, KAAC (x 787-1865), English author, son of Isaac
Tayk>r (i 759*1839), engraver and author, was bom at Laveo-
ham, Suffolk, on the 17th of August 1787. He was tramed by
his father to be an engraver, bat early adopted literature as a
profesaioo. From 1824, the year of his marriage, he lived a
busy but uneventful life at Stanford Rivers, near Ongar, Essex,
where be died on the a8th of June 2865. His attention was
drawn to the stiuiy of the Others of the church through
reading the works of Sulpicius Severus, which he had picked
up at a bookstalL He pxiblished a History of tkg Transmtssicu
g§ Amcieni Books lo Modern Timet (1827), a study in biblical
criticism, and some other works, but he attracted little notice
until, in 1829, he published anonymously a book bearing upon
the religious and politica! problons of the day, entitled The
Naimrai History of Enthusiasm^ which speedily ran through
eight or nine editions. Fanaticism (1833), Spiritual Despotism
(1835), Saturday Eoening (1832), and The Physical Theory of
A mother Life (1836), all commanded a large drculatioa. In
his AndenS Christianity (1839*46), a series of dtssertations in
rqily to the " TracU for the Times," Taylor maintained that
thie Christian church of the 4th century diould not be regarded
is embodying the doctrine and practice of the apostles because
It was then already corrupted by contact with pagan super-
stkioB. The book met with great oppositioti, but Taylor did
not foBow up the controversy.
Among hts other works may be mentioned biographies of Ignatius
Loyola (1849) and John Wesley (1851); a volume entitled The
Xest^rmHoH of Bekef (1855); and a course o( kctuiea pn The Sptrit
oi Hehnw Poetry (1861).
TAYLOR. UAAC (1829-1901), EngKsh piulok>gi6t, eldest ion
of the preceding, was bom at Stanford Rivers, and May 1829.
He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and took the
BDatheaatical tripos ia 1853. His interests, however, were
finguistic rather than mathematical, and his earliest publication
was a tianslation from the German of W. A. Becker's Charietes.
Though of Nonconformist stock, Isaac Taylor joined the Church
of Englaad, and in 1857 was ordained to a countiy curacy. In
ig6o be published The Litwrgy of the Diuenters, an appod for
the levirion of the Book of Common Prayer " on Protesunt
Unes," ** as expedient for the material interests of the Church,
and as an act of plain justice to the Dissenters.*' His studies
ta local etjrmology bore f luit in Words emd Places in Etymological
lOmimbm tf History, Ethnology and Geography (1864). Be-
MUid s26q, when he was in charge of a Bethnal
' / studies were laid aside, and he
[ The Family Pen^ a
, the Taytors of
I at Twicken-
vBtrtaun
b'fTeiUn
•Bd The Famtly
-^ the Taj
■ucbatTi
editioii 1899). Taylor points out that alphabetical changes
are the result of evolution taking place in accordance with fixed
Uws. •* Epigraphy and palaeography may claim, no lets than
philology or biotogy, to be ranked among the inductive
sciences." He was largely indebted to the Egyptian researches
of Roug6, whidi it has smce become necessary to reconside b
the light of discoveries in Crete. In 1885 Taylor became canon
of York, and two years later dean. His paper on the Origin of
the Aryans^ read at the British Association in 1887, was after-
wards expanded into a book. In the following winter he
visited Egypt, and his letters from there, collected under the
title Leanes from an Egyptian Notebook^ aroused considerable
controversy from the extremely favourable view he took of
the Mahobmedan religion. For the last few years of his lile
Dean Taylor suffered from ill health, and was laid aside from
active work for some time before his death in October 1901.
TAYLOR, JERBMY (i 613-1667), English divhie and author,
was baptized at Cambridge on the 15th of August 1613. His
father, Nathaniel, though a barber, was a man of some educa-
tion, for Jeremy was " solely grounded in grammar and mathe-
matics'* by him. The tradition that he was descended from
Dr RowUnd Taylor, Cranmer's chaplain, who suffered martyr-
dom under Mary, is grounded on the untrustworthy evidence
of a certain Lady Wray, said to have been a granddaughter of
Jeremy Taytor. She supplied Bishop Heber in 1732 with other
biographical data of doubtful authenticity. Jeremy Taylor was
a pupil of Thomas Loveting, at the newly fotmded Perse grammar
schooL Lovering is first mentioned as master in 1619, so that
Taylor probably spent seven years at the school before he was
entered at GonvUle and Caius College as a aisar in 1626,' eighteen
months after Milton had entered Christ's, and while George
Herbert was public orator and Edmimd Waller and Thomas
Fuller were undergraduates of the univetsity. He was elected
a Pene scholar ia r628, and fellow of his college ia 1633, but
the best evidence of his diligence as a student is the enormous
learning of which he showed so easy a command in after years.
In 1633, although still bebw the canonical age, he took holy
orders, and, accepting the invitation of Thomas Risden, a
former feUow-student, to supply his phce for a short time as
lecturer in St Paul's, he at once attracted attention by hh
eloquence and by his handsome face. Archbishop Laud sent
for Taylor to preach before him at Lambeth, and took the
young nuin under h!s special protection. Tkylor did not vacate
his fellowship at Cambridfte before 1636, but he spent, appa-
rentfy, much of his time in London, for Laud desired that hk
** mighty parts should be afforded better opportunities of study
and. improvement than a course of constant preaching would
aDow of." In November 1635 he had been noninatcd by
Laud to a fellowship at All Souls, Obcford, where, says Wood
(A then. Chum., Ed. Bliss, iii. 781), k>ve and admiratk>B still
waited on him. He seems, however, to have sptnt little time
there. He became chaplain to his patron the archbishop, and
chapUdn in ordinary to Charles I. At Oxford William Chilling-
worth was then busy with his great work. The Religion of Pn-
testants^ and it is possible that by intercourse with him Tayktr's
mind may have been turned towards the liberal movement of
his age. After two yean in Oxford, he was presented. In March
1638, by Juxon, bishop of London, to the rectory of Uppingham,
hi Rutlandshire. In the next year he married Phoebe Langs-
dale, by whom he had six children, the eldest of whom died
at Uppingham hi 1642. In the autumn of the same year he
was appointed to preach hi St Marjr's on the anniversary of
the Gunpowder Pk>t, and apparently used the occasion to dear
himself of a suspicion, which, however, haunted him through
life, of a secret leaning to the Romish communk>n. This
suspicion seems to have arisen chiefly from his hitimacy with
Christopher Davenport, better kirawn as Francis a Sancta
t^Lv^, aleamcd Franciscan friar who became rtwplain to Queen
* An obviouily erroneous entry in U»« AdnuMJon B^*
»t he had been at achool under Mr. Loverme lor u
» in his tftoenth year. Admissions to Comrile one
1- J. Venn, 1887).
47©
TAYLOR, JEREMY
i «a^ Laad, as «d » by kis
■iiipiBiii iouowed las ■ I m h a tf t. t» tfe B«?xiac
Thcas:Mrci TktStretOder •adO^eat^ Efac^pmcj
m Bfut^pQcy Astertti MimmM Ikg Aarimm tai Axepkad Sem
mmi Oid • 1642/, oovkl scaradj hope 10 aecsm lift fwiiii, mkatk
, aeqnesuated oclJI x4m- Tajim fnbsxKj
lAe kiog to OakKd. ia b4c3 he w frwirfd
u» tite noonr oi OvezAoae. X flrtfci B ipuxBJMH, bjr Oodes L
These he vooki be is dose ajcaaJM vitk M» tatadaatf
Speaocr Coapboa, sad cari ci JifonhaBpcoa.
Disiac the acxl ^fieca ycaxs Ta>ior s aw i u a LiM s ase not
easily traced. He aeeaa to have beea ia Irnatton dadas the
bttveeksai ChadesL,fao« vVoia he b said to hare nodwd
htt valck aad aane iearb wlach had onMacated the diaejr
case m ^tuck he kept hb Bibfe. He had bcea takea pfiwrr
aiih cLSttx Roraiats ahie bcdegioK CanSpia casUe aa the
4lh oi Fc£,rBary 164$- la 1646 he is foaad ia paxtaenhip aith
two eciteT deprnred derQrmea, kfrp ing a ict * > d al Ncwtoa
UaA. ia tbe parish oi Uaarihaaed-Aberbythy^ Cazaazthea-
shtre. Here be ****-* ^» pdraie rkip'gta to Ridard Vaaghsa,
nd eazl oi Carixry (t6oo>i6S6). vboae hiwpiabir larinn
Gcwdea Gcore, is ioiaonaliaed ia the title ot Tajior's stiii
pop;jiar ci^uai oi devxjooa, and whose £sst wife vas a '^"t'^tt
in»d oi Jtytot. The seoood Lady Carbexy vas the on^nzl
«i the " Lady " ifl Mikoa's C^mmx. lixs Ta> kc had ccd
cviy ia 1651. He second vile vas Joaana Bodgrs. saad 00
Tcry dcr.;biiul amhonty to hare beea a aatnrai daughifT
oi Cbarics L She ovned a ^ood eaatc, though probably
iaspoverished by FsiiiiBwatanaa rrafTinm, at ^*~*'**— . ia
CanBaitheoshixe.
ftom time to tioie Jcnmy Tayior appeaxs ia Loadoa ia the
CocBpaoy oi hai friend Evdyn, ia ahose diazy aad ooocapood-
coce bis ^tmt icpealediy occvas. He was three tiaes iia-
pmoacd: ia 1654-5 for aa isjudkioas pvdaoe to his i^oUrs
Cfote-, sc<^a in Chcpctow cestk, boos May to Ooobcr 1655.
OD wlnl chsf^e does boc ippear; aad a thitd taase ia the Tovpr
in i^STif •• aocoaat oi the iadiBcmioa ai Us pnbfafacr.
Richtn' »— — -fc * ■
Offices
prayer.
Mud
in
Dis
> r,iam^:.,m w
-^
TATU
oftd?l,
Middkk
landovD
was yet
a oun o
tvoddc
vita, i
mor.ths
to a di
entered
. . . ii«fo.«aszc:adedtabethesaad»ABa&ia!
ai c—tty aad ethgs ior the Cangaa pcspk.
He prcba^T ica ^aies ia xt--. as»i ha ia iiratrrwinmfft
vilhCaideaCcoseaBeHtoLa'veoeaaedtaaTcaacsilier. b
rtsi. thea^k the kiad o&ocs ac hs hnid Jika Evdjia. Taiht
«as liiiii a kzxaRsh^ « L^mm, Izdsad. Vy Edrac
Coavay.aecDBd \acBc21 Cacvxy. At izst he dedaed a pes
ia ahkh the daiy «as to be sband viih a Fwt^tjur^ a.
as he eqvcani k, " vheae a Fresbyteziaa aad aiyxM ^
be &c Castor aad Pacex. the one c^ aad the other don.
aad to vbjch abd a tttt eieaxre salirr vas atttdw d- Be
aas. hemeva, iz^aoed to taa.e~ it, ard ioaad ia ha paiict s
■as^oQ at Ponsiore, oa lx>. rV Neafx a caryrigl mreat
At tie Resu>m>». iisjcii « bci=f recalled to Ea^zad a
he praoabiy < i| i «.i e ii aad ctrLtxJv oeserrd. he aas s|ipe«sSed
to the see oi Do«a aad Cccacr, to which was shortly added
the SBsl adiaczat djacxse oi DroBorc. He was abo aude i
iati.ibu oi the Izsh pnry ooaccd aad rkx^haaceODr d tk
czuvezsty oi DcbLia. Xoae oi these hoaocas ^se siaecoii
Oi the naircssiiy he wnies» " I iocnd aH thia^s aa a pedot
disoakr a heap oi an aad bosrs, bat aa body d t
coOese. no am aembcr, cither idkrw or sdnbr, ha^ni« ary 1
le^ tidb to his place, bat tlmst in by tyaamf or chaact^
Accordiafiy he set hisaeX v ig u e wsiy to the task oi ioMM
aad e&fordas rcg:^iix& icr the a l ii i^i'' aad ooadaci d
mmhrts oi the csiversttr. az>d abo oi uli^ 'iihirg kctaicsh^
Hb fpwf utMl iaboazs wvxr atO xsorc aidaoas. Thexe veit.
at the date oi the Ressocatiso, aboot snreaty Pl e sbyter iaa
rnirtmrrsia the north oi Iidaad, and xaost oi these wesr into
the weal oi Soodand. and were iadnaed with the dbiike d
Epbcapacy which distianisbed the CovcaantxaK pazty. No
worader that Tayfar. whti:^ to t^ dake oi Ooaoade shoitlj
after hb ooesecraiJocL sbcyJd have said, " 1 p e atu > c ib>^
throwa into a piace oi tonacni." Hb letters perhaps someahil
r ag rnir the daa^er ia atich he Hved. bat there b ao doobt
that hb aathotity was resisied aad hb o \ e tnn e s. rciected. His
for acatter oi acrasatb a h^bA
~ '^exs besBg appointed to see
oat oi them." Hexe. then,
^■yiag the wbe toiciaiica
the new bbhop had ooth:^
t the bare ahexnative— rub-
juxisdktioa or depriraiicn.
KA, he dediicd tfaifty-slx
lauy oi the featiy were woa
votcdocss as wcH as by hb
loiic ckxBCBt oi the popda-
int oi the Eacfeh boscace*
ual forms oi wonkip. they
ice they ooosadexcd psoiane.
oold aot aarifrttsad. As
nistratkmoi Iidaad by the
tiaofdiaaiy aad awrt no-
I for themtiodnctaoaofthe
taace o< the Inrii bbhops
:. the Z>is»csbe>«ai P^ptry
aa he huBsdf aeencd partly
eanaOy gained hb cad by
od Bcddi. and iadadnc hb
M> doubt shocteaed hb life.
« in these later ycais. In
i, the only sanriviag aoo of
oa, an officer ia the amy,
d soa. Charics. iatcadcd for
nd became coopaaiDa and
un, at whose hooae he died,
'syior caught fevec fron a
r a tea days' ilacsa* he died
667.aithefilly-iftkyctf«I
TAYLOR, JOHN
ha lile and the wvcBth of Ut epooQpate, ud tits buried in the
attodnl of Oromore.
Tkylor't fune hat been maintaiiKd by the populuitx ol his
lermoBsaiid devoikiBBl writiBgi nlher thta by hisinflueiioe asa
theologian or hk tiiipcntaiice as an ccdesastic. His mmd ««a
•either scientific aot speculative, and he was attiacted rather
leqaestioosof casuistiy than to the ptobtema ci pun theology.
Hb wide leading and capacious sMmory enabled him to cairy in
hk mind the aatfriab of a sound historical theology, but these
wteiials wen unsifted by criticism. His immense learning
tentd Mm father aa n atoichouse of ittustiations, or aa an
innovy out of which he could choose the fittest weapon for
discomfiting on opponent, than as a quany furnishing him
vidi matefial for building up a completely designed and endur*
ing edifice of systematized truth, indeed, he had very limited
faith in the human mind as an instrument of truth. *' Theo*
kor," he ssyst " as rather n divine liie than a divine knowledge."
His great plea for tolcratioB is based on the impoasibiUty of
cRCiing theology into a denwnstiable sdenoe. " It is im-
possibie all sluniid be of one mind. And what is impomiUe
10 be done is not necessary it should be done." Difieicnces of
opinioa thcve must be; but *' heresy ia not an error of the
■aderstsadiag but an error of the wUi" He would submit
ill minor qaestiona to the reason of the individual member,
but be set certain limiu to toleration, excluding " whatsoever
is against the foundation of faith, or contrary to good life and
the bws of obedience, or destructive to human society, and the
poblic uid Just interests off bodks politic." Peace, he thought.
Bight be made ** if men would not cal^all opinions by the name
e( rettgion, and soperstructiures by the name of fundamental
anidcs." Of the propositions of sccurian theologians he said
that coafidtfice'waa the fiist, and the second, and the third part.
Of a geasine poetic temperament, fervid and mobile in feeling,
and of s proliflc fancy, he had also the sense and wit that come
of varied contact with men. All his gif u were made available
for iafluendng other men by his easy command of a style nrely
Bitched ia dignHy laid colour. With all the majesty and stately
daboration and musical rhythm of hlilton's finest ppose, Tkykir's
style is relieved and brightened by an astonishing variety of
Idicitous iUttstrationa, ranging from the most horody and terse
to the most dignified and elaborate. His sermons cspeciaUy
aboond in quoutaons and allusions, which have the ait of
ipontaneooaly suggesting themselves, but which must sometimes
have baffled bis hesiccs. This seeming pedantry is, however,
atoned for by the dear practical aim of his sermons, the noUe
ideal he keeps before his hearers, and the skill with which he
^ladks ^atkual e^Mrienoe and urges incentives to virtue.
Tie vheie w^rhs «f . . . Jeremy Tayhr vUk a Uf» of ikt tuUhor
••rf « criHeal tauxmimatiom of his wrilaigj waa-pubutlied by Bishop
KcsinaU Hcher in r832. reissued after caraful revision by Charles
Page Eden (1B47-S4). His most popular works. The LiUrly of
Prephtsyin^, Holy Lning, and Holy Dytni have been often reprinted.
He Poems and Verse-transhUioms of Jeremy Taylor were edited
h> Dr. A. B. Grosart in voL i. of the Mistellonies of On FvUer
Vtrthies Ubeory (1870). The first btagFapber of Jeremy Taylor
vas his friend and successor, George Rust, who preached a funeral
tnmoa (in 1668) which remains a valuable document. His life
lias been written by John Wheeldon (i793>. H. K. Bonney (1815).
T. S. Hughes (1831). R. H. WiUmott (1847). George L. Duyddnck
(Nev YorL i8fio). The chief authority is still Eden's revision of
Biifaop Ud)er*s memoir, which includes much valuable corre-
^ndcnce. See also £. W. Gosse's Jeremy Taylor (1904) in the
turiuk Men of Letters aeries. A bibliography of works dealing
«itn the nobiect is included in the article fay the Rev. Alexander
Gordon in the Dutionary of NaUonal Biography. S. T. Coleridge
*as a dfligent. student and a warm admirer of Jeremy Taybr, whom
^ rvsardcd ais one of the great masters of Enelish style. A series
^ comments by Colertdffe are collected in his Literary Romains
(iljB, vol iii. pp. 303«390).
TATLOR, JOSK (1580-1553), Englisl^ pamphleteer, com-
iBonly called the " Water-Poet,'* was bom at Gloucester on
^^ 24th of August 1580. After fulfilling his apprenticeship
to a waterman, he served (i 596) in Essex's fleet, and was present
at Flores in 1597 and at the siege of Cadiz. On his return to
^^Shnd ha b^ame a Thames waterman, and was at one time
47*
coBector of the perqiiisites ended by the Hfu»numi of the
Tower. He waa an expert in the art of sett-advertisement,
and achieved notoriety by a aeries of eccentric joumeys. With
a coBBpanion as feather-brained as himself he journeyed from
London to Qneenborough in a paper boat, with two stockfish
tied to canes for oars. Tlu PennjUs FUgntMgt, or the Money*
ktse FermnbnUtion of John Taylar . . . kew ke irseoUed on
fool from London to Bdenborougk in SeodanA . . . 161 8, contains
the account of a journey perhaps suggested by Ben J6naon's
celebrated undertaking, thou|^ Taylor emphatically denies any
mtention of burlesque. He went aa far as Aberdeen. At
Ldth he met Jonson, who good-naturedly gave him twenty*
two shillings to drink his health in Kngland. Other travels
undertaken for a wager were a journey to Prague, where he is
said to have been entertained (xfiso) by the queen of Bohemia,
and those described respectively in A very meny, wherry ferry
wyagf, or Yorhe for my money, and A New Discovery by sea
wUh a Wherry from London to Salisbury (1623), At the out-
break of the dvil war Taylor began to keep a pubUc-houae at
Oxford, but when his friends the Royalisu were obliged to
surrender the dty he returned to London, where he set up a
similar business at the sign of *' The Crown '* in Phoenix Alley,
I;ong Acre. At the time of the king's execution he changed
his sign to the Mourning Crown, but the authorities objected,
and he substituted his own portrait. He was buried in the
churchyard of St Martin's-in-thc-Fidds on the sth of December
1653.
T^ytor gave himsdf the title of " the king's water-poet and
the queen's water-man." He was no poet, though he could
string rhymes together on occasion. His gifts lay in a ccane,
rough and ready wit, a talent for narrative, and a oonaidcrable
command of lepaAee, which made him • dangerous enemy.
Thomas Coryate, the author of the CrudUUs, was one of his
favourite butts, end he roused Taylor's spedal anger because
he penoadod the authorities to have bunt one of Taylor's
pamphleU directed agunst him. This was Laugh aud be Fai
(1615?), a parody of the OdeomHan Banquet,
Sixty-three of Tayh>r*s "worha" appeared (n one volume in
1630. This was repnnted by the Spcnicr Society hi 1868-^, being
foUowed by other tracts not hidudcd in the coUectioo (1870^).
Some of his more arounng productions were edited (1873) by
Charles Hindley as The Works of John Taylor. They provide some
very entertaining reading, but m smte of the legend on one of his
title-pages, " Lastly that (wbkh is Rare in a Travailer) all is true,"
it ia permissible to exercise some mental reservations in accepting
his statements. Mr Hindley edited other traas of Taylor's in his
MisceOauea Antigua Anglicana (1873).
TAYLOR, JOHN (1704-1766), English dassical scholar, was
bom at Shrewsbury on the sand of June 1704. Bis father
was a barber, and, by the generosity of one of his customers,
the ion, having received his eariy education at the grammar
school of his native town, was sent to St John's College, Cam-
bridge. In 173a be was appointed h'brarian, in 1734 registrar
of the university. Somewhat laU in life he took orders, became
rector of Lawford in Essex in i75r, and canon of St Paul's in
r757. He died in London on the 4th of April 1766. Taylor
is best known for his editions of some of the Greek orators,'
chiefly valuaUe for the notes on Attic law, e.g, Lyaias (1739)*
Demosthenes CMitfra LepHnem (r74x) and Contra Midiom
(1743, with Lycurgus Contra Leocratem), intended as specimens
of a proposed edition, in five volumes, of the orations of Demos*,
tlsenes, Aeschines, Dinarchus and Denudes, of which only
vols. ii. and iii. were published. Taylor also published (under
the title of Af armor Sandvicense) a commentary on the inscrip-
tion on an ancient marble brought from Greece by Lord Sand-
wich, contaimng particulars of the receipts and expenditure of
the Athenian magistrates appointed to cdebrate the festival
of Apollo at Ddos in 374 bx. His Ekment^..mL Ciml Law
(175s) also deserves notice. It was *^y
Warburton in his Divine Legation^ p
difference of opinion in regard to the ]
Christians, in reality because Taylor h^
of his scholarship.
TAYLOR, JO^PH— TAYLOR, ROWLAND
47*
TAYLOR. JOSEPH (c. X586-C. 1653), EngliBh actor, is men-
tioned in the folio Shakespeare of 1623 as one of the twenty^sijc
who took principal parts in all of these plays. There is a
legend that he was. trained by Shakespeare to pUy Hamlet,
and that he succeeded Burbage in this and other parts. Certain
it is that in many of Beaumont and Fletcher's plays he had a
leading rAle, and he is one of the ten actors who signed the
dedication of the first folio of these dramatists (1647).
TAYIAIU MICHAEL ANOELO (x7S7~x834}t English poUti-
dan, was a son of Sir Robert Taylor (1714-1788), the architect,
and was educated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, becoming
a barrister at Lincoln's Inn in 1774. He entered the House
of Commons as member for Poole in 1784, and, with the excep-
tion of the short period from 1802 to x8o6, remained a member
of paiiiameot until 1834, although not as the representative of
the same constituency. In parUament Taylor showed himself
anxious to curtail the delays in the Court of Chancery, and to
improve the lighting and paving of the London streets; and
be was largely instrumental in bringing about the abolition of
the pillory. At first a supporter of the younger Pitt, he soon
veered roimd to the side of Fox and the Whigs, favoured parlia-
mentary reform, and was a personal friend of the regent, after-
wards George IV. He was on the committee which managed
the impeachment of Warren Hastings; was made a privy
councillor in 1831; and died in London on the x6th of July
x834- Taylor is chiefly known In connexion with the Metro-
politan Paving Act of 181 7, which is still referred to as " Michael
AngeloTaylor's Act." Often called " Chicken Taylor " because
of his reference to himself as a " mere chicken in the law,"
be is described by Sir Spencer Walpole as " a pompous barrister,
with a little body and a loud voice." Taylor's father. Sir
Robert, was the founder of the Taylorian Institution at Oxford.
TAYLOR. NATHANIEL WILUAM (X786-X858). American
Congregational theologian, was bom in New Milford, Con-
necticut, on the a3rd of June X786, grandson of Nathaniel
Taylor (1722-1800), pastor at New Milford. He graduated at
Yale College in 1807, studied theology under Timothy Dwight,
and in 18x2 became pastor of the First Church of New Haven.
From X822 until his death in New Haven on the loth of March
X858 he was Dwight professor of didactic theology at Yale.
He was the last notable representative of the New England
School, in which his predecessors were the younger Edwards,
John Smalley (1734-1820) and Nathaniel Emmons. In the
Yale Divinity School his influence was powerful, and in 1833
one of his foremost opponents, Bennet Tyler (1783-1858),
founded in East Windsor a Theological Institute to offset
Taylor^s teaching at Yale.
Taylorism. sometimes called the " New Haven ** theology, was
an attempt to defend Calvinism from Anninian attacks, and the
defence itself was accused of ArminianiBm and Pelagianicm by
A. A. Hodge of , Princeton and Leonard Woods of Andovcr. Taylor's
thcolc^ was distinctively inf ra-lapearian ; it disagreed with Samuel
Hopkins and Emmons in rejecring the theory of " divine efficiency "
ana in arming that man can chooae the right " even if he woA^t '*
—distinguishing like Edwards between natuml ability and moral
inability ; it distinguished sensibility or susceptibility as something
different from will or understanding, without moral qualities, to
which the appeal for right choice may be made; and it made self-
love (a term borrowed from Dugald Stewart, connotinB the innocent
love of hapniness and distinct from selfishness) the particular
feeling appealed to by the influences of the law and gosp^
He wrote Practical Sermons (1858; edited by Noah Porter):
Lectures en tkt Moral Cooemmeni of Cod (2 vols.. 1859), and Essays
and Lectures upon SeUet Topics in Rtoeakd ThtUoij (1859), all
published posthumously.
TAYLOB, PHIUP MEADOWS (i8o»^x876), Anglo-Indian
administrator and novelist, was bom at Liverpool on the ssth
of September 180B. At the age of fifteen he was sent out to
India to become a clerk to a Bombay merchant. On his arrival
the hotise was in finandal difficulties, and he was glad to accept
m 1824 t commis^on in the service of his highness the nisaro,
to which service he remained devotedly attached throughout
his long career. He was spee<fi]y transferred from military
doty to a dvil appointment, and in this capacity he acquired
a knowledge of the languages and the people of Southern India
which has seldom been equalled. He stndied the hiws, the
geology, the antiquities of the country; he was alternately
judge, engineer, artist and man of letters, for on his return to
England in 1B40 on ftirlough he published the fimt of his Indian
noveb, Confesssions of a Tkug^ in which he reproduced, with
singular vivacity and truth, the stenes which he had beard
described by the chief actors in them. This book was followed
by a scries of tales, Tippoo SnUaun (X840), Tara (x863)» Xalpk
DanteU (1865), Seeta (1872), and A NoUe Qtuen (1878), aU
illustrating periods of Indian history and society, and giving
a prominent place to the native character, for which and
the native institutions and traditions he had a great regard
and respect. Returning to India he acted from 1840 to X853
as conespondent for The Times, He also wrote a Student's
Manual of the History of India (1870). About X850, Meadows
Taylor was appointed by the naram's government to administer,
during a long minority, the principality of the young raja of
Sborapore. He succeeded without any European assistance
in raising this small territory to a high degree of prosperity,
and such was his influence with the natives that on the occur-
rence of the mutiny in Bengal he held his ground without
military support. Colonel Taylor, whose merits were now
recognized and acknowledged by the British government of
India— although he had never been in the service of the Com-
pany — ^was subsequently appointed to the deputy commissioner-
ship of the Western ceded districu, where he succeeded in
establishing a new assessment of revenues at once more equitable
to the cultivators and more prodtictlve to the government. By
indefatigable perseverance he had raised himself fitom the con-
dition of a half-educated lad, without patronage, And without
even the support of the Company, to the successful government
of some of the most important provinces of India, 36,000 square
miles in extent and with a popiUation of more than five millions.
On his retirement from service in x86o he was made a CSJ.
and given a pension. Taylor died at Mentone 00 the X3th of
May 1876.
See Meadows Taylor's The Story cf My Life (1877).
TAYLOR, ROWLAND (d. X5S5), English Protestant martyr,
was bom at Rothbury, Northumberland; he took minor ordexs
at Norwich in 1528 and graduated LL.B. at Cambridge m 1530
and LL.D. in X534. Adopting reformed views he was made
chaplain by Cranmer in 1540 and presented to the living of
Hadleigh, Suffolk, in 1544. In Whitsun week, 1547, he preached
a " notable sermon " at St Paul's Cross, and was ^cn the third
stall in Rochester cathedral. In 1549 he was placed on a com-
mission to examine Anabaptists, and in X55X he was appointed
chancellor to Bishop Ridley, select preadier at Caaterbury,
and a commissioner for the reform of the canon law; in xjs'
Coverdale made him archdeacon of Exeter. Apparently he
advocated the cause of Lady Jane Gr^, for on the 9$th of
July X553, only six days after Mary's proclamation as queen,
he was committed to the custody oil the sheriff of Essex. He
was released not long afterwards, and with the support oC his
parishioners offered strenuous resistance to the restoration of
the Mass. He was consequently imprisoned in the King's
Bench prison on the 26th of March 1554. The sturdy pro-
testantism of Taylor and his flock, who seem to have caused
various commotions, marked him out for the special enmity
of Mary's government; and he was one of the first to suffer
when in January 1555 parliament had once more given the
clerical courts Iflierty of juriscfiction. He was sentenced on
the 22nd, excommunicated on the 29th, degraded by Bonner
on the 4th of February, and burnt on the 9th at Aldham
Common near Hadleigh. ■ His blameless character had made
a great impression on his age, and he was commemorated in
many popular ballads. He was regarded as the idea^ of a
Protestant parish priest; he was married and had nine children.
The alleged descent of Jeremy Taylor from him has not been
proved.
See Thomas Qointon Stow's Memoirs of Rowland Taylor (1833):
DicL of Nat. Biogr. Iv. 463-4. and authorities there dted.
TAYLOR, THOMAS— TATTLOR, ZACHARY
ffATlOB, IBAMAl (i95a^3S)* SMoh ^vdter, gtwnfiy
aJkd ** the Pbtotdst," was bom in London on the tsth. oi
May 175B, and lired there till JUa death on the xst of No««akbec
1835. He was sent to St Paal's school, but waa aoanttmoved
to Shcmiwwt, where he speni aevetal yeara with a eelative who
waa engaged in the dockyanL He then begaft to studj lor the
«i«— ^wt'^g miniatiy, but an impnvlent maxfiagfr^and peounlaiy
difi&ctthiea ampdied him to abandon the idea. He became a
acfaoolmaater, a derfc in Lubbock'a banking-hoiiae^ and from
i79a-48o6 was assistant secretary to the aodefy for the en-
amngement of aita» manttf actuzes and commerce, which post
he le^gned to devote himsdf to the study of phiioeophy. He
had the good fortune to obtain the. patronage of the duke ol
Noifelk and of a Mr Meredith, a retM tradesman of literuy
tastes, wlw assisted him to publish several of his woifcs. These
mainly cnrtihred of ttanslationa of the whole or part of the
wzitinga of Aristotle, Plato, Flotinus, Psochts, Pansamu,
Porphyiy, OceUoa Lucanos, and the Oiphio hymns. His
effoffts WRCte un£avou»bly*-abnost contemptuously'-itceived,
hot, in spiu of defects of scholarship and lack of cdtieal facnlty,
doe recognitfon most be awaxded to the indomitable industry
with whidi he overcame early difficulties. He figures ai the
" BBodem Pletho " in Isaac Dismeli's OtrioatUs of Lilerature
aad in hia novel Vawien, and as " Eai^and'agentite priest " in
Mathiaa'a Furntits of LUerainrt.
TATLOB, TOM (x8tr>i8ao), English dramatist and editor
of Fmukf was bom at Bishop Weannouth, near Sunderland, on
the 19th of October 1817. After attending achool there, and
sUidsring for two sessions at Glasgow Univieaity, he in 1837
entered Trinity College, Cambridge, of whkh he became a
feiloir. Subsequently he held for two years the profesBorship
of EngUsfa literature at University College, London. He was
called to the bar (Middle Temple) in November 1846, and went
on the northern drcnit until, in 1850, he became assistant
aecretary of the Board of Health. On the recBOBtmction of
the Boud in 1854 be was made aeoctaiy, and on its abolition
his services were transferred to a deputment of the Home
Office, retiring on a pension hi 1876. In his very early years
Tom l^lor had shown a predilection for the drama, aad had
been in the habit of performing dramatic pieces with a number
ol children hi a loft over a brawer'a stable. Four buriesqucs of
his were produced at the Lyceum in 1844- He made his fixst
hit with T0 Partntt and Guofdians, brought out at the Lyceum
in 184$. He also wrote some buriesques in oonjnnctioa with
Albert Smith and Charles BLenny, and collaborated with Charles
Reade in Matks and Faces (1852). Before the dose of his life
las dramatic pieces numbered over xoo, amongst the best
known of which are Omt Amtrican Cousin (1858), produced by
Laura Keene in New York, in which Sothexn created the part
of Lord Dondieaxy; SUU Waters Jinn' Deep (1855); VicUms
(1857); the Contested Election (1859); the Ooeriand Route
(1860); the Ticket of Leave Man (1863); Anne Boleyn (1875);
and Joam ef Arc (1871). He was periiaps the most popohu*
dramatist of his time; but, if his chief concern was the con-
struction of a popular acting play, the cfaaractera in his dramas
are clearly and coaststently drawn, and the dialogue is natural,
nervous and pointed. In his blank verse historical dramas,
Anne Boteyn and Joan of Arc^ he was not so successfuL
Taylor had begun his oareer as a journalist when he first
came to London. He very soon became connected with the
Uamini Ckronide and the Doify NemSj for which he wrote
leaden. He waa on the staff of Punch untfl 1874, when he
succeeded Shiriey Brooks as editor. He ocraaonatly appeared
with Boooesft in amateur theatricals, more especially in the
character of Adam in At You Like It and of Jasper in A Sheep in
Wolfs Chthing. He had some talent for painting, and for
many yean was ait critic to The Times and the Grapkie. He
died at Lavender Sweep, Wandsworth, on the xsth of July 1880.
Apart from the drama, Tom Taylor's chief contributiont to
Utoature are his biographies of painters, viz., Aulobiography of
B. R. Haydon (18M): Autobiopapkyand Correspondence rf C R.
LesUe, R^. (t86oJ
[Jfj"£$j'^f^
'imet of Sir Joshua KryneUs
♦73
fir^v, wbjeh had hecp taft ia a very ioeompieie slate fay Leslie
His atstoncol Dramas appeared in one volume in 1877. He also
edited, trith a memorial preface, Pen Sketches from a Vanished
Hand, setecledfrom Papers of the late Mortimer CoUins.
TAYLOR, VILUAM (1765-1836), English man of letters,
son oir a Norwich manufacturer, was born in that city on the
7th of November 1765. He belonged to the Unitarian com-
munity,' and went to a school kept at Palgrave, Suffolk, by
Rochemont Barbauld, husband of Anna Letitia Barbauld,
where Frank Sayers (1763-18x7) was among his schoolmates.
He travelled on the Continent for some ye^us to perfect himself
in foreign languages. William Taylor and his father were both
in sjrmpathy with the French Revolution, and belonged to a
" revolution society ** at Norwich. In 1791 the disturbed con-
dition of affairs induced the cider Taylor to wind up his busi-
ness, and from this time William devoted himself to letters.
He was an enthusiast for German poetry, and did great service
to Engli^ literature by translations of BQrger's Lenore (1790,
printed 1796), of Lessing's Nathan the Wise (1790, printed
1805), of Goethe's Iphigenta in Tauris (1790, printed 1793),
an4 of four of Wieland's Dialogues of the Gods (1795). He waa
a prolific writer of review articles, in which his knowledge of
foreign literature served as a useful standard of criticism.
Much of this material was made use of in his most important
work, his Historic Survey of German .Poetry (3 vols., 1828-30).
He iJso edited the works of his friend Sayets with a memoir
(1823). He died at Norwich on the 5th of March 1836.
See a Memoir of the Life and Writings of the late W. Taylor of
Norwich, by John Warden Robberds (2 vols., 1843); Georg
Hertfekit WiBiam Taylor von Norwtch (1897). Tajrlor is well known
to retdera of Gcorse Borrow by the portrait ef him as the *' tldet
individual " in the 2yd chapter of Lacengro,
TAYLOR, ZACHART (1784-1850), twelfth president of the
United States, was bom in Orange county, Viiginia, on the
24th of September 1784. During the following year his father,
Colonel Richard Taylor, a veteran of the War of Independence,
migrated to Kentucky, settling near Louisville, and thereafter
played an important part in the wars and politics of his adopted
state. The boyhood and youth of Zachaiy Taylor were thus
passed in the midst of the stirring frontier scenes of early
Kentucky, and from this experience he acquired the hardihood
and resoluteness that characterised his later life, although he
inevitably lacked the advantages of a thorough education.
In Bffay x8o8 Taylor received a commisaon as first lieutenant
in the 7th United States Infantry, and for the next few yean
was employed in routine duties. Early in 18x2 he was made
captain, and during the ensuing hostilities with Great Britain
distinguished himself by his gallant defence against the Indians
of Fort Harrison, a stockade in central Indiana. For this he
was breveted* major, and in May 1814 received a regular major's
commission, but being reduced at the conchision of the war
to the rank of captain, temporarily left the service. In May
18x6 he was reinstated as major, and in ^8x9 was promoted to
be a lieotenant-colond; and in the routine discharge of his
duties he was stationed at vatioas posts on the western frontier.
In 1832, as cok>nel, he took part in the Black Hawk War, and
was the officer to whom BUck Hawk surrendered; later he
occa^nally acted as Indian agent along the upper Mississippi.
In x836 Taylor was ordered from Wisconsin to take com*
mand against the Seminoles in Florida. On the ssth of
December 1837, after a difficult campaign, he inflicted a severe
defeat upon the Indians at the battle of Okeechobee, and for
this was breveted brigadier-general. Then followed four year*
of harassing service in the Florida Everglades, whence he
passed to the command of the First Defiartment of the army,
with headquarteiB at Port Jesup, Louisiana.
While at New Orleans in r84S, Tayter received ordera from
President Polk to march his troops into Texas, as soon as that
state should accept the terms of annexatmn proposed by the
Joint Resolution of Congress of March s, 1845. Later in June
FoOt, who assumed that the Rio Grande xather than the Nueces
was the aooth-westem boundary of Texas, ordcre** "
op a position at the. mouth of the Sabine, or
+78
TEA
of Iea< wbeo iuUy 4evie!oped (4 to 9110, in leBgth'aod s to ji
in breadth) has made them in demaad because of the heavy
yidda. From the variety Bohea, or fzo» hybrida of deaeent
from it, came the China teas of lormef daj^a and the earlier
plant ii^ in India grown from imported China stock. The
Fig. I. — Bohca variety,
leaves of this variety are generally, roughly speaking, about
half the size of those of the Assam Indigenous and Manipur
sorts. The bush is in every way smaller than the Assam types.
The latter is a tree attaining in its natural conditions, or where
allowed to grow unpruned in a seed garden, a height of from
30 to 40 ft. and prospering in the midst of dense moist jungle
and in shady sheltered situations.
The Bohca variety is hardy, and
capable ot thriving under many differ-
ent conditions of climate and situation,
while the indigenous plant is tender
and difHcuIt of cultivation, requiring
for its success a close, hot, moist and
equable climate. In minute structure
it presents highly characteristic appear-
ances.
The under side of the young leaf is
densely covered with fine one-celled
thick-walled hairs, about i mm. in
length and '0x5 mm. in thickness.
These hairs entirely disappear with
increasing age^ The structure of the
epidermis of the under side of the leaf,
with its contorted cells, is represented
in fig. 3.
A further characteristic feature of
the cellular structure of the tea-leaf is
the abundance, especially in grown
leaves, of Urge, branching, thick-wallcd,
smooth cells (idioblasts), which, although
.they occur in other leaves, are not foxmd
in such as are likely to be confounded with or substituted
for tea. The minute structure of the leaf hi section is
Olusttated in fig. 4.
Constant controversy has existed as to what Is the actual
original home of the tea-phmt, and probably no one has given
to the subject more careful study than Professor Andreas
Krassnow, of Kharkoff University, by order of the Russian
government, he visit'-" -at tea-growing countries.
Fio. 3.— Bohca Tea-
leaf, full bL
ahid the lenflu of his otservationa irere published In a book
entitled On the Tea-proiudng Distridtof Ati*. He holda the
opinion that the tea-plant is indigeiKnia, not to Assam only,
but to the whole mouoon ngion of eastern Asia, where he
found it gTo^ving wild aa far north aa the ishnda of KNithem
Japan. He oonsidem that the tea-plant had, from the remotest
times, two distinct varieties, the Asdam and Chinese, as he
thinka that the period of known cultivation haa been too short
to produce the differcnces that' eiist between them.
C3fc«i»trtry.— What may be termed the chemistry of prodoctioo,
Ws., that relating to •oib, laaaures, mamifacturing p i ec esies , ftc.
has of recent years received gceat attention froai the scirntife
Fig. 3.— Epidermis of Tea-leaf (under side).
expert's apppintcd in India and Ceylon to assist and guide the tea
planters. The chemistry of the completed teas of commerce docs
not appear to have been subjected to adequate scientific study.
There cannot be said to be any standard or recognised analysis.
Many such have been made, and they may be found in chemical
text-books of high authority, but they arc defective because of the
lack of commercial knowledge in association with the chemical
skill. More attention seems to have been given to the matter in
the United States of America and in G«tnany and Ru«a thisn in
England, but the infinite variety of samples known to the commercial
expert, and the impossibility of standardizing those in such a
manner as to make readily recognizable what the chemist has
treated, renders most of the recorded analyses of uncertain value.
There aeenu to be no mlatioQsbip between the commercial value
and the analysis, the arbitrary personal methods of the
expert tea-taster being controlled by factors that chemistry
docs not appear to deal
with. One rtoson may be J
that analyses are generally <
made of tea liquors pro-
duced by distilled water, ^
which is the very worst
possible from the point of
view of the commercial * >
expert or in domestic
usage. ^
Tne principal chemical ■
constituents of tea of C
practical interest are: |l
caffeine, tannin and essen- *£
rial oil, on which depend Fig. 4.— Section through Tea-leaf,
respectively the physio-
k>gical effects, the strength and the flavour. The commercial value
appears to depend on the essential oil and aroma, not on the
amount of caffeine, tannin or extract.
The following is suggested as a typical analysis of an average
sample of black tea :— p„ ^^^
Albuminous matters ' 24
Gummy matters 4
Celluloee ao
Chlorophyll and waa a
Caffeine 3
Tannin . . 10
Essential oil o>75
Resin X
Mineral natter (ash) 6
Moisture 7
Extractive matter 30'2S
xoo
Alsoa trace (1 to -a per cent.) of bohcic acid, a vegetable acid peculiar
to tea. The amount of tannin found in green teas apj^ars to be
TEA
♦79
iid(«sflMdi^»blMfaibhtl;aiMltlielm
le» moncur^ doulidea beoune o£ the hafder fibie ,
ffhnd ol maiuifKture and the (leaacnt ine o( a facins i
A hiie prronifaga of motttiire Umad iaaqr Mmple woaki
ainr Mmpie woaki iimHira
At the fCafe of final bfinf , tea is mppoMd Co
be'denocated aa ooopletdy aa poiubk, and it ia thea ■ealed up to
exclude air anttiely. it is, however, most liable to absorb moisture
pasuie. Caffeiae tfonncrly known as thcine) is
and is identical >nth that oI coffee, guaiana,
I ant. k ii closely allied to theobiDfluae, the alkaloid
flC coooa, and also to uric ackL la lafge quantities it is a poiaoa,
iller quantities it acts as a stimulant. It cssu in greater
_ ^ in Indian and Ceylon teas than in those from Java, and
I Unresr in China and JafisB teas. Tannin is a haideidng and
tMinsent snbstanoev and in lasige quantities impairs digestion.
Proloaged mfusbn increases the amount 'atracted. The wisfntisl
oil of tea is of a dtaon yellow colour; it is lighter than water and
puiiiRBiFS the (fistiactive odour of tea. Extract vanes from 26 to
40 per cent., and is no guide to qoaUty. Ash avenges $*7 per
cent., about half of which b soluble in water. About 8 per cent,
of ash is ptoof of adulteration.
Csaiacraal.— There is probably no article of kiKe ooasumption
the uj u im ea ce in which has been so revolutionised durinr a single
cenentioo. In 1877, aaoept to the initiated, tea neaat China tea.
udia afldjavn were produdag a little, but practically for use only
ia Great Britaia and Holhind. Formosa and Jamm were beEinniog
to attract attentioo in America, but China supplied the wond, and
slraost entirely throueh the medium of the London market. The
dsya of sailing shifM Trom China had not entirely possed, and the
steamers of the period were built for repidity of transit to London.
The Anatralasian colonies sot their supplies direct, and put of the
sttpplies went by the camvaa routes.
07, however, the greatly increased productien in incfia and
of many nations to dxink such teas, in
had left to her Rusria as a customer
c^*^'
, with the willti
pndfcrenoe to those of
for nearly half her export of the article, a jMoportion rapidly d
iag, aa tnat country too turned in the direcoonof using the stronger
varieties.
China and Japan have hitherto been tegarded as the chief Dr>
dnoera of tea, and the reputed laige domestic consom|)tion of those
Mongolian peoples has led to assumptions of vast intenial pro-
ductions. There exisT absohitely no data, and it is doubtful
whether such can ever be gathered, for forming trustworthy esti-
mates. In both of those countries tea is grown princfpally in a
retail manner, and. much of it simply for Caimly consumption. The
country cultivator has, as a rule, only a sniiall a r ea^ p e rhaps a
comer of his farm or garden — planted with tea, the produce of
which is roughly sun-dncd and cured in a primitive manner. Any
■arplus not needed for the family is sold m its sun-dried sUte to
the collector, who Ukes it to the hong, where it is fired, blended and
packed lor exportation. Excluifiiig therefore from any record the
qoantitiet produced for intemal consumption in China and Japan
(tha: from the former alone has been estimated at a total of
a>ooo,ooo,tfoo lb), the following ai« the acreage and production of
the world as taken from the latest recorded sUtistics available in
(Mily.
Oioa
„ (Burma)
Shan States
C«7lon . . .
Kaul !
79.858 ao,3oojooo
531,808 340»4ii,ooo
i.49«* 3,a49.ooo
(mostly pickled tea) ^ 16,000,000
390,000 170,527,000
45.000 36.215,000
5.000 2,750.000
726,60 1..000
The quantity from China indudes about i6.ooo;ooo 1h im-
ported from India, Ceylon and Java, and worked up with Chinz
teas into bricks and tablets.
The modem devetopments of production and consumption have
rendered the subject of China tea oiie of subordinate interest, except
^.., to students of commercial evolution. In several of tne
™"* earlier editions of thb work very ample details are fur-
niahed regarding the same, with many tnteresring pictorial illustra-
tions of the processes of production. The conservative tendencies
ol tiK Chinese people have |)revented them adopting the modem
methods of extensive cultivation based on sdcntinc principles, and
the manipulation of crops by machinery in place 01 hand bbour.
CcmsequentI/, their export trade has been for many years a
^^^ dimiiushine ope. Of the exported quantity referred to
23r^^ above, only 81,000,000 lb were the ordinary black tea
^^"* known to the English consumer (collectively described
b the United Sutes of America and Canada as " English Breakfast
« Official figure, but aficuncy doubclul.
Tea *'). Oat of ihtt total. Gntt Bcftaia cqaiimad only aU
;S/>oo,ooO lb, acunst a consumption of 126^000,000 lb of China tea
m 1879. Giten tea is represented by 28xkx>,iooo fb^ and this went
chiefiy to the United States of Amierica, to Ontial Asia and to
North Africa. The remainder, 80.000,000 lb, ia bride
and ubiet tea sent entiraly to Asiatic and European
Rusaia. The method ot compnesamg tea into taoleu ^'^
or bricka b unfamiliar in western Europe. It doubtless arose from
the necessity of reduoog bulk to n minimum for oonveyance by
taravan across the oast trade routes of Asia, and now
that the railway aad the
wore primitive methoda of transit, the system is still
oootinued to meet the waMs of the consumer who would not recog-
nise his tea in any other shape. The preparation of the ten in the
requisite form has, howcyer, l^gely mt Chinese hands* The
Russians have themselves established several important iactoriea
at Hankowp which is the chief seat of this industry, and to which
place they unport ia large quantities teanhiat and amall broken tea
from India, Oykm and Java. Those are freely used in the pra*
panition of small tablets, oompressed to such a condition of hardaesai
as to reaemble wood or stooe» and commonly passed round aa
currency in certain districts of Russia. Of a somewhat different
nature is the brick tea prepared chiefly at Ya-chou In ,11/^.
the province of Seu<huan for overland transit to Tibet, TTZlrZ
to investigate the oommcroe in whkh Mr ^ames Hutchi- ^^ "^
■on, M.A., was sent ia 1906 aa a special coaanissbncr for the
Indian Tea Ctaa (Committee. This tea ia mostly prepared from
exceedin^y roudli leaf, indudinff even bush pruning^ which
wouki not be plucked for manufarturing purposes in India or
CeyUm. It is " panned,** rolled, fermented and divided into varioua
classes or qualities. It is then steamed and placed hn a moulding
frame of wood to compress it into the siae and shape of brick wanteol
The bricks are wrapped ia paper bearing hong marks, or some
writing in Tibetan. For transit they are packed twelve together
in hides sewn op while moist, which contract to make a strong
tight package of 60 to 70 lb freight. These bales are carried on
the backs of coolies for great distances across very high passes into
Tibet, and the trade is estlhiated at aa average of 19,000,000 ft
per annum, of which 8.000,000 is a subsidy from the e mp eroi of
China to the Tibetan monasteries.
The Japanese prodaction is almost entirely green tea for North
American use. It is prepared in two distinctive classes nuned by
the final process of manufacture applied in each In- .
stance, vis. basket-fired, f.«. dried over a hot atove in **^**
a basket, and pan-fired, i.e. in machine'made pans. The industry
is a declining one. because of change in the American taste, and
the area under cultivation has diminished by neariy 20 per cent, in
the ten years since 1896. The mulberry leaf for the more profitable
silk trade has taken its place. The export production of the island
of Formosa is limited to a particular class of tea termed
Oolong, practically all produced for the United States
of America. It Is scarcely known in England save by
experts. The Tea Cess Committees of India and Ceylon have botb
sent representatives in recent years to study the manner of growth
and produaion, but in neither country has there been so far any
successful attempt to produce commercially tea of the class. A
radical difference exisu in connexion with the method of grawth,
in that the plants are never grown from seed, but are always propa-
gated from layerinn. Soil, situation and climatic conditions have
doubtless much influence on the peculiar character of the tea pro-
duced. The manufacturing methods are elaborate and careful, and
the produce has in iu choicest qualities a particular deGcacy and
bouquet po s s essed by no other variety of tea.
As the planting, productive and manufacturing processes of
India may be taken to be generally representative 01 ^^.
Ceylon and Java also, and therefore of the tea of modem """" ***
commerce in most lands outside of China and Japan, the ""■"■^
methods followed will be described with some fullness.
A rich and exuberant growth of the plants is a first essential
.ef successful tea cultivation. This is only obtainable ia warm pnd
moist kxalities where rains are frequent and copious. ^^^^.^
The climate indeed which favours tropical profusmn of •■■■•^
jun^ l^rowth— still steaming hciit-Hs that most fiavourable for the
cultivation of tea. and such climate, unfortunately, is ofted trying
to the health of Europeans. ' It was formeriy su pposed that com-
pararively temperate latitudes and steep sloping ground afforded
the mast favourable situations for plaming. aira much of the
disajrter whfch attended the eariy stages of the tea enterprise in
India is traceable to this erroneous conception. Tea thrives best
In light friable soils of good depth, through which water peitrolatcs
fneely, the plant being specially impatient of marshy rituations and
stagnant water. Undulating well-watered tracts, where the rain
escapes freely, yet iiTthout washing an-ay the soil, are the most
valuable for tea gardens. Many ofthe original Indian plamarions
were esublished on hill-sides, after the example of known districts
in China, where hill slopes and odd camera are commonly occupied
with tea-plants.
The methods deacribed hereafter are those generally followed in
liMfia and Ceylon in the manner of the most modem ap"*"
480
TEA
bat variatioas mutt take f>Utt acedrding to dittriet and e!evatioiL
Propagatioa is from wed only. The feed U nttber larger than
a hazd nut, with a thicker and darker shell and per-
fectly mherical shape. When ripe (about the month of
Novemoer) the seeds are fAaced a few inches apart in
carefully pityar e d nuneries* which are watered, shaded and weeded
till the r^ular rains of May and Tune admit of the iftiading being
removed. The seedlings should then be 6 ins. to 8 ins. high and
ready to plant out in the 6elds. These ars prepared by cutting
down and biffning the jun^^le, which is afterwards hoed, lined and
staked in paralld rows runmng both ways. The intervals of planting
vary, but 4I ft. by 4) ft« is a very common distance. Pits 15 ins. to 18
ins. deep are due for each plant, and re6Ued looselv-^hen the seed-
lings are carefuUy placed m them. With favourable weather they
should be i^ ins. to 18 ins. high by the end of the first year. Some-
times the pUnts are grown in the nursery for a whole year or more
and put out during the cold weather. After two years' growth
the bashes should be ^ to 6 ft. high. They are then cut down to
about 8 ins. and are allowed to grow ^^in up to 3 or 3 ft. before,
towards the end of their third year, being plucked regukurly. The
object of this cutting down is to cause the bushes to quead out
and cover the ground area usuallv aUowed to each plant, «.e. about
30 sq. ft. The yidd in the third year is small, probably less than
I OS. finished tea per bush. At 7 to 10 years old. when in full
bearing. 4 to 5 os. would be considered a spod return. The annual
production per acre from matured plants was in 1906 in the prin-
cipal producmg districts of India. —
Darjeeling 317 ft
Assam 403 »
Travancoce 45' »
Sylhet 5*5 ..
Cachar 542 1.
Dooara 509 *•
Individual estates of large area gave as much as la^ lb per acre.
In Ceylon the average yield per acre was 440 lb, but there are
vrrified records of 906 Vb per acre wifhin the year from an estate
of 458 acres. On the same property an area of 100 acres gave
1 100 lb per acre on the average over a period of 18 years.
Cultivation in the northern parts of India is done by digging
over the soil — locally termed hoemg— once in the winter quarter and
six times in the nine months of the harvesunj; season.
MWk«- •j«Q |jg^ ^jj estate clean and in good cultivation it re-
"*'• . quires to be gone over every six weeks. The labourers
being barefooted, a spade b useless, so a " khodalee " or hoe (much
like a very heavy and long-bladed garden Dutch hoe) is used. It
is raised well over the head and dropped forcibly into the ground,
then pulled towards the widder to turn over the soil. In southern
India and Ceylon dean hand-weeding b the method of cultivation,
almost no hodng bdng done. In northern India the plucking
.season begins in April. During the first flush (i^. the oreaking
out of young green shoots after pruning and the rest of winter) the
bush b encouraged to grow by leaving 3 or 4 fully devdoped leaves
after removing the tip of the shoot. It takes about 6 weeks to
remove entirely the whole oi the first and succeeding flushes, going
round the estate once a week. In the second flush two leaves only
are left. In the third and fourth flushes onlv one large leaf, and
after that — say during October, November ana part of December —
no soft loaf erowth b left that can be harvested in good order. In
northern IntQa, where the weather in the winter months b cold and
dry, growtJi practically ceases, and then the whole area b pruned
and cut down to about 16 ins. high all over, but in Travancore and
Ceylon it growsoontinuously and is only pruned when found expedient
at intervals of 15 months to 3 years. In certain cases of high-
lying estates, where the growth is slow, it is allowed to run 3 years
from pruning. The finest teas are produced at high devations in
Darjecling and Ceylon and in the pUins of Assam, but the quality
from individual estates varies much from season to season, and even
from week to week.^ There are at times marked differences between
the produce of adjoining estates, with apparently identical con-
ditions of soil and situation. Tea grows and thnves from about
sea-levd in the trofMcs to 7000 ft. m more temperate conditions.
The life of a wdl<ared-for bush has been estimated at 50 years,
in spite of ite numerous enemies. Those ihdude mites, termites
(or white ants), thread Uight, grey blight, caterpillars (naked or
in bags) and cateriMllars armed with stinging hairs to protect them,
and borers, red and black, some of which eat the core out of the
wood, while others content tbemsdves with eating only the bark.
During recent yean in India a new devdopment has taken place
in plantmg tea upon what are termed " bheels," — ^lands resembling
to a great extent the peat boss of Ireland and Scotland. When
opened up by an elaborate ana complete t^em of drainage, they
have been found to possess the power of produdng enormoudy
heavy ytdds, and it b from such estates that the greatest yidds in
Indb have come.
In Ceylon, and to some extent in India, the tareful and syste-
matic application of chemical manures, compounded on scientific
lino, has been found to iocitaae laigdy the yidd of leaf, and much
restoring to tne soil uie most
e eariy days an attempt wa
^ and the various p r oc es s es 1
I stage onwards, almost eve
interplanting 01 nitrogeii-^nxlaciiig giowtlia has biea doas wteh a
view to restoring to the soil the most necessary constituenta.
was made to copy the Chinese
s were manuaL Now, from the
m'KM^ VM..VB» evciythtng is dme by ^^ ^
ry. During the season of yidd the fluahea are ^(^"»»
every 7 to 10 days, and, as a rule, in India the ^'*'
bud and two leaves bdow it are plucked. To take nioce than
4ld be considered coarse and less would be fine plucking,
re of course auite immature, the longest meiy being one
length. The lower leaves on the young shoots are too old
an i to manufacture into tea. The pluddng b done by women
an tdren, and b now practically tiie only part of the work
wt 3e tea b touched by hand. The plucking season continues
in some districts of India till December. As they are plucked, the
green leaves are thrown into baskets, and twice daily the pludangs
are taken into the factory. They are then spread out thinly on
trays or racks made of bamboo, canvas or wire netting, tiader covcrv
for some 18 or 30 hours (according to the temponary weather con-
ditions) to wither, after which they are in a soft, flaodd condition
ready for rolling. On a successful wither the amount of the tea
ferment or tneymt b dependent. The object of rolling b to crush
the leaves and to break their cdb so as to liberate the jnioea. The
leaves are passed repeatedly through a machine driven by ateam
or other power giving a rotary motion, the operation occupying
about 40 to 60 minutdk The next process b familiarly terinea
fermenution. but b really an oxidation of the leaves. Should the
leaf be intended to be cured as green tea, the fermenting prooess b
omitted and some other pr o c e ss e s applied, but in India very little
green tea b manufactured. Many people still cherish the antiquated
bdief that black and green teas are grown upon different varieties
of the tea-plant, which is quite a mistake, the aiScrenoe being merdy
one of preparation. After bdng rolled, the leaves aro spread out
in layers of .1 to 2. ins. thick in a cocrf house, and left to undergo
the diemical action resulting from their condition. Thb process u
checked after from a to 3 hours, according to climatic conditions^
A further brid rolling to dose up the open leaves b fdk>wed by the
first firing, which is oTected by subjecting the leaves to the gradtal
action oThot air up to a temperature ol 34a* F. Various applica-
tions of the same system are in use, but the moat popular b to place
the leaves on trays of wire network in a high tempoature for about
twenty minutes, after which they are firm.aixl crisps Up to thb
point of the manufacture the leal has been in the s^k, the leaves
and bud bdng unseparated. They are now broken apart and
60 ' ' * mechanical sifters into the various grades or qualities,
wl described as Orange Pekoe, Pekoe, Pdcoe SouchoM and-
Sc each of which names rqiresents approxiinatdy the kail-bud
ax ree lower leaves. In addition to these four daases, out of
ea ted all the smaller fragpmnts of Jeaf brdken in the process
brwMai _
the imiMession , . ,. ^
of experts, the more the leaf b broken up, the better is the liquor
upon infusion. Upon completion of the sifting, the tea b again
fired, and while warm it b packed tightly into lead-lined chests,
and the lead covers completely solderra over it, so that it may be
kept perfectly air-tight until required for use.
The nuu:hincry in use b very varied in character, and it has been
evolved prindpall; by practical planters of a mechaniad turn.
Many estate supuintenoents have bcgim thdr careers m^^f^f^
as engineers, ^Ao it b not unusual for a large estate, or ^'
group of estates, to have one member of the European staff who b
a qualified engineer. The motive power is generally a steam engine,
but the greater economy and fadlity of oil engines have led to their
fairiy wide adoption, where water power b available, turbines of
a variety of types are in use. The machines to be driven are air^
fans, rollers, roll-breakers, sifters, cutters and packers, and there
are besides numerous types of driers or desiccators. The names
assocbted with the most successful and iridcly used machines are
those of the Messrs Jackson (makers. Marshalls of Gainsborough)
and Mr & C. Davidson, of the Sirocco Works, Bdfast. The pro-
duction of the empty boxes for packing, called chests or half-chests,
b in itsdf a large industry. The heavy old-fashioned country-made
packages are rapidly bdng replaced by Ught-tared boxes made from
several thicknesses of veneer pressed dosdy together, most <4
which come from Russia.
A production temporarily in excess of the world's demand of
several years ago. led to the offering of bonuses for the productx>n
in Indb and Ceylon of green teas, with a view to lessening the black
tea output. The methods adopted were successful. aiuT ^^-^ ^^
after some vidssitudes a satisfactory business has been '"•■■«■*
established, espedally with the United States of America and
Canada. The methoas of produdng this tea are not so complicated
as those followed in China and Japan. The pnndpal difference
from the manner described of making black tea lies in the omission
of the withering and fermenting, and the substitution for thoae ui
a steaming or panning process. The effect of dthcr is to destroy
the possibility of fermentation by subjectina the leaf, as soon as it
b plucked, to a brief period of great heat, llib coaspbtely destroya
TEA
481
tlie (tnutult ot ciuyfiWt ftnd rendcnt it poHible'to conaevve-^hc Usm,
in what n realty nearer its natnnU form than tiie blads tea that is
80 well known to the consumer.
r«o CMwauN Ai*os.-*The following table gives larttouiarB relative
CO the nriaeifMU consnmtng countries, from which it will be seen that
Great BHtain and its Eaglifih<«peaking dependencies are the great
T«a CmtumpUom of Chkf Cmumm«£ CouMtrm in £906.
China Unknown
Japan
United fGngdom .
Russia
lb
269,503.000
I354«>.«»
United States of America
Dominion of Canada. .
Commonwealth of Aus-
tralia
Dominion ofNewZealand
Germany
Fiance .
Holland
South Africa
Argentine Republic . .
India (estimated) . . .
Burma (average about) .
Persia (average about) .
Tout
84,8^3,000
23,^,000
27.959.«»
6,141.000
6,354.000
2428,000
7.874,000
7.572,000
2,870.000
19,000,000
7,240.000
19,000.000
6,000.000
626.152,000
Rate per
oil
latioc
617
094
0-89
434
6-88
65
OMl
0-06
1-45
t4
I3itt>
?
?
Kite «f Duty
5d-
Certain kinds free
for Asiatic Rus-
s i a or over
Asiatic frontier
— others 2{d.
to is. Hid.
Free.
(If British grown)
i'35d.
9d. (surtax 3|d. if
not direct im>
port).
2{d.
4d.(Natalteafree)
44d.
High.but ancertauL
Free.
4^. to7d.
The countricsol smallcrconsuroption absorbed about 35.000,000 lb,
but thcie is a considerable excess in the returns of production over
those of consumption. This arises partly from the bttcr relating
ia certain instances to an earlier period, and partly from the faa
BriAdt '
Guiana 8d.
Bulgaria 4|d. plus4id< «x-
cise and octroi
lid.
Chile 9d«
Cypru*. 4d-
Denmark 4d.
Ecuador 2|d.
ERV^ «y.adv»L
Fm ....vk...6d.
Gibraltar . . . .Free.
Oeece •! id.
Grenada 6d.
Honduras aid.
Italy lid.
Jamaica Is.
Lagos id.
Malta Free.
Mauritius.... 3d.
Mexico od.
N^orocco 10 % ad val.
Newfoundland 33 % ad val.
Nigeria lod.
Norway is.
Penic 65% ad vaL and
10 '^;.
Portugal 2s. oid.
Rumania 3id. and 4}d. ex-
cise.
Sierra Leone . 10% ad vaL
Spain 6|d. (if Iran-
shipped In a
European port
IS. 7 id. cwt. ad-
ditional).
St Helena. , . .Free.
Straits Settle-
ments Free.
Sweden xd.
Switzerland . .In receptacles
weighing less
than 5 kilos.
i2d.ovcriiod.
Tobago and
Trinidad. ..6d.
Turkey 11%.
Uganda loy
Urtiguay 5Jd
Venezuela ...6d.
The rate per head of population within the United Kingdom has
not increased much durine recent years, and in the Australasian
colonies it has apparently lallen greatly as compared with recorded
SL\ ' 12 lb per head in Victoria and 9 lb in New South
W - •
bo
12 a> per nead in ,
4. The modem statistics of the commonwealth may
rately kept, and there may be less waste in use, but it
ed that there is any diminution in the free use of the
ch has always characterized the andpodcon colonist.
It factor in keeping down the amount per person is
on in use, which for a generation has been in progress.
of tilt; 9i.ivwK^r tcasof India and Ceylon for the old-fashioned weaker
piXxiucc of China. The progressive increase in the consumption of
tea in Great Britain and Ireland during so years from 1836 to 1886
is shown in the table below. The dotted line represents the
average monthly consumption in each year; the fluctuations in
price iif good sound China congou arc traced by the black line; and
the years in wluch reduced customs duty came into operation are
indicated along the base. From i860 onwards, the amount of Indbn
tea entered for home consumption is shown in monthly average by
a black column. This column brings out the remarkable fact that
the Indian tea alone consumed in 1S86 equalled the consomptran of
all kinds in i860, and was double the quantity of all lands in 1836.
The taUe, however, shows merely the genoal development of oon-
Fig. 5.
that much of the yield of 1906 was afloat or undespatched at the
ck>se of that year.
The following table gfres the approximate rates of da^y per
English Tb during 1907 In places not referred to above: —
Austria and \ 9}d. imported by
Hungary < sea, by land 11 d.
Bahamas .... 6d.
Barbados 3d. and 20% ad
val.
Bdgium .... Free.
Bermuda 6^% ad val.
Brazil 50% ad val.
British E.
Africa 10% ad val.
somptfon, but a similar one on next page, bringing the Agnres up to
1007, shows the gradual and almost total displacement of China tea by
that grown in the English dependencies. In both, the price fluctua-
tions and fiscal changes are shown that their effect upon consump-
tion may be judged. The prices below are the annual avera^
for all Indian teas sold in the London public auction market dunng
the yean suted. Lowncss of price has not been the only factor
in increasing the rate of consumption. The lean years ana the fat
years of the general labour maricet always tell, and the In^ •»— -
i
Vb-A
,.*:> . >«< 41 "Jj^£2r each pi
rL-- tke pliu«ts are grown
r;J*pSr«SrAiring the c(
3irt 8 i». *ad «re *»lo^'f
!;;;;;Rb the end of. their th
object of th» cuttwK dow;
and cover the ground area
lo«q.ft. Theyieldinth
1 OK. finished tea per bu
bearing. 4 to 5 oz. would \
production per acre from i
opal producing districts oi
Darjeeliog
Uyiitpts.
Travanoore
Sylhet
Ca rh »r
Dooara
Individual estates of large
In Cej'lon the average yp
verified records o( 996 lb
of 458 acres. On the sar
1 100 lb per acre on the av «
Cultivation in the nort
over the soil — locally term<
six times in th<
To keep an est
quires to be go
being barefooted, a spade
like a very heavy and lor
is raised well over the he.
then pulled towaxds the v
India and Ceylon clean h
almost no hoeing being
.season begins in April,
out of young green shoot,
bush is encouraged to grc
after removing the tip <
remove entirely the whol
round the estate once a '
are left. In the third a
after that — say during O
no soft leaf growth is lef
northern ImOa, where th
dry, growth practically
and cut down to about 1
Ceylon it grows continue
at intervada of 15 mon
lying estates, where the
from pruning. The fin-
Darjecling and Ceylon -
from individual estates
from week to week. TI
the produce of adjoini
dttions of soil and sitL
•ea-lcvel m the tropics
The bfe of a weU<aiv
in spite of its numero
.(or white ants). threa<
«a bags) and cat«apillaj
and&rers. red and b>
wood, while others coo
*}«"¥ recent y«M»
in plantuig tea imoa v
to A gnat extenTtbe
^pened up by an ciSL
^,j^%«» in the relative propor-
^ ^* xv-««w»«<* <J«"n^ tte 21 y<ars
^V-^ iW variadons m the London
4^ the changes in the English
^\^»w the average monthly con-
'V^ hvUnd in miuions of pounds.
\;^t«t price per lb of all Indian
„ Muttons.
vtfklluit followed in many parts of
. .^K^ infusions of powerful teas are
t «4nI th« great colonial dependencies
.<! using the beverage.
Kngland's nearest neighbour, has a
.^nt •06 lb per person per annum,
Jish rate. The increase in con**
til that it probably arises mainly
i.;lish and English-colonial visitors
' ti«e country.
i'**?P!«»t take slightly more per
^ •ndefinttfi.. HoUand, in Europe,
of hw
>ns of Europe *-- •"—"
* eastern Europe
ctpally the product of her
of Europe are very small
tern Europe take their tea
Kco and ceoerally throughout
S?**** 7^ ^reen tea. which
oexng almost saturated with
- ^^"H without any other
eedingly delicate teas can
•n the ceremony of serving
'used to a high art, wMch
' ^ tod. periods.
' -^sia tea is made into a
onthclineaof thefd _ .
Tibet by Cokmd WaddcU in his book Lhasa mnd iu
Writing of the Tibetan he states: " As a beverage he
all day k>nff. cupfub of hot battered tea. which is really a
s^up or brach made by boiline tea-leaves with rancid Uttter and
!3rtUB of dou^. and adding a little salt.and straining— « decoction
which was invariably nasty to our taste, though no doubt it is
wholesome; for it. b not moely a stimulating hot drink in the cold,
but overcomes the danger of drinking unboiled water in a country
where the water supply is dangerously polluted."
Ctorrapky of Tea, — The successful commercial production of tea
o« a large scale is confined to a strictly limited area enclosed by
about 40^ of latitude (5" S. to 35* N.) and about 73* of longitude
(67* to 140' EO, while the consumption shows itself to a laiise
extent to have strictly geographical limitatkyns. The southern
hemisphere ranks lightly in the matter of consumption, the only
other country worth mentioning there besides tte Australasian
and Cape dependencies beine Aiventina. A straight line of latitude
runs through all of these. In the northern hemisphere (excluding
the races who consume their own produce) the matmal consumption
of tea is in regions lying ao* N. and above it, but here there is an
interesting subdiviskn to be made. In the Umted Sutes of America
and Canada, in some portions of Europe and of Asia, and along the
north of Africa, there is a free use made of grten or unfermented
teas with pale, pun|;ent infusbns. The demand for sudi. as a
general rule, lies principally in lower latitudes, while the farther
north the consumer lives he seems to reciuire more of the black or
fermented tea of India. Ceykm or China, with the dark, thick,
heavy liquor its infusion produces.
Transportation, — In the eariy part of the 19th century the tea
shipped to England was destined to supply many countries, as
London was then, and until comparatively recent times, the ooaunon
warehouse and central market for the world, and England the
common carrier. Throughout that century fairly steady and
rapid progress was diown — eM>ecially in its earlier periods— in the
tride from China, which reached its maximum in 1879. And it is
here that some of the rmnance of commerce comes in. As the
trade grew in importance, the advantages of rapid transit for the
tea of new season's production began to be appreciated, and the
slow and stately progress of the old East Indiaman became mit of
date. A type of vessel, specially designed for the rapid carrying
of tea from China to England via the Cape of Good Hope, was
introduced, known as the ''^China Clipper." and the competition was
always keen as to which ship should make the most rapid passage.
This culminated in the year 1866, when nine ships sailed almost
simultaneously from Foochow. three of them crossing the bar in
company. These three were all built by the same buildera in
Greenock, and came in ahead of all the others, making the loi^
voyage of fully 16,000 m. in 99 days. They each docked in a
separate dock in London upon the same day, and all within two
hours of each other. The two leading ships had not seen each other
for 70 days and met off the Lizard, from which point they ran a
neck-and-neck race before a strong westeriy wind, with every rag
of canvas set.
The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 soon changed the course
of all trade with the East, and in a few years the sending of tea
per sailing ship round the Cape of Good Hope was a thit^ of the
past. Romance was no more, although there was extr eme compe-
tition in building; steamers with great power and Meed to land
their cargoes rapidly by the new route. This reached its height in
1882, when the S.S. '^ Stirling Castle " made the phenomenal run, for
' ose times, of 28 days from Wposung to London.
But England, which formerly supplied almost everything to her
own cofenies and to many foreign countries besides, has. finder the
modified conditions of abundant steam tonnage everywhere, become
less and less of a distributive country. Coinequetttly. direct ship-
ments are made now from the countries Of production to those of
consumption. America gets its tea laraely thioui^ its western
seaboard from China. Japan. Ceylon ana India, while not a little
is reaching it of recent veus by steamen running iUiect from those
countries via the Suez Canal to New York. The Australian demand
is fed by steamers from Calcutta and Cokunbo, with some a d ditions
direct from China and Java.
The extensive Russian ttade is now laigeiy conducted over the
Siberian railroad, and this, next to the transit to London, repre-
senu.the largest volume of Jeatcafficpasainsin^ one channeL This
route has displaced much of the protracted caravan business through
Manchuria and Mongolia. A most interesting and adventurous
episode in connexion with Russian trade was the effort repeated
over sevMal successive years by the late Captain Wlggias to convey
tea entirely by sea from Chinese ports around the North Cape and
through the Kara Sea to the Obi and Yenisei rivers. AVhen
successful, the journey, although about seven times the mileage of
the old direct caravan route, took four months instead of eighteen,
and was of course much less expensive.
The only protracted camel or mule caravan journeys remaining
in connexion with the tea trade are those in Persia and Morocco^
where the conservatism of race delays the introduction of even
whed roads, not to inentu» railways.
TEA-CADDY— TEAK
483
^ Tm A i iilm rt iii.^Ui tli« Mifler dtyt •! the tea tmitk .
tkm. eweclally prior to importation, «a» fseauent. becaiue tJi«
prices ODtainabie made it remunerative. Now. intentional adultera-
tion ii practically non^enstent, chiefly becaun of tha fact that in
the placca of productioa the prico obtainable ie id lo«r that any
poanble adulterant would be too costly to ooUtet. Moet oountikn
have a doee check upon thia at the time of fanpoctatloii, and the
cuatoma authorities in Gicat BritiUn submit to rnnafyth all samples
of a doubtful character. Impure tsaa are not p er mi tted to pMS
into oooauraption, but the quantity coodemnedf after analysia as
unfit Cor food in the year 1906 wm 41 packages, out of • total «f
"^•^^
J BtaUu-^Thm dTect of the use of tea upoo health has
been much discussed. In the days when China greta tcaa were
more used than no«r, the risks to a p ro fess i on al tca^taster were
serioas, because of the objectionable lacinf materials so often used,
la the modem days of madiin»>made black ti
British supervision, both the tea-taster and the
have to deal with a product which, if carefully converted into a
bevcfage and used in moderation, should be harmless to all normal
human beings. There has been constant oontroversy as to whether
China tea is better than that of other growths, bdt the verdict first
of an of Great Britain, and subsequently of all the other large
consuming countries, has rctegsted the produce of the Celestul
Empire to a very subordinate position. A limited aection of
medical opinkm hu recommended China tea for revons of health,
and undoubtedly the inferior strength it possesses reduces the risk
arisiog from improper use. bat it also reouces the stimulating and
comforting effects the ordinary tea«drialDer hofies to experience.
Next to water, tea is the beverage most widely in use throughout
the woild a» regards the number of its votaries as well as the total
liquki quantity consumed.
BiBLiQCRArHV.— The statistics given are taken as far as possible
from offidal returns, and where such are unavailable they have
been carefully compiled from reliable data.
The filerature of tea is very copious, iMit scattered in pamphlet
form to a areat extent. In addition to the books quoted in the
text, the fooowing maybe mentioned:— Bontekoe. TrMctat tan het
txcdUuMU Kruyd Thee n^ Hague, 1679) ; Svlvestre Dvfour, Traitis
Nouotatix et Cwitux du Cdji, iu Thi, et dn Choceiot (and ed. , Lyons,
16S8; translation of ist edition by John Chamberlayne, London.
1685; translations also in Spanish and Latin); J. C. Houssaye,
Uonopaplm du ThA (Paris. 1S43); Robert Fortune, Tl»t$ Years*
Wanurimgt t» CAiaa (London, 1847); Id., A Jwmej to (he Tea
Countries ef China (London, 1853) ; S. Ball. Tea CuUintien in China
(London. 1B48); J. J. L. L. Jacobson, Banihoek voor de Knlluur en
FabrihaUe van Thee {3 vols., i&ij) ; S. A^Sehwarekopf. Die narhoHschen
. Der Thee (Hafic, 1881); Lieut.-CTolonel E. Money,
MaMufacinre ^ Tea (3rd ed., London, 1878) ; F. T. R.
Deas, Ycunt Tea Piaater^s Companion (London, 1886). See also
pariiamentary papers and ofiidal publications of Indian government ;
Monographs on brick tea, Formosa tea and other special studies,
prepared for the Tea Cess Committaes of India and Ceylon ; Journals
of the JKoyal Asiatic Society, Joitfnoi ef the Society oJArts, Geotraphical
Journal, Tea and Cojfee Trad* Journal (New York), ftc. For
practical planting details, see Tea: its Cultivation and jltanufacture,
Dy David Crole (1897JL with a full bibliography; also Rutherford's
Planter's Handbooh. For scientfffe aspects see Chemistry and Am-
cuUnre of Tea, by M. Kelway Bamber (1893). 0- McE.)
TBA-GADDTf a box, jar, canbter or other receptacle for
tea. The word is believed to be derived from Mtfy, the Chinese
pound, equal td about a pound and a third avoirdupois. The
earliest examples that came to Europe were of Chinese porcelain,
and appnudmalcd in shape to the ginger-jar. They had lids
cr stoppers likewise of chhia, and were most frequently blue and
white. The English kilns at first imitated them, but speedily
devised forms and ornament of then* own, and there was hardly
a ceramic factozy in the country which did not compete for
the supply of the new faction. Bui tea-caddies were not for
kmig confined to pracelain or faience. They wve presently
made in a great variety of materials, and in an equal variety
of shapes. Wood, pewter,^tortoise-shell, brass, copper and
even silver were employed, but in the end the matetial most
frequently used was wood, and there still survive vast numbers
of Georgian box-shaped caddies in mahogany, rosewood, satm-
wcod and other choice timbers, often mounted In brass and
delicately Inlaid, with knobs of ivory, ebony or silver. Although
many examples were made in Holland, principally of the earthen*
war of Ddft, the finer varieties enamelled, enriched with
ciphers, and emblazoned with heraldry, the tea-caddy was a
typically English product. As the use of the jar waned and
that of the box increased, the provision of different receptacles
for green and black tea was a b ando n ed , and the wooden caddy.
vitk a Kd and « lock, was made with two imA often thrat
divisions, the centre portion being reserved for sugkr. Chippen-
dale's caddies la Louis Qulnze ftehion were deUghtful, with
thdr daw and ball feet and exquisite finish. On the whole
the nahogany or rasewood cadt^ of the Utter part of the i8th
and the early years of the 19th century was, from the artistic
point of view, the most elegant and satisfying. The wood
WBI fich and weO-maiked, the inlay simple and delicate, the
form giaoefal and uadbtrutfve. Even when it took the shape
of a minlatat saitophagos, imitated from the-maaiive wine-
cooiers of the Empire period, with little daw feet and breai
rings, it was a deddedly pleasing object. The larger varietfes
woe known ai tearchests. As tea grew cheaper it became 1cm
hnportant that it sbotdd be kept constantly under the ndsticss^
eye, and the tesrcaddy gradually fdl bte desuetude. It bu,
however, never gone entirdy oat of use, though handsome
examples an now most commonly regarded at ornaments or
preserved in collections.
TSACH (Tbatch oa Tbaoi], EDWARD (d. 1718), English
piiate, popaUriy known n Blackbeard, is believed to have
been bom at Biimot He is said to havfc gone out Co the West
Indies during the war of the Spanish Succession, to have engaged
in privateeriag, and after the declaration of peace (tyrj) to
have turned pinte, but he Is not actuaUy heard ol in this
capodty till the end of 1716. The foUowing year he captured
a large French mcrdiantman, rednistcned her " Qoeen Annels
Revenge," and converted her into a warship of forty guns. Hie
robberies and oatngcs in the Spanish main, the West Indies,
and on tha coasts o( Carolina and Virginia, quickly earned
him an infomens notoriety. He made his winter quatters in a
convenient Inlet in North Carolina, the governor ofwhkb
colony was not above sharing in the proceeds of his crimes,'
but the governor of Vixginia at last despatched two sloops,
manned fmm the Brkisb warships on the statton, to cut him
out. On the 92nd of November 171 8 Lieutenant Maynard,
commanding the attacking forces, boarded Teach's skwp, after
a sharp fight, and Umsdf shot the pirate dead. Teach seems
to bave been an ignorant ruffian. His personal appearance
was remarkable. His nickname was due to his habit of tying
up the ends of his long and bushy black beard with r»t»l)on
and anting them back over has earn. Johnson in his Ccnefd
History of thi Pyrvtes gives his name as Teach, but according
to the oi&d&l records it was really Thatdi or Thacb.
TtAiC.^ the most valuable of all known timbers. For use
hi tropical countriee it has no equal, and for certain purposes
it is prefenible to other woods in temperate climates slso. Its
price is higher than that of any ot^cr timber, except mahogany.'
Great efforts have been made to find substitutes, but no timber
has been brought to market in suflidenf quantities combining
the numy valuable qualities which teak possesses.
The first good figure and description of the tree was given
by Rheede,* the best modem picture being that given by
Bnndis.^ The younger Linnaeus called it Tectona grandis. It
is a large dedduous tree, of the natural order Verbenaceae,
with a tall, straight but often buttressed stem, a spreading
crown, and the hranchlcts four-sided with large quadrangular
pith. It is a native of the Indian peninsula, Burma and Siam,
and is also found in the Philippine Islands, in Java and dsd*
where m the Malay Archipelago. In India proper Its northern
limit is 24^ 40' on the west side of the Aravalli HOls, and in
the centre, near Jhansi, in 25° 30' N. Ut. In Burma it extends
*The Sanskrit name of teak is saha, and it is certain that In
India teak has been known and used largely for considerably more
than woo yean. In Persia teak was used nearly 2000 years ago,
and the town of Siraf on the Persian Gulf was entirely built of it.
Saj is the name in Arabic and Persian: and in Hindi, Mahraut and
the other modern languages derived from Sanskrit the tree is called
sag, safwan. In the Dravidian languages the name is teka, and the
Portuguese, adopting this, called it tehe, teea, whence the English
* The rate in the London market since i860 has fluctuated be*
tween £10 and /20 per load of 50 cub. ft.
* Hortus Malahancus, vol. iv. tab. 37. 1683.
* forest Flora ^ Soeth-Weu and Central India, Itt. t- ^
484.
TEAK
to near Myitkyina, in bt. 15" jo'. In Be&giJ or Assam it is
not indigenous, but planutions have been formed in Assam
as far as the 37th parallel. In the Punjab it is grown in gardens
to the 3 and.
Teak requires a dry tropical climate, and the most important
forests are found in those districts of India where, during the
summer months, heavy rains are brought by the south-west
monsoon, the winter months being nearly rainless. In the
interior of the Indian peninsula, where the mean annual rain*
fall is less than 30 in., teak is more scarce, and it thrives
best with a mean annual fall of more than 50 in. The
mean annual temperature which suits it best lies between 7^
and Si'* Fahr. Near the coast the tree is absent, and inland
the most valuable forests are on low hills up to 3000 ft. It
grows on a great variety of soils, but there is one indispensable
condition— perfect drainage or a dr^- subsoil. On level ground,
with deep alluvial soil, teak does not always form regularly
shaped stems, probably because the subsoil drainage is imperfect.
During the dry season the tree is lca6ess; in hot localities
the leaves fall in January, but in moist places the tree remains
green till March. At the end of the dry season, when the first
monsoon rains fall, the fresh foliage comes out. The leaves,
which stand opposite, or only whorled in very young specimens,
are from i to 2 ft. in length and from 6 to 12 in. in breadth.
On coppice shoots the leaves are much larger, and not rarely
from a to 3 ft. long. In shape they somfewhat resemble those
of the tobacco plant, but their substance is hard and the surface
rough. The small white flowers are very numerous, on large
erect cross-branched panicles, which terminate the branches.
They appear during the rains, generally in July and August,
and the seed ripens in the succeeding January and February.
On the east side of the Indian peninsula, the teak flowers during
the rains in October and November. In Java the plantations
are leafless in September, while during March and April, after
the rains have commenced, they are clothed with foliage and
the flowers open. During the rainy season the tree is readily
recognised at a considerable distance by the whitish flower
panicles, which overtop the green foliage, and during the dry
season the feathery seed-bearing panicles distinguish it from
its associates. The small oily seeds are enclosed in a hard,
bony, x-4-celled nut, which is surrounded by a thick covering,
consisting of a dense felt of matted hairs. The. fruit thus
formed b further enclosed in the enlarged membranous calyx,
in appearance like an irregularly plaited or crumpled bladtkr.
The tree seeds freely every year, but its spread by means of
self-sown seed is impeded by the forest fires of the dry season,
which in India generally occur in March and April, after the
seeds have ripened and have partly fallen. Of \he seeds which
escape, numbers are washed down the hills by the first heavy
rains of the monsoon. These collect in the valleys, and it is
here that groups of seedlings and young trees are frequently
found. A portion of the seed remains on the tree; this falls
gradually sJfter the rains have commenced, «nd thus escapes
the fires of the hot season. The germination of the seed is
slow and uncertain; a large amount of moisture is needed to
saturate the spongy covering; many seeds do not germinate
until the second or third year, and many do not germinate at
all. Where the teak tree is associated with dense clumps of
bamboo, natural reproduction is almost absent, except when
the bamboo flowers and dies, and even then, if the dry bamboos
and the resultant bamboo seedlings are not burnt, such young
teak as may germinate are likely to be smothered at once.
The bark of the stem is about half an inch thick, grey or
brownish grey, the sapwood white; the heartwood of the
green tree has a pleasant and strong aromatic fragrance and
a beautiful golden-yellow colour, which on seasoning soon
darkens into brown, mottled with darker streaks. The timber
retains its aromatic fragrance to ^ great age. On a transverse
section the wood is marked by large pores, which are more
numerous and larger in the spring wood, or the Inner bell of
each annual rins. while they are less numerous and smaller in
the autumr ^\ In this manner the growth of
each successive yew is marked in the wood, and the age of a
tree may be determined by counting the annual rings.
The principal value of teak timber for use in warm countries it
its extraordinary durability. In India and in Burma beams of the
wood in good preservation are often found in buildings sevml
centuries old, and ittstances are known of teak beams hainng lasted
more than a thousand years.' Being one of the most durable of
Indian timbers, teak haui always been used for buUdings, particu-
lariy for temples, and in India it has been the chief timber emptied
for shipbuilding. When iron commenced to be cateosivd^ used
for the last-named purpose, it was supposed that the demand for
teak would decrease. This, however, was not the case, for the wood
was for long very largely used in shipbuilding* and though its
employmem in war-vessels has diminishied. it is stEl in very great
demand for " liners " and similar ships. It is also used for furni-
ture, for door and window frames, for the constructioa of railway
carriages, and for many other purposes. White ants cat the sap-
wood, but rarely attack the heartwood of teak. It is not. however,
Teak iTectom pondis),
proof against the borings of the teredo, from whose attacks the teak
piles otthe wharves in the Rangoon river have to be protected by
a sheathing of meul.
Once seasoned, teak timber does not split, crack, shrink, or
alter its shape. In these aualities it is superior to most timbers.
In contact with iron, neither the iron nor the teak suffers, and
in this respect it is far superior to oak. It a imt very hard, is
easily worked, and takes a beautiful polish. It has great elasticity
and strength, and is not very heavy. The average weight of
pcriectly seasoned wood fluctuates between 38 and 46 R> per cub.
ft.* Its weight, therefore, is a little less than that of EngPish
oak. Green teak timber, however, is heavier than water, so that.
* In one of the oldest buildings among the ruins of the old eity of
Vijayanagar. on the banks of the Ti^ngabhadra in southern India,
the superstructure is supported b^ planks of teakwood i| in.
thick. These planks were examined in 1881 ; they were in a good
state of preservation and showed the peculiar structure of teak
timbor in a very marked manner. They had been in the buHd-
ina for 500 years {Ittdian Forester^ viL 260). In the wall of a
palace of the Persian kings near Bagdad, which was pillaged in the
7th century, two .\mericans found in 181 1 pieces of Indbn teak
which were perfectly sound (Ousclcy. Travels in Varions Countries
of tki East. ii. aSo, n. 67). In the old cave temples of Sal-
sette and elsewhere in western India pieces of teak have beea
found in good pieservation which must have been more than 2000
yearn old.
* At 448 lb per cub. ft. a load of 50 cub. ft. wrinhs a ton
(2240 fl>). hence in the Burma ports a ton of> teak timber b taken
as c9uK«knt «• a load of 50 cuu ft.
TEAK
485
■iilec»t]iafDiicblyMMoned.chei«Dodc»iiixitbeflMted. la ^ ,
therefore, where the rivers are used to Boat the timber to the tea-
ports, the method of seasoning teak by girdling has been practised
from time inuncmorial. Girdling oonsuts In making a deep circular
cut through bark and a^p Inio the haartinod. ao as oooiplecdy to
sever conununicattoo between baric and sapvood above mod bdow
the cut. In teak, as in oak and other trees with wcU-marked
beartwood. the cirrubtion of the sap only takes place in the sap-
wood, and the girdled tree therefore dies after a few days if tne
operation has been cfleotttally performed. But if even tbe smaUcat
band of sapwood is left coanectiog the outer layers of wood above
and bdow the girdle, the tree is not killed, and often recovers
oompleteiy. The girdled tree U allowed to stand one or two yearl.
and longer if a very large^aed tree. Being exposed to the wind
and to the action of the sun. the timber of a einfled tree seaasas
more rapidly and acn oompleteiy than that oT a tree fellod giff n.
The teak produced ia tbe presidencies of Madras and Bombay and
in the Central Provinces is as a rule felled green, and even when
dry it ge n erall y b a little heavier than the timber from Barfna.*
For a long time tocooM; the rivers of fiunna and Siani will continue
to afford the roost oonveaient and most economical routes for the
extraction of teak timber from those countries. Indeed, tbe foresta
drained by the Salwin and its feeders ate not likely ever to be
worked otherwise than on tbe present plan, under wliich the log%
are floated singly over the nspids and are caught and rafted lower
down, at tbe kyodan or rope sutioo, 70 mHea above Monbnttn.
As already mentioned, teakwood contains an aromatic oil, which
pvcs it a peculiarly pleasant smell an^ an oily surface when fresh
cot. To this oil may probably with jostice be ascribed Its great
durability* In Banna the oil is extacted from the tindier on a
anall acaJe, to be used fornediciaal pwpoeai. by filling an eaithea
pot, which is placed invested upon anotber, with chips erf wood,
and putting fire round it, upon which the oil runs down into tbe
bwerveuM. . .
AcoMding to the eoloar and texture of the iwood, several varieties
of teak are distingttlslied in India. Burma and Java; in the tinber
trade, however, these distinaions are of no importance Teak, as
old
metl as other trees, when standing isolated, forms aide branches
far down the stem, and the wood of such trees is more knotiy and
wavy, and genenlly heavier and darfcerwcokMKed than that oT
trees which have crown ckMa together in a dense iorttU Apart
from the manner la which the tree had jrowo up in tl|e forest*
soil, clex-atton and climate have a great influence upon the gram
and the mechanical qualities of teak as of other timbers. Most of
the larger fegs brought to market have an Irregular cracle* or hollow
ia the centre, vhlob canunenna at the butt aad oiten runs up a
k»ne way. There is little doubt that this ia generally due to tbe
action <» the fires, which scorch and often destroy the bark of
young trees. Such external Injuries are apt to induce decay in the
wood. Mocwovar, most teak scedlines whkJi come op naturally
aic cut down to the ground by tbe fisea of the hot aearon; sobm
are killed, but maiiy sprout again during the lains, and this is
generally repeated year after year, until a sapling is produced
strong enough to ootlive the fire. Such saplings have a very large
pith, which dries up, caosing a hollow in ibehenfti or a piece of
the old shoot killed by the fire is enckwed by the new wood, aad
this aboia apt tojgive rise to a hollow. .... *. ..^
Tbe leaves of the teak tree contain a red dye, which, m Malabar
was formerly used to dye silk and cotton. Natives of Burma use
the leaves as pbtea, to wrap up parceb, and for thatching.
In ita yonta the tne graaa with extreme rapidity. Two.year>
i seedliitts on good aod are 5 to 10 ft. hish, aad insuaoes of
more rapiogrowtQ are not uncommon. In the plantations which
have been made since 1856 in Burma, the teak has on good soil
attained an average height ci to ft. in 15 yeare, with a girth,
breast Mgh« of 19 ia. TTUa ia bsSweni i6- and- 18' N. lat^
with a mean annual temperature of 78* F. and a rainiall of
100 In. In the Burma plantations it is estimated that the tree
win. under favourable circumstances, atuin a diameter of 34 !n.
(girth 7» in.) at the age of 8a Timber of that siae Is market-
aMe, but the tiasbcr of the natoial foresU whkh ia at peaeat
brought to market in Burma has grown pnach neie skiwiy. the
chief reason being the annual forest fires» which harden and im-
poverish the soil. In the natural forests of Burma and India teak
timber with a diameter of 24 in- i« never less than 100 and
often more than mo years okl. In future, the timber grown in
planUtkNis and in foresta under ttgular mnageaent psy be «»
pccted to be much faster grown; and there is no ground for antici;
pating that rapidly grown timber will be less valuable than that of
slow growth, which is at present bronght to market.
Uke tbe other trees oC tbe diy deciduous foiast, teak dees not
attain any cxtiaosdinary sise. The trees an not genenfly, iiwre
fKa t ^ too to 150 ft. high* even under the most favourable circum-
stances, and stems more than 100 ft. to the first branch are not
often found. Exceptwnally tall trees were measured in 1861 in
the Gwaythay'fenM ia ^u, east of the Sitang river, on gnctss.
s It has been erroneously stated that the tree in Burma b tapped
foriuotfbefonieiliog.
Ik steals bad n6 to 114 ft to tbe firm, bniwb, with a girth,
1 6 ft. off the ground, from 7 to 16 ft. Larger girths, up to 35 ft«.
Thai
at 4
an not t
The teak tire does not usually form pure forests. It b assocbted
with bamboos and with a great variety of other trees, which have
btlle market vaiuti aad, as a nib. thrives best in such company.
Haace ia tbe ptoatations established ia Bunaa the object has beea
to raise forasu of teak mixed with bamboos and other trees.
Most of the teak timber produced in Indb b used in the Gpuntry.
Tbe produce of the forests of Trtvancore, Cochin, the Madras
prsaifdency. Cooig. Mysere^ Bombay. Bersr and the Central Pro*
vittcea b all ro mnsiiined. Fonneriy there was a coasidcnbW
export from th^ poru of the western coast — Malabbr. Kanara.
Surat and Broach—but the country at present requires all the
teak which its forests can produce; indeed the demand b in excesk
of the sttpply, and considetable Quantities are imported from
Burma to Cakutu, Madras, Bombay and other Indian ports.
Small quantities are still exported from the ports of the western
coast to Arabb and the coast of Africa. The chief export is from
Banaa, nrincipally from Raqgoon and Moulmein. Of the other
teak-producing countries. Java exports a littk: there have aba
been exports from Saigon; and since 1882 Bangkok has sent oon-
uderable quantities to Europe. But the Burma coast b the chief
source of supply at present. Rangoon was for a long time an
important place for shipbuikling, teak being the chief timber tned;
between 1786 and 1825 iii European vessels were built at Rangooa«
aggregating 3SA00 tons. At the same time timber was exported,
and, when the country was taken by the British in 1852. teak w^
the chief article of export. Moulmein became Britbh territory at
the dose of the first Burmese war in 1826. At that time the place
was a lane Ashing viUage, and it was mainly through the export
of teak timber and the ahipbuikiing trade that it attained its
present importance. From 1829 to 1841 upwards of 50.000 loads
of teak tirouer were exported, and, in addition. 68 vessels were built
during that period, aggregating 15^680 tons, and estimated to have
nsquired for their construction 24,000 l^ads of teak timber. The
forests from which Moulmein first derived hs supplies are situated
on the Attaran river, a feeder of the Salwin. In 1836, however,
timber began to come down from more distant forests, and ia 184I
one-fourth only of the supply was brought from the Attaran forests.
Tbe inerean in the expect of timber from the Boraia poru was
slow at -firat, b^t has gone on npidly since Rangoon became a
British port. Suice that time tbe timber brought to the Burma
ports has come from the following sources: — (i) from the forests
in the British coast provinces, Pegu and Tenasserim: (2) from the
forests ia the former kiittdom of Burma, Boated to Rangoon down
the Sitang and-Irmwaddy rivers; (3) from the forests in the Shan
sUtes formerly^ tributary to Burma, .from the Karenni couati^«
aAd from western Sbm, whence it b floated to Moulmein by the
Salwin river.
The following taUe shows the figam of the imports and exports
of British India for tbe yeais 1901-a to iqq5-6>-
i.^
^ 1
Ciib.T<n.
ValwlU
CukTmis.
Yifaa&i.
I90i>a
1900-3....
17.842
3^.081
6i!696
42^6.190
w, 1 7,331
60.71.557
60.671
57,5<»
73.913
46^12
52.768
44,202
9145.605
60,05483
7041^660
61,48,291
Average.. 44.*33
38.98,48^
-£259,899
55.994
-^iSIJt
Nearly the whole of the iaqnrts caste f ron Sian, aad of tbe ex-
porU iour-fifths were from Burma. Tbe babaoe ef the imporu
consbted of timber from Java, that of the exports of supplies sent
from peninsubr ports. Two-thirds of the exports went to the
United Kingdom, the other chwf markeu being ordinarily Germany.
Ceylaa and Australia. The recent great inocase ia the fencml
teakwood trade b evidenced by tbe fact that tbe imports increased
in six years from 17.842 tons to 61.696 tons. But it b noticeable
that, whereas in 1901-9 the timber exported very brgely exceeded
tbe imports, in 1909*^ and 1906-7 the imparts were biger than
the exports, evklence of the mat ncrease in Indian demand fbt
tMk timber: and, in all probability, of the steady regular outturn
of the Indian forests, in comparison with increased imports from
Sbm, where the forests are not, Uke those in Burma, under regular
woHihig pbn. desqpied to give a permanent annual yield and avoid
any danger of exhaustion of tbe forests. . . . .^ ,.
In Bntbb India. iodudu« Burma, a largeportipn of tbe teak,
producing trects have since 1856 been jAaxxd under conservancy
management with the object ofpreventm^ overcutting and main-
taining a permanent and gradnaOy increasing supply. This b the
object of tbe workii^ plaas nfsrred tiK Tbe.aica «f ttak fosest
486
TEAL— TEAR
available in India aod Burma n coanderable, and cw«ry endeavour it
made to conserve it and increase ita production. Similar measwes
have be<!n taken in Sum under the advice of officers borrowed from
Britiah India t and in the teak-produdng native 8tat» in the
peninsula the necessity for careful management is now ««U andcr-
Btood. The teak planutions in Java bid come into bearing bv
1908 and it was expected that the teak areas in the Philipirine lauani
would be similarly developed. {D^ Br. ; J. S. Ga.)
TEAL (O.E. kU), a variety of duck, whose name is of on-
oertain origin, but dpubtless cognate with the Dutch Talin^
(formerly T<^in^ and Telingk), and this apparently with the
Scandinavian AtUling-And (Brttnnich, OmithU. Borealis, p. x8)
and AUing. It seems impossible not to connect the latter with
the Scottish AUeile or ASteal, to be found in many old records,
though this last word (however it be spdt) is generally used in
conjunction with teal, as if to mean a different kind of bird}
and commentaton have shown a marvellous ineptitude in
surmising what that bird was.
The Teal is tht Anas crecea of linnaeus, NeUion cread of
modern orpithology, and the smallest of the European Analidatt
as lyell as one of the jnost abundant and highly esteemed for
the table. It breeds in many parts of the Britidi Islands,
making its nest in t>hices very like those chosen by the 'Wild
Duck, A. hoscas\ but there is no doubt that by far the greater
number of those that are taken in decoys, or are shot, during
the autumn and winter are of foreign origin. While the female
presents the usual inconspicuous mottled plumage of the same
sex m most species of AnatinaCf the male is one of the hand-
somest of his kind. His deep chestnut head and throat, are
diversified on either side by a hne of buff, which, springing from
the gape, runs upward to the eye, in front of which it forms a
fork, one prong passing backward above and the other below,
enclosing a dark glossy-green patch, and both losing themsdves
in the elongated feathers of the hind-head and nape. The back
and sides of tlM body appear to be grey, an effect produced
by delicate transverse pendllings of black on a dull white
ground. The outer lanceolate scapulars have one-half of their
webs pure white, forming a conspicuous stripe along the side
of the back. The breast is of a pale salmon or peach-blossom
colour, each feather in front bearing a roundish dark spot,, but
these spots lessen in number and size lower down, and the warm
tinl passes into white on the belly. The tail coverts above and
below are velvety black, but those at the side tut pale otfange.
The teal inhabits almost the whole of Europe and Asia, —
from Iceland to Japan,-*in winter' visiting Northern Africa and
India. It occasionally occurs on the western shores of the
Atlantic; but its place. in North America Is taken by its repre-
sentative, A. carolintnsis, the male of which is easily to ,be
recognized by* the absence of the upper buff line on the side of
the head and of the white scapular stripe, while he presents a
whitish crescentic bar en the sides of the lower neck jiist in
front of the wings.
Species more or less allied to these, two are found in most
other parts of the worid, ^nd. among such spedes are some (for
instance, the N. gibberiftons of the Auatialiaa region) in which
the male wears the same inconspicuous plumage as the female.
But the deteimination of the birds which should be technically
considered " Teals," and belong to the genus NeUicn^ as disthi-
guished.from other groups of Anatinaej is a task not yet success-
fully attempted, and much . confusion has been caused by
associating with them such species as the Garganey (q.v,) and
{ts allies of the group Querquedula, Others again have not yet
been discriminated from the Wigeons (0.9.), the Pintail-Ducks^
Xkifilat or even Xrom the typical form of Anas (see Ducx), into
each oif which genfera the Teals seem to pass without any great
break. In ordinary talk '' Teal " seems to stand for any buck-
like bird of smiU size, and in .that sense the word is often applied
to the members of the genus NtUcpus, though some systematists
will have it that they are pioperly Geese. In the same loose
sense the word is ofun applied to the two most beautiful of
the family Anatidae, belonging to the genus Aex (commonly
misspelt Aix) — the (TaroUoa Duck of North America, Ae, spousa
(pet to be oonfounded with the above-named Amu tarolineniia
or NeltUm citrolinense), and the Mandarin-Dude of China,
Ae. galcriculaia. Hardly less showy than these are the two
species of the subgenus EmeUa.—ihs Falcated Duck, £. jalcaic^
and the Saikal.Teal, £. /orMexa,— 'both from Eastern A^a, btit
occasionally appearing in Europe. Some British authors have
referred to the latter of these well-marked species certain
Ducks that from time to time occur, but they are doubtless
hybrids, though the secret of their parentage may be tin-
known; and in this way a so-caHed Bhnaculated Duck, Anas
UmaculaUit was for many years erroneously admitted as a
good spedes to the British list, but of late this has been
properly discarded.. (A. N.)
TBAnO (aac. Teanum Sidicinum)^ a town of Campania,
Italy, m the province of Caserta, 21 m. N.W. of that town
on the main line to Rome from Naples* forming conjointly
with Calvi an episcopal see. Pop. (1961) 6067 (town); 13,505
(commune). It stands at the S.E. foot of an extinct volcano.
Rocca Monfina (3397 ft.), 643 ft. above sea-level. The cathedral
dates from 153O1 hut has many columns obtained from the
ruins of the ancient town. There is a feudal castle built by
the dukes of Sessa in the X5th century. Below the town on
the S.E. is the old church pf S. Paride.
The ancient Teanum Sididnum (there is a Teanum Apn1um|
9.V., in ApuHa) was the capital of the Oacan tril}e of the Sidicini
which drove the Aurund from Rocca Monfina. They probably
submitted to Rome in 334 b.q. and thdr troops were grouped
with those of Campania in the Roman army, llius the garrison
ol Regium, which in 280 attacked the dtixens, consisted of one
cohort of Sididni and two of Campanians. Like Cales, Teanum
continued to have the right of coinage, and, like Suessa and
Cales, renuuned faithful to Rome in both the Hannibalic aiMi
the Sodal wars. Its position gave it some military importance,
and it was apparently made a colony by Claudius, not by
Augustus. Strabo Speaks Of it as the most important 'town
on the Via Latina, and only coming after Capua among the
towns in the interior of Campania. It lay 00 the Via Latina,
here joined by a branch road from Suessa, of which remains
still exist, and which continued E. to Allifae. Remains of a
theatre and an amphitheatre still exist, and some extensive
ba*:h8, containing several statues, and some Romaa dwellings,
both some way hdow the modem town, were excavated in
1908. A tomb with a Christian mosaic representing the visit
of the three kings to Bethlehem was found in 1007 (V. Spin-
azzola in Notym de^i Scari, 1907, 697; £. Gabrid, ib^.,
X908, 399).
TEANUM AFULUV. an andent town of ApnUa, Ita^r, on
the road between Larimmi and Sipontum, x8 m. £. of the
former, at the crossing of the Fortore near the modem village
of S. Paolo di CIvitate. It was called Teste in earlier times,
as appears from its numerous coins, which have Oscxa legends.
It submitted to Rome m 318 B.c, bdng then the chief town
of Apulia. It was afterwards known as Teanum Apulum, and
was a mnnkipium. Some ruins and an dd bridge over the
Fortore still exist.
TBA-POT (Hindustani iipHi)* A small table, supported upon
a tiipod, or even upon four legs, fur holding a tea-service or
an urn. The word was also sometimes applied to a large porce>
lain or earthenware tea-caddy, and more frequently to the
small bottles, often of Battersca enamel, which fitted into
reccptades in the caddy and actually contained the tea.
TBAR. a drop of the liquid secretion of the lachrymal gland,
constantly piodnced in a certain quantity and flowiR£ through
the nasal duct without noUce, but, when stimulated by pain,
emotion or artificial exdtation, increasing so that it flows
over the eyelids, and runs down the cheeks and is the visible
resttlt of crying or weeping (see Eye). The O.E tedr, teer^ is
represented m other Teutonic languages by Dan. loof; Swed.
td^r; C^th. tagr, &c. The O.U.G. was takar; the mod. Ccr.
ZSJur^ was formed from the IAMXj* phiral Zaktre, The com-
moner word in Gei. Thrdm^ dL Du. iroow, is ddsely aUied.
The original root is seen in Gr. d&xpv, LaL lacrma, laerums,
for daoruma, whence Fr. larme, and It., Sp.« sad Fort la^ma.
TEASEL— TECHNICAL EDUCATION
4«7
Tte BBDtniOjjr aertpUd IndMkm. root bio**, to bite, of. <Sc
UMm», and Skft. d^, to bite, tears being " biting " or " bitter "
tbinff. Ibe DvJ'Inan, in the eenae of tcar-dnp^ «ru perti*
cuUrly applied to tbe blubber of wbales reduced to oU by
boOiiig, whcaoe has cobm the tautological English " tialn'oa,"
often identlfiort inth tbe lubdcant used for the vfaeeis of rail»
iray trains. For tbe so-called " tearvveaids," which arc pro*
pcrly maU vaics pmtfatmng unguents, ore lacftncaxoiKy.
** Tear " (OJB. tttmn), to foll apart vfoteatly, to ff«iid, b, of course,
a distfaiet iracd; it is oogoatc with Or. Hp«^. ro ftay. ouU eff, and
tbe root b seen in Gr. Uftim, sldo, whcaoe "deaaatolqgy," " epi-
dermis, cbc*
TBASBL Wild tessd b a common pkat of tbe Enfelbh
copses and hedges, with a taU, stout, rigid, prickly atem, bearing
bfve spreading opposite baves, tbe nddrib of wbkb b prickly,
and conspicuous <4AoDg beads, the purplbh flowers in which
are subtended by ve^ long, narrow, stifi, upright brscts. The
plant b kAOWB botanicaUy as Di^sacus tylwntrit. ■ Fuibr's
teasel, D. F uU c mm , m which tbe bracts are booked, b probably
a cultivated form of the wild species; the dry heads are used
Id comb^ up the nap on doth. The genus Qipsaems pves its
name to the family J)ipsaeta€, to which abo behmgs the Scabious
(SmMoto), sepiosented in Britain by several impedes.
TBATB ■ABRUC11I0B1I1I (mod. CUeti, « a], the chid
town of the ilamidni, the wbobof whoso terx^oey was placed
under iu munidpal jurisdiction by the Romans, after the
'* Social War.". It was thus a town of some importance.
Under tbe church of SS. Fietroe Paolo and the adjoining bouses
are extensive aubstructttrca (in oput rtUailahun and brickwork)
of tbe rst oentuiy A.D., bdonging to a building erected fay
M. Vectkis BAarcdhis (probably mentioned by Fbny, H.JV.,
U., 199} and Hdvidb FrisdUa. These are abo remains of
brge reservoirs and of a tbeatne.
TBBUtA (the Roman Thevcste), a town of Algeria in tbe
department of Constantme, 146 m. $.£« of Bona by rail and
IS m. W. of the Tunisian frontier, on a pbteaa 0950 ft. above
the sea. ftip. (1906) sftu The modem town, which is
within the waUs of the Byatntine dtadci, boasta nothing of
interest save a church built out of the ancient ruins. The
Byzantine walb, pbroed by three gates, are in tolerable pre-
scrvation. They are atreagthened by numereua square loweis.
One of the gatea b formed by the quadrifrontal arch of Cars-
calla, a rare form of oonatnictbn. The arch, erected about
AJ». 312, b In good preservation.. A pair of nMoolithic ooktains,
dbengaged, flank each' facade. An iaacription on the frieae
gives the faiitory of its -construction; It was built by two
brothers as a condition of inheritlag the property of a third
bcolher. The most important nans are these of the great
bssilica.' Tfab building, one of the finest Roman monuments
in Algeria, beers evidence of having been buife at various
epochs; the eariier portioos probably date from not btcr
than the beginning of the snd century aj>. The basOica was
partblly destroyed by the Berbers la the 5th century, end
was rebuilt in a.d. 555 by the Bysantine general Solomon,
who surrounded it with a waH about as bet high, still standing.
The main building, consbting of a nave with apsidal end and
two Msies, was approached through a peristyle, «4ikh was
sarrouaded by an arcade. Mhny of the coluoms of tbe basilica
have fatten, but the bases of all are In their original posilioM.
A quaCicfoil chapd on the •east aide of the bariliea b a Byzantine
addition. The tessdUted pavement whkh oovers the basilica
proper b In almost perfect condition. It b kept covered, for
purposes of preservation, by a byer of earth. Neat the basilica
(and within the same enclosing walb) atethe ruins of the forum,
oonveitcd Into a monastery In the 4th or 5th century, and
legarded by Sir R. Lambert PbyfaIr as the oldest known
example of the monasterh 4mc»um. The whok of the
basilica and its dependendes have been cleared and are kept
in order by Che Strtke ie$ Metfumenti kishriqiies, the prindpal
work having been acromi^bhed by H^on de Vfllefotse Note-
worthy among the boildingi witMn the andent dtadd b a
small tettastyb temple, variously ascribed to Jupiter and
MmervB, the poftieo suppdHed by six nonolkhk cohams of
dppoUne, four bdag in front. After the French occupatioo
in 184a, the building was used successivdy as a soap factory,
a prison, a canteen, a parish church, and, lastly, as a museum.
Theveste wss founded towards the dose of the xst century
A.D. in the sucosedfaig century it was connected with Caithage
by a great highway. In the sth centuiy, under Vandal
dominion, it dediaed fat importance. Refounded by tbe
Bynntines iki the 6th ceatuiy, the dty disappeared ' from
history at the time of the Arab conquest of the couniiy in the
7th century. In the 16th century tbe Turks pbced a small
gairison «f janissaries in the place, but Tebessa continued to
be but a small viUage until the establishment of Frendi itele.
Nine miles from Tebessa are the extensive phosphate quaxrltt
Of Jebd Dyr, where b also an Interesting megalithic vllbge.
See Sir R. Lambert Pfaylatr, Handbook Jbr ThneOen in Aigeria
mnd Tunit (London. 1895), ppw S33-n40, Cutdes'Jcanns, Algtru 4t
Tuniaie (Pans, 1906).
TBCHmCAL EDOCAnOil. The ferm now generally "adopted
to designate the special training of persons in the arts and
sdences that underlie the practice of some trade or ^ .
profession, b called *' tedinical education.'* Schoob Smoq?
in which thb training b provided are known as technical
tehools. In Its widest sense, technical education embraces all kinds
of instruction that have (firect reference to the career a person b
following or preparing to follow; but it b usual and convenient
to reatrict the term to the spedal training which helps to quaUfy
a person to engage in some branch of productive industry,
and the instruction so provided is generally known as ^ techno>
logical instruaion." Thb specialized, education may consist
of the expbnation of the processes concerned in production,
or of instruction in art or sdence in its rebtton to industry,
but it may also indude the acquisition of the manual skfll wUdi
production necessitates.
The terms ** technical " and "technological" (Gr. it^,
an or craft) as applied to education, arose from the necessity
of finding words to indicate the spedal training which was
needed in consequence of the altered conditions of productba
during tbe t9th century. Whibt the changed conditbns of
production, consequent mainly on the application of steam
power to machinery, demanded a spedal training for those
who were to be engaged in productive industry, the prevalent
system of education was not adapted to the requirements of
these persons, and schoob were wanted in which the necessary
instruction could be obtained. Other drcumsUncts resulting
mainly from the application of steam power to
madiinery rendered technical education necessary.
Production on a brge scale led to a great extension __
of the principle of the divi^on of bbour, in conse- JJJjJ*
quence of which it was found economical to keep a man
constantly engaged at the same kind of work, since tbe more he
practised it the quicker and more skilful he became. Thua
empteycd, the workman learned little or nothing of the process
of the manufacture at which he assisted, or of other departments
of the work than the particular one in which he was en^ged,
and his only opportunity of acquiring such knowledge was
outside the workshop or factory in a technical school. The
economy effeded by the divbion of Ubour led to the exten-
sion of the prindple to other industries than those in which
machinery b largely employed. There are many trades in
which manual skill is as necessary now as ever, but- even in
these the methods of instruction prevailing under the old
system of apprenticeship are now almost obsolete.
In many industries, induding trades in which machinery is
not as yet extensivdy employed, production on a brge scale
has fncreased tbe demand for unskilled labour,
numbers of hands bdng required to prepare the work
to be finished by a few skilled artisans. Rapidity of
execution is attained by keeping a workman at the same woA,
which after a time he succeeds in mechanically performing and
continues to do until some machine b invented to take hb
pbce. fir most trades, as formerly practised, the master
486
TECHNICAL EDUCATION
emfiloyed a Um apprentices who taaisted him in his wock, and
who learnt iiom htm to understand the details oC their craft,
so that, when the term of their apprenticeship was over» they
were competent to practise as journeymen. But now the
roaster frequently has neither time nor oppoitiinity to instruct
young kds, and the old relation of master <and apprentice is
changed into that of manufacturer and workman. In conse-
quence of these altered relations between employer and em-
ploy«l, there has arisen an acknowledged want of properly
trained workmen in a number of trades in which skilful hand
work is still needed; and in these trades a demand has arisen
for technical schools, or some other substitute for what was
formerly done by apprenticeship, as < means of suitably train-
ing workmen and foremen. Tlie ever-increasing competiUon
in production has led to the employment, in many trades, o{
children to do work of a merhaniral kind requiring little skill;
but, whilst thus employed, these young people have little oppor*
tunity of learning those parts of their trade in which skill and
special knowledge are needed; and when th^ are gnNm up,
and seek higher wages, they are dismissed to make room for
other children. Numbers of young people are thus thrown
Upon the labour market, swelling the percentage of the un-
employed, who are competent to do nothing more than
children's work, and to earn children's wages, and who know
no trade to which they can apply their hands. Ta remedy this,
by creating some sul»titute for the old apprenticeship, is one
of the objects of a system of technical education; though in
suitable trades an independent movement for reviving ap-
prenticeship iq.v.) under improved conditions has also tnade
some way.
A complete system of technical education shbuld provide
the necessary instruction for the different classes of persons
engaged in productive industry. It b. usual to divide these
persons into three classes: — (i) workmen or journeymen;
(a) foremen or overseers; C3) managers or masters.
Ilie industries in whidi they afe-employcd may be grouped
under four heads: — (x) those involving Uie use of extensive
machinery, such as iron and steel manufacture,
machine-making, the textile industries, and some of
the chemical trades; (a) those which mainly require
the use of hand tools, as cabinet-making, brick-work,
plumbing, and tailoring; (3) those depending on artistic skill,
as wood and stone carving, metal-chasing, enamelling, 4e«
corative work, and industrial designing generally; (4) agri-
culture in all its branches, and forestry, lliese industries will
'he referred to as manufactures, handicrafts, art industries
and agriculture. The foregoing classification comprises groups
which necessarily, to some extent, overlap one another. Every
factory contains a carpenter's and smith's shop, and handi-
craftsmen of group (2) are required in every manufacturing
concern. Whilst the industries in which band labour is ex-
clusively employed are becoming fewer and fewer, there are
many trades which, owing to the frequent invention of labour-
saving appliances, are passing gradually from the class of
handicrafts to that of manufactiires. In these trades, of
which watch- and dock-making and boot- and shoe-making
may be taken as examples, there is still a demand for goods
largely if not entirely produced by hand work. In such trades,
pwing to the absence of facilities for instruction in the ordinary
shops^ there is a want of skilled hand labour which there is
an increasing difficulty in satisfying, and to supply this want
technical schools of different kinds have been established.
Then, again, there are many branches of manufacturing in-
dustry which greatly depend for their success upon the de-
signer's art, and it is necessary that the industrial designer
should possess a knowledge of the processes of the manufacture
in which his designs will be utilized, as wdl as of the properties
and capabilities of the material to which they will be applied.
Indeed, it is the possession of this knowledge which mainly
distinguishes the industrial designer from the ordinary artist.
To determine the best training for such designers is one of
the problems of technical education. There are many trades.
toe, in which the handicnftsman uul ibe diatgner dmdd be
united. This is the case in aach industries as silvatsmith's
and goldsmith's work. In these and other trades the true
artisan is the artist and handicraftaman combined.
«In order to reconcile some of the different views which are
held as to the objecta of technical education, it is aeoeasary to
keep in mind the broad distinction, above xefeited to, j^^
betweien the oonditioDs of ptoduccioaon a laige scale,
as in those industries in which goods are manufao-
tured by the use of extensive labour-eaving machinery^
and in those trades in which hand work is chiefly emplo^-cd.
Much of the diversity of opinion regarding the objects of tech-
nical education is due to the dlAerenee of standpoint from which
the problem is regarded. The volume of the trade and coiiHBerce
of Britain depends mainly on the progress of Ua manufacturing
industries. It is these which chiefly affect the espoita and im-
ports. The aim of manufactureia is to produce chesfier and
better goods than can be produced by other nlanulaictureis at
home or abroad; and technical education is valsable to ihem, in
so far as it enables them to do so. It also helps to widen the
area of productive industry, and toencouiage varieties of activity
which the free and unfettered conditions of competition tend un-
duly to restrict. On the other hand, the artisan engaged in hand
industries looks to technical education for self-lmprovcnent,
and. for the means of acquhing that general kixiwledge of the
principles and pnu;i5ce of his trade, wUch he is unable to obtain
in the commercial shop. Hence the artisan and the manu-
facturer approach the consideration of the question from
different ades. To the spinner or weaver who almost ex*
dusively employs women to tend his machinery, (ht to the
manufacturing diemist whose workpeople are liClle more thaa
labourers empk^ed in carrying to and fro materials, knowing
little or nothing of the sdentific prindples underlsriag the com-
plicated processes in which they are engaged, the technical
education of the workpeople may- seem to be a matter of little
momenU What such manufacturers require are the aeiyiue s
of a few skilled engineers, artistic designers or sdentific rhrmisti
From the manufacturer's point of view, therefore, f^hniral
instruction b not so much needed for the Aoii^ he employs in
his work, as for the heads that direct it. But in trades in ^hich
machinery plays a subsidiary part, technical teadnng s u p plies
the place of that instruction whidi, in Imner times, the master
gave to his apprentice, and the workman is eix»uraged to
attend technical classes with a view to acquiring that know-
ledge of the theory and practice of his trade, on the aequisKion
of which his individual success gkcatly depends. In the former
class, of industries, technical education is needed mainly for
the training of managers; in the buttery for the training of
workmen. Hence has arisen a double cry,— for the frsrhing
of art and of the higher branches of sdence, with a view to
their application to. manufacturing industry, and for the
specialised instruction in drawing, and in the sdentific facts
which help to explain the processes and methods connected
with the practice of different crafts and trades. Thb double
cry has led to the establishment of technical universities and
of trade schools.
Owing to the conditions under which manufactwing industry
is now carried on, it>is difficult CD select competent foremen
from the rank and file of the workmen. The ordinary j
hands gain a very limited and ciscumacribed ac*
quaiotance with the detaibof the manufacture in "'^
which they are engaged, and have little opportunity of
acquiring that general knowledge of various departments of
work, and of the structure and uses of the machinery em-
ployed, which is essential to the foreman or overseer. It is in
evening technical classes that this suppkmaitaiy instruction,
Which it is the workman's interest to acquire and the master's
to encourage* can be obtained; and it b from the more in-
telligent workmen who attend these daases that masters and
empliyyers will select as foremen those students who are found
to possess the essential qualifications. The hbtory of invention
shows how frequently important improvements in maohinefy
TECHNICAL EDtJCATION
489
an made by tbe irarkiiitn or minder In cbarge of % and adds
wdgbt to the arguments already adduced for giving technical
instnKtion to persons of all grades employed in manufactxuing
iodustry. To these advaatages of technical education, as
affecting the ivorkmen themselves as well as the progre ss of
the industry in which they arc engaged, must be. added the
general improvement in the character of the work produced,
resulting from the superior and better-trained intelligence of
those who have had the benefit of such instruction.
It win be seen ficom the foregoing that a complete system
of technical education must make provision for the training
of those who are to be occupied as journeymen or foremen in
different branches of trade or industry, and also for those who
aim at becoming managers or masters or heads of manufacturing
finnsy scientific advisers or professional engineers. As technical
^ education necessarily implies specialiaed teaching, the
Y^g^ curriculum and methods of instruction adopted In
fa t r t i the elementary and secondary schools, where students
JJJJ^ receive their preliminary training, arc matters dosely
related to any scheme of technical instruction, and the
trend of educational opinion is in favenr of associatfaig the gene-
mi instruction given in those schools with the specialized teaching
of tlie technical institutions. Indeed, it is dally becoming more
difficult to draw any hard-and-fa&t line between professional
and general education. It is now universally recognized that
the foundations of technical instruction must be laid in the
elementary and the secondary schools, and many of the changes
which have been made in the organization of those scboob had
their origin in tlie requirements Of technical institutions.
A short survey of the methods adopted in different countries
to provide (he specialized teaching applicable to different
pursuits, and of its relation to the general school system of
those oountries, will serve as a fitting introduction- to the con-
sideration of the legislative and other changes which have
gradually been made in the British school system
with a view to modern industrial conditions. The
study of foreign systems of education is serviceable,
as showing the relation of such systems to the indus-
trial needs of each country and to the genius and character
of the people. In the organization of technical ediuiation in
England, hill advantage has been taken of foreign experience,
although DO attempt has been made to unitate too dosely
foreign methods. Detailed information as to what has been
done abroad is found in the published reports of the several
English commissions which have been appointed to inquire
mto the subject, and in the valuable series of special reports
issued from the Board of Education. From these reports,
which sbow how varied have been the attempts to adapt school
training to modem industrial requirements, certain general
prindples may be inferred, which are equally applicable to
tbe conditions under which the trade and commerce of different
oountries is now carried on.
These general prindples may be briefly enundated as
foiloWBS—
I. The education of all persons who may expect to be occupied
(limfmt In some form of productive industry may be con-
pr^ sidered as consisting of two parts, (a) general, (Jb)
•*•*■" spedaL
i. The general education is the preliminary training pro-
vided is dementary and secondary sdiools, and the curriculum
of those schools should be varied so as to have some reference
to the future pursuits of the pupils.
3. ITiespedal or supplementary instruction should be adapted
to the requirements of different grades and dasses of workers,
and to different trades or occupations as practised in difiocnt
localities.
A complete sytlttm of technical education would afford
facHities of training adapted to every kind and grade of in-
dustry; but, owing to the complexity of the problem, such a
system is aovdiere to be found. In every country the scheme
<^ education and method of instruction have varied from time
to time, as tbe conditions reguhiting trade and industry have
dianged. But recently In tSl dvi&zed countries, the effort has
been made to provide a general and specialized education
adapted to different pursuits for each of these great classes
of workers: (x) operatives, (2) lorenicn and overMers, (3) masters
and managers.
t. WorkmeH.-^Hsaxy^ attempts have been made to provide a
substitute for apprenticeship, but hitherto with no g
Two classes of workpeo{d^e have to be conadered — (i) t
in manufacturing industries, and (a) those engaged in handicrsft
industries. The education of all cLsisses of workpeople begins in
the public elementary schools; and, in view of the future occupation
of the children, it may be takni for granted that primaiy instrucrion
should be practical, and should indude drawing and elementary
science. It should indeed be dosdy associated with manual training,
consisting of workshop exercises and field work in the case of boys
in urt)an and rural schools respectively, and of instruction in tne
domestic arts in the case of girls. The lessons in drawing and in
dementary sdence should form part of the manual ^
training, and the school curriculum should be unified " """y*!
so that all the subjects of instruction should be grouped *^^*"''
together as parts of aa organized system. The desuixl " '"'
divd^ty should be found in the different kinds and grades of mamial
work. Readbg, writing and arithmetic would be taught inddentally
in dose connexion with the pracdcal exercises. In neariy eveiy
country of Europe, and in the United States, the trend of edooackm
practice b in this direction. In France, Bddum. Holland and
Sweden handicraft instruction is generally included in the curri-
culum of elementaiY schools. Rudimentary science is also taught
in nearly all the pnmary schools of Europe. Modellinj^ is taught
both to boys and girls in many Continental schools; and in Sweden
** sloyd ** (bw. stdja, manual dexterity, c(. Eng. " sleiaht "), a system
of manual training, in which simple and useful articles, especially of
wood, are constructed with the fewest possible tools, is taught with
considerable success to children of both sexes.
In Germany and Switzerland, there exists an excellent system
of evening continuation schools, known as Fortbitdungs- or £rf dM-
uniS'SchtUeM, in which the instruction of the children who leave
school before fourteen, and of those who leave at that age, is con-
tinued. In all these sdiools drawing is taught with special reference
to local industries. In England |;rcat progress has been made in
recent years in developing evening classes in which the pupilsT
dementary instruction is continued vrith a view to the ..^_
specialized teaching provided in the technical schooL ^^Mfltaa
The teaching in these continuation schools is generally IJIIIil
varied according as the pupil is occupied in trade or office *""*"^
work, and the practice is becoming general of requiring him to pass
a qualifying examination to secure aomisuon to dasses m technology.
It will be seen, therefore, that the training of most workpeople, and
of nearly all those who are engaged in .manufacturing industry,
conusts of: — (i) primary teaching in dementary schoob; (a;
practice in the factory or shop, supplemented by further elementaiy
teaching; Cs) evening instruction m technology.
In all the principal towns throughout £uro|)e evening dasses
have been established for teaching drawing, painting and designbg,
and the elements of science in their application to special industries.
.The instruction, howe\'er, b less practical than that* provided in
the corresponding schools in England. The dasses abroad are
mainly supported by the munidpalitles, by the chambers of com-
merce, by industrial or trade societies, by county boards, and in
some cases by the fees of the pupils. They recdvc httle or no support
from the state. They are wdi attended by workpeople of all gradei^
who are 'encouraged by their employers to profit by these oppor-
tunities of instruaion. In England evening technical instruction
b more systematically organized than in any other country. It b
und<»^ the general direction of the Board of Education, and of tbe
City and Guilds of London Institute.
The Board of Education prescribe the, conditions under which
grants are paid to schoob providing technical instruction. In
lorroer years these grants were paid on the results of tbe CTaminatios
of individual students; but this method of apportioning ^ .--
state aid has been almost entirely abandoned. • The Board zUSISL
still hold annual examinations in sdence and art and in cer- r?!V"
tain branches of applied science ; but the more specialized '
examinations in technology and trade subjects are hdd annually
by the City and Guilds of London Institute, through iu department
of technology. These latter examinations .are utilized by the
Board, and uie certificates granted on the results are ccoognized
in the appointment of teachers. The technical schoob in which
these classes are held are under the direct control of the local educa-
tional authorities, and are largely supported by grants from local
rates. Year by year a brger share of responsibility b being thrown
upon the local authorities, with a view to encouraging greater
variety of instruction and further adaptation of the teaching to
local needs. The Board continue, however, to indicate the range of
subjects to be taught in preparation for their annual examinations,
and the City and Guilds of London Institute issues each year a
programme containing suggested courses of training in nearly a
hundred trade subjects.
490
TECHNICAL EDUCATION
f>«*
In the eveojQff daMM ia acieoee. art and technoloey, which have
been established throughout the United Kingdom, the workman or
foreman engaged in any manufacturing industry has the opportunity,
t>)r payment of a very small fee, of studying art in all its branches,
acience theoretically and practically, and the technology of any
particular industry. Provided his early education enables him to
take advantage of this instruction, no better system has been
suggested of enabling workmen, whilst earning wages at an early
age, to ace^ulrc manual skill )t>v continuous practice, and at the same
time to gam a knowledge of the principles of science connected with
their work and explanatory of the processes of the manufacture in
which they are engaged.
For those engaged in handicraft trades thb evening instruction
is equally valuable, and not only in England, but equally in other
parts of Europe, there exist evening trade schools in which the
workman is able to supplement 'the " sectional " practice he acquires
in the shop by more general practice in other branches of his trade.,
In' Vienna, for example, and elsewhere in Austria, there are found '
practka! evening classes for carpenters, turners, joiners, metal-
workers and others. Throughout Europe schools for weaving,
with practical work at the loom and pattern-designing, have existra
for many years.
To provide a training more like the old system of apprentice-
ship, schools have been established in many parts of Europe and
in the United States which are known as profesdonal,
trade or apprenticeship schools {icoles 1>rofessioneUes,
tcdes dts ap^entis, Faauchuten). The object is to train
workmen; and the pupils, after completing their course of instruc-
tion in such a school, are supposed to have learnt a trade. The
'school b the substitute for the shop. In such a school the pupils
have the advantage of being taught their trade systematically and
leisurely, and production is made subsidiary to instruction. Under
such an artificial system of production, the pupil is less likely to
acquire excellence of workmanship and smartness of habit than in
the mercantile shop, under the strain of severe competition. More-
over, the cost of maintenance of these schools renders it impossibte
to look to them as a general substitute for apprenticeship. By
■ending into the labour market, however, a few highly trained
workmen, who are absorbed in various works and exert a bene-
ficial influence on other workmen, these schools serve a useful
purpose. Schools of thb Idnd have 1>cen tried with more or less
success in different countries. In Paris there is the well-known
Ecole Diderot for the training of mechanics, fitters, smiths, &c;
and similar schools have been established in other parts of France.
For man^ years a society oLChrbtian Brethren has directed a large
•chool ^tuated in* the Rue Vaugirard, Parb, in which different
trades are taught. All the secular and general instruction is given
^gratuitously by the brothers, and in the several shops attached to
the school ..skilled workmen are employed, who instruct the pupU
apprentices, and utilize their labour. This system combines many
ot the advantages of shop work and school work, but it depends
financially for its success upon the religious epirit which actuates
its promoters and supporters. The Artane school, near Dublin, is
conducted on somewhat similar prindplcs, but b intended for a
k>wer cbss of children. In Austria, particularly in the rural dis-
tricts, there are numerous day schools lor the training of carpenters,
joiners, turners, cabinetmakers, workers in stone and marble, in
stiver and other mctab, &c. Schools of the same class are found
In Germany, Italy and Holland, and schools veiy similar in char-
acter have been organized to a limited extent in England. The
demand that called them into existence In other parts of Europe
and in America has been felt in the United Kinedom. The ditn-
culty of securing for apprentices in a commercial shop systematic
training in handicraft has led to the esublishment of a tew trade
schools which receive children from the elementary school- about
the afe of thirteen for a three years' course of instruction. In these
schools the time b about equally divided between ordinary school
subjects and the practice of some nandicraft, such as cabinet-making,
nphotstery, waistcoat-making, millinery. Parents are encouragra
to allow their children to receive this further education by the
offer of free teaching and maintenance grants. Such schools, how-
ever, must be regarded as educational experiments, to be superseded
if fouad necessary by reason of changes in the conditions under
which the trade is practised. Any system of technical education,
however, should be sufficiently clastic to permit of such experi-
ments and of the introduction of types of instructktn to meet special
and even temporary needs. It is only in certain cases that apprcn-
ticeshif) schools can be said to answer satisfaaorily the purpose
for which they have been established. Where a new industry, -
especblly In rural districts, has to be created; where decaying
industries need to be revived; where machinery is supersedinj;
Tiand work, and, owing to the demands for ordinary hands, there is
B dearth of skilled, workmen; where through the effects of compe-
tition and other causes the trade b earned on under conditions
In which competent workmen cannot be properly trained in the
ordinary shop, — in these cases, and In various art industries, an
apprenticeship school may prove to be the best means of train-
ing workmen and of advancing particular trades. Generally,
an appreoticeihip school should be looked upon as a temporary
opedient. aa a fonn of relief apfdied at tiba birth of a new wOmitn
or to meet some specbl conditions under which a trade is practiaeo.
The proper training school for workmen is the factory or shop.
In the United States there are only a few schools which have
been specially organiied with a view to the training of workmen
for special trades. The line b e tween techniaii and general eduea*
tion IS not very clearly defined in any of the autes' achoohk It
b also difficult to give any such general review of the system of
education in America as can be presented in connesdon with France
or Gepnany or Italy, owing to the fact that each separate elate
has its own oi^anixatioa. over which the Federal a o wsumeo t
exercises no direct control. ,ln none, of the states is techaacal
education differentiated by class distinctions to the same extent as
in continental countries. The ambition of every workman is to
become a master, and this general ambition nves rbe to an
enthusiasm for education among all classes, whiui does not exist
to the same extent in any other country. In the United States
are foutid evening technical schoob and schools of de^n for those
who have passed from the common schools into commercial work:
but the desire for further instructioo b so niariccd that many oi
those who have received only an eiemeatary education endeavour,
by working during the vacations, or by other means, to save enough
money to attend the higher technicsu schools, and so acquire the
necessary skill and knowledge to improve their position in the factory
or workshop.
3. Fortmm.—^TYm fotenan must be familiar witii die warions
branches of work he b to overlook; and the training which the
workman receives in the factory or shop affords him but 9^^^
scanty opportunities of obtaining thb general knowledge. r^F**^
The foreman needs also a generally superior education, mtm*
How then are foremen to u trained? The problem is ^^
somewhat easier than that of training.workmen. because the number
required is fewer. The variety of schoob in Europe devoted to thb
purpose is very greaL There are three distinct ways in which foremen
are oeing trainM.
(a) The evening teehaical classes in Britain and on the cnalimwt
offer to ambitious workmen an Ofqioftunity of aoquirine a icnow-
ledge of other departments of the trade than those in which ^ev
are engaeed, as well as cA the scientific principles underiying thev
work. These cbsses serve the double purpose of improvinr the
workpeople and of affording a means of discovering those who ase
best ntted to occupy higher posta
(6) Specbl schools have been established for the training of fore-
men. There are many schools of this kind In which selected boyi
are received after leaving the higher elementary or secondary school.
The best known are those at ChAlons, Aix, Nevcrs, Anders and
LiUe in France. These schoob are intended for the tiainina of
foremen in engineering trades. They are state institutions, in waich
practical mechanical work in the shops b supplemented by theo-
retical instruction. The first of these schools was founded va 1803.
The course hues three years, and the studentt spend frooi ax to
seven hours a day in the worksliopk and are trained as fittcn»
founders, smiths and pattern-makers.. As in all such schoolSf
saleable goods are produced, but, as production Is subordinated
to instruction, the school does not bind itself to ddiver woric at a
given date, and therefore does not compete with any ouunifactttring
establishment. The studento on leaving these schoob are com-
petent at once to undertake the duties of foremen and draughts
men. At Komotau, Steyr, Klaeenfurt, Ferlach and many other
pUces schoob have been esrablished on somewhat dmilatr prin-
ciples. In Germany there are special schoob for the training of
foremen in the building trader which are chiefly freouented in the
winter, and numerous schools are found in all parts of the continent
for the training of weavers. At Winterthur in Switxeriand a school
has been established the main purpose of which is the training of
foremen. In Italy there are numerous technical institutes, the
obi^ of which b to train young men for intermediate poets in
industrial works. In London, theTinsbory technical coQcge of the
City and Guilds of London Institute has a day department, the
mam purpose of which is the training of youths as foremen, works
managers. 8tc.; but in this -school the character of the instnictlon
deviates considerably from that given in French achoriii and aims
rather at preparing youths to learn, than at teaching them their trade.
(c) A third rnctnod adopted for the training of foremen b by
encouraging selected children of the ordinary elementary schoob to
continue their education in schools of a higher grade oi^a tediakal
character. It is thought that, by developing to a iugfaer decree
the intelligeace and skiU of those children who show aptitude for
scientific and practical work, they will be able, when they enter
the shop, to learn their trade more quickly and more thoroughly,
and to acquine that general knowledge of tbdr work, and to evtiibit
those special aptitudes, which may qualify them for the pddtioo
of foreman or eY^**^-. '^^ education given in th^se schools,
although haviitg some bias towards the future career of the pupil*
is disciplinary In character, and consists of the subjects of primary
instruction further pursued. — of drawing, modelling. '
aathematics and nanual exercises. The cuirictthns a
according to local requirements, the technology of the staple ia>
dustri«s fonaing iu many cases pan of the instruction. Such
•raCHNlCAL EDUCATION
4^1
«fcoob.aiiderwlM!foniii,bfty6BeeaMltbliibedlttiiiott
ooimcrie^, •orbe of the best examples of theia being found in
Lyons, Reims, Rouen, and in other towns of France One of the
■ - • • • -ftficole —
oldest of these schools is the i
Mcftinlftre at Lyons. The school
was founded in iSao by a bequest fnim Major-Genenl Martin,
who had fought against the Eni^lish under Tippoo Sahib. In thb
schoot in wuch the education is gratuitous, as in nearly all the
higher elementarv achoola of France, instruction is given in draw-
iag. moddling, chemistiTi mechanics and physics, m the worfdng
of wood, and uoa, and m German and Engli^ in addition to the
subjects of an ordinary school education. Surveying is also taught
to scMae of the pttpBa; and the insCnjction ^^eiierally is of a very
pnctkal choracter. The students visit factones under the guidance
of tte masters, and on their return write oot full descriptions
of their vidta. The school hours are from> seven till e l ev en in the
morning and from one till sevta in the afternoon. The boys from
this school rapidly obtain placses in the conuoerieal and industrial
houses of Lyons, and many of them, after a tsme^ succeed in'
obtaining high positions. A very similar school, oa more modem
liaes^ haa been establiahed at Reims, and ia accommodated in a
building cspfdally adapted to the purpose. In thb school instrac-
tion is directed towarda the staple industries of the district, namely,
veaving, dyeing and engineenug. There are many other similar
schooto in France^ the <rf>)ect of which ia to give the children of
artisaaa and small shopkeeperaa higher prsctical educataon in order
to fit them to occupy^ the posts of lornneik overieers and superior
dcrka in manufacturing aad commercial fims. In Germany^ the
naf sdMoIs, in which Latin is not Uvfght, known as Okmtlairin
Fmtwkwiim, Juve very naariy the same objects aa the higher de>
mcntary schools of France. The instruction tn these German schools
is not m> practical as in the schools of France. Drawing is always
wdl taueht, and the schools generally contain good cberoiaU
kbocatonea, aa well aa collections of physical appamtua and
museunnu From the pupils of these schools the ranks of foremen
are largely recruited. They receive no special trade instruction,
but the general training is so arranged as to 9ualify them for higher
posts in industrial works. The cost of this higher education seldom
exceeds £3 per annum. In Bavaria there is tound a type of school
called InduslrU-Schnle. which serves very weU for the training of
engineera and industrial chemists, who aim at occupying inter-
mediate posts, and desire to enter upon commercinl work at an
earlier age than students attending a univeruty or technical college.
The instmctiott in these indusinesckuUn is largely practical^ but
is combined with aome amount of literary and linguistic training.
Some of the studenta proceed to the technical dniversity. but the
maiority find posts aa foremen or overseers soon after comfJeting
tbor sdiool course. In most of these schods, as well as in the
chief intermediate commercial schools, the exit certificate exempts
a lad from two of the three years' compulsory miliury service, and
this rqsulation. to which nothing corresponds in England, is an
incentive to parents to allow their children to receive higher instnic-
tion. which operates very forcibly in largely incneaabg the number
of well-educated youths in Germany,
A special feature of the education provided tn the United States
is what ia knoiTn as the " manual training " school. This is a school
^ , admirablv adapted for the training of foremen, although
tTT^ not especially intended for any particular industrial class.
*"^*'*y The manual training school is a secondary school in which
?*••* a hwge part of the time is given to workshop exercises.
moA ^^ whole. subject of manual training is more scientifi-
cally developed in some 01 the states of America than in any Euro-
pean country. The school is pervaded by the kindergarten spirit,
and leads up, without break 01 conrinuity, to courses oiF instruction
Ipven in the higher technical colleges. The movement in favour
of manual training in the United States is general and extenda
even to the private schools where youths are prepared for the
university. At the same time, the purely practical teaching is
invariably combined with scientific and literary Instruction. In
these, as in other schools, the principle is fully recognized that the
primary aim of education is to make dtizens and not tradesmen.
It is duficult to take any one manual training school as typical of
otftwrs, seeing how the curriculum varies in different statea The
practical won includes exercises in carpentry, joinery, wood-tum-
mg, wood-carving, forgiiw, foundry-work, machine fitting, stone-
work, and weaving ana appropriate exercises for gins. The
eeneral klea underiyieg the scheme of instriiction in these schools
IS that the teaching most be educative till the ace of fifteen, and
Aottid then, and only then, develop into specialized and profes-
sional traiiung.
3. Voxlerr.'-Some of the best schools for the tralnlrig of future
— ' — ^1 managers, tamnten^ manufacturers and industrial chemists
are Tound m Germaay and Switzerland, and are known
as technical hii^ schocds. Schools of a similar character
f TL^ are found in other countries. .
^ In Germany the UchniKkeBochschiU or Pdytechnicum
is an institution of university type In which the education
has special reference to industrial jmrposes. In many respects the
teaching coincides with that given in the universities. The chief dis*
dnction conasts in the arrangement of courses of iastnictkm in the
several departmeata; In the admiHien ti tludints having m non>
classical preliminary training, and in the absence of certain faeulthas
found ia the university and the addition of others. It is not correct
to say that the technkssl high school is a professional school as distin-
guished from the university; for the faculties of hiw, medicine and
theology give to the university as distinctly a profe ss ional character
as the faculty df engiaeering gives to tne tecfankal high schooL
Nor can it be said that the scientific studies at the universities are
leas practical than at the technical high nchool. For, whilst work-
shops for instruction in the use of tools are found in very few of the
Geman high schools^ the laboratories for the pnctkal study of
chemistry and physics are as well eouJpped at some of the German
universities as at the technical high schods. At the same time,
engineera of every description, architects and builders, besides a
great number of manufacturing chemists^ find in the technical
high school the acientifie and special training whfeh the future
lawyer or physician, and in many cases the industrial chemist,
seeks in the umversity.
In some of the large cities— fn Berlin, Vienna and Munich, for
instance— the two institurions co-exist; and in certain i
which a very spedd training is required to fit a youth
for his career, the German student, after spending three
or four years at a techmcal high school, passes on to
another institution, such as a dyeing school, in whk:h
his studies are further q^ecialized with a view to his
future work.
Taking the technical high school of Munkh as a type
of other similar institutions, we find that it consists of seven depart-
ments: — (r) theeeneral; (») the civil engineenne; (t) the building;
(4) the mechanica! engineering; (5) tM tnduraiai chemica]; (6)
the agricultural, and (7) electri(»I techncrfogy. In other institutions
there are architectural, pharmaceutical and mining schools. The
programme of the Munich school gives a list of about 200 difTerent
courses of instruction distributed over the several departments. A
separate professor is engaged to lecture on that particubu- subject
with which he is specially conversant, and the number of such pro-
fesson attached to a technical high achool is very large. In the
engineering department there are several distinct courses of lectures
under the direction of professore who are experts in their special
subject The largest of all these institutions is that of Berlin,
which was completed in 1864 at a cost of about £4SO,ooa It is
dtuated In what was a suburb of Berlin, and is generally kiiown as
the Chariottenbur^ Institntioii, It includes departments for the
highest specianzed instruction in neariy all brancoes of technology.
Other schools in Germany are less complete, but most of them have
one or more departments which are specially organised with a view
to the highest grade of technical instruction. Both In the Onivcr-
sities and in the technkal high schools facilities for scientific re-
search are provided, anc^ the students are encouraged to undertake
original investigationa The technical high schools are now placed
on the same editicational platform as the universities and have the
power to confer the degree of Doctor of Engineering on students
tnlfilfing the required conditions.
In France, the institutions in whkrh theliighest technical instruc-
tion is given are concentrated in the capjtal. There are a large
number of provincial colleges such as the Ecole Centrale
at Lyons, tne Ccolc des Mineure at St Etienne and the
Institut du Nord at Lille, where the education is some-
what more practical, but where the mathenuitical and ?! '?*____
scientific teaching is not carried to so high a point. Several "'^"■■^
of the French provincial colleges in which the hieher forms of
technical instruction are well developed became in 1898. under the
law of 1896, separate universities. The Ecole Centrale of Paris,
in which the majority (rf French engineera who are not employed
in the government service are trained, is a rare instance of an institu-
tion for higher technkal instruction whkh is self-supporting and
independent of government aid. Other special institutions in
F^ris, some of which are associated with the university of Paris, are
the Ecole des Mines, the Ecole des Fonts et Chaus86e8, and the
Coll&gc de France, an old foundation in which facilities are afforded
for tlK highest scientific research.
In Switserland the federal polytechnic of Zurich is hi many wa>'S
similar to the schools of Germany and Austria. Italy has three
superior technkral institutes— one at Milan, one at Turin
and one at Naples, in which technical education is nven
on the same lines as in German polytechnic schools.
Holland has an excellent institution at Delft, which was
opened in 1864. In each of the state universities of Belgium
tnere is a faculty of applied science, and degrees are granted on
a course of training in science and technology; and in Russia the
imperial technical school at Moscow Is a high-class engineering school
in whkh the theoretkuil studies are supplemented, to a greater extent
than In the German schools, by workshop practice. It will be seen,
therefore, that in neariy all European countries, instruction in
engineering fn all its branches and in chemical technology has
become a recognised part of a unlverrity course, and that the faculty
of applied scwnce has been so enlaiged as to provide techmcal
education of the highest grade. ^ _ .... , ,
Some of the best schools for the higher technical Instruction—for
the training of masters and of those who are to occupy t^ r
taSmH"
49«
TECHNICAL EDUCATION
of managen in engineerini; and iaduatrial work»— are found in
the Unated States. On lea\anK the aecondary school, the American
student may go at once into business: or be may proceed
to a college, with a four years' course of genenu instruc-
tion ; or he may enter a professional or technical school.
Some students prolong their education by taking the
general course before proceeding to the technical institu-
tion. As in the lower, so in the higho' grades of instrpction,
the distinction between general and technical <xlucation is not very
ckarly defined. There are some institutions devoted almost ex-
dusi^^y to professional tiBining; whilst in others the engineering
faculty exists side by side with otnerfacultiesofuniverBity rank. The
general interest in higher education which is shown by the desire
of students of all clames to obtain it, in many cases at considerable
Individual sacrifice, and by the value which masters and employers
attach to a college-trained youth, ujpartly due to the large proportion
of pupils from the ordinary schools who proceed to the secondary
or nigh schools. It is estimated that the pupils between the ages
of fcjurteen and eighteen in attendance at these schools constitute at
least one per cent, of the entire population <^ the United States.
In several of the American institutions known as coUeses, but not
easily distinguishable from the univeruties, courses of general or
technical instruction are provided of all intermediate grades, but
above that ^ven in the high schools. In addition to these there
are some well-known institutions which provide courses oi pro-
fes^onal and general instruction of the highest grade under pro-
fessors of eininence and.distinction, and facilities for research which
are not surpassed in any German univeruty or technical high school.
To the foundation and maintenance of these schools wealthy citizens
have given or bequeathed enormous sums of money, and they further
enjoy the proceeds of the sale of lands which were set apart under
the Morrill Act of 1862 to give assistance to institutions providing
instruction in agriculture ami the mechanical arts. Several colleges
whose work was mainly literary took advantage of thb act to
establish scientific and technical courses in order to secure the
income to be obtained by compliance with its provisions.
Without entering into great detail, it may be said that the schools
providing advancra technical instruction may be grouped under
three headings: (i) those which are free from state or government
control and are maintained from funds arising out of endowments
^nd students' fees, such as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
and the Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken; (2) schopls
which form part of, or are afEliated to, the universities, which are
eaually independent of public control, such as Columbia University,
Mew York, and the Siblcv'College of Mechanical Arts, ComellUni-
versity; (5) schools ana colleges attached to state, universities,
receiving grants from the state* such as the univexsities of Illinois
andMicnxgan.
Contributions from private sources towards the establishment and
equipment of these institutions ate far in excess of those in any
other part of the world. Between the years 1890 and Z901 these
contributions amounted to about £23,000,000.
The American universities, with which the technic^ institutions
are in many cases dosel^r associated, differ from those in the United
Kingdom m their examinations for degrees. In this respect they
have adopted the practice of the German and other continental
universities. Hie examinations are almost uniformly conducted
by the teachers. The external examiner is practically unknown.
Inis system allows considerable freedom to the teacher, and is said
by competent judges to be attended with excellent results. In
many ot the states, particularly in the east, even the matriculation,
or entrance examination, is being superseded by a system known as
the " accrediting ** system of the secondary or high schools, where
the students receive their general education. According to this
system, the schools are inspected by the professors of the university,
and those in which the equipment, the courses of instruction, ana
the method of teaching are found to be satisfactory, are included in
a Ust of " accredited or approved schools, and the pupils of such
schools, who produce a certificate of having satisfactorily attended
the prescribed course of study, are admitted to the university with-
out paasinE any entrance examination. An advanta^ of this
system is that it brings the professors of the university into direct
relationship with the schools in which the students receive their
preliminary training, and doaely connects the instruction provided
m the school with the higher and more specialized teaching of the
univenity. ,
The widespread appreciation of the advantages of the higher
educatkm among all classes of the American people, and the general
recognition among manufacturers, engineers and employers of
labour, of the value to them, in their own work, of the services of
college-trained men. has laxity helped to increase the number of
studeits in attendance at the universities and technical institutions,
and to encoura^ in every state the foundation of schools for advanced
profesaonal training.
The institutions in which the highest technical instruction is
provided are those devoted to the teaching of engineering in all
Its branches, induding ir* and of chemistry in its
application to manuni aides schools of agri-
culture and forestry at ^ . ^
Of these the Maasr hnology at Boston la
the most typicaL It Was founded ia tSj^ with a view to wpfilyiaB
a complete system of industrial educatioo, supplemeataiy to the
general traimng of other institutions. In 1861 an act was passed
incorporating a body of persons for the puipose, inter o/m, of aidiM
in the advancement of science in iu application to the arts, agn-
culture, manufaauxes and commeroe. The institute offere thirteen
distinct courses. Of these, eight are devoted to engineering, in-
cluding naval axdiitecture; four to' chemistry, physics, biology and
geology, and one to preparation for professional teaching, jfn 1004
there were 183 instructors on the permanent staff of this insdtutKMi.
As indicating the practical character of the teaching in thia and in
other similar schools, it should be noted that the railway companies
co-operate in making provisbn for tests^on^ a large scale, and in
permitting the use of locomotives on their line for the puipoee of
giving practical training to the students*
At Columbia Univenity. New York, the Khool of applied ecieacs
was established in 1864, and comists of a faiiiy compMte echool of
technology with a four years* course of instruction. An interesting
department at Columbia is the professorial school for the rtndy of
education and the training of teachers. The imponanoe of asanoal
training is recognized by the fact that the profassor of thb subject
has a seat in the faculty of applied science. Twoachools of obsenra*
tion and practice are maintained — the Horace Mann.Scbool and the
Experimental School. The former comprises three departroentSr a
kindergarten, an elementary and a high wdbooL The experimental
school is under die immediate direction of the professor of the
theory and practice of teaching. The facilities provided for the
professorial and technical training of teachers are one of the most
valuable features m the educatipiml system of the United States.
In England there is a growing tendency to associate tedinical with
secondary education. The central technKal college of the City
and Guilds of London Institute, was an institution
established exclusively for the purpose of providing the
highest grade of engineering education. In thb respect
it compared more neariy than any other institution with
the technical high' schools of Germany. Tlie Royal
School of Mines.connected with the RoyalCoUegeof Science,
was a similar Institntion, providing the highest teaching for mUainc
en^neers. In Birmingham, Leeds and Sheffield, schools of applied
science were established under the names respectively of the Masoo
College, the Yorkshire College of Science, and Firth College, which
gradually devebped into technical colleges to which a literary side
was attached with provision for advanced humanistic studies. The
oldest of these colleges was. the Owens College, Manchester, which
combined the curricnlum of a university with that of a tfrhfitral
high schooL Its school of applied chemistry was, for many years,
one of the most flourishing in the country. In i88a a somewhat
similar school was founded in Liverpool as a university college,
and the Yorkshire Oditfe of Science similariy widened its curriculum.
To this college, a textile school, induding a department for dyeing
and design for textiles, was added by the muninoenoe of the Qotb-
workers' Company of London. Thb department soon devt^ped
into one of the beat-equipped institntbns in the country for tho
study of the technology of textile manufacture. The three colleges
at Manchester, Liverpool and Leeds were incorporated in the year
1885 into the federal Victoria University. Other textile schoob for
day students, providins a full course of advanced instruction, wcm
founded at Bradford, Huddersfield, Halifax, Bolton, and in other
parts of Yorkshire and Lancashire. In 1903 University CoUqA
Manchester, recdved a royal charter as the Victoria Umvenity of
Manchester, and the University College of Liverpool became a
separate university. In the following year the Yorkshire Colicse
received a charter of incorppratu>n as the University of Leeds.
These three universities provide full courses of instruction in en-
gineering and in the industrial applications of science. Charters of
incorporation as universities were also granted to the colleges at
Birmingham and Sheffield. The Birmingham University, covering
an area of over twenty-five acres, contains blocks of buildings devoted
to the teaching of mining and engineering, and at Sheffield there b
a special school dealing with the metallurgy of iron and sted.
The University of Manchester soon after its incorporation entered
into arrangements with the munidpal school of technolosy in that
city, by which the faculty of technology was in part carried on in the
wdl-equipped buildings of the municipal school, the laigest institu-
tk>n of the kind in Great Britain, ft was publicly^ opened in the
year 1900. In these new universities ample provision b made for
the teadiing of electrical enginetfing and electro-technics generally,
and the laboratories provided for thb purpose are well eouipped with
machinery and apparatus, and compare noc unfavourably with some
of the most recently erected in Germany. Schoob for mining
enrineers have been estaUished at Wigan and Camborne and Red-
ruth. In Wales, at different times, local colleges of universtty rank
were opened in Cardiff, Bangor and Aberystwith, and those three
colleges were subsequently united in the University of Wales. In all
these k}cal universities the technkal instruction forms part of the
ordinary university courses in which degrees are granted.
Other eoUegca outside London, besides those named, which par>
tldpate in the government grant allocated to nniversities and
colleges, giving higher grade instructbn of a technical character.
TECHNICAL EDUCA.TION
493
•R.Ufuvenity Collice^ Briiilol; Annakniag CoVfSc, Ne»cullt<«ii-
Tync: and the university oollegcfl at Nottingham, Keading and
Southampton.
The Univenlty of Cambridge has a adidal of cngineerinf with
wetl-equippad taboiaconcs (or the tcachhif of mire and applied
•dcnccs. The uoiventties of Edinbuigh and Claigow reco^niied
at an eariy date, as part of a university course, the teaching of
■dcDce in its application to engineering: and at University College.
Dundee, there is a good school for the teaching of the technology of
spinning and weaving taon pactiailariy with cdcrenoe to the own**
factare of jute and linen.
In London, University College and King's College fulfilled for many
fears the function of a univendty and technical nigh school. So^n
after tho leorganiaation of the University of London in
'~*r~^ 1901, b)f which that inatitutbn was changed from an
JV|2l «*»"«""B body into a teaching univenitVt University
Lmmmnm. College and King's CoItcKt, which were namccf in the charter
as sdMota of the university, transTerrcd their funds, buildings, Ac,
10 the Balversity and became ineorpomted therein. Tm East
Londoo College. oricinaUy bunded as a technical sohcwl in oonoexion
with the People's Palace at Mile End. was admitted in 1907 as a
school of the university, and under the statutes of the university
certain teachers in the Polytechnic Institutes became recognized
tmekem, and their students were admitted to graduation as internal
iiiidcnta. Moat of the students so admitted graduate in the faculty
of engineering. For several years it was apparent that the work m
the City Guilds Central CoUeec and that of the Royal College of
Science and School of Mines overla[>pcd to some extent, ind that
the teaching in eai^h separate Institution was incomplete and needed
10 be sopplemcnted by that provided in the others. A departmental
committee was accoraii^ly appointed by the president of the Boanl
of Education in the year 1901 to consider the working of the govern-
flRnt College of Science and the School of Mines and thdr relation to
other smiilar schools, and as a result of the report of that committee,
publisiied in 1^06, a charter of incorporatkin was gMntcd in 1907 t»
a new ioitHtution under the name of the Imperial College of Sciettce
and Technology, in which the teaching given in the three schools
woofd be co-oraioated under a new governing body, consisting of
me m bers appointed by the Crown, the Boani of Education^ the
Chy and GuiUs of London Institute* the University of London and
the principal engineerinK societies, with power to negotiate with the
university for the transTer to the new institution of the engioeering
departments of University College and of King^a College. The
Exhibition Commissioners of 185 1 agreed to grant unoccupied sites
of land at South Kensington for the extenston of, and the addkbn
of new departments to, the existing colleges, and large annual
endowments were promised by the sovemmcnt and^ the London
County Council in addition to sums « money from private sources.
The new Imperial College of Science and Technology w constituted
by charter a school of the university, and is intended to jprovMe the
htghea instruction in engineering and appKed science, with facilities
for advanced research work. The scheme was intended, when
complete, to snpply the metropolis with a technical school of the
htgheat grade, similar to some extent to the well-known institutions
in Berlin (Charlottenburg) and Massachusetts, but adapted to the
special industrial needs oTthe British empire.
Ugislathe Enocfmni/^.— The state o^niiation of tc^hokal
•ducaiion in the United Kincdom is mainly the cesult of enact-
ments passed in and after the year iS^ot. Before
that dale, however, as early as 1877, the Livery
Companies of London, with a view to fulfilUng the
puffwses for which by chatter they were origLnaUy
incorporated, began to consideT how best they could
initiate a national scheme of technUial edtication,
for which, owing to the depreyaion of trade and the
changed oonditions under which British industries were con-
ducted. » strong demand had arisen. They consulted leading
mnufacturers and some of the best-known tdenti/ic autho-
rities, and in 1880 an association was formed of the City oorpora-
tioQ and some of the wealthier City oompenies under the name
of the City and Guilds of London Institute for the advancement
of technical education. The scheme of the institute was to
establiik a central institutioa at South Kensington, somewhat
OB the lines o£ the high schools of Germany, and oas or more
technical schools oC intermediate grade in London, and to
enoMirage by means of grants of money and by examinatioDS
for certificates techipcal classes and trade Khools in different
parts Of the United Kingdom. In March 1880, an organiring
director and secretary was appoilited to develop and give
cfect to the scheme. As indicating the Importance of the
flwvement King Edward VII., then prince of Wales, accepted
the office of picaident of the iaittititte, which tins kd the way
XXVI ^
to -flw csUfaiishmeBt, under tlw direction of the government
tad, under the oontiol of local authorities, of a natkmat system
of technical education. The sueotssive steps by which ^^
the system waa evolved, and how k was gradually i^ltZ
incorpoialed into the general scbone of educatk», c^w
are mattees of interest m the history of education.
A ddhwrien of *' technical instmetkMk " applicable ix>
the iraiied tcachhigof the United Kingdom was, in the first i»*
stance, fiapd by set of pasliancnt. The term incfasdedfaistnsetiow
in sdenoe, att, and technology, 'and also m naoual ttaining;
and by " technology " wns underatood the psactical application
of diffatent kinds of knowledge to a panicular trader ov industrfv
or empbymcnL
The progress ol- technical education was very moeh helped
by the formation of the '* National Assodation for the PnNBO>
tion of TVtchnical Edohition," which was inaugvated at a
meeting held on the tst of July 1887 and dissolved j^^
when.its objeeta had been fulAlled, injune 1907, after*
twenty yoasvof useful work. The geaetai objects
of the assodation were to promote and watdi legis- ''***
ktjon, 4o spiead infonoation, and to dlscass-and aiaat in giving
effect to the Teoommendat&ons of royal commissions appointed
ta iniiuiie into edncatioAal methods and organizatioh. To its
activity the development of technical education in England
had been largely due. The first legislative efbct to give effect
to the recommendations of the Royal Commission on Technicak
Instruction, whoee report wat published in 1884, waa a hi\k
introduced into parllwnent in July 1887. The purpose of this
bill was to enaUe sdiooi boards and local authorities to ptovido
out of the rates technical schoob, or to contsibute to their
support. A special provision of the bill was that a poll might
be demanded by fifty ratcpaiyers before any action ooold bo
taken wider the powers ft eonferrod. Tedmical instniction
was so defined aa to Include subjects aided or sanctioaed by
the Scieaoe and Art Department. The bill was read a asoond
time on 9th of Angutt 1887, but never leached the otmnietee
stage. In the following Match a new bill was intvftduoed on
behalf of the '^ National Asaodatioa.'' It empowered school
boards to provide tffhtiical insttuotkm in schoob ulider their
management, and to contribute to the mainteaanoe of higher
terhniral instltntes. The definition of technical instruction
was widened so as to indude the use of tools, commercial
subjects, modem lang\iages, and any subjects sanctioned }otnt\y
by the Education Department at Whitehall and the Science
and Art Department at South Kensington, which at that Ujne
were practically separate government departments. The bill
gave very extensive powei^ to school boards. It was with-
drawn without a second reading, in view of the avowed inten-
tion of the govenmient to deal with the snbject. On the
X7th of May 1888 the government bill was introduced. It
contained several new features which pointed in the directioa
of subsequent legislation. Whilst school boards were sgain
empowered to provide technical instruction in thdr
own schools, they were also required, under certaiQ Sif
conditi^s, to aid in the supply of technical and manual
training in voluntary schools. At the same time the local
control of secondary tedmical instruction was placed in the
hands of a separate nuthority, vis., the " antherity empowered
to carry out the Public libraries Acta." Additional rates,
limited in each case to zd. in the £, nd^t be levied. The
bill bristled with difficulties. It aimed at placing the voluntary
schools, as regards technical instxuction, under the control of
school bosrds, but set up a new authority for the control of
technicai mstruction higher than elementary. There was a
growing belief, however, that school boards wen not the most
suitable bodies for the direction or control of technicai educatsan.
This beUef arose from the difficulty of devising means for
securing equal advantages to both classes of elemenfhty schools,
and from the general unwillingness to extend school iMerd
authority beyond the limits of demcntary instruction.
. No reference wss aonde to technical edueatioa in the Queen^
Speech in opening the parliamentary inajiin eC iBSgb bpt thn
♦94
TECHNICAL EDUCATION
subject htd been £uUy ditcosaed during the recess. The diffi-
culties in the way o( legislation on the lines previously attempted
were now dearly understood, and it was recognized that separate
and distinct measures would have to be adopted (or providing
technical instruction in eiemenury schools and in schools of a
Iri^er grade. During the year 1889 three bills were introduced
by private memben. Two only oC these bills were considered:
the one dealing with elementary education, and enabling school
boards to give technical teaching in schoob under their manage-
ment; the other enabling local authoritiea to establish or con-
tribute to technical schoob and classes. The former bill was
fully discussed* but in the absence of any practical settlement
of the voluntary school difficulty the government withdrew its
support, and the bill was dtopp^ About this time the passing
of another legislative measure helped very considerably towards
the solution of the difficulty. The Local Government bill,
which became law in 1868, enacted that " a council shall be
established in every administrative county . . . and be entrusted
with the management of the administrative and financial busi-
ness of that county." A number of new represenUtive. bodies
1^^^ known as county councils were thus created, with
Otowm- powers similar in character to those possessed by
4FMIACC the old boroughs. To these newly constituted
"M* bodies were transferred all business previously con-
ducted by the iquarter sessions. The act conferred similar
powers on certain boroughs, according to their population,
which were known as county borougbsu By utilizing these
county municipal bodies for educational purposes the necessity
of entrusting technical instruction to school boards was avoided;
and accordingly, on the 24th of July i88q, the government
introduced into the House of Commons a bill conferring upon
eounty and county borough councils, and also upon urban
sanitary authorities, the power to levy a rate not exceeding
id. in the £ for the purptee of promoting technical and manual
instruction in their district. This bill met with serious opposi-
tion from school board authorities and their friends, who
resented the limitations it imposed qn their educational aspira«
dons; but the government was resolved to pass it, and after
much obstruction it became law on the 19th of August 1689,
having passed through all its stages in the House of Lords in
a single sitting. The bill marked an epoch in the history of
education, being the first legislative enactment dealing with
technical instruction in England.
The act (Technical Instruction Act, 1889) provided that:
The exprescion " technical instruction " ffhall mean instruction
in the pnnciplcs of science and art applicable to industries, and
in the ap^ication of special branches of science and art to specific
industries or employments. It shall not include teaching the
piactice of anv trade or industry or employment, but, save as
aforesaid, shall include instruction in the branches of science and
art with respect to which grants are for the time being made by
the Department of Science and Art, and any other form of instruc-
tion (inchidinK- modem languages and commercial and asriculcurat
subjects), which may for the time being be sanctioned by that
department by a minute laid before parliament, and made on the
representation of a local authority that such a form of instruction
is required by the ctrcumstarKies of its district «
Although at first received with no great favour, the act
proved ttseful, and is important as representing the outcome
of a number of abortive attempts at legislation, occupying
three years, and intended to give practical effect to some of
the recommendations of the Royal Commission of 1884. The
act definitely settled the question as to the local authority
for technical instruction, and decided it against the school
board. It Contained no provision, however, for the supply
of technical instruction to children in either voluntary or board
schools, and even expressly excluded from any share in its
benefits aU schoUus receiving instruction in the obligatory or
standard subjects. A way was soon found, however, of pro-
viding for technical instruction in eiemenury achools without
any fresh act of pariiament, and the- difficulty of reconciling
the interests of voluntary and board school* '-^•-** *-'i itn-
pcdedprevioQt altenpti at legislatioit, sv
Earty in 1886 the School Board for London, finding that it
was unable to expend on technical instruction any part of the
school board rate, applied to the City and Guilds of
London Institute for financial help. The appUcMiOD
was favourably received, and in Hie following year a fimar4
joint-committee was formed, consisting of represen- ^am
tatives of the Board, of the Institute and of the
Drapers' Company. With the funds supplied by the
Company and the Institute the committee were enabled to
try some interesting educational experiments. Six centres for
workshop instruction were equipped, and children were received
into the classes from voluntary and board schooL A scheme
of instruction was prepared with the object of bringing into
prominence the disciplinary character of the teaching, and of
distinguishing it from the rule-of-thumb methods adiopted in
the workshop of commerce; and the experience of foreign
schools, especially those in France, was utilized. The fears of
trade unions lest the action of the school board would have
the effect* of increasing the number of trade caipenlen were
minimized, and the real value of manual tiaining as a part d
general education was for the first time iUustrated. The
experiment proved so successful that H.M. inspectors reported
most favourably on the usefulness of the teaching, and on the
value of the Instruction in improving the general intcUigence
of the pupih, and particularly in rendering them more skilful
and observant. Indeed, it was found that their progress in
ordinary school studies was quickened by the practical training
of the shop. As the result of these experimenu the " use of
toots " was recognised in the government code of 1890 as a
subject of school instruction on which grants were to be paid,
and towards the cost of which the school board rate was applic*
able. Later, following further experimenu by the joint-com-
mittee, Uundry-work and housewifery were included in the
curriculum, and the problem of wtrodudng so-called technical
teaching into elementary schools was solved without any special
legislation. Since 1890 manual training has formed a part of
the elementary school system. The instruction includes the
use of wood-working and metal-working tools, but stops short
of teaching any particular trade, and is thus differentiated
from the teaching given in the municipal schools of Paris.
The new code also provided for a more rational systeflai of
object-lessons and of rudimentary science teaching, encouraging
practical exercises and experiments to be worked by the pupils
themselves. The joint-committee having completed iu work,
ceased to exist in 1900.
The act of 1889 and the code of 1890 enabled local authoritiea
and school boards to provide out of the hites technical instruc-
tion for the working classes. The rate available under the
act was limited to one penny In the pound, and very gradually,
and with some hesitation, certain k»cal authorities put the act
in force. The motive power required for promoting technical
instruction, other than that in elementary schools, was, how-
ever, still wanting, and might have remained so for son^e time
longer if it had* not been for the accident that in the following
year, during the discussion In pariiament of the question of
compensation relating to public-houses, the residue of the beer
and spirit duty was found to be unappropriated, and was
allocated to county and county borough councils and made
available for the purposes of technical education. The Local
Taxation (Custon)S and Excise) Act, which became law on the
i8th of August 1890, was " an act for the distribution tM»l
and application of certain duties of customs and raxaiiM
excise,'* and it provided that the residue of the ^* «»*
Ettglnh share of these duties should be distributed between
county and county borough funds, and made applicable
'Mor the purposes of technical education within the mean-
ing of the Technical Instruction Act,- 1889.'* By the express
terms of this act this disposition of the residue, which then
amounted to £743,000 for EngUnd and Wales, was revocable
by parliament, and the allocation of the fund to education
was Mt fa the discretion of the local authorities. The grant
^not geaer^y regarded as penaanent, and locd'
TBCHNIOAL EDXTCATION
+95
authoritloi hcdtfttttl to ctommit tKemsel ves to onf deiltifte educa-
Uonal achemes. Indeed, it was seriously doubted whetbci such a
windfall was likely to be made a permanent annual contribution
tnm the state to the pucposes of technical educatioa. But
gradually ntall sums were provisionally voted in aid of existing
schoob; and when the then Chancellor of the Exchequer
declared that, if the " whisky " money (as it was commonly
called) were found to be well and carefully expended, no future
Chancellor would be able to divert it to any other purpose,
local amhorilles began to consider how the money that had
faUen into their hands might be best employed to meet local
educational needs. Special committees were accordingly
formed, consisting in many casies not only of mem^rs of the
county or county borough council, but also of other persons
versed in educational matters, to whom the prepara-
tion of schemes of instruction soluble to the several
dlArkts was referred. The coibmittees so con-
stituted, known as technical instruction committees,
were established in different parts of the countiy, and to these
bodies was delegated, subject to periodic reports to the council,
the responsibility of dealing with the moneys at their disposal.
The technical instruction committees proceeded in nearly all
cases to elect as secretary a genilenoan of scholarly attainments
and educational experience, capable of advising as to the
organization of schools and classes in accordance with the terms
of the act and the special requirements of the district. As a
result of the acts of iSSg and 1890 local educational authorities
altofeiher distinct from school boards came into existence,
each with ao organizing secretary acting as educational officer
for the district. The creation of these educational authorities^
with functions, however, limited to technical instruction, marks
the moat important step in the organization of education
since the estabKsbment of school boards.
By special minutes of the Science and Art Department
new subiects were from time to time included under the teno
Cmnh *' technical," and the definition of technical education
"*■ was gradually widened. Annong the subjects first
added to the Ust were those included in the "programme
of technological examinations'* of the City and Guilds of
London Institute, and the teaching of technology, as distinct
from science, was thtis for the first time officially recognized
and aided by grants from public funds. Later, commercial
subjects and modem languages, the theory and practice of
agriculture, and the arts and crafts underiying various cottage
industries were accepted as branches of technical instruction;
and whilst, 00 the one hand, the definition was so widened as
(0 include neariy all that is comprised in the curriculum of a
secondary school, the teaching of certain technological subjects
approached so near to trade teaching that the provision ex^
dvding " the practice of any trade or industry or employment "
from the teaching sanctioned by the act appeared likely to
be overlooked. Practical instruction in engineering, weaving,
printing, photography, plumbing, carpentry, brickwork, book-
binding and other subjects was encouraged by the City and
Guilds Institute, acting as a central authority for education of
a distinctly technological chsfractcr; but notwithstanding the
continued increase in the number of practical classes in different
branches of technology, the teaching of technobgy as distinct
from that of sdeocc and art received at this time no direct
support by means of grants in aid fnam the state. Under
the new conditions, however, of assessing the government
grant, introduced into the Directory of 1901-03, instruction
in technology received some form of recognition.
The county of London renuined for some time behind other
counties in utilizing the provisions to the Technical Instruction
SctosM Act of 1889, by devoting to educational purposes the
^ ^ funds placed at iu disposal by the Local Taxation
(Customs and Excise) Act, rSpo. The funds applic-
able to London, which in the first instance amounted to
about £163,000, but soon reached a total of about £aoo.ooo,
were wholly employed for a period of two yeary in relief of the
Tha wuiU of London ««re not sA firtt undcsstoed;
and it was thought that sufficient fiihds for educational purposes
might be obtained from other sources. A scheme for the
utilization of a fairly large income arising from the City parochial
charities had been under the^ consideration of the Chanty
Commissioners. It was first published in 1888, and, after
some discussion and modification, was sanctioned by parlia-
ment. According to that scheme a Capital sum of about
£r 50,000, supplemented by a like amount obtained from the
City companies and Other sources, was made available for the
building of technical and recreative institutions for the poorer
classes of the working population of London, similar to the
Poljftechnic in Hegent Street and the People's Palace in lilile
End Road. The scheme created a ceiitral governing body for
the general supervision of these institutions, and placed at its
disposal an income of about jC5o»ooo available for educational
purposes, which, with the falling-in of leases, was certain to
increase. Provision for the endowment of eight polytechnics
and of other educational institutions was made in the scheme,
and the Goldsmiths' Company undertook to erect and maintain
from its corporate funds a ninth, which has since been presented
by the Company to the University of London, and uilder the
name of the Goldsmiths' College is used mainly as a school for
the training of teachers. Since then other similar but some-
what smaller Institutiotts have been established.
Before the erection of these new institutions was completed
It was ascertained that the annual income at the disposal of
the trustees for the purposes of maintenance and equipment
was altogether inadequate; and a committee of inquiry having
been appointed by the London County Coundl, an exhaustive
report on the educational needs of the metropol^ was prepared,
which led to the formation of a Technical Educatwn Board for
London, conasting of membeiB of the County Coundl, who
formed the majority of the board, and also of representatives
of the Gty Parochial Thistcea, of the City and Guflds InsUtute,
of the School Board, aod of other bodies; and to the board
ao constithted the coundl entrusted the spending of the funds
available under the Local Taxation Act, 1890. The board held
Its first meeting on the 28th of April 1893, but ceased to have a
separate existence in 1903 on the passing of the London Educa-
tion Bill. During those eleven years the board, with
the assistance of its organizing secretary, succeeded
in arranging a comprehensive and varied scheme of
scholarships, which, among other benefits, enabled
chiklren from the dementary schools to ootittnue thdr
education in intermediate schools, and tu pass on to
the higher technical institutes and imiversities. It supplemented
by large granU the income of the polytechnic institutions; it
established or assisted in esUblisfaing new trade schoob; it
provided hboratories, and aided in the teaching of practical
sdence in a large number of secondary schools; it encouraged
the teaching of modem languages and commercial subjects;
it assisted in founding a school of economics, which has become
a constituent part of the new University of London, and utilized
in nearly all mstances with the best possible results the large
annual income allocated by the County Coundl to tcchnioil
education.
The ck>se connexion between technical and secondanr education
was clearly indicated in the comprehensive definition ol the former
term given in the act. But it soon became manifest ^
that no great progresB could be made m technical educa- T^**^
tion unless further provision were made for secondary *** „"
education and unless some improvement couki be effected TSunHtam
in the methods adopted in secondary schools. The cry " "
of Matthew Arnold for the better organization of secondary educa-
tion had, 80 far, met with no adequate response. There was BtHI
an insufficient supply of socondarjr schools, and a complete absence
of advice or control by any central authority. The uigency of this
need was recoemsed w the *' Natkinal Association for the Pko-
motton of Technical Educatwn." which at a meeting held in July
1889 resolved to alter its title by the addition of the words "and
Secondary " after " Technical." This verbal alteration represented
a widespread conviction that technical and secondary education
ate of necessity cbsely associated, and that future efforts should
be directed towards the improvement and oiganixation of secondary
education and the union of different grades and branches of educa-
tion under a single govenanent department. That the Tcchntcaf
Wtkmi
tb0T9el^
were now dearly understoort
and distinct measures wou)
technical instruction in elc.
bi^er grade. During the >
by private membeis. T\s»*
the one dealing with elemr
boards to give technical tea-
ment; the other enabling i
tribute to techiiicai schoo*
fully discussed, bat in th
of the voluntary school ai
support, and the bill was '
of another legislative mc-*
the solution of the dif
which became law in u-
cstjiblished in every adm
with the management C
ness of that county."
I^j^ known as cc-
tew/a- powers simil
m*aiMt, the old bo*
'«*»• bodies were
ducted by the iquarif
powers on certain b'
which were known a
county municipal bo<]
of entrusting technicn!
and accordingly, on
introduced into the I
county and county
sanitary authorities,
id. in the £ for the i
instruction in their •
tion from school i
resented the Umitat
tions; but the gov(
much obstructioo r
h^yiag pused thro
a aincle sitting. 1
•ducation, being t
««^nicaJ instrucuV
^« act (Tecbni.
^* •"■", ^ ft. * ••w*e and
• - ,.-, .v:.4*l»f the
. - . ^^^^ infA law.
\ . * vnt^ .< t»* Edi
-« "^^ "^i A^ntia the
• ; Kv-«»e bw in th
' ■',--•'».«« Apnl«90o. ....
•' ^^)« (be act tnu» mxame
-^*"^^uo- and technologica*
- •• V jkt JJ«" *^ creation of i
'\i-m to be appointed b;
• " "' 'JJprtai* and keep a registe
«.» *^ ^ «Md. the board conststei
istan
ry for
inted,
at the
•. s the
I that
-w other
nnber
9f the
•'>'' Je for
•^ juilds
\ ations
^■^ whole
^^— »^. .^ cience
"* formal recognition was given to
^iite. and the Examination Board
^of the Institute was strengthened
\% Mounated by the Board of bduca-
* jtid art. as applied to speciik trades
^IK under the direct supervision of
>^ Act of i^ which freed technical
,rt whi" ■ " ■
:.»
.listinc
. had
(- scho
^ the
fies.al
• mclei
■ mcas
was
V 8Ch4
'he e^
' -men
Edii
edu
>vcrf
ache
'tea 1
*cl»;
J^^xi
tx ta^^*^ ^ schoUrsKips enabling
:«y^^^l*chools to the universities.
^**a of education was effected
^^^'^.^J not apfJy to London,
o co*^'"' education comnfiittees
«^^5^T*Pt a ceruin number of
1*1^ *" educational matters or
««- r"» *-ondon County Council.
tcror>»^ abolition of the school
^ tcf **^^ ^^ **' persons from
^^^* represent the raicfMyers,
"^^^^^w for the direction gi
ION
Ion, the Board of Education fdubtattlsf ««
ired by the London County Council whicb '
ration in the hands of a committee con-
sisting exclusively of members of the council with the '
odditioa of some women. At the municipal elections of ^
1907 the Progressives, who had hitherto formed the i5S^
maioritv nf the council, wcrc defeated, and the Municipal "■■*;
■eversed in this respect the policy of the previous couxurll
of 1 90 J was strongly opposed by Nonconformistis and
•ral party generally, and at the general election of 1006
It was returned pledged to effect such changes ix& i^ata
to the local authorities a more direct control
tary schools. Accordingly, one of the first ^"^ oj—
ttroduced was a new Education Bill, which, ^^ nm^
tracted discussion, was passed by the House ol OotnnsorK
cd in several particulars by the Upper Chamber. Xhe
s of the Lx>rds were rciected tn Uoc and the bill -s^as
In the following year some of the less contentious
«.>dU3C3 wcie embodied in the Education (Administrative ProviauMMi
Bill, which received the royal assent, and among ita clauses ^ras
' definition of education, so as to inciiMie tttty
might be pronounced by the boaixi to be
;r. By an administrative act of
tment under a separate secretary, ^^^J^
rlinister of Education, was created m£M9m9»
without any act of paHiaraent, pvmcticaJly
antrol of its educational machinery.
I ne loregome statements refer more particularly to England and
Wales, to which prior to 1907 all acts of parliament dealing with
education subjects were generally applicable. In Scotland and in
Ireland the organization of technical instruction pro> ^^
cceded on different lines. A Technical Schools Act, ScoOasA
appficable to Scotland only, was passed in 1887. 7*his act enabled
school boards by means of the school funds to provide and maintain
technical schools. The act has proved to be practically inopera-
tive. In Scotland, however, school boards have been entrusted
with much larger powers, and possess greater influence, than ia
England. Many of the secondary schools of Scotland are under
the direction and control of school board authorities. The residue
of the b«r and spirit duties under the Local Taxation Act applicable
to Scotland was much less, even relatively to the population, than
in England, and was, moreover, divided directly among so many
different authorities as to be in most cases of little or no real value
for educational purposes. Recently attempts ha\-e been made to
combine the funds distributed among different neighbouring autho-
rities, so as to bring them under the control of a singfe bodjr for the
benefit of a larger area- In the year 1896-97 the Education De-
partment of Scotland was entirely separated from that of England,
and there was a consequent transfer of functions and grants from
he latter to the former. By the passing of the Local Taxatioa
Scotland) Act, 1898, the residue erant was relieved of certain
;harges. and additional funds thus became available for technicaJ
Klucation. No grants for science or art instruction arc made ro
Scottish schools from the English Board of Education; but scvcra/
>f the technical schools avaQ themselves of the exaniinarions ok
he board, and also of those of the City and Guilds of London
Institute. Among the equipped technical colleges in Scotlaad xavf
3e mentioned the Hcriot-Watt College of Edinbucgh, the Glasgow
ind West of Scotland Technical College. Glas«>», the Robert
3ordoo CoUece. Aberdeen, and the Technical College. Dundee.
These do not differ in any essential points from corresponding achoob
n England. The system of instruction is veiy similar, and amor«
he subjects taught will be found most of those included in the
Regulations of the Board of Education and in the programme of
:he City and Guilds of London Institute. Special ftt?"^" Jf
jiveo in sonus of these schools to the teaching of the pnncipte zva
aracticc of the different branches of textile roanu/acturt Manual
[raining forms an important part of the cumculum of pnnwry
md secondary schools, and the instructions to rnspecfofson science
teaching issued by the Scottish -Edurttioa Department sbo^J
lust recognitbn by the department of the prooer methods to w
adopted in the teaching ofscience as • part orgeneraicducation.
Under the Scottish system leaving certiibto are awrded on the
results of examinations heW at the dose of the <5''«nv«J«»
»orse. These examinations cause the v^mam « "Jf''*"^'
y^ith the ordinaiy school work. At the umvenitia « WJ^Jl'
Glasgow and Aberdeen the higher technical 'F^'^ZIJa'
subjects as engineering and naval architecture 1$ well devctop"^
Ireland remained bihind Great Bntafn as 7»'??/r"fJ?r
technical education. Although theTedrnwl i«i'«t»^' ('^'
applied to I reland as weU as to EngUnd and Wato. VW i^Hat.
little use was at first made of its provisions. WfT?*^', r^xioVL
the Irish share of the funds available under tj* "TddS f«
Act is definitely allocated to i«tern»edlafeed«ica»J J*"^^^
known as the Recess Committee V^t!\^T^ta of the
, and important recommendations, vnioi *a w •«« (7^ i\^
^ Agriculture and Technical Instruction ^^^TiA^ci^tfi^^-
reports of two commissions, one onmanM fa"q F^ «fncarioa
tK>n Inpdmary schools, and ^^^'^^j^^SS^^V''^
c««lainDd aaggrsfiioas which |a«« eoaaiiaianenM*
TECHNICAL BDUCATION
497
taacluaf of tecbnoloQ^ sod fadpeil to praoiote a btlter cyatem of
ififtmctioa in Iffrt schoOtiL '
The work «aa taccearfully ceamenMd mdet dte direetioa of
dtt ocnrly comuitvftd OepMtmeBt of Agvicultofo and Technaal
lastructaon. cooiistm|of an A(riciiltiital Boim], a Board of Techucal
lostniction, a Council of Agriculture, and a Consultative Cpnunittee
of Education. The department had an endowment of £166.000 a
year, which wkB distributed among the seveial branchea. It took
over the dutica of several other adminUmadve bodies, and the giaat
for Bcieacc and art for Ireland, and the jjant in akl of technical
instruction in Ireland as defined by the Technical I n st r uction Act
of 1889, previously administered from South Kensington, was
uans fe rre d to the new department. Among the industries for
which the department is now occupied in organising courses of
are engineering, textiles (particuUdy linen nunufac-
>uikiing» agricuTture and the fisheries The operations
It extend to all grades of schooljk from the Royal
department extend to all grades 01 scbooi|k from the Royal
t of Science, Dubfin, oiganned as a Central Technkal College,
! elementanr and secondary schools which the department
tuie), shipbuikiing,
of thedr
to the ,
eaters fw the adiainistratibn of the science and art giants to the
evening technical classes conducted by kieal authoritiea. The first
annoal report of the department, published November 1901, showed
that aucGCssf ul efforts had been made to improve science teaching
es a part of general* education, and to develop on correct Imea
mamial training and technological iastniction. The flnmicipal
school of technology at Belfast, opened fai 1907, is an Institutioa
simtlar in many respects to those of Manchester and Birmingham,
ead praviding technical instructbn in connexion with a great
variety of induatries. There is also a hif«e school at DubUn, and
Kboola have been established in Coric, Limerick and ebewbera
BtsvUg of fJDi^firfife.— Experience has hdpcd to wuhlish
certain principles as applicable to technical education. It is
Q^H^t now generally admitted that whilst the agis at which
to ia# the ordinary school training should cease, aod technical
or professional education should commence, must
vary for different classes of workers, the teaching
special to any industry or employment should supple-
cisa ment,. and not form part of, gexieral education. The
'** subjects entering into the school curriculum may be,
aad in certain cases should be, sekcted with reference to
their applicability to certain callings, but they should be so
tavglU as 'to become Instrumental in the formation of mental
habits and the development of character, the mere knowledge
«r skUl acquired being of secondary importance. In the teach-
bg of science there baa been a marked chanse in method.
Former^ the osefulness of the knowledge to be derived from
the study of nature gave to physical science its chief claim to a
place in the school curriculum, but It is now hdd %haX the real
value of the study consists in the o^Mrtunitics it affords of
cxerdsing the pupu in accurate observation, and of developing
icsonrcefulness and powers of independent thought and reason-
ing. Whilst the opinion in favour of postponing as long as
drcnmstances permit all specialized instmction has t>ecome of
bte yean more pronounceo, there has been a growing tendency,
sot oiJy in England but also on the Continent and in the United
States, to associate technical teaching mote ck>sely with work-
dbop pfBctioe. The professional or trade teaching, wUch Is
suppinaentary to primary or secondary education, is more
practical and less easily distin^ishable by the ordinary ob-
server Iron the training of the (actory or worhahopb This
tendency is shown in all grades of te c h n ical education. The
technkal institutes established in London and in the large
EagUah nannfaauxxng towns, attended mainly by fytnng
students, axe provided not only with expensive laboratory
apparatus for the teaching' of applied science, but also with
tools aad machines for the teaching of technology; and some
of the depaitments of tbese schools are equipped so as to
resemble a small factory. This is the case in the depa r t me nts
devoted to the tfarhn^g of mechanical and electrical engineer-
nag, weaving, and spinmag, watch- and oiock-maklng, boot and
shoe manulactune, aad the diffexcnt branches o{ the building
aad printing trades.
So far, however, no attempt has been oude, except, in very
^wdal cases, to teach the practice of any spedal Uade* The
teaching of technology is distinct from trade teaching. In sJI
the technical institutes of London, and in most of those of other
towns, DOM but persons- actually eng^^ed in the industry, the
technology of which they are desirous of studying, are admitted
to the workshop classes. The instruction given in such classes
is vexy diffecent as regards method, and also in its aims and
objecU, from the training of apprentices in the factory or trade
shop. The tools and appliances are the same, but they aee
used rather as a help to the teachers in illustrating priadpldi
than as a means of enshling the student to acquire that
dexterity and skill which constant practice can akuie secure.
With the general cessation of apprenticeship, as formerly oader-
stood, it is only in the school workshop that the young artisan
has any opportunity of learning the use, aad the principles
underlying the use, of the instruments and appUaaces oonnecicd
with bis trade; and in those mduttrics in which automatic
nuchiaeiy is gradually displaring hand labour he is altogether
depeadent upon school teaching for any knowledge he may
wish to acquire of the processes iovolved in the particular
manufacture, in some small section of \khich he is exclusively
engaged. Modem technological teaching is essentially practical,
but it is nevertheless different in kind from the mechanical
and sectional practice of the factory of conuaeroe; aad except
in some few, main^ artistic, crafts, there is no ^t^utmM
entrance to a trade through the door of the school wta»
workshop. In other countries, purticularly in France, ^ nfikwi
the case is different. The school, in many branches *'*^*
of industry, is accepted as a substitute for the shop, aad the
lad is so trained that he acquires in the school not only a know-
ledge of the principles of the trade, but sufficient dexterity
and skill to enable him, on leaving school, to take his place
among wage-earning operatives. It is only in day schools, in
which the pupils spend the greater part of their time ia work-
shop exercises, that trade tearhing can be so devektped. There
are schools in Enghind ia which maaual traiaing ia wood and
metal work Is carried beyond the limits of mere educatiooat
discipliae; but evea in those schools no q)ecial trades are
tau^t, aad the experieace of reoeat yeaxs has only tended to
emphasize the principle, that the education given in the
ordinary day schools, whether primary or secondary, should
be formative and general, rather than techaical or profcssioaaL
Owing partly to climatic conditions, and partly to the fact
ibat the hours of labour are somewhat shorter in England
than abroad, evening schools of technology are likely to occupy
a permanent j^ce in the Kagllsh system of technical education.
In these schools all grades of wori^men will continue to teceive
their special supplementary instruction; and it is from among
the worlunea so trained that foremen and works managers will
generally be sdected. Some intermediate teaching, however,
is necessary between that of the elementary school and the
technical class as a preparation for technological instruction.
A knowledge of worludiop arithmetic and geometrical drawing
is indispensable, and it is in the evening continuation classes
that such knowledge may be best acquired. These classes
supply the teaching which may be regarded us the connecting
link between elemenury and technological instruction, and
attendance at such classes will gradually become a necessary
condition of entiy to a technologicid course.
By means of scholsrships ^ large number of chfldren from the
elementary schools are now enabled to continue and complete
their genoal education in day schools of a higher grade. Kearly
every county has its scheme of scholarships, providing facilities
for the further education of children who show special abilities
and aptitudes. These scholarships are awarded under con-
ditions which differ very widely In different localities. Pupils
from the Uf^-grade schools eater industrial life at a hter
age than those from the elementary schools, and, by reason of
the more advanced Instruction they have received, are at ooce
qualified to enter daaaes in technology. In these schools
pncticsl teaching is further deveh>ped, both in the laboratory
and workshop, but as a part only of the ordinary school course;
and it would be inootiect to describe such schools as ktknUa/
in the strict sense of the term. The position of these higher
grade schools in the general educational scheme was thesnbjec
of |in imuoitant action {Mex v. Cockerton, ipox) in which it wa
498
TECK
decided by tlw law ooarts tbat the school boards ifcre wuble
to apply the rates to the support oC such schools. They were
aocordktgly withdrawn from the sphere of elementary edaca-
tion, and have since been treated as schools of a seoondaiy
typo. The judgment on appeal was conclusive, that the aeboal
boiatd rates could be employed only for th« provision of elo-
mentary education for chUdren, whether in the day or evening,
and this decision paved the way for the dissolution of school
boards, and to the transfer of their duties and functions to
the county and borough councils under the Act of tgoa.
As reg^txds secondary schools proper, in their relation to
technical education, it is important that the curriculum of
jy •/ *^^ schoob should be sufikiently varied to afford a
sound liberal and preparatory training for the
different branches of professional work. It is
generally admitted that at lei&st thfee types or de-
partmenU of schools are needed— ^a) the classical, {b) the
mathematical, and <c) the modem language type; and that
each of these divisions should contain sub-departments. The
first of these varieties would be available for the general training
of students wishing to enter the legal, theological or literaty
professions; the second for those preparing lor engineering,
manufacturing or agricultural pursuits; and the third would
be found best fitted as a preparation for a commercial calling.
These schoob would correspond to some extent to the three
kinds of secondary schools found In Germany^ and would be
available for students preparing to enter one or other of tlye
faculties of a modern university. The organization of different
types of secondary schools, and the cxirriculnm appropriate
to each, are matters which continue to occupy the attention
of educational experts. In accordance with the regulations
for secondary schools issued by the Board of Education in 1907,
substantial grants were made to secondary schools which con-
formed to certain conditbns as regards local control and un-
denominational religious iAstructbn, or the directive influence
of the board as regards curriculum and management over all
auch schools was strengthened. At the same time, manual
training and domestic adence were made essential parts of
the curriculum in boys' and girls' schools respectively.
The demand for technical edtication, which originally led
to the formation of the City and Guilds of London Institute,
directed attention to the methods of teaching sdencet drawikig
and dtber subjects, and to the necesMty of including science
in the curriculum of all grades of schools. The methods of
science teaching have been greatly improved. Sxp^mental
work has become essential, and methods of investigafton and
research have been applied to the teaching of a number of
subjects to which formerly they would have seemed inapplic-
able. A dose connexion has thus been established between the
workshop and the classroom, and practical Instruction is now
regarded as a necessary part of general education both ele-
menury and secondary, and is no less disdplinary than the
merely literary and oral teaching it has partly superseded.
This change in the school curriculum and in the methods of
instruction has narrowed the true significance of the term
" technical " as applied to education. By the term " technical "
as commonly used is now understood " technological " or
"professional," and whilst, technological instruction may
supplement either primary or secondary education, it is
necessarily distinct from either.
The conviction has been steadily gaining ground that auccess
in manufacturing industry, in the higher walks of commerce,
and in every pursuit requiring technical knowledge, depends
very largely upon the thorough and complete training of those
who are charged with the control of the different kinds of work
in which the army of operatives are engaged. Intelligent and
highly skilled workers are indispensable; but unless they are
properly directed by ef&dcnt and expert oflBcers they can effect
but little. It is undoubtedly due to the careful training of
flmuM the masters and leaders of industry that the Ger-
wMsmpit, imns have achieved so large a measure of success
;- Ma . technical pursuiu^ The recognition of this
fact b slowly but surdy fufluendng educational thou^t
and action in Great Britain; but Germany ustiU ahead in
the fadlities afforded for higher education, and in the ad-
vantage taken of the fadlities that exist. The number of
students in her universities and technical high schoob b still
in excess of those receiving a similar training in Great Britain.
The establishment, however,, of local univetsitics and the
schemes lor the award of schobrships adopted by local educa*
tion authorities, will tend year by year to lessen thb disparity.
Meanwhile, Germany has relaxed none o( her former efforts,
but b steadily occupied in the enlargement and impioveinent
of her educational Institution*. New schoob have been erected,
wherever and for whatever purpose they are needed, equipped
with every modem appliance for adentific investigation and
research. Bach professional career has its coneaponding high
school or university department. The economy of a wise am!
liberal expen<£ture on higher education b a recognized fact in
German statecraft.
For those who are intended to occupy the hlgheit posu
in industrial life, a eoond secondary education, supptcmcnted
by approprbte university trairung. Is the best preparation. It
b only in the university or tertiary grade of education that
specialized or technolo^cal training for the higher faidustiial
posts should commence. At thb stage of education, general
and professional teaching are more dosely assodated, and the
names of the faculties of the new universities in the United
Kingdom will in future indicate the several branches of pro-
fessional work to which the different courses of university atudy
are intended to lead. Of late there has been a marked develop-
ment of dbtinctly technical instruction in connexion with the
colleges of university rank. The error of restricting university
studies to a certain limited range of subjects, which led in
Germany to the establbhment of technicsl higli schoob as
institutions dbtinct from the unhreraties, has been avoided.
Engineering, in the broadest sense of the term, has been recog-
nized as a branch of university education of the same order
as medicine or bw. Laboratories and workshops have for
many years formed part of the equipment of the prindpal
university colleges. In the aUtutes of the university of London
a separate faculty b assigned to engineering, and part of the
work of the polytechnic iifitltutes Is corrdated with that of the
reconstituted university. A survey of the field of educatbn
shows that whibt the difference between technical and genera)
education b well marked in the primary and secondary stages,
it is the function of the university to Uberalbe professional
teaching, and to afford opportunities for spedalized study and
research in the higher branches of knowledge applicable to the
practical work of industrial life.
AOTROMTIES— See Sir Philip Maenus, Industrial EdneoHan,
r8SB, and presidentbl address to education aecHon of British
Association, t907; SchOnhof. Industrial EducaHon in Fronts, IMS;
Holsapfd, Dit Uchnischen JSeknkn, firt. (1697): Report of British
Royal Commission on Technical Instruction, 1884, and bter special
reports issued by the Board of Education; annual Reports of the
United States Commissioner of Education and of the United States
Commissioner of Labour: Report of English Departmental Com-
mittee on the Royal College of Science and Schod of Mines.
(P.M.»)
nCK, a ducal caistle fn the kingdom of Wffrttemberg,
Immedbtelv to the N. of the Swabian Jura and S. of the town
of Kirchheim, crowning a ridge (3544 ft.) of the same name.
It was destroyed in the Peasants' War (rs^s).
The duchy of T^ck was acquired earfy In the nth century
by Berthold, count of ZMhringen^ whose great-grandson Albert,
or Adalbert, styled himself duke of Teck. In x^Sx it passed
both by conquest and purchase to Wffrttemberg. The title,
which bad bpsed with the extinction of the Zfthringen line in
t439i was revived in 1495 by the German King Maximilian I.,
who bestowed it upolh the dukes of WttrttembetK. The dignity
was renounced by Duke Frederick William Charies upon
hb elevatidn to the rank of king in x8o6. In X863 the title
" prince of Teck *' was conferred by King WHllam I. of WOrt-
temberg upon the children of Duke Alexander of Wttrttemberc
TECUCI-^TEETH
499
<iSo4*x<85) by his moiginatk mftrnfflo wit^ CUiid2M« o^oaUm
Bhtdey, vmobled «s countess of, Hohcastein; in 167 1 Princo
Fnads» tho eldest soa oi Duke Aleuuider, wm created duke
of Teck. His eldest ton Adolphus 0>. 1868) vaa ia 1910 tbe
bolder of the title. .
TBCOCI iTtcnau), tbe caiutal of tbe Tecsd defMXtment of
RumeflUi pictufesqudiy situated among wooded bills, on tbe
B^t bank of the nver B^rlad, and at the juoctiflii of r^way^
tern Bacaut Beilad and Galats. Pop. (1900) 13^401. Tecuci
has » large transit trade in grain, timber, cattle and horses;
on tbdr way froM i^rtbem and eastern Moldavia to tSe
DanobiaA ports. Tbe neighbourhood of Xecud was tbe sceae
of a fierce battle in 1476 between Stephen the Great and the
Turks.
TBCUIUSH, TsanoHZ, or Tectoctha* (c» 1768^x81^,
American Shawnee ehief , was picobably bom in the old Shawnee
viOage of PiQua, ncaf the fUt of $pnngfield, Ohio, . between
n^ md 178a While atiU a youth he. took papt in attacks
tm fettkiB pasamg down the Ohi^ and in widely ejttended
buntiog expeditioos or predat^y forays to tbe west «Ad south;
and be served in the Indian wars preceding the Treaty of Gecciv
viUe in 1795. About 1800 his eloquence and his self-control
made him a kader in conferences between the Indi^^is and
whites. After 1805 the Indians of the North-West became
aioused by « series of .treaties caUing for new cessions of their
teniloiy and by tbe prospect of war between Great Britain
ami tbe Umted States* This presented to> TecnnuMh and to
las brother Tenskwatawa {U, the Qpen Door)» p^ularly
failed ** the Propbet," the opportunity to put into operation
a schease whkh followed the ambitious dzeam of Pontiac
With some scattesed Shawnee dai»s as a nucleus, the brothers
pfpceeded to ocganiae, first near Greenville, Ohio, and later on
the White and Tippecanoe livers in Indiana, " the. Prophet's
town," .which was baaed on a sort of communism a»d was
appatcaily devoted to peace> industry and aobriety, but tlieir
actual 1^ wsa to combine aU of tbe Indians from Canada
lo Floiida in a great democratic confcdency to resist the
enaoachment of the whites. Tribal organiaatioos were to be
disxcgsrded, but all warriors were to be represented at periodical
assemblages where matters of interest to all Indians were to
be definitely decided. The twofold influence that was to
dominate tUs league was the eloquence and political ingenuity
of Tecomseh and the superstitious reverence aroused by " the
Prophet." This programme alarmed the whites along the
Dorth-wcstem border. In the course of the next three years
Governor William Henry Harrison of Indiana held interviews
with each of the brothers, and during one of these, at Vhicennes
in 1810, the respective leaders narrowly avoided a hostile
encounter. Nevertheless " the Prophet " and Tecumseh re-
iterated their determioatioa to remain at peace with the United
Sutes if the Indians were unmolested in their territory, and
if all cessions beyond the Ohio were given up by tiie whites.
The treaty of Fort Wayne In 1809, which called for the cession
to the whites of some three million acres of land in central
Indiana, was a direct challenge to this programme, and when,
during Tecomseh 's absence in the South, Harrison made a
hostile move against "the Pro^^et's*' town, the latter ventured
to meet him, but was defeated on the 17th of November zSii
m tbe lamous battle of Tippecanoe, which hroke tbe personal
influence of '* the Prophet " and Ucgely destroyed the confede-
ncy built up by Tecumseh. Tecumseh still professed to be
friendly toward the United States, probably because his Brfttsh
advisexa were not ready to open hostilities, but a series of
border outrages indicated that the fatal moment could not
long be po6t|$oned. When, h June xStr, war brake out
Tecumseh jofhed the British, was commssioned a brigadier-
general in the British army, and participated in the skirmishes
which preceded General WiUiam Hull's suncadef «t Petroit.
He took an active part hi the sieges of Fort Meip, w^ere he
diqilayed his usual ckmency toward his prisoners* After the
* The nmw m mid ie mean *
■V jot nyifia pBitthcr*
battle of Pat^in-Bay, when Colonel Henry Proctor began to
reUeat from Maiden, Tecumseh bitUrly repraacbed him for
his cowardice and finally forced him to join battle with Harrison
on the Thames river on ^he 5th of (ktober 1813. In this battle
Tecumseh was killed, as traditionally reported, by Colonel
Richard M. Johnson of Kentucky, although this has never
been fidly substantiated. Like Poatiac, whom he doubtless
imitated consciously, he had a wonderful eloquence and a
power of organization rare among the Indians. His lyotber,
*' the Prophet," Remained with a small band of Shawnees and
died west of the Mississippi in 1854.
See Beirhmin Drake, TTie lift of licmnseh and efkis Br^/Jur li»
Prophet (Cincinnati, 1841): and Homer J Webiter. Ham*OH*9
Admimistration of Jftduma Territtry (IndianapoUs, 1907).
TBODIHGTOlf. an orbaa district in the Uzbridge pariia-
mentary division of Middlesex, England, close to the Thames,
S3 19. W.S.W. of St Paul's Cathedral, London, on the London
and South.'Westem railway. Pop. (1901) 14,037. The dis-
trict Is re^dentSal and the town is a resort of viatots both
to the liver and to Bushey Park, which Oes immediate^ sooth
(see Haxpton). The National Physical Laboratory, for making
scientific investigations of industrial importance, and for
mechanical testing, was opebed in Bushey Ifouse in tgos.
TSE^ a river of England, rising on Che eastward slope of
Cross Fell in the Pennine Chain, and traversing a Valley about
85 m. in length to the North Sea. In the earliest part of iu
course it forms the boundary between the counties of WesV
morland and Durfaao. Tbe head of the valley, of which the
upper portion is known as Teesdale, is not without desolate
grandeur, the hills, exceeding 2500 ft', in height at some points,
consisting of bleak moorland. A succession of falls or rapids,
where the river traverses a hard series of blade basaltic rocks,
is known as Caldron Snout: and from a point immediately
below this to its mouth the Tees forms the boundary between
Durham and Yorkshire ahaoat without a break. The dak
becomes bolder below Caldron Snoot, and trees appear,' coor
trasting with the broken rocks where the water dashes over
High Force, one of the finest falls in England. The scenery
becomes gentler but more picturesque as the river descends
past Middleion-in-Teesdale (Durham), the terminua of a branch
of the North-Eastcm railway from Darlington. In -this locality
lead and itoastooe are worked. Tbe ancient town of Barnard
Castle, Egglesttm Abbey, and Rokeby Hall, well known thcough
Sir Walter Scott's poem, are passed; and then the - valley
begins to open out, and the river traverses in sweepiag curves
the rich plaJA east and south of Darlington. The' course of
the valley hitherto has been genetaliy E.S.E., but it now tuzny
N.E. and. Hearing the sea, becomes an important commenaal
watarway, having on iu banks the ports of Stockton-on-Tees,
Thomaby-OR^TecB and Middlesbrough, and forming an outlet
for the rich Ironworking district of Cleveland in the North
Riding of Yorkshire; It is also navigable for barges up to
High WoGsall, xx m. above Stockton. For the last five miles
the course, bdov Middlesbrough, is estuarine. The drainage
area is 708 sq. m. No important tributary is received.
TEETH (O.E. /r>; plural of tooth, O.E. toYi, the modified
papillae or elevations oi the mucous membrane o? the mouth,
impregnated with lime salts. Each tooth has a biting part of
crown covered by enamel, a neck where the glim surrounds it,
and one or more roots or fangs fitting into sockets (alveoli) in
the jaw bone. For surgery of the teeth see Dentistry.
There are thirty-two permanent teeth in man, sixteen in the
upper and sixteen in the lower jaw; they are also arranged in
symmetrical sets of eight teeth on each side. The two teeth
on each side of the mid-line in front are " incisors " and have
cbisd-«haped crowns. Tbe mesial or central incisor of the
upper jaw is broader than any of the others, consequently it
bites agamst the central and lateral incisors of the lower jaw,
and the same want of exact adaptation continues throughout
the series, so that every tooth in the upper jaw except the latt
molar bites ai^lnst its- corresponding tcjioth of the lower jaw
and the tooth behind that.
500
TEETH
Nest to the inctton comes the "cinine tooth,** the crown
of which is somewhat peg-shaped, while behind this are the
two " premolars " or " bicuspids,'' whose crowns are flattened
from before backward and bear two cusps, the larger of which
ninth month, or even later;' then, after a few months, come
the central and lateral upper incisors; again a few months*
rest and the lower lateral incisors appear, followed dosely by
the first molars. After another rest of four or five months
come the canines, the eruption of which is a slow
process, while by about the end of the second year
the second molars have appeared, and the mflk den-
tition is complete. It will be seen from the above that
the milk teeth are cut in batches with resting intervals
t)etwcen.
As C. S. Tbmes points out, -We do not know what
causes .the eruption of the teeth; the growth of the
roots is not of itself enough to account for it. It is
possible, however, that blood-pressure may be the
determining cause. The first permanent tooth to be
cut is the first molar^ and thh happens duting or soon
after the dxth year. It docs not displace any of the
milk teeth, but comes down behind the seccmd milk
molar. During the seventh year the central milk
incisors fall otit and theSr place is taken by the per-
manent ones; the shed teeth are* mere riieDs of the
crown, all the root having been absorbed, though not,
as might be thongiht. owing to direct pressure of the
succeeding tooth.
The kteral incisots socceed their mflk predecessors at
about eight years old, the first premelat takes the plaov
of the first temporary molar about nine, the second pre*
molar that of the second temporary molar about ten,
the canine about deven, while the second molar oomet
down behmd the first abont twelve, and so is known as
Tbeupperrowhowsthe upper teeth, the lowerrowthe lowerteeth. The J^I '^!S"r,t^''S.w^
ciiiKulum is distinct on the upper incisors and both canines, the Umnial ^*^*°» »«t»*"y appears between eighteen and twenty, but
I Lateral faidMr f itt pivraolar I tit i
Cagioe md pmnokr
Fton AnbroM Blmdagiiaai. ta Caaaiagfiam't Tat'Btaktf AaMmjk
Fig. I.— The Permanent Teeth of the Right Side, Inner or
Lingual Aspect.
5rd molar
cusp on the upper lateral incisor and the upper canine.
is the external or labial cusp, while the smaller is the intcrnsl
or lingual. As a rule there is a single root, though sometimes
In the first upper premolar it is double.
'The three "mofairs" are placed behind the premolars, and
the upper and tower sets can be easily distinguished becaose
the upper have three roots while the lower have only two.
Of the three roots which the upper molars bear two are lateral
or external and one mesial (see fig. i), so that it is easy to tell
the outer from the inner side of an upper molar. The front
can, as a rule, be identified by the fact that the roots are gene-
rally bent a little backward at their tips, aind this applies to
other teeth thaiv the upper molars. In the lower jaw, owing
to the two fangs being anteroposterior, it is not possible to
tell the lateral from the mesial surface of the molars by them,
although the backward inclination of their tips shows the front
from the back. When it is^emembered that the upper teeth
overlap the tower externally it is reasonable to expect. that the
tower molars would show some rounding doe to wearing away
of the edge of the crown on the outer side, and this Is the case.
The grinding surface of the crowns of the upper molars shows
three or four cusps, while on tb«t of the tower four or five are
found.
Of the tnree molars the first is the largest, and the third,
or wisdom tooth, the smaQest, while the upper wisdom tooth
is smaller than the tower.
In the " milk teeth ** or temporary dentition of the child
there are only twenty teeth, ten in each. jaw and five in each
segment. They are two incisors, one caahie, and two so-called
molars. These molars occupy the positton which the permanent
premolars later on take, and it is held by many that the adult
molars really belong to the milk dentition, although they cannot
appear until the jaw has grown backward sufficiently far to
make room for them. The temporary teeth differ from the
permanent in their smaller size, their whiter cotour, the greater
constriction of their necks, and in the fact that the roou of
the molan are widely splayed.
The dates at which the milk teeth are cut are very variable.
The ^ — *~~' incisors come first betweeti the sixth and
may be much later, indeed it b sometimes never cist
at an, and when it is, it often does not come down to
a level with the other teeth. It is believed that man is gradually
undergoing a suppression of his last molar teeth, which, if the
process continue, will lead to our successors having a difierenc
dental formdhi from our own. It is interesting to notice that
tsl tnolar
FiMAirtrarBinnh«kaa.hCtoMia|lttm^ Tm^oik^ tittiiHli.
. Fic. 2.-The Milk Teeth of the Left Side.
The masticating surfaces of the two upper molars are shown abov&
In the second row the upper teeth are viewed from the outer
or bbial side. In the third row the tower teeth are shown
in a similar numner: and bdow are the masticating surfaccft
of the two lom-er molars. In the specimen from which th«
first upper molar was drawn the two outer or buccal cusps
were not distinctly separated, as is often the case.
in some of the tower races of mankind the last molar tooth is
nearly as large as those in front of it, md this is the case la
the anthropoid apes. A. Keith and D. Braden Kyto have
pointed out that the second and third molar teeth are suc-
cessively formed in the postciwr watt of 4h« maxittiffy aatnm
TEETH
50 «
•ad tbcir oawii iock bcckwwdL It U awiag to the graduaJ
growth backward of this mutram and the maxHIa that they
are rotated round a quarter of a drdeand so at last look down-
ward (see A. Keith« British Journal of Dental Science^ vol. xlv.,
June x6, 1902).
Extra teeth axe ocoasionaUy met with in the indior, premolar
and molar regions; their signfficance will be better realized
after the embryology and comparative anatomy of the subject
have been sketched.
Far an accarate and detailed description of man** teeth see A
Mammal of Dental Anatomy, by C & Tomes, Loodoo» 19O4.
Histology.
If a section be made vertically through a tooth all the exposed
part or crown is seen to be covered with enamel, which, microscopi-
caJly, is composed of a nomber of fine hexagonal prisms arranged
at right angles to the surface of the tooth, and formed chiefly of
Bone Cement or AWeoUrperkxteuas
cnaUpsih)sa or root-membrane
tmm ArtwM mnO^^m, k OwahsbMi's Tm*-9^$i Amtmn.
Fxa 3.— Vertical Section of Canine Tooth, to illustrate
its various parts, and its structure
calcttmi phosphate with small amounts of calcium carbonate, mag-
nesium phosphata and calcium fluoride, but containing practicairy
Qo organic matter. The enamel rcataoa the "deattae,*^ of which
hard yet elastic substance by far the greater part of the todth is
composed. It is made of the same salu as the enamel, but contains
in adcfitidn a good deal of organic matter and forms a structureless
mass throiigh which the fine " dentinal tube* " nu from the pulp
cavity to tte periphery. . «...,,
Surrounded by the dentine u the " pulp cavity,^ whkh is filled
by the tooth ptilp, a highly vascular and nervous mass of branched
connective tinue cells, which, in a young tooth, has a layer of
epithelial cells, the " odontoblasts, " lying close against the wall of
the cavity and forming new dentine. Slender processes ("' Tomes's
febnls **) project from these cells into the dentinal tub^ artd are
probably sensory. A nerve and artery etitcr the apex or the root
of the toothy but it is not understood how the nerve endau
Surrounding the dentine where it is not covered by cnamd u the
•* cement " or ** crdsu petrosa," a thin layer of bone which b only
separated from the bony socket by the alveolar periosteum.
Embkyoloct.
The Bp b marked off from the rest of the mouth region by a " lip
groove, which, in the case of the lower jaw, grows obliquely down-
ward aikd backward, and the mmm oi e uuka uia i oeUa bounding it
penetrates for some distance into the sotrouading mesoderm below
the bottom of the groove. Thb b known as the " tooth band."
On the under surface of thb oblique tooth band (still taking the
lower jaw), and close to its edge, appear ten thickenings, below eaun
of whx:h the mesoderm rises up mto a " dental papilla," and so
moulds the thickening into a cap for itself — the enamel organ.*'
The superficial cells of the dental papilla become the " odontoblasts **
and manufacture the dentine, while those cell^ of the cap (enamel
organl which are on its concave surface and therefore nearest the
dental papilla are called " ameloblast^" and form the enamel. The
cutting or grinding part of the tooth is first formed, and the crown
gradually closes round the dental papilla, so that at last, when the
root is formed, the central part of the papilla remains as the pulp
cavity surrounded by dentine except at the apex of the root. The
roots, however, are formed ilowly, and as a rule are not complete
until some time after the tooth b cut. The mesoblastic connective
tUsue surrounding the devclopi|ig tooth becomes condensed into a
fibrous bag which b called the tooth-sac, and round this the lower
jaw grows to form the alveolus. The crusta petrosa which covers
the root is developed from the tooth-sac U will therefore be seen
that, of the various structures which make up a tooth, the enamel
b derived from the ectoderm, while the dentine, pulp and crusta
petrosa or cement arc mesodennal.
So far only the milk dentition of the lower jaw has been accounted
for.
Retummg to the tooth band, it was notked that the enamel
orcans were formed not at the extreme edge but a little way from it.
From the extreme edge, which, it will be remembered, points inward
toward the tongue, the permanent tooth germs are derived* and it
is therefore clear that the permanent teeth must come up on the
lingual skle of their milk predecesaon.
For further details and literature see Dental Anatomy, by C S.
Tbmes, London, 1904: and Devdopnunt o/the Human Body, by J. P.
McMurrich. London, 1906.
COMTAKATITB AN4tOIIT.
The detaib of the teeth vary so greatly in diflerent animals and
g;roups of animals, and, on account of their being the most durable
tissues of the body, are so important for classificatory purposeiL
that they arc dealt with freely in the various zoological article^ All
that can be done here is.to give a broad general survey of the subject,
taking the detaib of man's dentition, already set forth, aa a point ol
departure.
In some fishes the teeth are continuous over the edges of the jawa
with the scales on the surface of the body, and there b no doubt that
teeth shouM be regarded as modified scales whkh have migrated
into the mouth.
In the C>'clostomata (lampreys and hags) the teeth are honay
cones, but beneath them there are papillae of the mesoderm covered
with ectoderm which resemble the dental papillae and enamel organa
althou^ no cakrification occurs except in Bdellostoma. In the
£lasmd>ranchii (cartilaginous fishes) the teeth are arranged ia
several rows, and as those of the front row faU out the hinder
row take their place; sometimes they are triangular and very shaip
as in the sharks, soihetimes flattenoa and arranged liloe a pavement
for crushing as in rays. These teeth only represent the crowns of
man's teeth, and thty are not embedded in sockets except in the
case of the teeth in the saw of the saw-fish (Pristb) : moreover the
dentine of which they are largdy composed resembles bone and
fills up the whole pulp cavity. Fxxun its structure it b known aa
In the Teleofitomi (tdeostean and ganokl fishes) there b great
variability; sometimes, as in the sturgeon, there are no teeth at
all, while at others every bone bounding the mouth, including the
branchial arches, bears teeth. As an example of a very full tooth
armature the pike's mouth and pharynx may be instanced. Both
in the pike and the hake hinged teeth occur; these bend backward
daring the passage of prey down the throat, but are re<rected by
elastic ligaments. As a rule, the dentine of the Teleostomi b of the
variety already described aa osteodentine. but sometimes, as in the
hake, it b vascular and b kiy>wn as vasodcntine.
In the Amphibia teeth are not so numerous aa in the fishes,
though like them they are not confined to the jaws, since vomerine
teeth are very consunt. The toad is edentulous, while the frag
has no teeth in the lower jaw. An extinct order of tailed am-
phibians, the Stegocephali, are often called labyrinthodonu on
account of the complex way In which the enamel ts involuted into
the Interior of the teeth. Amphibians* teeth are usually anchylosed
to the jaw, that is to say, directly united by bone.
In the Reptilia many and various arrangements oC the teeth are
found. In the Cheloma (turtles) there are no teeth, although the
ectodermal ingrowth (dental band) from which they are developed
in other animals b present in the embrya The place of the teeth
In these reptiles b taken by homy jaw-cases.
In the Ophidb the non-pdsonous snakes have two rows of teeth
in the upper jaw, one on the maxillae and another on the palatine
and pter^xoia bones, while In the lower jaw there b only one row.
These teetn are sharp pegs anchylosed to the bones and so strongly
recurved that one of these snakes would be unable, even if it wbhcd
502
tEETH
to do so, to let any prey which had once entered its mouth escape.
The poisonbtis snakes have a special poison fang in the maxilla of
«ach side; these have a deep groove or canal running down them
which transmits the poison from the poison gland. In the coh>
brine snakes, sudi as the cobra, the poison tang is always crccti
but in the vipcrine. such as our own adder and the rattlesnake,
there is a mechanism b^ which the tooth is only erected when the
jaws are opened for striking. At other times the teeth lie fbt in
the roof of the mouth.
In the lizards or Lacertilia the teeth usually condst of a serves
of pegs in the upper and lower jaw, each resembling the one in front
of it; sometimes, as- in the chafteleon, they are anchylosed by
their bases to the bone, but at others, as in the iguana, they are
fused by their sides to a ridge of bone which forms a low wall on
their lateral surface. In the former case the dentition is spoken of
as " acrodont," in the latter as '* pleurodont."
In the Ctx)Codilia the ieeth are fitted into definite sockets as in
mammals and are not anchylosed with the jawB. This arrange-
ment is spoken of as " thecodont."
Existing birds are toothless, but palaeontology shows that they
originally had teeth of a reptilian character.
In at) these lower vertebrates, then, the teeth are similar or nearly
similar in cliaracter; at least they are not divided into definite
indsor, canine, premolar and molar regions. Their dentition ia
therefore known as " homodont." Another characteristic is that
in almost all of them there is an arxangcmcnt for a continuous
succession of teeth, so that when one is lost another from behind
takes its place, and to this arrangement the term " jpolyphyodont "
Is applied. With a few exceptions a homodont dentition is also
polyi^yodont.
In the Mammalia the deferent groups of teeth (incisor, canine, &c.)
already noticed in man are found, and these animals are character-
iced, with some exceptions, by having a " heterodont " as opposed
to a homodont dentition. In the mammals too the polyphyodont
or continuous succession of teeth is reduced to a " diphyodont "
dentition, which means that there is only one relay of teeth to
replace the first set. In the marsupials the reduction of the suc-
oession is carried still further-, for only one premolar In each segment
of the jaw is replaced, while in the toothed whales there b no
•uccession at all. When one set has to do duty throughout life
4he dentition is called " monophyodont." There is a great deal of
discussion as to how the complex back teeth of mammals with their
numerous cusps were derived from the simple conical teeth whidi
are generally assumed, though not by all, to nave been the primitive
arrangement. One simple way of accounting for the change is by
the concrescence theory, namely that several conical h(Mnoaont
teeth have fused and so formed a single multitubercular tooth ; but,
although this process may be partly true, it does not account for
all the facts at our disposal. Another theory, which is more
favoured at the present time, is known as the " tntubercular," and
ia largely based on the researches of E. D. Cope and H. F. Osborn,
two American palaeontologists. According to this theory a simple
peg-like, or, as it b called, " hapkxiont," tooth develops two addi-
tional smaller pegs or cones, one in front and one behind the
original main cone, possibly owing to the irritation of the teeth
a^nst which it bites in the other jaw. This b known as the
triconodOnt stage, and it b found in some of the oldest extinct
mammab. As a later adaptation it b found that the two small
cones, the anterior of which is called the '^paracone^' and the
posterior the " metacone," become external to the orijpnat " proto*
cone " in the upper jaw and internal in the lower.
The surface of the tooth has now a triangular, shape with a cone
at each angle, and this is the " tritubefcular tooth " which b of very
common occurrence among the ancestral mammals. Other cusps
may be developed later, and so the quadricuspid and quinque^
cuspid molar teeth of man and other mammals are accounted for.
Thfs theory, although in a brief outline it sounds feasible enough,
has really many points of difficulty, and those who are interested
in the subject will find a fuller account in C. S. Tomes* DenM Ana'
Umy (London, 1904), and in W. L. H. Duckworth's Morphology
and Anlhro^lofy (Cambridge, 1904), in both of which references to
the original literature, which is now very voluminous, arc given.
Marett Tims (/. Anal, and Pkys.» vol. xxxvii. p. 131) suggests that
the evolution of the maromauan teeth is to be explained partly
by the tritubercubr and partly by the concrescence tncory.
It is impossible, in the space assigned, to ^ve even a brief review
6f mammalian odontology, but it may clear the ground for the
Bpecial zoological articles if an attempt is nude to define what b
m^nt by the different classes of teeth.
Incisor Udh are those which in the upper jaw have their sockets
in the premaxillary bone: they are generally chisel^shapcd, and
with their opponents of tnc lower jaw act like scissors. They are
n}oc{ally wcfl marked in the rodents, and in these animals the pulp
raroughout life continues to form fresh dentine, so that the teeth
are ever growiiu;, and it b absolutely necessary for their owners
to be continually gnawing in order to wear them away at their
cutting edges. The tusks of the elephant and the single tusk of
the male narwhal are modi6od incisors, while in the ruminants the
Ind' ' 's in the upper jaw.
first tooth behind the premaxillo-maxillary
suture, provided it be not far beHtni! Ht It U attnost always tl«
first of the premaxillary seeks, speaking accant^* ^diich b «loa*
gated and sharply pointed. As its name iinpUes it b well narked
in cIms and other Carnivora, but b found in many other orders.
It Is the special offensive and defensive weapon of many mammals,
and is greatly developed in some of the ungulates which are without
horns. «.f .. the musk deer. The tusks of the walnas and wild boar
are capincs. In many of tha Insectivosa, especially tUe ouile, the
canine b very hard to identify, as in these anlmflls an incisor Gt a
premolar may take on caniniiorm characters, or there may be no
tooth at all with these characters.
The prtmolar Ueth are those in the nlaiiUary bone which are
preced«l by milk teeth. Thb definition, o< ooucae, inchidea tha
canine as a modified premolar, and so it should no doubt be con*
sidered, though, if it b 'desired to Ittep it distinct, " behind the
canine " must be added.
Unfortunately for an accurate definition the first premolar behind
the canine b not always preceded by another tooth, and so it becomes
an unsettled question whether, in these cases, the tooth b a retained
milk tooth or a permanent one which has had no predecessor;
it b probable, however, that the latter b the right interpretation.
The nuiar teeth are those, behind the premolars, which are not
preceded by temporary teeth. As w^ pomted out, in man's denti-
tion they are pMbabfy teeth of the first or milk dentition whkh
appear late.
In front of the premolar teeth, and between them and the canine,
if it be present,, or the incisors, if it he absent, there b often a space
called the " diastema." It b best marked in the orders of Rodentia
and Ungulata, and in\the horse b familiar as the place where the
bit lies.
In recording the teeth of any particular mammal it saves time and
space if a dental formu^ be used. Thb simply means setting down
the number of each kind of tooth tn one side pi the upper and lower
jaw in their order fsom before backward. Thua roan's formula
would be, incisors ', canines 7, premolars -, molars *. Thb b caof
densedintoli?:^-
2.1.2.3
Some other types of dental formulae
Catarrfaine (old world) monkeys
Platyrhine (new worid) monkeys . ' 2.1.3 i
Marmosets jj^
Mostlemuia jjjf^
or . 2^3:3
Insectivorous bats (full series) .... t\^
(The upper incisors and both premolars may
be redoced by ona)
Frugiverous^bats . ^'^' "^
(The molars may be xadiicpd)
Insectiyora (teeth variable and somewhat uncertahi)
Hedgehog, fii3
Mole aadL3
(Five different denUl formulae haiw boea
3.1.4.3
Dog family (Canidae) )
Bear family (Ursidae) )
Civet family (Viverridae) )
Racoon family (Procyonidae) )
Hyaena family (Hyaenldae)
Weasel family (MusteUdae)
Eared Kal family (Otarlldae)
Sea] family (Phoddae)
Walma family (Trichechidae). adult
la a. young aaifl^ (probably)
2it2
3.14.3
3«.4>2
3.14.2
3 MI
3 I-3I
3.t.4.I
314.2
3.1.4.1 or 2
21.4.X
a- '.4.1
3.14-1
0.1.3.0
A-i^.a
3.14.1
TBBIOIALISM--TBETOTUM
S03
HippopoUmiM ., |!A|
Pig family tSvidbe) . , . gAl
Chevrotain CTragttUdae) .... |^
DeerfamnyCCcrvidae) . .£fi^l2:i3
ffoOow-borned nunioanti (Bovida«) * 0^^3- 3
Tkpir 3iLii
HocBe.(E<iiudae) |1^
RhinoGcros (^Wa .,
Pkocavia (Hyrax) .... ^-»^o4.3
i.0.4.3
Elcpbaat d.Li.li.c.c.d.hi (v4)re .^
000 5F45 S"
In thb ammal there ate no premoUn. bat the mfllc molars (d.m)
and true moiart mdaall/ replace one another from before, back-
ward tltfoushout life, ao that theiv are never nore thatt two back
teeth in eacn aegnient of the jaw atai^ one tioiew
Typical fodenU<6impllddeniata) • . »-0>(9-'M
HaRfandrebbita(Dm^Uddentatti) . ^^3-3
• MX2.3
Cebuea, — In the living toothed whales (Odontooeti) the denti-
tion is hoaodopt and oary be aa gre*t as ^. There Is
every reason to believe, howcx-cr, that they are derived
fiTMn heterodont ancestors In the whalebone whales
(Mystacooeti) the teMh are replaced by the whalebone in
the adalt. but in the embryo sifefatly cakaAed teeth are
oresent which are afterwards absorbed.
The m>modont dentition of the whales is a retrograde process,
and ia therefore not compareble to the homodont dentition of the
tertd^rates below fliammala.
SSreNM.— The dentition Is nonophyodont. The. manatee has
Tn the EdentaU the ant-4atere fMynnecotihagMae) «nd pangolins
(Manidae) are toothless, thooffh the latter have foetal tooth germs.
The aard varks (Orycteropodidae) are aooiewhat heterodont, while
the annadilloa (Dasypodidae) and sbtha (0radyDodMM!> lava a
homodont dentition, which, kke that of the whales, ts retrogrea-
live. In the giant amadillo (IViadM gfgasy tbe lommb it ||'
This animal therefore has a hundtcd teeth. In none of the
Edenuta are tbe teeth covered with aaaaseL
In the Marsapiafia the typical formula b ^^^ They ate
divided faito diprmdamt, in which there are not more than ^liAciiors,
often 3 M is kangaroo^ and foly^raMdoal, io wkSA the iadaDfa
are man than j, as ia the Tasaiaaiaa wolf (Thylarfaas) and Taa-
nunian devil (Sarcophihis). The marsupial teeth are often re>
gafded as ail milk tceth^ yet the order is not itnlly monet^vodont
because tbe germs ol the penaaneait teeth aiie feraied and afcartid.
Modem research, however, casta gwve doubt oa the accuracy of
this view.
In the Monotremata the Echidna of spiny ant-eater is quite
edentulous. whHe the ducte-raole (Ondthorhvnchus) has functional
molar teeth in youth, though in the adult tlieae are loet, and their
pbce is taken by horny platfft.
Reviewing the various tooth fotauilae «C laammala the (ottowiat
is usually regarded as typical: —
3.1.4.3.
3.14.3
Thia, it will be noticed, It the formdb at Uw pig. and it b also
that of almost all the Eocene Ungulata. Although the majority
of mammals are ^hyodont, or. In other words, the working teetn
MMtg to two denCitioBs, evidences have lately been submitted ei
vettigea of two other teriea, paa-.oa the labial sole of the milk
teeu and one on the Ungual side of the permanent series. If
these are subrtantlated there would be four dentitions — (i) pre-
milk; (a) milk; (5) permanent; (4) poat-ftennanent. The theory,
thonKh it ba<||ta over the gap between the polyphyodook kywer
vertebretes and, tbe apparently diphyodont mammals, %$ not by
any means estaDlIsheo. As th^ teeth are of such imjiortance in
the classification of animals, It will save continually repeated
explanations in other ankJos if some of the chief terms by which
tfaay an deacribed are recapitulated and briefly defined here.
1. i4ar«don|. a tooth which is anchylosed by its baae to the aununit
of a parapet on the jaw.
2. Bilfpkodoni, a molar tooth having two transverse ridges on
its grinding sutfaee, aa In the uplr.
S. Bnikyodvat, a loWKRMmed molar tooth— the oppo«fce d
hypeodont.
4. Bttnodoni, a tooth bearing conical cusps..
5. Diphyodont, having two series of teeth (milk and permanent).
6. Diprotodcnt, a marBuplal with not more than ^ incisors, often
only one on each side of the maadible.
7. Haplodoni, a tooth having a simple conical crown with a single
root.
S. HtltndoiU^ a dentition In which the teeth are not all alike,
chiefly cfaaffaekeristic of the MammaSla.
9. Homodomt^ a dentitkm in which the toeth are all alike aa in
many of the bwer vertebrates and some mammals^
10. Hypsodont, a high-crowned molar tooth, such as that of the
horse,--the opp<Mte to brachydont.
n. J^AtfdMT, a triasveracly ridgid mha tooth; cf. bHopho-
dont.
13. MoHopkyodonIt having only otie dentition (cf. diphy' and
polyphy-odont).
r^. Atidiittaeradate, a tooth, the crown of Which bcare numerous
oonkal cusps; bM by soma to be the primitive condition of the
1 for fflultitubcrtulate.
1^ PUurodoalt a tooth anchylosed to the inner ode of a parapet
n tnc jaw.
15. Polybunodmt, a synonym f(
16. Pofypkyodoni, having an endless sucoesaOn of teeth, as in
t vertebrates bdow the mam
17. Poiypnl^dont, a marsupial having aa indsor formub of more
18. Prohdont\ stage met with In fossil mammals whkh is an
advance on the haplodont tooth in that two small cusps are added
to tbe main cone^
19. SucdenK a back tooth adapted to catting aa in many of the
Camivora.
20. SeUnodcntt 9, molar tooth with crescentic ridges on its grind-
ing sur^ce as io most ruminants.
iu Tketodmt, a tOoth embedded ia a aocket or alveolus, aa ia
22, Tricoiud<nUt a fossil stage in advance of the protodont.
There are three well-marked cones in an antcro-postcrior line.
35. Tyitubercidar, a fossil stage succeeding the triconodont. The
main oooe b external in the tower teeth and internal in the uppefi.
A very common form of back tooth in fossil forms and one which
gives lU name to the " txitubereular theory." (F« G. P.)
TIIIOtAUini. tbe pia«tica of total abatiiience from all
IntozIcatJag Ikiaoiiy hence that fona of the tempeiadce move-
ment of irhkh the bMifr ia dM '* pledge " to abstain from aH
utfoadcttlog Bqwirt (ice TkiOBiAiiCB). Tliere seems no doubt
thai the word, whatever lu actual origin, b a strengthened form
of *'total,^ probably influenced by ''teetotum" (^.t.). Ao
•coRlinf to the Cemtury DieHomary, Xbb ttaetary of a New York
temperance lodety hitroduced a total abstinence pledge among
iU membetft, who waa thna divMad into tbosc who had taken
tbe old pledge, tlie O.P.'a, to abstain from spiritaoua Uquon,
and the T.'s, who had taken the new or total pledge. The
Englbb versidn, Uken ffom the accotmt by Joeeph Livcaey
in the SUnmck T^ahltier, Januaiy 1S67, la that one Ricbaid
TVimer, a Prefttofa artisan and ^ular temperanoe speaker*
declared at a meetfaig abocit 1853, that " nothing but ^ee-tec»
total would do." This repetition of the initial letter doca not
appear to have been due to hia stammering but to have been
a mere emphasis on the word. The cxpressiett seems to have
obtained instant leoognition and popularity. Both versions
are apparently authentic, and there seems no reason to suppose
th at they are not independent.
TBETDTUH, a form of top, used in variens gam«ls of chance}
the body is of polygonal *ape, marked with letters or numbcts,
irfalcb decide tbe iteolt of tlie game, according to the side %kicb
50+
TBGEA--TBGETTHOFF, BARON
Rtnains uppenaost on the fall of'Uie top after spinning. Stnitt,
who was bom in 1749, mentions {Sports Qnd Pastimes) Xht
teetotum as used in games when he was a boy. It seems that
in its earliest form the body was square, marked on the four
ades by the letters A. (Lat. aitfer, take up or away), indicating
that the player takes one from Uie pool, D. (LaL depone, put
down), when a fine has to be paid, N. (Lat. uiifl, nothing), and
T. (Lat. totum), when the whole pool is taken. Other accounts
give such letters as P.N.D. {dtmidinm, half), or H. and T. or
other combinations of letters.
TE6BA, an andent Greek dty of Arcadia, situated on a
plateau which is endoscd by Mts. Partheniom and Maenahis
on £. and W., and by two transverse ranges which separate
it from the plateau of Orchomenos and th6 Eurotas valley
respectively. The Tegcan territory occupied the southern
part of this space; the northern half, sundered by projecting
spun from the pairalld ranges, belonged to Mantineia. The
entire plain was well adapted for pasturage and corn-growing,
but was liable to floods owing to the lack of free outlets for its
water-courses. Hence the regulation of the teretkra or sub-
terranean conduits which drained away the overflow southward
was a matter of vita! importance both to Tegea and to Mantinda,
and a cause of frequent quarrels. By its vicinity to the water-
sheds of the Eorotas and Alpheua, and its command over the
main roads from Laconia to Argos and ther Isthmus, Tegea like-
wise was brought into conflict with Sparta.
Tegea was one of the most andent dties of Fdoponnesus;
tradition ascribed its concentration {synoecism) out of eight
or nine primitive cantons to a mythical king Aleus. From the
fact that several Cretan townships passed for cok>nies of Tegea,
it may be inferred that this dty had oversea connexions in pre-
historic days. The prominence which legend assigns to its
king Echemus in opposing the Heradid invaaon shows that it
was one of the chief Pdoponnesian communities in the prc-
Dorian epoch. For several centuries Tegea served as a bulwark
of Arcadia against the expanding power of Sparta; though
ultimatdy subdued about 550 bjc it was allowed to retain
its independence and its Arcadian nationality. During the
Persian invasion the Tegeana displayed a readiness unusual
among Pdoponnesian dties; in the battle of Plataea they
were the first to enter the enemy's camp. A few years later
they headed an Arcadian and Argive league against Sparta,
but by the loss of two pitched battles (Tegea and Dipaea) were
induced to resume their former loyalty (about 468-467). In 423
they broke out into open war with the Mantineians, and when
the latter rebelled against Sparta and allied themselves with
Argos and Athens, the Tegeans stood firmly fay Sparta's side: in
the decisive battle of Mantinda (418) their troops had alarge share
in the overthrow of the coalition. During the eai|y4tb>caitqry
before Christ Tegea continued to support SpartA against the
Manttndaos and other malcontents. After the battle of Leuctra
the philo-Laconian party was expelled with MantinHan hdp.
Tegea henceforth took an active part in the revival of the
Arcadian League and the prosecution of the war in alliance with
Thebes against Sparta (371-362), and the ultimate defection
of Mantineia confirmed it in its federalist tendendes. The
foundation of the new federal capital Megalopolis threw Tegea,
somewhat into the shade. It showed itsdf hostile to the
Macedonians, and in a66 joined the Chremonidean League
against Antigonus Gonatas. To the incorporation of Mantinda
into the Achaean League (253) Tegea replied by. allying itself
with the AetoUans, who in turn made it over to Oeoroencs III»
of Sparta (228). From the latter it was transferred by Anti-
gonus Doaon to the Achaean League (222); in si8 it was again
occupied by the Spartans but reconquered in 207 by the Achaean
general PhilopoeBien. In Augustus' time Tegea was the only
important town of Arcadia, but its history throughout the
Roman and Bysantine periods is obscure; it ceased to exist
as A Creek dty afur the Gothic invasion of 395. During the
GOMlMl.'qMiAlSw Il9 viaoe was taken by the fortress of
j|j^k|||M|ii«» lit 4ir. Turkish conquest (145^) NiUi had
^^^^EBJL%|( ft UMmi town called MonchU, which in
turn disa{q)eared when the new dty of Tripolitn mm iomalSnd
about 3 m. N.W. The site is now occupied by the small
viUage of PialL
AutaoviTiBS.— Strabo pp. 337, 388; Iteaaias viiL 44-49^
Herodotus L 65 it., ix. %$, 70: Thucydides v. 32-73:
HdUnica, \-i.. vii.; Polybius ii. 46, 54 ff., v. 17, xL 18;
46, 54ff., V.
W. M. Leake,_rrw«/i in the Morea (London, 1830), i. pp.' 88-iooi
>Iybiui
ta (Lc
a. 328-3^! E- Curtius, Pdoponnesos (Gotba, 1851). 1" pp. 247-
264; W. Loring in Journal of HeUentc Studies, xlx. (1899) ppi
25-89: Schwcdter, De Rebus Tegeattds (Leipzig. 1886): 'Urofim. t^
Ttykn. 'Act. iw6 toS TrycarueoQ ZwMrinw (Athens, 1896) ; for coins:
B. V. Head, Histona Numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 350-331;
and art. Numismatics, section €nek, § ** Arcadia.
(M. O. B. C)
Archaeology.— ThA temple of Athena Alea at Tegea b described
by Fnusanias as excelling all others in the PekipOBncse both
in sixe and in beauty of construction. The ori^nal temple
was said to have been built by Aleus, the founden of the dty;
it was superseded by a larger one which was destroyed by fire
in 395 B.C. The rebuilding was entrusted to Scopas, the great
sculptor; and it is probable that he not only acted as architect,
but also provided the sculptural groups which ornamented the
pediments. like the temple at Phigalia, it «'«*FnK'''>fd the forma
of all three ordersr— Done, Ionic and Codnthian. Pausanias
aaseru that the outer order was Ionic; but excavations have
proved that it was Doric. The pedSmental groups of the temple
represented at the front, the hunt of the Calydonian bcNsr, and,
at the back« the battle of Achilles and Telephus. Both subjects
were xntimatdy associated with the temple, lor Ataknta had
dedicated in it the face and tusks of the boar, which had been
awarded to her as the firtt to wionnd ft; and Tdephos was
the son of Herades and the priestess Auge. Two hcacb of
heroes and that of the boar were found before x88o; later
excavation, in 1883, showed the plan of the temple, which
had six columns at front and back, and thirteen U the sides.
In X900 the French school at Athens recovered more fragments
of sculpture, indudidg a head of Herades and the torso and
possibly the head of AtahmU, these last two of Parian marble.
The other heads are badly damaged oning to the fact that the
white marble from Doliana, of which they are made, does not
resist damp. But they still show in the intensity of their
exikresnon the power of expressing passion for which Soopas
was famous beyond all other andent sculptors. See Gkeek
Akt, fig. 63.
See G. Treo. MiUkeiL dL dtltftdk JnsL Atkem^ vL l88t; W.
DQrpfeld, ibid., viii. 1883: G. Mendd. BuUeUm de eonetpamdaiue
UMwfatf, XXV. 1901 : Paiuaiuas viii. 45-47. (E. Gn.)
TEOBRMSBB, a lake of Germany, in the province of Upper
Bavaria, situated in a beautiful mountain country, 2382 ft.
above the se^ 34 m. 5< from Munidi by rail to Gmund, a
villagp with a sution on the north shore. The lake ia 4 m.
long, averages 1} m. broad, and is about 235 ft. «lccp. Its
waters discharge ' throu^ the Mangfall into the Inn. The
southern part is environed by high and wdl-woodcd hills,
whik on the no r thr m side, where it drb o thfn on the plain,
the banks are flat and less attractive. Prosperous villages and
handsome vilas stud its ihflnts, and it is one of the most fre>
quented summer resorts in the vicinity of Mimich.
The grillage «f T^gArnaee* (pop. 1741 in 1905), on the tasft
bank, has a parish church dating from the x^ century, a
ducal castle which was fonnerly a Benedictine monastery,
and a hospital, founded in connexion with the large ophthalmic
practice of the late Duke Charies Theodore of Bavaxia.
See Freyberg, AdlesU (ksrkiHHe sm Te^nuee (Miiakh. l8a2):
Hack. Tesenuee (Mumch, 1888); Breu. J><r rdfowaw. /imjMiofHdU
Studie (Munich, X906).
TEGfrTTHOFP, WILHBUI YOU, Basok (r8t7-i87i),
Auscriaa adnnrBl, son of Lieotenant-Colond Kari von Tegett-
boff , was bom at Marburg, in Styria, on the 23rd of December
1827. After passing through the naval college at Venice, he
first served afloat in 1845, *t^^ >>i 1848 was made an ensign.
In X849 h« ^^u present at the blockade of Venice, resulting
in iu surrender. In 1853 be was promoted to be a lieutenant,
and during the Qlmean war was employed on a sort of polios
/ TEGGIANO^TEONBR
5<^$
Arty-flA-tlieSilMim vtadi of tht IMaabe* whksta bxovglit fa&B
to tlw favcMtebk Mtke of the Acthdnko M«ri«iK«n, ^lio in
iSS4 ^ad been snKnntMl bfead of the o«vy with tho s^ o|
sear-edmiimE. After ioae time in « ■dbuHifficul adentific
cspeditkn in EgjFpt, AmUa, -and the Red Sea down to the
■hod o£ SoDotia, Tegetthoff was promoted to the laak of
captain of the thiid dasi, ■and-fa& iSsft ha ooannanded the
corvette "Kffrtewog Friedridi" on the coast of Morocco,
then in a very diBtarbrf atate. The corvette Rtucned to
Trieste mt the iwiKinnBre of the war with Ftenoe; but during
1859 the French fleet oammttided the Adriatic hi vmsttyaoperlor
force* against -which' die Austrians woe fioweticn. After the
pcaee Tegetthoff Bade a voyage to Batatl as aida-de-camp to
>iariiniKan, and in yi6o^3 fhniBitndiJd a faoge frigate in the
Lcwant dniing the diatutliances in Syria, and on tile coast of
Greece or in the ficaeus at the time of the Greek fsvolation.
Towaids the end of i863'b«.was sent to the North Sea as conk*
modore in mmmand of two frigates, with which, together wkh
three small Praasian gunboats, ho' fought an action' with the
Danish squadron, and though wfchoat any' dedaiva aoccus,
snccfyrifri hi raising the blackade of the numthB of the %lbe
and Weser. The Austrian empenx answered TegeithoB** tde-
gmphic despatch by osiDther promoting him to be Rar-sdufanat,
and ooalertiBg on him the Oitditr of the Iron Crown. In r86s
he. commanded a smsfi squadron fak the Medltcttanean, and In
the war of t866 was placed in command of the-wbela elfectfva
force of the Anstrian navy. Withall his efforts, however^
this was maihedly -faiferior to the Italian foree opposed to it,
and wlirn tlie two fleets met oif Uua on the seth of July, the
decisive vietoiyef the Aaatxtans was antiitlydua to the personal
sapcsiority of Tegetthoff. and the ottoets whom he in great
measaft had tnUned. In numbers, hi ships^'and'in armament
the ItaMans were much the more powerful, b«t they had neither
a capable chief nor efficient offioecs. Tegetthoff was immedi-
suly promoted, by tdegrsph.to the rank- of vit»*admlnd, and
among the nuuay decoittions conferred on him was one from
bis focmerOMntnaaderv the unfortunate Marfitiiliafn, at this
time cmpefor of Me»(3a, whose body was in the following year
brought home by Tegettheff. In Bfaxch 1868 he wss appointed
brad of the navsl section of the War Office and commaadcr-in^
chief of the navy, which offices he held till his death at Vfenna,
sfter a very short ilhieas, on the 7th of April iSyi^-ln the
words of the aemi-olficial notice—*' su frOh fOr Oatcrrrich.*'
OKI-.)
tnCIAMO (anc. TegUmtmt formeriy called Dkmm), a town
hi Camphnia, Italy, in the provhica of SaJerno, 45 m. S.E. of
that town. Pop. (1901) 509S> I^ is rituated 2090 ft. -above
sea-level on an isohited eminence above the npperpait of the
valley of the Negro (anc TArioger)^ to wMeh it gives the nan^
of Val d! Diano. It ftpresents the ancient Tegianum a mont-
dpal town of Lucania, made into a colony by Nero, of wMch
the ruins can be traced at the foot of the hiU, with an ancient
Roman bridge. ' An Ostan- sepulchral inscription hi Gtedt
letters has been found here (cf. W. Cbraaen-ln Epkmena Bpi"
pafiatt iL 153). It poasesses a bastle, several churches of some
interest, and three conventual buiUUnga. In 1497 K was
strong enough to resbt, under Antonio Sanseverino of Salerno,
the siege ondeftafcen by fVederick of Aragon. (T. As.)
TBOMfo, SAIAS (x78>-x846), Swedish writer, was bom on
the 13th of November 1782, at Kyrkerod in Wemdand. His
father was a pastor, and his grandparents on hoth ndes were
peasants. IBs father, whose name had been EaaSas LucassOn,
took the surname of T^erus—altered by Us fifth son, the
poet, to T^tx^—from the hamlet of Tegnaby in Smfinid,
where he was born. In T792 Tegnenis died. In 1799 Eaaias
Tegn6r, hitherto educated hi the country, entered the university
of Lund, where he graduated in philoiophy in x8oi, and con-
tmued as tutor unt3 18x0, when he was elected Greek lectuier.
In 1806 he married Anna Maria Gustava Myhrman, to whom
he had been attached since his earliest yotith. In x8t2 he was
named professor, and continued to work as a lecturer in Lund
until x8«4, when he was made bishop of VeziA. At Vedtt he
mnahied «mil Ma deith, twenty4w» years hiter. T\egn€/8
eariy poems have little merit. He was compantively slow hi
devdopment. His first gxeat success was a dithymmbic war-
song for the army of x8o8. which stured every Swedish heart
In fSri his patriotic poem S$ta won the great prize of the
Swedish Academy, and made him famous. In the same year
was founded In Stockhohn the Gothic League {G9Hska fdrhun-
dtt), a aort of dab of yottng and patriotic men of letters, of
whom TegMr (pdckly became the chief. The dub published
a magashie, eatitkd MMna, hi which it printed a great deal
Of eKdledt paetcy, and ventiUted its views, particuhiriy as
regards the study of old loelandic fiterature and history.
Tegn£r, Gei)cr, Afseliua, and Kicander becaine' the most famous
aae mb em of the Gothic League. Of the vetv numerous )poems
written by Tegnte in the little room at Lund which is now
shown to viaitoxs as the Tfegnir m\iaeum, the majority are
short, itnd even oecaalDnal lyrics. His celebrated Song to Ikk
Swa dates from 18*7. He comi^ted three poems of a more
aaAbltleus character, on which his fame cUefly rests. Of these,
two, the rohiance of Aad (iBi*) and the delicately-^hiaelled Idyi
Of SaUvardsbomem (" The Fhst Communioh," 1820), trandated
by LongfcUow, take a secondary place in comparison with
T>gn8f's masteipleoe, of worid-wide fame. In 1820 he pub-
lished In Jdmia certain fragments of an epic or c^de of epicd
pieces, on which he w]B8 then working, FHtkf&fs saga or the Story
of Frfthiof. In x8>s'he pubHshed five more cantos, and in 1825
the entire poem. Before it was completed it was famous
through6ut Europe; the aged Goethe took up' his pen to
eottimend to his countrymen this ** site,- kifftige, gigantisch-
barbariscbe Dichtart," and desfied Amalie "von Imhoff to
ttanalate it Inte German. This romantic paraphrase of an
andent saga was composed In twenty-four cantos, all differing
in vane foxm, ihodeliad aomewfaat, It b only fair to say, on
an eariler Dkmlah maaterpiece, the H€lg$ of OhlensdiUigen
^tUkfaft saga, b the best known of aU Swedish productions; it
la aaid to have been translated twenty-two times into English,
twenty times ftito German, and once at least into every
European hmguage. It is fSr from aatisfying the demands of
more recent antiqu4rian research, but it stiH is allowed to give
the freshest extethig impression, fn imaginative form, of life m
early Scandinavia. In Uter years Tegn^ began, but left un-
fiifiahed, two important epical poems, Gerda and KrofOrudek.
the period of the pdblicatioa of Prithfafs sagd (1825) was the
critical epoch of Ids career. It made Mm one of the most
famous poets in Europe; It transferred hhn' from his study hi
Ltmd to tile bishop's palace hi VexiO; it marked the fiist
breakdown of his health, which had hitherto been excellent;
and it witnessed a shigular mord Crisis in the inner history of
the poet, about whidi mndi -has been written, but of wfiiA
Utile is known. 1'egnlr was at this time passiooately in love
with a certain betutiftd Eophrosyne Pahn, the. wife of a town
ooundUor in Lund, and thb unfortunate passion, while it in-
apired much of Ins- finest poetxy, turned the poet's blood to
pBL From this- time' forward the heaxtltessness of woman la
one of Tegn^r's prihcipai themes. It is a remarltable sign of
the condition of Sweden at that time that a man not in holy
otden, and so little in possession of the reli^ous temperenicnt
as Tegn£r, should be offered and should accept a bishopli
crosier. He did not hesitate in accepting it; it was a great
honour; he was poor; aiKl he was anxious td get away from
Lund. No sooher, however, had he begun to study for bis new
duties than he began to regret the step he had taken. It was
nevextheless too late to go back, and Tegn^r made a respectable
bishop as long as his health lasted. But he became moody and
melandidy; as eariy ss r833 he complained of fiery heats in
hia brain, and in X840, during a virit to Stockholm, he suddenly
became insane. He was sent to an asylum in Schleswig, and
eariy in X84X he was cured, and able to return to Veri0. It was
during his convalescence in Schleswig that he composed Knn-
hntien. He wrote no more of importance; fn r843 he had k
stroke of apoplexy, and on the 2ttd of November X846 he died
in Vezi5. From 1819 ha had been a member of the 8we<fiah
soft
TEGUCIGALPA—TEHERAN
Acmdevy, vliere ke was ciieoeeded by his biogmplier and best
imitator Bfittiger.
See Bfittiger, T^cknimg rf Ttgnirs Lefnadi Geofv Bnmles.
Esaias Tegak\ Thommaiidcr, TMnkar ock L6jem* (£. G.)
TSGUCIGAIPA* the capital oC Honditras and of the depart*
meat of Tegucigalpa; situated jaoo ft. above sea-level, on the
liver Cfaoluteca, and at the bead of a railway to the port o< Saa
Lorenao on Foaacca Bay. Pop. (1905) about 35,000. Tegud*
galpa is the largest and finest city in the republic. The aiajority
of its houses are di one storey, built round a central court; the
windows are usually unglazed bat protected by iron bars which
project into the narrow oobble^paTed streets. The focus of
dvic life is near the central park, in which stands a brooa
equestrian statue of Francisco Mcvaaan (17^2-1543), the
Hondurian statesman and soldier. Fronting the park is a
<k>med cathedral, one of the largest and most ornate churches
tn Honduras. Other noteworthy buildings are the government
offices^ university, school of industry and art, national printing
works, and law courts. A lofty ten-arched bridge over the
Chokiteca connects the dty with its principal suburb, Con-
cepdon or Comayaguela. Tegucigalpa became capital of
Hooduxas, a status it had previously shared with Comayagua,
in 1880. During the xSth century the neighbourhood was
famous for its gold, silver and marble, but in modern times
the mines and quarries have greatly declined in value, and
farming is the chief local industry. In 1907 TcgudgallML was
occupied by the Nicaraguan invaders.
TBOULA, the Latin term for the convex covering tile of a
roof, as distinguiabed 6Pom the imbrtx, the concave tile (see
Tiles).
TSHBRAlf (more properly Tshsan), a province of Persia,
with capital of the same name (which is also the capital of the
Persian empire). It pays a yearly revenue of about £100,1000,
and comprises the districts of Saujbulagh, Shahriar, Feshaviyeh,
ShimraUy Kasran and Veramin. The first three, situated
north-west, west and south of the dty of Teheran, are very
fertile, and supply the capital with grain, grapes and melons.
Shimran, the district north of the dty, and on the sfepes of the
Elburs (rising to an devation of ia,6oo ft.) has 63 villages (one,
Tajrish, the seat of the governor, with a population of over 3000),
which are much frequented during the summer months by the
inhabitants of the dty seeking relief from the great heat. One
of the villages, Gulhck or Gulahek, but correctly Kulhek (with
a guttural K, and meaning a small, reedy mere), situated 800 ft.
above the dty of Tehcnn and 6^ m. from it, was given in fief to
the British govcnmient by Foth Ati Shah about X830 for the
summer quarters of the British legation. Zeigende^ a village
adjoining Gulfaek, is held in a similar ma^er by <the Russian
government, and the Russian fegation stays there during the
summer. , Kasran is a hilly district north-«ast of Teheran,
with numerous coal mines (inferior coal of the. Jurassic period)
and streams abounding with . salmon .trout. The Veramin
district, south-east of Teheran dty, has 123 villages, and sup-
plies the city and surrounding districU with wheat, barky and
rice. It is watered by the Jajrud river, and is considered one
of the most fertile districts of Persia.
TEHBRAK, the capital of Persia and of the province of
the same name, 70 m. S. of the southern shore of the Caspian
Sea. It is situated on an immense gravel deposit which slopes
down from the foot of the Elburs mountain (rising to an alti-
tude of ia,6ap ft.). 8 or 9 m. N. of the dty, and esctends for
16 m« to near Shahfabdul-Azim, ^ m. S. of it. Teheran was
fomeriy a kind of polygon about 4 m. in circumference, with
a. mud vaU^ad, towersi a dry ditch and six gates, but in 1869
'*" > d«^:^ed upon enlarging the dty; the old
~' hed, the ditdi was filled up and
, encemte consisting of a ditch
; to Vaubaa's .first i^tem
i in 1874. The dty tbeu took
^ an4 its drcumference (a line
bastions) measures 19,596
ijiithia the, bastions is about
7i sq. m. Then are twdit gUei, «iidi wn doaed'frMa vm
hours after sunset to an hour before saarise. Aeooiding to
obaervatioos taken in -1895 by British officers in oooBexiaa
with determining the loogilude of Madras, the h»|ptade ol
Teheran (pillar at the notth-westem comer of the. British
legation grounds) is si"" 2^ 2-8' £. The latitude of the old
tdegraph ofiice, which was situated almost due S., Is 55" 41'
6-83' N., and iu elevation 3810 ft. The aenhcrn gates of
the dty are a8a ft. above the aottthea ones. Tehenm has
little to distingtri^i it in general outward appearance from
other dties of the oomtry, though in mccnt yteis (since the
above-mentioned extension) many broad and stml^ streets
and a number of buildings of western architecture, shops with
show windows, electric lamps, cabs, &c, have been introduced.
*' We are in a dty whKh was bom and nurtured in the East,
but is beginning to dothe itself at m, West-End Uilor^s '*
(Curson). Moat of the innovatioBS are to be seen only in the
northern part of the town where the Europeans and many
well-to-do natives reside. The ark or dladel, situated nearly
in the centre of the town, containa the shah 's palace and a
number of modem buildings of respectable appearance, fot
instance the foreign office, the war office, customs, tdegraph
station, arsenal, &c Immediately north of the adt are the
Maidan Tupkhaneh (Artillery Square), 270 yds. by r2o, and
the great Maidan i Mashk (Maidan of drill), the military parade
ground, 550 yds. by 350^ South of the ark aie the baaaars,
the cential arcade and caravanserai built c. 1850 by the prime
minister Mvtza Taki Khan, commonly known as the 'amxr» and
beyond them, as wdl as on the cast and west, aie the quarters
of the old town, with narrow, crooked and mostly unpaved
and imdeail streets. Teheran has 6i m. of tramways (single
lines) and is connected with Shah-abdul-Axim by a single tine
of railway of one-metre gauge and s\ n. long (the onliy railway
in Pecsia). WaUr is freely supplied to the town by means of
about thirty underground canals {kanaU\ led from the slope
of the northern hills and running 5 to 10 m. at consideraUe
depths below the surface. The water supply would be ample
for the requiremenU of the population if it couM be regulariy
and equally distributed; but the supply in the months of
October and November is only about one-half of that during
March, and much water is lost through open ditches and by
leakage. The distribution therefore is irregular: in winter
and early spring, when the gardens requite veiy little water
from the canals, the supply is too great, and in summer it is
too little, 'it has been calculated that the mean water supply
amounts to the enormous quantity of 921,000 gallons per hour
all the year round, but that, after deducting the quantity
wasted in distribution, irrigation of gardens, filling tanks and
batlu, watering streets, &c., there remain forty-two gallons per
head daily during the month of April, seventeen during July,
August and September, and ten during October and November.
Even the last quantity would suffice if evenly ^tributed, but
as most of the canals are private property and independent
of gDvemment or munidpal control, the distribution is unequal,
and it frequently happens that whe^ some parts of the city
have water in abundance others have hardly any. Teheran
has many mosques, all of recent date, the finest being the one
called Masjed i Sipahsalar, built by Mirza Husain Khan Sipah-
salax Azam, who was prime minister for ten years tmtil 18S4.
It is situated in the new part of the city aiul adjoinbg it is
the Bafasristan palace, once the residence of Sipahsalar, after-
wards occupied hy the national assembly. Another notable
mosque is the Masjed i Shah, completed c. 1840. Theie are
also many colleges and schools, some of them with European
teachers, induding the " German School " (1907) with a yearly
subsidy of £9200 from the shah. Before Nasr-ud-din's first
voyage to Europe in 1873 only four western states had legations
and consulates at Teheran; now twelve states are represented.
. The present population of Teheran is about 280,000, including
600 Eurcipean^ 4000 Jews, the same number of Armenians,
too Zoroastrians, and a garrison of 3000 to 4000. The climate
is considered unhealthy, particularly in the summer and early
TEHRI^TEIGNMOUTH, ut'IARON
507
hen tffXkbidf afoe «nd other fsven are prevaltat,
bat flonicthing in tbe my of luitatfon lias bean effected and
there is a diathict Joiprofement The nathor of the ZiMf
d mofiUs, writing in 1596^ states that cholera frequenOy
visited tbe city, and, the north being sbnt off by high nomi-
tana, the air was hot and evil-smelling and the- water m-
w h o fcso Bi e , in fmct the dimate wis so bMl that even the Angd
oi Death nm away tram it. The bkob yeaxly temperatnve
calculated fnm observatioBa tahen. for a nwnber of yean
ending 1902 whs 6a*6* F., the UgiieBt tempentme observed
was 111% the lowest $*, githig. a difftmoce of leS* between
citreBMB. The hottest month Is Jidy, with a mean of 85**%
the oohkst January, with a mean of 34- s<*. The mean annual
rainfall daring a peded of 15 yearn ending sxst December
1907, was xo me.
In tte /dkonftMito i /moM, a banian history Written hi
the xith oentmy, the name of the town is written Tiian, whOe
other works have the nsme as it is noer w^ttcn, via. Tehnn.
Tbe latter spelling is due to Arab Inflaenoe, old Penkn names
being fteqoently Arabiciaed and sometimfS beeomfaig uniecog-
aisable. Two vHbges in the nelghboarhood of Isfahan appear
as Tlxmi in old docnmcnts, while in modem veveme aooounts
and hate they are written Tcfamn. The M^^em d iMdam,
a geognphical dictionaiy written in xss4, describes Tehetan
as a village 4 m. distant from Rai (Rhages). Pktro dclla
Valle, who passed a night (Jmm 6^, t6«8) at Teheran, writes
Taliemn" (perhaps thfaddng it to be a phital of taker, ** the
pare '^, and Sir Thomas Hmbert, who vlailed it on the 14th of
Jane 1627, calb it "Tyroant" and atatea that it cont^ned
5000 bouses built of sun-dried bricks and bad Its water supply
from a little river which flowed through it in two brancbea
Almost the whole of the city Was destroyed by the Afghans hi
1733, and Teheran did not regain any impo r tance untH the
dose of tbe oentnxy when Agha Mahommed Khan, the founder
of tho Xajar dyautyr aeade it his capital and lesidenoe. Dr
Oltvier, who visited 'Meran in 1796, san* ** In *pil« of Agha
Mohaoamed Khan's tSorU to induce people to seule and mer*
chants and manttiaetufecs to esubliah themselves thciv, the
papidntlon of Teheran does not amount to 15,000 souls, faichKl-
ing a garrison of looa" (A. H«-S.)
nam, a naUve sUte in Northern Indfa^ in poUriosI sub.
ordination to the United Provfawcs: area, 4300 eq. m.; popo^
Istion (1901) 366,885; estimated revenue, £98^000. It lies
entirely amid the Himalayas, oontahdng ranges from so^ooo
to 25,000 ft. above sea-levtl, and sbo the sources of both the
Ganges and the Jumna, with the piacts of pOgrimage associated
with them. Tbe forests, which have been leased to the British
government, are very valuable, yiddfaig several kinds el pine,
oak and cedar. The crops are rice, Smsll mUlets, wheat,
potatoes rind a little tea. The chief, whose title b nja, is
descended from a Rajput fsmlly which fomerly ruled over all
GarhwaL Tbe exkting state was created by the Brifish after
the war with Nepal in 18x5. Tbe town of Tehri, on the river
Bhaginthi (as the Ganges Is here called) has a pop. (i9ory of
53*7-
nHViUmraC (from fic»aiif4e^^^*'|aguarhin"), the
town which gives iu name to the isthmus, gulf and nflway,
stands on the Tehoantepec river about 15 m. from its mouth
and 13 m. by rail from Saliaa Crua. Pop. (1904, estimated)
10,000. It is a typical, straggling Indian town, occupying the
slc^ of a hUl on the Pacific side of the divide, wfth a beautiful
view of the river valley and the distant sierras to the N. The
streets are little more than crooked paths up the hiilskie, and
the habiutions aro for the most part thatched, mud-walled
huta The population of the town and of the surrauadhig
district b composed almost wholly of Indians of the great
Zapoteca family. Tbe Tehuanas of Tehuantepec are noted
for the beauty and graceful carnage of their women, who are
reputed to be the finest-looking among the native races of
Mexfco. The women are the traders in Tehuantepec and do
little menial work— a result, apparently, of the iaflnctice of
Tbe kitel industries include the makhig of " cd&a," a
cane sphic, and the weaving of cotton fsbtfcs, dM ^th the
jdce of a marine sfaeU^fiah (?iir^«ra pahdd) found on the
neighbouring coast Indigo was lormeily grown in the vidnity
and cochineal gathered for acport, but both of theae industriea
have decli ned..
TBKIAlinplG* an isthmus of Mesko l^ing between the
Gulfs of Campeche (Campeachy) and Tdiuantepec, with the
Mexican sutes of IUnuoo and Chiapas on the £., and Vera
Cms and Oaxaca on the W. If inchided that part of Mexico
lyfaig between the 94th and 96th mfrfdians of W. hmgitude, or
the aoath<eastem parla of Vera Crus and Oazaca, with perhapa
small districts of Chiapas and Tabasco. It is 125 m. acrom
at ita narrowest part from gulf to gulf, or tso m. to tbe head «f
Laguna Superior on tho Fadfic coast. Tbe Siena Madre
bteaka down at thia poukt Intw a bread, |riateau-]fte ridge,
whose elevation, at the highest point reached l^ the Tehuan>
tepee railway (Chivela Pkm) fa 735 ft. The northern sfale of
the isthmus Is swampy and deUady coveaed with Jungle, lAich
has been a greater obstacle to railway construction than the
grades in cnsshig the sierra. The whole lugion is hoi aad
malarial, eraept the open ekvationa whena the whida from the
Pacific render it comparatively cool a^bealthftiL Thsamnnl
nin£aHontheAtlantk:orndetheBnslopeisi56hL (Eaock) and
thtf marimmn tempentum aboni 95" in the ahadc The
Padfie slope has a lii^ nualall and dryer cUmnteu
Since fho days of Corfefs, the Tdmantcpec Jsthmns has been
considered a IftvttnnUe route, first for an interooeairic canal,
and then lor an intaroceanic railway. lu prammHy to the
ads of hitcniarional trade gives- it some > advantage over the
Panama route, vdiich is oounterbalaiiced by the assrower
width of the huttexi. When the gerat cost of a canal acrom the
iathnxua compelled enghiewa and fapitstfits to give it up as
Impmctkable, James B. Eads proposed to co n s ir u ct a quadruple
track sbip-tailway, and the scheme xecdved aerioua attention
for some time. Then came projccta for an ordiaaxy saSway^
and several oopoeasioDB were gxaatod by Uie Mrricsn govcriK
ment for this puipoee feom x8s7.to 188s. ]a the last-named
year the Mexican government reaolved to undertake the enter*
prise. on its owii account, and entered Into cootracta with a
prominent Memkwn contractor for the work. In x888 this
bsntract waa readnded, after 67 m. of soad had been completed.
The next contract was fruitlem through the death of the
oontrsctnr, and the third failed to complete the work within
the sum specified (£8,700^000). This waa in 1893, and 37 m^
remained to be bnilL A fourth contract resulted in the com*
pletmn of the Hne from coast to coast hi X894, when it was
found that the terminal porta were deficient bk facilities and
the toad too light for heavy traffic. The guwcanui ent then
entered mto a contract with the London firm of cOntracttMa
of S. Pearson & Son, Ltd., who had constructed thedSainage
works of the valey of Medco and the new port works of Vera
Cruz, to rebuild the line snd construct terminal fiorU at
Coatzacoofeos, on the Gulf coast, and Ssiina Cnu, 00 the Psdfie
side. The work waa done for account of the Mexican govern^
ment Work began on the r6th of December X899, and waa
finished to a point where its formal opening for traffic was
possible in Jaxmary 1907.
The Fsihray is 192 m. lone, with a branch of 18 m. between
Julie and San Juan Evmngeluta. The minlmuni depth U km
water in both potts is 33 ft., and an extensive syatesB of quays and
railway tracks at botn temiinab affoidt ample fadlilies for the
expedUioos handling of heavy cargoes. The genefal ofiices, shopi^
hospital, Ac, are k)cated at Rincoo Antonio, at the entrance to the
Cbivria Pass, where the temperature b cool and healthfvl oonditions
piearail. At Santa Lucreqa, 109 au from Salina Crux, ooBoexkNi
IS made with the Vera Crux & Pacific milway (a govemmem
Uoe), 213 m. to Cordova and 311 m. to Mexico city.
TIHUBbCHB* CaoELCBE, or RvaucRE ("Sootbem
People "), the generic name given by the whites of Argentina
to the Indian tribes of Ptitagoma (f.t.).
TBramiOiUTH, JOHlf SHORE, isr Babon (i7S>-(S34)i
governor-general of India, was bom on the 8th of October t75>,
the son of Thomas Shore, a supercargo m the senrk» of the
I
•5o8
TEIGNMOUTH— TELAND
J
East India Company. He was educated at Harrow, and went
out to India as a writer in the Bengal Civil Service in 1 769. He
became a member of tbe Supreme Council (17^7-^)1 >a which
capacity he assisted Lord Comwallia in introducing many reforms,
but did not approve his permanent settlement of Bengal. On
the letijement of Comwallis, be was appcnated governor-
general (1793-9S), adopting a policy of non-intexfereBce, but
deposed Wazir Ali, for whom he substituted Saadat Ali as
nawab of Oudh. His term of oflSce was also -signalized by a
mutiny of the officers of the Indian army, which he met with
concessions. He was created a baronet in 1793, and Baron
Teignmouth In the peerage of Ireland in 1798. On his retire^
ment from India he was appointed member of the board of
control (i3o7-a8), and was for many years president ol the
British and foreign Bible Society. He died on the 14th of
February 1834.
See Mmunrs tf Lord TeHaniMuA^ by his son (I843).
TEIGnfOUTH, a seaport and market town in the Ashborton
parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, at the mouth
of the fiver Teign, on the English Cfaannd, xs m. S. by E. of
Exeter, by the Great Western raihray. Pop. of urban district
(igox) 8636. Two parishes. East and West Teignmouth, form
the town. It lies partly on a peninsula between the river and
tlie sea, partly on the wooded uplands which endose the valley
and rise gradually to the high moors beneath Hesrtor. The Den,
•r Dene, fonns a promenade along the sea*front, with a small
lighthouse and a pier. St Midael^ dturch in East Teign*^
mouth was rebuilt in x8a4 in Decorated styie, but retains a
Norman doorway and other andent portions; of St James*,
in Wesi Teignmouth, the south porch and tower are Nomsa.
lliere are a theological college for Redemptonsta^ and a Bene-
dictine convent, dedicated to St Schdastioa. The entrance to
ike harix>ur has been improved by dredging, and tbe two quays
accommodate vessels drawing 13 ft. at neap tides. Pipeday and
china day».lrom Kingsteignton, are shipped for the Stskord-
shire potteries, whfile coal and general goods sre imported.
Pilchard, hertmgs, whiting and markrirl are jtafceB, and aabnon
in the Teign. Malting, brewing and boatbuilding are aJaa
carried on. East Teigmnouth was formerly called Teigamofttth
Begis, and West Teignmouth, Teignmoutk EpiscopL
Tcagnmottth (JetiiMiae, Tengemiu) po ss e sse d a dmrch d
St Michael as early as 1044, when vdiat is now East'Teigb-
mooth was granted by Edward the Confessor to Leirffic, bishop
of Exeter, and an allnsion to salterers in the saane giant proves
the erittence of the salt industry at that date. TVs^ssanoatfa
is not mentioned in the Domesday Survey, but in 1*76 wliat
is now West Teignmouth appears as a aseane boradgb' hdd
by the dean and chapter of Exeter; what is bow Bait Ticign*
aouth continuing with the bishop, who was aocttsed In that
year oC holding in his manor a market iriiich shouki be beM
in the havouglk The biAop^s manor was sKcnatad in rsso
to Sir Andrew Dudley, but West Teignnioul^ reinained vitb
the d^an and chapter vntil early in the 19th oentnry. In the
middle ages Teignmouth was a flourishing port, ahle to furnish
7 ahipa and x»o marinrw to the Callus expedition of 1347, and
depending chiefly on the fishing and salt industries. In the
early part of the 17th century the town had fidlen into «iecay,
but it speedily recovered, and in 174^ could contribute twenty
vessels to the Newfoundland shippmg trade. The borongh
Was never represented fai parliament, nor incorporated by
charter. The Saturday market, which was held up to the
k9tb century^ is mentioned in xzao, and was confirmed, by
royal charter in 1253, together with a fair at Michaelmas.
Teignmouth was burned by French pirates in 1340, and was
again devasUted by the French on the 36th of June 1690.
See Viciona County BisUtry, Detonshtre; The Teinmouik Guide
emd Cemftde flaad6«a* «» fie r«v» oad Neighbourkocd (Teiitiaiouth.
1B7S).
mRBSIAS, in Greek legend, a famous Tbeban seer, mq
and Chailcia .He mm a dcsnsdant of Uteosrone
rMW irtia bsd qpning up from the leipeot's teeth aown
lit w» afiaA IfBm his asvtnUi yesr, for whieh
▼aiious causes were alleged. Sane said timt the gods had
blinded him because he had revealed to men what th^ «ught
not to know. Others said that Atbcoa (or Artonis) blinded
him because he had seen her n^ced in the bath; wiicn Us
mother pmyed Athena to restore his ^ight; the goddess, being
unable to do sov purged his ears so that ba could undentand
the speech of birds, and gave hima stall wherewith to gnide
his steps (ApoUodorus iii 6). Acoording to Sostiatus, autbor
of an degiac poem called Teiresm, he was eriginally a giri,
but had been changed into a boy by ApoUoat the age of seven;
after undersoing several mom traMformafJona from one sex to
the other, she (for the final sex was feminiael was turned inta
a mouse and her lover Aracfanaar>into a weasel (EuststUos oa
Odysseyy p. 1665). Teiieaiss' grave was* at the Tilphosian
spring; but there was a cenotaph of him sit Thebes, .and also
■a later times his ^' ctervatofy;" or plaee for watdmig ior
omens from birds, >waa pofaCnd eat (Pavsanias xz x6;
Sophodo^ Antifomt 999)^ He had an onlcle si Onhomenus,
but during a phtgae it became silenC atid remained so in
Plutarch's time (fie DtfeOm Oractlmm, 44)- Aooording to
Homer (Od, x. 492, xi. 90), Tciresias was the. only peaon In
Uie world ol the dead whom Proaeipine allowed to retain his
memoty and intdlect imimpaired* and Ciioe sends Odysseus to
consult him concerning his letuor home. Se figured in the
great paintings by PQlygnoitas in the Lnsche at Delphi.
TBISSERBMC OB BOBT, PIOBB BDMOilD (x«i^x89s>,
French writer and politician, wns bom at QAtcnuionx on the
X7th of September 28x4, and eateeed. the civil service alter the
eompktfon of his edncation at the £oole Bolytechmqne. Bt
was a railway expert, becondat aecmtaiy-geneial of tht Rail-
way Commission established in z84s, goiveRiaient oOmmiasiDBer
to the anthorixed railway ^ompamca, adnuaiAatoc ol the
Ii3K>ns>Meditecranean railway, and • commiasMncr to anmine
foreign railwBy& In 1846. he wna retisned to the Chamber
of Deputies for H£ranlt,.but the rcrvofaition of 1848 drove him
into private life, from which he only emerged. alter the ^wn*
foil of the Empire^ when in Febniaiy 1871 he was iclwned
lo the Natkinai Assonbly. He sapfiertfid the govenunent ol
Tfhieis and waa minister of agiiculAara and. oonuaeroe in 1872-73.
He aafi in the Left Centre, and steadily anpported republican
ptinc^»lcs< He entitcd the Senate in X876, and was nfnister
ol.sgricKiitwe in the Dufaum^licnni cabineC of that year,
letaiolng his portfolio in the JuJes Simon ministry wliich fell
on-the t6th of May xSn* la xl^ whin he j<<s«d the new
Dufaure cabinet^ he opeacd the P)«cis exhibitioil.of agriculture
nnd . m an wf atturea» the osiginal mgitntion of iwhich had been
made by. him during his'x4t76 miniatry. In 1679 he was seat
as ambasaador to Vienna, whence he was nest year tecaUcd
on the sooie of health. Two yearn Utei he reentered the
Senate, where he did good iennct to the cause of " Republican
Defence " during the Boulangist a^tatloa.{ He died fo Pars
on the S9th-of July 1892. His works consist of discusiona of
railw^ poiicylnm the technical and economic side.
TELAMONES (Gr. tcMmmv, sv«>pmer, from r>ivm, to bearK
in architecture the term used by the Romans as equivalent
to Atlantes <tbe Oredt term), ku bmIo figottt .esaploycd to
cany architraves ami consioes. The best-ioiown examples aie
those in the tepidvkun of the baths of Poin|>eli, which consist
of small figures in tenii-cotta« a ft. high» phu^ between niches
and carrying a coraice.
TELANG, KASHINATH TRIXBAK (1830-1895), Indian
jwlge and oriental scholar, was botn at Bombay on the 30th
of August x8sa By profesaion an Mlvocate of the hi^ couft,
he also took a vii^orous shsre in litorary^ social, municipal
and political work» as well as in the afiairs d the university
of Bombay, over which he presided as vicfr<hancellor from
t89a till his dfath. Al the age of fire Tdang was seat to the
Anarchaud Wadi vcnscular school, and in 1859 entered the
high school in Boasb^ which bears the name of Mouatstnsxt
Elphinstone. Here he ^:ame under the influence of Narayan
Mahadev Punnanand, a teadier of fine intellect and force of
character, aft«rw»Dfo one Di TeUng's most iniimate friends.
TELAVi-^TELEOONY
509
From tkb icImoI Im puswd tb the ElpinnstMe Citlkg^M Vfaich
be became a fellow, and after lakiag t^ degree of M.A. .and
IX.fi., decided to ioUow Oie eiample of Bai Masflnh WiM|le,
the first ladiaii admitted by the jud^et to practise 00 tbeorigioal
side of the high court, a positioA noi* like the ctuus of a
barrister tbaa a vaki^ or pleader. He pasaed the eaEaainatioB
and was eiuoUed in.iSya. Hia* leaeaing aod other giftk aooo
bcought him aa «xteiisive practice. He had complete com*
naad of the English lafliguaie« aad his iatimacx with Sanskrit
enabted him to atudy and quote the Hindu law-booka with an
case ooc ecadily attained by Eunapeaii oottnseL Telang, finding
his caooer isaured, declined an oSer of official omploymenL
But in 1889 he accepted a seat on the high court bench, where
htt judgineitfa are recognised aa authoritative, espedally on
the Hindu law. He wea syndic of the vniveisity from 1881,
and vJcO'ChanfifJIor faom 1892 till his death. In that year
also be waa elected president of tbe local branch of the Royal
Asiatic Society. These two officea had never been held by a
native of India befbie; The decoration of CI.E. conferred
on htm in 1882 was a sccognittoa of hia aervioea aa a member
of a miied eommfsslon appointed by. the gorammeat to deal
with the educational system of the whole of India. He waa
nomipatcd to the k)cal legislative council in i884« but declined
a sioular poskiod on the viceroy's council. Along witli P.M.
Metha. he was the originator of the Bombay Presidency Aasocia^
tma. When a atudent he had won the Bhugwandaa 'scbohuship
in Samiuit, and in this language his later studies weseprafound.
His translation, of t^3haiu0d§ita into English prase and veme
is a standard work; and he criticuBod Professor Waber^a hypo*
thesis that the story of the iZaamyaaa waa influence^ by the
Homeric epica. While devoted to the aacred dasaica oi the
UiQdils,.Telang did not iwglect his own vecnaicular, Mahratti
titerattue being eorithed by his tratislatiolk of Lessing'a Nutkan
ik€ WiM^ aod aa essay on Sociai Compr0mi9€, He died at
Bomb^ an the ist of September 1893.
TELkVt a town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the govemmeal
of Tiaia, 6$ mu N.fi. of the town of Tiflis, on theti«» Alaxan
and ax an altitude of 1420 it* Pop. (1897) «ic,8io^ chiefly
Armenians (9000) and Geoagiana (jooo). Telav ia a very old
town, founded in 893^ and until 1797 it waa the capital of
Kakbeiia, and has ruina of oU forta. In the nelgbboarhood
are the Jkaltot nonaatety (6ih century), the Shuanty monastery
(i6ih ceotuty), and the originally loth century Alaverdi church,
visited^ many pilgrims. Wine ia exported.
TBUBOOinr (Gr» t^Xc, fax, and i4i«t, ofiapring), the name
now given to the hypothesia that offspong sometimes inherit
rK»r^t^^f* from a previoos mate of their dam. Until recent
years the supposed inheiitance of characters acquired by a dam
from oOe or more of her former mates waa usually designated
by bceedera " tixrawiog back "; by physiologists, " infection
of the germ," or simply *' infection.". The doctrine of " in-
fection," like the somewhat allied doctrine of "maternal
impressioiM," aeema to be alike andent and ti^espread.
Evidence of the antiquity of the belief in '' maternal im|»essions "
we have in Jacob placing peeled rods before Lahan's cattle to
induce them to bring forth " ring-straked apeckled and spotted "
offspring; evidence of the antiquity of the " infection " doctrine
«e have, according to some writers, in the practice amongst
the Isiaelitca of requiring the' childless widow to marry her
deceased husband's brother, that he might " raise up seed to
bis brother." Whatever may have been the views of stock-
ownere in the remote past, it is certain that during the middle
ages the beSef in " infection " was common amongst breeders,
aod that during the last two centuries it met with the general
approval of naturalists, English breeders being espedally
satisfied of the fact that the offspring frequently inherited
some of their characters from a former mate of the dam, while
both English and Continental naturalisU (apparently without
putting the assertions of breeders to the test of experiment)
accounted for the '* throwing back " by saying the germ cells
of the dam had been directly or indirectly " infected " by a
former oxate. Xt is noteworthy that L. Agasaia, C. Darwin,
W. B. Gaipent«r,aiid G. J. Romanes weie all more or lem lisia
believers in the dodriae of mfectioa, and that ^ few years ago,
with the exception of Profeaaor A. Weiamaan, all the leading
biologists had either aobscribed to the telegony doctrine or
admitted thai " infection of the germ " waa well witldn the
bounds of poaaibilitie& Even Pvofesaor Weiamaut- did not
deny the possibility of th^e-oSapring tfuowiag bade ta a previous
mate. The widespread beUcf, he admittad, ** may be |«Btifiabfe
and fou&ded on fact," but he waa careful to add that.'* only the
conlirmation of the tradition by methodical investigaftjon, in
thia caae by experiment, oouU rake tdegooy to the rank of a
fact." In assuming this attitude Professor Weiamahn de-
cidedly differed from Herbert Spenoer, who some jters ago
mentioned that he had evidence ^ enoogh to prove the fact of
a previbos sire asserting bis mflnrari* on a subsequent proiBeny.f
The importance of determining whether there is auch a thing
aa telegany is sufficiently evident. If a Bmte< or other female
animal ia liable to be " infected " by herfikst or fay aubseqneait
mates, tekgony will rank as a cause of variation; sad baeoden
will be justified in believing (t) that pure4ired femalea are haMe
to be " corrupted " when mated with aim of a dlfloent bmad;
and (2) that inferior or cioSs-bied femalea, if fint luated with a
high-cbaa sire, will theoeafter produce aupecioc offspring, faon(-
ever inferior or cvosfr-fared her aubaeqnent matea lit on thie
other hand, "infection of the germ " is impossibk, tekgcm^
will not count as a factor in vaxiatioa,. and ibraedcn will no
longer be either justified In regarding maies and other Cqmak
atnmala as liable to be *' corrupted " by ill-4ssortcd unions,
or benefited by first having offspring to a Ugh-daas, or .it may
be mote ■ vigorous, mate. Though, according to breedefcs,
evidence of tekgony has been found in ncariy aJl the dtfiereat
kinds of domestic mammak and birds, most stress has been laifl
00 instances oi " infection " ia the horse and dog famttira . , .
TeUg^y in the H^rse Fam«/y.-rBeecher at the end of the x 7lh
ceatury polated out that " when a mase haa had a miile hy.Mn
asa and afterwtrda a foal by a hocse, th«ra die evident marks
on the foal of the mother having retained aotne ideas of bar
former pacamour, the aas." That mares naed.uk mule bseeding
are liable to be infected k atill widely believed, but iir^fragabk
ewdence Of the influence of the aas perskting, . as Agaasik
assumed, ii conspkuoua by ita absence. Darwin aaya,* " -It k
FortJi fiotice that farmers in south Braxil ... are ooovinccd
that mares which have once borne mules when aubsequently
put to horses are extremdy liabk to produce colta atd|]«d like
a mule " iAmmals,and Flants, voL L pw 436). Baton de Parana,
on the otker liand, aays, " I have. many relativea and friends
who have large establishments for the reating of muka, where
tbay obtain from 400 to xooe muka in a year. In all these
esublkhmcats, after two or three dOssings of the maro and aaa»
the bieeden cause, the mare to be put to a horae; yet a purerbred
foal has never been produced resembling dther an ass or a aiuk."
The prevaknce of the belief ia tekgony at the present day
k largely due to a case of auppoaed infection reported to the
Royal Sodety in i8so by Lorid Mortom A chestnut mare,
afiler having a hybrid by a quagga, produced to a bkck Arabian
horse three foak showing a number of stripc^-ia one more
stripes were present than in the quagga hybrid. The moae,
however, the case so intimatdy aaaodated with the name of
Lord Morton k oonaidered, the less ooaviadng k the evidence
k affords in favoav of "infection." Stripca are frequenUy
aeen in high-caste Arab horses, and cross-br«l colts out of Arab
marcs sometimes present far more dktinct ban across the kga
and other aebca-Kke markings than characteriized the subia>
quent offspring of Lord Morton's seven-eighths Arabian marew
In the abseace of control experimeoU there k therefore n»
reason lor assuming Lord Morton's chestnut mare would have
produced less striped offspring had she been nuited with the
bUck Arabian before giving birth to a quagga hybrid. To
account for the atripea on the aubaequent foab. It k only
neceasaxy (now that the princlpks of cioes-broeding are. better
understood) to assume that in the croas-bred cbstnut mare
there lay Utent the characteristics of the Kattiawar or other
Sio
TELEGRAPH
Indian breeds, in wbtch stripes cdmmonly occnr. Darwin and
others having regarded Lord Morton's mare as affording very
strong evidence in support of the infoction hypothesis, it was
considered some years ago desirable to repeat Lord Morton's
experiment as accurately as possible. The quagga having
become extinct, a number of mares were pot to a richly striped
Burchell zebra, and subsequently bred with Arab, thorough-
bred and crossbred sires. Other mares were used lor control
experiments. Thirty marcs put to a Burchell aebra produced
seventeen hybrids, and subsiequently twenty pure-bred foals.
The mares used for control experiments produced ten pure-
bred foals. Unlike Lord Morton's quagga hybrids, aU the
zebra hybrids were richly, and sometimes very distinctly,
striped, some of them having far more stripes than their zebra
parent. Of the subsequent foals, three out <tf Midland mares
presented indistinct marldngs at birth. But as equaUy dis-
tinct maridngs occurred on two pure>bred Highland foals out
of mares which had never seen a zebra, it was impossible to
asdribe the stripes on the foals bom aiter zebra hybrids to
infection of their respective dams. Further, the subsequent
foals afforded no evidence of infection, either in the mane, tail,
hoofs or disposition; Of tlie pure-bred foals, i.e, the foals by
pure-bred sires out of mares which had never been mated with
a zebra, two were striped at birth and one acquired stripes
later— they were revealed as the foal's coat was shed. More-
over, while the faint markings on the foals bom after hybrids
completely disappeared with the foals' coat, the stripes on the
three pure-bred colts persisted. One of the pemianently
striped colts; a bay, was out of a black Shetland mare by a
black Shetland are, one was by a dun Norwegian pony out of
a roan-coloured Arab mare, while the third was by a Norwegian
pony out of a half-bred bay Arab mare. It has been asserted
by believers in telegony that evidence of infection may appear
in the second thou^ not present in the first generation. By
way of testing this assumption, a bay filly, the half<«bter of a
richly striped hybrid, was put to a cross-bred Highland pony^
and a Highland mare, while nursing her hybrid foal, was put
to a colt the half-brother of a hybrid. 'The result was two
fillies which in no single point either suggest a zebra or a zebra
hybrid. Simiiar results having been obtained with horses and
asses, there is no escape from the conclusion that the telegony
tradition is not confirmed by such methodical investigations
as were suggested some years ago by Professor Weismann (see
CossarEwart, Tk€ Penycuik Expmnunts, 1899).
Telegony in Dogs. — ^Breeders of dogs are, if possible, more
thoroQghty convinced of the fact of telegony than breeders
of hones. Nevertheless, Sir Everett Millais, a recognized
authority, has boldly asserted that after neariy thirty years'
experience, during which he made all sorts of experiments,
he had never seen a case of telegony. Recent experiments
support MiUais's conclusion. Two of the purest breeds at the
present day are the Scottish deerhound and the Dalmatian
(spotted carriage-dog), A deerhound after having seven pups
to a Dalmatian was put to a dog of her own breed. The result
was five pups, which hare grown into handsome hounds without
the remotest suggestion of the previous Dalmatian mate of
their dam. A similar result was obtained with a deerhound
first mated with a retriever. Many accidental experiments
on telegony are made annually with dogs. Two such experi->
ments may be mentioned. A black-brindled Scottish terrier
belonging to a famous breed had first a Utter of pups
curly-haired liver-and-white cocker-spaniel. The pups
spaniel-like in build, and of a brown-and-white colour,
sequently this terrier had pups to a black-brindled tei
All the pure-bred piips were typical terriers, and evidenc
their dam having escaped infection is the fact that thre
them proved noted prize-winners. The subject of the se<
findesigned experiment was a wire-haired fox-terrier. In
case the first sire was a white Potneranian, the second a <
bred Irish terrier. Having had ample opportunity of I
** corrupted," the fox-terrier was mated with a prize do
her own strain. The result was three pups, all in make
markings pore terriers, and one of the three was regarded as
an unusually good specimen of the breed.
Experiments with cats, rabbiu, mice, with sheep and caiile,
with fowls and pigeons, like the experiments with horses and
dogs, fail to afford any evidence that oflspring inherit any of
their characters from previous mates of the dam; f.«. they
entirely fail to prove that a female animal is liable to be so
influenced by her first mate that, however subsequently mated,
the offspring will either in structure or dispositioa giv« some
hint of the previous mate. In considering telegony it should
periiaps be mentioned that some breeders not only believe the
dam is liable to be '* infected " by the sire, but also that the
sire may acquire some of the charactarbtics of his mates.
This belief seems to be especially prevalent amongst breeders
of cattle; but how, for example, a long^iomed HighUnd boll,
used for crossing with black hornless Galloway cows, could
subsequently get Galloway-like, calves out of pure Highland
heifers it is nnpossible to imagine.
In conclusion, it may be pointed out that it was only natural
for breeders and physiofogists in bygone days to account for
some of their results by the " iafection " hypothesis. Even
now we know surprisingly little about the causes of variation,
and not many yean ago it was frequently asserted that tbcre
was no such thing as revenion or throwing back to an ancestor.
But even were the laws of heredity and variation better under-
stood,' the fact remains that we know little of the origin of the
majority of our domestic animals. On the other hand, from
the experiments of Mendel and others, wc now know that cross-
bred animals and plants may present dl the characters of one
of their pure-bred parents, and we also know that the offspring
of what are regarded as pure-beed parents sometimes re\'ert
W remote, it may be quite different, ancestors. Tlie better
we undentand the laws of heredity and variation, and the
more we leara of the history of the germ celh, the lets need
will there be to seek for explanations from telegony and other
like doctrines. (J.C.E.)
TELEGRAPH (Gr. rifXe, far, and Tpd^cur, to write), the
name given to an apparatus for the transmission of intelKgence
to a distance. EtjrmologicaUy the word iiiq>lies that the
messages are written, but its earliest lae was of appliances
that depended on visual signals, such as the semaphore or
optical telegraph of Claude Chappe. The wofd is still some-
times employcxi in this sense, as of the ship's telegraph, by
means of which orden are mechanically transmitted from the
navigating bridge to the engine room, but when used without
qualification it usually denotes telegraphic apparatus worked
by electricity, whether the signals that express the words of
the message are visual, auditory or written.
Land and Submarine Telegraphy wilt be considered in Part I.,
with a section on the commercial aspects^ In Part II. Wireless
Telegraphy is dealt with.
Past I.— Land and Subuaune Telegraphy
Historical 5A«ffA.— Although the history of practical electric
telegraphy does not date much further back than the middle
of the 19th tentury, the idea of using electricity for telegraphic
purposes is mach older. It was suggested again and -iigain as
each new discovery in electricity and magnetism seemed to
render it more feasible. Thus the discovery of Stephen Gray
and of- Granville Wheeler that the electrical InffV^UH'^ a
I
of the alphabet and placed under th« ends of the wires. A
very iatcrcstiog modification was also proposed ia the same
letter, vie to attach to the end of each wke a fmall light haU
which when chained would be attraaed towards aa adjacent
bcil and strike it. Sbaie twenty yeans ktw G. L. Le Safe
ptopoaed a similar method^ in which each conductor was to be
attached to a pith ball electooscope. An important advance
on this was proposed in 1797 by Lomond,' who used only one
line of wise and an alphabet' of motions. Besides these we
have in the same period the spark tejesraph of Reiser, of Bon
Silva, and of Cavallo, the pith ball tel^raph of Ftands Ronalds
(a model 0i which i& in the colleaion of telegraph apparatus
in the Victoria and Albert Museum), and several others.
Next came the discovery of Galvani and of Volta, and ^ a
consequence a fresh set of proposals, in which voltaic dcctritity
was to be used. The discovery by Nkholsoo and Carlisle of
the decomposition of water, and the subsequent researches of
Sir H. Davy on the decomposition of the solutions of salts by
the voltaic current were turned to account in the water volta-
meter telegraph of Sommcring and the modification of it pro-
posed by Schweigger, and in a similar method proposed by
Coxe, in which a solution of» salts was substituted for water.
Then came the discovery by G. C. Romagnosi and by H. C.
Oersted, of the action of the galvanic current on a magncL
The application of this to telegraphic purposed was suggested
by Laplace and taken up by Ampere, and afterwkrds by Tri-
boailkt and by Schilling, whose work forms the foundation
of much of modem telegraphy. Farada/s discovery of the
induced corrent produced by passing a ma^et through a
helix of wive forming part of a dosed drcuit was laid hold of
in the telegraph of Gaiiss and Weber, and this application was
at the request of Gauss taken up by Stetnhcil, who brought
it to cnoHdcrable pedectfon^ Steinhcil communicated to the
Gdttingen Academy of Sdences in September 1838 an accoimC
of his telegraph, which had been oon^ructed arbcwt. the middle
of the preceding year. The currents wcse produced by a
magnetoelectric machine rambling that of Clarke. The
ceceivHig apparatus consisted of a mtdtiplier, in the centre of
which were pivoted one or two mapietic needles, which diher
indicated the message by the movement of an index or by
striking two bdk of different tone, or recorded it by nuking
ink dots on a ribbon of paper.
Steinhdl appears to have been anticipated in the. matter of
a recording tdegraph by Morse of America, who in-1835 con-
structed a rude «rorking modd of an instrument; tMs within
a few years was so perfected that with some modification in
detail it has been largely used ever since (see below). In 1836
Cooke, to whom the Idea appears to have been suggested by
Schilling's method, invented a telegraph in which an alphabet
was woriied out by the single and combined movement of three
Qccdks. Subsequently, in conjunction with Wheatstone, he
introduced another form, in which five vertical index needles,
each worked by a separate multiplier, were made to point out
the letters oa a dial Two needles (for some letters, one only)
were acted upon at the same time, and the letter at the point
of inurscction of the direction of the indexes was read. This
tdecraph required six wires, and. was shortly afleruards dls-
in Enghind. Another series of instruments, Introduml by
Cooke and Wheatstone in 1840, and generally known as " Wheat-
stone's step-by-step letter-showing " or " ABC instrumenu,'*
were worked out with great ingenuity of detail by Wheatstone
in Great Britain and by 6r6guet and others in France. The
Wheatstone instrument in the form devised by Stroh is stlD
largely used in the British Postal Tdegraph DepartmcnL
Wheatstone also described and to some extent worked out
an interesting modification of his step-6y-step instrument, the
object of wtdch was to produce a letter-printing tdegraph.-
But it never came into use; some yeas later, however, an
instrument embodying the same prindfJe, although differing
greatly in medianical detail, was brought into use by Royal
E. HousC) of Vermont, U.S., and was very successfully wbrked
on some df the American telegraph lines till 1860, after which it
was gradual^ displaced by other forms. Various modifications
of the instrument are still employed for stock tdegraph purposes.
Construction oj TeUgrapk CtrctUts. — The first requisite for
electro-telegraphic communication between two localities b an
insulated conductor extending from one to the other. This,
with proper apparatus for originating dectric currents at one
.end and for discovering the effects produced by them at the
other end, constitutes an electric tdegraph. Faraday's term
" electrode," literally " a way (65os) for elcctridty to travd
along," might be well applied to designate the insulated con*
ductor along which the electric messenger is despatched. It
is, however, more commonly and famib'arly called " the wire "
or *' the line." The apparatus for generating the dectxic action
at one end is commoii^ called the transmitting epparaitu or
fnstrumenlf or the sending apparatus or instrument, or some-
tiknes simpjy the transmitter or sender. The apparatus used
at the other end of the line to render the effects of this action
perceptible to the ^ye or ear, is called the rectimng apparaim
OTinstrumeni.
In the aerial or bvergroiind system of land telegraphs the
use of copper wire has become very general The advantage
of the high conducting power which copper possesses ovr*
is of cspcdal value in moist diinates (like that of groumt
the United Kingdom), since the effect of leakage over *■•••
the surface of the damp insulators is much less notice-
able when the conducting power of the wire is high than
when it is low, espedaUy when the line is a long one. Copper
is not yet universally employed, price being the governing
factor in its employment; nereover, the conducting quality
of the iron used for tdegraphic purposes has of late years been
very greatly improved. '
In the British Postal Tdegraph svttem five sixes of iron wire are
in general use, weighing respectively aoo, 400, 450, 600 and 800 lb
per statute mi(e. and having dectncal resistances (at 60" F.) of
26*64. I3-A2, 11-84, 8-88 and 6-66 standard ohms per statute mile
respectively. The aiaes of copper wire employed have wdghts of
100. 150. 300 and 400 lb per statute mile, and have electrical
resistances (at 6o* F.) of 8-782, 5-855, 4-391 and a»i95 standard
ohms respectively. Copper wire wcighmg 600 and 800 lb per
niile has also been used to some extent. The copper is " hard
drawn," and has a breaking strain as high as 28 tons per sq* in.;
the test stmhi required for the iron wire is about 22) tons. The
partlcubr sizes and detcriptions of wires used are dependent upon
the character of the " circuits " the bnger and more important
»
512
TELEGRAPH
lOONSTTRUCTlON OF CIIICUtT&
Thi^ fonii of inaulator ia sUU largely need And is. a very •crvkeable
pattern, though poseessing the defect that the porcelain cup is not
removable from the iron bolt on which it b mounted. The Cordeaux
insulator (fig. 2) is made in one piece. A coarse screw-thread is
formed in the u()per part of the inner cup, and this screws on to
the end of the iron bolt by which it is supported. Between a
^oulder, a, in the iron bolt and a shoulder in the porcdain cap, c.
ta placed an indiarubber ring, which forms a yielding washer and
enables the cup to be screwed firmly to the bolt, while preventing
Flo. I.— Varley*^ Double
Cup Insulator, one-
fourth full size.
Fic. 2.--Cordeaux
Insulator.
the abrasion of the porcelain against the iron. The advantage of
the arrangement is that the cu|) can at any time be rea<fily removed
from the bolt. At the termination of a line a large insulator
(ng- 3)> mounted on a strong steel bolt havir^ a broad base flange.
Is employed. Connexion is made into the office (or to the under-
ground system, as is often the case) from the aerial wire by means
U a copper conductor, insulated with gutta-percha, which passes
through a " leading in " cup, whereby leakage is prevented between
the wire and th^ pole. The insulators are planted on creosoted
oak arms, 2| in. sq. and varying ih length from 24 to 48 ins., the
34 and 33 in. arms uking two, and the 48 in. four, insulators. The
Fig. 3. — Terminal Insulator.
unequal lengths of the 24 and 33 in. arms are adopted for the pur^
pose of allowing one wire to fall dear of that beneath it, in the case
of an insulator breaking or the securing binder giving way. The
poles are of red fir, creosoted. this method of preserration being
tjhe only one now used for this purpose in the United Kingdom.
The number of poles varies from about 15 to 22 per ra. oThne;
fhcy are planted to a depth of from 2 to 4 ft. In the ground. For
{)rotection from lightning each pole has an " earth wire " running
rom the top, down to the base.
Gutta-pcrcha-covered copper wires were formerly largely used
for the purpose of underground lines, the copper conductor
Umder- Weighing 40 lb per statute mile, and the gutta-percha
jTOMrf covering 50 lb (90 lb toul). The introduction of
"■^ faper cables, i.e. copper wires insulated with carefully
dried paper of a special quality, has practically entirely super-
seded the use of wires insulated with gutta-percha. The paper
ctbies consist of a number of wires, each envelpped in a loose
c0Vtflr!ttg of well-dried paper, and loosely laid up^togetber with.
a slight spird *' lay " in a bundle, the whole being enclosed ia
ft stout lead pipe. It is essential that the paper coiv«ring be
iooM, sa as to ensure that each wire it enclosed in a coating
not of paper only, but also of «ir; the wifes in fact are retOy
insulated from each other by the dry air, the loose paper acting
merely as- a separator to prevent them fiom coming itito om-
tact. The great advantage of this air inBulation is that the
electrostatic capacity ef the wires is low (about one-tUrd of that
which would be obtained with gutta-pncfaa InwlatiMi), which
is of the utmost importance for high-speed working or for lang«
distance tdephonic communication. As tnany as noe wirei
are sometimes enclosed ia one lead pipe.
Between London and Birmingham a paper cable 116 m long
and consisting of p copper oonducton, each weighing 150 lb per
statute mile, was laid ia 190a The cooductofa ase enclosed in a
lead pipOj 2^ in. in outside diameter and } in. thick, wbicn itself is
enclosed m cast iron spigot-ended pipes. 3 In. in internal diameter,
and buried t ft. below the surface of the roadway. At intervals
ol 2 m. " test pillars " are phused for the purpoee <tf enaUing possible
faults to be accurately kicated. Each conductor has a resisSaoce
(at 60* F.) of 5*74 ohms per statute mile, and an average electro-
static capacity per mile between adjacent wires of o-o6 microfarad,
or between wire and earth of o-t microfarad; the insulation resist-
ance of each wire is about sooo megohms per mile.. The under-
ground system of paper cables has been verV largely extended.
Cables between London, Glasgow, Edinburgh. Liverpool Leeds;
Bristol, Exeter and other important towns have been laid, and
eventuallv telegraphic communication between every important
town in the United Kingdom will be rendered safe from m t ecr up tiuna
caused by gales or snowstorms.
The one disadvantage of paper cables is. the fact that any
injury to the lead covering which allows raotslure to penetrate
causes telegraphic mtemiption to the wfao|e of the tedosed
wires, wheieas if the wires are each iadividuatiy coated vHth
gutu-percha, the presence of moisture can only affect tboee
wires whose covering is defective. There is no reason for
doubting, howe^per, that, proinded the lead covering temains
intact, the paper insulation is imperishable; this is not the case
with gutta-percha-coveitd wires.
In order to maintain a system of tdegraph lines in good
working condition, daily tests are essential. In the British
Postal Telegraph Department all the most important
wires are tested eveiy morning between 7.30 and
7.45 A.if., fn sections of about 200 miles. The method, adopted
consists in looping the wires in pairs between tiko testing offices,
A and B (fig. 4); a current is sent from a battery, £, through
TatOgg.
£"=7
y
artM
Fig. 4.— Method of testing Circuits.
one con of a galvanometer, g, through a high resistance, r,
through one of the wires, i, and thence back from office B (at
which the wires are looped), through wire 2, through another
high resistance, r*, through a second coil on the galvanometer.
g, and ihence to earth. If the looped lines are both in good
condition and free frokn leakage, the current sent out on h*nc 1
will be exactly equal to the current received back on line 7;
and as these currents will have equal but opposite effects on
the galvanometer needle, no deflection of the latter will be pro-
duced. If, however, there is leakage, the current received on
the galvanometer will be less than the current sent out, and the
result will be a deQection of the needle proportional to the
aqiount of leakage.
The galvanometer being so adjusted that a current of definite
strength through one of the coils gives a definite deflection of the
needle, the amonnt of leakage exprvmed in terms of the insulatioa
resistance of the wires n given by the formula
Total insubitioa resistance <J looped lines "^ iR(D/tf - 1) ;
hi which R is the total resistance of the loc^ied wires^ indudlag
the resistance of the two coils of the galvanometer, of the battery,
and of the two resistance coils r and r' (inserted for the purpose
of causing the leakage on the lines to have a maximum effect oa
the galvanonnter deHi>ciions>. In piactice the restsiances r. r' are
aaBHARINB CABLES)
1EELEGEAPH
5»8
ofio^oooohiMtach. The<Mkctkm<obaefVed«n tlw«I«uMineccr
vlwn tiie Ikies are kaky is d, while D b the deflectntt obtained
tkrough MM coil of the galvanometer with all the other renstanoefl
IB circuit; ami assuoung that no leakage exists on the lines, this
deAectioa is calculated from the ** coasunc " of the instrument,
ir.. from the knows deflection obtained with a definite current.
For the purpasd of avoMiag cakulatioo, tables are pfovided show*
the valnea df the total iaaulatioa according to the formula^
correspooding to various values of d. If the
ije., the totaTinsulatiaa mukiplied by the milcBge of the wive toop.
i* found to be leia than aoo,ooo ohmsb the wire is co nsi dere d to be
faulty. The climatic conditions in the British Islands are such
that It is not possible to maintain, in unfavoaraUe weatktr. a higher
stawdard than that named, which is the insalatioo obtained wheri
all the insolntors tc in perfect condition and only the normal
leakage, due to moistttie. is paeseot.
TYiere are three kinds of primary batteries in general use ui
the British Poslal Telegraph Department, viz., tb« Darnell,
ibe bkhco«>ate» and the LecUachf. The Daoiell
type comisls of a teak trough divided into five celb
by sbie partitions coated with marine glue. Each eel! contains
^ zinc pbtc, immersed in a solution of zinc sulphate, and also a
porous chamber containing crystals of copper sulphate and a
copper plate. The electromotive foice of each cell is t -07 volts
arid the resistance 3 ohms. The Fuller bichromate battery
consists of an outer jar containing a solution of bichromate of
potash and suiphiuic acid, in which a plate of hard carboa is
immersed; in the jartberci^ also a pprous pot coqtaining dilute
sulphuric add and a small quantity {2 oz.) of mercury, in which
itaads a stout zinc rod. The eleclcomotlve force of each cell
is a- 14 volts, and the resistance 4 ohms. The Ledanch^ is of
tYie ordinary type, and each cell has an ekctromotive force of
I 64 volts and a resistance of 3 to 5 ohms (according to the size
of the complete cell, of which there are three sizes in use). Dry
cells, f.e. ceils containing no free liquid, but a chemical paste,
arc also largely employed; they have the advantage of great
portability.
Primary batteries have, in the case of all large offices, been
displaced by accumulators. The force of the set of accumu>
Aocmmn' lator ccUs provided is such as to give sufficient power
tf^^n, for the longest drcuit to be worked, the shorter
drcuits being brought up approximately to a level, as regards
resistance, by the insertion of resistance coils in the circuit of
the transmitting apparatus of each shorter line. A spare set
of accumulators is provided for every group of fbstrumeatv in
case of the failure of the working seL For working " double
aoreni," Iwo.acts of. accuraulaton are provided, one set to
send tike positive and the other set the negative currents; that
is to say. when, for example, a doubfb current Morse key is
prcMed down it sends, say, a positive current from one set, but
when it il allowed to rise to its normal position then a negath-e
cmtent iA transmitted from the second set of accumulators. It
is not possible to work double current from one set alone, as
in this case, if one key of a group of instruments is up and another
is down, the battery would be short-circuited and no current
wonld flow to line. The size of the accumulators employed
varies from a cell capable of an output of 8 ampere-hours, to a
size giving 750 ampere-hours.
Submarine CcbUs.—K submarine cable (figs. 5-7), as ustiaUy
manufactured, consists of a core a in the centre of which is a
strand of copper wires varying in weight for different cables
bctweeA- 70 and -650 tb to the naultoat mile. The stranded
form was suggested by W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) at a meeting
of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow in 1854, because its
greater flexibility renders it Jess l&dy to damage the insuhtiiig
cnvek^ie during the manipulation of the cable. The central
oohductor is coveied with several continuous coatings of gntta-
peitha, the total weight of which varies between 70 and 650 lb
to the mile. Theoretically for a given outside diameter of
core the greatest speed of signalling through a cable is obtained^
when the diameter of the oondnctor is -606 (i/V<) the diameter
of the core, but this ratio makes the thickness of the gutta-
percha covering insufficient for mechanical strength. Ouing to
Ibe hii^ price of gutta-|>ercha the tendency, of recent yirars, has
been to approximate more closely to the theoretical dimensions,
and a thickness of Insulating matertal which formerly woiiM
have been considered quite insufficient is now very generally
adopted with complete success. Of two transatlantic cables
laid in 1894, the core of one consisted of soo lb copper and
320 lb gutta-percha per mQe, and that of the other of 650 lb
copper and 400 lb gutta-percha; whereas for the similarly
situated cable laid in t866 the figures were 300 lb copper and
400 lb gvtta-percha. The core is served with a thick coating
of wet jute, yam or hemp (A), forming a soft bed for the
sheath, and, to secure immunity from the ravages of submarine
boring animals, eg. Ter^ nawglis, it has been found necessary,
for depths not exceeding 300 fathoms, to protect the core with
a thin Uyer of brass tape. The deep sea portiod is sheathed
with galvanized iron or steel wires (fh the latter case offering a
breaking strain of over 80 tons per sq. in., with an elongation
of at least s per cent.), the separate wires being first covered
with a firm coating of tape and ChaUerton's compound (a
Fig. 6^
Figs, 5-7. — Sections of three types of Subrharine Cables, full
sixe. Fig. $.— Type of shore end. Fig. 6. — Intermediate type.
Fig. 7.— Pocp sea type.
mixture of gutta-percha, rosin and Stockholm tar). Sometimes
the wires are covered with the compound alone, and the whole
cable after being sheathed is finally covered with tarred tape.
The wdgbt of the iron sheath varies greatly according to the
depth of the water, the nature of the sea bottom, the pror
valence of currents, and so on. Fig. 5 shows the intermedlatt
type again sheathed with a heavy armour to resist wear in
the shaJJow water near shore. In many cases a still heavier
type ia used for the first mile or two from shore, and several
intermediate types are often introduced; tapering gradually 10
the thin dccp-w^ater type.
The cost 6f the cable before laying depends on the dimensions
of its core, the gutta-percha, which still forms the only trust-
wortl^ insulator known, constituting the priadpal item of the
expense; for an Atlantic caWe of the most approved construc-
tion the cost may be taken at £250 to £300 per nautical mile.
In manufacturing a cable (4g. 8) the' copper strand is pacscd
through a vessd A containiog raelted Chatterton's oompouno, then
through the cylinder C, in whkh a quantity of gutta- m..».
percha, purified by repeated washing in hot water, by 2Zuv
mastication, and by filtering throueh wire-gause filters^ n ■■»™^'
kept warm tyy a steam* jacket. As the wire is pulled through, acostins
of gutta-percha, the thickness of which is regulated by the die C\
is pressed oot of the cylinder by applying thenquisite pressun
S«4
TELEGRAPH
{SUBMARINE CABLES
to the PJMon P. Tfie ntniiy ocMted wiro i» p awed thmufh a long
trough T, containing cold water, until it is sumciently told to allow
It to .be safely wound on a bobbin B' This operation completed,
the wire it wound from the bobbin B' on to another, and at the
same time caTefuHy examined for air-holes or other flaws, all of
which ate eliminated. .The coated wire is treated in the lanie way
as the copper strand — the die D. or another of the same size, being
placed at the back of the cylinder and a larger one substituted at
the frooti A second coating is then laid on. and after it passes
through a aimitar process of examination a third coating i^ applied,
and so on until tne nxjuistte number is completed. The finished
core changes rapidly in its elearic qualities at first, and is generally
kept for a stated Interval of time before being subject^ to the
specified tests. It is then placed in a tank of water and kept at a
certain fixed temperature, usually 75* F., until it assumes approxi-
' dieMctric
mately a constant electrical state. Its conductor and <
Fio. 8.
resistance and it^ electrostatic capacity are then measured. These
tests are in some cases re|>eated at another temperature, say ;$o* P.,
for the purpose of obtaining at the same time greater certainty of
the soundness of the core and the late of variation of the conductor
and dielectric resistances with tempenture. The subjection of the
core to a hydraulic pressure of four tons to the S9uare inch and an
electric preaoure of 5000 volts from an alternating-current trans-
former has been adopted, by one manufacturer at least, to secure
the detection of masked faults which might develop themselvest
after submergence. Should these testa prove satisfactory the core
is served with jute yam, coiled an water-tight tanks, and surrounded
with salt water. The insulation is again tested, and if no fault is
discovered the served core is passed through the sheathing machine,
and the iron sheath and the outer covering are laid on. As the
cable is sheathed it b stored in large water-tight Unks and kept
at a nearly uniform tempenture by means of water.
When the cabki is to be laid it is transferred to k cable ship,
provided with water-ti^ht tanks similar to those used in the factory
f^n^ for storing it. The tanks are nearly cylindrical in form
^"^' and have a truncated cone fixed in the centre, as shown
at C. fig. 9. The cable is carefully coiled into the tanks in
horiaontal flakes, each of whkib b begun at the outside of the unk
mantpnla
lonthe«
1 paying out isregufatcd, the pull on ue cable being at the
me obeerved by means of D. The shaft of P can be readily
rear with a powerful engine for the puipose of haultfig back
"3 7 1 ' «l»eiK
Fio. 9.-^DiagFam of Cable Tank and Paying'Out Apparatua
of Submarine Cable.
and ceiled towards the centxfe. The different ooils are
from adhering by a coatiiv of whitewash, and the end of each
nautical mile is carefuUy marked for future reference. After the
cable has been again subjected to the proper electrical tests and
Ibund to be in periFcct condition, the ship is taken to the pbce
where the shore end is to be landed. A sufAdent leotfth of cable
10 ftach the shore or the cable-house ia paid overboard ftnd coiled
on a raft or rafts, or on the deck of a steam-launch, in order to
be connected with the shore. The end is taken into the testing
room in the cable-house and the conductor connected with the
testing instruments, and, should the electrical tests eontinue sati»<
factory, the ship is put on the proper course and Meams flowly
ahead, paying out the cable over her stem. The cable must not
be overvtrained in the process of submersion, and must be paid
out at the proper rate to give the requisite slack. This involves
the Intioduction of machineiy for mcnauring and controUing the
^leed at which it leaves the ship and for mcaauring the pull on the
cable. T^e essential paru of this apparatua are shown m fig. 9*
The lower end * of the cable to the tank T b taken to the testing
room, so that continuous tesu for electrical condition can be made.
The upper end is pasaed over a guiding quadrant Q to a set of
wheebv fixed quadrants i, 2* j, . . . then to the paying-out drum P,
from it to the dynamometer D. and finally to the rtcra pulley,
over which it paaaes into the aea. The wheels i. 2. 3. . . . are so
arrangfed that 2, 4. 6, . . " -r towered wm to mvn
the *tM * ksa or mo- "> between them, while
1 3. > . . . *» ftitnif whole ^«tem provides
1 «f pWBf
Ut,
ttai cabb to make ic
grip the drum P, rmmd wUch It paases sciverti tines to pRvtnt
alipptag. On the same shaft with Pb lined a brake.wb«elfiiraiahed
with a powerful brake B, hy the proper mantpnlation of which the
speed 01 paying « '
same time c
put in gear 1 - . .
the cable shouki it be found necessary to 00 so. The bncm paid
out and the rate of paying out are obtained appnMdmatdjf from the
number of turns made by the dram P and iu rate of turning. Thb
is diecked by the mib marks, the known position of the joiota. Ac.
as they pass. The speed oif the ship can be loughly eatimated
from the speed of the engines; it b more aeeuMtcly obtained
by one or other of the various forms of log. or it may be meneurrd
by paying out continuously a steel wire «vcra Aeasunng wfaeeL
The average raced b obtained very aocutntely from cobr and stellar
observations tor the position of tne ship. The difference be tw e en
the speed of the ship and the rate of pa/ing out gives the amount
of sbck. The amount of sbck varies m different cases between
3 and 10 per cent., but sothe Is always allowed, so that the cable may
easily adapt itself to inequalities of the bottom and may be more
readily lifted for repairs. But the mere paying out of sufficient
slack IS not a guamntee that the cabb will always lie closely along
the bottom or be free from spans. Whilst It is being paid out the
portion between the surface of the water and the bottom of the sea
lies atong a straight line, the component of the weight nt right
aqsles to its length beim supported by the f actional reststaoce to
sinkinff in the water. If, then, the speed of the ship be v. the
rate 01 paying out «, the angle of immersion t, the depth of the
water h, the weight per unit length of the cable w, the pull on the
cabb at the surface P, and A, B constants, we havc~-
P-*lw-(A/sin •)/(«-» cos 01 («)
and vcoat wB/(9 8in 1) W,
where/ stand for "function.** The factors A/ (k-vco^i) and
B/ (v sin f) give the frictional resistance tq sinking, per unit length
of the cable, in the dinxtion of the length and transverse to the
length respectively.^ It b evident from equation (fi) that the
angle of immersion depends solely on the speed of the ship; hence
in laying a cable on an irregubr bottom it b of great importance
that the speed should be suflidcntly tow. Thb may be illustrated
very simply as follows; suppose a a (fig. 10) to be the aurface of
the sea, c the bottom, and c c the straight line made by the cabb;
then, if a hill H. which b at any part steeper than the inclination
of the cable, is passed over, the cable touches it at some point I
before it touches the part immedbtely below /, and if the friction
between the cable ami the ground is sufficient the cabb will cither
break or be left in a long span ready to bnak at some future time.
It is Important to observe that the risk b In no way obviated by the
increasing slack paid out. except in so far as the amount of diding
which the strength of the cabb b abb
produoe at the points of contact with
ground may be thereby increased.
. speed of the ship must therefore be
reguUted that the angb of immernon
great as the indinatton of the
__ .. .jt atope passed over. In ordinary^
circumsunoes the angb of immersion •
varies between ux and nine degree*.
The "sbck indicator" of Messra
Sbmeas Brothers ft Co. yblds n con-
tinuoua indication «nd record^ of the
actual slack paid out. It consists of a
long screw spindle, coupled by suitable gearing with the cabb
dram, and thus rotating at the speed of the outgoing cable; on
this screw works a nut which forms the centre of a tiiin circubr
disk, the edge of which b pressed against the surface of a nght
circular cone, the line of contact, as the nut moves along the screw»
being parallel to the axis of the bttcr. This cone ts driven by
gearing from the wire dram, so that it rotates at the speed of
the outgoing wire, the directton of rsUtton botnc such aa to cause
the not to travel toward the smaller end of the cone. If both
Flc 10.
nut and screw are rotating at the same speed, the poaitiDn'of the
(ormer will remain fixed : and as the nut b driven by frictton from
the surface of the cone, this equality of speed will obtain only when
the product of the diameter {£) d the cone at that position multi-
plted into its speed of rotation (n) equals the praduct of the
dbmetcr (a) of the dbk multiplied Into the speed <i rotation {Ifi
of the screw, or Nin^d/a, and thus the ratio of cabb paid o<ft.to
that of wire paid out u continuously given by a pointer controlled
^ See Sir W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) MaHmmaUr Ml wrf Phtk^
Pa^Vh vol* ii. p. 1^
SUBMMUME CABLESI
by the doli. for aay diflfeicim ta tpnd b a iw Mfl nut and sow will
cauae tbe nut to move abng the scxew until the diainctsr of the
cone is reached which f ulfil* the above conditions for equality in
Hwed. In &s. 11 tlie edge of the disk serves as the pointer and the
scale gives the peroenuge of alack, or (iV-»i»)/f». The wife being
paid out without slack measures the actual distance and tpeed
over the ground, and the engineer is charge is relieved of all anxiety
the depth from the acattfled sounding of the pre>
sy, or in calcubting the relanling strata lequitea to
TELBGRAEH
*i8
produce the s p c cj fed sladc since the brakesman mcndy has to
follow the indications of the instrument Ind rq^lale the stiain so
as to keep the pointer at the figure i«aiiired--«n easy task, seeing
that the ratio of apead of wire and cable is not affected by the
motion of the ship, whatever be the state of the sea, wfaeitna the
FlG. n.— Slack Indicator.
atraia will in heavy weather be varying. 50 per cent, or mOn on
each side of the me^ value. Further, the prelimiaary gurvey
over the proposed route, neceaaary for deckltng the length and
tvpes of dble required, can afford merely an approximatioi^ to the
depth in which the cfeble actually lies, uoce accidents of wind and
weather, or lack of observations tor determining the poeitiba.- cause
^_ ._^..__ _,.__ ., .^ .. . poi^n^ |p„„ ting pjopogej
of slack and strain comoined
I aimple matter to calculaf and
iite of the cable as actually hud.
deviatbns. often of co n sklcrable
route. From the continuous recoi
with tho weight of the cahle it is • —
idot the depths along the whole roiite _.
Fig. la, conqulcd from the actual reoordt obuined during the laying
of the Caoao-Fayal section U the Commercial CaUe Con^iany's
system, shows by the full line the actual strain recorded which
secured the even distribution of 8 per cent, of slack, and by the
dotted hne the atrain that would have been applied if the aoiiadinss
taken during the preliminary survey had been the only source
availably although the oondttioof ot asa and weather favoured
Fig. la.'Records of Strain and Depths.
dose adherence to the proposed route. The oidtaates of the curve
give the strain in cwts., and the abscissae the disUnce in miles
measured from the Canso end; as the strain is proportional to the
depth. 18 cwts. coneapooding to mdo fathoms, the bUck line
represents to an exaggerated scale the contour of the sea bed.
Owteg to^the eaperienoe gained with many thousands of mUea of
oable ia all depths and under 'varying conditions of weather and
chmaie^ the sisk, aad consequently the cost, of laying
has been greatly reduced. But the cost of effecting a
.., r still rimnins a very unoeatain quantity, sucoem being dc-
pendaot oa quint oooditMos of sea aad weather. The m«dus
tfermidi is bneffy aa foUows: The positkm of the fraetvic is
determined hy electrical teats (rem both ends, with meie or less
accuracy, depeodiag on the nature of the fracture^ but with a
probable error not eaf«»ding a few oules. The steamer on reach*
ing the given position lowers one^ or perhaps twa» mark bttoys»
mooring them oy mushroom andhor, chun and rope. Using these
buoys to'guide the direction of tow, a grapnel, a species of five-
pRMged anchor, attached to a strantf compound rope famed of
stiaads of steel and manih, is lowetea to the bottom and dragged
at a alow speed, n h were ploughing a farrow in the sea bottom, ia
a line at nght angles to the cable route, until the behaviour of the
dynenemeter shows that the cable ia hooked. The ship is then
Stopped, and the cable gradually hove up towards the snrfaoet
but ia deep water, unless it has
caught near a loose end, the
table irill bicak on the gmpMl befbn k reaches tbeviniaoe. as the
eateaary straia on the ught will be greater than it wiH aeand.
Another buoy is put down marking this position, fixing at the same
time the actual hae of the cable. GvappUag will be recommenced
so as to hook the cable near enough to the end to allow of its being
hove to the surface. When this has been done aa electrical fesi
is appUcd^and if theoriidaal fracture is between ship and shore the
heaving in of cable will continue iintil the end comes on board.
Another boov b then lowered to mark thaa spot, and the cable 00
the other side of the fiaauie grappled for, brought to the surface,
ujd, if mramunicarioB ia found perfect with the- shore, buoyed
with aufli^ient chain and rope attached to allow of the cable itscff
reaching the bottom. The ship now returns to the position 01
Inala" * ' *^ ^ — - •» ....
attack, and by nmilar operations brings oa board the end
which secures cofenmunicatioa with the other shore.
orieinal
wMch secures bofenmiinicatioa wkh the other Siore. The gap be>
tlMM the two ends has now to be dosed by splicing oa asw cable
aad paying out until the buoyed end is reached, which is then
hove up and brought on board. After the " final splice,** as it tt
termed, between these ends has been made, the bight, made fast
to a slip ro^, is towered overboard, the slip rope cut, and the cable
alfawed to unkbyitBownweighttoitsieBting-plaoeoBtheaeabed.
The repair being thus completed, the various mark baoya art pkM
upland the ship returns to her usual station.
The grappling of the cable and rainng it to the stirfaoe from i
depth « 3000 uthoms seldom occupy leu than twenty-four hours^
aad sboe any extra stntin due to the pitching of the vessel must
be avokied, it is ehsar that the stale of the sea aad weather Is tlye
predominating factor in the time necessary for effecting the long
series of operations whkh, in the most favourable drcumitances,
are required for a repair. In addition, the intervention of very
hca^ weather may mar aU the work already aooompliahed, and
reqaae the whole series of opcntioBs to be mdcnakea ds fiaea«
As to coat, one tranaa t lantic. cable repair cost fj^jpooi the repair
of the Aden-Bombay cable, broken m a dcptn of ^900 fathoms,
was effected with the expenditure of 176 miles of new cable, and
aft«Ar a lapse of 951 days, 103 being spent in actual work, whieb
for the ffemaiader of the time was interrupted by the moasooa; a
rqpair of the Liabon-Portihcurnow cable, biobea ia the Bay dl
Biscay in 3700 fathoms, eleven ycarp after the cable was laid, took
315. days, with aa expenditure of 300 mOes of cable. All inter-
niptsons axe not so costly, for in shaUowir wateea, with favourable
ooAcfitions of weather, a repair may be only a matter of a few houm.
and it is in such waters that the majority of breaks occur, but stm
a large reserve fund must be laid aside for this piurpose. As aa
ordinary instance, it has been stated that the cost of rqiairing the
Direct united States cable up to looo from its submergence fn
1874 avera^ ifiooo per annum. Nearly aU the cable companiet
possess their own steaaera, of sufficient dimensions and specially
equipped for making ocdiaary repairs: but for exceptional cases*
where a coasidecable quantity of new cable may have to be iaserted.
itmay be oeoessary to charter the services of one of the laiver
vesids owned by a cableinimufacturhig oompaay, at a oertaia
sum per day, which may well reach iaoo to 4300. This fleet of
cable ships now aumbers over forty, ranging la aiae frooi vessdt
of toQ tons to 10,000 tons carrying capadty.
The life of a cable is usually considered to continue until it is no
hMffsr capable of being liftcid-for repair, but iasomecMM the
duratiod and frequency of taterruptions as affectmg .^^
pobUc coavenieooe, with the loss of revenue and cost m '''^
repairs, must together dedde the ouestioa of either makkig vary
extensive renewals er even abandoning the whole' cable. Toe
possibility of repair is affected by so many dicuxnstaoces due to
the cavirooment of the cablei that not even aa approaim a te term
of years has yet beta authoritativdv fixed. It is a well-ascertained
fact that the insulator, gutta-percna, is. when kept under wat^kv
practically imperishable, so that it is qoiy the origin^ stfengt|r 01
the dieathiag wirea and the deterioration
have to be considered.
aUowabieln them that
Cables have frequently been picked up
showing after many years of sabmotCBoe no appredable deteriora'
trna in thii respect, while in other cases ends nave been picked op
which in the course of tirelve years had been cofrodcd to needle
poniu, the result psobably of metalliferous deposits in the locality.
It is scarcely possible from the preliroiaary survey, a^h souodinn
several miles apart, to obtain more thaa a general Idea as to the
average depth atong the route, while the nature of the constituents
of the sea bed can only be revealed by a few small spedBMsa brought
up at isolated apots, -though fortunatdy the globigerine ooet wfcwb
covers the bottom at all the greater ocean deptiM fords aa idMil
bed for the cable. The experience gained in the earlier daya of
ocean telegraphy, from the fsihtfe and abandonment «f nearly
90 per cent, of the deep>«ea cables withia the fint twelve yeare*
plared the probable life of a cable as low as fifteen years, but the
weeding out of unsernccabk types of coastniction, aad the general
improvement in materials, have by degrees extended that first
estimate, antH mm the limit may be aafeify placed at not less than
forty years. In depths beyond the reach of wave motion, and
apart from snspennon across a submariae gidly, which will sooner
or later result In a rupture of the cable, the most (ra^ucat cause of
intemiptioa is seismic or other shifting of the ocean bed. white
^in shallower Vraten and near the shore the dragging v^ '
51^
VELEGKAVH
(LAKD INSTRUMENTS
Stoif*.
fiahtng tniirb has been raoslty rtefMMible. , Since fay iatcrnatidnal
af^raemcht the wilful damage' of a cable has been constituted a
criminal offence, and the cable companies have avoided crossing
the fishing banks^ or have adopted the wise policy of refunding
the value of anchors lost on their cables, the number of such
fractures has greatly diminished.
Instruments for Land Telegraphy.— At small country towns
or villages, where the message traffic is light, the Wbeatstone
"ABC" instninaent is used. In this apparatus electrifc
ABC cturrents are generated by turning a handle (placed in
taairw front of the instrument), which is geared, in the instru-
f"***" ments of the most recent pattern, to a Siemens shuttle
armature placed between the two arms of a powerful hone-
shoe permanent magnet. When one of a series of keys (each
tonrcsponding to a letter) arranged roudd a pointer is depressed,
tfhe mptiOn of the pointer, which is geared to the shuttle arma-
ture, is axresled on coming opposite that particular key, and
the transmission of the currents to line is stopped, though the
Armature itself can continue to rotate. The depression of a
^coi^d key pauses the first key to be raised. The currents
^uate a n^tchct-whcel mechanism at the receiving station,
whereby the hand on a small dial is moved on letter by letter.
A noticeable feature in the modern ABC indicator, as well
as in all modem forms of telegraph instruments, is the adoption
of " induced " magnets in the moving portion of the apparatus.
A small permaztent magnet is always liable to become demagnet-
ised, or haie its polarity reversed by the action of lightning.
This liability Is overcome by making such movable parts as
require to be magnetic of soft iron, and magnetizing them by
the inducing action of a strong permanent magnet. Although
formerly in very extensive employment, this instrument is
droppmg out of use and the ** sounder ** (and in many cases
the telephone) is being used in its place.
At offices where the work is heavier than can be dealt with by
the ABC apparatus, the *' Sinele Needle *' instrument has been
very largely employcdf; it has the advantage of slight
liability to deran|;emcnt, and of requiring very little
laMUif adjustment. A fairiy skilled operator can signal with it
m0aL ^^ ^^^ *'*^^ °^ ^** words per minute. The needle (in the
modern pattern) is of soft Iron, and is kept magnetized in-
ductively by the action of two permanent steel magnets. The coils
are wound with copper wire (covered with silk), lo mils- in diameter,
to a total resistance of 200 ohms. The actual current required to
work the instrument is 3*3 milliamperes (equivalent approximately
to the current given by i-Daniell cell through 3AO0 ohms), but m
practice a current of 10 milliamperes is allowed. A ample, but
important, addition to enable the reading from the instrument to
be effected by sound is shown in fig. 13; in this anrail^ment the
needle strikes against small ttibefe formed
of tin-plate. Although a most serviceablij
instrument and cheap as liegards main-
tenance, the " single needle " has (except
for railway telegraph purposes) been
k discarded in favour of the " sotmder,"
I to secure the advantage of usinff one
I general pattern of apparatus, as far as
'possible, and to avoia the necessity of
two different types of instrument bieing
learnt by the telegraphist.
The wdl-known code of signals (fig. 14)
introduced by Morse is still employed in
Fir II — <;:n<,i*. N-H^li. ***• United State* and Canada, and the
^ wi^l^'ln^nS .^^r! International code in vogue in Europe
with soundmg arrange- ^j^^^ ^„,y ^.^^^^^ j,^^ ^
"**^°^* The instruments used for Und tele-
graphs on this system are of two types—*" sounders," which indi-
•.catc by sound, and " recorders," whKh record the signals.
Recorders vary in details of construction, but all have the same
object, namely, to record the intervals during which the current is
applied to the line. In the earlier forms of mstrument the rKord
^s made by embossing lines on a ribbon of paper by means of a
Sharp style nxed to one end of a lever, which carried at the other
end the armature of an electromagnet. The form of Morse recorder
jff^^ alnufst unlvervally used in Europe makes the record hi
tat^ ink, and hence is somerimes called the "ink^writer."
^rtfr "^^ method has the advantage of distinctness, and so is
' * less trying to the eyes of the operators. Although the
" ink-writer " is still In use if is practically an obsolete instruments
and has been displaced by the '^ sounder."
Operators who used thereoorder soon learned to read the message
by the click of the armature dgainst its stop, and as this left the
*'*^^<!s and eyes fnte to write, reading by sound was uaually
0feferTcd«
Thua, when it is not Booecsny tblceep acopy, ^ nnuch'
simpler instrument may be employed and the message read <
by sound. The earliest successful form was " Bright's
bell " sounder, which consistad of two bdUs of distinct tone or
pitch, one of which was sounded when the cunent was sent in one
A •
B -
C -
Ch-
D -
E •
F •
G -
H •
I •
J .
K -
L •
M-
N -
A
B •
C
D
E '
F ■
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N •
Ikternational Coi>b
O 4 ...
p B ...
Q -^.-^ e ^.
R — . 7 -^-
3—. t —
T - t —
u ..- —
V . ...,
w . —
X : -.
Z T ..^
I I _,_
2
* ■■— (
American Code
. . s ...
p ..... 4 ...
Q 6
R . .. 6 .••
S — 7 —
T - 8 -.
U -^ - 9 -.
V
W . —
X , .-
Y •. .. ,1 —
Z • . I —
1 — • A • •
2
Fig. l4.->-Morsc Alphabets.
direction and the other when it was reversed. This Instrtmient
was capable of giving very considerable speed, but it: Was more
complicated than that now in use, which consists only of an electro-
magnet, with its armature lev^r arranged to stop against an an\i1
or scrcW in such a way as to give a distinct and somewhat toud
sound; Dots and dashes are distinguished by the interval between
the sounds of the instrument in precisely the same way as they
are distinguished when reading from the n^roMler by sound.
Fig. IS ihows the modern pattern of "sounder" as used by the
Fic. 15.— Modeni " Sounder.'*
British Post Office. The magnet is wound to a resistance of
4|o ohms (or 900 ohms when u-orked from accumulators), and the
instrument is worked with a current of 400 milUamperea C'S niilli-
amperes with accumulators).
Jaetkods of IVorkiMg Laud Circmlf.— The arrangement on the
" open-ciftcuit " system for singl6<urrent working is shown ia
fig. 16, in whkh Li represents the line, G a galvanometer, .
used simply to show that the cunent s are going to Une -^
when the mesaage is being tranamiued^ K the trana*
mitting key. B the battery, 1 the recdving instrument,
and E the earth-plate. The complete circuit is from the
pbte E through the instrument I, the key K.and the
gahranoscope G to the Une Li. then through ^he corresponding
instmnients to the eartb.plate E at the other end, and back through
the earth to the plate h. The earth is always, except far some
special reason, used as a return, hccauseit offers Rttle resiMance
and saves the eicpense and the risk of failure ef the return wire.
The oarth'platt'E ought to be buried in rooist/catth: or iii .wMtt^
In towns the water and gas pipe iystemi'foms^eJdceHenlesrtk
LAI«TD IVDRRlNCr ^
plate*. It win be obnervcd that tiMcireirit b not In thh caae
act«alty ojhm; the meaning o( the expretskm " open tstcutt " ia
" oa rottery to Kne." In normal drcumstancce tne inttnimenti
at both emw are ready to receive, both ends of the^ line being to
eirth tJirough the receiving instmmenta. A aignal w sent by de-
pressing the key K, and so changing the contact from a to b, and
^ ^ ,, thoa putting the battery
* to line. On circuits
where the traffic b email
it b usual to make one
wire serve several sta-
tions. At an intermediate
or wayside station W, a
" switch " S, consisting
of three blocks of bcass
fixed to an insulating
base, b sometimes used
^*^- ' cuTi^n^Svlrem • ^^"''" ^^r "^^"^^^
current System. termini statk>n of L,
by insetting phig *, and of Li by insertinff plug a, or the instruments
may be cut out of circuit by inserting plug i. In ordinary circum-
stances the messages from all stations are sent through the whole
line, and thus the operator at any station may transmit, if the line
b free, by manipulating hb key.
The connexions for single-cuwent working on the " ck>sed-cir-
cuit " system aic shown in fig. 17. It differs from the open circuit
in on(v reciuiring one battery (although, as in the figure,
half 01 it b often placed at each end), in having the re-
ceiving instrument between the line and the key, and in
TELEGRAPH
S«7
havine the battery continuously to the line. The battery
b kept to the une by the bar e, which short<ircuits the keys.
When signab are to be sent firom either station the operator turns
the switch t o«t of tontact with the stop b, and tnen operates
precisely as in open circuit send-
* - > ing. This system is more expen-
JL five than the open-circuit system,
O ** the battery is always at work ;
y but it offers some advantages on
^SL^jsi^ circuits where there aoe a number
i^^r* of intermediate stations, as the
circuit U undpr a constant electro-
motive force and has the same
resistance no matter which station
b sending or receiving. . The
arrangement at a wayside station
b shown at W. When the circuit
b long and contains a large
number of stations^ the sending
battenr b sometimei divided
liio
i
I
F1C.17.— Closed Circuit, Single-
current System.
sometimee
among them in order to give greater uniformity of current along the
liock WVen only one battery b used the current at the distant end
may be considerably affected by the leakage to earth along the line.
If long circuits were worked direct with ordinary instruments,
high iiattcry power would be required iu order to send sufficient
current ten aauate the apparatus. In such cases it is
usual to employ a local battery to produce the signals,
and to close the local battery, circuit by means of a
circuit-ck>9ing apparatus called a relay, ^ wnich b practi-
caHy an electromagnetic key which h^ its lever atuched
to the armattje of the magnet and which can be worked by a very
weak current. The arrangement at a station worked by relay
X'IE::
I
i^i
^
-r
CD
the •• single-current
system b shown in fig.'
18, where L b the line
wire, joined through' the
key K to one end of the
coil of the relay magnet R,
the other end of which b
put to earth. When a
current jnsaes through R
the armature A b attracted
and the local circuit b
closed through the arma-
ture at b. The local
battery Bi then sends a
current through the in-
strument 1 and -records
the signal. In the form
Fig. 18.— Single-current Relay.
Working. ^_
of relay indicated in the figuK the armaturc**b held a^nsttbe
stoQ« by a springs.
*'6infb-curreot" working by means of a non-polariaed relay
(fif. wf, although general in America, b not adopted is England.
m.^-M.M^. In the latter country, when such working is resorted to.
^..fgtf . a '* polarized telay ^ (fig.. 20) with a bias is used, but on
^^^ an important Unci worked by aounders the " double-
'- current " system b employed. In this the tongue of the
rday b kept over to the spacing side by means of a ctirrent fknring
in one direction, but on the demession o( the signalling key the cur-
rent b reverted, moving the roay tongue over to the mandng aide.
. The Siamena pdariaed relay, ahotm la fig, 19. cbaabca of all
•haaturs a, pivoted at one end A in a dot at one end N oC a
peranaaeat magnet ot. the other pole s of which b fixed to the
yoke y of a horse-ahoe electromagnet M. The armature b placed
between the poke of the electromagnet, and being
nagnetiaed by the magnet m it will oacillate to the
right or left under the action ol the poles of the electto-
magnet M aiocordiUe as the cuirent pasaea through M in one direotioo
orow other. Thb torm of rehnr b largely used, out in Qre»t Britain
it baa bata entirely dbphced oy the form shown In fig. ao, wht^
b the moot modem pattani of reby uaed by the British Post Office,
known an the " Post Office Standard Relay." In thb instrumcatf
Fig. 19.— Siemens
Polanaed Relay.
He. 20.— Post Office
SUndaid ReUy.
there are two soft iron tongues, n, «, fixed upon and at right angles
to an axle o. which works on piVots at its ends. These tongues are
magnctiaed oy the inducing action of a strong horse-shoe permanent
magnet, S K, which b made in a curved shape for the sake of com-
pactncas. The tongue plays between the poles of two straight
eiectroRiAgncte. The coDs of the electromagnets art differentiaMy
wound with silk-covered wire, 4mil5(e -004 iiich) in diameter* toA
toul xcsbtance of 400 ohms. Thb differential winding enables the
instrument to be used for " duplex ** working, but the connexions
of the irires to the terminal screws are such that the relay can
be used for ordinary single working. Although the relay Is a
" polarized " one, so that it can be used for '* doubte-turrcnt "
working, it is equally suitable for '* single-current " purposes, as
the tongue can be given a bias over to the " spacing ** side, i^» to
H o-j V r<> |-
Frs. ai.-^a
I for Dottbl0-cufrant Workii«.'
the akle on whkh no current passes through the local circuit. The
standard relay will work single current with a current of 3 mUlbm-
peres, though In practice about 10 would be used. Worked double
current — that b, with the tongue set neutral, having no bias either
to the spacing or marking side-Hhe leby will give good signaU
with i| miUiam|>ere of current, though in practice lo milliampcrcs
are provided. The lightness of the movine part enables grpt
rapidity of action to be obtained, which for last speed working b
very cssenUal. The relay tongue, being perfectly free to move.
can be actuated by a compantivdy wuk current. NonnaUy a
awitch attached to the key oou the batten^ off, and connects the
line direct through the receiving relay; this switch b turned to
'• send •' when transmission commences, and b moved back to
" receive " when it ceases: thb movement b done quite machaai'
cally by the telegraphbt. and aa it b practically oevef f«gpUeo.
autoaiatic devioea (which hav^ often been auggcsted) to effect the
turning are wholly unnecessary.
Fig. 21 shows the generalarrangemcnt of the connexlonsfoT doable-
current working: tne galvanooMter G b oscd lor ^kt purpose of
526
TELEGRAPH
iOOiafflEBClAL ilSKCn
CompMsr; Wi afitf a tiiil «f fov yean il w fgaid thai a
a ama w la. lale sraspective af dwianrr bad aot jastiiiul itsdf ,
and that for aay bu. voj dntt datawfa iLe tanff «as
iaocase ia i riiaMf at lM.saak £<««■ tke Itmtikm Disnict
Tckcnpb Coopasj, wkidh was kaiEed ia iSs9 fa* (he pv-
psie «f tna<Mitfi->g ukpaph THacrfc bdawa poiau ia
■ air<poftia Laadtm, iiMiiKi tk^t a km aa^ocaa nte vaa aoi
^mmdaZj practkahie. The csapaa j bcgaa with a ladfi af
ad per to «^ni»; il aooa ncrEaaed Jk cate to 6d. far is wonfe
«itk aa arlriiainnal pwliragp chaise for deurcfjr liiji—l a
cotaia iliaaaffr, aad ia i£66 the ian€ aas laital to ul The
ODoiiaajr had i2j m. of lac aad 83 ofico^ aad ia 1865 ooo-
' j^t/oao fsragTK bat ii aas aot JniarfiSly see-
the laiivay
t heavy caoiBeraat naka b devdofaac
the tdkgpafih acmes of the ooaitfxy aadoaly landmir profcs
•err cnaed. b oaaot justjy be said that the oompuia
Made faqge pnfils ahde afii>wtiag to dcvdop the lovkcs
adeqaatd^. b«i it is tne that they warn not able oariawraay
10 uiaipi/ with aaayaf thedoeaads Bade npoa them by the
Uald apeadatioB tink place ia aatiripaljoa af ^vvcra-
I maihel prko o< the iHiyaph SDOintics
par. The atoch af the Ekctiic aad later-
CoBpeay, the ntaa «■ vhkh had itachBd 10 per
a aaaaai, haacvar. aa» valaed at afaoot 14 yeaxs*
; af the aaaaal pniils. Voy IzttJe aev cap^al aas
by the tiffcgraph wpnik 1 aboat iS6s becaaae «f
the aataial adactaaoecf the coapaaks tacucad thesvstoas
■adcr thdr ooatsal aa faac ^ *■ propoal far their acqaisijaa
by the slaU aaa aader coaadoalloo. Ja i£68 the l^tfih af
cfacnic trtryaph liaea lirinmjig to the niianwaiii aas 16.643
■L, aad of thaae hfli wya g 10 ibe nflaay ruBpiaii 1 4/^:2
■L« or a toul «f xt^s- y^i^ laiM la the HatcBcnf that
ooa^pcumx systcas and had
y. it was faoad by the Boat O&ce
i that ia i86s has thaa aoaa ac af tdc^paph fiao^
aad SSO aficas oat af a total af over aooo^ acre redsadaat.
aa as lo ci^ie the acnaccs to be cpmolwiaird aad fUnwird,
aad they paopaaed to SDbsil to vanoos cnoditiQas far the
laotcctiaa af the pabtk. sacfa as lasTiir.aai ntcs aad hciia-
tioo of dnidcadSy vith tiie pnyviaoa that aev isaacsof ofiul
dkoald ha ofined by anninn, bci p^bJc opiriaa aas avacae
lo the pnopasaL By i&6$ both poetical parties ia the Hoose
af rnaaiiiiBi had cnawniltwi i hcaBtix* to the policy af state
pardhaaeof the telepaphs.
Alter anch ncgouatioB the basis fiaafiy oi^aed q
ibi inimai I aad the conpaafas aas aa years'
the pBofits of the year ended jolh Jane 186&. The Chaacdka
of the Exchequer i ksrii h fd tbe tOBS as " wy fcibctal bat not
Bocc ttxxal thaa they sfaoald be andv the cfacaasuacca. '
aad itatad thai Mr ScadiBoee had f^liaBrrd that /6jooay9oo
was the BAaiaiu B pace vfcich the ywciamia t aaiJd bav« to
pay, aad that the Batfatastrr-Ccagal aookl ohiaia Iiob the
i ih yap h s a act aaaaal icveaae of £aosjaeo at least. Ia
ad^iioo lo the andeflakiacs of the t < hgia| ih aaapanifs the
pcr ituaa c a t had ta poaduae the revexsiaoaiy r^hts of the
faiiaay imBpiain vbkh anae oat of the dzc^nataace that
the td^paph rwf laii \ far the aMst pan bad oacted their
poles aad viicaahnK the pmaanwit «^ of ihe csiaays aadcr
leases abkh ia 1868 had still away jeacs to nm. The price
Av^rded ta the bz t dcya ph fnainoaim aas £s-713.00& A
father £100^000 aas paid far the Jcsey, CoetaMy, Ide cf
I other aodertaJunss aad about ^i^aooyooo
Fclaaaiy iSiyai
Bteat speet ^^oojotoo ia makrag C*^^ ^he <
by the phaal ia the txacsitSoa yvais of z&68 aad 1S69, far aijch
a^jovaaee had beca Bade ia the pairhav pdoc, aad abccj
£1.700,000 «as apeadad aa aew plaat. Dariac that peKiad
8000 SL of posts, 46/ioa m. of aire aad aliaat aoa b. of
urJezrouad pipes vcre aAVif The cost of tbese av^s
had boea na<Vrfvimtfd. zzA the ic;»Et of Ihe Sded Caak-
oictee of the Bast 06ce (Tcfapaph DeparlBBaA). iMw atais
that **the tu a uaitte e have oat tacnvod aay faA aad satis-
Czctory cspiz=x:ica of the srext <£5 cit " K « btiatia the cad-
— x*^^ expemSittze of 1560 and the af^^jyl # ii >f ! ^^ , pi ;My iacanad
ap to 1876."
The caeeB cipcBditBfc caned the Fait Q^ea lariat t«a or
t^ree jrais to aeakc teDBparay apfficadaa of "ii 1 ii^i Barks*
halanrrs to teiesnph npradifaw; aa rum'iiat viuch aas
di aap p iO o ul ofbyboththcTwaaaiyaadtheHoaBof r i— ■! 1
Probably aa Boee aidaoas taah aas ever tbaova ipM a pdbic
depanaeat thaa that iBpasedoB the Ptet OBce by the tzarsjoi
T¥e 11 in bi abich it aas la fanaff aboat aiir litpitj aad is-
patimiy dcBiadrd fay the pabfic This great a pwatia a had
to he cfiedad aithoot iaKnapting the pabac awfae, aad the
had iasBediaiciy to redocc aad ia sanii B fy the
far iriBiiBiiMn th io a ghwit the fciagdaBL U had la
theboanaf basiaessat all the o&ces; it had to 4
the aires ban lailaay s^atjoos lykc octside af toara I
to post ofices B the ceaixe of those popriTfinaa aad i
thea- aaburba; it had also 10 cstead the wires f
nnal dittiicis paevfaoslr dc«^oid of iihgp nihil 4
it had to cfiect a CBoapkte aevcraace of oecsQaoal aad d
t ikpop b j fnm that of Bcre laiivxy traBc aad ia oada- ta
cffad tlas.sevcaaoe it had to pnnviae the nSvars aath aaaae
6000 B. of ains ia sabgiiTiiioa far those of ahach thgr ^od
beea joiat asa&. It had f aithcr to provide at lov chaApia . far
the distribG^aa of arm to the Prb. it bad to fan^iatr the
of Boocy ordeas by td^paa; fauSy, it had to
le iato oae suS bodies of Bca aha had iwiiU
aodkod as livals opca opposiie plaaa aad mith dsenat icstza-
aaeais. aad to ooaMbiaa the OBalgaritffd Trirgapb staff mck
that of the postal servioe. So aeahKoSy aaa t^ wak of ia-
paaaeaieat pasned that aitbia htifa Bona thaa aia yeais af
the teacher the imntiii catoat of load aiaes ia the Tzitod
Juafdoea aas afacad|y 4^/3oa m. and that of niaagr aaca
4S/>o^ in an loS^oaa b. The noBbs of iamoLaea ia ia the
t ih^agdi o&ces aas lavoooL At that data the s
aad raar-agat stafa of the Boat Omce 4
the Stan of the old ffanptniw oath oa^y aboat iii ibiid ot the
txaSc haviBg beca SM pcDoaa.
The aaticapatioBS as ta Ihe iacnaB of Boa^pB dut ib^
Rs^t horn the redactioa of ales acae Ufy ndiaed. The
noaber of acBasa larfrasaf faoB aboat 6.50^000 a 1869 lo
aeady i i yn ocsp n o in 1871 aad ta aiyomywo ia 187s, hd the
npcrtarina s as to net revcaae acre not jasiiied by the rria#i
la 1869 Mr Sccdaaaore wtfmitfd the ^y *»^ opeaaB at
$f lo 56 per cast, of the paa sevcaae. Ia tS;o>i thqr were
57 per oeaU and ia lori-^, jS per ocaft. Siace 1875 the capii^
acxnazu has beea cfasod aith a total capeaditBe of £1^887 j6t^
and aa scbseqecat expenditaa far nfrnTioai> p'^'^i* af sibca
aad eaeclioo of bctkiiap has been chaiipd acaiast reacaae.
There are aevenl reaaoaa far the aaati fitogr fiaaadal faaahs
apart trxa tbe bi^ price paid far the mtq ■ ration of the — ^"x^r*"*
The KZfec£iaiic trmium of the teSeszs.;:^ baa iafcS} occ.i2£-
bcted t3 the kas. Moreow, atoce li&i the aafe* aad aiHies of
the ti II M ■! <* ' caeplcTiWes have beea fai wiia^J aa 1
e et ppirkal piaa.ia.n bmut^ ta hi
of I
pgirkal preanre farenc^ Ca hew oa
Baud -^ p^"..a T i r-« ; axkd aocvirhscasd^ the Drscest of the go
^^^ ci zlx Civ, the K3u9e of C:<: — Ka% a 1S&3 c&rned a trfc-fc^ira tiot
10 the laiiaay CMa po a a es far their icvcaiooaiy i«bts, the cast . .. ^z^,-.^ ^^ t, • «. T^ t^r ^-. >„ \» h. ^ i_^ ._ rr
^ i_ i_!ji L %,^A «^ --'^^mA .* r.nn »,^ I *^ - ■ ■ - ^ rare fcr s ianrt t>hgrarw Aodu be tramaeA t» €d.
of vhKh had beea ettimatcd at Xyoo^poa | Thb irr::.^ a fane cnKoiaa ci vacs to cope vah jifiiiniiji
The povcmaou acqi^icd the pcapctaal and cadbaire aay- | tnac The redooed i^ took effect aa faoa the at of Oot^hB
leaves far tcfagraph baa over the Tad«a)% bet tk aooopoiy . ^^^- .
of the PactBBtcr.CcMnl docs aot apply lo thoa aaaeiova ,^^- '=«: "^^--^^i^pad by the c=3.V.« x=^isitd l^the
am which are reqvttd for the prr^,ccx^ of Lit^ 03 nZ^ayi. - ^S^' jh^!^ ^^ricTS^^ »^^',^ <£ «W Minaste
IheldqpaphsvactzaBsteadtothofdftO^aoathes^of lay tae Buse » t^ ioa oa t^a r ' ^
COMMERCIAL ASPBCTSI
TfiL£GRAPH
537
OMMtip. which hat ^een «stiiiiaied m «t teiM X300,ooo
A further cauee haa been competition oflfered by the te..^
•ervice, but against this the Pbst Office has iteelved royalties from
tdepbone eompaiiiea and ttvwmt from traiik telephone lines.
TfacK cmouBied in 1887 to £26^70 and iixta ivipactivcly ; ia
1897 to £f>saB9 and £1 13,294. ami in 1907 to i^4<H33i wd £479^39
respectively.
The foUowing Ublc shoivB the financial tesnlu oi the bminfia
in the year imnifdiatdy fdhiwiag the puichaae of the tdegtaphi
by tibe atatt, in the Iwo srean pveoeding and the two yean
foUoiring the introduction of the 6d. taxiff, and in the aeven
finhndalytan from 1900-1907:-*
thoBiitiihnhip'* AfaveauMM/'both heing wir-ahipt lent fof the
puipose by' their respective governmenu. The ihore end waa
landed In Vakntja Harbour on the 5th ol August, and next
morning paying out waa started by the " Niagara," to which the
laying of the first half had been entrusted. For the fixBt lew
daya the operation pioceeded satisfactori^, tboogh li wly, but
on the afternoon of the xith, when 380 m. had been lsjd» th«
cable snapped* owing to a mistake in the manipulation of iha
brake* and the ships retuined to PJtymouth with what remained.
Next year, 700 m. of new cable having been made, the attempl
was renewed, with the same ships, but on this oocairiM it waa
T«r.
HSzi
ClHiftMptt-
r.SSL.
■»
•^
*bsss?-
^
Jta*enBl«a
I87t>-7t • .
9.*SO.»77
801,262
462.762
57-75
342.618
i
214.500
■l83-<« . .
l,789.2a3
IJB08,920
roi-ro
33M35
326,417 .
i884-»5t .
33.278,459
1.784.414
1320.764
XQ2-03
274.271
326417
l889-«6 . .
39.146.283
I.787.264
1432.401
iQS'Sa
OeildefKy
167.91s
326417
1886-87
50,243.639
1.887.159
2/^,6132
10770
88484
326417
1900-01
^.S7«.96»
3.459.353
3.79^.994
109-76
x^
298.860
190S-02
90.43^.041 ,
3.570.046
4^4.927
118-26
dSS?
298360
I902-(0
1904-05
1905-06
92^71.000
88.969.000
89.478.000
3.723,866
3.736,115
3.920.023
4.»5I.39o
4.325,577
449349t
4339459
4.89».i99
II6-I6
125:64
123-45
117-83
12,^3
278483
271.691
271.691
(Sdinatei
d}'
89493<000
4.369.230
5/121,283
tl4-92
^^
214^2
271^1
• 5th February 1870.— Transfer of tdempbs to the tute.
1 1st October i885.~lntroductioq of sixpenny tariff.
SMhwurime' Tdegrapks.-^Tht first commerdaily sucocssful
cable waa that laid across the straits ol Dover from the South
Focebnd to Sani^tte by T. R. Cnunpton in 1851, and two years
later, after several fuUle attempts, another was laid between
Port Patrick in the south of Scotland and Donaghadee in Ireland.
Thia was fottowed by various other cables between Eagbnd and
the neighbouring countries, and their success natursJ^y revived
the idea which had been suggested in 184s of estabUshing
telegraphic communication between England and America,
though this enterprise, on account of the distance and the
greater deplb of water, was of a much more formidable char*
acter. On the American side Cyrus W. Field acquired a coa«
eemion which had been granted to F. N. Gisborne for a land
fine connectnig St John's, Newfoandland, and Cape Ray, in
the Gull ol St Lawrence, and proceeded himself to get control
al the points on the American coast most suitable as landing
places for a cable. On the British side the question of oon*
stractxng an Atlantic cable waa engaging the attention of the
Magnetic Tekgmph Company and its cngiaeef Mr (aflerwtards
Sik) Charles Bri^t. Visiting EngUad in 1856, Field entered
faito an a g re ement with Bright and with John Watkins Brett,
who with his brother Jacob had proposed the constructing of an
Atlantic cable devcn ycais previously, with the objca ol form*
mg a company for esUbhshing and working electric teiegfapMc
oomrannkatioa between Newfoundland and Ireland. The
Atlantic Telegiaph Company was duly icgistcttd in sBs6, with
a capital ol iDs9o,fOoo, the great bulk of which was subscribed
in En^buuL The manufacture of the cable, begun early in the
following year, was finished in Jane, and before the end of July it
waa stowed pnit^ an the American ahip " Niagara " and partly in
decided to begin paying out in aid^xean, the two vessels^ aftat
splidng together the ends of the cable th^ had on board*
laihag away from each other in opposite diiectkms. They left
Plymouth on the toth of June, but owing to a terrific storm it
waa not tiU the 25th that they met at the rendesvoua. A tp^
having been made they started 00 the 26th, but the cable broke
almost immediately. Anotbtr splice was made^ to be foUowed,
after the *' Agamemnon " had paid out about 40 m., by another
break. Again the ships returned to the rendesvous and made
Mother splice, and again there was a break after the " Agamem*
non " had paid out 146 bl, and then the " Agamemnoni" after
again leturniag to the meeting-place in the vain hope that the
** Niagan " al^t have returned there also, made for Queens*
town, where she found her consort had anived neariy a week
previously.
Althoo^ a good deal of cable bad been loat, ooough ranaiaed
to connect the British and American shoreSk and according^
it was determined to make another attempt immeaiately. To
this cod the ships saQed from Queenatown on the 17th of Ju^
and having spliced the cable in mid-ocean, started to pay it
outonthe39tk The " Niagara " landed her cad in Trinity B«y,
Newfoundhmd. eo the sth ol August, while on the same day
the " Agamemnon " landed hers at Vakntia. The electrical oon»
ditioB d the cable was then excellent, but unfortunauly the
electrician in charge. WiMman Whitdiouse^ oonoclved the wrong
idea that it should be worked by cunenU of high potential.
For neariy a week futile attempts were made to send meessgee
by his methods, and then a return wsa made to the weak
currents and the mirror galvanometers of Sir WllUaiti Tkonson
(Loid Kdvin) which had been.empfexed for testing pwpoese
528
TELEGRAPH
(COMMEkClAL ASfECI^
white the cable was being laid. In chla nay communication
Iras eaubUshed from both aides on the x6th of August, but it
did not continue long, for tlie insolation had been, ruined by
Whitehouae^s treatment, ahd after the-soth of October no
signals could be got through.
The next attempt at laying an Atlantic caUe was made in
1865, the necessary capital bdng again raised in England. It
was determined that the work should be done by a single ship,
and accordingly the " Great Eastern " was chartered. Shestarted
from Valentia at the end of July, but fault after fault was dis-
covered in the cable and the final misfortune was that on the
and <^ August, when nearly isoo m. had be«i paid out, there
was a break, and all the efforts made to pick up the lost portion
proved unavailing* Next year the attempt was renewed. The
Atlantic Tdegraph Company was reconstituted as the Anglo-
American Telegraph Company with a capital of £600,000 «nd
sufficient cable was ordered not only to lay a line across the ocean
but also to complete the 1865 cable. The " Great Eastern " was
again employed, and leaving the south-west coast of Ireland on
the isth<d July she reached Trinity Bay a fortnight later, without
serious mishap. She then steamed eastwards again, and on the
tjth of August made her first attempt to itcover the lost cable.
TOs, like many subsequent ones, was a failure, but finally she
succeeded on the and of September, and having made a splice
completed the laying of the cable on the 8th of September.
These two cables did not have a very 'long life, that of 1865
breaking down m 1877 and that of x866 in 1872, but by the
later of these dates four other cables had been laid across the
Atlantic, including one from Brest to Duxbury, Mass. It was
sUted by "Sir ChaHes Bright in 1887 that by that date 107,000 m.
of submarine cable had been laid, while ten years later it was
cosaputed that i6t,ooo nautical miles of cable were in existence,
representing a capital of £40,000,000, 75 per cent of which had
been provided by the United Kingdom. Among the men of
business it was undoubtedly Sir John Pender (18x5-1896) who
contribvited most to the development of this colossal industry,
and to his imfailing faith in their iiltunate realization must be
ascribed the completion of the first successful Atlantic cables.
The submarine cables of the world now have a length exceeding
aoo,ooo iLautical miles, and most of them have been manu-
factured on the Thames.
The monopoly conferrea upon the Postmaster-General by
the Telegraph Act 1869 was subsequendy extended to telephony
and wireless telegraphy, but it does not extend to submarine
telegraphy. The submarine tdegraphs are mainly oontroOed
by companies, the amount of issued capital of the existing
British telegraph companies (twenty-four in number) being
£30,447,191, but a certain number tk lines are in govexxmtest
hands. Thus on the jist of March 1889 the undertaking of
fhe Submarine Telegraph Company was purchased by the
governments concerned. France and Great Britain Jointly ac*
quired the cables between Calais and Dover, Bowdogne «nd
Folkestone, Dieppe and Beachy Head, Havre asid Beachy Head,
Piron, near Cbutances, and Vieux Chiteanx (St Helieis, Jeisey).
Belgium and Great Britain became joinC-propcieton of th^
cables between Ramsgate a&d Ostend and Dervcr and De la
Panne (near Fumes). The two cables to Holland and one tif
the cables to Germany were already the property of Great
Britain, ai^ the German Union Compaiiy's cable to Germany
was purchased by tlie German government. The offices of the
Submarine Company in London, Dover, Itamsgate, East Dean
ind JeAey were purchased by the Post Office, as well as the
cable ship; and the staff, 370 in number, was taken over by the
gftvenuneni* like capital amount laid out by Great Britain
was £67,1031 and-on isf April the new business was begun with
a Qi^orm rata to F^rance, Germany, Holland and Bdgiom of
ad. a word, with a minimimi of lod.
In 189^ Liverpool was placed in^direct telegraphic oommniu-
catioB with Hamburg and Havre, and London with Rome^
The foUDwlng year aa addftional cable was laid from Baaon,
In Norfolk, to Borkum, in Gefnaay, at the joint expense -of the
Britlih and Otnaan govanoncBls. Dirca telcgnplrfc laom*
mtmication was thus afforded between London and Vienna.
In 1893 a contract was made with the Eastern and SouUi Africa
Telegraph Company for the construction* laying and malnlen-
ance of a cable fh>m Zanxibar to the SeycheUea and Mau*
ritius, a distance of saio m., for a aidisldy of £a8,aoo a year
for twenty years. In 1894 the Eastern Extension Telegraph
Company laid a cable from Singapore to Labnan and Hong
Kong, thus duplici^ing the toute and .making it an sdl^fixitisb
lipe. The following year the rates to and from East and South
Africa were reduced, by acgbtiatioo, tcon charges varying
from 7s. 9d. to 8s. ixd. a word to 5s. sd. or 5s. Goyenuncnt
mcssagw were aocotdad a rate of aa. 6d^ and Pnas telegrams
one of from is. sd. to is. 7id. a word. In 1896 it was arran^
to lay two new cables to France and one (for duplex working)
to Germany. On the ist of February 1898 a new cable was laid
between Bermuda and Jamaica (via Turks Islands), giving an
all-British line to the West Indies, with reduced charges. In
J900 direct tdegraph Working was established between London
and Genoa, and a third cable was latd to South Africa, via St
Helena and Ascension. In 1896 a committee was appointed to
consider the proposal for laying a telegraph cable between
British North Ameiica and Australasia. The report of the
conmiittee, which is dated January 1897, was presented to parha-
ment in April 1899, and dealt with the^ practacafaility of the
project, the route, the coat and the revenue. The committee
was of opinion that the cable should be owned and worked by
the governments interested, and that the general direction
should be in the hands of a manager in London under the
control of a small board at vAdch the associated gdveriunents
should be represented. The Eng&h cable companies wged that
state interference with private enterprise i»«s neither justifi*
able nor necessary, as the rates could be reduced and aa
altcfnativc cable foute to Australia anranged on reasonable
terms without it, and that the Cape route would be the best
alternative route. The government policy would, they alleged,
create an absohite and objectionable monopoly. In the corre-
spondence (Blue Book, Ed. 46, 1900) between the Eastern
Telegraph Company and the Colonial Oiiice, the compaay
pointed out that Mr Raikes, when Postmaster-OcDeral, had
stated that " it would be without precedent tor Ihi English
government itself to become interested in such a scheme in
such a way as to constitute itself a competitor with existing
commercial enterprises carried on by dlizens of the British
empire. There would be a vety serious qnestkm raised, and it
would probably extend to other forms of British enterprise.**
The company further pointed out that Mr L. Courtney (after-
wards Lord Courtney), when Secretary of the Treasury, had
stated that ** it would be highly inexpedient to encourage upon
light grounds competition against a company ill 4he position of
the Eastern Telegraph Company wUch has embaiked much
capital in existing lines'*; and that the permanent ofiidals
representing the Post Office before the Pacific Cable committee
had stated "that there was no prscedent for the Imperial
Govenunent alone or in asaodatkm with the Colonies nanagii^
or seeking business for a line of thfa^ kind." The reply of the
Colonial Office contained the following statementts of general
paUcyy-"With the progressive devdopmcnt of society the
tendency is to enlarge the functions and widen the sphere of
action of the central government as welt is of the looal autho-
rities, and to dafan for them a moi« or lesa exdosive use of
powers, and the performance of services where the desired
result is difficult to attain through private enterprise, or where
the result of entrusting sncfa powers or services to private
eatciprise would be detrimental to the public interest, through
their being in that event necessarily conducted primarily for
the benefit of the tmdertakers rather than of the public This
tendency is spedally. manifested in cases where from the
magnitude or other conditions of the csiterprisr the public is
deprived of the important salegnard of nnrestrkted cam-
petition. ... In the case of inhmd tdegraphs and of caUa
Commumcation with the continent of Europe goveramaiil
oantral has entirdy superseded private oonifiaBiis. doady
WnSOELESBi
TELEGRAPH
529
aiuI«ioiis to the $akm of the ttate in the cues referred to it
the aetioa taken by 'inoBidpal authorities with the authority
of the legHlatwe in oooipeting with or superseding private
onnpanies for the supply of electric light, gas, water, tramways
and other pabiic services. . . . The seivioe which the govern-
ment and the colotaics desire is one which neither the Eastern
Telegra|4i Company nor any other private enter|>ri8e is prepare
to undertake OB terms which can be considered in oomparison
with the terms upon which it can be provided by the associated
fovcmiikcnta*"
In November 1899 a Committee was appointed by the Colonial
Oftce for the further examftiation of tbie scheme, and towards
tlie end of 1900 a under -was accepted for the manufacture and
bying «f a sabmarine cable between the Isfaind of Vancouver
and Queensland and New Zealand for the sum of £1,795,000,
the work to be completed by the 31st of December 1902. A
board was constituted f o upcnrlse the construction and working
of the cable, composed of repreaentatlves of the several govern-
Bwnts, Mifhh offices at Westminster. Under the FbciOc Cable
Act 1901 the capital sum of £2,000,000 was provided in the
foltowing prpportionsc~-
United Kingdom, s/^8ths with 3 repreaeotativcs inchnSng the
duirman.
* Canada. s/iSths with 2 icpmentatives.
Australn. 6/i8ths with 2 representatives.
New Zealand, a/i8th« with i fepmentafiiw.
In these proportkms the respective contribulfng governments
are responable for the losses made in the working of the under-
taking. The annuar expenses of the board include £35.000 for
cable repairs and reserve and a ffated payment to the National
Debt Connnissloners 61 £77,544 ss sinking fend to amortise
capital cipenditute In 6fty years. The deficiency on the
wocking for the year ended 31st March r907 was £54i0'4> snd
the approximate number of messages transmiited during the
year was 96,763 with 1,126,940 words. There was in addition
a eonsaderable mter-colonial traiKc between Australia, New
Zeakind and the Fijis.
Since the early days of international telegraphy, conferences
of rcpresenutives el government telegraph departments and
eoropanics have been held from time to time (Paris 1865,
Vienna 186S, Rome tBjt and 187S, St Petersburg 1875, London
1879, Berihi 1885, Paris 1891, Bada Pesth r896, London 1903).
In f868 the International Bureau of Telegraphic Administra-
tions was constituted at Berne, and a conventk>n was formulated
by which a central office was appointed to collect and publish
information and generally to promote the interests of inter-
natjooal telegraphy. Intemationaf service regulations have
been drawn up which possess equal anihority with the con-
vention and oonstlt^ite what may be regarded as the law relating
to hiteniatfona) telegraphy. The total lengths of the land lines
of the telegraphs throughout the worid in r907 were r, 01 5,894
m. aerial, and ir,454 m. undergroond, and the total lengths
of subomrine cables of the world were 39,072 nautical miles
under govtniment administmfk>n and 194,751 nautical miles
under tiie administratk>n of private companies.
BtMJOGnKfUlt. ^Reports to Ike Poitmastet-Genend npon MpostUs
for tfOH^trrint to <Ae Pdsi Office the Ttktr»phs tkrouduut tkt United
Kingiom (1868): Special JieperU from Select Commtitee on the
Electric TeUpaphs Bills (1868, 1869); Repotl bv Mr Scudamorc oh
the teotfttnimtUm of the Tdegrapk system of the United Kingdom
Report of a Coalmiitee appointed by tke Trennry to inesiipxte the
canses ef tke increased coet of the Telegraphic Service, %tc. (1875);
Reportf of tke Postntasier-Ceneral for 1895, ifc; Journ. Inst. EJec.
Eng. (November 190^); H. R. Meyer, The British StaU Telegraphs
(London, 1907); the "Electrician" Electrical Trades Direttoryi
E. Garcke* Manmat of Electrical Undertakitigs. On sutmiarine
cables sec also the works of Sir Charles Bright'* son, Mr Charles
Bright. F.R.S.E., A.M.Inst .C.E., M.I.E.E.; e.g. his Life of his
father (1898). his Address to London Chamber of Commerce on
" Imperial Telegraphic CommuaicatMn " (1902). Lecfnre to Ro>*al
United Service Institetioo 00 " Submarine Telegraphy '* (1907),
~ ^ R.E. Mi
Lectures to Royal Naval War College (1910) and
School ^1908) on " Submarine Cable Laying and Repairing," and
ililltar^
articlca in Qmarterly Reviem (April 190^} on " Imperial TekKraphs,
articlca in i^marterly Keiimo {Mtu 190^} on Impenai lel«Kraptis,
ami in Edinburih Kenew (April 1908) on " The International Radio-
Telegraphic Convention." , (E. Ca )
Canal
I, Bowo fp cp
I plates I I ■
L be at s
ridlhof U*_|,I,|,],1,] f
KiiST n,*-WnELes8 Teleosap&y
The early attempts to achieve electric telegraphy involved
the use of a complete metallic circuit, but K. A. Steinhcil of
Munich, however, acting dh a suggestion given by Gauss, made
in 1838 the important discovery that half of the circuit might
be formed of the conducting earth, and so discovered the use of
the earth return, since then an essential feature of ncariy every
tel^japhic circuit. Encouraged by this success, he even made
the further suggestion that the remaining metallic portion of
the drcuit might perhaps some day be abolished and a system
of wireless telegraphy established.^
Morse showed, by experiments made in 1842 on a canal at
Washington, that it was possible to interrupt the metallic electric
circuit in two places and yet retain power of electric jH«#»e.
communication (see Fahic, loe. cit., p. ro). His plan,
which has been imitated by numerous other experimentalists,
was as follows: — On each side of the canal, at a considerabk:
distance apart, metal plates e e (fig. 35) were sunk in the water;
the pair on one side were connected by a battery B, and the
pair on the other by a galvanometer or telegraphic receiver R.
Under these circumstances a small
portion of the current from the
battery is shunted through the gal-,
vanometer circuit, and can be tued
to make electric signals. Morse and Canal
Gale, who assisted him, found, bow*
ever, that the distance of the ]
up and down the canal must
least three or four times the width <
the canal to obtain successful results. piQ. 35. — Morse's Coo-
Numerous investigators followed in duction Mothod.
Morse's footsteps. James Bowman
Lindsay of Dundee, between 1845 and 1854, reinvented and even
patented Morse's method, and practically put the plan into
operation for experimental purposes across the river Tay. J. W.
Wilkhis m 1849, and H. Highton in experiments descfibcd in
1872, also revived the same suggestion for wireless telegraphy.
The invention of the magncto-tclcphone put into the hands of
electricians a new Instiiimcnt of extraordinary sensitiveness for
the detection of feeUe interrupted, or alternating, cur- Temt*
rents, and by its aid J. Trowbridge In 1880, in the M4to.
"United -States, made a very elaborate investigation of the
propagation of electric currents through the earth, cither soil
or water (see " The Earth as a Conductor of Electricity," Amcr,
Acad. Arts and Set,, 1880). He found, as others have dbnc,
that if a battery, dynamo or induction coil has its terminals
connected to the earth at two disunt places, a system of electric
currents flo'ws between these points through the crust of the
earth. If the current is interrupted or alternating, and if a
telephone receiver has its terminals connected to a separate
metallic cwcuit joined by earth plates at two other places to the
earth, not on the same equlpotential surface of the first circuit,
sounds will be heard in the telephone due to a current passing
through it. Hence, by inserting a break-and-make key in the
circuit of the battery, coil or dynamo, the uniform noise or hum
In the telephone can be cut up into periods of long and short
noises, which can be made to yield the signals of the Morse
alphabet. In this manner Trowbridge showed that signalling
might be carried on over considerable distances by electric
conduction through the earth or water between places not
metallically connected. He also repeated the suggestion
which Lindsay had already made that it might be possible to
signal in this manner by conduction currents through the
Atlantic Ocean from tne United States to Europe. He and
others also suggested the applicability of the method to the
inter-communication of ships at sea. He proposed that one
5hip should be provided with the means of making an interrupted
current in a circuit formed partly of an insulated metallic wire
connected wiih theses at both ends by plates, and partly of the
unlimited ocean. Such an arrangement would distribute a
* For a history of the disco\-cry of the earth return, sec Fahie,
History of Electru TOepapky to the Year tSjr, pp. 343-348.
53©
TELEGRAPH
Fio. 36. — Magneto-Induction *
Method.
system of flow lines of current through the set, and these might
be detected by any other ships furnished with two plates
dipping into the sea at stem and stern, and connected by a wire
having a telephone in its circuit, provided that the two plates
were not placed on the same equipotentlal surface of the original
current flow lines. Experiments of this kind were actually
tried by Graham Bdl in 1882, with boats on the Potomac river,
and signals were detected at a distance of a mile and a half.
At a later date, 1891/ Trowbridge discussed another method
of effecting communication at a distance, viz., by means of
magnetic induction between two separate and completely
insuUted circuits. If a primaty prcuit, consisting of a large
coil of wire V (fig. 36), has in circuit a battery B and an in-
terrupter I, and at some distance
and parallel to this primary circuit
is placed a secondary circuit S,
having a telephone T included in
it, the interruptions or reversals of
the current in the primary circuit
will give rise to a varying magnetic
field round that circuit which will
induce secondary currents in the
other circuit and affect the
telephone receiver. Wllloughby
Smith found that it was not
necessaxy even to connect the
telephone to a secondary circuit,
but that it would be affected and
give out sounds meifely by bang held in the variable magnetic
field of a primary circuit. By Uie use of a key in the battery
circuit as well as an interrupter or current reverser, signals can
be given by breaking up the continuous hum in the telephone
into long and short periods. This method of communication
by magnetic induction through space establishes, therefore, a
second method of wireless telegraphy which is quite independent
of and different, from that due to conduction throu^^ earth or
water.
Sir W. H. Preecc, who took up the siibject about the same
time as Prof. Trowbridge, obtained improved practical results
1^ by combining together methods of induction and con-
duction. His first publication of results was in 1882
{Brit. Assoc. Report) , when he drew attention to the considerable
distance over which inductive effects occurred between parallel
wires forming portions of .telephonic and telegraphic circuits.
Following on' this he made an interesting experiment, using
Morse's method, to connect the Isle of Wight telegraphically
with the mainland, by conduction across the Solent in two
places, during a temporary failure of the subnuirine cable in
1882 in that channel. In subsequent years numerous experi-
ments were carried out by him in various parts of Great Britain,
in some cases with circuits earthed at both ends, and in other
cases with completely insulated circuits, which showed that
conductive effects could be detected at distances of many miles,
and also that inductive effects could take place even between
circuits separated by solid earth and by considerable distances.
A. W. Heaviside in 1887 succeeded in communicating by tele-
phonic speech between the surface of the earth and the sub-
terranean galleries of the Broomhill coUieries, 350 feet deep, by
laying above and below ground two complete metallic circuilSy
each about 2} dl in length and parallel to each other. At a
later date otiier experimentalists found, however, that an equal
thickness of sea-water interposed between a primary and
secondary circuit completely prevented similar inductive inter-
communication. In 1885 Preece and Heaviside proved by
experiments made at Newcastle that if two completely insulated
circuits of square form, each side being 440 yds., were placed
a quarter of a mile apart, telephonic speech was conveyed from
one to the other by induction, and signals could be perceived
even when they were separated by 1000 yds. The method
of induction between insulated primary and secondary circuits
laid out flat on the surface of the earth proves to be of limited
application, and in his later esperimenU Preece returned to a
(WIlffiLBSi
method wUcb unites both oondiicthm and induction «• the
means of affecting one drcitit by a cuneat in another^ In 189a,
on the Bristol Channel, he established oomamakation. between
Lavenock Point and an island called Flat HolneiatfaatdbaiiBd
by placing at these positions insulatrd jini^Mrire- drcuita^
earthed at both ends and laid as/ar as pessibk pualld to each
other, the distsnoe between them beinc 3*3 a. The shore
wire was 1267 yds. long, and that oa the jslud 600 yids. An
interrupted cunent having a frequency of about 400 ipsa aaed
in the primary circuit, and a telephone was empteyed >as a
receiver .in the secondary dfcuiL Other experimeata in in-
ductive tdegrsphy were made by Fkeeoe, aided by the offidftk
of the British Postal Telegraph Servicoi ia Glaaiorganthife in
X887; at Xx>ch Ness in Scotland in 189s; oa CeiUiay Bands ia
1893; and at Frodsham, on the Dee, in 1894. (See/Mr. InsL
EUc. Eng., 27, pl 869.) In 1899 e^pezimeata were aiade atMeaai
Straits to put the lighthouse at the SkecEiet into ooauanaicacjon
with the coastguard statioa at Ceadya.'^A wire 750. yds, in
length was erected a)ong the Skemes, sad on the.mainliind oae
of 3I m. long, starting from a point oppedte the Skecdes, to
Ceml3m. Each line terminated in an earth plate placed in the
sea. The avengeperpendicular distance between the two linc^
which are roughly parallel, is 2*8 m. Telephonic ^pcech^
between these two circuits was found possible and good, the
communication between the circuits, taking place partly by
induction, and no doubt partly by conductiott. On the 4|dcs-
tion of how far the effects are due to conduction between the
earth plates, and how far to true electioinagnetic fndactioB,
authorities differ, some. b«og of opinion that the. two ciieoU
are in operation together. A similar Jastsllation of indnctivt
telephony, in which telephone currents in one line were .made
to create others in a nearly parallel and distant line, was estab-
lished in 1899 between Rath^n Island oa the north coast of
Ireland and the mainland. The shortest distance between
the two places is 4 m.- By stretching on the island and
mainland parallel wire circuits earthed at etch ead, good tele-
phonic communication over aa average distance of 6| ra« was
established between these independent drcttit^
The difficulty of connecting lightships and Isolated Ughthooses
to the mainland by submarine cables* owing to the destructive
action of the tides and waves oa rocky coasts on Uw us,
shore ends, led maay inventors to look for a waytMit of f u%Mj ^
the difilcuUy by the adoption of some form of inductive s^*^*
or conductive telegraphy not necessitating a coatinuoas cable.
WUloughby S. Smith and W. P. Granville put into practice
between Alum Bay in the Isle of Wight and the J«leedlea light-
house a method which depends upon conduction. thfough sea
water. (See Jour. Inst, Elec. Eug., 27, p. 938.) It may be ca-
phoned as follows^-^uppose a battery oa shore to have oae
pole earthed and the otha connected to an insuhited sabmazine
cable, the distant end of which was also earthed; if now a
galvanometer is inserted anywhere in the cable, a cunent will
be found flowing, through the cable and retnnuag by vaiioua
paths through the sea. If we suppose the cable iaicmipted at
any place, and both sides of the gap earthed by connexion to
plates, then the same conditions will still hold. Commimicatkm
was established by this method in the year 189$ with the light-
house on the Fastnet.' A cable is carried out from the mainhnd
at Crookhaven for 7 m., and the outer end earthed by
connexion with a capper mushroom anchor. Another earthed
cable starts from a similar anchor about too ft. away near
the shore line of the Fastnet rock, cresses the xock, and is again
earthed in the sea at the djstaat end. If a battery on the main-
land is connected through a key with the shore ead of the main
cable, and a speaking galvanometer is in dtruit with the ithott
cable crossing the Fastnet rock, then dosing or opening the
battery connexion will create a deflection of the galvanometer.
A very ingem'ous call-bell arrangement was devised, capable of
responding only to regularty reversed battery currents, but not
^See Fahie, history of Wirelets Teiegraf^ty, p. 1 70: also Mb
RcDOit (1897) of the Royal CommifsionoA Electrical CofflmuaicatiOB
with Light^ips and Lighthouses.
WIREL£SS|
TELEGRAPH
S3I
to aicay " earth coneats," and very good signalling was estab-
lished between the mainland and the rock. Owing to the rough
seas sweeping over the Fastnet, the conditions are such that any
ordinarjr submarine cable would be broken by the wearing
action of the waves at the fock boundary in a very short time.
Another worker in this dq>artment of research was C. A.
StevmsoB, who in 1892 advocated the use of the inductive
system pun and airapte for communication lietwcen the main-
laod and is^tcd lighthouses or islands, lie proposed to
employ two Jaige flat ceils oi wire kiid horizontally on the
ground, that on the mainkind having in circuit a battery,
interrupter and key, and that on the island a telephone. His
proposals had spedai reference to the necessity for connecting
a lighthouse on Muckle Flugga, in the Shetland$,and the main-
land, but were not carried into effect. Professor £. Rathenau
of Berlin made many experiments in 1S94 in which, by means of
a conductive system of wireless telegraphy, he signalled through
3 m. of water.
Sir Oliver Lodge in 1898 theoretically examined the inductive
system of space telegraphy. (See J out. I ml. Elc(. Eng., 27, p.
799.) He advocated and put in practice experimentally
a system by which the primary and secondary circuits
were " turned " or syntoniaed by including condensers in the
circuits. He proved that when so syntonized the circuits are
inductively respondent to each other with a much less power
expenditure in the primary circuit than without the syntony.
He also devised a ** call " or arrangement for actuating an
ordinary electric bell by the accumulated effect of the properly
tuned inductive impulses falling on the secondary circuit. A
very ingenious catt-bcU or annunciator for use with inductive
or conductive systems of wireless telegraphy was invented and
described in 1S9S by S. Evershed, and has been practically
adopted at l.avernock and Flat ilolme. {Id., 27, p 853.)
In addition to the systems of wireless or space telegraphy de-
pending upon conduction through earth or water, and the in-
_^ ductive system based upon the power of a magnetic
^*** field created round one circuit to induce, when varied,
a secondary current in another circuit, there have been certain
attempts to utilize what may best be described as electrostatic
induction. In 1885 Edison, in conjunction with Gilliland,
Phelps, and W. Smith, worked out a system of communicating
between railway stations and moving trains. At each signalling
station was erected an insulated metallic surface facing and near
to the ordinary telegraph wires. On one or more of the carriages
of the trains were placed also insulated metallic sheets, which
were in connexion through a telephone and the secondary
circuit of an induction coil with the earth or rails. In the
primary cliruit of the induction coil was an arrangement for
rapidly intermitting the current and a key for short-circuiting
thb primary circuit. The telephone used was Edison's chalk
cylinder or elect romotograph type- of telephone. Hence, when
the coil at one fixed station was in action it generated high
frequency alternating currents, which were propagated across
the air |^p between the ordinary telegraph wires and the
metallic surfaces attached to one secondary terminal of the
induction coil, and conveyed along the ordinary telegraph
wires between station and moving train. Thus, in the case of
one station and one moving railway carriage, there is a circuit
consisting partly of the earth, partly of the ordinary telegraph
wires at the side of the track, and partly of the circuits of the
telephone receiver at one place and the secondary of the in-
duction coil at the other, two air gaps existing in this circuit.
The electromotive force of the cou b, however, great enough
to create in these air gaps displacement currents which are
of magnitude sufhcient to be equivalent to the conduction
current required to actuate a telephone. This current may be
lakcft to be of the order of two or three micro-ampefcsb The
sigaals were sent by cutting up the continuous hum in the
telephone into long and short periods in accordance with the
Morse code by manipulating the key in the primary circuit.
The system was put into practical operation in 1887 on the
Lehigh VaUey railroad in the United Slates, and worked well,
but was abandoned because it apparently fulfilled no real
public want. Edison also patented (U.S.A. Fat. Spec., No.
4^597>i-i4th May 1885) a plan for establishing at distant places
two insulated elevated plates. One of these was to be connected
to the earth through a telephone receiver, and the other through
the secondary circuit of an induction coil in the primary circuit
of which was a key. The idea was that variations of the primary
current would create electromotive force in the secondary
circuit which would act through the air condenser formed by
the two plates. It has sometimes been claimed that Edison's
proposed elevated plates anticipated the subsequent invention
by Marconi of the aerial wire or antenna, but It is particularly
to be noticed that Edison employed no spark gap or means
for creating electrical high frequency oscillations in these wires.
There is no evidence that this plan of Edison's was practically
operative as a system of telegraphy.
A very similar system of wireless lelegraphy was patented
by Professor A. £. Dolbcar in 2886 (U.S.A. Fat. Spec., No.
350299), in which he proposed to em|^oy two batteries at two
places to affect the potential of the earth at those places. At
the sending station one battery was to have its positive pole
connected to the earth and its negative pole to an insulated
condenser. In circuit with this battery was placed the second-
ary circuit of an induction coil, the primary circuit of which
contained a telephone transmitter or microphone interrupter.
At the receiving station a telephone receiver was placed in
series with another insulated battery, the negative terminal
of which was to be in connexion with the earth. There is no
evidence, however, that the method proposed could or did
effect the transmission of speech or signals between stations
separated by any distance. Many other more or less imperfect
deviccfr^-such as those of Mahlon Loomis, put forward in 1872
and 1877, and Kitsee in 1895— for wireless telegraphy were not
within the region of practically realizable schemes.
Spact w RcdiO'TeUgraphy by Herttian Wota.^Vp to 1895
or 1896 the suggestions for wireless telegraphy which had ben
pubKcly announced or tried can thus be classified under three
or four divisions, based respectively upon electrical conduction
through the soil or sea, magnetic induction through space.
combinations of the two foregoing, and lastly, electrostatic
induction. All these older methods have, however, been
thrown into the background and rendered antiquated by invea*
tiona which have grown out of Herts's scientific investigations
on the production of electric waves.^ Before the classical
researches of Hertz in tBS6 and 1887* many Observers had
noticed curious effects due to electric sparks produced at a
distance which were commonly ascribed to ordinary electro-
static or electro-magnetic induction. Thus Joseph Heniy
{ScienHjic WritingSt vol. i. p. 203) noticed that a smgle electric
spark about an Inch long thrown on to a circuit of wire in at
upper room could magnetize steel needles included in a parallel
circuit of wire placed in a cellar 30 ft. below with two floors
intervening. Some curious distance-phenomena connected with
electric sparks were observed in J875 by Edison (who referred
them to a supposed new " aethcric force "), and confirmed by
Beard, S. P. Thompson, E. J. Houston and otheo.* D. £
Hughes made some remarkable observatiops and experiments
in or between the years 1879 and x886 though he did not
describe them till some twenty years afterwards. He dis-
covered a fact subsequently rediscovered by others, that a
tube of metallic filings, loosely packed, was sensitive to electric
sparks made in its vicinity, its electrical resistance being re-
duced, and he was able to detect effects on such a tube con-
nected to a battery and telephone at a distance of 500 yds.'
These distance effects were not understood at the time , or
else were referred simply to ordinary inductioo. Hertz, however,
made known in 1887 the experimental proofs that the discharge
* See TtUvaphic Journal of London, vol. iv. pp. 29. 46. 61 ;
Proc. Fhys. Soc. Lend., vol. ii. p. lOi
» Sec Fahie. History of Wireloss TeUgrapky, p. 289: also an im-
portant letter by D. E. Hughes in The ttectntian. London. 1899.
43. 40.
532
TELEGRAPH
bf a condenser piroduces an efectric ipark which ttodcr proper
coaclitioos creates an efifect propagated out into apace as an
eUdHc wave. He employed as a detector of thla wave a simple,
nearly closed circuit of wire called a Herts resonator, but it
was subsequently discovered that the metallic microphone of
JX. E, Hughes was a far more sensitive detector. The peculiar
action of electric sparks and waves in reducing the resistance
of diaconlinuous conductors was rediscovered and investigated
by Calwcchi Oncsti,* by Braaly,* Dawson Turner,* Minchin
Lodge,* and many others. Branly was the first to investigate
and describe in 1890 the fact that an electric spark' at a distance
hod the power of changing loose aggregations of metallic powders
from poor to good electric conductors, and he also found that
in some cases the reverse action was produced. Lodge parti-
cularly studied the action of electric waves in reducing the
resistance of the contact between two metallic surfaces such
as a plate and a point, or two balls, and named the device a
*' coherer." He constructed one form of his coherer of a glass
tube a few inches long filled with iron borings or brass filings,
having contaa plates or pins at the end. When such a tube
is inserted in series with a single voltaic cell and galvaiwmeter
it is found that the resistance of the tube is nearly infinite,
provided the filings are not too tightly squeezed. On creating
an electric spark or wave in the neighbourhood of the tube
the resistance suddenly falls to a few ohms and the cell sends
a ciurent through it. By shaking or tapping the tube the
origiiiBl high resistance is restored. In 1894 he exhibited
apparatus of this, kind in which the tapping back of the tube
of filings was effected automatic^y. He ascribed the reduc*
tion of resistance of the mass to a welding or cohering action
taking place between the metallic particles, hence the name
" coherer." But, as Branly showed, it is not universally true
ttet the action of an electric wave is to reduce the resistance
of a tube of powdered metal or cause the particles to cohere.
In some cases, such as that of peroxide of lead, «n increase of
nsistaAOe takes place.
Between 1894 and 1896 G. Marconi gave great attention to
the improvement of devices for the detection of electric waves.
'MatnaL ^^ made his sensitive tube, or improved coherer, as
follows: — A glass tube having an internal diameter
of about 4 ffiJUimetres has sealed into it two silver plugs PP
by means of platinum wires WW (fig< 37); the opposed faces
of these plugs are perfectly smooth* and arc placed within a
tnilUmetre of each other. The interspace is filled with a very
small quantity of nickel and silver filings, about 95 per ceBt«
jDickd and $ per cenl. silver, sufficient to fill loosely about half
the cavity between the plugs, which fit tightly Into the tube.'
The tube is then exhausted of its air, and attached to a bone
or gUss rod as a holder. This form of electric wave detector
proved itself to be far more certain in operatk)n and sensitive
3-Ov
Fig. 37.*-Marconi Sensitive Metallic Filings Tube or Electric
Wave Detector.
than anything previously invented. The object which Maironl
had in view was not merely the detection of electric waves,
but their utilization in practical i*ireless telegraphy. Sir
William Crookes had already suggested in 1892 in the Fortnightly
Review (February 1892) that such an application might be
' Nnmo eimertto, series iii. vol. xvli.
* Comptcs rendus, vols, cxi., cxii.; see also The Eieclrieian^
xl. 87, 91, 166, 235, 333 and 397; xli. 487; xlii. 46 and 5^7; and
•aiii 277- ^
> Report Brit. Assoc., 1892.
* Lodge, Signalling through Space without Wires, 3rd ed.> p. 73.
"n^
G. Marconi. Brit. Pat. Spec, 12039 of 1896.
IWIISffiLESS
made, but no one had overcome the pnctical difficulties or
actually shown how to do it.
G. Marconi,^ however, made the important discovery that if
bis sensitive tube or coherer had one terminal attached to «
metal plate lying oa the earth, or buried in it, and the other 10
an Insulated plate elevated at a height above the ground, h
could detect the presence of very feeble electric waves of a certain
kind originating at a great distance. In conjunction with the
above receiver he employed a transmitter, which consisted of a
laige induction or spark coil S having its spark balls placed a few
millimetres apart*, one of these balls was connected to an earth
Fio. 38.
plate E and the other to a plate or wire insulated at the upper
end and elevated above the surface of the earth. In the
primary circuit of the induction coil I he placed an ordinary
signalling key K, and when this was pressed for a longer or
shorter time a torrent of electric sparks passed between the
balls, alternately charging and discharging the elevated con-
ductor Ai and creating electrical ■ oscillations (see Electbo-
KiNsncs) in the wire. This elevated conductor is now called
the antenna, aerial wire, or air wire. At the receiving station
Marconi connected a single voltaic cell B| and a sensitive tele-
graphic rehiy R in series with his tube of metallic filings €, ami
interposed certain little coils called choking coils. The relay
was employed to actuate through a local battery Bs an ordinary
Morse printing telegraphic instrument M. One, end of the
sensitive tube was then connected to thp earth and the other
end to an antenna or insulated elevated conductor A^ Assum-
ing the transmitting and receiving apparatus to be set up at
distant stations (see fig. 38*), the insulated wifes or plates
being upheld by masts^ its operation is as follows:— When the
key in the primary circuit of the induiptjon coil is pressed the
transmitting antenna wire is alternately charged to a high
potential and discharged with the production of high frequency
oscillations in it. This process creates in the apace around
electric waves or periodic changes in electric and magnetic
force round the antenna wire. Th^ antenna wire, connected to
one spark ball of the Induction coil, must be considered to form
with the earth, connected to the other spark ball^ a condenser.
Before the spark happens lines of electrostatic force stretch
frpm one to the .other in curved lines. When the discharge
takes place the ends of the h'nes of electric force abutting on
the wire rtin down it and are detached in the form of semi-
loops of electric iorce which move outwards with their ends ou
the surface of the earth. As they travel they are accompanied
by lines of magnetic force, which expand outwards in ever-
widening circles.' The magnetic and electric forces arp directed
alternately in one direction and the other, and at distances
which are called multiples of a wave length the force is in the
same direction at the same time, but in the case of damped
waves has not quite the same intensity. The force at any one
point also varies cyclically, that is, is varying at any one point
•Figures 36, t^, 41, 43^ 44, a%, 46. 47, 48 and 49 air Aawa
from Professor J. A, FIcmiiw's Electric Wave TeUgrapJiy, by per-
mission of Longmans. Green & Co.
' For a more complete account of the nntU'-e of an electric wave
the reader 5* referred to Hertz's Efettric Wavef, and to the art trie
Electstc Wave. Sec also The FripcipUs «/ Eleclrie Waw JWa*
er^pffj* by J< A. Fleming.
TELEGRAPH
WIRECESSI
and vazying from pofnt to point. This pensdit dislrilKitioii
In time and sjwcc constitutes an electric wave proceeding out-
wards in all directions from the sending antenna. If we con-
sider the lines of magnetic force in the neighbourhood oC the
receiving antenna wire we shall see that they move across it,
and thus create in it an dectromotJvc force which acU upon
the coherer or other sensitive device associated with it., '
Marconi's System of Wirdess refep-apfcy.— M^onili system of
electric wave telegraphy oonFists therefore in wtting up'at the
transmitttng sUtion the devices just described for soitding out
nxKips of 'damped dfctric waves of the above kind in long or short
trains coikvsponding to the dash or dU signab of the Morse
alphabet. These trains are |>roduced by pressmg the key m the
primary dfcuit of the tnduetion coil for a longer or shorter time
and generating a loM or short aeries oC oscUlatory decdrio sparks
between ^e spark balls with a corresponding creation of traix&s of
electric waves. At the tecdving station he connected, as stated, one
end of tte sensitive tube to earth and the other to the antenna, and
improved and applied a devioe of Popoff for automatically tapping
the tube after each electric impact M rendered it conductive. He
caused the relay in series with the sensitive tube to set in actk>n not
only a tekftaphic instrument but also the dectxomagjpetic tappo-,
which was arranged so as to administer light blows on thfe under side
of the sensitive tube when the latter passed into the conductive Con-
xion. TbeeffttctwastoprintadoMor^daConastripoftelegraphio
naoEr, a<Tnp«f»"g as the iadddnt electric wave train lasted a loa^
er shorter time. In addition he added cerUin spark-gencrating
coils across the contacts of the relay and Upper. He thus pro-
duced in 1896 for the first tinfe an operative apparatus of electric
wave teiegTVphy. Its dmpfidty and compactness leeommeoded it
iaimefhatelyioriOMamumcatioo between ship and shore and for
itttermaone communication generally. Marconi's earliest experts
mcnts with this apparatus were made in luly. In 18^ he came to
England and gave demonstrations to the British postal telegraph
department and other officials. Some of these experiments wcas
made on Sdidbory Plain and othent in the Bristol C*^ ' '--'
Lavervock and Flat Hobn and Bream Down in
l8c^ permanent stations were established bctw
and Bournemouth, a distance of 14I m.. where s
sieiv eJbtalned. Later the Boswnemooth sUtUm
Ptook UBrboor. and the Alam Bay station to Nile
Wigbt« the distance bdog thus increased to ^o m
\%3^ coounnnication was established by the Man
twcen theEast Goodwin Hghtshtp and the Sooth
hoese; end this inatallatiDn wim soaiaubed for up
Bering whfch it was t^ie means of ea)ting botk hi .
In Maich 1899 communication was effected by hu system between
Endaod (South Foreland lighthouse) and France "(Wlmereux, near
Bouloene). a ^stance of 30 m. He kept up the commontcation
for sia raonths. iaall waathefs, and foond that ordinaiy ooonaercial
■J eoirid be tratusslttcd at tlu^^iafe ** IS to jo words a
ounote. la January 1901 he estahlishcd communicauon by his
system between the Lizard in Comwan and Niton in the Isle of
Weht, a distance of Joo m. A full account of the development
of his system was gltcn by Wto in an artkte published m the
fortm^Hh J^»i^ ^o*" J««« l9oas see a|so a papw by him m the
Jown. InsL Elec Enf., 1899. »8. P- 273- About this time he intio-
doced various improvemenu into the receiving apparatus. Instead
of inserting the sensitive tube between the receiving antenna and
the earthuhe inserted the primary coO of a peculiar form of oscilla-
tion transformer and^ connected the terminals of the tube to the
Kcoodary dicuit of the ti^nsfortner. Lodge had previously sug-
Ed the use of transformed osdlhittons for acting on the coherer
British Patent Spec., No. 11575 of 1807), but it is not every
of oscillation transformer which is suitable for this punxwe.
Maiconi's successes and the demonstrations he had given of the
thoroughly practkal character of thU system of electnc wave
teleEraphy stimulated other ibventors to enter the same field of
labour, whilst theorists began to study carefully the nature of the
physical operations involved. It was seen that the effect of the
impact of the inddent electric waves upon the vertkal receiving
wwe was to create in it electritial oedllations. or in other words,
high frequency alternating dectric currents, such that whilrt the
potential variations were a maximum at the top or insulated end
of the antenna the current at that point was xero and at the base
the potential variation was sero and the current amplitude a maxi-
mum. Hence devices for detecting the oodllations m the antenna
aie merdy very sensitive forms of ammeter and voltmeter. It
was also recognized that what is required at the transmitting end
is the estaWishmcnt Of powerful electric osdllatkms in the sending
antenna, which create and radiate thdr energy m the form ol
dectric waves having thdr magnetic force component parallel to
the earth's surface and their dectric component perpendicular to it.
TfommittiHg Appordku,--^^ now eondder the more recent
i^iplihMcafos electric wave tek^nspby under the two division^
of tBMmittiag and teteiviAg qipflrotiM^ Fint ta icfards the
533
in
fy
Its
to
OC
)er
lit-
or,
transmitting part, one esseniial eleiMiit is the ohI^im, ueriat^
or air vnref whidi may take a variety of forms. It may consist
of a single plain or stranded copper wire upheld at the top by
an insulator from a mast, chimney or building. The wire may
have at the upper end a plate called a ** capadty area^*^
dectridfily equivalent to an extension of the wire, cr part of
the wire may be bent over and carried horizontal]^. In many
cases multiple antennae are used consisting of many wires
arranged in cone or umbrdlarrib fashion, or a metal roof or
metalfic dnmney may be employed (sec fig. 39). In any case
the antenna serves as one surface of a condenser, the other
surface of which is the earth. This condenser is chaiged elec-
trically and then suddenly discharged and violent dectrical
oscillations are set up In it, that is to say, dcctridty nidics to
and fro between the antenna and the earth. This creates
rapid variations in dectric and magnetic force round the antenna
and detaches energy from it in the form of an dectric wave.
The antenna has at one moment a static dectrical charge dis-
tributed upon it, and lines pf elettric force stretch from it to
th^ surrounding earth. At the next instant it is the seat of an
electric current and b surrounded by closed lines of magnetic
force. These static and kinetic conditions succeed each other
rapidly, and the resiilt is to detach Or throw off from the antenna
semi-loops of dectric force, which move outwards in all direc-
tions and are accompanied by expanding drcular lines of
magnetic force. The whole process is exactly analogous to
■ /As
■ Y
F10.39.
the epMation by whtid»-a violin string: or organ pipe creates an
air or sound wave. The idolin string is first drawn On one side.
This strain correqx>nds to the dectrical charging of the antenna.
The string is then suddenly rdeased. This corresponds to the
dectrical (fischarge of the antenna, and the subsequent string
vibrations to the dectrical ^bntions. These communicate
their energy to the surrounding fur, and this energy is conveyed
away in the' form of air waves.
There are three ways In which' the antenna may be charged >—•
Q) It may be separated from the earth by a pair of s{Mrk balls
which are connected respectivdy to the terminals of an induction
coU or transformer, or other high tension generator. If these spark
InUs are set at the right distance, then when the potential difference
accumulates the antenna will be charged and at some stage suddenly
discharged by the discharge leaping across the spark gap. This
was Marconi s original method, and the plan is stiU usedunder the
name of the direct method of exdtation or the plain antenna.
(il) The antenna may have osdilations cxdted in it inductively.
F. Braun suggested in 1^8 that the oscillatory discharge of a Leydcn
jar should be sent through the primary coil of a transformer and
the secondary coil should be interposed between the antenna 305!
an earth connexion.^ Marconi * imparted practical utility to this
idea by tuniog the two circuits together, and the arranRcmenS
now employed is as follows : — A suitable condenser C, or battery
of Leyden jars, has one coating connected to one spark ball and
the other through a coil of one turn with the other spark ball
of a discharger S. These spark balls are connected cither to the
secondary circuit of an induction coil I, or to that of an alternating
current transformer having a secondary voltage of 20,000 to loo.opo
volts. Over the coil of one turn is wound a sMondary arcuit ol
5 or 10 turns, of which one end is connected to the earth through a
variable inducUnce and the other end to an antenpa or rs^tating
wire A (see fig. 40). These two drcuits are so adjusted that the
closed osdllation cuxutt, consisting of the condenser, primary cod
» See Gemuin Patent of F. Braun. No. 111578 of 1898. «" J^ntisU
Specification, No. 1862 of ite?-
• See British Pat. Spec., G. Marconi, No. 7777 of 1900.
53+
TELEGRAPH
IWIRGL8S5
•ad apark ^$p, htt the mmt tiatufal time period of oacilletioii m
the open cxrcmt consietrng of the antenna, secondary coU and
adjustable indoctanoe. When this is the case, if discharges are
made acrow tbk spark gap oscillations are exdted in the closed
dfcait, and these induce other syntonic oedllations an the antenna
circuit. J. A. Fleming devised an arrangement in which a multiple
transiormation takes plaoe. two oicillatioa drcuits beins inter-
Ibked inductively, and the last one acting inductively on tne open
or antemia drcuit. J. S. Stone similarly devised a multiple in-
ductive osdUatioa circuit with the object of forcing on the antenna
circuit a single oedllation of definite frequency.^ In the case of
the inductive mode of exciting the osdUationa an important quantity
b.the cotjficient of coupUng of the two oscillation circuits. If
Land N are the hiductancea of any two drcuite which have a co-
efficient of mutual hiductance M. then M/V(LN) is called the
coefficient of coupling of the circuits and » generally expressed
as a i>eroentage. Two circuits are aaid to be ckjeely coupled
when this ooefiident ia near unity and to be loosely coupled if
it b very small. It can be shown that if two circuits, both having
capadty (C) and inductance (L), are coupled together inductlvdy,
tbeot when osciUationa are set np in one ctrcuit» esdUations of
two periods are excited in the other differing in frequency from
each other and from the natural frequency of the circuit. If the
two circints are in tune so that the nomencal product of qipadty
and inductance of eadi circuit is the same or CiLt ••CsLs+CL and
if A as the ooeffident of coupling then the natural frequency of
each drcuit is S"i/2rV(CL)t and when coupled two oscillations
are set up in the secondary circuit having frequencies fii and n»
such that Hi'^nHii-k) and iis-»yV(i+f;. Since in all cases of
Fran the Setfrlesf Rtvitv, by pcmfasftm cf the Eifiton.
Fig. 40.
wave motbn the waverlcngth X is connected with the frec|uency n
and the velocity of propagation v by the relation v-«»X. it, follows
that from such an inductively coupled tuned antenna electric waves
of two wave-lengths iire sent out having lengths X| and \% such that
Xt-xV(i— ik) and X«"XV(i+ik). where X is the natural wav«-leogtlh
It b seen* that as the coupling k becomes small these two wave-
loigths coalesce hito one single wave kn^. Hence there are
advantages in employing a very loose coupling.
(lit) The antenna may be direct-coupled to the closed osdllatory
drcuit in the manner suggested by F. Braun, A. Slaby and O. Lodge.
In thb case a dosed condenser drcuit b formed with a battery of
Leyden )an, an inductance coil and a spark gap, and oscillations
are exdted in it by discharges created across the spark gsp by an
induction coil or transformer. One end of the inductance coll b
connected to the earth, and some other point on the closed con-
denser circuit to an antenna of appropriate length. When oscilla-
tions are created in the closed circuit syntonic oscillations are
created in the antenna and dectiic waves radiated from it ^fig. 41).
In many cases additional condensers or inductance coils are inserted
in various places so that the arrangement b somewhat disguised,
but by far the brger part of the electric wave wirelns telccraphy
In 1907 was effected by transmitters having antennae dther in-
ductively or directly coupled to a closed condenser circuit containing
a spark gap.
^ In practical wireless tekgraphy the antenna b generally a collect
Hon of wires in fan shape upheld from one or more masts or wooden
towers. Sometimes the prolongations of these wires are carried
horizontally or dipped down so as to form an umbrella antenna
(fig. 42). The lower ends of these wires are connected through the
secondary coil of an osctlbtion transformer to an earth plate, or to
a large Conductor placed on or near the earth called a ** batendnff
capacity." If the direct coupling b adopted then the lower end ot
the antenna b connected directly to the condenser circuit. The
main capacity in thb last circuit consbts of a battery of Leyden
* See J. S. Stone, V>SA. Pat, Spec., Nos. 7>4756 and y^^^it'
jar* or o£ Leyden pnnea immenad in oil «r aooM form of air ooi»>
denser, and the inductance coil or primary dtcuh of Ae osdllatioa
transformer consists of a few turns of highly insulated wire wound
on a fntme and immeived in oil. The oscillations are oontfoUed
either by a key inserted in the primary drcuit of the exdrinn in-
duction coil or transformer, or by a k^ cntting in and out of the
primary oondensen or throwing inductance in and out of the closed
osdnation drcuit. In one of these ways the oedllationa can be
created or stopped at pleasure in the radkting notenna, and hence
groups of elecuic waves thrown off at will.
?^!^^^
Fig. 41.
Production of Biectric Wooes of Large Amptttuder^ln creatiof
powerful electric waves for communication over long distances
it is necessary to empby aa altetnating current tnnsfonncc
(see TsAMSFORiaRS) rappUed with ahematiag oiuxents {mm
a low frequency alternator D driven by an engfne to chaise
the condenser (fig. 43). The transformer Ti has lis seoondazy
or high-furessure terminab connected to- sfMrk baJts Si, which
are also connected by a drcuit consisting of n huge ^jlaas plate
condenser C| and the primary drcuSt of an ilr-core trans-
former T% caBed an oscillation transformer. Hie secondary
drcuit of thb last is other connected between an. aerial A
and the earth E, or it may be again in turn connected to a
second pair of spark balls Si, and these again to a second con-
denser Ct, osdDation transformer Ti, and the aerial A. lA
Older to produce electric osnllatiom in the system, the first or
alternating cunent transfonner must charge the condenser con*
netted to its secondary terminals, but must not produce a
permanent electric arc between the baOs. Various devices have
been suggested for extinguishing the aic and yet nDowing the
condenser oaciUatoiy discharge to take place. Tesia effected
this purpose by pladng the spark balls transvenely in a powerful
magnetic field. Elihu Thomson blows on the spark balls with
a powerful jet of air. Marconi causes the spark baUs to move
rapidly past each other or causes a stndded^isk to move between
the spark bafls. J. A. Fleming devised a method whidi has )prac-
tical advantages in both preventing the arc and permitting the
osdlktoty cuirenu to be controlled so as to make electric wave
signals. He inserts in the primaiy drcuit of the alternating
Ftc. 42.
current transformers one or more choking or impedance colli
Ri, Ri (fig. 43), called " chokers," which are capable, one or all,
of being short-circuited by keys Ki, Kt. The impedance of the
primary or alternator drcnit is so adjusted that whenbolfh the
chokers are in circuit the current flowing b not sufficient to
charge the condensers; but when one choker b ahs» t <i icM lted
the impedance k reduced so that the co n de i i s eff k diaiged* Imt
the alteraaUnt arc is not formed. In addHfen it k nenwssiy to
WIULBSSI
TELEGRAPH
535
aiQut the finquaicy w Uiat It ba tlw value of the normal
time period of the drcoit fonned of the condenser and txanf-
fonner leoondaiy dicuit, and thus it i» possible to obtain
conde ns er wdnatoxy dischaxges free fitom any admixtime with
ahernatiag cunent arc. In this manner the tiondcnser dis-
charge can be started or stopped at pleasure, and long and short
discba^BM nude in acoofdaoce with the aigaals of the Morse
FiQ. 43.— Altentte CBfient Tiansfonner System. (Fkfning.)
alphabet by nanipdUting the short-dicviting key of one of the
choking coils (see BriHsk Patent Specs., Nos. 18865, 20576 and
32126 oif 1900; and 3481 of 1901).
la the case of tfaasmittera ooasHiicSsd es above deKribed. in
vfakh the cffeetive agent in pcodudug the electric waves redieted
is the snddra disohaffge of n eondcMer, it should be nptioed that
what is Rally sent out b a train of damped or decadent electric
nnvea. When electric osdHattons are set up in an open or closed
el ectric drcoit having capacity and lodiictanoe. and left to thenn
selves, they die away in nsqilisude. either because they dissipate
then- energy as heat In overoomlng the nsiMiamM of the drcuit. or
because ^bey radialt it hy imparting wave motion to the sunreund-
faig ether. In both esses the aaspUtude of the eedUations decreases
«ie or lem rapidly. Such a sequence of decicnring electric oscUla-
tioas and eorrespondiBg eet of waves is called a damped train. In
the case of the plain or directly, excited antenna tne osdlUtiona
are limhiy damped, and each train probably only consists at most
of haiia dosen oscillations. The reason for this Is that the cspadcy
of a simple antenna is verv small— It may be somethhg of the ocdctf
of o-ooos of a microfarad*-aad henoe the energy stored up in it
r a high voltage b also small. Accordingly thb energy
b rapidly Jinipsted and but few oscillationa can take plaoa. If,
however, the antenna b inductively or directly coupled to a oon*
denser circuit of large capacity then the aounrnt oftoeegf whi^
can be stored up before discharge takes plaos b very much trecter*
and hence can bSe drawn upon to create prolon g ed or slightly osmpen
trains of waves. Allusioi) b made below to recent work on the
production of undamped tiains of electric wavea.
Recehint ArrangeMieiUs.^BetoTt explaining the, advantages
of sqch gmall damping ii will be necessary to consider the
ttsnal fontaa of the leceivhig appliance. This consists of a
receiving antenna similar to the sending antenna, and in any
wireles# telegraph sUtion it b usual to make the one and the
same antenna do duty at a receiver or sender by switching
it over from one apparatus to the other. The electric waves
coming through space from the sending statfon strike against
the receiving antenna and set up in it high frequency alter-
nating electromotive forces. To detect these currents some
device has to be inserted in the antenna circuit or else inductively
coimected with it which is sensitive to high frequency currents.
These wave-detecting devices may ht divided into two classes:
(i) potential operated detectors, and (ii) current operated
detectors. The etdest of the dass (i) b that generically known
as a eokerer^ the oonstniction of whkh we have aheady described.
The ordinary forms of iQctalUc 01higs coherer of the Branly
type lequire tapping to bring them back to the high resbtance
or sensitive condition. Lodge arranged a mechanical tapper
for the purpose which continually administered the small bkiw
to the tube suffident to keep the filings in a sensitive condi-
tion. Fopoff employed an electromagnetic tapper, in fact the
merfianism of an electric bell with the gong renwved, for thb
purpose. Marconi, by giving great attention to details, im-
proved the electromagnetic tapper, and, combining it with
hb improved form of sensitive tube, made a tdcgraphic instru*
■■nt as Mkm! the ttiaB glass tube, containing u'ckd and
stiver filings between two silver plugS) was attached to a bone
hdlder, and mder thb w» ammgsd a small firftmm^gnft
having a vibrating armature like an electric bell carrying on
it a stem and hamxner. Thb hammer b arranged so that when
the armature vibrates it gives little blows to the underside el
the tube and shakei up the filings. By means of sevenl
adjusting screws the force and frequency of these blows can be
exactly regulated. In series with the tube b placed a single
voltaic cell and a telegraphic relay, and Marconi added certain
coib placed across the spark contacts of the relay to prevent
the local sparks affecting the coherer. The relay itself served
to actuate a Morse printing tdegraph by means of a local
battery. Thb lecdving apparatus, with the exception of the
Morse printer, was contained in n sheet-fron bor, ao as to
exdude it from the action of the sparks of the neighbouring
transmitter. In the early experiments Marconi connected
the sensitive tube in between the vecdving antenna and the
earth pUte, but, as ahready mentioned, in subsequent forms of
apparatus he introduced the primary coil of a p^uliar form of
oscillation transformer into the antenna drcuit and connected
the ends of the sensitive tube to the termiiiab of the secondary
drcuit of thb " jig^r " (fig. 44). In later improvemenU the
secondary circuit of thb jigger was interrupted by a small
condenser, and the terminab of the relay and local cell were
connected to the plates of thb condenser, whibt the sensitive
tube was atuched to the outer ends of the secondary drcuit.
Also another condenser was added in parallel with the sensitive
tube.
With thb apparatus some of Marconi's earliest successes, such
as telegraphing across the English Channel, were achieved, and
tdcgraphic communication at the rale of
fifteen words or so a minute established
between the East Goodwin lightship and
the South Fordand lighthouse, abo be-
tween the Isle of Wight and the Lizard
in Cornwall. It was found to be peculiar^
adapted f ok communication between ships
at sea and between ship and shore, and
n system of regular supermarine com-
munication was put into operation by
two limited companies, Marumt'a Wire-
less Tekgr^ih Company and the Marconi ^ ^ ^
International Marine Communication f ^ ^
Company. Stations were established on ^SES^
varioua coast pctttiona and ships supplied [>|
with the aboveslescribed apparatus to Fic. 44.
commnnicate with each other and with
these stations. ' By the end of xgot thb radio-telegraphy had
been established by Marconi and his associates on a secure
Industrial basis.
Various Forms of Waoo Detectors or Jtseelwrs.'-The numerous
adjustments requircx! by the tapper and the inertb of the apparatus
prompted inventorsto seek for a idf-restoring coherer which should
not need tapping. Castelli, a petty officer in the Italun navy,
found that, tl a sroall drop of mercury was contained in a glass
tube be tw e e n a plog of iron and carbon, with certain adjustments,
the arrangement was non-conductive to the current from a single
cell but became conductive when dectric osdilations passed through
it.' Hence the following applbnoe was worked out by Lieutenant
Sobri and officers in the Italun navy.* The tube provided with
certain screw adjustments had a single cell and a telephone placed
in series with it, and one end of the tube was connected to the
earth and the other end to a rccdving antenna. It was then found
that when dectric waves fell on the antenna a sound was beard
in the tctephooe as each wave train passed over it, so that U the
wave trains endured for a longer or snorter time the sound tn the
tdephone was of corresponding duration. In thb manner it was
possible to hear a Morse code dash or dot in the telephone. Thb
method of recdving soon came to be known as the telephonic method.
Lodge. Muirhead and Robinson also devised a self-restoring cohcier
as follows:* — ^A soull sted wbcd with a sharp edge was kept rotating
clockwork so that its edge continMall/ cut through a globule
5
mercury covered with paraffin oit
oil film pre\-eated
» See BUctricai Review, 19OJ, 51 . p. 968.
« See " A Royal InsiUution Dtacourse," by G. Marconi. The
BUetrki&H, 1909. 49. P- 49o: also British Pat. Spec., No. i8ibs of
1901.
* See BfIHA Pal. Spec., Lodge and others. No. 1391 d 190«.
538
TELEGRAPH
(WUtEUSS
The soccoi ae far acfaieved m Jsolattog dectfk «««e telcpapfaic
ftatioBs has been based upon the prindples of electric resonance
and the fact that electric oscillations can be set up in a circuit
having capacity and considerable inductance by feeble electro-
motive impulses, provided they are of exactly the natural
frequency of the said circuit. We may illustrate the matter as
follows: A heavy pendulum possesses inertia and the property
of being dhplaced from a position of rest but tending to return
to iL These mechanical qualities correspond to inductance
and capacity in electric circuits. Such a pendulum can be set
in vigorous vibration even by feeble puffs of air directed against
it, provided these are administered exactly in time vith the
natural period of vibration of the pendulum.
Although inventors had more or leas clearly grasped these prin-
dples they were first embodied in practice in 1900 by G. Marconi
in an operative system of tynfooic winlBM tele^pby. His trsns-
miuer cooaisu of'a nearly dond oerillating orcoit compriauig a
coodenaer or battery of L^den jan, a apark gap, and the primary
coil of an oscillation transformer consistiog of one turn of tmck wire
woand on a wooden frame. Over thb primary is wound a secondary
circuit of five to ten turns which has one end connected to the earth
through a variable indoctanoe coil and the other end to an antenna.
These two circuits are syntonised so that the dosed or condenser
circuit and the open or antenna drcuit are adjusted to have, when
separate, the same natural electHaJ time of vibration. The re-
caving arrangement conssts of aniintenna which is connected to
•aith thnNwh the primary coil of an osdllatioa transformer and a
variable inductance. The secondary drcuit of this transformer is
cut in the middle and has a condenser inserted in it, and its ends
are connected to the sensitive metallic filings tube or coherer as
, Thb receiver tbcicfore, like the transmitter.
consists of an open and a ddsed electric osdllation drcuit Induc-
dvdy connectol together; also the two dscuits of the recover
must .be syntonKed or tuned both to each other and to those of the
transmitter.^ When thu is done we have a syntonic system which
is not easily affected by electric waves of other than the right period
or approximating thereto, Marconi exhibited in October 1900 this
appamtus in action, and showed that two or more reoetvere of
dinerent tunes could be connected to the same antenna and made
to respond separately and simultaneously to the action of separate
but tuned transmitters.
A. Slaby in Berlin shortly aftenaards made a sinular exhibition
of syntonic electric wave telegraphy.* O. Lodge had previously
described in 1807 a syntonic system of electric wave telegraph]|r,
but it had not been publicly seen in operation prior to tho exhibi-
tions of Marconi and Slaby.* Locke was, however, fully aware
that it was necessary for syntonic telegraphy to provide a radiator
capable of emitting sustained trains of waves. Hu proposed
radiator and absorber conristed of two wing-shaped plates g« copper,
the transmitter phites bdng Interrupted m the centre by a spark
gap. and the recdver plates by an inductance cdl from the ends
of which connexions were made to a coherer. At a fatter date a
syntonic system compriring, as above stated, an antenna directly
coopled to a resonant cloaed circuit was put into operation oy
Lodge and Muirhead* and much the aame asethods have been
fbUowied in the system known as the Ttkjimkeu system employed
mGcroany.
A method of syntonic telegraphy proposed by A. Blondel {CompUs
rmduSt toco, 130. p. t^Bi; conristed In creating a syntony not
between thafiequcacy 01 the oscillations in the sender and twcdwtr
dKeniu bt|t between the gmops of oscillationa coostitutiag the
^*See G. Marconi, BHL Pat, Spec.. No. 7777 of 1900; also Joum.
Ak. ilfir, 1901, 49^ jM.
^Sli^%& S^ ^•^' SiicT^'c^illfSL i897>
wave tiftiasi byt. alttnugh other palealees have i nggc i iari the
same plan, the author is not aware that any success has attended
its use in peactice. The only other siiggfsted soturioa of the
problem of isoiatioa in connexion with wireless telegraph stations
I given by Anders Bull (£factrKMii, i^l. 46, pJ 573)- Very
efly stated, his method ooosists in sendme out a group of wave
trains at certain irregular but assigned intervab of tine toconstitute
the simplcnt signal epSivalent to a dot in the Mone code, and a
sequence of such trains, say three foUowiag one another, to coosti-
tttte the dash on the Mone code. The apparatitt is exoeedtngly
complicated and can only be understood by leferenoe to very
dcSaUed diagrams. (See/nWaS^ s/ EUaric Warn Tdemiphy, by
j. A. Fleooing. 1906, sect. 13, chap. viiL) By means of the Axkdere
BuU apparatus several mciiaages can be sent out simiiltaaep«aihr
from Afferent transmitters and reodved independently and siaaaK
taneottrfy upon oonespondiag reodvers. while no ordinary non-
syntonie or other recetver is able either to obscure the laniuag i i
being sent to the Aodera Bull reodveis or to interpret those tint
aay be picked up. Although rompliratfd the appaiatas aeens to
work fairly wdL
PraOiaU EkOric Wate retcp^aMy.— At this stsfe it may be
convenient to outline the progress of dectric ware telegraphy
since 1899. Marconi's success to bridging the English Chaimd
at Easter in 1899 with dectxic waves and establishing practical
wireleas telegraphy between ships and the shore iQr this means
drew public attention to the Talne of the new means of com-
munication. Many investigators were thus attracted into this
fidd of research and invention. In Germany A. Slaby and
F. Brann were the most active. Slaby paid consideraUe
attention to the study of the phenomena connected with the
production of the oscSIations in the antenna. He showed that
in a simple Marconi antenna the variations of potential are a
maximum at the insulated top and a minimum at the base,
whilst the current amplitudes are a maiimnm at the top earthed
end and zero at the top end. He therefore saw that k was a
mistake to insert a potential-affected detector such as a coherer
in between tho base of the antenna and the earth because it
was then subject to very small variations of potential between
its ends. He overcame the difficnlty by erecting a vertical
earthed itcdving antenna like a lightning zod and attached a
lateral extcnaioQ to it at a yard or two above the earthed end.
To the outer end of this lateral wire a condcMer was attached
and the coherer inserted between the condenser axul the earth.
The oscillations set up in the vertical antenna exdted sym-
pathetic ones in the lateral circuit provided this was of the
proper length', and the coherer wasacted upon by the mazimam
potential variations possiMe. Fsssing over numerous inters
mediate sUges of devdopment we fiind that in 1898 Professor
F. Braun showed that oscillations suitaUe for the purposes of
dectric wave creation in wireleas telegraphy ooold be set op in
a drcuit consisting of a Leyden jar or jars, a spark gap and an
inductive drcuit, and oommimicated to an antenna dther by
inductive or direct coupling (BHt, PaL Spec., No. 1862 of 1899).
When the methods for effecting this had been wodced out
practically it finally led to the inventions of Slaby, Braun and
others bdng united into a system called the Tddunken system,
which, as regards the transmitter, consisted in forming a dosed
oscillation drcuit comprising a otmdenser, spark gap and in-
ductance which at one point was attached dther direct^ or
through a condenser to the earth or to an equivalent balandng
capadty. and at some other point to a suitably tuned axttenna.
The recdving arxaagements comprised also an open or antenna
drcuit connected directly with a dosed condenser-inductance
ctrcoit, but in place of the q>ark gap in the transmitter an
destrolytic recdver was inserted, having in connexion with
it as in(^tor a voltaic cdl and tdsphone. In this manner
the signals are read by ear. In the same way the arrange-
ments finally dabqrated by Lodge and Muirhead consisted
of a direct coupled antenna and nearly dosed condenser
dxcnit, and a stnaiilar recdving circuit containing as a detector
the sted whed revolving on oily mercury which actuated a
dphon recorder writing dgnals on paper tape. Arrangements
not very different in general prindple were put into piactice
in the United Sutes by Fessenden, de Forest and others.
Hence it will be seen that the difference between various forms
of the so-called spark systems of wirdess ulcgraphy is not Wf
WIRSLES5]
IfWt. AU ol them mahs tut ti Maiwnt'a
both at the tiansmitttng and at the receiving end, all of dicm
make uae of an earth connexion, or its equivalent in the form of a
balaodng capacity or targe surface having capacity with respect
to the earth, which meiely means that they insert a condenser of
luge opacity in the earth coaacxkm. Ail of them couple the
traiu»imttin|( antanoa direaly or inductively to a capoaty^inductive
circuit servuig as a storage of energy, and all of them create thereby
. of the same type moving over the earth's surface
Stic force of the wave parallel to it. At the receiving
•TELEGUAPH
53^
electric vaves of the same type moving over the earth's surface
with the magnetic force of the wave parallel
station the affcrenoes in these systems dcpcad chiefly upon varia-
I in the actual form of the oscillation detector used, whether it
be a looee contact or a thermal, electrolytic or magnetic detector.
In Jtily and August 1^09 the Marconi system of wireless
telegraphy was tried for the first time during British naval
manoeuvres, and the two cruisers, " Juno^' and " Europa," were
fitted with the new means of communication. The important
results otitained sliowed thaft a weapon of great power had been
provided for assisting naval warfare. From and- after that
time the British Admiralty and the navies of other countries
began to ghre great attention to tlie devdopraent of dectric
wave telegrapby^
Tramsaaaniic Wifdest r</«jr<i^Ay.— Hsymg found tlurt the
principles of resonance could be successfully applied so as to
isolate wirdess telegraph receivers, Marconi turned his attention
to tiie accomplishment of his great ambition, viz. Transatlantic
wirdeSB telegraphy* In Januaty 1901 he telegitphed waUiout
difficnlty by electric waves ftooi tiie Isle of Wight tathe Lizard,
vis. soo m., and he considered that the time had come for
aserioos attempt to be made to communicate across the
Atiantk. A site for a first Tzansallantic electric wave power
station wss secured ut Poldhu, near HuUion in sooth Cornwall,
by the Marconi Company, and plans arranged for an instaOa*
tjon. Up to that time an induction coil known as a lo-inch
coil had sufficed for spark produaion, but it was evident that
Bkiach move power would be required to send electric wavea
across the Atlantic Transformers were therefore employed
Ukxag altematuig dectric current from an alternator driven
by an oil or steam engine, and these liigh tension transformers
were med to charge condensers and set up poweriul osdUa*
lions in a multipte antenna. The special electrical engineering
arrangements employed at the outset for this first electric wave
power station required to create the oyiflalfoas of the desired
power were designed for Marconi by J. A. Fleming; bat the
arrangements were subse<juent]y alt^ed and improved hy |
Marconi, one of the most important additions befog a form
of high-speed rotating disk discharger devised by Marconi by
which he was able to immensdy incresse the speed of signalling.
The first antenna emplojred consisted of 50 bare copper wires
300 ft, long, arranged in fsn-shape and uphdd between two
mast& Subsequently this antenna was enlarged, and four
wooden lattice towers were built, 8x5 ft. high and 200 ft. apart,
sustaining a oonicd antenna comprised of 400 wires (see G.
Marconi, Proc. Roy. Insi,, 1902, 17, p. 208). This transmittfog
plant was completed m December 1901, and Marconi then
crossed the Atlantic to Newfoundland and began to make
ezperiments to ascertain if he could detect the waves emitted
l>y it. At St Joftn's in Newfoundland he erected a temporary
receiving antenna consisting of a wire 400 ft long upheld by
a bos lute, and, employing a sensitive coherer and telephone
as a receiver, he was able, on December xa, 1901, to hear '^ S *'
signals on the Morse code, conslsring of three dots, which he
had arranged should be sent out from Poldhu at stated hours,
according to a preconcerted programme, so as to leave no
doubt they were electric wave siipials sent across the Atlantic
and not acddental atmospheric electric disturbances. This
result created a great sensation, 'and proved that Transatlantic
dectric wave tdegraphy was quite feasible and not fobibited
by distance, or by the earth's curvature even over an arc of a
great cirde 3000 nu in length. In a repetition of this ezperi'
ment at the end of February r903 Marconi, on board the s.s.
" Philadelphia," received wireless messages printed on the ordi-
nary Morse tape at a distance of 1557 m. from the sending
statfoo at Poldhu, and also recdved the letter " S " at a distance
of S099 to. fkom the same plaol In the course of ihfs voyage
he noticed that the Signals were received better during the
night than the daytime, legible messages being recdved on a
Morse printer only 700 m. by day but X500 by nighti
The appliances in the Poldhu sUtion were subsequently
enlarged and improved by Marconi, and corresponding power
stations erected at Cape Cod, Massachusetts, U.S.A., and at
Cape Breton in Nova Scotia. In rpoa Marconi was able to
transmit a large number of messages across the ' Atlantic,
recdvmg them by means of his magn^ic detector. In the
same year numerous experiments were tried with the assistance
Of an Italian battleship, the '* Carlo Alberto," lent by the Italian
government, and messages were transmitted from* Poldhu to
Kronstadt, to Speda, and also to Sydney in Nova Scotia.
Doubts having hcen raised whether the powerful dectric waves
sent out from these stations would not interfere with the
ordinary ship 'to shore communication, spedal demonstrations
were made by Marconi before the writer, and later before
British naval officers, to demonstrate that this was not the
esse.^ In 2904 a regular system of communication of press
news and private' messages from the Poldhu and Cape Breton
stations to Atlantic liners m mid-Atlantic was inaugurated,
and daily ifcwspapers. were thenceforth printed on board these
vessels, news bdng supplied to thejn daily by electric wave
tdegraphy. By the middle of 1905 a very large number of
v^sds had been equipped with the Marconi short distance
and fong distance wireless tdegraph apparatus for fotercom-
munication and reception of messages from power stations on
both sides of the Atlantic, ftnd the chief navies of the world
had adopted the apparatus. In 1904, dtiring the Russo-
Japanese war, war news was transmitted for The Tinus by
wireless telegraphy, the enormous importance of which in luval
strategy was abundantly demonstrated.
As the power station at Poldhu was then fully occupied with
the business of long distance transmission to sh^ the Marconi
Company began to erect another large power station to Mar-
coni's designs at Cifden bx Connemata on the west coast of
Ireland. This station iTas fotended for the Transatlantic
service in correspondence with a shniUur station at Glace Bay
hi Nova Scotia. It was completed in the summer of roo?,
and- on the xTth of October 1907 press messages and private
messages were sent across the Atlantic fo both directions. The
stadon was opened shortly afterwards for public service, the
rates bdng ^eatly bdoir that then cnnent for the cahle
service.
The service was, however, interrupted in August 1909 by a
fire, which destroyed part of the Glace Bay station, but was
re-established in April X910*
• Meanwhile other competitors were not idle. The inventions of
Slabv, Braun arid others were put into practice by a German
and others, and sytCems called the'Dooetet and Rochciort set In
operation. In the United Sutes the most active worketi and
rtentecs at this period were R. A. Fesaenden, Lee de Forest,
S. Stone, H. ^oemaker and a few others. In Ensland, in
addition to tlie Marconi Company, the Lodge-Muirhead syndicate
was formed to operate the inventions of Sir Oliver Lodge and Dr
Muirhead.
Dirtttiee Ttieprwfky.'^K problem of great Importance in
connexion with dectric wave tdegraphy is that of limiting
the radiation to certain directions. A vertical transmitting
antenna sends out iu waves equally in all directions, and these
can be equally detected by a suitable syntonic 01 other xecdver
at all points on the dicumfierence of a drcle described rotmd
the transmitter. This, however, is a disadvantage. What is
required ia some means for localizing nnd directing a beam ol
radiation. The first attempts involved the use of mirrors.
Herts bad shown that the electric radiation from an osdliator
^ See J. A. Flening, Tht PrindpUs 0/ EUcinc Wom TsU^pig
(London, 1906), chap. vil. : also CantorLectures 00 Hertzian wave
telegraphy, Lectttie iv., Jotifn, Soe. AfU, 1903, or letter to Tht
Timet, April 14, tfoj.
54P
TBLEGRAPH
could be reflected and converged hy c^rBndrical pwabplic
xqirrore. He operated with electric waves two or three feet
in wave-leogth. Experiments precisely analogous to optical
ones can be performed with somewhat shorter waves. Marconi
in his first British patent (No. xaojg of 1S96) brought forward
the idea of focusing a beam of electric radiation for telegraphic
purposes on a distant station by means of parabolic mirrors,
and tried this method successfully on Salisbury Plain tq> to a
distance of about a couple of mile&rg^As, however, the wave-
I<:ngth necessary to cover any considerable distance must be
at least 200 or 300 It., it becomes impracticable to employ
mirrors for reflection. The process of reflection in the ease
of a wave motion involves the condition that the wave-length
shall be small compared with the dimensions otf the mirror,
and hence tl^e attempt to reflect and converge electric waves
zooo iL in length by ai^ mirrors which can be practically
constructed would be like attempting optical ej^cimentf witli
mirrors one^hundred-thousandth of an inch in diameter. .
Another closely connected problem is that of locating oe
ascertaining the direction of the sending station. To deal with
the latter question first, one of the earh'est suggestions waa
that of J. S. Stone (£/-S.il. PaL Spec^ Nos. 716x54 and 7x6x3S»
t^bo reissue No. 12148), who proposed to place tw> receiving
antennae at a distance of half a wave-length apart. If these
two were broadside on to the direction of the sending station
osdilatbns in th^ same phase would be produced in them both,
but if they were in line with it then the oscillations would be in
opposi^ phases. It was then proposed to arrange a detector
so that it w«is affected by the algebraic sum of the two oscilla-
tions, ^nd by swivelling round the double receiving antennae to
locate the direction of the sending station by finding out when
the detector gave the best signaL Even if the proposal had
been practicable witif waves xooo or 2000 ft. in length, which
it is ^pt, it is essential^ based upon the supposition that the
damping of the waves is negligible. A proposal was made
by JL de Forest (l/.5^. Pf/. Spec,^ No. 771818) to employ a
receiving antenna consisting of vertical wires held in a frame
which could be swivelled round into various positions and
used to locate the position of the sending station by ascertaining
the position in which the frame must be placed to create in it
the .maximum oscillatory current.. Other inventors had pro^
iessed to find a solution of the problem by ^e use of looped
receiving antennae or antennae inclined in various directions*
tion
anteanae^ ^ . ^
short part of its length vertical and the greater part horisontal, the
Ibwer end, of the verticalpart being earthed, and if oscillations were
created in it, electric waves were sent out most powerfully in the plane
fi the antenna and in the direction opposite to that m which |he
tree end pointed. Also he showed that if such an antenna had its
horizontal part swivelled round into various directions the current
Created in a distant receiver antenna varied with the azimuth, and
when plotted out in the form of a polar curve gave a curve of a
peci^iar figure-of-8 shape.^ The mathematicaf theory of this
antenna was given by J. A. Fleming (Proc. Rov. Soc., May 1906,
also Phil. Mag., December 1906). Marconi also showed that if
such a bent receiving antenna was used the greatest oscillations were
created in it when its insulated end pointed directly away from
the sending station. In this manner he was able to provide means
for locating an invisible sending station. F. Braun also gave an
interesting solution of the problem of directive telegraphy.* In
hb methix) three vertical antennae ai« employed, placed at caui-
disfant distances, and oscillations are created in the three with a
certain relative difference of phase. The radiations interfere in
an optical sense of the word, and in some directions reinforce each
other and in other directions neutralise each othei*. so makinc the
lesultant ladiation pcater in some divectioos than others. Very
valuable sqprk in devising forma of antennae for directive radio-tele-
graphy has been done bv MM. Bellini and Tosi, who have devised
tnstrumems, called raoiogonimeters, for projecting radiation in
rtqjtfhyd dinctiOtts and locating the azimuth of a tmnsmitting
in the Production of Continuous Trains of Etec-
r.^»AU Che at>ove'described apparatus employed in
I. MarspDi, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1906, A 77* P« 4>5>
JSlecirician, May 25 and June i|J9w.
[WntEUESS
connexion with wiidess tdegeaph txansmittets, in which the
oscillatory di!k:harge of a condenser is used to create oscillations
in an antenna, labours undier the disadvantage that the time
occupied by the oscillations is a very small fraction of the total
time of actuation.. Thus, for instance, when using an induction
cojl or transformer to charge a condenser, it is not generally
convenient to make more than 50 discharges per second* but
each of these may create a train of osciUatloos consksUog of,
say, so to 50 waves. Supposing, then, that these waves are
xooo ft. in wave-length, the frequency of the oscillations would
by t,ooo,ooo per Second, and accordingly 50 of these waves
would be emitted in x/20,oooth part of a secend; and if tbtre
are 50 groups of waves per second, the total time occupied by the
oscillations in a second would only be i/40oth part of a second.
In other words, the intervals of »lence are nearly 400 times as
long as the intervals of aaivity.. It very soon, therefore, be-
came clear to inventors that a veiy great advantage would be
gained if some means could be discovered of creating high
frequency oacillations. which were iu>t intermittent but con-
tinuous. The condenser method of making oscillations ia
analogous to the production of air vibrations by twanging a
harp string at short intervals. What is required, however, is
somethitvg analogous to an organ pipe whid) produces a con-
tinuous sound.
A method of producing these oscillations devised by Valderaar
Poulsen is based upon the emplayaMat of what is caUed a nunical
arc W. Duddell discovered m 1900 that if a continuous current
carbon arc had its carbon electrodes connected by a condenser in
series With an inductance, then under certain conditions Oscillations
were exdted in this condenser dituit which appeared to be con-
tinuous. Poubra immensely improved this proceas byplaciag the
arc in an atmosphere of hydrogen, coal-gas or some other noa-
oxidizine gas, and at the same time arranging it in a strong magnetic
field.' In this way he was able to produce an apparatus which
created eontinaous trains of oscillations suitable for the purposes
of wireless telegraphy. The aorcalled roiisial are of Ducraell has
been the sul^ect of considerable investigation, and physicists are
not entirely m accordance as to the true explanation 01 the mode
of production of the oscillations. It appears, however^ to depend
upon the. fact that an electric arc is not liftfc a si^id conductor.
Increase in the voltage acting upon a solid conductor increases the
current through it, but in the case of the electric arc an increase
in current is accompanied bjc a fall in the difference of potential of
the carbons, within certain limits, and the arc has therefore been
said to possess a negative redstance.*
Poiidaen's liiethod of prodocing continuous or oadasBped cJeetricsl
waves has been applied by him in ladio-telegraphy. The ekctric
arc is formed between cooled copper (positive) and carbon (negative)
electrodes in an atmosphere of hydrogen or coal-gas. In rcccat
apparatus, to enable it to be used on noard ship, a hydrogeneous
spirit is used which is fed drop by drop into the chamber in which
the arc is worked. Across the arc is a transverse or radial magnetic
field, and the electrodes are connected by an oscillatory arcuit
consisting of a condenser and inductance. The anlcnna is con-
nected either directively or inductively with the circuit. At the
receiving end are a similar antenna and rcaonant ciicuit, and a
telephone is connected across one part of the latter, through an
automatic interrupting device called by Poulsen a *' ticker." To
send signals the continuous or nearly continuous train of waves
must be cut up into Morse signals by a key, and these are then heard
as audible signals in the telephone. An imperttnt modification of
this method enables not only audible sgnals but attkuksted words
to be transmitted^ and gives thus a system of wireless telephony.
This has been achieved oy employing a microphone transmitter at
the sending end to vary tne amplitude but not the wave-length of
the emitted waves, and at the receiving end using an dectrolviic
receiver, which proves to be not merely a qualitative bat alsb a
quantitative instrument, to make these vanations audible 00 a
telephone. The system has already been put into practice in
Germany by the Gesellsckaft fUr draktlose TelegraphU, and in the
United States by K. A. Fessendea. This last-named inventor hss
*Sce V. Poulsen, Brii. Pal. SftC, No. 15599 of 1903; also a
lecture given in London, November 27, 19067 " pn a Method of
producing pndamped Electrical Ovulations and their employment
in Wireless Telegraphy," Elietncian, 1906, 58, p. f66.
« Reference may bo made to W. Duddell. ''cte Rapkl Variatbas
in the Current through the Direct Current Are," Joum. InsL Eke*
Eng., 1900. Y>, p. 232; P. Janet, "On Duddell s Musical Aic."
Comffles rendus, 1902. 134, p. 821; S; Maisel, Phyaik. Zeits:,
September i, 1904, and Januarj' 15, 1905, or Vtclairajx ftectriqw,
1904. 41. P- rt6i J. A. Fleming. The FriucipUs of Etectie Wm
Td^fnphjf, 1906. p. 73.
TBLEMACHU8— TBLBMARK
S+i
cmolmred for the praductlon of the continuous trains of waves a
hagtk Ireqaency dcernator of his own invention (see The Electrician^
1907, 5ft, pp. 675, 701). Much work has been done on this matter
by & Runmer, tor which the leader must be refened to his work,
DraktUut T$Uph<mie, Berlin, 1907. There is no doubt that the
transmission of articuhitc sounds and ifwecb over long distances
without wires by means of dectric waves is not only possible as an
experinaital feat but may perhaps come to be commercially cm"
pioyed. In connexion witn this part oC the subject a brief rafcrence
should also be made to M. Wien's method of unpact excitation by
employing a form of spark gap which quenches the primary discharge
instantly and excites the free osdlbtions in the antenna by impact
or shack.
instmmenis and APptiauces for making Ueasuretnents in Con-
nfxi&m with Wifdess TeUgrapky.—The scientific study of electric
wave teiegraphy has necessitated the introduction of many new
processes tnd methods of electrical measurement. One im-
portant measurement is that of the wave-length emitted from
an antenna. In all cases of wave motion the wave-length is
connected with the velocity of propagation of the radiation
by the rdation v"*nX, where n is the frequency of the oscilla-
tions and X is the wave-length. The velocity of propagation
of electric waves is the same as that of light, viz., about 1000
millioa feet, or 300 mHUon metres, per second. If therefore
we can measure the frequency of the osciilations in an antenna
we are able to tell the w«ve-length emitted. Instnimcnts for
doing this arc called wave meters and arc of two kinds, open
circuit and closed circuit. Forms of open circuit wave meter
have been devised by Slaby and by Fleming. Slab/s wave,
meter oonsbts of a helix of non-insulated wire wotmd on a
glass tube. This heUx is presented or held near to the antenna,
and the length of it shortened tmtil oscillations of the greatest
intensity are prodaced in the helix as indicated by the use of an
indicator of fluorescent paper.
Closed circuit wave meters have been also devised by J. DOnitx'
and by Flemtng.' In Dteitz's wave meter a condenser of variable
capacity is associated with indoctance coils of various sizes, and
the wave meter is placed near the antenna so that its inductance
coils have induced cunents created in them. The capacity of the
condenser is then altered until the maximum current, as indicated
by a hot wire ammeter, ispiaducod in the circuit. From the
known value of the capacity in that position and the inductance
the frequency can be calculated. The Fleminff closed drcuit wave
meter. callM by him a cymometer, consists 01 a rikling tube con*
denser and a long helix of wire fanning an inductance; these kre
connected together and to a copper bar in such a manner that by
one movonent of a handle the capacity of the tubular condenser
is altered in the same propoition as the amount of the tpind
inductance which is induded in the dicuit. If, then, a k>ng copper
hur wUch foCBM part of this dremt is placed in pcoximi^ to the
uansmitting antmna and the handle moved, tome position can
be found in which the natural time period of the cymonseeer circuit
is made equal to the actual time period of the td^raphic antenna.
When this ia the case the amplitude of the potential difference
of the snrfaoes of the tabular cnndenspr beo u me s a maximum, and
this is indicated by connecting a vacuum tube filled with neon to
the suffaces of the condenser. The noon tube gkiws with a bright
orange light when tlw adjustments of the c ymo me t er drcuit are such
that it is in resonance with the wirdess tckgmph antenna. The
scale on the cymometer then shows directly the wave-length and
freaucncy of tlie oadUatioosL*
An immrnsf mass of information has beien gathered on the
fcientific ur o cea s es whidi are iavdved in doctrie wave tdcgraphy.
Even on fundamental questions such as the function of the earth
interconnexion with it physicists difTer in opinion to a considerable
extent. Starting from an observation of Maiconi's, a number of
interesting facts have been accumulated on the absorbing effect of
sunltght on the propagation of long Hertzian waves through space,
and on the disturbing effects of atmospheric dectridty as welt as
upon the influence oif earth curvature and obstacles of various
kinds interposed in the line between the sending and transmitting
stations.*
Electric wsv« telegraphy has revolutioQlsed our means of
communication fmm place to place on the suiface of the earth,
making it possible to communicate instantly and certainly
between places separated by several tl»ottsand mika, whilst
• Tie EUctrieian, 1904, 52, p. 407. or drman Pai. Spec,, Na
'*m
Pat. Spec., No. S7683 of 1904-
~ ' ,Pka.Mag..
>IrM.B.Jacl
p. 254: G. Maxconi, ib., 1902, 70. p. 344.
•I. A. Hemin^ PkU. Uag.7l90sVil 0, p. 758.
•5«eAdnnral Sir H. B. Jackson. F.R.S., Proc. Roy. See., 1903,70,
at the same time it has taken a positioix of the greatest import*
ance in connexion with naval strategy and communicatioa
between ships and ships aud the shore in time of peace. It ia
now generally recognised that Hertsian wave idegraphy, or
radio-telegraphy, as it is sometimes called, has a special fidd of
operations of its own, and that the antidpations which were at
one time excited by uninformed persons that it would speedily
annihilate all telegraphy conducted with wices have been
dispersed by experience. Neverthdess, transoceanic wirdess
tdcgraphy over k>ng distances, such as those across the Atlantic
and Pacific oceans, is a matter to be reckoned with in the future,
but it remains to be seen whether the preseot means ate suffi*
dent to render possible communicatkm to the antipodeSi The
fact that it has become necessary to introduce regulations for
its control by national legislation and international oonierences
shows the supremely important podtion which it has taken in
the short interval of one decade as a means of communicating
human intelligence from place to place over the surface of
the globe. An important International Confeience on radio*
telegraphy was held in Berlin in 1906, and as a nsuk of iu de-
liberations international regulations have been adopted by the
chief Powers of the world. The decisions of the Conference
were ratified for Great Britain by the British govemnient on
July X, 1908.
AuTaoaiTiE&— M. Abraham, " Wiretces Telegraphy and Electro-
dynamics," Pkysik. Zeiu.t loot, a, 339: J- A, Fleming, " Electric
Gterillations and Electric Waves," Cantor Lectures, Joum, Sec,
Arts, looi, ind "" Measurement of High Frequency" Currents,"
Cantor Lectures, ib., 1905: G. W. Pierce, " Experiments in Reso-
nance in Wirdess TdegTaphy," Physical Review, September 1904,
April 1905, March 1906: G. Marconi. "Wirdess Tdeenphy.*'
Jpum. Inst. EUc. Eng. Load., 1899, 28, p. 21X1 id., "Wireless
Telegraphy, " Proc. Roy. Inst., 16, p. 247; td,, ''Syntonic Wirdess
Tdegraphy," Joum. Sac. Arts, 1901, 49, p. 505; td., ," Progress of
Electric Space Telegraphy," Proc. Roy. IntL, 1909, 17, p. I9S:
F. Bcsun. ShahUou Tdeirapkie durck Waster vnd iMfl (Leipde,
1900): A. Broca. La. THigraphie sans /Us (Paris, 1899}: A. F.
Collins, WireUss Telegraphy (New York, 1905): G. Eichborn, Wireless
Telegraphy (1906); J. Erskine-Murray. A Handbook of Wirelesi
Telegraphy (1007); J. J. Fahie, A History cf Wireless Telegraphy
(Edinburgh. 1899): J- A. Fleming. Hertman Wane Teiefrapky O90S);
id,. The Principles 0/ Electric Waoe Telegraphy and TeleMony
(2nd ed., 1910): J. A Fleming, An Elementary Manual of Radio-
telegraphy and Radia-tdeffhony (1908); H. Hertz. Blectru. Waves
(1891): O. Jentaeh, TdeMphSe und Teleptwmie ohne Draht (Berlin,
ttone (1906;,
bridge, 1901) ; H. PoTncare. Les Oscillations ilectrimtes (Paris. 1894) ,
Pbincarfi and Vredand, MatcweWs Theory and Wireless Teietraphy
(i904){ A. Rhigi and B. Dessau. Die Telegraphie ohne Draht (Brune-
wick. 1903): G. Seibt, Elektrische Drahttaetlen (Beriin. i^m); C. H.
Sewall, Wireless Telegraphy (New York, 1901); A, Slaby, Die
Funhentelegraphie (Beriin. 1897); T. A. Story, The Story of WireUss
Tektmpky (1905); C. Tissot, Risonance des systkmes danlennes
(Pans, 1906): J. Zenneck. Eleklromagnetische Sckwingungen wad
drahtlose Tdegrapkie (Stuttgart. 1906); J. Zenneck, Leitfoden dee
drakttesen Tdegrapkie (1909). (J. A. F.)
TELEMACHUS, in Greek legend {Odysaey i-iv., xv.-xxiv.;
Hygiaus, Fab, 127), son of Oc^rsseus and Fendope. When he
reached manhood, he visited Pylos and Sparta to make inquiries
about his father, who had boen absent for nearly twenty yean.
On his return, he found that Odysseus had reached home befoce
him. Then father and gob, aided by Eumaeus and Philoetius,
slew or drove out the suitors of Penelope (see OdysS£us).
According to later tradition, Telemachus became the husband
of Circe and by her the father of Latinus and of a daughter
Roma, afterwards the wife of Aeneas. In another story, he
married a daughter of Circe, named Cassiphone; having alaift
his mother-in-law in a quanel, he was himself killed by hai
wife. This is the only notice of the death of Telemachus.
The foundation of (Uasium in Etruria was attributed to him.
TBLE1IARX» or Thelevakx, a district of southern Norway,
wholly comprised in the asnt (county) of Bratsberg. It coven
the uplands and fjelds of the south;ward projectioii of the
country, having tu highest point in the Gaustafjdd (6aoo ft.)}
and contains several large and beautiful lakes, as Nocdsjd,
Bandaksvand, TiosjO, Mjtevand and Totakvaod. The tv»
542
TELEOLOGY— TELEOSTOMES
fint are connected by the Buidaks canal, a fine engineering
work giving access from the port of Sluen to Dalen at the head
of Bandaksvand. From Dales, whkh may be readied by road
from the railway at Kongibeig (38 miles) a driving road much
frequented by travellers runs north-west. It traverses a pre-
dpitous wooded gorge, its course in parts hewn out of the rock,
and skirts the B6rte and Grungedal lakes, follows the Flaathyl
river, passes the Vafos and Little Rjukanfos (waterfalls), and
Lake Voxli, and culminates at Haukelidsaeter, a station grandly
situated among the f jelds at a height of 3085 ft. It rises to the
watershed (3715 ft.) and then, leaving the district, descends
abruptly with a remarkable winding course to RSldal (58 miles
from Dalen), and soon divides, <me branch surmounting the
Horrebraekke pass and continuing to Odde, the other traversing
the beautiful Bratlandsdal. On the Kongsberg-Dalen road is
Hitterdal. with a good specimen of the Stavddrke or medieval
timber-built church. A divensence from this route may be
made by way of Tinsj5 to Fosso, where the Maan river forms a
fine fall (Rjukanfos) of 41 S (t.
TBLBOUMY (Gr. i4Xof, end), in philosophy and theology,
strictly that branch of study which considers " final causes "
as real prindples of expbination, t.e. which explains things
as existing soldy as pro-requisites oC the results which they
produce. More commonly the term is applied to the doctrine
that the universe as a whole has been planned on a definite
design, or at least that it tends towards some end. The term
has b«en used very loosdy, and its meaning has changt^ con-
siderably. The root idea arises from the analogy oi the acts
of human beings which aro observed to have certain purposes:
hence it was natural to assume that the whole sum of existence
with its amazing complexity and its orderiy progress can be
explained only on the assumption of a similar plan devised
by a consdotts agent. Such a view is essential to any theistic
view of the umverse which postulates God as the Creator,
omnisdent and all-good. The modem theory of evolution,
on the other hand, has reintroduced a sdentific teleology of
another type. This is discussed, from the biologist's point of
view, in the aztide Zoolooy. Teleology, in this narrower sense,
as the study of the adapution of organic structures to the
service of the organisms in which they occur, was completdy
revolutionixed by Darwinism and the research founded on it.
TBLBOSTOHES, members of the third sulxlass of the class
Fishes, being all the fishes in which the skull is invested with
membrane bones, viz., the Crossopterygians, the Dipnoans, the
Ganoids and the Teleosteans. Tliey may be further defined
as fishes with an ossified or cartilaginous skeleton, a lower jaw,
gills inserted on the gill-arches, a single gill-opening on each
side (exceptionally fused with its fdlow on the ventral side),
an operde formed of one or several bones, the body usually
covered with scales or bony plates, an air-bbdder or lung, at
least in the primitive forms, and without copulatory paired
organs or " claspers."
The term which designates tfab sub-dasi has been adopted
by Sir R. Owen, E. D. Cope, and A. S. Woodward in a less
comprehensive sense, the Dipaeusti being rq^rded by them as
ooostituting a separate subclass, and iu inventor, C. L. Bona-
parte (1838) had proposed it in a more restricted sense, the
sturgeons, lophobranchs and plectognaths being exduded.
T. Gill (187 a) was the first to use it in th6 acceptation taken
in the present artide. Whether the Ostracophores should be
induded among the Teleostomes, as recently proposed by
C. T. Re^ni, is still open to doubt. The sub-dass is here
divided into four orders, but it is difficult to decide whether,
in an asoading series, the CrosBopterygians or the Ganoids
should be placed irst. From the point of view of the evolution
of the paired fins, accepting the latenl fin-fold theory as the
better supported by the evidence at hand, there is mtidi to
say •& favour of rrgiiding the Cbondrostean GanoidK as the
more piftnilhre type. Tmta another point of view the con-
dllkm of th#tl^%hdder fn the existing Crossor>terygians appears
' t mrikA font assumed by this important organ.
I VMflbfel to coochide was originaliy evolved 1$
an accessory breathing organ and later became transformed
into a hydrostatic apparatus (Ganoids and Teleosteans) on the
one hand, into a true lung (Dipnoans and Batcachians) on the
other. Guided by the second consideration, assuming that the
air-bladder of the fossil Crossopterygians conformed to the t>-pe
known in their recent representatives, and also in deference to
palaeontological chronology, whatever it be worth in the present
state of our knowledge, we shall begin the series with the
Crossopterygians, which pass into the Dipnoans, and then take
up the Ganoids, which lead up very gradually to the Tdeo^teans,
the dominant group at the present day. But we do not deny
the force of the argumenU adduced by Regan in atleropting
to show that the paired fins of the Chondroitean Ganoids are
a nearer approach to the primitive condition than are those
of the Crossopteiygians. No doubt some day we shall become
acquainted with still older Tdeostomcs, which we may expect
to esublish the connexion between the two types which in
Palaeozoic times have evolved on parallel lines.
Ow>Bn I.— CROSSOPTERYGII
with dennal rayt. iMandibular arch
Paired fins, at least the pectorals, lobate, having an endo-fkdctal
axis mofe or less fringed with dennal rayt. Ma
m _L_ « — ,_,__-,__
io snpnocdpital bone. -A pair of
laige jugular plates, sometimes with small lateral pbtes and aa
suspe n de d from the upper segment of the h^foid arch (hyostylic
skuU). Spleaial bone present. '^' '—^* ' ^ — " '
laige jugular plates, sometime^ ^
anterior azygous element, developed in the branchiostegal
brane between the mandibular ramL Heart with a contnctile.
multivalvular <
; aifw
intestine widi a spHsl valve:
rnmanioatsqg with the vcuml side
of the oesophagus.
Majditary bone large, toothed, bordering the mouth. Bones of
the upper suri^ace of the skuU mostly paiied. Pectoral aidi with
both Clavicle (so<alfed infra-davide) and deithnim. Ventral lbs
inserted far back. With few excefitioas ftail of Coriacnnthidae.
donal and caudal fins of Polypteridae) the dermal ays of the
unpaired fins more numerous than their endo^kdecal ■opporta, a
pnmitiye chamcter also found in the tower Ganoids, but disappearing
in the higgler.
SuB^>u>ER I.-0STE0LEP1DA
(Induding the HapUstia, Rhipidistia and Actimstia.) Fectonl
fins obtusely or acutely lobate, articulating with the pectoral
ghdle by a single basal endo«Ioeletal fWmrnt Noatiib on the
tower side of the snout. Two docMl fins.
Families: Osteokpsdac, Rhtaodoaiidae. Holoptydudne, Cod-
The acalca may be rhomfaic and thiddy coated with 1
(Osteoljepidae) or cydpid. The vcreebral axis b ttransly betcr.
ceccd in the Osteofepidae and Holoptychidae, and diphycetcal or
intermediate betwe en the heterooefca] and the diph yce iuJ types
in the other families; usoally acentroos, sometimes whh ring-luBe
cakificattoas (tone of the Rhiaodontidae). In the Holoptychidae
the pectoral fin is extremdy similar to that of the Dipncwu of the
family Diptcridae, which thty resemble cl osel y in form mod scaling.
Their teeth are remarkable for their complicated atroctmc, resem-
bling that of the Labyrinthodoot Batnrhiant Apineal foramen b
present between the nrnttal bones in most of the I
The Oiteotepidae were mostly muderatt sised fishes, the iaraest
(MepUkkikys) meaaoriiv about 4 ft. in lesiath.
These Croaaopterygiani first appear in tiie Lower Devonian, are
abundant in the Upper Devonian. Carboniferous and Permiaa; ia
later periods they are repeesented only by the mere specialised
'^ ' hidae. which appear in the I;9wer CaibonifcnMS, and
lateaa the Upper Chalk.
So^oiME II.— CLADISTIA
Pectoral fin obtusdv lobate. with three basal endo-slcelctal de-
ments. Nostrils on the upper side of the snouL A single donal
fin. formed of a series of detached rays.
A ringle family: Polypteridae.
The extsdng Crossopterygians which form this sub-order differ
very considerably from the extinct Osteolepida, perhaps quite as
much as these differ from the DipneuscL The 1*60101 fins are not
lobate, the vertebral column is well ossified and its termination is
of the dipbyceccal type. Spiracles, covered by bony valves, are
present on tn§ upper surface of the head. The dorsal fin ia unique
among fishes, beug formed of detached rays consisting of a spine*
like lulcral scale supporting the fringes of the ray; thoe rays
have been regarded, erroaeoosly. as representing so many distinct
fins, or " finlets." The scales are bony, rhombic and thiddy coated
with ganoine.
The Pol>'pteridae are confined to tropical Africa and the Nile,
and represented by wo genera: Polyptems and Calamichtkys, the
former moderat e ly etongate and provided with ventral fin» the
T£L£OSTOM£S
S43
■ i mr Mjpcnnfofsi And iwviBid of vcstnltu Wc now Kmw ten
■peats of Pelyptgrm, from tlie Nile, the Codod, the riven of West
Africa, and Uhea Chad, Rodolf and Tancuiyika, and one of Cala*
wneklky$, which inhabits West Africa froa the Niger ddta Co the
Chiloenga The Ufvcst species of Fdjfpkrta imch a length of
aeariy 4 ft. The youns are provided with en external oparcaSar
gin very rimilar to the giUs of larval nlanaaden. The air-faUdder
acts as an acoeisQry bieathing^ onaa. although these fishes are not
kaowB ever to leave the water. The de v elopment is stated by the
late J. Sl Badgen to be even more Betzachiaa-libe than that of the
Dipneusti. but the results of the study of the material coUectcd by
him shortly before his death have not yet bees pvbla»hed>
Orm» II.— dipneusti
Often called Dipnoi, a tefm proposed for this order by J. MfiUer
in 1845, but which bad already been used lor the Batrachians
-(F. Leuckart, iSai) before the cUscovery of Upidonrtn. The sub-
•titute Dipneusti (E. Haeckel, l966) is, therefore, preferable.
PSsired fins lobate. or reduced to a jointed endo-skdetal a^s.
Upper sgpnent of the mandibular ardi confluent with the skull
6intostylic skull). Praenuudllary and maxillary bones absent,
deotary absent or small and tootnless; teeth on the pabto'ptery-
gmd and splcnial bones, sometimes also on the vomers. No
Sttpraocdpital bone. Heart trilocuUr, with a contractile, multi-
valvular cottus arteriosus; intestine with a t^ral valve; air-bladder
transformed into a single or double lung, opening at the glottis
on the ventral side of the pharynx.
The cranial roof-bones Include median as wdl as paired blates,
which cannot easily be homologfted with those of other Teleo-
nomes; in the older forms, these bones are small and numerous,
and. coated with ganoioe, appear on the surface of the head, whilst
in the later forms they are reduced in number as well as in the
deme of ossification, and have sunk below the skin. Pectoral
aich with both clavicle and dcithnim. Ventral fins inserted far
back. Vertebrae acentrous. Dermal rtys of vertical fins much
more numerous than their supports, which correspond in number
to the neural and haemal arches. Nostrils on the lower side of the
snout, the posterior within the mouth. Scales cycloid (almost
quadrate In Satjfmodns, a genus tA Ctenodontidae).
Families: Dipteridae, Ctenodontidae, Urooemidae, Ceratodon*
tidae. Lepidoeirenldae.
The Dipteridae are heterocercal and have two dorsal fins, as in
the Crossopterygian Holoptychidae; in the other families the dorsal
fin is elongate and rinete. and exteiids to the ettrvmitv of the tail,
which belongs to the diphycercal type. In the three mst families,
which ai« entirely Palaeozoic, raneing from the Devonian to the
IVnnan, the dental i^ates neariy always exhibit more or lets clearly
the points of the separate denticles of which, as shewn by the
development of titocmtiodw, they were originally composed, but
vomerine teeth, such as exist in the CcratodontMfae and Lepido-
siienidae, do not appear to ha^'e existed. In the Dipteridae alone
the scales were covered with dense, punctate ganoine, wfakrh has
become much reduced or disappeared entirely in Hie other members
of tbis order. The two first families had wdl-devek)ped gular
piatee.
In the Ceratodontidae, which first appeared in the Trias and have
perristcd to the present day, the skuu is more feebly ossified than
m the eariicr forms, and this may well be looked upon as a defen-
eration, since the head of the Triassic Oratodus sturi, whilst exhibit-
ing tbe sante arrangement of bones as in the living form, differs
in its hiffher degree of ossification; and as the dermal rays of the
caudal nn lUso exhibit distinctive features in a fossil of the same
period, it Is advisable to refer the existing Ceraiodus forsUri to a
distinct genus, which has been named Ifeoceratodus by Casteloau
(1876) and EpUenlodns by Teller (1891). But there can be no
laestion that JUeceratodus b very closely rebted to Certttodms.
Its only known species. If, forsten, variously known as the barra-
munda, fiat-head, and Dawson or Burnett salmon, inhabits the
Burnett, Dawson and Mary rivers in Queendand, and was first
discoverrd In 1870. Its anatomy was made known by the memoir
of A. GQnther, and_ numerous contributions by T. H. Huxley,
I
E. R. Lankester, J. E. V. Boas, W. B. Spencer and others, whilst
its development has been elaborately worked out by R. Semon.
This fish, which grows to a length of o ft., has the body moderately
doni^tc and compressed, covered with larfe thin scales, and the
paired fins are acutely lobate, consisting of a medfian jointed
aais fringed on each side by a series of radialia supporting
fine dermal rays (archipteryeium of C. Gegenbaar). /Uthoagh
provided with a lung;, which ts single. Nwceratodm never leaves
the water. It feeds on both animal and vegetable matter, the
specimens kept in the London Zooki^ical Gardens reodfly eating
lettuce in aodition to frogs and bits of raw meat. The early
devek^proent resembles very closely that of Batrachians, but there
ate. no nictamorphoses properly speakingr and at no period does
theyoung possess external gnUor a holder or cement ornn.
The South American IspidtHrem and the tnopkal African Pt0'
the CvModnntidhn; fht bo^y i> mom or less ed-^haned, the
are thinner, the paired fins are reduced to slender styuform nniend*
ye fonned of a jointed mds with <€ witbevt a MnilatenTuing*
cartilmanoos rays bearing fine dermal ra^» and the lung is
paired* The development b even more Batnc^bo-like than that
of Neactratoim, and the larvae are provided w»th a cement ornsn
and four iLtMnirm) or five iPratapierm) fringnd external Mb,
traces of which mny persist throuf^out life in rf<it9pUrus. The
habits and development of LMannn have been investigated by
I. Graham Kerr, and those of Pftopunu by J. & Budgett. In
both the eggs nre deposited in nests in the water and the male
keeps guard over the eggs and yaaaa. The food b both animal
egetable, as in mx^ r ntodu s , Dui '
ana vcigetable, i
luting the dry season. Pro-
l^fitnu burrows in the mud of dcyiag. marshes and, suvioundcd
by a cocoon formed of hardened mucus secreted by glands of the
Min, it mends weeks or months in a dormant condition, breathing
exclusively by its lungs; dry day baUs containing such cocoons
have often been brougM over to Europe, and when soaked in water,
the Proloptenu b released in a most lively condition. Three species
of Pratopkrus are known from different parts of Africa, the type
'— being P, amntUnUt an inhabitant of West Africa, from the
► flieNb . . . ^. . ^. -
Nyer, and Lake Chad. Of Ltpidosiren.oDly one
ppecies is known, JU paradoxal Ihriag in the Amazon and Paraguay
Great uncertainty, and much difference of q^on among
palaekhtbyoloKbta, Mill prevail as to the position an the systcny
of a group of Devonian fishes, of which Cticosttfts and JHnukthys
are the best-known representatives. Long plaoed with the Ostra*
cophores b a group instituted b/ Sir F. McCoy in 184S under the
name of Placodermi; tbeywece removed from their vicinity by
A. S. Woodward io 1889, and referred to the Dipnoans as s^n order
which he proposed to call Arthtodlra. Thbview was based mainly
on the assumption that the skull was autostylic and that naaxiN
lary bones were not developed, and also on the resemblance, pre*
viously noticed by J. S. Newbeny, between the dentitimi of
Dinichikvs and that of Protcptena, Woodward's proposal has not
met with general acceptance, but it is stroncly supiwrted by the
recent Investigations of C. R. Eastman, who has adoed fresh argu-
ments in favour of the autostylic conditbn of the skull and the
homology of the cranial roof-platee with those of the Dipnoans^
the Ceratodontidae in particular. On the other side, B. Dean and
L. Hussakof tleny 8U<» homologies, and «ven regard the dental
mechanism of the Arthrodira as something quite dnferent from the
laws and teeth of other vertebrates; and revert fo the view of
McCoy in placing the Arthrodira in a group Pbcoderaiata. whicll
they regard as a dass co-ordinate in rank with such divisions aa
Cydostomi and Pisces.
In the present state of our knowledge it b perhaps best to leave
the Arthrodira with or near tlje DipoeustL They are thus defined
*■■ * " need and trunk annoured, in
_. _ ^ ^ of the abdominal region
articulating with the head-shield in ginglymoid facettes {Qr,
by Woodward ^—Pbhes with both
the^ more spedaliied genera the shield of
7lryXv/»i, a hinge) which admit of free motion (h«)oe the name
Artkradirat jmnt-neck). No trace of a hyomandibolar bone. Jaws
paralleled 1^ those of the existing Dipneusti. Notocbord pes^
sistcnt. Pectoral fins unknown; ventral fins rudimentary. '
Two families: Coccosteidae and Dinichthyidae, front the Dtfvonba
of Europe and North America.
Some of the spcdes of I>iniehy$ky$ reached a great siae, the head
sometimes measuons; a m etre across.
OaoBK III.--GANOIDEI
Paired fins not lobate. Mandibular arch suspended from the
upper segment of the hyoid arch (hyostylic skulO. Splenbl bone
E resent. No supraocdpital bone, unpaired fins often with fulcra,
[eart with a contractile, multivalvular conus arteriosus; intestine
with a spiral valve; air.bladder with pneumatic duct communi-
cating with the dorsal side of the oesophagus.
Suborder I.-CHONDROSTEI
Pectoral arch with both clavidc and detthrom. Ventral fins
inserted far back, with well^levdoped cndo-skdetal rays (base-
osts) : dermal rays of the doral and anal fins more numerous than
their endo-skelctal supports. Heterocetcal. VertArae acentrous.
Families: Palaeoniscidae, Platysoroidae. Catopteridae, Belong
rhynchidae, Chondrosteidae, Polyodomidac, Acipenseridae.
In the thnre first familieis (Devonbn to lura), tbe mouth b
^ bones are present, and the maxilbries are
bive. the bones of ine upper surface of the head are paired.
branchKMtegal rays are present, and the body is covered with
rhomboidal, typically ganoid bony scales. In tbe fourth family
(Trias to Uas). the snout b much elongate, and longitudinal series
lopterm, which constitute together the family
were discovered long before Neourmtodns, the former in i8j6. the
btter in 1659. These fbhcs are much more spednlbed than are I
of scutes extend along the body, one on the back, one on the beUx,
and one on emJi side. TheLiaasic Chondrosteidae show an approach
to the sturgeons, and form a soft of connecting link between them
and the Patoeoniscidae. The mouth was edentulous, praemaxiUary
bones were absent, but the maxillary bone was well devemped^
though smatt; the membmne baocs of Che skall were ^imdi
5U
TELEOSTOMES
bittnchsoitessil reys were present j enlei iwete utMent) except on
the caudal lobe.
' In the modem Polyodontidae and AdpenKridae, whose ficst
representatives appear in the Eocene, .pfaemaxillaries are absent
and the mouth is edentulous {Adpenaendae) or beset with minute
teeth (Polyodontidae), the membrane bones of the skull are more
irregular and comprise azygous dements, branchiostegBl lays are
absent, and the body is naked or covered with small ossifications
and longitudinal series of bony scutes, whilst the caudal fin is
scaled exactly as in the Palaeoniscidae. Barbels are absent in the
Polyodontidae.
In the Polycdontidae, represented by one species, the paddle*
fish or spOMSn-bill {Polyodon folium), in the Nltssissippi. Ohio and
Missouri rivers of North America, and by another (Psepkunts
gtadius) in the Y^ng>t9e-kiang and Hoang Ho rivers of China, the
snout is produced into a very long, spatulate {Ptdydon) or sub-conical
{Psephurus) appendage, apparently useful in stirring up the mud
of the thick waters in which these fishes live, and perhaps a tactile
organ compensating the very reduced size of the eyes. Psephurus
gtadius is said to grow to a length of 30 ft. The sturgeons (Acipcn*
seridae) are divided into two genera: Acipenser, distributed 'over
the coasts and fresh waters of the temperate oarts of the northern
hemisphere, and Scapkirkynchus, inhabiting North America and
Central Asia. About twenty species of Acipenser and five of
Seaphirkynckui are known. The atnrj^eons are of great value for
their flesh, thdr eggs (caviare) and the istnglass from the air-bladder;
seveial species are migratory, aocending riven to spawn. The
largest spedes attain a length of lo to 1 8 ft.
SUB-ORDBR II.— HOLOSTEf
Clavicle proper absent. Ventral fins inserted more or less far
back, without or with mere nidime&ts of endo-skeletal rays;
dermal rays of the dorsal and anal fins corresponding to their endo-
•keleul supports. Caudal fin of an abbfeviate*heteFocercal or
homocercai type»
Families: aemionotidae, Macrosemiidae, Pycaodontidae, Eugna-
tbidae, Pacbyconnidae, Lepidostddae. Aspidorhy^nchidae, Amimae.
First appear, in the Permian with the Semlonotid^, become
abundant in the Trias, dominant in the Jurassic, begin to decline
in the Cretaceous, and from the Eocene to the present day are
reduced to the two families Lepidosteidae and Amlidae, the modern
cepresentatives of which inhabit the fresh waters of North America.
In oiost of the Holostd the scales are bony, rhombic and covered
with an enameUlike (ranoine) coating, but there is every gradation
between this so^aUea ganoid type of scaling and the cycloid type
exemplified by the Amiidae. Fulcra also disappear in some of the
more spedaHeed types. The mouth is ahvays large and toothed,
imd bcandiiostegal rays are invariably present; a single gular
plate is often present. In the earlier groups the notocbord was
persistei^, with or without annular centra, or with each centrum
composed of two elements — pleuroceatrum and hypocentrum; these
dements remain distinct and alternate In the caudal region of the
Amiidae. whilst in the Lepidostddae the centra are as fully developed
aa in moat Teleosteans, and opisthocoelous or convexo-concave.
The pike-like genus LepidosUus was abundant in Europe in
Eooene and Miooene times, and is now represented bv three species
in eastern North America, Mexico and Cuba. The largest species
nachea a leaatb of lo ft. Amia, the bowfin, of similar geological
age. is a much smaller fish, not exceedin^^ a ft., from the eastern
parts of North America. Its air-bladder is cellular and acts as an
accessory breathing organ. It deposits its ^gs in a sort of nest,
which is protectea by the male, who for ionie time accompanies
the swarm of youag fry and defends them with great coumge.
Lndsia priMemaUca, one of the Pachycormidae from the Oxford
clay, probably reachea a length of 30 ft.* and li the largest known
Teleostom&
Ordj^s IV.— TELEOSTEI
Paired fins non-lobate, the ventrals without baseosts. Mandible
suspended from the upper segment of the hyokl arch. Splenial
bone absent.. Supraocopital bone present. ;Hoart without muscular
conus arteriosus, or with much reduced tonus, with one. excei>-
tionally two, raws of valves. Air-bladder, if present, communi-
cating with the dorsal side of the oesophagus or digestive tract,
or ^omplete^ dosed.
Suborder I.-MALACQPTERYGII
, if pircseoCj wHh a duct. Opercle well developed.
— --^-jfroiitlieakaR; meeooochcoid' bone present.
r«Moi«lBa ^Mdy abKat). An-
common-wltb the Holostnn ganoids. The firK'fbur fanfliea* of
TiiB^sIc to Cretaceous a^. are so dosdy connected wid> these
Ganoids that thdr allocation to the Teleosteans must be regarded
as provisional. Some of the Pholiik>iiharidae wene flying ishes.
The Elopidaeand AlbuHdae are also k>w forms, traced back to the
Cretaceous seas, having points in common with the Ganoids (gular
eate in the former, oonvs arteriosus with two vows of valves in the
tter). The Mormyridae are among the most extraordinary fishea,
and, uke the four families which folkiw in the afaoVe list, eonfined
to fresh waters. Other familiea, Uke the Chirooentridae, Clupeidae
and Salmonidae, are entirdy or partly marine, the two last bang of
great economic importance. .'The Alepooephatidae and StDmiatidae
are restricted to the deep sea.
See Anchovy, Hsrrxiio, Mbkhaihui, Mormvr, Pilchard.
Salmonioab. Shad and Sprat.
Suborder n.-OSTARIOPHYSI
Air-bladder, if well developed, with a duct. Pectoral arch sus-"
pended from the skull; mesocoracoid bone present. Fins without
spines, or dorsal and pectoral with a single spine formed by the
co-ossification of the segments of an articuUtea ray. The anterior
four vertebrae strongly modified, often coossified, and bearing a
chain of small bones (so-called Weberian ossicles) connecdng the
air-bladder with the ear.
. Families: Charadnidac, Gymnotidae, Cyprinidae, Siluridae,
Loricariidae, Aspredinidae.
One of the most natural groups of the daas Pisces, as demon-
strated by M. Sagemehl in 18^. The Charadnidac are the vnesi
generalized, although perhaps not directly derived from the Amiid
Ganoids, as bdieved by Sagemdil; they show gr»t variety of form
and dentition, and are confined to Central and South America and
Africa. The Gymnotidae, vAikh include the so-called electric eel,
are closely related to the Charadnidae, and occur only in South
America. The largest families are the Cyprinidae and Siluridae,
With the exception of a few Siluridae, tnie Ostariophyu are all
fresh*water fishes.
Suborder III.— SY^fBRANCHlI
Eel-shaped fishes without paired fins, with the pectoral arch
free or auspended from the skull, without mesocoracoid bone, and
with the anterior vertebrae distinct, without Weberian ossicles.
Gill-openings confluent into a single, ventral slit. Air-bladder
absent.
Families: Symbrancfaidae and Amphipnoidae.
Like the Apodes, which they resemble in general appearance,
these fishes are no doubt derived from some low ty^ with abdominal
ventral fins, but whether from the Malacopterygii or the Haplomi
we have as yet no data from which to coodude. Inhabitants of the
fresh or brackish waters of south-eastern Asia, tropical America,
Australia and Tasmania.- .
In the cuchia, Ampkipnous cacMa, the gills are much reduced,
and a respiratory air-sac extends on each side of the body behind
the head, oommunicatiog with the gill-cavity.
Sub-order IV.— APODES
Air-bladder, if present, with a duct. Praemaxillarv bones
absent; the maxillaries, if present; separated on the median tine
in front by the coalescent ethmoid and vomer. PectonU arch, if
present, not connected with and remote from the skull ; mesocora-
coid bone absent. ^ Fins without spines, the^ ventrals absent.
Anterior vertebrae distinct, without Weberian ossicles.
Elongate, serpentiform fishes with naked skin, or with minute
scales imbedded in the sUn.
Families: Anfuilltdae. Nemichthyldae. Synaphobranchidae, Sac-
copbaryngidae, Muraenidae.
A large group of aberrant, degraded fishes, heralded by the
Cretaceous genus Vrenchelys, the most generalized of eds. Mostly
marine, many bathybial: some living prindpally in fresh water,
but breeding ia the sea, like the common ed (see articles Eel anq
Murasna).
StTB-ORDBR v.— IJAPLOMI
Air-Uadderj if present, with a duct. Opercle well developed
Pectoral ardx suspended from the skull '^ 00 mesocoracoid bone.
Fina usually without, rerdy with a few spines: ventrals abdominal,
if present. Anterior vertebrae distinct, without Weberian ossicles.
Fao^lies: Gaknidae, Haplochitonidae, Enchodoatufae, Esocidae,
JDalUidae. ScopeKdae, Alepiaosauridae, Cetomimidae, Chirpthriddae,
Koeriidaew Cypriaodonttdae, Amb^opddae, Stephanoberyddac,
Peicopddaa.
The absence of the mesoooracoid bone distinguishes these fishes
itrom the Malacopterygii, and the presence of a duct to the air>
bladder sapacates them from the Percesoces, to^some of which, the
Scombttsoadae and the Atherinidae, they aqa linked by tbe Cypri*
ADdoatidae! whibt the Soopelidae are connected «ith the Barycidae
bytheStephanoberyeidae. ... > . ^ ..
The type family of this suborder is that «R the Esocidae or mke,
.ialuilbitBnCi of tllaffcsb waters of Eiin>ptia»rthc«QAsia»«ad North
TSLEOSTOMCS
'545
Amfrfca. Tbe^GUMiUM •!«> ftwatKf freikvilitar filbc* m4 bane
% WHie diatribttticKi in tae aouthem henmphere («cHi(hera put* <iC
South America, New Zealand, South Austral^ and Tasmania,
Cape of Good Hope), one tpectes being identical iti South America,
the FaUdand Idanda, New Zealaad and Tasmania. > Their di*-
tribadoa baa been ngaxded aa affording wpport to the theofy of
an Antarctic continent jn Totiary timea. However^ wvenu of
the Apecies spend part of their life, and eveo b<ced« tn the sea,
whilst others may be t ega r ded as having become more recently
adapted to fresh water, so that the arguinene derived from their
range is not so strong as if we had to deal with exclusively Itesb-
watcr fishes. The uypriaodontidae are partly bcackisb, partly
fresh-water fishes, whilst the Scopelidae. which ace tracea back
to the Chalk, are all marine, many being inhabitants of igreat depths.
SttB^tOBE VI^HETEROMI
Air*bbdder without duct. Opercle well developed, parleul bones
separating the froatals from the aupnocd|)itaL Psctoral areh su»-
peoded from the supraoocipital or the epiotic, the post*tcmporai
small and simple or replaced by a Ugaroent; no mesocoiaooid oooa
Ventral fins abdominal, if present.
Families: Dercetidae, HahMauridae, Lipogenyidae. Notacaii-
chidar. Fierasfcridae.
Closely related to the HapkMa«,but separaied chaeAy onaooount
of the closed air-bladder. Mostly deep-^ fishes, some of which
appeared as early as the Cretaceous penod. The genus FUrasfer
oomorvsea small degraded fishes commensals of Holotfauriatts and
bivaivB xnolhisoa,
SuB-ORDBR VII.— SELENICHTHYES '
Air-bladder without duct. Opcrde well developed. Pectoral
arch suspended from the skull ; no mesocoracoid bone. Fins with*
oat spines. Ventral fins abdominal, with very numerous (15 to 17}
nya.
A vety abermat type, of unoertaia afiimties. Ita only nqjra*
scnutive is the opan. lAmpHs umm, a large pela^ fish of yndm
distribution.
SufrORDw VIU.-^THORACOSTEI
Embndag the Honibranchii and Lophobranchii. bat
the Hypostoroides (Pcgasidae), which the investigations of J*. ^
Jungersen show to be aberrant mail-checked Acantnopteryaians.
Air>bladder without duct. P^toral arch suspended from the
riEKll: m oKaoDoracoid bone. Vential fins abdomioal. if present.
Branchial archas more or less ieduoe4
Families; Gastrosteidae, Aulorhyochidae. Proto^ngnathidaet
Aulostomatidae, Flstulariidae. Centrisddae, Amphlsilidae. Soleno-
storaidae. Synniathidafe The two tatter families institute the
diviaioa Lophc^nchii, in whioh the gill-laniellae aire enlarged and
ions rounded lobes*
See articles Sba-Hoksb« Stxcklbbacx, and Pips-Fisbis.
Sx^B-oaDBK IX.— PERCESOCES
Air-bladder, if present, without duct. Parietal bones separated
by the supraocdpital. Pectoral arch suspended from the skull;
no at eaoooracoid bone. Ventrel fias, if present, abdominal, or at
least with the pelvic boaca not aolidly attached to the clavicuhtf
ax^.
Familtts: Scombresocldae. Ammodytidae, Atherinldae, Mugil-
idae, Polynemidaej ChiaBmodontidae. Sphyraenidae, Tetragonuridae,
Stronaiodae, fcosteidae, O ph ioc cpfcalid a e , Anabantidae.
This series of familica connecta the Haflomt with the Acantbop-
teryvii. The Percesoces are mostly marine, but fhe two hat
families are exclunvely fresh-water. Some are inhabitants of great
depths, others are pelagkr, like the Hying-fish {Exoc0€ims),
SuM>a»M X.-1aNACANTHINI
Air-Madder without dact Puietal bones seteimtad by the
aapraoGcaiNtal: pcootic imd enodpital sepatated by the enlastcd
opisthotic Pectoral arch suspended from the sloUl; no rorsyo*
racoid bone. Ventral fins below or In front of the pectorals, the
pelvic bonas posterior to the clavicular symphysb and only iDOsefy
attached to it by ticuseat. Fins without —^
Nearl;
acteristi
oftbenoat
riy all marine. The MacruridaA are among t
tic fishes of the great depths. The Gadidae
moat valuable food-fisbeo.
the most char*
iiicbid^ some
XI^-ACANTHOPTERYGII
Air«bladder naoally widioat dtwt Operele weB d««ebpcd:
aapraoccyiial an contact witii the fnmtals. Pactorel arch sua-
pendod from the skull; no mesocoracoid bone. Ventral fina
thoradc or jugular, more or less firmly attached to the olavicular
arch. GUI-opening usually lar]p, in front of the base of the peetoFsf
The character from whkh this sub^sidcr, the most comprehensive
of the whole class, derives its name. vi^. the pcescnoe of noo-
reys In the dofsal and inal fins, ia by no meaaa
I tothe rale beiiw nomerous.
B.->Famihes: Beiyck^ Mooooeattldas,
articulated,
iivenel,«
Division
Pqlymitiirise
The most primitive of the
sealed in the Chalk. A duct
present betw een the air-bladder and
marine, several bathybiaL
Division 11. PBr4focaNa.^FamiSes: Fempheridae, Senanidac.
Anomalopidae, Pseudochromididaa* Cepolidae, HnkigaathidM,
SiUapairiiae, Sciaenidae, Soorpididae, Capraidae, Centiarchidae,
Cyphosidae, Lobotidae, Toxotidae, Nandidae, Percidae, AcroD<»>
aMtidae. Gcnidae, Urtaiildae, Tndiodonttdae, Pastipomatscbe.
ins, already ^"^1 i^pfV-
. ^ wed to be sometimaa
the digestive tract. All
The Pevcidae, Centraidiidaei Teaotidaie, Nandidae^ OEphsoi>
menidae, Embiotoctdae. and Cichlidae are <resfa-water fishes^ the
others are all or .nearly all saarioe. Aipkktkys, which is inclnded
among the Soorpididae* is one of the few Acaathop t etygian types
known to have existed as early as the Cretaceous jieiciod.
See articles CiCHLun, Mullst, Mubjiay Cobu PAEion-Fuifts,
PsaCH..PlKB-PERCB, SbCBPSHBAD. WrASSS. .>
Division III. Scombrifoines.-TFainilies: CaraagjdMt . Rhachi-
ceacfidae. Scombifdae, TitcKttridaa, Hiitiophoridaek Xiphildae,
Luvaridae; Corypbaenidae, Bi»midae. ^
Marine fishes, several being pelagic and among the lanest Teleos*'
teans and swiftest swimmers. See articles Haxk-Tail, Mackebeu.
PlLOt-FlSH, SWORD.FISR. TtTTfKV.
Division IV. Zeorhombi.— F^millea: Zeidae, AmpUstiidae, Pleofo-
occtidae.
Division V. Xurdformes.— A ansle family, Kurtidae. witii 4
sthjle genus and species from the Indiao and Pacific oceans.
Division VI. Gobiiformcs.— A single family. Gobiidae.
Divimm VII. -^Discocephali.— A single fiaimily, Ecfaeheidldae.
, The remarkable remoiaa attach themselves by means of a ocphalie
disk to boats or to shatks, tunlos, cetaceans, and other large swift*
swimming animals. They form an isolated group, and have n^
real affinity with the Soombridae, with which they hate lotft been
aasociated.
Divi^ VIII. ScleropaHeL— Families: Soorpaeatd^c, Heai*
nammidae. Comephoridae, Rhamphocottidae, Cottidae. Cyclop-
teridae, Pfaityceimalidac, Hoplichthyidae, Agonidae, Pegasidae,
Tnelidae, Dactylopteridae.
tlie " Aiail-dHBhad " Acanthopterytiaiit inchide a gnat variety
of forms, mostly livinar in the sea, the oest known being referred %9
inthearUclesFLTiKG-FiSH,GukMARD,Lt7itP-SucxE|i.andMiU.E&V
Thuhb.
Divxdon IX. Tngulares. — Families: Thidiintdae; PercophlMae,
Leptoscopidae, Mototheniidae, Uraneaoopidae, Triohodoatidae;
Callionymidae, Gobi ey ocidae, Bfenniidae, Batfacbidabk Pholidldaa.
Zoa r cidae, Congrqi^adidae. Ophidiidae. Podatelidae.
Nearly all marine, some deep-sea. Maerius omissus, which
tnobably bekmgs to the Lepto«opidae, measures S ft. and is ihd
btf!(est leaown deep>eea Teleostean. The other meudwa of this
division are mostly tna.\\f' Ancrrkichas being another eiCbeptioii<*
The weevers (Trocaipiaj) are daneerous stinsing nshcs.
Divisiott X. Taeniosomi. — ^Families: Trachyptnidae, Lopho«
. Deep-eaa or pelacic fishes, aoma attaining a laifeaiM.
.SUB-OBDBK XII.--QPISTHOM1
Air-bladder without doct. Opercle well developed, hidden undei'
the skSat aupraoeciphal in contact with the frontals. Beetorel
arch aii^tnded from the vertebnl cofaimn, far behind the «knUf
ao mesocoracoid bone. Vertical fina with spinfc Ventral fine
absent.
Eel-shaped fishes standhig b the same relation to the Acanthop-
tecygii aa do the Apodes to the Malacopterygii. The ringte family,
Maatarcmhclkisf. as jposaibly deiived from the Blenniidaa.
Fresh afid bcaddsh watereof aouthem Asia and tropkal Afnca^
8Q»<noBK XIII/-*P£DICULATI
Air-bladder without duct. Operele wdl developed, hidden under
the sUn; snnraocdpital in contact with the frontals. Pectoral
arch s n ap e nocd from the sfcnU: no wea eco r a co id faooc. Ventral
fins, if present, jugular. GiU«op«ning reduced to a foramen situated
in or near the axifmore or less posterior to the h^sc of the pectoral
fin. Body naked or covered with spines or bony tubercles.
Connected with the Acanthopterygii Jugutares through the Batra-
Families: Lopbiidae. Coatiidae, Antenoariidae, GigantacUnidai^
Malthidae.
Curioody aberrant marine fishes, many bathybial. The beft
kflown am the fishing-frog or angler, LoftuuM, and the AminmaHms,
which lives in comi grwea or ia caixiedahbut in mid-ocean anmnc
the ^orgasjnm woeda.
546
TELEPATHY
St»<uu>gK XIV^PLECTOCNATHI
Air-bladder without duct OpMCubr bonM mora or less raduoed ;
•upnoodpital in Gootwt with the front«ls{ mudlUry and prae-
.1.. - ijooet often firmly united. Pectoral arch sunended from
No ribf. Ventral fina thoracic and rancb icduced if
ptetent; the pelvic bones, if present, more or less co-ossified. Gill-
Openioff much reduced. Body covered with mora or leas osseous
scales, bony scutes, or spines, or naked.
A highly abenant group, doady connected with the Acanthop-
" through the Aamthundae.
*^
Jivision I. SckrodermL—Families: Triacanthidae, Triodontidae,
Balistidae. Ostradontidae.
Division IL Gymnodontea.-*F«miljea: Tetrodontidae, Dlodon-
tidae,Molidaa.
The Plectognathsi are all marine; the recently discovered Trl-
acanthid Haitmoekinargiaf remarkable for its lone, tube-like snout,
from the Gulf of Manaar, is the only form of this sub-order which
is confined to the deep sea. Although so highly specialised, several
forms, such as Ostraeimt (the coffer-fish), r<sfrpdm and Dicdom,
wcra already represented in the upper Eocene. See FilSfFisb,
Globb-Fish and Sun-Fisr.
For bibiiogtaphical referanees to the Teteostomi, aee IcrtmY'
OLOGT. (G. A. B.)
TELBPATHT (Qr. r^, far, ir&^, feelings), or Tkovgbt
TRANsrERENCE, thc conveyaoce of thoughts »nd feelings from
mind to mind by other than the ordinary diaxmels of sense.
Although the word " tdepathy " was first suggested by F. W. H.
Myers in i88a, the suggestioa bad long befbre been made
that the transmission of ideas, images and sensations could be
brought about by other than the normally operative motor
and sensory apparatus of the body. More than one writer had
explained wtiiths at the moment of death, dairvoyance and
the phenomena of spiritualism by the theory of ** brain waves.*'
But it was not untO the advent of the Sodety for Psychical
Research that the hypothesis attracted much notice or was
backed by carefully collected evidence. As used by the sodety
the term is a mere designation, aid fnpUes no hypothesis as to
'* action at a distance " or the operation of aqy force not recog-
nised by physical sdence.
' The earliest recorded qritematic experiments in thought
transference were made in 1871 by the Rev. P. H. and Mrs.
Newnham, ftnd were continued for a period of some dght
noDths wit^ marked success; subsequent atten^pts showed no
results of an evidential nature. A few years Uter the attention
of the British Association was called to the subject by Prof.
W. F. Barrett, and from 1881 onwards many experiments were
made by members of the S.P.R. and others; in fact, the so-catted
"willing game" waa at one time exceedingly popular; the
"successes, however, depended largely, if not entirdy, upon
nusdo-reading, and usually ceased when there was no contact
between agent (the sender of the idea) and perdpient (the
leodver). The systematic investigation has foDowcd two main
lines: (A) experimenu on persons, often in the hypnotic state,
in which the aim was to transfer sleeted Images, &c., and
compare the guesses with the results which chance would give;
(B) the coIIectioA and examhiatlon ctf records of pheaomena
such as apparitions at the momeot of death and odier spon*
taneous cases in which there is a OMtespondenoe between the
psychical states of two individuals, usually remote in space
from one another. The problems raised by the two cases are
entirdy different: (r) in A there is seldom any halludnatory
dement (see Hallucinations), in B, though not essential, it
is present in a high percentage of cases; (3) what is trans-
ferred is in A an Image kept before the mind, in B the phantasm
of the dying person when that person has prima facie neither
endeavoured to transfer this image nor, it may be, even thought
Of tlie perdpient; (3) the desideratum hi A has usually been
to exclude normal methods of perception, in B the problem
is to show that coincidence will not account for the facts;
for, whereas in A the relation of successes to failures is known,
in B it is difficult to get statistics and to be sure that an abnormal
■umber of tuccessfol cases do not figure in a census. Side
by side with direct experimentation, the SJ^.R. eollecUd first-
hand reoonis of apparitions at or within twdve hours of the
ooment -^ ' "^ ^^, together with a discussion of the
cxperir ^ issued in 1885 under the title of
Pkaniasmtftk$lMitg. la enter to provide a rtatistlealbasli
for discussion of coinddental apparitions, a census of halltt-
dnattons was undertaken by Edmund Gumey, and re|dieB were
obtained from over 5000 persons. A defect of the collection
in Pkanlatms Is that the progressive deterioration of evidence
with age b neglected. No narratives are regarded as evidential
by the society imless they were reduced to writing leas than
three years after the event or are based on notca made at the
timei
Tlie second systematic attempt to collect material was the
census of halludnattons, inlUated at the congress of experi-
mental psychobgy of 1889, and entrusted to Professor Henry
Sidgwick. The total number of persona who made returns
was I7f000, of whom 1684 asserted that they had once or
of tener experienced an hallucuiation. Analysis of the answers
showed that in 350 cases the apparition was recognized; the
probability that any person will die on a given day is roughly
X in igfioo: if therdooe chance alane operated, one apparition
in 19,000 would coincide with a death; after making aU allow-
ances for emt, the census committee found that 30 of the
350 recognized apparitions colndded with a death— in other
words, cases prima fade telepathic were 440 times more numerous
than chance coinddence would give. The committee reported
that between deaths and apparitiooa of dying persona there
exists a connexion which is not due to chance alone.
The experimental evidence for telepathy Is made up partly
of the results of trials where direa transference of thoughts,
images or sensations was attempted, partly of successes ia
hypnotization at a distance; dreams (q.9») abo provide some
material; and in a small but important class of cases, trana-
tional between wraiths and ordhiary experimental cases, the
agent has caused his phantasm to appear to the perdpient*
Among the diief experimefiteis may be mentioned Prol.
M. Dessoir,' Mr Guthrie, Sir Oliver Lodge and Prof. Sidgwick.
In experimenu conducted by the latter and Mrs Sidgwick at
Brighton with numbers as the objects to be guessed, 617 trials
were nuuie with the agent and perdpients in the same room:
the numbers were between ten and ninety, and ninety successes
were recorded, the probable total, if chance alone had operated,
being eight. In a later series, conducted by Mrs Sidgwick, a
simikrly high proportion of successes was recorded; but when
agent and perdpients were in different rooms the results were
not above what chance would give. These results were
critidsed by Prof. Lehmann and others, but were not seriously
shaken; it was pomted out that the faHun of experiments at a
distance might be due to psychological causes rather than to
the fact that the increase of distance eliminated the po^iUty
of communication by normal means. In subsequent experiments,
however, the successes in no series of any length were so far above
chance as to give substantial support to a belief in tdepathy.
Experiments in hypaotiaatioa at a distance provide some
of the most condusive evidence for tdepathy. In 1885 trials
were made both by Dr Janet and by Prof. Richet with the sane
subject. Out of twenty-five experiments the former heU that
nineteen were complete successes; Prof. Richet secured two
successes and lour partial successes in mne trish. TheaMst
striking' point waa that the hypnotic trance always coincided
with or followed at an interval the attempt to hypnotize the
patient; this is a feature of much importance in coosiderins
the possibility of coinddence or of auto-suggestion.
It is usually Impossible to prove that a dying penon has been
(Mnkhig of the perdpient; much less can we ^ow that then
was any Idea of causing his phantasm to appear. There are,
however, a small number of cases in which apparitions, of the
agent or some other penon, prima fade telepathic, have been
produced experimentally. A Singulariy interesttog instance is
recorded by Wesermann, who tried the experiment in the .early
part of the xgth ceatuty; he wished to make the phantasm of
a lady appear to a lieutenant, who was residing some milca
away; at the time of the experiment he was, owing to an un-
foreseen visit, not alone, and his visitor is said to have seen the
apparition also. More recently, in cases recorded in Pkantasmi
TELEPHONE
54-7
aiu) the Census, tbe figure o( the agent himself has been seen by
the percipient.
The so-called reciprocal cases ate evidentially d nauch ifl»-
portancc £ach of the two petsons concerned appcan to
receive a telepathic impttlse from the other, so that each receives
infonnation about the other, or sees his phantasm.
Occasionally telepathic impressions from animals to human
beings are reported, but the facts are usually far from well estab-
lished. Tel^thic communicatiott has also been suggested as
the explanation of the simultaneous movements of large flocks
of birds.
Various theories have been put forward to account for
telepathy, but they only agree in the total lack of an experi-
mental basis. Broadly speaking, they are divisible into physical
and psychicaL Sir W. Crookes suggests that transmission is
efTected by means of waves of smaller magnitude and greater
frequency than those which constitute X lays. Unduktioas
starting from nervous centres are adopted as the explanation
by Prof. Floumoy and others. But Myers and others regard
the case against a physical explanation as complete. The
main difficulty in the way of it is that the strength of the
impulse does not seem, in the spontaneous cases, to vary with
the distance, as by all physical laws it should. On the other
hand, a curious phenomenon has been noted in experiments;
if the percipient gaze at an arrow with its bead turned to the
right, there is a tendency, disproportionately strong if we
suppose that chance alone operates, for the arrow to be seen
reversed. This fact is, however, more important in all proba-
bility for the light which ft throws «n the mechanism of hallu-
cinations iq.v.) than on that of transmission. Telepathy is
often invoked as an explanation of the facts of mediumship
(see Menun, and Fosssssion); but It seems insufficient to
explain them unless we assume for the medium a far greater
power of reading other people's minds than experimental
evidence has so far shown to exist.
BiBLiocKAmy.-- Gumey, Mven and Pbdmme, Fkantaxmt cfAt
Lmng; Report on the Census ot Hallucinations in Proc. S.P.R., x.*,
Podmore, Appafiiions and Thought Traniferenct', Mrs Sidgwick in
Tkouikt
articles in , . . _
other pabticatbna. See aUo CaTtrAi. GaaiNC. (N. W.T«)
TBUPHOHB (6r. t^, far, and ^^, voice). Tdephony
is the art of reproducing souo^ at a distance from their sottr6e,
and a telephone is the Instrument employed in sending or
lece i v U i g such sounds. The term " tdephony" was ^t used
by Pfailipp Reis of Friedrkhsdorf , in a lecture ddivered before
the Physical Society of Frankfort m 1861.^ But, althoui^
this lecture and Reis's subae<|uent work received considerable
notice, littk progress was made until the subject was taken
up between ig74 and 1876 by Alexander Graham Bell, a native
of Edinburgh, then resident in Boston, Mass., U.S.A. Bell,
like Rds, employed dectridty for the reproduction of sounds;
but he attacked the problem in a totally different manner.
This will be better understood If we consider shortly on what
the chief charaaeristics of sound depend.
The sciisation of sound is produced by rapid fluctuation
in the pressure of the atmosphere on the tympanum of the
Cten» ear. If the fluctuations are irregular and non-periodic,
tefSBOcs the sound is called a noise; if they are cydic and
•'••■•* foUow a regular and suffidently rapid periodic law,
the sound is* musicaL In connexion with the present subject
it is important to aotice the three characteristics of a musical
sound, Mmdy, pUch, loudness and qualily. The pitch of a
musical sound depends on the number of cydes passed through
by the fluctuatioaa -ol the pressure per unit of time; the loud*
neas depends on the amount or the amplitude of the fluctuation
in each Cjrcle; the quality depends on the form or the nature
of the fluctuation in each cyde. The necessary condition for
a successful system of tdephony is the ability to reproduce
these chaiBCteristics.
^ ** Ober Tdephonie durch den ralvanischen Strom." in Jakusher.
i. pkysikaliuktn Vtrtius tu FratUijurt am Maim, 1860-6I, p. 57.
W.
J. M. Baldwin's Didumarj ^Ffahsopky s.v. TOepatky: N,
Tbomas, Tkouikt Transference (1905)* conuintng a USt of the im-
portant articles in the Journal and Froceedinis of tke S.P.R. and
la 1831 Wheatstone by his " magic lyre" experiment showed*
that, "When the sounding-boards of two musical instruments art
connected together by a rod of pine wood, a tune played on
one win be faithfully reproduced by the other. This only
answers, however, for tdephoning musical sounds to short
distances. Another and somewhat similar example is furmshed
by what has been variously designated as the ** string," Mtehsm-
"toy," "lovers," and "mechanical" telephone. aWtefc-
Two disks of thin metal, or two stretch^ membranes, i"***^
each furnished with a mouthpiece, are oonaected together by
a thin string or wire attadied at each end to the centres of the
membranes. A good example may be made with two cylindrical
tin cups( the bottoms form the membranes and the cupa the
mouthpsBces. When the connecting string is held taut and
sounds; such as those of ordinary speech, are produced in front
of one of the membranes, pulses corresponding to the fluctua-
Uoos of. the atmospheric pressure sxe transmitted along the
ttxing aad oommumoaiad to the other membraBe, which in its
torn communicates them to the air, thus leprodudng the sound.
In both these examples all the three characteristlca-ipitch,
reUtive intensity, and quality— <if sound are reproduced.
In Jnly 1837 Dr C. G. Page of Salem, Mass., drew attention
to the sound given out by an etectromagnet at the instant when
the electric drcult is dosed or broken, and in October /^^m
of tbs same 'year he discussed, in a short artide' dtf
entitled ^'Galvanic Music," the musical note pro- ^'^^*^'
duced by rapidly revolving the armature of an dectfomagnet
in front of. the poles. Experiments bearing on this aobjeci
were subsequently made by a great number of inwstigirors.*
Page% discovery is of considerable nnpoetaiice la oonnexioQ
with the theory of action of various forms of telcphoae, and was
a very important feature in the eariy attempts by Rds to
tiaadt music and ^eech. On the s6th of August i^sA then
appdhred ia VJUusteotUm (Paris) an intsiresting article by
Charles Bouaeul on tho electric Cransmisaian oC
speech.* The writer reoomraended the use- of a
flcadble plate at the source of sound, which. would
vibrate in Msponse to the varying pressure of the
air, sad thas open and dose an electric circuit, and cf a sinnlsr
plate at the receiving statloh, which would be acted on dectro*
magnetically and thus gvvu'out as many pulsations as there* are
brnks in the current These suggestions were to some extent
an anticipation of the work of Rcis; but the conditions to
be fulfilled before the sounds given out at the recdving station
can be dmilar !n pitch, quality and rdativa intensity to those
produced at the transmitting station are not stated, and do
not seem to have been appreciated.
In Reis^ lecture an apparatus was described which has givea
rise to mudi discussion as to priority in the invention of the
telephone. The instrument was described in over jMb**
fifty pubhcations*. in various countries, and was well ^
known to physicists previous to Bell's introduction **••••
of the electric tdephone as a competitor with the electric tde>
graph. Reis caused a membrane to open and dose an dectric
*.Sce his SiienHJk Papers, p. 47.
« S«e SiHimau's Jour., xxxii. 396, and xxxiiL 118.
« Marrian, PkS. Mag., 3rd ser., vol. xxv. p. 383; Beatsoo. Arck.
de l'BUel.,f 197; I>e U Rive. Trtaiiu on eJoaricii^ u ^o6;
also PkU. Mag., xrd a
1287. xxU. 433; Mati
vol. XXXV. p. 4|2. and Comp. Xend,, ax.
tteucd. Arck. de Vtlttt., v. 389: Guillemin,
Comp. Rend., x»i. 364: Werthdm, Comp. Rend., xxii. 336, 5441
xxvi. 505. alto Ann, do 'Ckim. el do Pkys., xxiil 302, and Pkil.
Mag., 3rd ser.. vd. xxviii. p. 344; Jannair. Comp. Rend., xxilL
319: Joule, PkU. Mat., 3rd ser.. vol. xxv. pp. .76. aas: Laborde,
Comp. Rend,, I 69s; Ponni^xff. Pou- ^f*"* Inxvii. 139. xcviii.
198: Du Moncd. Exp. de rBleet., ii. 123, ilL 83: and Delesenn«
Bibl. Unto. (1841), xvi. 406. ^ ^ . .
•See also DtdasknlmTBIdtter fttr Geist, CemUA, a. PuhlteiiU,
Fiankfort, No. »\2. «8th September 1854: Du Mooed. B*pOfi dos
APplieaHons do rElectrietU (Paris), ii. 23. cd. 1854; liL no, cd.
r856. and ComP. Rend., a6th Novcniber 1877.
• The EnvKsh reader may eonsult— /Inif. Soe. Tel. Eng., March
188.^: BrUhk Assoc. Rep., 1863: Cw. Bug. and Atck. Jouo^
uxvi. W7\ R. M. FerguKon. EteciricUy (Uoodon. 1866), p. 357:
S. P. thompMm. Pkiiipp Reis, Ike Inoentur of ike TeUpkont (Loodoa,
1883).
5i8
TELEPHONE
circuit at each vibration, thus transmitting as numy electric
pulses through the circuit as there were vibrations in the sound.
These electric pulses were made to act on an dectromagnet
at the receiving station, which, in accordance with Page's dis-
covery, gave out a sound of a pitch corresponding to the number
of times it was magnetized or demagnetized per second.
Rcls's object was to TCproduce at a distance not only music but
also human speech; but that he did not wholly succeed is clear
from the following extract from his lecture: — " Hitherto it has not
been possible to reproduce human Speech with sufficient distinct-
ness. The consonants are for the roost part reprodund pretty
distinctly, but not the vowels as yet in an equal degree." Coo*
sidering the time at which he wrote, Rcis seems to have understood
very well the nature of the vibrations he had to reproduce, but he
failed to comprehend how they could be reproduced by dectricity.
His fundamental idea — the intemsptien of the current — ^was a fatal
mistake, which was not at the time properly understood. The
suggestion of Bourseul and the experiments of Keis are founded on
the idea that a succession of currents, corresponding in number to
the successive undulations of the pressure on the membrane of the
transmitting instrument, oould reproduce at the recesvtng station
sounds of the same character as those produced at the sending
station. Neither of them seemed to recognize anything as import"
ant except pitch and amjplitude, and Rets thought the amphtude
was to some extent obtained hythe varying length of contact in
tiie transmitting instrument. This might possibly be true to a
tmaU extent; but, considering the small capacity of the circuits
he used and the nature of his receiving instrument, it is hardly
probable that duration of contact sensibly influenced the result.
The quality of the sounds was to some extent also reproduced ;
but, judging from the results of later telephone investigation, it is
highly probable that this was due, not to the varying duration,
but to the v^ing firmness of the contact.
The next worker at the telephone, and the one to whom the
present great commercial importance of the instrument is due,
OMTsM* was BelL Hia aim was the production, by means
sMfcftfA of the undulations of pressure on a membrane caused
by sound, of an electric current the strength of which should
at every instant vary directly as the pressure varied.^ Hia
first idea seems to have been to employ the vibEati<ms of the
current in an electric dzcuit, produced by moving the armatux*
of an electromagnet included in the dxcuit nearer to or farthcsr
from the pdes of the magnet. He: proposed to makfi the
armatuoe partake of the vibrations. of the atmosphere either
by "oonverting it into a suitable vibrator oc by controlling its
vibrations by a stretched membrane of parchment
f n the earfy trials the armature had the form of a hinsed lever
d iron carrying a stud at one end, which pressed against the centre
of a stretched membrane. Fig. i shows the arrangement. M was
a membrane stretched by a ring R.
over the end of a tube T hxed at one
side of the frame F. To the oppo-
site aide of the f ramean electromagnet
. 1 was fixed with its axis in line with
' the tube T, and between the end of
the electromagnet and the membrane
a hinged armature A was arranged in
such a way that its motion could be
fontrolled by the membrane.^ The
instrument was joined in circuit with
) a batteiy and another simitar instru-
ment pfaiced at a disunce; and a
continuous current was made to flow
through the circuit, keeping the
_ electromagnets energised. Tfve cx-
FiG. 1.— Befl's First THe- Perimcnts with this form woe not
pfaoiie (1875): one-fifth full ^^fffSf^it *»«*• ^'^^ *i' ^?. jj
nie making the movmg parts as light
as possible, he substituted for the
comparatively heavy lever armature a small piece of clock spring,
about the size of a sixpence, ^lued to the centre of the diaphragm.
The magnet was mounted with its end carrying the coil opposite,
and very close^ to» the centre of the piece of dock spring. This
answered sufficiently well to prove the feasibility of the plaB, and
subsequent expenments were directed to the discovetv of the best
form aad arrangement of the parts. An increase in the size of the
iron disk attacAca to the membrane augmented both the budnen
and t|ie distinctness of the sounds, and this finally led to the
adoption of a thin iron disk supported round its edge, acting as both
amuUbnm and armature, (fig. 2). Again, the form of the opening
OiHnoutnpiece in front of the membrane exercised considerable
A ir li*i|, •• Telephone Researches,*
^7.
is Joum. Soc. Tel.
influence on the efikiency of the Instrument, and it was ultimatdy
ascertained that a small central opening, With a thin air space
extending across the face of the membrane, was best. It was also
found that comparatively small roagneu were sufiident, and that
there was no particular virtue in the dosed circuit and dbctromagnet,
but that a small permanent magnet having one pole in contact with
Fic. 2.— Bell's Telephone (1877). M, permanent magitet ;
E, dectromagnet; C, diaphragm; l/i, terminals.
the end of the core of a short electromagnet, the coil of which was
in circuit with the line, but which had no permanent current flowing
through it, answered the purpose quite as well.* The apparatus,
thus acted as both a transmitter and a receiver ; indeed it b essend-
ally the magneto-recdver which has. come ^ into universal u«e in
practical telephony, though for transmission it was soon superseded
by forms of microphonic transmitters. One of the latest forms of
Q
Fic. 3.— Double Pole Receiver,
receiver, known as the double pole, is shown in fig. 3. M and M'
are two permanent magnets; P and P are soft iron pole-pieces
upon which are placed the dectromagnet Coils C and C'; D is the
diaphragm; 1 is a soft iron distance piece plaoed between the
magnets at the end remote ^m the diaphragm; B is the brass
body of the instrument, over which is placed a thin ebonite shell S.
E is the ear-piece made of ebonite; F is a cap of the same material
enclosing the recdver terminals, which are mounted upon the
ebonite block G, attached to the dbtance piece L
A tdephdne transmitter and a recdver on a novd plan were
patented in July 1877 by Edison, shortly after the introductioa
of Bell's instruments. The recdver was based on n^,,,-,
the change of friction produced by the passage of an iaauw -
electric current through the point Oif contact of certain "ea*** .
substances in relative motion. In one form a drum, mounted
on an axis and covered by a band of paper soaked in a solution
of caustic potash, was turned
under a spring the end of which
was in contact through a platinum
point with the paper. The spring
was attached to the centre of a
diaphragm in such a> way that,
when the drum was turned, the
friction between the point of the ^
spring, and the paper deflected C
the diaphragm. The current from
the lizu: was made to pass through
the ^ring and paper to the
cylinder. Now it had been
previously shown by Edison that,
when a current was made to pass
through an arrangement like that
just described, the friction between
the paper and the spring was
greatly diminished. Hence, when
the undulating tdcphonic cunenls
were made to pass through the apparatus, the constant variatiou
of the friction of the spring catised the deflexions of the dia-
phragm to vary in unison wiih the variation of the dectric
* The extreme smallness of the magnets which mjliht be saoesen*
' f employed was first demonstrated by Professor ntiice of Brown
Ity, Providence, R.I.
Fig. 4.— Edison's Mkro-
pbooe Tkaasmhter.
T£LfiPMON£
S49
mrrcnfi, and sounds trere t^tix oat corresJMit&ng in fntch,
and also to some extent io quality, with the soundi produced
al the UaDsffiittiiic staUoo. A cylinder of chalk wu used in
some of Edison's later experiments wilh this receiver.
Tlie trancmitter (fig. 4). in an early fortn. consisted of a cell of
insulating material havine at its bottom a flat-headed j^tloum
acTww C; on the top of CTwas a layer of catl)on powder C, on the
top of that a platinvfli disk D» and above that ac^, forming the
cover of the cell, a disk of ivory B. held in position by a ring £.
Resting on the centre of the ivory disk was a small piece of rubber
tubing, and thiv was lightly pressed by the diaphragm A, which
was held in place bv tne mouthpiece M. The varying pressure
on A. when « sound was pioduced near it, caused corresponding
variations in the pressuiq on the carbon powder, and thia fvoduced
similar variations in its electriq rfsistaoce.
Experiments very* similir to jthcso ol Edison were made by
Elisha Gmy of Boston, Mass., and described by liim in' papers
ntttm communicated to the Aoiciiqan Electrical Sopety in
otv*' 1875 nnd 1878. In thcae experiments the electric
•'^•^ current passed through the fingers of the operator's
"**^ hand, which thus took the place of the s{fring in
Edison's afVNUStqs. The diaphragm was itself used<as the
rubbing lurface, and it was either mounted and rotateq or the
fingers «cre moved over It. When tlj^e ctuvent pasa^, the
friction wai^ felt to inaeaie, and the effect of icnding a lapidly
"undulating Current through the arrangement wastopr^ucea
sound. The upplicatioa of this apparatus to the transbiissaon
of music was dncribed by Oray.^
In another form of telephone, brought prominently forward
by Professor A. E. Dolbcar * the eflfects were produced . by
• electrostatic instead of electromagnetic forces, as in
the Bell telephone. Six W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin)
observed in 1863' that when a condenser is charged
or discharged, a sharp dlick is heard, lad a sfn^lar
observation was made by Ctomwell F. Varlcy, who
proposed to make use of it in a telegraphic reccivixjg instrument.*
In Dolbear's instrument one plate of a condenser waa a fleadble
diaphragm, connected with tlie telephone Kne In such a way
that thfe varying electric potential produced by the action of
the transmitting telephone caused an increased or diminished
charge in the condenser. This alteration of dtarge caused a
Gonrespooding change ia the mutual attraction of the plates of
the condenser; hence the flexible pEite -was made to copy the
vibrations of the diaphragm of the ttansmitter. It is obvious
that this apparatus might be used either as a transmitter or as
a receiver, but that the effects must under ouUnacy drcumstanccs
be in cither case extremely feeble.
It was very early recognized— and, indeed, is mentioned in
the first patents of Bell, and in a caveat filed by Elisha Gray
in the United States patent office only some two
2|Ssf hours after Bell's application for a patent— that
mu^n sounds and spoken words might be transmitted to a
distance by causing the vibrations of a diaphragm to
vary the resistance in the circuit. Both BcU and Gray
proposed to do this by introducing a column of liquid
into the circuit, the length or the resistance of which could be
varied by causing the vibrations of the diaphragm to vary the
depth of immersion of a light rod fixed to it and dipping into
the liquid.
On the 4th of April 1877 Emile Berliner filed a caveat in the
United States patent office, in which he stated that, on the
principle of the variation with pressure of the rosist-
2^, ance at the contact of two conductors, he had made
afcrv- an instrument which could be used as a telephone
#*««>• transmitter, and that, in consequence of the mutual
2JJJ|^ forces between the two parts of the current on the
two sides of the point of contact, the instrument was
capabk of acting as a receiver. The caveat was illustrated
by a sketch showing a diaphragm with a metal patch in the
> See Geoigc B. Piesoott, Thi Sptakimt TtUpJmte (London, 1879),
pp. 151-SOS. ' ScienHJU American. iSih June i8gi.
> aeciroslatics and Magtulism, p. 236.
•See Tei. Joum., ist August 1877, P- '78; also Adams. JoMm.
Soc. Trt. Emt, t877. P- 47*.
Oinor.
centre, against which a metal knob was lightly pressed by an
adjusting screw., This seems to have been the first transmitter
in which it was proposed to use the resistance at the conUct
of .two conductors.
Almost simultaneously with Berliner, Edison conceived the
idea of using a^variable resistance transmitter.* He proposed
to introduce into the circuit a cell ooataining carbon ..^ .
powder, the pressure on which could be varied by the
vibrations of a diaphragm. 'He sometimes held the
carbon poi^der figaanst the^ diaphragm in a small
shallow cell (frpm a quarter to hal| an ihch in diacietec
and about an ei^th of an mch deepH, and sometimes be used
what he describes as a/i«/, that is, a, little bru^ of silk fibre
with plumbago rubbed into ii. In another form' the plumbago
powder wa^ woi|ted into a button -cemented together with
syrup and other substances. In the specification of the patent
applied for, on tUe sist of July 1877 he showed a slbctch of an
instnwtent 'which consisted of a diaphragm, with a small
pUtinuffl patch if the centre for an electrode, against which a
hard point, imade^ of plumbago powder cemented together with
india-rubber and vulcanized, was pressed bf a long spring, the
pressure o£ the carbon against the platinum diak bemg adjusted
by a straining scre«i near the base of the spring. Subsequently
he filed 'an applicatiea for a patent in which various forms of
springs and weights assisted in mgintniniT^ (^e contacts and
otherwise improv«i the instrument.
In the eariy part of ig^g Ffofiesmr D. E. Hughes, while en-
gaged in eaqieiimenls upon a Bell telephone in an electric cirmft;
discovered thai a peculiar noose was produced irben* i§^h*B»g
ever two Jiard electrodes, such as two wires, were mki^
deawn acsoss each other, or wete made to touch each P*'*«*
other ^th a variable deipee of firmness. Acting upon this
discovery, he constructed an instrument which he calkd a
"nicroi^ne,"* and which consisted essentiaUy of two hard
carbon dectrodea .placed in oontaot, with a coirent passing
through the point of contact and a telephone jachided in the
sasse circuit. One of the electrodes was attached to a sounding-
boatd capable of being vibrated by sound-^aves and the other
was held either by springs or weis^its in delicate contact tritk
it. When the sounding board was spoken to or subjected «o
sound-waves, the aiechanical teastaace of the loose electrode,
due to Um weight, or the springy or botli, served to vary the
picastve at the ooatact, and. this gave to the current tL.fcrm
cdrrespondiag to the sound-waves, sad it was therefore
capable of being used as a speakiag4clephone transmitter.'
The next transmitter of note was that introduced by Franda
BAafce, whkh came into wide use in'the United Sutcs of America
aad other ooUsCties. In it the electcodcs were of platinttm and
carbon.
To a. frame F (fig. 5) was atuched a diaphragm D of thin sheer
invi; in front of tnia was a cover M> M provided with a suiubia
cavity for directing the sound-waves auinst the diapbraanu Th^
microphonic arrangement consisted of a spring b, aoout the
hundredth of an inch thick and the eighth of an inch broad, fixed
at one end to a lever L, and carrying at its free extremity a braM
block W. In one side of W a small disk C oi gas carbon was iis
serted, resting on the hemispherical end of a small platinum pin. K,
about the twentieth of an inch in diameter, held m position by a
thin spring A The prcsstne of the carbon on the platinum point
could be adlttsted by the screw N. whKli turned the lever at)Oei
the flexible yoint Q. The electrical oonmxions of the inatruiaest
as arranged for actaal use are also illustrated in the ^figure. ^ The
current arcuit went through S, W, C, K, A, and the primary circuit
of the Induction coil I to the battery B. and thence to S again.
This formed a kxal clieiiit at the transmitting station. The line
of drrait oaseed through the seoohdary of the induction coil 1 to
the Kne. from that to the telephone T at the receiving statloA,
•See JoufiuA of the Tfterraph, New York. April 1877; PHila''
Mpkia^Times, 9th July 1877; and SdenHfie Amerium, August
^Thts term was used by Wheatstone in 1897 for an acouttle
apparatus intended to convert v^ Tceble into audible sounds;
see his ScienHfie Papers, p. ,^2.
'See Proc. Roy. Sor.. xxvii. 36a; Proc. Phys. S«c., K- 955: PWf.
Mag., 5th ser., vol. vi. p. 44: W. H. Prcecc. Joum. Soc. Tei. Ent,
vfi. 170.
550
TELEPHONE
and then either to earth or back to the inductioa coil by a return
line of wire.
Another type of microphone whicb was used in Europe much
more than in the United States was the multiple-contact Instru-
ment. In this several microphonic joints were employed.
C
lA
Fig. 5.— Blake's Trantmicter.
Urns, in the Croasley transmitter four hard carbon pencils were
arranged in a locenge'Sliaped figure, the ehds of each pencil
resting loosely in a small carbon block. These blocks were
fastened to a diaphragm of wood. The circuit connexions were
such that two adjacent sides of the kusenge were in parallel and
two in aeries. In the Ader transnutter as many as twelve
carbon pencils were employed, arranged in a series of two
groups with six pencils in parallel in each group. These wete
supported at their ends in parallel carbon bars, which were
carried by a nearly horisontal wooden diaphragm. Such
multiple-electrode transmitters give a loud although somewhat
harsh sound, and will bear being spoken to very strongly without
breaking the drcuit.
A typcxof transmitter vhkh has come to be invaluable in
connexion with long-distance telephony, and which has prac«
tically superseded all other forms, is the granular carbon trans-
mitter. The earliest Instrument of this kind was the Hunnings
transmitter, patented in 1878. This was constructed of a
shallow box placed in a vertical positbn, with metallic front and
back and insulating sides. The front face was of thin metal,
and served as a diaphragm. The box was fiUed nearly, but
not quite full, of granulated hard carbon. The current from
the battery used passed from the diaphragm through the
granulated carbon to the metallic back of the box. When
spoken to the diaphragm vibrated, and thus set the carbon
granules into vigorous vibration. The vast number of micro-
phonic contacts present give rise to very strong electrical un-
dulations, and hence to a kmd sound.
The chief difficulty with this transmitter, and with various
others of later date based upon it, has been the frequent pack-
ing of the carbon granules, which renders the instrument in-
operative. The difficulty was first satisfactorily overcome in
the long-distance transmitter, invented by A. C. White in the
laboratory of the American Bell Telephone Company, and
commonly known as the " solid back transmitter " (fig. 6).
The microphonic portion of the transmitter is contained in a
thin cylindrical box or case of bran A. the inner curved surface of
whk:h is covered with an insuUting layer of paper. The case is
firmlv fixed to a " bridge " B with its back or bottom in a vertical
position. To the brass bottom of the case is attached a thin disk
of polished hard carbon C, which is slightly less in diameter than
bnn bottom, so that the carbon disk almost entirely covers
tens haclL leaving only a slight annular space around its
k TiNr|iR>«^or cover of the case is a similar button of hard
slightly smaller in diameter than the cylin-
It is attached to a brass disk E. which
of the diaphragm F by means of a rivet«
and is cafMible of moving to and fro like a pluniger when the distp
phragm vibrates. A washer of thin flexible mica G concentric
with the carbon button is carried by the brass disk, and projecting
over the edse of this is held firmly against the rim of the cylin-
drical wall otthe case by an annular brass collar H, which b tui m td
upon the outer curved surface of this wall. The box is thus entirely
closed at the front, while the front carbon disk, which constitutes
an electrode, is perfectly free to follow the motions of the diai^iragm.
FlO. 6.— Solid Back Transmitter.
The space enclosed between the front and rear faces of the box is
filled about threcH)uarters full of finely granulajted hard carbon,
which therefore lies in contact with the front and rear carbon
disks of the apparatus, and also fills up the space tying between
the lower edge of these disks and the curved surface of the case.
The current from the battery passes from one of the carbon disks
to the other through the particles of granulated carbon which fill
the space between them.
The dbks and granules constitute a very powerful imcrophone.
The motions impressed upon the carbon granules are very vigorous,
and this together with the particular arrangement of the parts 01
the instrument is effectual in obviating the difificulty from packing
which attended the use of earlier forms of granulated carbon trans-
mitters. This instrument has almost enturcly displaced all other
forms of transmitter.
Subscriber^ Organixaium.—Tht employment of the tdephone
as one of the great means of communication requires a definite
organization of the subscribers. It is not practicable to connect
each subscriber directly to all the others, hence a system of
exchanges has been adopted. The territory in which a tele-
phone admmistration operates is usually divided into a number
of local areas, in each of which one or more exchanges are
placed. An exchange is a central station to which wires are
brought from the various subscribers in its neighbourhood, any
two of whom can be put in telephonic communication with each
other when the proper pairs of wires are joined together in the
exchange.
When the subscribers in a local area exceed a certain number,
or when for some other reason it is not convenient or economical
to connect all the subscribers in the area to one exchange, it is
usual to divide the area into a number of districts in each of
which an exchange is placed, and to connect these district
exchanges together by means of " junction circuits." In some
cases the exchanges arc connected together directly; but when
the volume of traffic is not sufficient to warrant the adoption
of such a course connexions between two exchanges are made
through junction centres to which both are connected.
A system of wires, similar to that which connects the district
exchanges in an area, links together the various local areas in
the territory, and somethnes the territory of one administration
with thiit of another. These inter-area or long-distance Hnet,
called trunk circuits in England, terminate at one exchange in
each local area, and between that exchange and the various
TELEPHONE
5S>
dbtrict eidianges lunctkm circuits are provided for the puipoie
of connecting tubicriberB to the trunk lines.
Circuit and Waking Arrangements.— The method first em-
ployed for working a telephone line was extremely simple.
A single line of wire, like an ordinary tekgraph line, had a
BeO tdepfaone included in it at each end, and the ends were
put to earth. Words spoken to the tdepho&e at one end
oould be heard by holding the telephone to the ear at the
Other. To obviate the inconvenience of pladng the telephone
to the mouth and the ear ahenutely, two t e le pho nes were
ooounonly used at each end, joined either parallel to each
other or m series. The contrivance most genersHy adopted
for calling attention was a call-beU rung cither by » small
magneto-electric machine (magneto-generator) or by a battery.
The tdcpbone was switched out of drcuit when not in use
and the bell put in its place, a key being used for throwing
the battery into circuit to make the signaL This anangement
is still employed, a hook being attached to the switch lever so
that the mere hanging up of the telephone puts the bell ita
circuit. In some cases when a magneto-generator Is employed
for calling purposes the coil of the machine is automatically
cut out of drcuit when It is not in action, and is brought into
drcuit when the handle is turned by the operation of a centri-
fugal or other arrangemenL
At first it was usual to join the micioplione transmitter in the
direct dicutt. It was soon found that it could only be uwd to
advantafle in this way when the toul resitunoe of the ctrcutt.
dclttsiTe of the microphone, wa4 small compared irith the reust-
aooe of the mioophone—that is, on very short lines worked with
Fig. 7.1— Tdepbooe Set with Transmitter in a Locsl Circuit.
low resistance telephones. The transmitter on long and high
resktaaoe lines woriccd better by joiniAE, in the manner shown in
fig. 7, the microphone, a battery and the primary of an induction
omI w a local drcuit. and putting the line la drouit with the aeooo<
dary of the induction coil, which acted as the transmitter. The
mifltanoe of the microphone can thus be made a laipe fraction of
the total resistance of the ciioiit in which It is plaoedi hence by
using considcmble currents, small variatioos in lU resisunce can
be made to induce somewhat powerful corrents in the line wire.
The requisite energy is derived from the battenr.
In the earliest telephone switdiboards the Ones were connected
to vertical conducting strips, across which were placed a series of
•ttilar horisonUl strips m such a manner that any horiaontal
couki be.oooaected to any line strip by the insertioo of a plug into
boles provided in the strips for the purpose. Any two lines could
be^cooaected together by connecting both to the same horiaontal
lit aezt step of importance was the introduction of what w«s
termed the " Standard board." Thb board was equipped with
nriag-jacks and anoundatoei (calUng^lrops) for the subsc ri bers'
^M, Mid with flesible cords terminating m plugs for oonnecting
purposes. The spring*iack ased was a form of swkch with two
coatsMCt springi which pressed agaiast each other, ooe being coa-
noctod to the sabKriber's line wire and the other to the annun-
dator, which was also earthed. When a pkig was Inserted in the
Spring'jack the connexion between the spriqp was opencdi dis-
cting the calling-drop from the line.
drcuit had associated with it a cicaring-out drop connected between
the cord and caurth and a key by means of which the operator's
gpryW*'«g and naging apparatus could be broogbt into circuit.
When a subscriber callea Cby turning the handle of his magneto-
gcaecator), the shutter oC the annunciator associated with fau line
dropped. This attracted the attention of the attendant, who in
rmpoose to the call inserted a. plug into the spriag-jack and con-
necwd the speaking apparatus to the drcuit by means of the key.
Ihea, havii^ obtained particulars of the subscriber's requirement,
the operator connected the second plug to the spring-jack of the
wanted subscriber, whom she rang up. When the conversation
was fimihed either of the subscriberB could release the shutter
of the cliBaring*out drop by turning his generator handle* and the
S»ater thus notified of the fsct removed the plugs sad diseoo-
ued the connexion.
The single-wire eaithed circuits used hi the eariy days of tele-
phony were subject to serious dbtufbances from the iaductiott
caused by ounents in ndghbouring telegraph and dectrk light
wires, and from the varying potential of the earth due to natursi
or artificial causes. The tntroductkm of electric tramways caused
an enomwus increase in distuibances of this dass. It was early
recognucd that a complete roetaUic circuit wooU obviate troubles
from varying earth potentiab, and that if the outgomg and in-
coming branches of the drcuit woe parallel and kept, by trans-
ppsitum spuaUlng, or otheiwiae, at equal average dbtances from
the duturbmg wire, induction effects would likewise be removed.
These advantages led to the gradual supenession of the single-wire
system un^ at the present day the aH-metallic system is empkyyed
almost umvenally. Since the tisse when tlm system finft became
promment all swttthbeards Itove been arranged for mettUicdreuits.
Though many types of manually operated switchboards have
been besaght Into urn, differing from each other in respect of cir*
cmt and smrking anangements, yet esch of them may be placed
in one or other of three main classes according as the system d
worUeg is magneto. call*wire, or common battery. Tbe f undo-
SS^SX^iSiSKSrt??^ "" •"■ """^^ *" "*
In a large exchange a number of opemtom mn necessaiy to
attend to calls. SeversI single switchboards like that described
may be enmfoved, each devoted to a certain section of the sUb-
smben. and placed in can of an operator. In these drc n mst a nces,
arhen, as frek|uently will be the case^ the person eallhig dsstres to
be pot in commamcatioa with a subscriber who belongs to another
secdDa, coomsdons aniit be established fai the ofliee\etween the
two sectmnsi this neoesritatm additknial switchboard arrange-
menta, and also i ncwa s sa the time requhed to put subscribers in
communication srith one another. The difficulty was obviated by
the intfodoctxm of the '* multiple switchboard.^' This bosrd Is
built up in sections of one or more operaton* positions each. AH
the subicriben' liom are connected in order to jacka on the first
two or three or four operaton' poaitiona, and these oonnexieos are
repeated or ** mnhipled " upon each succeeding shnilar group of
positfons. Each subscriber's circuit is further connected to another
spring-lack directly assodated with the caUtng-drop. Thcaespring-
lacks, Imosm as answering iacks, are distributed along the switd^
board, a oertdn number bemg terminated upon each posidoB and
pbced in the care of the operator assigned to that position. Hence
this operator, ^riiien signalled in the ordinary way, can put any one
of these eubsctibcra ra connexion with any subscriber whatever,
without the necessity of caUmg upon another operator to make
Two methods of " rauhipling " have been much used. In the
arrangement firit introduced the Una wire b connected in series
, of the faihires of the spriqgs to make contactT 'Operat-
ing mist s krs also cause interruptiona to convenations, as it b
possible, by the insertkm of a phig in a multiple Jack, to disconnect
the circuit between two talking subscribers To overcome these
difficulties the " branching nmltiplc " was hitroduced. 'In tUs
arrangement, instead ef the drcuit bdng made through the jacks
in series, each jack b connected to an independent branch from
the main circuit. Wfth the " branching multiple " the " self-
restoring drop" was Introduced. Thb apparatus has two coils,
one of whkh, connected across the line, b provided for the purpose
of projecting the shutter, while the other b intended for its restora-
tion and b jdned in a local circuit arranged to be dosed when a
plug b inserted in any one of the assocbt^ jacks.
It b necessary that the operators working at n multiple beard
shall be able to ascertain without entering a subscribers circuit
whether the drcuit be disengaged. Thb requirement b usually
met by connecting a third or test " wire to each of the iaclu
assodated with a subscriber's line, and by making the circuit
arrangements such that thb wire b dtlicr disconnected or at earth
potentul when the Uise b not in use, and at eome potentbl above
or below that of the earth, when the drcuit b engaged. With a
peoper arrangenunt of the operator's speaking set it b possible,
by touching the socket of a jack with the tip of a peg or a spedal
" test " thimble, to determine whether the cm»it connected to tbe
jack bin use.
Both the series and the onnching methods of multipling are
recognised at the present time as standard methods, although the
former b only employed in comparatively small exchanges. The
msansto system itself bdyiag out. Then are still many ma gneto
exchanges in existence, but when new exchanges are erected only
the very smallest are equipped for magneto working, that system
having succumbed to the common bsttery one in thie case of all
equipments of moderate end large dimenrions.
The " call-wire " system has been used to soaw extant, but it baow
obsolete. The festure of the system was the provisioB of spedal
service dnuiu, termed call-wirm, for puiposss of communration
65«
TELEPHONE
Ftoa Urn PM DJk» SUetrUai Bmginm^ /mtmI .
Fic. 10.— 'Dean Common Battery System.
disadvantage that one of the condition*( affecting the supply of
current to any particular subscriber's circuit is the resistance of the
between the aubscribera and the. eachan^, operators. Each sub- I causing the reproduction of the speech in the latter** receiver,
scriber was given the exclusive use of a circuit as in other Ky8teni«< 1 The Stone system, compared with that of Hayes, possesses the
and shared a call-wire with a nunxber of other sub-
scribers. Each telephone set was equipped with
a spcaaX loey or switch by means of which the
telephone could be transferred from an exclusive
line to the call-wire at will. A subscriber desiring
a connexion pressed the kev and communicated his
own number and that of the wanted subscriber to
the operator in attendance on the call* wire. Then,
when the connexion was made, the originatiog
subscriber rang up the other. At the close of a
conversation the originating subscriber again
entered the call-w^re and requested th« operator
to take down the connexion. The call'wires were
usually equipped with drop* in order that the
exchange, mi^t be called at night when the
operators were not listening continuously.
One of the greatest advaacca made m the devdopment of the
art of telephony was the introduction of the " common battery
relay system." This advance did not aserely remove the primary
batteries from the subscribers' statSom; it removed alae the
magneto-generator, and at the saane time it modified consider-
ably the conditions governing the exchangeoperating. - The callins^
drop of the ma^o^ ayatem "was displaced l^ a relay and a small
electric incandesciint lamp, and whereas in the older system the
calling^drpp and the answering jack with whkh it waa associated
were some distance apart, the calling-lamp and the answering jack
of the newer system were placed in juxtaposition. This alterattoa
improved^ the operating conditions in tnree ways. In the first
place it increaaed the visibility of the signalling instrument: in
the second plaoe it brought that instrument into the position in
which it could most readily catch the <^ecator's eye; and finally
it eliminated the cfiort involved in associating one fuece of appa-
ratus with another and in finding that other. Moreover the clear-
ing-out drop ^f the cord circuit was repbced by an arraneement
which included the provision of one signal to be controlled tnioaeh
the agency of a relay by the calling subscriber, and another to be
controlled by the person wanted. « These aupcrviaory signals took
the form of lampa and were placed on the keyboaiti in portions
immediately adjaoftnt to the associated cords. With the adoption
of relays the signalling between the subscribers and the exchange
tiecaaoe automaric, and,' with the introduction of the principle of
double and automatic supervision on the cord circuits, it became
possible for the operators to>teU at .any instant the state of a con-
.atcxMn. As a result the time occnpied by an operator per call
«aa reduoed faom 50*77 aecoods to ]o*63 seconda.
Threef undamental common battery transmission systemahavebeen
t^^^:^<^^i^-S:'^^JSt.^'T^:;&^ F.c.„.-S«b«ribe,-,Circui.,Con..o«Baa«ySy««..
.scribcrs areconnected together the winding connected tothe line of the other circuit to which it b connected for the time facing. An
subscriber who is talking for the time being acts as primary, and the improvement in this respect has been effected by. the insertion of
lother, whidi is in the line of the listening subscriber, as secoadary. condensers In the cord circuits, coupk^d with the use of two
CKCHAr«&e F ^^^ ^ impedance coils, one set on each side of the
I condensers.
i ' ' "T Dean's method (fig. 10), embodies the klea off supplying
current to the transmitters over the -line wires in parallel
instead of round the loop circuit, as in the oth^ systems
referred to. An earth return is used. The tiansmitler »
placed in multiple with the primary winding of an iaducsion
coil whose secondary operates, in the kiop circuit, and con-
sequently «4ien the transmitter is spoken into, a variable
E.M.P. IS impressed upon the circuit through the medium of
the induction coil. The impedance coils ahown connected
between the battery and the lines and between the latter
,^ ^ ^ and the transmitters are joined up non-inductivdy as recards
The Stone system (fig. 9) is characterised by the use of imped- 1 tlie transmitter cinraits. but inducHvcly as regards the aec«mdar>'
ancc coils between the battery and t1»e line wires. When one of I cfrcuita. Fig*.*ii and 12 indicate typical subscriber's and con-
two subscribers connected together by this arrangement talks, the | n«cting-cord circuits as equipped by the Western Electric Ctmipany.
. ExCHANot At the subacriber's station when the receiver is on the book
switch the circuit is thniagh the call-bell and a condenser.
The conditions permit of the circnhition of the akemating
currems of tow periodicity, which are used lor operating the
bells, bat in renwct of the battery the dmiit is open until
the subscriber lilts the receiver, when the hook switch, thus
released, Joins the transmitter with one winding of an indoo
tton coil in series across tht circuit. A current then flows and
in passing round the circuit operates the Knc relay, with the
result that the calKng-tamp is lighted. The operator, whoee
attention is thus attracted, inserts a peg In the jack, then
throws over the speakine key of the ccMnd circuit, and having
ascertained particulars ofthe requirement places the other peg of
the pair in the nearest multiple jack of the wanted subscriber,
whom die proceeds to ring op. In the meantime the calling-
lamp has darkened: and each sulMcribcr's line being eqvipficTi
f .^^^^^^ , . . , . . ^•**» * cut-off relay who« function it b to disconnect the calling
2? v2?!2-S5 tn« transmitter spoken into causes a I apparatus while the cireuit is in use. the inserrion of a peg is im-
» tilfr l^reMHlre at the hne terminals of the impedance I mediately followvd by the disappearance of the calling agnal.
■**- ^^» are common to the tww circniits I The supervisory lamp associated -s-Tth the peg m the wantcr! uJb-
^ >hc line of the listening subscriber, | acriber's jack gtows from the time that the peg b inserted until
FVxun the Pott Ofia Shdruat Emti****"* Jowntl,
Icic, 8.— Hayes Common Battery System.
Fitea the ^MOJn EJtrhk^ Emtbrnert' ftmmtt.
Fig. 9.— Stone Common Battery System.
Of
ttelMiWe
TEU.
Uc ■ubtoiber mponds. when it darkent. In which conditM
nmaioa until the subccriber restores the receiver to the huik JL "
cause* the lamp to light up again. The other superviiory u.«|J
on tWe cord circuit is controllea in a similar manner by toe sull. '
scriber ivJio originated tbe call, and as that subscriber's telephone
is off the hook when the pes is inserted, the lamp is not In^ted
at all until the subscriber replacea the receiver. When both lamps
glow, the o|>nator, who thereby knows that both subscribers have
rcHoined their instruments, discontinues the connexion.
A cofd circuit, nmilar in many respects, including the method
^ONE
555
; of 189a
/|,i '^'QI 1 vt
Jfn
m
qwff?
'ional Teln|»llone Coapnny to carry out tbe policy of i(
submitted to parliament and led to much discussion.
uthootka (particularly London and Glasgow) refused
' he company to lay wires underground.
't oommittee oC the House 01 Commons (with Mr
V. Postmaster-General, as chairman) was ap*
■inder Juid report whether the pn>visk>n now
ohonA service in kical areas is adequate, and
Uent to fupplemcnt or improve this pro-
crantiag of Ikrences to local authontics
nimittee was not unanimous and made
'•mitted to tbe House the evidence it
ransfenreif to tbe Pbst Office in
?. but for all practkal purposes
he Mmimon of the govern-
'.ocrground*
to purdiaie the plant of
^ but did not exercise
'^rsistcd in its efforts
K-6 Sheriff Andrew
r^
Fbmd tks /«tJl Qfa EU*ial Batmm^ JmmA
Fig. M.-^Typical Cord Ciccuit, Western Electric Co.'8 Systemi Mo. x Exchangea.
of operation, but equipped with condensers and impedance ooih,
ia puce of the repeating coil, is shown in fig. 13.
In fig. II a meter or coonter is shown asKKiated with the sub-
scriber's line, and in both figi^ 23 and 13 position meters are shown
connected to the cord circuits. The operation of these meters is
controlled bv the operators. The subscriber's meter is joined in
rouUiple with the cut-off relay, and whenever a pee is coonected
to the circuit a current flows through the meter. This current is
small, however, and the meter is not operated until a much larger
current b passed throush it. Calls are registered by pressing a
key. which connects a oattery through a position meter of very
k>w resistance to the socket of the line jack, thereby f umishinje tbe
necessary energy to tbe meter. The position meter just mentioned
is common to all the cords on one position and records all com-
pleted calls handled at the position. Some administrations, in
addition to empbyinc the ordinary position meter, use a second
one for registtibvsneaectlve calls.
In large towns served by a number of exchanges
the junction equipment is an important feature..
In many cases from 60 to 80 per cent, of the calb
originated at an exchange are for subscribers con-
nected to other enrhangrt, and ia these cases the
junction plant forma 9^ considerable fraction of the
whole equipment. Moreover each call junctioned
u dealt with by at least two operators. The
ionction circoitt connecting two enchnoges are
-•-•.1-. ^-jj^j i-^- , — gronpa, one for trsAc
nge B, 1
ai4»yi, .
•?»• *A u*
the Wtl ,. , - .
connea t«« ,4 .
lir* lurk*/ ;^
wKtioo.!** Rs^:; J-
and a negative puUirtiL*^'
alternations required iZ, Zl: "
subscribers. ^^ *^ t, .,
. \^ another party line syw^^ .
ctple is.emptoyed: the Z»2^ * '- ^
altematm^ currents of louJ^i"" -
each bell Si constructed to o^^SM^ '
frequency only. Of the fgiTr^*'/ '
adifferr"^' ^^ *
commissioner
' ether the tele-
• tTicient and
" a licence.
ate but
It the
' iing
A 111 "^ *' "•• >
a tong^istance connexion calls up his local eichaie in'tfe'/h* ' * <
wav, and tbe opmtor there, bein^ informed thatTtrunkcJit'"' '
IS desired, extends the subscriber^ line to the Post Of^^X^ *'' *
a circuit each resppnds to a different frequency *^'*^.
Trunk Jutu tr^riktfi^.— Trunk or. longdistance worf.
plicated by the necessity for recording all calls 'n *"'
the British Post Office U worked as folLw- ' - ^"^ '
cal
rmc
to the PostOffiZeU**'"'*
of a record circuit. At the Post Office a record operator St'i"'
and takes particulars of the connexk>n, and these arc cnterrd u'J^
a ticket. The record operator then removes her Speaking appar It wl
from the circuit, and the local operator, receiving a disconn*-. t
signal, severs the connexion at the local exchange. Meanwhile th#
ticket is conveyed to the position where the lines to the town
wanted are terminated. If there be a line free, or when the turq
of the call is reached, particulars of the connexion wantt^ ott
passed to the distant end, and the trunk operators request the
local exchanges to connect the subscribers by means of iunctiun
from exciiange A to exrhangr B, tbB other for
traffic from B to A. At the outgoing end the
drcutts are multipled on tbe subscribera' switch-
board, while -at toe incoming end they terminate
in plii0i on • apodal iaoominK junction switchboard
upon whidi the subscribersnbnes are multipled in
the usual way.
N^lien n subscriber at exdiange A asks for n
connexion to a subscriber at B, the operator at
A. to whom the request Is made, passes the
particular* over an order wire to an operator
at B. The latter names a disengaged junction
circuit, then " tests " the line of the wanted
subscriber, and if she finds It free, finally completes the con*
nexion and rings the subscriber. During the progress of these
operations the A ooerator connects the originating subscriber
to the jumrtion circuit named by the B operator. Tnere ta only
one Bgnal on the cord circuit at B. and that signal U controlled by
exchange A. Each of the subscribers controls a signal at A. and
when cither or both of the telephones are r^laced. the nctfon is
indicated by the lamps there. Control of the call is thns vested
in the operator at tbe originating exchange, at which point the
connexion must be severed before a clearing signal can appear at B.
Party Unes.—A circuit which serves more than one subscriber
b termed a "party line." It was oridtiallv the practice to place
the calfing apparatus In series in the line circuit, but the effect of
the large Impedance introduced by the ekctromagnets of the call-
' ' "1
Ffoa the Post Qfim Bttlried Dttfma^ /mtmI.
Tic. 13.— Typi^ Cord Circuit, British fasolated Co. 's System.
circuits to the trunk exchanges wliere the necessary connexion's
are made between the trunk line and the junctk>ns. The call i<t
controlled by the fnink operators, the junction circuits being
equipped in such a manner that the subscriben' signab appear at
the trunk cwhanges, from whkh point disconnecting signab or*
sent automatKally to the kicsl exchanges, when the connexions
b e twe en the trunk and the junction citfcuits are removvd.
The large modem trunk exehanKs are equipped with relnys and
lamps for ngnalKi^ purpoaesi " CalculograpM " ate employed for
stamping the time upon the tickets, and there b associated with
each trunk circuit a device which lights a bmp as soon as the
scheduled limit ol the period of conversation is readied.
Particulars of calls are now passed between trunk oentins to n
great extent over telegraph circuits superposed upon the tmnk
554
TELEPHONE
MnM. This airaagement pemritB paitkulan of c&llt to be pasaed
over lines while convemtioas are in progreas.
Automatie Sysltms. — ^Tbe idea of automatic telephony is to
•ubstitnte for the operator of the manual exchange an electro-
mechanical or other switching system, which, controlled in its
OKifvement by the action of the subscriber, will automatically select,
connect and disconnect circuiu as desired. Several schemes em-
bodying this idea have been developed, and one of them has been
put into extensive operation. Each subscriber's circnit on this
system terminates upon the incoming portion of a selector switch,
called a first selector, and is multiplea upon the outgoing portions
of a number of similar switches ^led connector switches. Only
calls originated by a subscriber pass through the selector switch
(first selector) provided for his sole use; the calls incoming to hin
pass through one or other of the various connector switches upon
which his circuit is muhipled. Each connexion involves the use of
three switches, vis., a hnt selector, a connector switch, and a
second selector which is brought into operation between the other
two.
The subscribers* lines in an exchange are amnged in groups
of looOk which are divided in turn into, sub-groups of lOO eacn.
By means of his first selector the circuit of a calling subscriber
is connected to the outgoing end of a junction whose other end
terminates upon the incoming portion of a second selector in the
thousand group to which the wanted subscriber belongs. The
second selector in turn extends the connexion by means ofanother
junction circuit to one of the connector switches in the hundred
group wanted, while finally the connector switch completes the
connexion. One hundred circuits arc connected to the outing
portion of each switch, and the contacts upon which they terminate
are ammged in a number of horizontal rows upon the face of a
curved surface, at whose axis a vertical shaft is placed. This
•haft, which carries a set of " wipers " connected to the incoming
circuit, is susceptible of a vertical and a rotational movement, so
that the wipers may be brought, first opposite any particular
horiaontal series of contacts, and then into actual contact with any
particular set in the series* The movements of (he shaft are con-
trolled by relays and dectro-maenets which operate in response
to the action of the subscriber whose telephone is fitted with a
calling mechanism which, when the subscriber calls, earths the line
a certain number of times for each figure in the number of the
wanted subscriber.
Win Plant. — In suburban and rural districts subscribers are
usually stfved by means of bare wires erected upon wooden or
iron poles. As subscribers' lines are invariably short, the smallest
gauge of wire possessing the mechanical strength necessary to«nth-
sund the stresses to which it may be subjected can be employed,
and bronae wire weighing 40 lb per mile is commonly used. In
brge towns telephone distribution by means of open wires Is prac-
tically impossible, and the employment of cables either laid in the
ground or suspended from poles or other overhead supports is
necessary.
In the types of cable that were first used, the wires, usually with
a cotton insulatbn. were drawn into lead tubes, and the tubes filled
with paraffin or other similar compound, which kept the wires from
the injurious effects of any moisture which miffht penetrate the
lead tube. This form of cable has been superseded ov a type with
eper insulation. The separate wires are surrounded only with a
»se covering of specially prepared paper, which furnishes abundant
insulation. In the manufacture of the cable the wires are first
enclosed in the paper, which is applied sometimes longitudinally
and sometimes spirally.' The conductors are then twisted in pairs
with definite lays.. These pairs are laid up symmetrically into
cables, each layer being protected with an additional covering of
paper and all adjacent layers revolving with an opposite twist.
The cable is then placed in an oven, and. after all moisture has
been driven off, it is passed through a lead press whence it cmer^
protected by a continuous lead pipe. The electrostatic capacity
of a cable of this type is low, and its dimensions are small, the
external diameter a a cable containing 1600 ten-lb conductors
being only af in. The conductors used lor subscribers' circuits are
of copper weighing from 10 to 30 lb per mile. Junction circuits
are usually asule up of ao or 40 lb conductors.
When a number of cables follow the same route, they are gene-
rally laid in conduits made up of earthenware or cement ducts;
iron pipes are used when the number of cables I's snuU. Manholes
are placed at intervals in the line of ducts to (aciliute the drawing
in and jointing of the cables, and surface boxes are placed in the
footways for distributing purposes. Various methods of making
the connexions between the large main cables and the subscribers
are in use. In one system the main cabjes terminate in large air*
tUbt aiwi boxes placed in the manholes. There, the large cables
dmriMilP * aiunbcr of small cables, which are carried along the
JkMMiii^inb pipe% aod ait tapped at suitable points to serve sub-
uMmrnf netiiod of distribution, Urgelv adopted, is to
I into the interior of blocks of building, and to
"^n in iron boxes from whkh the circuits are
.quodiag buildings by means of rubber-covered
wmUs. Aerial distribution from distributing
poles is a method f^Mtwntly ado|»ted. In thb case tttt rsMa
terminate upon the poles, the connexions between the eable wires
and the open wires being made with rubber-covered leads.
The introduction in 1883 of the hard-drawn copper wire of high
conductivity invented in 1877 by T. B. Doolittle was of the greatest
importance in rendering the use of long lines practicable, and it
is universally employed for such service. Wire weighing b et we c ii
150 and 400 lb per mile is generally used. The New York-Chicago
line, built in 1893, is of wire 165 millimetres in diameter (Na 8
Birmingham), weijcdiing 435 lb per mile and having a resistaiice of
a>o^ ohms per mile. Speech kas been habituallY transmitted for
business purposes over a distance of 1543*3 m., vis., over the lines
of the American Telegraph and Telephone Company from Omaha
to Boston. Conversation has been carried on over aaoo m. of No. 8
As no practkal process of telephone relaying has been devised.
it is extremely inqiortant that the character of the line should be
such as to favour the preservation of the stren^h and fonn of the
telephone current. In circuits po s s ess ing high resistance and
capacity and low inductance per mile, telephonic currents are
1 uated, and the higher the frec^uency the more rapid
i ation. Moreover, as the velocity of propagation is a
I le frequency, there is distortion of the complex waves.
< »kle showed mathematically that uniformly-distributed
I I a telephone line would diminish both attenuation
I n, and that if the inductance were great enough and
1 n resistance not too high the circuit wouM Be dis>
I rhile currents of all frequencies would be equally
Following up this idea. Professor M. I. Puptn showed
1 ing inductance coils in circuit, at distances apart of
I f the length of the shortest component wave to be
I . a non-uniform conductor could be made approod-
matelv equal to a uniform conductor. Many circuits have been
" loaded in the manner propos e d by ^upin during recent years.
especially in underground cables, and it has been found in practkc
that the transmission value of these when loaded is approxifnately
from three to four times their value unloaded. Open aerial kiog-
distance lines have also been loaded, but not to tne same extent.
The introduction of inductance coils into such circuits renders them
more susceptible to trouble from atmospheric electricity and more
sensitive to leakage variations.
In consequence of their high capadty. the attenuation constant
of submarine cables is high, and only a small number of cables, of
comparatively short length, are in use for telephonic purposes.
Attempts have been nuuie to improve submarine cables in thn
respect, and in 1906 a short cable " loaded " with Pnpin coils was
laid across Lake Constance. The problem, however, of constnxrt-
ing a deep-sea cable satisfactorily, irith suitable inductance cofls
inserted at short distances apart, is a difficult one, and one which
it cannot be said has been solved. (H. R. K.)
Commercial Aspects. — ^The records of the telephone indostiy
in Great Britain daring the thirty years from" 1877 to 1907
form an instructive chapter in the industrial hlstoiy of the
country. The aspects which stand out most prominently in
this histoiy are: (a) The vacillation of successive govcnunents
due to the conflicting policies adopted from time to tinae to
protect the telegraph revenues of the Post Office and to avoid
the suppression of an enterprise which was beoomiag a public
nsoessity and yielding subsuntial royalties to the Pcitmuter-
Genera). (b) The obstructive use made by the local authorities
of their power to veto undexfTOund wayleaves. (c) The remark-
able success achieved by the National Telephone Company,
despite these obstacles, in developing an eitensivt oi^uiiatioD
and a profiuble business.
The chief evenu in cbronoIogiGal order aie: —
1876. Graham Bell's telephone .patent was gnnted for the
United Kingdom.
1877. Edison's telephone patent was granted for the United
Kingdom.
187&, Professor D. E. Hughes invented the mkrrophone. but <fid
not apply for letters patent. The Telephone Company.
Limited, was formed to acquire Bell's patent. During the
Mssage of the Telegraph Bill 1878 through parliament the
Postmaster-General endeavoured, without success, to insert
a clause declaring that the term " telegraph ** included " any
apparatus for transmitting messages or other communications
with the aid of electricity, magnetism, or any other like
1879. The Edison Tdephone Company of London was formed.
Both the Bell and the Edison Companies opened negotiitions
with the Post Office for the sale of thdr patenu to the govern-
ment, but without success. The Edison Company announced
its intention to start telephone business in London, and the
Postmaster-General instituted proceedings against the company
TELEPHONE
555
for infriiipBSSBt of tn iBoliopoly Ttprts undsr no XdogiBph
Aet 1869.
Ma The two ooapanies amaJnauited as th« United Telrohoiie
ComfMoy Ltd. Mr Justice siephea dedded iAttom^y-Cnurai
V. Bdum Tdifihm§ Compamy, 6 Q.B.D., 844) that the tde*
phone was a telcgrapht and that telephone exchanee *^ *
could aet k^y be carried oa except by the. Po
OcMnl or with nis couent. Ilie decision coveted also future
invention in regasd to " every organised system of communi*
cation by means of viraa according to any pnsoonoerted system
1881. The companv'a appeal aijunst the dednon was withdiawui
the Postmaster-Genenl agieeuig to giant licenoea for lestrieteo
aseas of about 5 m. in London and aooot a m. in the provinces.
The licences metely condoned the infrinferoent of the Tele>
graph Act 1869, and did not confer powers to erect poles and
wires oo, or to |4ace wires under, any highway or private
propeity. The licensee was precluded from opening public
call oroces and from laying trunk lines from one town to
another. The licences were for 31 years, expiring in 1922,
without any provision for purchase or compensation, and were
subject to the payment of a minimum royalty to the Post
Office of 10 per cent, of the grass revenues. The United
Telephone Compiay confined iu operations to London; sub-
sidiary companies were formed to openite in the provinces.
The Post Office at the same time esublished several telephone
exchanges in provincial towns so as to enaUe the Postmaster*
G^ieraT "to negotiate with the telephone companies in a
satisfactory manner for licences."
1883. The Postmaster-Genenl (Mr Fawcett) declared that he
would issue no more licences unless the licensees agreed to
sell telephooes to the Post Office. As a result oidy eight
companies oat of over seventy that had applied obtained or
accepted licences.
1883. The Post Office p r opo s ed to enage in active competition
With the telephone coropanies, but the Treasury at that time
opposed this policy on the ground that the state should at
most be ready to supplement and not to supersede private
enterprise.
1884. The licences within restrictcd'areas having pro\^ unsuit-
able for the ^wing ba sin e s s, public opinion appealed to the
Post Office to issue new licences applicable to the whole country.
All limitations of areas were removed and licensees were
allowed to open pubfic call offices but not to receive or deliver
written messages, and they were allowed to erect trunk wires.
The royalty 01 10 per cent, was continued. The Post Office
nw enmA the right to oompete either directly or by granting
other Ikenoes, and it was under no obligation to grant way-
leaves. The new ttoenoes were to terminate in 191 1 without
any provision for purchase or compensation in that >'ear, but
with the option to the government to purchase the plant of
the licensees in 1890, 1897. or 1904 at a price to be deter*
mined by arbitration. The United Tdephooe Company asked
paiiiament for rights of way in streets but was refused, and
Its only right to place overhead wires was obtained by private
wayleaves.
1885. The United Telephone Company again applied unsuccess-
fully for right to lay wires underground.
1888. The application of the company for permission to lay
wires in streets was again refused.
1889. After the wUbdiawal of the restriction against tlw com-
panies erecting trunk wirbs it became evident that the develop-
ment of the telephone serviced throughout the country would
be facilitated by complete interoommunicatioA and uniformity
of systems, and that economies could be effected by concen-
tration of management. The«ivarious companies therefore
amahamated as the National TOephonc Company.
1890. The government had the option to buy out the companies
under the licences of 1884, but did not exercise it. The Bell
telephone patents expired. The National Telephone Company
applied to the London County Council for permission to lay
wires oadetgiottfid and continued efforu till 1899 to obtain
this power, but without success.
1891. The duke of Marlborough, in the name of the New Tele-
phone Company, inaugurated a campaign for cheaper telephone
services, but the New Telephone Company was subsequently
merged in the National Telephone Company.
1B92. The National Telephone Company again applied to parlia-
ment for powers to lay wires underground; puolic discontent
with inadequate telephone services was expressed, and at the
same time iht competition of the telephone with the Post
Office telegraph became more manifest. The government again
changed its policy. It compelled the companies to sell tneir
tnink wires to the Post Office, leaving the local exchanges in
the hands of the companies. It also expmsed willingness that
the coetipanies aboold have rights of way in the streets.
1895. The National Telephone Company again applied to parlia-
nwnt for power to by %rires undeiground. but was refused.
1894. The dmft a greement between the governaicnt and the
National Telephooe Compaay to carry out the polfcy of 1892
was submitted to pariiament and led to much discussion.
.Local authorities (particularly London and Glasgow) refused
to permit the company to lay wires underground.
1895. A select committee of the House of Commons (with Mr
Amokl Moriey, Postmaster-General, as chairman) was ap-
pointed " to coosidcf Jind report whether the provision now
made for the telephone service in kxal areas is adequate, and
whether it is expedient to supplement or improve this pro-
vision either by the granting of licences to local authorities
or otherwiae." The committee was not unanimous and made
no report, but merely submitted to the House the evidence it
had taken.
1896. The trunk wires were transferred to the Post Ofike in
pursoanoe of the polky of 1893, but for all practical purposes
the local authoritiea had vetoed the permission of the govern-
ment to the company to hiy wires unoerground.
1897. The government had an option to purchase the plant of
toe company under the liwnces of 1884, but did not exercise
it. The corporation of Glasgow having penisted in its efforu
to obtain a licence, the Treasury appointed Sheriff Andrew
Jameson (afterwards Lord Ardwall) a special commisrioner
to hold a local inquiry ih Gla^ow to report whether the tele-
phone service in that dty was adequate and efficient and
whether it was expedient to grant the corporation a licence.
The commissioner reported that the service was adequate but
not efficient; that ttie rates were reasonable but that the
corporation was res|)onsible for unreasonably withholding
facilities, thus rendering the service inefficient; that it was
inexpedient to grant trie corporation a licence because the
funds of a dty ought not to be applied for the benefit of a limited
class of dtiiens; that delay and waste Would result from two
systems in one area and would increase the difficulties of the
government in loil; and that the corporation had not proved
It could work the licence without pladng a burden on the
rates.
iBq8. The policy of the government was again changed; Mr
K. W. Hanbuiy, Financud Secretary to the Treasury and
representative in the House of Commons of the Postmaster-
General^ advocated the granting of Ikences to local autho-
rities. A select committee was appointed with Mr Hanbuiy
as chairman to consider "whether the telephone service is
calculated to become ot such general benefit as to justify its
being undertaken by munidpal and other local authorities, and
if so under what conditions.** The committee reported (9th
August) that the telephone serrice was not likely to become of
general benefit " so long as the present practkal monopoly in the
hands of a private company snail continue." The committee
considered that the Post Office was not prevented either by
legal agreement or by good faith from limiting or ending the
monopoly of the company, and that competition appeared to
be both expedient and neceseaiy in order to extend and popu-
larize the service and to avoid the danger that a purchase of
the company's undertaking at an inflated price might be
forced upon the government. While considering that a really
efficient POet Office service would afford the best means for
securing such competition, it recommended that general, imme-
diate and effective competition should at once be undertaken
either by the Poit Office or by local authorities. The Associa-
tion of Munidpal Corporations passed resolutions on the 28th of
April that " the subject of telephonic supply should be treated
as an imperial and not as a local one. and that the Postmaster-
General should have the sole control of the telephone system,"
and " that in the event of the Postmaster-General not takini
over the telephone service it should be competent for municipal
and other local authorities to undertake such servkxa within
areas composed of their own districts or combinatbn of suck
districts." .
1899. In pursuance of the report of the select committee. 1898,
the Telegraph Act 1899 was passed to enable the Post Office
to develop its telephone exchange business, for whkh a loan
of jQi,ooo,ooo was sanctioned, and to empower local authoritiea^
subject to certain conditions^to enter upon telephone business.
The licence of the National Telephone Compan}^ was extended
so as to be co-extensive with that of a competitive licence for
any locality on condition that the company should afford
intercommunication with the telephone systems of the new
Ikensees. In short, all-round competition was authorized, and
the Post Office dedded to esublish a telephone system in London
in competition with the company.
1900. The Telegraph Act 1899. while providing for intercom»
munication between the telephone systems of the local autho-
rities and the company, did not give the Post Office the right
to demand intercommunication between its exchanges and
those of the company. The Post Office co-operated with the
London County Council to put difficulties in (be way of the
company which had placed wires underground in London with
the consent of the local road authorities. In February the
Pgatmaster-General applied for an injunction to restrain the
i
53^
TELEPHONE
comfMny from openiiv any tttttt dr pubKe road within the
county of Loodoo wuhout the conieat of the Postmssterr
Genera! and the London Coanty Council, which injunction was
granted in July.
1901. The govermoent policy of 1899 was abandoned in London,
the Post Office making an agreement with the company in
regard to the London business. The oom^ny consented to
free intercommunication between its subscnben and those of
the Post Office^ and undertook to charn rates identical with
those charged by the Post Office. The Postmaster-General on
the other hand agreed to provide underground wires for the
company on a rental, and agreed to buy in 191 1 the company's
plant in London at the cost of construction less allowance lor
repairs and depredation.
1904. The government had option to ^rchase the company's
provincial plant under the licence of 1884. Negotiations took
place, but no agneement was reached.
1905. The government contracted to buy the company's plant in
1911, thus in effect annulling the act of 1899 which had failed
to accomplish its object of esublishing all-round competition.
By 1907 altogether ^9 local authorities had examined the
proposition of establishing telephone systems after 1890, and
licences were granted to local authorities at Brighton, Belfast,
Chard, Glasgow. Grantham, Hudders6eld, Hull, Portsmouth,'
Swansea. Tunbridge Wells, Oldham. Scarborough and Hartle-
pool, but only six municipalities proceeded with the business.
Glasgow opened its exchange in March 1901, Tunbridge Wells
in May 1901. Portsmouth in March 190^. Brighton in October
1903, Swansea in November 1903 and Hull in October 1904.
liie Tunbridge W^ells and Swansea municipal undertakings
were subsequently sold to the National Telephone Company,
and the Glasgow and Brighton undertakings to the Post Office.
Hull and Portsmouth were the only municipal telephone
systems working in 1907.
The effect of the unsettled policy of the Post Office, until
1905 and of the diffictdties created by the local authorities was
that the National Telephone Company was never able to do its
best to develop the enterprise on the most efficient lines. In
1B85 there wece only 3800 telephone subscribers in London
«nd less than 10,000 in the rest of the United Kingdom, and
telephonic services were available in only about 75 towns, while
in the same year the American Bell Telephone Company had
over x34tOoo subscribers. The removal in 18&4 ol the pro-
hibition against the erection of trunk lines at once enabled
considerable expansion to take place. Within six years the
services had been extended to 400 towns with about 55,000
sabscribecB. Large as this progress was it would have been
much greater if the Telephone Company had been granted
adequate powers to put wires underground arid thus instal a
complete metallic circuit in place q( the single wire, earth-
return, circuit which it was constrained to employ. Subse*
qnently the progress was still greater. In 1906 there were
30,551, equal- to 7a per cent., more telephone stations in the
United Kingdom than in the ten l&uropean countries of Austria,
Uoogary, Belgium, Denmark, Holland, Italy, Norway, Portugal,
Rtfssia, Sweden and Switzerland, having a combined popula-
tion of 2S8 millions as against a population of 42 millions in
the United Kingdom. Apart from France, Germany and
Switaerland, there was no European countiy that had as many
telephones woHrtng as London. That city, with a population
of 6 millions, had nearly as many telephones as the whole of
Sweden with abput the same population, or as the whole of
France, with a population of 39 milUons. The only European
country which can be compared with the United Kingdom in
telephone development is Germany. With a population of
58 millions there are 10-2 telephones per 1000 of the population
in that coantry compared with 10*15 in Great Britain and
Ireland. The development of telephony in the United States
of. America is much greater than anywhere else; on the ist of
January 1907, 5 per cent, of the population were telephone
■ttbseribers.
Tariffs. — ^Telee^one business is characterited by two features:
(t) that the capital account is ne>'er closed, and (2) that the costli-
s of the service increases with the sire of the undertaking. The
' " method of charging adopted in Great Britain took the
\ iqllQUJgient as the unit, charging a 6xed annual rental
. _i^'_^— ^ jij^ j^ which the instrument was
' '• ecofibmics showed that the ' proper
" ' " '* on the theory that the
met ahould pay aeoocdincttt tlie fadlitias oftevad and the eatent
to which he made use of them. In a large city, where several tnter-
cooneeted exchanges have to be buik aM thomaads of subscribers
are put into commuaication with each other, the service is at once
more costly and more valuable than in a troall town with a few
hundred subscribers accommodated in one excfaaage. Differences
:m by
accer of the pcKmlatioa, make each dtatnct a telephone pr
itself, and nulnfy ck>se comparisons between telepbonc rates and
telephone efficiencies in dineient areas and dinerent countries.
But the tendency b towards a system of charging a moderate sum
to cover the rent of the tnstmmcnt and . an additional fee per
message. For instance, in the county of. London, the telephone
tariff u £5 per annum plua id. per caU within the county and 2d.
per call outaide the county. Subscribers outside the county of
London pay only £4 in annual subscription and^d. per call to sub-
scribers on the same exchange and ad. per call to subscribers on ot her
exchanges. In each case the mhumum annual amount for message
fees is £1, los. The alternative is given of an unlinuted service
(" flat rate ") at £17 per annum. In the proyinoos the unlimited
service costs only £7. los. for subscribers within half a mile of
the exchange. £x, Ss. being charged for every addttnnal quarter
of a mile or fraoion thereof. Tlie loU or message rates are (\.
wkh id. per call, with a minimum oC £1, tea. As the eost xi the
service varies in proportk>n to the amount of use, the toll rate is
more scientific, and it has the further advantage of discouraging
the unnecessary use of the instrumeitt, wbid) causes congestion of
traffic at busy hours and also results in lines being ' _
when serious business calls are made. The tariff Tor unlimited
use has to be made very high to cover the coat of the additional
burdens thrown upon the service, and it only works ecanomically
to the individual subscriber who has an exreptionally large aumber
of calls originating from his instrument. The maaaage-rate s>-stem
equalizes the charges according to the service rendered. Another
method of charge, known as the " measured aerviee rate," is de-
signed to make the subscriber pay in proi>ortloa to the quality
and quantity of the service he takeiw It is widely used in America,
and was introduced into Great Britain in 1907. The subscriber
pays a fixed annual rent which covers a certain number of free out-
ward calls, say 500; additional calls he purchaaes in advance in
blocks of aeveralhuadred at so much per hundred, the price being
reduced as the number increases.
For subscribers who desire the telephone for occaaiooat use. the
party*line system has been devised, whereby several telephones are
connected to one line leading to the exchange. In London a t\ko-
line party service costs ^ per annum, the message fees being id.
per ctM. to subscribers within the county and 2d. per call to those
outside it, with a minimum of £3. The fee charged for the use of
pabCc telephone call offices is adTper message.
The trunk line servke is charged for on rates which vary from
3d. (for ^5 ra.) up to IS. (for too m.) for a three miAutea' conversa-
tioft betwee* 6 a.m. and ft pfn. For everv 40 m. ahewe 100 m. an
additional 6d. per ooovcraation is charged. A reduction has been
made in the charges for trunk calls at night, and calls Cdr single
periods of three minutes are allowed at naif the or<Httary rates
between 7 p.m. and 7 a.m. A call between London and Liverpool,
which onlinarily cosu aa, can be. made lor xa bedreen those hours.
The growth of traffic on this basis has been considerable, and the
arrangement has proved of advantage to the puMic as it pro\ides
cheap facilities at times which are convenient for aodalcoavcfsation.
Telephone subscribera may telephone- ocdmary mrwgfi to any
post office which mav be reached through the loeaT cnchange
system, or by means ci the trunk wires, in order that the meaaages
may be written down and forwarded as telegrams or express letters
or ordinary letters^ Subscribers to exchanns may also make
arrangements to have all telegrams (except rreas telegrsmal ad-
dressed to them delivered by tdephone instead of raeaaenger.
Telephone subscribers may also obtain the services of an espress
messeneer by telephoning to the nearest post office ceouected with
the encnange.
National Tettpk^na Qmpany.'^Thtt issued Aare and debenture
capiul of the company on the 51st of December 1907 was>-
15,000 6 % 1st preference shares of £xo each . , £150.000
150,000
1,350,000
3.335.000
Deferred stock . ' '. . ' . . . 3.366.425
71,715 new shares of £5 each , . • . 358.575
15.000 6% and preference shares of £10 each
350,000 5% 3rd preference shares of £5 each ,
6 % preferred stock.
3I % debenture Mock
4% debenture stock
£7.500.000
. 3.000.000
. T.7»6.593
f;n.ai6.S93
The company has a reserve fund of £3.467,707. the major part
of which is invested in the business. The gross income for the year
1907 amounted to £3.703,338. of which i&57^30 was paid to the
Pl»lt Office In respect of royahica. Theworklagc '"•
TELESCOPE
Plate.
Fig. 25. — Eye end of 40" Yerkes telescope.
TELESCOPE
557
to lt,S3P,ogi or 63-6 per ceot. ol the net bcom^ leavuig a profit
for the year of £01^.216.
At toe time of tne formation of the various telephone companiea
the enteiprisett were regarded as speculative, and much of the
capital was raised at a discount The business subsequently
proved profitable, good dividends were paid, and the securities
lor the most port commanded a premium in the market. After the
consolidation of the comnanies in 13^9-1890 the profits decUncdt
patent rights had expired, material reductions were made in the
rates for telephone services, and considerable replacements of plant
became necessary, the cost of which was charged to revenue.
AtrtemttU tf 1905.— Bv this agreement the Postmaster-General
parchaae all plani - . ». .
» Company in use ^
structed after that date in accordance with the i^weificatioa and
t. land and buildings of the National
ny in use at the date of the agreement or con<
rules contained in the agreement, subject to the nghc of the Pbst-
niaster-General to object to uke over any plant not suited to hb
requiremeRtsk The price b to be fixed by the Railway and Canal
Commiflsionets as arfaitrators on the basb of the " then vahie^"
exclusive ol any allowance for past or future profits or any com-
pensation for compulsory sale or other consideration. In those
cases in which the company's licence has been extended beyond
1911 (Cla^p>v to 1013, Swansea to 1926, Brighton to 1926 and
Portamotfth to 1926) the Boatmaster-Oenefal will buy the onex-
pired licence with allowance for goodwill. The Pbstmaster-Genefal
agreed also to buy the private wire plant <rf the company at a
value based upon thne years' purchase of the net profits on the
average of the three yean ending 5is( of December 191 1. The
Postmastcr^jenefal also agreed to lay underground wires for the
company at an annual rental of £1 per mile of double wire in any
hxal area in which the company was operating, but not in areas in
which the municipalitiee had establislKd exchanges. Free inter-
comnumication was established by the agreement between the
anbacriban of tht company and thow of the Post Ofiice, and a scale
of chaises was adopted or arranged to be agreed as binding on
both the Pbst Office and the company. The late Mr W. E. L.
Gatoe, general manager of the company, stated before the Select
Cofiunittee that in the view of the wrcctors the barnin was a hard
one, because it gave no consideration in remect of the goodwill of
the great btmness, with iu gross income of over £2,000.000 per
annum and its net revenue 01 over /750,ooo, whkrh the company
had boOt up. The company had had to pay for all the experiments
and imstakei which are inherent in the launching and development
of any new industry. It had paid the Pbst Oflke in royalties already
£1,^48^000^ and the Post Ornce under the agreement would step
into the business in 191 1 by merely paying for the plant cmnloyea
The Aaaocbtion of Municipal Corporations and the London County
Council, on the other hand, considered the terms of purchase to be
too favourable to the company. The London County Council,
aca>rding to the statement of its comptroller, was disturbed by the
hope expressed by the manaser of tne company, that the holders
of the company's ordinary snares would obtain the par value of
ihdr shares in 1911. Inasmuch as the debenture stocks and pre-
ference shares irould have to be redeemed in 1911 at premiums
ranging from 3 to 5 per cent., the state would have to pay the
company £253.000 in excess of the total of the outstanding securities
In order to enable the ordinary shares to receive par. and in the
touncil's view this payment would diminish the probability of the
Post Ofiice being able to afford a subsuntial reduction in the
telephone charges.
Post OJUe Tdtphona, — ^The number of trunk wire centres open
on the 3lBt of March 1^7 was S33« >nd the total number of trunk
circuits was 2043, containing about 73.000 m. of double wire. The
capital expenditure on the purchase and development of the trunk
wire i^stem amounted to £3.376.25*- The total number of con-
verMtioiw which took place over the trunk wkcs during the year
1906-1907 was 19.803,300. The gross revenue derived from the trunk
services was £4£o.658, being an average of 5-82d. per conversation.
The total number of subscribers to the Post Office provincial ex-
changes on the 31st of March 1907 (excludinR those in Glasgow
and Brighton) was 10,010. and the number of t<Hcphones rented was
12.006k. The Glasgow system included 11.103 subscribers' lines
with 12,96a t^phones. and the Brighton system contained 1542
subscribers lines with 1884 telephones. The sum received by the
Post Oflke as rental in respect of private wires was £18^000. The
yeare' working of the whole telephone system of the Post Ofiice
showed a balance of £451*787 a'ter payment of the working expenses,
while the estimated amount required to provide for depreciation
of plant and interest at 3 per cent, on the total expenditure of
£7,252,000 was £432,726.
The number of telephones connected with the Pbst Office system
in the metropolitan area on the 3fst of March 1907 was 41.236, and
additional subscribers were being connected at tne rate of about
150 a wedc. There were 425 post office call-offices in the London
area. The length of underground pipes which had been laid in
the metropolitan area for telephone purposes was 2030 m. Cables
oonUintfig 1 17,789 m. of wire had been laid, including 69.066 m.
rented by the National Telephone Company. The average cost of
constructing an exchange circuit in the metropolitan area (including
A XVI la
the installation of tekphonoimtrunients and of exchange apparatus
but excluding the provision of spare crfant) has been £33. Taking
into account the wliole system (including spare plant afall kinds),
the capital expenditure per station {i^. per telephone connected
with an exchange) sunds at less than £50.
Iniermaiionat TtUphone Line^.^The Angb-French telephone
•ervkx. which was opened between London and Paris in April
1891. was extended to the principal towns in Endand and France
on the nth of April 1904. The service has since occn extended to
certain other English provincial towns; and the Anglo>Belg{an
telephone servke nas similarly been extended. There are now
four circuits between London and Paris, one between London and
Lille, and two between London and Brussels, the last carrying an
increasing amount of traffic. Experiments have been made in
telephomc communkation between London and Rome by way of
Pans. It was found possible to exchange speech when the con-
ditions wa% exceptionally favourable; but in spite of the partial
success of the experiment, a public servke between the two capitals
b not at present practicable.
R6FERENCB&— Re^or/4 of Sdect Cammiitee on Telephone and Tele-
truph Wires (1885). of Select Committee on Tdetrapk BtU (1892). of
Jova CommiUee of the House of Lords and the Mouse of Commons on
Electric Powers {Protective Ctauses) (1893). of Select Committee on
Telepkone Service (1895), of Select CommtUee on TeUpkones (1898),
and of Select Committee on Post Office (Telephone) Aireement (1905);
Treasury Minutes (1892 and 1899); Annual Reports of the Post-
master-General; Report to the Treasury by Sheriff Andrew Jameson
on Clasiov Tdefh^ne Enquiry (1897); K. R. Meyer, Public (honer*
ship and the Telephone in Great Britain (London, 1907} ; E. Carckev
Manual of Electrual Undertahings (189&-1908). (E. Ga.)
TELESCOPE* an optical instruaient employed to view di»»
tant objecu. The term " photographic telescope " has been
applied 10 inslrumeats employed to record the appearance of
celestial objects by photography. The word was cotn^ by
Demi&cianus, a Greek scholar, at the request of Fcderigo Cesi«
founder of the Accademia dei Uncei, from the Greek rqXs, far,
and ffxpnw, to see. It was used by Galileo as early as t6ia,
and came into English use much later, when it suppUiDted
trunk and cylinder, the terms hitherto used to denote the
telescope.
HlSTOEY
The credit of the discovery of the tdescope has been a fruit-
ful subject of discussion. Thus, because Democrilus annotmced
that the Milky Way is composed ol vast multitudes of stars,
it has been maintained that be could only have been led to
form such an opinion from actual examination of the heavens
with a telescope. Other passages from the Greek and Latin
authors have similarly been cited to prove that the telescope
was known to the ancients. But, as has been remarked by
Dt Robert Grant {History of Physical Astronomy, p. 515), we
are no more warranted in drawing so important a conclusion
from casual lemarks, however sa^dous, than we should be
justified in stating that Seneca was in possession of the dis*
coverics of Newton because be predicted that comets would one
day be found to re^ve in periodic orbits. William Molyneuz,
in his Dioptricc Nova (1692), p. 256, declares his opinion that
Roger Bacon (who died c. 1294) " did perfectly well understand
all kinds of optic glasses, and knew likewise the method of
combining tbcm so as to compose some such instrument aa our
telescope." He cites a passage from Bacon's Optts UajuSt
P* 377 of Jcbb's edition, 17^, translated aa follows. —
" Groater things than these may be performed by rcfractfd vison.
For it is easy to understand by the canons above mentioned that
the greatest objects may appear exceedingly small, and the contrary,
also that the most remote objects may appear just at hand, and the
convene; for we can give such figures to transparent bodies, and
dispose them In such order with respect to the e>-e and the objects,
that the rays shall be refracted and bent towards any place we
please, so that we shall sec the object near at hand or at any dis-
tance under any angle wc please. And thus from an incredible
distance we may read the smallest letters, and may number the
smallest particles of dust and sand, by reason of the greatness of the
angle under which wc sec them. . . . Thus also the sun, moon and
stars may be made to df?«rend hither In apjx*arance. and to be visible
over the heads of our enemies, and many imngs of the like sort, which
persons unacquainted with such things would refuse to believe."
Molyneux also cites from Bacon's Epistola ad Parisictisem,
" Of the Secrets of Art and Nature," chap. 5:—
" Glasses or diaphanous bodies may be so formed that the moat
rentMte objects may appear just at hand, and the contrary, so that
2a
SbO
TELESCOPE
in bare theory." The/ compared its perfonnance with (hat
of the object-glass of layit. focal length presented to the
Royal Society by Huygens, and found that Hadley's reflector
" will bear such a charge as to make it magnify the object as
many times as the latter with its due charge, and **— ' *'
objects as distinct, though not altogether so dea
Notwithsunding this diHerence in the brightnei
we were able with this reflcctine telescope to see v
hitherto discovered with the Huygenian, particul
of Jupiter's satellites and their shadows over hii
list in Saturn's ring, and the edge of his shadow
We have also seen with it several times the five sat
in viewing of which this telescope had the a
Huygenian at the time when we compared thei
summer, and the Huygenian telescope being ma
tube, the twilight prevented us from seeing in tl
small objects which at the same time we could
reflecting telescope.**
'Bradley and Molyneux, having been instructed by Hadley in
bis methods of polishing specula, succeeded in producing, some
telescopes of considerable power, one of which had a focal
length of 8 ft.; and, Molyneux having communicated these
methods to Scarlet and Hcam, two London opticianSi -the
manufacture of telescopes as a matter of business was com-
menced by them (Smith's Oplicks, bk. iii. ch. i). But it was
reserved for James Short of Edinburgh to give practical effect
to Gregory's original idea. Born at Edinburgh in 1710 and
originally educated for the church, Short attracted the atten-
tion of Madaurin, professor of mathematics at the university,
who permitted him about 1732 to make use of his rooms in
the college buildings for experiments in the construction of
telescopes. In Short's first telescopes the specula were of
glass, as suggested by Gregory, but he afterwards used metallic
specula only, and succeeded in giving to them true parabolic
and elliptic figures. Short then adopted telescope-making as
his profession, which he practised first in Edinburgh and after-
wards in London. All Short's telescopes were of the Gregorian
form, and some of them retain even to the present day their
original high polish and sharp definition. Short died in London
in 1768, having realized a considerable fortune by the exercise
of his profession.
AchronHitic Tdcscopt. — ^The historical sequence of events now
brings us to the discovery of the achromatic telescope. The
first person who succeeded in making achromatic refracting
telescopes seems to have been Chester Moor Hall, a gentleman
of Essex. He argued that the different humours of the human
eye so refract rays of light as to produce an image on the retina
which is free from colour, and he reasonably argued that it
might be possible to produce a like result by combining lenses
composed of different refracting media.* After devoting some
time to the inquiry he found that by combining lenses formed
of different kinds of glass the effect of the unequal refrangi-
bility of light was corrected, and in 1733 he succeeded in con-
structing telescopes which exhibited objects free from colour.
One of these instruments of only 20-in. focal length had an
aperture of 2 J in. Hall was a man of independent means,
and seems to have been careless of fame; at least he took no
trouble to communicate his invention to the world. At a
trial in Westminster Hall about the patent rights granted to
John Dollond (Watkin v. Dollond),' Hall was admitted to be
* The same argument was employed by Gregory more than fifty
} rears Dreviously. but had been followed by no practical result. The
ens of the human eye is not achromatic.
' At a meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society held on 9th May
1886 a legal document, signed by Chester Moor Hall, was presented
by R. B. Prosier of the Patent Office to the society. On the same
occasion A. C. Ranyard made the following interesting statement
respecting Hall: —
"Some years ago very little was known about Moor Hall. It
was known that, about seven years after the patent for making
achromatic objcct-glassos was granted to OoUond, his claim to the
invention was disputed by other instrument-makers, amongst
them by a Mr Cliampness, an instrument-maker of Cornhill, who
began to infringe the patent, alleging that John Dollond was not
the real inventor, and that such telescopes had been made twenty-
five years before the granting of his patent by Mr Moor Halt. Jono
DoHond, to whom the Copky medal of the Royal Society had been
the first inventor of the achromatic telescope; but it wu
ruled by Lord Mansfield that " it was not the person who locked
his invention in his scrutoire that ought to profit for such
invention, but he who brought it forth for the benefit of
mankind."' In 1747 Leonhard Euler communicated to the
Berlin Academy of Sdeaces a memoir in which he endeavoured
to prove the possibility of correcting both the chronuitic and
the spherical aberration of an object-gUss. Like Gregory and
Hall, he argued that, since the various humours of the human
eye were so combined as to produce a perfect image, it should
be possible by suitable combinations of lenses of different
refracting media to construct a perfect object-glass. Adopting
a hypothetical law of the dispersion of differently coloured
rays of light, he proved analytically the possibility of con-
structing an adiromatic object-glass composed of lenses of glass
and water. But all his efforts to produce an aaual object-
glass of this construction were fruitless^-* failure which he
attributed solely to the difl&culty of procuring l ewi e s worked
precisely to the requisite curves {Mem. Atad. Berlin, 1753).
Dollond admitted the accuracy of Euler's analysis, but dis-
puted his hypothesis on the grounds that it was purely a theo-
retical assumption, that the theory was opposed to the results
of Newton's experiments on the vefrangibiKtyof light, and that
it was impossible to determine a physical law from analytical
reasoning alone {PhU. Trans., 1753, p. 289). In 1754 Euler
communicated to the Berlin Academy a further memoir, in
which, starting from the hypothesis that light consists of
vibrations excited in an ehistic fluid by luminous bodies, aitd
that the -difference of colour of light is due to the greater or
less frequency of these vibrations in a given time, he deduced
his previous resiilts. He did not doubt the accuracy of Newton's
experiments quoted by DoUond, because he asserted that the
difference between the law deduced by Newton and that which
he assiimed would not be rendered sensible by such an experi-
ment.^ Dollond did not reply to this memoir, but soon after-
wards he received an abstract of a memoir by Samuel Klingen-
stiema, the Swedish mathematician and astronomer, which led
him to doubt the accuracy of the results deduced by Newton
on the dispersion of refracted light. Rlingenstierna showed
from purely geometrical cotisiderations, fully appreciated by
Dollond, that the results of Newton's experiments could not
be brought into harmony with other universally accepted facts
of refraction. Like a praaical man, Dollond at once put his
doubts to the test of experiment, confirmed the conclusions of
Klingenstiema, discovered "a difference far beyond his hopes
in the refractive qualities of different kinds of glass with respect
to their divergency of colours," and was thus rapidly led to
the construction of object-ghusea in which first the chromatic
and afterwards the spherical aberration were corrected (Phil,
Trans., 1758, p. 733).
We have thus followed somewhat minutely the history of
the gradual process by which DoHond arrived iiKlependently
at his invention of the refracting telescope, because it has been
asserted that he borrowed the idea from others. Montucla,
given for his invention, was the dead, and his son brought an
action for infringing the patent against Champness. There is no
report of the case, out the facts are referred to in the reports of
subsequent cases. It appears that workmen who had been employed
by Mr Moor Hall were examined, and proved that they had made
achromatic object-glasses as early as 1733. Dollond's patent was
not sec aside, though the evidence with regard to the prior manu;
facture was accepted by Lord Mansfield, who tried the case, as
having been satisfactorily proved ... Mr Hall wis a bcachcr of
the Inner Temple, and was alive at the time of the action. He was
a man of some property, and is sjx>kcn of on his tombstone as an
excellent lawyer and mathematician. He was not a fellow of the
Royal Society, but must certainly have known of the ^ift of the
Copley medaJ to l>ollond. It is very curious the conflicting evi>
dence we have to reconcile, but 1 thmk the balance of evidence is
in favour of there liaving been a prior invention of achromatic
object-glasses before the dale ol Dollond's patent" {Aslren.
Register, May 1886: see also the Observatory for same date).
* Gentleman's Maiatine. 1790. part ii. p. 890.
* For a good account 01 this controversy, sec Dr H. Servus,
CeickichUdei Fernrohrs. p 77 seq. (Bcriin. 1886).
TELESCOPE
561
in hm Hisktin d€* Uetkimaiitma (pp. 448-449)« sms the
loQowing footnote, conunuiucated to him by I«laiide>—
" Cc fut ChestcnnoHfaall *' (an obvious miaprint for Cheater Moor
Hall) " qui, ven 1750, eut rkl£e des lunettes achromatiques. II
t*adressoit 4 Avscough ^ qui fauoit tiavaillir Baas. Dolload ayant
ea besoin de Baas poor un verre que demaadoit le due d'Yorck.
lunette k Ayacough, qui la montra 4 ^oawttra persoonea; il en
donaa la constniction a Bird, qui n'en tint pas oompte. Dollond
en profita. Dana le proc^ qu'lly eut cntrc Dolload et Watkin, au
banc du rA, cela fut prouvi; maia Dollond gagna. parce qu'il Itoft
le premier qui eftt fait connoltre les lunettes achromatiques."
It is dcariy esublisfaed that HaU was the first inventor of the
achromatic telescope; but DoQond did not borrow the inven-
tion from HaU without acknowledgment in the manner sug-
gested by Tjilande. His discovery was beyond question an
ukdependent one. Tlie whole history of his researches proves
how fully he was aware of the conditions necessary for the
attainment of achromatism in refracting telescopes, and he may
be weO excused if he so long placed implicit reliance on the
accuracy of experiments made by so ilhistxious a philosopher
ss Newton. His writings sufficiently show that but for this
confidence he would have arrived sooner at a discovery for
which his mind was fully prepared. It is, besides, impossible,
to read DoUond's memoir {PkU. Trans.^ 1758, p. 733) without
being impressed with the fact that it is a truthfiil account,
not only of the successive steps by which he independently
armed at his discovery, but also of the logical processes by
which these steps were successively suggested to his n^nd.
The triple object-glass, consisting of a combination of two
convex lenses of crown glass with a concave flint lens between
them, was intAxluced in 1765 by Peter, son of John I>onond,
and many excellent telescopes of thii kind were made by- hun.
The limits of this artide do not permit a further detailed
historical statement of the various steps by which the powers
of the telescope were devdoped. Indeed, in its practical form
the piinciplB of the Instrument has remained unchanged from
the time of the Dollonds te the ptesent day; and the history
of its devdopment may be summed up as consisting not in
new optical discoveries but in utlliring new eppH^ces for
figuring and polishing, improved material for specula and lenses,
more refined means of testing, and more perfect and convenient
methods of mounting.
About the year 2774 William Herschel, then a teacher of
music in Bath, began to occupy his leisure hours with the
construction of specula, and finally devoted himself enth«Iy
to their construction and use. In 1778 he had selected the
duf-d^cemre of some 400 specula which he OAde for the celei>
brated instrument of 7-ft. focal length with which his early
biilltant astronomical discoveries were made. In 1783 he com-
pleted his reflector of z8A in. aperture and 30-fL focus, and
in 1789 his great reflector of 4-ft. aperture and 4o4t. focal
length. The fame of these instruments was rapidly spread by
the brilliant discoveries which their maker's genius and per-
severance accomplished fay their aid. Hie reflecting telescope
became the only available tool of the astronomer when great
fight grasp was requisite^ as the difficulty of procuring disks
of gilaa (especially of flint glass) of suitable purity and homo-
geneity limited the dimensions of the achromatic telescope.
It was in vain that the French Academy of Sciences offei^
prices for perfect disks of optical flint glass. Some of the
best chemisCs and most cnterpnsuig g^ass*manux8ctuiiers exerted
their utmost efforu without succeeding in producing perfect
disM of more than 3^ in. in diameter. AU the large disks
were cnMsed by striae, or were otherwise defident in the neces-
sary homogeneity and purity. The subsequent history of the
development of the art of manufacturing glass disks for telescopic
objectives will be found in the article G1.A8S: % OpUcal.
Imsteumxnts, &c
We proceed to give an account of .the methods and prin-
ciples of construction of the various kinds of telescopes, and
* Ayacough waa an optidan in Ludgace Hill. Lx>ildon.
to dcsciibe 1m. detail special typical instruments, which, owing
to the work accomplished by their aid or the piactical advances
exemplified in their construction, appear most worthy of record
or study.
liefraaint Tdcxo^
In its simplest form the telescope consists of a convex
objective capable of forming an image of a distant object and
of an eye-lens, concave or convex, by whidi the image ao formed
is magnified. When the axis etf the eye-leiia cninrides with that
of the object-glass, and the focal po&it of the eye4ens is coin*
ddent with the prindpal focus of the object-lens, patallel rays
inddent upon the object-glass will emeige fimm the eyn-pieoe
as paralld niys» These, falling in turn on the lens of the human
eye, are convcxged by it and fonn aaimage on the mtina.
Fig. I shows the coum of the rays when the eye-lens is convex
(or poaitive), fig. 2 when the eye-leos k coocave (or aegative).
The former repreaenta Kepler*a, the latter Lipperahey'a or the
Galilean teleacope. The magnifying power obviously depends on
the proportwn of the focal length of the object-lens to that of the
eye-lens, that is,
magnifying power ■■F/a,
where F b the focal length of the object-lena and a that of the
eye-lens. Abo the diamftw of the pendl or paiallel rays eaetgii^
from the eye-lens b to the diameter of the objcct-leiM mvecwdy as
the magnifying power of the ^
telescope. Hence one of the
best methods of determining
the magnifying power of a
telescope b to meaaure the
diameter of the emergent
pencil of raya, after the
cdepcope has been adjua tw l
to fooia upon a star, and to divide the dbmeter of the'objec^
glaaa by the diameter of the emergent pencil. If we desire to
utilise all the parallel raya which fall upon an object-glass
it b neccaaary that the full pencil of emerging rat* should
enter the obaenrer's eyes. Aasumhig with Sir WUitam Heracbel
that the normal pu^ of the eye distends to one-fifth of an inch
in diameter when viewing famt obiecta, we obtain the rule that
the minimum magnifying power which can be efficiently employed
b fiwe timea the dbmeter of the obiect-glaaa exprcased in inches,"
The defects of the Galilean and
Kefder teleacopea aie due to the
chromatic and apberical aberration
of the simple lenses of which
they are composed. The substi-
tution of a positive or negative
eye-piece for the sample convex p,^ .
or concave eye-lens, and of an *^'"* **
achromatic object-glaaa for the simple object-lens, transTorms these
early fonns into the modem achromatic telescope. The Galilean
teleacope with a eoncave eyt4ens instead «r an eye-piece still aur*
vives as the modem opeiMlass. on acoonnt of its shorter length,
but the object-glass and eye-lens are achromatic combinations.
(D. Gi.)
Tdaccpt Ohjecttves.*—'In qute of the improvemenU In the
manufacture of optical glass (see Glass) practically the same
crown and flint gbsses as used by John Dollond in 1758 for
achromatic objectives are still used for all the largest of the
modem refracting tdcscopes.
It has long been known that the spectra of white or solar
light yidded by ordinary crown and flint gla»es are different;
that while two prisms of such glasses may be arranged to give
exactly the same angular diH>ersion between two Frsunhofer
* In the case of short-sighted penons the image for very dtstant
objects (that is, for parallel rays) Is formed in irant of the retina;
therefore, to eaaUe such persons to see distinctly, the raya tmeiging
from the eye-piece must be slightly divergent; that is, they must
enter the eye as if they pioceeded from a comparatively near object.
For normal eyea the natural adaptatioa b not to focus for quite
parallel mya, but on objects at a moderate distance, and practi-
cally, therefore, moat persona do adjust the foctia of a tdeacope,
for moat diatinct and eaunr visbn, so that the ray»emet«e from the
eye-piece very slightly divergent. Abnormally short-sighted per.
aona reouire to push in the t^re-leos nearer to the object-glass, and
long-aightcd persona to withcbaw it from the adjuatment employed
by those of normal sight. It b usual, however, in computations
of the magnifying power of tdesoopea, for the rays emersing from the
eye-piece when adjusted for distinct vision to be parallej.
' For the methods of grinding, polishing and testing Icnacs, aee
QBiMcwm,
5^2
TELESCOPE
linei, such as C and F, yet the ffint glass prism will show a
lelative drawing out o£ the blue end and a crowding together
oC the red end of the apectnun, while the crown prism shows
an opposite tendency. This want of proportion in the dis-
persion for dififerent regiona of the q)ectrum is called the
" irrationality of dispersion "; and it is as a direct consequence
of this irrationality, that thoe exists a secondary spectrum or
residual colour di^}ersion, ahowing itself at the focus of all
such telescopes, and roughly in proportion to their sixe. These
glasses, however, still hold the field, although glasses are now
produced whose irrationality of dispersion hi^ been reduced to
a very slight amount. The primary reason for this retention
ia that nothing approaching the difference in dispersive power
between ordinary crown glass and ordinary dense flint glass
(a difference of r to x}) has yet been obtained between any
pair of the newer gUsees. Consequently, for a certain focal
length, much deeper curves must be resorted to if the new
glases are to be employed; this means not only greater diffi-
culties in workmanship, but also greater thickness of glass,
which militates against the chance of obtaining large disks
quite free from striae and perfect in their state of annealing.
In fiact, superfine disks of over 15 in. aperture axe scarcely
possible in most of the newer telescope ghisses. Moreover the
greater depths of the curves (or^' curvattue powers ") in itself
neutralize more or less the advantages obtained from the
reduced irrationality of dispersion. When all is taken into
consideration it is scarcely possible to reduce the secondary
Goloiir aberration at the focus of such a double object-glan
to less than a fourth part of that prevailing at. the focus of a
double objective of the same aperture and focus, but made of
the ordinary crown and flint glasses.
The only way in which the secondary spectrum can be reduced
stUl further is by the employment of thee knses of three different
torts of glass, by which arrangenwnt the secondary spectrum
has been reduced in the case of the Cooke photo visual ob-
jective to about z/aoth part of the usual amount, if the whole
region of the visible spectrum is taken into account. It is
possible to construct a triple objective of two positive lenses
enclosing between them one negaUve lens, the two former being
made of the same gUss. For relatively short focal lengths a
triple construction such as this is almost neoessaiy in order to
obtain an objective free from aberration of the 3rd order, and
it might be thought at first that, given the closest attainable
degree of rationality between the colour dispersions of the two
glasses employed, which we will call crown and flint, it woukl
be impossible to devise another form of triple objective, by
retaining the same flint glass, but adopting two sorts of crown
instead of only one, which would have its secondary spectrum
very much further reduted. Yet such is the rather surprising
fact. But it can be well illustrated in the case of the older
glasses, as the foQowingcase will show.
The figura given are the partial dispersions for ordinary
crown and ordinary extra dense flint glasses, styled in Messrs
Schott's catalogue of optical glasses as 0-60 and o-ios re-
spectively, having refractive indices of x-5i79 and k'6489 for
the D ray respectively, and 0«Bri)/0«r-;'c)=6o-2 and 33*8
respectively to mdicate their dispersive powers (inverted),
CtjF
AtoD
DtoF
FtoG 1
o-tfo
0*I03
•00860
•OI9I9
•
1*000
I'OOO
•00533
•01152
•600
•
•703
•714
•00487
•01180
*
*oo6o5
•01372
•02779
I'OOO
•0x683
.613
01977
•711
•01667
•600
The A/ft from C to F being taken as unity in each case, then
the ^'s for the other regions of the spectrum are expressed in
f raaions A/i (C to F) and axe given under the asterisks. Let it
be supposed that two positive koses of equal curvature powers
are made out of these two glasses, then in order to repiesent
the combined dispersion of the two together the two A/s for
each q>ectral region may b- * ^^ to form A'a as in
the. line below, and ther tg the partial AV
in terms of AV (C to F) we get the new figures in the bottom
row beneath the asterisks. We find that we have now got a
course of dispersion or degree of rationality whidi very
closely corresponds to that of an ordinary light flint glass,
styled 0569 in Schott's catalogue, and having /lo i'S7'S^ ^^^
(Mo-i)lGtr-Pc) «4X-4**»'i the figures of whose course of dis-
persion are as below: —
Liikt Flint Class 0-569.
CtoF
A'toD
DtoF
FtoG
•01385
l-OOO
.00583 .615
•00987 1 .713
•00831 1 600
Hence it is clear that if the two positive lenses of equal. curvature
power of o-6o and 0*102 respectively are combined with a
negative lens of light flmt 0-569, then a triple objective, having
no secondary spectrum (at any rate with respect to the blue
rays), may be obtained.
But whUe an achromatic combination of o-6o and o*zo2 alone
will yield an objective whose focal length is only I'iS times
the focal length of the negative or extra dense flint lens, the
triple combination will be found to yield an objective whose
food length is 73 times as great as the focal length of the
negative light flint lens. Hence impossibly deep curvatures
would be reqiiired for such a triple objective of any normal
focal length. This case well illustrates the much ck>8er approach
to strict rationality of dispersion which is obtainable by using
two different sorts of glass for the two positive lenses, even
when one of them has a higher dispersive power than the glass
used for the negative lens.
It U lamly to this principle that the Cooke photo visual ob-
iortive of tnree lenses (fig. 3) owes its high degree of achromatism.
This form of objective has been successfully made up to 12 1 in.
dear aperture. The front lens b made of baryta light flint glass
Fig. 3.
(0*543 of Schott's catalogue) and the back lens of a crown glass,
styled 0-374 in Schott's older lists.
The table gives their partial dispersions for six different regions
of the spectrum also expressed (in breckets bdow) as fractional
parts of the dispersion from C to F.
0-543
M.- 1*564
r -507
0-374
M0- l-Sll
p wdo-a
C to F A to C D to F E to F F to C F to H
•01 IIS
(I -0000)
(i^oooo)
•00374
(•3354) (■
-00296
(•3507) (
■!X)
•00360
(•3309; (-5830)
•00274
(-3247)
•00650
•00479
(•5675)
•01322
(II857)
•00976
(1-1564)
Since the curvature powers of the positive lenses are equal, the
partial dispersions of the two glasses may be simply added together,
and we then have:~-
[0-S43-H>'374l
CtoF
AtoC
DtoF
EtoF
FtoG'
FtoH
(l*0000>
•00670
(•34*0)
(•7059?
i^
•01 129
(-5763)
H>2298
(1-1730)
The proportions given on the lower line may now be compared
with the corresponding proportional dispersions for boroeuicate
flint glass o^658, doaely resembling the type 0-164 of Schott's list,
vix..' —
[0-658 Oi»'-fS46) i'-50-il
CtoF
AtoC
DtoF
EtoF
FtoG'
FtoH
1-0000
•34^5
.705a
•3378
•5767
11745
TELB8C0PE^
563
A iliilrt hunam la the vebttve power of the fint leM of o-^
wouM bring about e ttill doaer oonespoodean in the mtionelitVi
but with tte curvet required to pcoduoe an objeet-gkaa of thit
type oif 6 in. speiture end 108 in. focal length a diacrepeacy of
I unit in the vd dcdmal place in the above proportional 6nuea
would cauae a unear error in the focus for that colour of only about
•OJ5 in., ao that the laf^jeat deviatioa implied by the tabica would
be a focus for the extreme violet H ray about •0137 kmger than the
oonnaL It will be seen, then, that the visual and photographic
fbd are now merged in one, and the image is practically as achnaaatic
asthatyiddcd^areacctor., . ,. . ^
Other types of triple object-glasses with reduced secondary
nectra have recently been introduced. The extension of the
image away from the axis or sise of field available for coveriiw a
photograplnc plate with fair definition is a function in the first
place of the ratio between focal length and aperture, the looKer
focus having the greater rektlve or angubu- covering power, and in
the second a function of the curvatures of the leases, m the sense
that the objective must be free from coma at the fod of oblique
pencils or must fulfil the sine condition (see Abbrration).
Eyt'Pieces,— The eye-pieces or oculars through which, in case
of visual observations, the primary images formed by the ob-
jective a*e viewed, are of quite
secondary importance as re-
gards definition in the central
portion of the field of view. If
an eye-piece blurs the definition
in any degree in the centre of
the field it must be very badly
figured indeed, bnt the defini-
tion towards the edge of the
field, say at so* away from
the centre of the apparent
£eld of view, depends very in-
timately upon the construction
F|C. 4.
of the eye-piece. It must be so desired as to give as flat
an image as is possible . consbtently with freedom &om
sstigmatism of oblique pencils. The mere size of the apparent
field of view depends upon obtaining the oblique pencils of light
yrp^rgifig from it to cross the axis at the great possible angle,
and to this end the presence of a fidd^ens is indispensable,
which is separated from
the eye-lens by a con-
siderable intennd.
The earlier arrsnge-
ment of two lenses of
the Huygenian eye-piece
(see MiCROSCon) having
foci with ratio of 3 to 1,
gives a fairly large flat
held of view approxim-
atdy free from distortion
of 'tangential lines and
from coma, while the
Mittenxwey variety of it Fic 5.
ffig. 4) m which the ^
fidd-lens is changed into a meniscus having radii in about the
ratio of -hi to -9 gives still better resulu. but still not quite
•o good as the resulu obtained by using the combination of
two convexo-plane lenses of the focal ratio 2 to i.
In the Kamsden eye-
piece (see MicROSCora) the
focal lengths of the two
plano-convex lenses are
equal, and their convexities
are turned towards one
another. The field-lens is
thus in the principal focal
plane of the eye-lens, if
the separation be equal to
l(/i+A). This is such a
practical drawback that the
separation is generally ^ihs
or Iths of the theoretical,
and then the primary
imaae viewed by the eye-
piece may be rather outside the field-lens, which is a great practical
advantage, especially when a reticule has to be mounted in the
primary focal plane, although the edge of the field is not quite
achromatk under these conditions.
Kellner Bye-piece.— In order to secure, the advanUge of the
princtpal food plane of the eye-piece being welt outsde of the
Md-lens and at the same time to obtain a large flat field of
Fic. 6.
vicar with obKqua aduMaatism aod fraedom from cosna and
distortion, there is no better constmctioa thaa the modifiad
Kdlner eye-piece (fig. 5) such as is generally lued for prismatic
binocubus. it oonasts of a phno-oonvex fisld-lens of crown glass
and an appraximatdsr achromatic eye-lens, some distance behind it,
consisting of an equi*€onvex crown lens cemented to a concavo-
plane flint lens, the latter being next to the eye.
There are also other eye-pieoes having the fidd-lcns double or
achromatic as well as the eye-lens.
In cases where it is Important to get the maximinn quantity of
light into the eye, the fidd-lens b discarded and an achromatic
eye-lens alone employad. This yields a very much smaller field
ot view, but it b very valuable for viewing feeble telescopic objecu
and very delicate planetary or lunar details. Zdss and Stdnbeil's
monocentric eye-pieces and the Cooke single achromatic eye^mece
(fig. 6) are examples of thb class of oculars. (H. D. T.)
Xejhahg Telneope.
The following are the vaiious forms of reflecting telescopes^-
The Gregorian tdescope b represented in fig. 7. A A and B B
are concave mirrors having a common axb and thdr concavities
facing each other. The focus of A for paralld rays b
at F, that of B for parallel rays at /—between B and F. "JT
Parallel rays falling on A A converge at F. where an image '" ""
b formed; the rays are then reflected from B and converge at P.
where a second and more enlarged image b formed. Gregory himsdl
Fl& 7. — Gregorian Telescope.
showed that, if the large minor were a segment of a paraboloid of
revolution whose focus b F, and the small mirror an cdUpsoid
of revolution whose fod are F and P respectivdy. the resulting
image will be plane and undistorted. The linage formed at P is
viewed through the
or Ramsden type.
ac
B
te
viewed through the eye-piece at £, which may be of the Huygenian
" The focal adjustment b accompliahed by the
'^ the mirror
Gregorian
because if
to increase
liptic figure
ira. Short
;y, and bis
use of the
thei
i present
_ ,, where F
at i the smalt
m >ce between
tb ram) when
Ui jects. The
images are erect. ...
llie Cassegrain telescope diflera from the Gregorian only ui the
substitutioo of a convex nyperboloidal mirror for a concave cU^
soidal mirror as the small speculum. Thb form has two
dbtinct advantages: (i) if spherical mirron are employed
thdr aberrations have a tendency .to correct each other;
(2) the instrument is shorter than the Gregorian, caeterit paribus,
by twice the focal lengtK of the small mirror. Fewer tdescopes
have been made of thb than perhaps of any other form of reflector;
but in comparatively recent years the Cassegrain has acquired
importance from the fact of its adoption for the great Mdbburne
tdocope. and from iu cmpbyment in the 60-in. reflector of the
Mount Wilson Solar Observatory (see below). For spectroscopic
purposes the Cassttrain form has peculiar advantages, became ia
consequence of the less rapid conveiisence of the rays after reflectioa
from the convex hyperfaoloidal mirror, the eouivalent focus caa
be made very great in comparison with the length of the tubsi
Thb permiu t& employment' of a spectroscope furnished with a
coUirnaror of long focus. The magnifying power b computed by
the same formula as in the case of the Gregorian telescope.
The Newtonba telescope b represented in Fig. 8. A A b a con-
cave mirror whose axb baa. Paralld rays falling on A A conveige
on the plane mirror B B, and are thence reflected at p.
right angles to the axis, forming an image in the focus of 'JZZL»
the eye-piece E. The surface of the large mirror should ••— *
be a paraboloid of revolution, that of the small mirror a trae optical
plane. The magnifying power b"»/^/f. Thb form b employed m the
566
TELESCOPE
Fraumktftt, Dorpat. 1825), and was an enormous advance upon all | ferring' the declination axis as well as the declinatioilkrlamp to the
6 can
circle
rtant
t-enA
r the
Echt.
pted.
> any
»sicy
s are
I and
eye.
eye-
tched
I an
H to
tele,
circle
I fine
The
ar to
nt of
if the
ctioa
into
./v.-
focal
The
ntiog
ar to
e-end
iition
short
that
t the
TELESCOPE
567
the obaerver has to fonov the eve-end in a comparatively small
circle; another good point is the flattening of the cast-iron centre-
piece et the tube so that th- «-- — -* ••— a-^i:— ♦:«- -«-
» attached as near to the k
is consistent with free past ^
the obiect-glaas. The sub
cent dectnc lamps is an
versaOy adopted.
(3) TtUscopesfor Central
equatorial sjkmikI, for gener
01 carrying spectroscopes ol
so that the proportional si
and the rigidity of the iiM
be considerably increased,
moanting of the Washingi
of 36-in. apertufe and 32 j
length (described in froj
Obsenattonst 1874, App. i
in these respects very oelect
the polar and deciina- ^
tion axes being only T
7 in. in diameter. %
The great Putkovo \
refractor (fig. 16)
erected in 1885 is of
lo-in. aperture and 45-
ft. focal length. The obje
is by Clark, the mounting
Repaolds. The tube is c
cal. of riveted steel plate,
atMl in thickness from th<
to its extremities, and bd
very powerful flanges to a
short cast-iron central ti
.which, as in Dr Engel
telescope (fig. 15), theattai
to the flange oif the dec!
axis u placed as close ai
be to the axis of the tube ^
interfering with rays con =.
from the object-fflaM to an
in the field of view. ,
feature in this instrument "
platform at the lower end
polar axis, where an aasistk..* v»..
view the hour circle by one eye- Fig.
piece and the declination circle
by another (looking up the per-
forated polar axis), and where he can also set the telescope to
any hour angle by one wheel, or to any declination by a second,
with the greatest ease. The observer at the eye-end can also read
off the hour and declination circles and communicate
quick
i^. — Dr EnEctinaon's
8-in. Refractor.
•znnged, and are all necessary for the ouick and easy working
of 80 bife aa mstrument. We have the authority of Otto
Struve for stating that in practice they are all that can be
desired. There b m this instrument a remarkably elennt method
of relieving the friction of the polar axis. Let A A (fig. 17) be a
section of the polar axis; it is then easy to adjust the weight P
attached to its lower end so that the centre of gravity X of the whole
moving parts of the instrument shall be in the veitical (V V) of a
line passing through the apex of the hollowed flange P9»tq, which
flange forms part of the polar axis. If now a wheel W is forced
up against q with a pressure equal to the weight of the moving part
oL the instrument, the whole weight of the moving part would rest
upon W in unstable equilibrium; or if a pressure R, less than W,
is employed, we have the end friction on the lower bearing removed
to an extent * R sin ^ and the friction on the bearings oithe upper
pivot removed to the extent of F cos ^ — where 4 is the latitude
of the place. The wheel W is therefore mounted on a guided rod.
which IS forced u^>wards bv suitable levers and weights, and this
relief of pressure is precisely proportional to the pressure on the
respective bearings. The Repsolds find it unnecessary to relieve
ihe friction of the declination axis.
In such large telescopes it becomes a matter of the first import*
anoe to provide means of convenient access to the eye-end 01 the
instrument. This the Repsolds have done in the Pulkovo telescope
by means of two platforms, as shown in fig. 16. These platforms
are capable of ea^ motion so that the astronomer may be con-
veniently situated for observing an object at any aximuth or altitude
to which the telescope may be directed. For the great refractor
more recently erected at Potsdam. Messrs Repsold arranged a large
platform mounted on a framework which is moved in aamuth by
the dome, so that the observer on the platform is always opposite
the dome-opening. This framework is provided with guuScs on
whkh the platform, whilst preserving its horiaontality, is
raised and lowered ncariy in an arc of a circle of which
the point of intersection of the polar and declinations
axes is the centre. The rotation of the dome, and f f
with it the platform-framework, is accomplished ^
b>r means of electric motors, as also b the
raising and lowering of the (^tform 00 its
framework. The current is suf^ilicd by
accumulators, and the switch-board is
attached to the platform in a positkn
convenient for use by the a
or his asustant.
In the original design tnp-
plied for the 36-in. telescope
of the Lick Observatoiy at j
Mount Hamilton, Cali-
fornia, Grubb suggested
that the whole floor, 70
ft. in diameter, should
be raised and loweied
by water power, under
control of the ob-
server by means of
electric keys which act on secondary mechanism that in turn works
the valves and reversing gear of the water engines. Other water
engines, similarly connected, with keys at the observer's hands,
rotate the dome and periorm the quidc motkms in right ascension
and declination. (An Illastratlon Aowing these arrangements
appeared In TTte Enginur of July 9, 1886.) Grubb's suggestion of
the " rising floor " was adopted, althouRh his original plans for the
mounting were not carried out; the construction of the mounting,
dome, floor. Ac, having been entrusted to Messrs Warner & Swasey
of Cleveland, Ohio. UlSA It has been contended that it is un-
desirable to move so great a mass as a floor when a platform alone
is required to carry the observer. But a floor, however heavy,
suspended by three irire ropes and properly balanced over large,
well-mounteo pulleys, requires an amount of energy to work it
which does not exceed that required to operate a platform of
moderate dimensions, and there is a freedom, a safety and a facility
of working with a complete floor which no partial platform can give.
A floor can be most satisfactorily operated by hydraulic means, a
platform cannot be so well woriced in this way. The best floor
mounting we know of is that designed by O. Chadwick for the Vic-
toria TeWscope of the Cape Obs^vatory. An account of it will be
f ou nd in t he History and Description of the Cape Observatory. This floor
can be raised at the rate of i ft. per second or as slowly as the ob-
server desires — whilst in all the large pjatforms we have seen (Pots-
dam and Paris), the rate of shift is tedious and time-consuming.
The hirvrst refracting telcscopw in active use is the Yerkes tele-
scope, with an object-glass cf 40-in. diameter by Alvan Clark St Son
o( Cambridge. U.S.A.. and with a mounting, dome and rising floor
by Warner & Swasey of Cleveland. Ohio. U.S.A. The reader will
gather a good general idea of the design from fig. 16. The eye-end
IS fhown on the plate, fig. 25. ^
The chief defect in equatorial mountings of type C is that in
general they are not capable of continued observing muc h past
the meridian without reversal. This is an unque«ti' '■^ -■
back when k>ng exposures near the meridian are r
$68
TELESCOPE
VMnch a Swascv
CUMU^nO (*<>. USA.
Fic IS.
40mmrD£tCOPZ
QOn DQIC — 75r« CU:Nffrff>IC PUOOR
FOR TKC YCR^ 095DM3GRY
TELESCOPE
509
fMX of an overhanniiff polar ajos the difficulty, can be ovcrconie:
it has been MicceaMuUy adopted by Repeolds (or their aatrogniphic
equatoriab of 13-in. aperture and ii-3Vft. focus, and 00 a much
•mailer scale by Warner & Swasev for the Bruce telescope of lo-in.
aperture and so-ln. focus, made for the Yerkes Observatory. The
Pig. I9.>-Bnice Telescope, made for the Yerkes Observatory.
Ffoa Prateaor Bsle's Tk$ Staiy tf SkUa, EmlwtUm. by poahrios of Un
UamniQr of CUofo Pmm.
latter is shown in fig. 19. Stability in this method of mounting
can only be secured by excessive weight and rigidity in the support
of the overhanging axis. In the case of the Victoria telescope
(24'in. aperture and 22\-{t, focus) mounted at the Cape of Good
Hope on this plan, it haJi been found necessary to add supfxirting
stays where great rigidity is required, and thus to ncri6ce continuous
dicura-meridian motion for stars between the senith and the
devated pole.
Type D.— The first imporUnt equatorial of type D was the 4-ft.
reflecting telescope of Lassell lUem. JLA.S,, xxxvi. 1*4). and
later Lord Rossc's 36-in. reflecting telescope at Birr Castle (Phil.
Tnus^ clxxL' 153). and A. Comrnoo's 36-in. reflecting telescope
mounted by him at Ealinc iiiem. RA.S., xlvL 173-182).
In Laaiell*s instrument (a reflector of the Newtonian type) the
observer is mounted in the open air on a supplementary tower
capable of motion in any azimuth about the centre of motion of
the telescope, whilst an observing platform can be 'raised and
k>wered on the side of the tower. In Lord Rosce's instrument
(also of the Newtonian type) the observer is suspended in a cage
near the eye-piece, and tne instrument is used in the open air.
Common's toescope preserkts oany Incenious features, esp eci a l ly
the friief-friction Sy flotation oC the pohr axis in mercury, and in
the ariangeroents of the observatory lor giving ready access to the
eye-piece of the telescope.
Type C seems indeed to be the type of mounting roost suitable
for reflecting tdescooes. and this form has been adopted for the
6o-in. reflector conipieicd by C. W. Riichcy, under the direction
of Professor G. E. Hale, for the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory.
The instrument is shown in fig. 30. and its Resign is unquestion-
ably the most peffecjc yet proposed for modem astropbyaical re-
search.
The declination axis is here represented by what are practically
the trunnions or pivots of the tube, resting in bearings which are
supported by the arms of a very massive cast-iron fork bolted to
the upper end of the oolar axis. This axis b a hollow fbrging of
nickel steel, of which the accurauly turned pivou rest on bearings
attached to cast-iron uprights bolted upon a masuve cast-iron base
plate. The base plate rests upon levellins screws which permit
the adjustment of the polar axu to be made with ereat precision.
The combined overhanging weight of the cast-iron u>rk, tne mirror
and tube is so great, that without a very perfect relief friction
system the instrument could not be moved in right ascension with
any approach to practical ease. But a hollow sted float. 10 ft in
diameter, is bolted to the upper end of the polar axis just bdow
the fork. This float dips into a tank filled with mercury so that
practical the entire instrument is floated by the mercury, leaving
only sufficient pressure on the bearings to ensure that the pivots
will remain in contact with them. The 60-in. silver-on-glass mirror
(wdghing about one ton) resu at the lower end of the tube on a
support-system consistina of a large number of weighted levers
whkh press against the Back of the glass and distribute the load.
Similar weighted levers around the circumference of the mirror
provide the edge support. The tdescope is moved in right ascension
and declination by electric motors controlled from positions con-
venient for the observer. The driving clock moves the tdescope
in right ascension by means of a worm-gear whed, 10 ft. in diameter,
mounted on the polar axis.
The 6o-in. mirror is of 25-ft. focus, but for certain classes of work
it is desirable to have the advanuge of greater focal length. For
this purpose the u^cscupc can be used in the four different ways
shown in fig. 21.
(1) As a Newtonian reflector, fig. 31 (a), the converging rays
from the 60-in. mirror being reflected to the side of the tube where
FiC. 21.
Hale'i Th* Slady «f SulUt
the Uaivmacy o( Chk^o
the image is formed, and where it may be photographed or viewed
with an eye-piece. In this case the image is formed without second"
ary magnifiration and the focal length is 25 ft.
(2) Asa Cassegrain reflector, fig. 21 (6), in which c*-^ ^
tion of the tube bearing the plane mirror is remc'
section substituted for it. This latter carrir
570
TELESCOPE
00 lock wtfwfiim I dcscQpc
mirror, which returns the rays towards the centre of the large
mirror and causes them to converse less rapidly. They then
meet a small plane mirror supported at the point of intersection
of the polar and declination axes, whence they are reflected down
through the hollow polar axu as shown in fig. s, and come to focus
on the slit of the powerful spectroscope that is mounted on a pier
in the chamber of constant temperature as shown in fig. ao. In
this case the equivalent focal length is 130 ft.
(3) As a Casaeerain reflector, for photographing the moon,
planets or very bright nebulae on a large scale, as shown in fig.'ai (c),
with an equivalent focal length of 100 ft.
(4) As a Caasegiain reflector, for use with a spectroecope raoanted
in place of the photographic plate, fig. ai ((0 '• ui this case a convex
mirror of different curvature is employed, the equivalent focus of
the combination being 80 ft.
Type £.— In the CompUs Rendus for the year 1683. vol. 96,
PP- 735-741. toewy gives an account of an instrument which he
- calls an "^equatorial G0ud4," designed (1) to attain
*^^.^. ' greater stability and so to measure larger angles than is
?*. ""?:> generally possible with the ordinary equatorial; (a) to
enabk a single astronomer to point the telescope and
mate observations in any part of the sky without changing his
position; (3) to abolish the usual expensive dome, and to substi-
tute a covned shed on wheeb (which can be ran back at pleasure),
leaving the telescope in the open air, the observer alone being
sheltered. These cooditioas are fulfilled in the manner shown in
fir. 22. E P is the polar aids, routing on bearings at E and P.
The object-glass is at O, the eye-piece at E. There is a plane
mirror at M, which reflects riys converging from the abject -glais
to the eye-piece at E. A second mirror N, placed at 45* to the
optical axis of the obiect-glass, reflects rays from a star at the pole:
but by rotating the box which contains t^'- •"••^'- '^ the axis of
its supporting tube T a star of any '' '4>8erved.
and by combinine this motion wi^h rotation of the polar axis the
astronomer seated at E is able to view any object whatever in the
visible heavens, except circumpolar stars near lower transit. An
hour circle attached to E P and a declination cirele atuched to the
box containing the mirror N, both of which can be read or set
from E, complete the essentials of the instrument.
There must be a certain loss of light from two
\ additional reflections; but that could be tolerated
V for the sake of other advantages, provided that
^' the mirrors could be made sufiicicntljr perfect
optical planes. By making the mirrors of
silvered ^ss. one-fourth of their diameter
in thickness, the Henryshave not only
succeeded in mounting them with all
necessary rigidity freefrom flexure
but have given tjiem optically
true planesurf aces, notwith*
standing then* large dia-
meters, viz.. 1 1 and 15*7 in.
Sir David Gill tested the
eqtiatorial cood< on double
stars at the Paris Observa-
tory in 1884. and his last
doubts as to the practkal
value of the insmiment
were dispelled. He has
never seen more perfect
optical definition in any
Fio. a2.— Loewy's Coud6
Equatorial.
of the many telescopes he has employed, and certainly never
measured a celestial object in such favourable conditions of physical
comfort. The easy positbn of the observer, the convenient posit k>n
of the handles for quick and slow motion, and the absolute rigidity
of the mounting leave little to be desired. In a much larger
TELESCOPE
57>
imtnuDeot of tlie miim type subaequently moanted 9t Paria. aad
in like iosuunienu of iotennediate »*t mounced mt other Fnach
obaervatoffies, cbe obiectrglass b placed outside the ninor N, so
that both the silvered mirrors are protected from exposure to the
outer air.
A modification of Loewy's equatorial coud^ has bien sugKcated
by Uodeoiaan {A air. Nockr., No. 3935): it coasiatt in ^cing
boich t^ nunora of Loewy's " equatcmal coud^ " at the top of the
polar aaus instead of the lower end of it. By thu arran^ment the
tons cnMB tube becomes unneoesBary, and neither the pier nor the
obaenratofy obstnict the view of obiecta above the horiaon near
lower tnnait aa ia the case in Lgewy'a form. The leircted mya
paM down the tube from the diiectioa of the elevated pole
■ • '"^ • '^- -'^ ' , therefore, at the
rw
of upward towards that pol&. The
bottom of the tube inateaa of the top and looka upipard
downward. The drawbacka to this plan aee (i) tla
lan^c «ae of the upficr pivot (via. the diameter of the tube) and of
the lower pivot (which mnat be perforated by a hole at least e^ual
in diameter to the photographic field of the teleacope), oonditiona
which involve very fcfined amngementa for adief of jfriction, and
(a) the less comfoitable attitude oi looking upward inatead of down-
ward. The plan, however, woukl be a very favourable one for
apectfoacopic work and for the convenient inatallatioo of an under-
ground room of constant terapeiature. The diAcultiea of reli^
friction could probably be beat overcome by a huge holbw cylinder
concentric witn the pobr axia fixed near the centre of gtmvity of
the whole inatrumeat and floated itf asercoryj on the plan adopted
in the Mount Wilaon 60-in. reflector already describea, but in this
case the floating cylinder would be betow and not above the upper
bearing.
In 1M4 Sir Howard Grubb {PM. Trans. R. Dub. Sk.. vol. ill.
aeries a. p. 61) proposed a form of equatorial tdescope of which an
excellent example was erected at Cambridge (Eng). in
1898. The instrument in some respects rcscmbU» the
equatorial coud£ of Locwy, but Instead of two mirrors
there a only one. A (uneed cast-iron box, strongly
ribbed and open on one «de, forms the centre of the
polar axia. One pivot of the pobr axis is attached to
the lower end of this box, and a strong hollow metal cone, terminating
in the other pivot, forms the upper part of the polar axlv. The
declination axis passes through the two opposite sides of the central
box. Upon an axu concentric with the declination axis is carried
a plane mirror, which is geared so as always to bisect the angle
between the polar axis and the optical axis of the telescope. If
then the objective tube is directed to any star, the convergent
beam from the object-glass is received by the plane mirror ^irom
which it ia reflected upwards along the polar axis and viewed
through the hollow upper pivot. Thus, as in the eauatorial coud£,
the obaerver remains in a fixed position looking down the polar
tube from above. He is provided with quick and slow motions
in right ascension and dechnation, which can be operated from the
eye-end. and he can work in a closed and corofonably heated room.
A Urge alot has to be cut In the cone which forms the upper part
uf the polar axia. in order to allow the teleacope to be pointed neater
to the pole than would otherwise be possible; even so stars within
15* of the pole cannot be observed. An illustrated preliminary
description of the instrument is given by Sir Robert Ball {Mon. Not.
R.A.S., lix. lU). The instrument has a triple photo-visual Taylor
object-ftlaaa of I2| in. apenure and I9*3rft. local length.
Type P.^ln all the previously described, typca of telescope
mountiiw the axia of the instrument ia either poinied directly at
the object or to the pole; in the Utter case the raya from the star
under observation are reflected along the polar axis by a mirror
or mimwa attached to or revolving with it. Equatoriails of types
A, B, C and D have the advantage of avoiding interposed reflectmg
surfaces, but they, involve inoooveniences from the continttal
oiotion of the eye-piece and the conseauent necessity for providing
elaborate observing stages or risine floors. In those of type E
the eyfpieoe haa a fixed position ana the observer may even occupy
a room maintained at uoaform temperature, but be must submit to
a certain lose of light from one or more reflecting surfaces, and from
possible k»s of definition from optical imperfection or flexure of
the mirror or mirToca. In all these types the longer the telescope
and the greater its diameter (or weight) the more maanve must
be the mounting and the greater the mechanical difiiculties both
is construction and management.
But if it be possible to mount a fixed telescope by which a aoUr
or steUar image can be formed within a Uboratory we give* the
following advantages. — <i) There ia no mechanical limit to the
length oif the tel»cope: (3) the clockwork and other appliances
to nx)ve the mirror, which reflects the atariight akmg the axis, are
much lighter and smaller than those required to move a Urge
telescope; (3) the observer remains in a fixed position, and apectn>>
scopes of any weight can be used on piers within the Uboratory;:
and (4) the anguUr value of any linear distance on a photographic
pUte can be determined by direct measurement of the distance of
the photographic pUte from the optical centre of the object-gUss.
The difficulty is that the automatic motion of a single osirror capable
of reflecting the ra^ys of any star continuously along the aida of a
fiioed horiaontal teleacope, requires a rather oomplax
owing to the variation of the angle of reflexion with the diurnal
motion.
Foucault appears to have beeof the first to appreciate these
advantages aiKl to face the difficulty of designing a aidcrosut
which, theoretically at least, fulfils the above-mentioned conditions.
A Urge sidcrostat, constructed by Eichens after Foucault's design,
was completed in i868~the vcar of Foucault's death. It lemainM
at the Paris Observatory, where it was subsequently employed by
DcsUndres for. solar photography. The Urgest refracting telescope
yet made, vix., that constructed by Gautier for the Paria _- ^_^
exhibition of 1900, was ananged on this plan (type F), TtT^^'^
the atars* raya bdng^ reflectedf along the Imritontal axis '*""'**'
of a tdescope provided with visual and with photo-
graphic object-gUsses of "^ -*- -** ^ '
the stars* rays being reflectedf along the Imritontal axis
^r - .J .^^^ ^,1, y^„^ ^^ ^jjj p,^^ U9C9i,
.„ 49-iA- diameter and neariy aoD>ft. focal
length. Up to 1906 neither the optical qualities of the images
given by the object-glasaea and reflecting pUne nor the practical
-working of the instrument, have, so far as we knoa*. been sub-
mitted to any severe test. It is, however, certain that the Foucault
sideraetat Is not capable, in practice, of maintaining the reflected
image In a consunt directfon with perfect uniformity on account
Of the sliding action on the arm that lesuUtcs the motion of the
mirror; siich an action must, more or less, take place by jerks.
There are farther inconveniences in the use of such, a telescope,
viz., that the image undergoes a diurnal rotation about the axis of
the horizontal telescope, ao that, unless the sensitive pUte is also
rotated bv clockwork, it is impossible to obtain sharp photographs
with any but insuntaneous exposures. In the spectroscopic observe-,
tion of a single star with a slit-spectroscope, this rotation of the
image preaenta no inconvenience, and the arreguUr action of a
siderostat On Foucault's pUn might be overcome by the foUowing
arrainrement >"
A B (fijs. 33) is a polar asns. like that of an equatorial telescope,
routing m twenty-four hours by clockwork, lu kwer extremity
terminates in a fork on which is
mounted a imrror C D, capable of
turning about A on an axis at right
angles to A B,' the pUne of the
mirror being parallel to thia Utter
axis. The minor C D is set at such
an angle as to reflect rays from the
star S in the (firection of the polar
axis to the mirror R and tnenoe
to the horiaontal te le acope T.
The mirrora of Undemanii^
equatorial ooud^ reflecting light
downwards upon the mirror R
wouM furnish an ideal siderostat
for stellar apectroacopy in conjunction with a fixed horiaontal
Codoriof.— If a mirror is mounted on a truly adjusted poUr axis,
the pUne of the mirror being paralkl to that axis, the normal to
that mirror will always be directed to some point on the celestial
equator through Whatever ariete the axia is turned. Also, if the
axis u made to revolve at half the apparent diurnal motion of the
stars, the Image of the celcstUl sphoe. viewed by reflection from
such a moving minxw, will appear at rest at every point — hence
the name coaostat applied to the apparatus. Thus, any fixed
telescope directed towards the mirror of a properly adjusted coelo-
stat in motion will show all the stars in the field of view at rest :
or. by routing the poUr axis independently of the clockwork, the
observer can pass in review all the stars visible above the horizon
whose declinations come within the limits of his original field of
view. Therefore, to observe stars of a different declination it will
be necessary either to shift the direction of the fixed telescope,
keeping its axis still pointed to the coelostat mirror, or to employ
a second mirror to reflect the rays from the coelosut mirror along
the axis of a fixed telescope. In the Utter <ase it will be necessary
to provide means to mount the coelostat on a carriage by whicn
it ^can be moved east and west without changing the altitude or
azimuth of its polar axis, and also to shift the second mirror so that
it may receive all the light from the reflected beam. Besides there
complications there is another drawback to the use of the coelostat
for general astronomical work. viz.. the obliquity of the angle of
reflection, which can never be less than that of the declination of
the star, and may be greater to any extent. For these reasons the
coelostat is never likely to be Urgdy employed in general astrono-
mical work, but it is admirably adapted for spectroscopic and
boioroetric observations of the sun. and for use in eclipse expedi-
tions. For details of the coelostat applied to the Snow telcMrope—
the most perfect instalUtion for spectroheliograph and bolon-eier
work yet erected—see 7^ Study of SteUar EMmttoH by Prof. G. E.
Hale. p. 131
The Zeniik Telescope
The aenith* teles c ope is an instrument generally employed to
measure the diffetence between two neaify equal enojogposite
xeAith disUnccs. !ts original nse was the dete^
graphical Utitudes in the field work of geodet'
rroently it has been extensively cmptoyed foi
57^
TELESCOPE
of vuiAtioa of latitude, at fixed otatioos, under the anS|Mcea of the
International Geodetic Bureau, and for the astronomical deter-
mination of the constant of aberration. The in&trument is shown
in its most cecent form in fig. 24. A is a sleeve that revolves very
freely and without shake on a vertical steel cone. This cone is
mounted on a circular base 6 which rests on three levelling screws,
two of which are visible in the fi^re. The sleeve carries a cross-
piece on its upper extremity to which the bearings of the horizontal
axis c are attached* A reversible level d rests on the accurately
turned pivots of thb axis. The telescope b attached to one end
of this axis and a counterpoise t to the other. The long arm /
serves to clamp the telescope in zenith distance and to communi-
cate slow motion in senith distance when so clamped. On the
side of the telescope opposite to the horizontal axis is attached a
graduated circle f, and. turning concentrically with this circle, is
a framework K to which the readers and verniers of the circle are
fix«l. This frame carries two very sensitive levels, k and /, and
the whole frame can be clamped to the circle t by means of the
clampine screw m.
The oDJect-glass of the telescope is, of course, attached by its cell
to the upper end of the telescope tube. Within the focus of the
Fic. 24.— Zenith Telescope (by Warner & Swascy).
object-glass is a right-angled prism of total reflection, which diverts
the converging rays from the object-glass at right angles to the
axis of the telescope, and permits the observing micrometer n to
be mounted in the very convenient position shown in the figure.
A small graduated circle ^ concentric with A is attached to the
circular base h and read by the microscopes q r, attached to a.
I'he instrument n thus a theodolite, although, compared with its
other dimensions, feeble as an apparatus for the measurement of
absolute altitudes and azimuths, although capable of determining
these co-ordinates with considerable precision.
In practice the vertical circle is adjusted once for all, so that
when the levels k and / are in the centre of their run. the verniers
read true zenith distances. When the instrument has been set up
and levelled (either with aid of the cross level d. or the levels *
and 0« the reading of the circle p (or the meridional position of
the telescope is determined either by the method of transits in
the meridian (see Transtt Circle), or by the observation of the
azimuth of a known star at a known hour angle. This done, the
stops s and I are clamped and adjusted so that when arm r comes
in eontact with thm tcivw of stop f the telescope will point due
nottk. aiAl when in contact with r. it win point due south, or vice
vooi* A iMir of st?^ ' ' ' -"^ination are selected such ihat
^kdfmgillMifttM^ ndian. are nearly equal and
«rf||^Mntl vf >fier by fivie or ten rainntcs
M
of time. Assoming. for example, that the nortberff sur liaa the
smaller right ascension, the instrument is first, with the akl of the
stop, placed in the meridian towards the north; the verniers of
the graduated circle £ are set to read to the reading ^(ii-Ha)
where ^ is the approximate latitude of the place and 4m A* tlie
declinations of the northern and southern star respectively; then
the level frame k is turned till the levels k and / are in the middle
of their run. and there clamped by the screw m, aided in tlie final
adjustment by the adjoining dow motion sciew shown in the figure.
The telescope b now turned on the horiaontal axb tiN the levels
read near the centres of these scales and the telescope is damped
to the arm /. When the star enters the field of view its image »
approximately bisected by the spider web of the micrometer «,
the exact bisection being completed in the imroedbte neighbour-
hood of the meridian. The readings of the levels k and I mod the
reading of the micrometer-drum are then entered, and the observa-
tion 01 the northern star is complete. Now the instromeat is slowly
turned towards the south, till the axininth arm b gently brought
into contact with the corresponding stop ■>, care beina taken not
to touch any part of the instrwnent except the azimotn arm itsdf.
When the southern star enters the field the same pr o cess b
repeated.
Suppose now, for the moment, that the readings of the levels k
and /are identical in both observations, we have then. in the differ-
ence between the micrometer readings north and south, a measure
of the difference of the two zenith (Usunces expressed in terms of
the micrometer screw; and, if the " value of one revolution of the
micrometer screw " is known in seconds of arc we have for the
resulting latitude
♦-§i(r.-rO+(».+«.)i.
where f> - (. is the difference of the micrometer readings convened
into arc — it ^ being assumed^ that increased micrometer readings
correspond with increased zenith distance of the star.
If between the north and south observation there is a change in
the level readings of the leveb k and /, thb indicates a cimwge in
the zenith distance of the axb of the telescope. By directtng the
telescope to a disunt object, or to the intersection oT the webaof a
fixed collimating telescope (seeTRANsiTCiKCLE).it is easy to measure
the effect of a ^mall change of zenith distance of the axb of the
telescope in terms both of the level and of the micrometer screw,
and thus, if the levels are ^rfectiy sensitive and tiniform in curvature
and graduation, to determine the value of one divbion of each level
in terms of the micrometer screw. The value of " one revolution
of the screw in seconds of arc " can be determined either by
observing at transit the difference of zenith distance of two stars
of known declination in terms of the micrometer screw, the instru-
ment remaining at rest between their transits; or by measuring
at known instants in terms of the screw, the change of zenith
distance of a standard star of small polar distance near the time oil
its greatest elongation.
The reason why two levels are employed b that sometimes pystats
are formed by the decomposition of the glass which cause the bubble
to stick at different points and so give false readings. Two levels
are hardly likely to have such causes of error arise at exactly
corresponding points in their run, and thus two levels furnish an
independent control the one on the other. Also it b impossible
to make levels that are in every respect perfect, nor even to deter-
mine these errors for different lengths of bubble and at different
readines with the highest precision. The mean of two levels there-
fore adds to the accuracy of the result.
Attempts have been made to overcome the diffiailtics connected
with leveb by adopting the principle of Kater's floating collimator
(Pkil. Trans., 1825 and 1828). On this principle the use of the
level b abolished, the telescope is mounted on a metallic float,
and it is assumed that, in course of the rotation of \his floct, the
zenith distance of the axb of the telescope will remain undisturbed,
that is, of course, after the undubtions. induced by the disturbance
of the mercury, have ceased.
S. C. Chandler in 1884 constructed an equal altitude instrument
on thb principle, whkh he called the almucantar, and he found
that after disturbance the telescope recovered its original senKh
distance within ^V of a second of arc. R. A. Sampson at Durham
{Uonlkly NotUes R.A.S. Ix. 572) and H. A. Howe (Ast. Jakrb. xxi.
^7) have had instruments constructed on the same general principle.
It b. however, obviously impossible to apply a micrometer with
advantage to such instruments, becavse to touch such an instru-
ment, in order to turn a micrometer screw, would obvioiuly set
it into motion. The almucantar was therefore used only to observe
the vertical transits of surs in different azimuths ovrr fixed hori-
zontal webs, without touching the telesa>pe.
By the use of photoernphy, however, it is possible to photograph
the trail of a star as it transits the meridbn when the telescope b
directed towards the nonh, and another trail be similarly photo-
graphed when the telescope b directed towards the south. The
interval between the true trails, measured at right angles to th^
direction of the trails, obviously corresponds to the difference of
senith distance of the two surs. This principle has been applied
with great completeness and ingenuity of detail by Bryan Cooksoa
to the oonstruction of a " photographic floating senith tel es cop e ,'*
TELESIA— TELFORD
573
which he has encled at Cambridge (£!■•) and applied to an iiivati-
gation of the change of latitude and a dctemunation of the constant
of refraction. A description of the instrument, and sorae preliminary
ranilta obtala«d by it. k given by him {MoiUUy NoHces R.A.S.,
IB-3M). IP.G1.J
nunA {mod. Tdeie), a town of the SamnltM, 24 m. N.W.
60m BcocvMfttunk it ponmata mnains of waUs in opus
ntkulaium, of a total length of over a mile; two iiucriptiofis
of tbe Repoblican period record the erection of towen. The
irmaiDS of hatha {Tkemut Sabmiatuie) and of an amphitheatre
Hilicsfst: and thedty was aupplfed with water by an aqueduct.
There ave sulphur sprmgi in the vfdnity, which may have sup-
plied the baths.
TBtEttLLA, Greek poetess, a native of Argos, one of the
so-called nine lyric muses. According to the traditional story,
when Cleomenes, king o( Sparu, invaded the land of the
Argives in 5x0 B.C., and slew all the males capable of bearing
annSy TelesOk, dreaed in men's clothes, put herself at the head
of the women and repelled an atuck upon the city of Argos.
To oommeniomte this exploit, a statue of the poetess, in the
act of putting on a helmet, with books lying at her feet, was
set up in the temple of Aphrodite at Argos. The festival
Hybrittiea or RndyrMiia^ in which men and women exchanged
dothcs, also celebrated the heroism of her female compatriots.
Herodotus (vl. 76) does not refer to the intervention of Tele-
silla, but mentions an orade which predicted that the female
should conquer the male, whence the tradition itseH may have
been derivML Further, the statue seen by Pausanias may not
have been intended for TelesiOa; H would equally represent
Ai^rodite, in her diaracter as wife of Arcs and a warlike god-
dess (the books, however, seem out of place). The Hyhrisftca,
again, was most probably a religions festival connected with
the worship o£ some androgynous divinity. Of Telesilla's
poems only two lines remain, quoted by the grammarian
Hephacstion, apparently from a Parthenion, or song Tor a
diorus of maidens.
See Pkunnias it ^ 8; Plutarch, Dt VirtiU. Muliaitm, 8;
Clement o( Alexandria, Stromala, iv. 19, p. 522; Bcrgk, PoeUu
Lyrici Graeci, iii.; and espedaUy Macao, Beradatus tv.-W., L 336
f oU. and notes.
TBLBSIO. BBRMAROniO (1509-1588), Italian philosopher
and natuni scientist, was bom of noble parentage &t Cosenza
near Naples in 1509. He was educated at Milan by his undo,
Antonio, himself a scholar and a poet of eminence, and after*
wards at Rome snd Padua. His studies induded all the wide
range of subjects, dassics, sdence and phitosophy, "which con-
stituted the curriculum of the Renaissance savants. Thus
equipped, he began his attack upon the medieval Aristotelianism
whidi then flourished in Padua and Bologna. Resigning to his
brother the archbishopric of Cosenia, offered to him by Pope
Pius IV., he began to lectuie at Naples and finally founded the
academy of Cosenza. In 1563, or perhaps two years later,
appeared his great work De Rtrum Natura^ which was followed
by a large number of sdentific and phUosophical works of sub-
sidiary importance. The heterodox views which he maintained
aroused the anger of the Church on behalf of its cherished
Aristotelianism, and a short time after his death his books
were placed on the Index.
Teleaio was the head of the mat South Italian movement which
protested against the accepted authority of abstract reason, and
_, the aeeds fnom which sprang the scientific methods of
Campaadla and Bruno, of Baoon and Ucscartes, with their widely
divergent results. He, therefore, abandoned the purely intellectuau
sphere and oropoMd an inquiry' into the data riven by the kum=>.
from which he ncld that an true knowledge really comes. Instead
of postulaiine matter and form, he bases existence on matter and
force. This force has two opposing dements: heat, which expands,
and cold, which contracts. These two processes account for all the
diverse form's and types of existence, while the mass on which the
force operates remams the same. The harmony of the whole con-
nsts in thb, that each sepfltrate thing develops in and for itself
in accordance with Its own nature while at the same time its motion
benefits the rest. The obvious defects of this theory, (i) that the
senses alone cannot apprehend matter itself, (a) that it b not clear
how the multiplicity of phenomena could result from these two
forces, and (3) that he adduced no evidence to substantiate the
existence of there two forces, were pointed not at the that by his
pupil, Patriui (see article 00 Patsizzi, FaANCESco). Moreover his
theory of the cold earth at rest and the hot sun in motion was
doomed to disproof at the hands <A Copernicus. At the same time,
the theory was sufficiently coherent to make a great imprssalDO on
Italian thought. When teleaio went on to explaio the rdatioo of
mind and natter, he was still more heterodox. Material forces
are. by hypothecs, capable of feeling: matter also must have been
from die first endowed with consciousness. For consdousness
exists, and could not have been developed out of nothing. Again,
the soul is influenced by material conditions; conseauently the
soul must have a material exiatenoc* He further held that all
knowledge is sensation (" non tatione scd sensu ") and that intelli-
gence is, therefore, an agglomeration of isolated dijita, given by the
senses. He does not. however, succeed in explaining how the wnses
akme can percd ve differenoe and identi^. At the end of his scheme,
prdnbly m deference to theolodcal preiudices, he added an eiemeat
which was utterly alien, .namely, a higher impulse, a soul superim-
posed by God, in virtue of which we strive beyond the world of
sense. The whde system of Telesio shows lacunae in aif:ument,
and ignorance of essential tacts, but at tbe same time it is a fof»
runner of all subsequent empiridsra, scientific and ^ilosopbical«
and marks clearly the period oif transition from authority and reason
to experiment and individual responsibility. Beside the De Rtrum
Nalura, he wrote De Somno, De kis quae in aere fiunt, De Mart,
De Cometis et CirenU LaUto, De usu- nsfiiMtumiSt &c.
TELBSPH0RU8, bishop of Rome from about 126 till about
137. St Irenseus says that be suffered martyrdom.
TELFORDt nOMAS (i7S7-*i834)( British dvO engineer,
was the son of a shepherd, and was bom at Wcsterkirk in
Eskdale, Dumfriesshire, on the gth of August 1757. From
eariy childhood be was employed as a herd, occasionally attend*
ing the parish school of Westerkirk, where his quickoess and
diligence hdped to make up for his lack of opportunity. On
bdng apprenticed, at the age of fifteen, to a stonemason at
langhoira, he found leisure not only to gun an acquaintance
with Latin, French hnd German, but to gratify his literary
tastes by a wide variety of reading. In his early manhood he
was much given to the writing of vctm: a poem of some length
on Eskdale appeared in 1784 in the Poelkai Musmmf published
at Hawick; under the signature oi '< Eskdsle Tam " he con>
tributed verses to Ruddiman's WeeUy Magnime; and he
addressed an epistle in rhyme to Bums, which was published
m James Currie's Life of the poet. In 1780 Tdford went to
Edinbuigh, iriiere he was emplqyed in the erection of houses
in the ** new ** Umtkf and occupied much of his spare time in
learning ardiitectural dmwing. Proceeding to Ixmdon two
years later, be fooiui employment in the erection of Somenet
House. Having in 1784 superintended the eiectioo of a house
for the commissioner at Portsmouth dockyard, he next repaired
the casde of Sir W. Pulteoey, member for Shrewsbury, who
conceived such a high opinion of his talents that he got him
made surveyor of public works for the county of Salop. In
1793 he was appointed engineer of the Ellcsmere canal, for
which he built the Chirk and Pont-y-CysyUte aqueducts, and
this work established his reputation as a canal engineer. He
was consulted in 1806 by the king of Sweden regarding the
construction of the GOta Canal, and, his plans baving been
adopted, he visited the country in 1810 to superintend some
of the more Important excavations. In the early years of the
19th century the question of improving the communications
in the Highlsnds of Scotland engaged the attention of the
government, snd Tdford was commissioned to report on the
matter. In consequence of his recommendations, he was
appointed enf^neer for the Caledonian Canal, which was begun
in 1804 and forms one of the largest but by no means the most
useful of his undertaking, and also for the construction of
920 miles of roads, a great part through very difficult country.
Of the numerous bridges built in this line of roads mention
may be specially made of that across the Tay at Dunkeld.
Subsequently he was employed on the hnprovement of the
road between Carlisle and Glasgow, which was undcitaken
as a result of a parliamentary inquiry in 1814, and be was
then entrusted with the execution of another scheme, of equal
magnitude and imporUnce with that in the Highlands of Scot-
land; for a system of roads through the more inaccessible parts
of Wales, which involved the erection of the magnificent
(
57+
TEUGNY— TELL, WILLIAM
tuspeBaioa bridge aooss the Menal Straits, begun in 1820, and
the Conway Bridge, begun in 182*. While his fame rests
chiefly on his road and canal engineering, and the erection
of the numerous bridges and a<iueducts which this involved,
he also did good work in harbour construction. The fisheries
and industries of Scotland benefited by the improvements he
effected at many of the harbours on the east coast; he con-
structed the St Katberine's Docks, London (finished in 1828);
and his last piece of professional work was a plan for the im-
provement of Dover harbour. Other achievements of his later
years were the drainage of the north level of the eastern Fen*
district, an area of 48,000 acres, and erection of the Dean
Bridge, Edinburgh, and of the Broomielaw Bridge, Glasgow.
He died on the 2nd of September 1854 in London, and was
buried in Westminster Abbey.
Telford was never marri<^. For twenty-one years he lived
at the Salopian coffee-house, afterwards the Ship Hotel, Charing
Cross, whence he removed to 24 Abingdon Street. He was a
fellow of the Royal Societies of London and of Edinburgh,
and was annually elected president of the Institution of Civil
Engineers from its foundation. He received the Swedish order
td knighthood of Guslavus Vasa.
Sec Telford's Memoirs, written by himseU ami edited by John
Rickman (1S38) : also Smiles's Lws of the EMpveen.
TfiUGNT, CHARLES DE (c. 1 535-1 57 >)> French soldier
and diplomat, belonged to a respected Huguenot family of
Rouerquc, and received an excellent training in letters and
arms at the house of Coligny. He was employed on several
peace missions; he represented the Protestants before the king,
and was entrusted by Cond£ with the presentation of his terms
to the queen-mother in 1567, and in the following year he
assisted at. the conference at Ch&Ions and signed the peace of
Longjumeau, which was destined to be of short duration. On
the outbreak of war, he took part in the siege of Poitiers,
directed an unsuccessful attack on Nantes; lought bravely
under Coligny at Moncontour, and participated in the negotia*
lions ending in the treaty of Saint-Germain (8th of August
X570). In 157 X he retired to La Rochelle and married Louise
de Coligny, but was speedily recalled to Paris to serve on the.
bi-partisan commission of adjustment. Althou^ he won the
special favour of Charies IX., he was one of the first victims
in the massacre of St Bartholomew's Day (24th of August
1572). His remains were taken to the Castle of T^ligny in
161 7, but eight years later were thrown into the river by the
bishop of Castres.
TELU WILUAM. The story of William TeU's skill !n shoot-
ing at and striking the apple which Jiad been placed on the
bead of his little son by order of Gessler, the tyxannicai Austrian
bailiff of Uri, is so closely bound up with the legendary history
of the origin of the Swiss Confederation that they must be coa«
sidered together. Both appear ixst in the xjth century, pro*
bably as results of the war for the ToiggenbuiK inheritance
(1436*50); lor the intense hatred of Austria, gteatiy increased
by her support of the claims of ZOcich, favoured the circulation
of stories which assumed that Swiss freedom was of inuBemorial
antiquity, while, as the war was largely a struggle between the
civic and rural elements in the Confederation, the notion that
the (rural) Schwyzers were of Scandinavian descent at once
separated them from and raised them above .the German in-
habiunts of the towns.'
The Teli story is first found in a baUad the first nine stanzas
of which (containing the story) were certainly written before
X474i There Is, no mention made of the names of the bailiff
or of his master, or ol the hat placed on a pole. Tell is called
" the. first Confederate," and his feat is treated as the real and
only reason why the Confederation was formed and the tyrants
driven out of the land. It is probably to this baUad that
Mdchior Russ of Lucerne (who began his ChronicU in 1482]
refers when, in his account (from Justinger) of the evil deeds of
the bailiffs in the Forest districts, he excuses himself from giving
the story. He goes on to narrate how Tell, irriuted by his
treatment, stined up H -•st the governor, who
seised and bound him and was conve3ring him by boat to hit
castle on the lake of Lucerne, when a storm arose, and 'Tell,
by reason of his great bodily strength, was, after being un-
bound, gi^en charge of the rudder on his promise to bring the
boat safely to land. He steers it towards a Sh^ o£ rock, called
in Russ's time TeU's Platte, springs on shore, shoots the bailiff
dead with his crossbow, and goes back to Uri, where he stirs
up the great strife which ended in the battle of Morgartea. In
these two accounts, which form the basis of the Un version of
the origin of the Confederation, it is Tell and Tell only who is
the actor and the leader. We first hear of the cruelties ol
Austrian baih'ffs in the Forest districts in the Bernese Chronicle
of Conrad Justinger (1420). No names or details axe given,
and the dates are different in the two recensions of the QkromcU
as "olden days before Bern was founded " (t.^. before 1191)
and 1260. Several details, but only one name, are added in the
Dc NobUitate tt RusticitaU Diclogtu (cap, 33) of FeKx Hemmerli,
a canon of Zurich, who wrote it after 1451 and befofe 4454; in
this last year he was imprisoned by the Scbwyaen, whmn be had
repeatedly insulted and atUcked in his books. According to
him the men of Schwyz and of Unterw^den were the first
to rise, those of Uri following suit much later But neither
Justinger nor Hemmerli makes any allusion to Tell or bis feat.
The Tell story and the " atrocities " story are 'first found
combined in a MS. known as the Wkiu Book of Somen, They
arc contained in a short chronicle written between 1467 and
X476, probably about 1470, and based on oral tradition. Many
detaOs are given of the oppressions of the bailiffs: we hear of
Gessler, of the' meeting of Stoupacher of Schwyx, Flirst of Uri,
and a man of Nidwalden at the RUtli, -in fact, the usual version
of the legend.' To give an instance of tyranny in Uri, the author
tells us the story of the xefusal of " der ThiUl " to do reverence
to the hat placed on a pole, of his feat of skill, and of his shooting
the bailiff, Gessler, from behind a bush in the " hollow way "
near KOssnacht. Tell. is represented as being one of those who
swore at the Rtttli to drive out the oppressors; but the narrative
of his doings is merely one incident in the general movement
which began quite independently of him. The chronology is
very confused, but the events are placed after Rudolf's election
to the empire in 1273. This is the only aooount in vhidi Tell
is called " der ThfiU," which name he himself explains by saying,
" If I were sharp iijoitzig) I should be called something dse and
not der Tall," i,e. the simpleton or slow-witted man. (It is
worthy of notice that the same tneaning is attributed to the
name of Tokko, the hero of a similar legend in Gheyamer's
abridgment of the Historia J>anua of Saxo Gramaaticus,
which may, somehow, haVe influenced the Swiss version.)
The only other known instances of the Uri version of the legend
relating to the origin of the Confederation are the Latin hexa-
meters of Glareanus (151 5), in which Tell is compared to Brutus
as " assertor patriae, vindez ultorque tyrannnm," and the
Urnerspiel (composed in 1511-12), a play acted in Uri, in which
Russ's version is followed, thou^.the bailiff, who is unnamed,
but announces that he has been sent by Albert of Austria, is
slain in the " hollow way.'! Tell is the chief of the ROtli leaguers,
and it is his deed which is the immediate occasion of the rising
against the oppressors, which is dated in 1296. MuUus (1540)
is the latest writer who, in his description of the origin of the
Confederation, does not mention Tell and his act. The two
stories are now firmly bound together; the version contained
in the White Book is the accepted one, though small additions
in names and dates are often made.
The task of filling up gaps, smoothing away fncosttstencies,
roupding off the tale, was accomplished by Giles Tschudi iq.t.),
whose recension was adopted, with a- few alterations, by
Johannes von MfiHer in his TTistory of the Confederation (1780).
In the final recension of Tschudi's Ckronide (1734-36), which,
however, differs in many particulars from the original draft
still preserved at Ziirich, we are told how Albert of Austria,
with the view of depriving the Forest lands of their ancient
freedom, sent bailiffs (among them Gessler) to Uri and Schw>'z,
who committed many tyrannical acts, so that finally ou
TELL, WILLIAM
575
Sth Novtmber 1307, aft tiie Kat]|» Wmeff voti SikuBMcket t£
Schwyz, Walter FOat of Uri, Arnold <von Melcfathal in VnUx-
walden, each with ten compuiions, aiBoiig whom -was Williaa
TcU, xcMitvedon a tmng to axpd tba oppresaocs, wliicb waa fiaed
for New Ycai'a Bay 1308. A few daya later (November 18)
tht Tell inddeut takea place (deaaibed according to the White
Ba9k venion), and on the appointed date the general rising.
Tschudi thoa finally lettled the date, which had befoxe varied
imn 1260 to 1334. He utterly distoru the real historical
relationa of the Three Landa, though he bcingB m many real
faittofical namca, their ownen being made to pcrfaon hiatoricaUy
impoiiible acta, and introducca many nail additions and
oorrectiona into the atoiy aa he had tfeocived it. In particular,
while in hia fint draft he epeahs of the bailiff aa Giysakr— the
nuial name up to hia time, eaoqit in the WkUe Book and in
StOflBpff'a Ckntmrie of X94A--in faia final recension |ie calls him
Csmler, Jmowfag that thit wis a real name. Later writers
added a few more partiDUhBi^— that Tell lived at Btbglen and
fooght at Moigarten (rspS), that be waa the soa4a-Jaw of FOrst
and had two sons (early tSth century), &c. Johannes von
Ifidler (1780) gave a vivid description of the oath at the Rtttli
by the three (Tell not being counted hi), and threw Tschndi's
vcBlon inio a literary fdtn, adding one or two names and
adopting that of Hemasm for Geaslcr, callmg him of " Brunedu"
Schiller's play (1804) gave the tale a worid>»wide renown.
The story was, on the gvomd of want of evidmce^ reguded
as suspieioas by Guilliman in a private letter of 1607, and
doubts were e ap wa s ed by the brothers Iselin (rraj and r754)
and by Vohafa« (r754); but it waa not till 1760 that the l^nd
was definitely attacked, en the ground of ita similaiity to the
story of Ibkko (see bdow), m an anonymous pamphlet by
Freudenbeiger, « Bernese pastor. This caused great stir; it
was pttbHcly bwnt by older of the government of Urf, and many
mote or las foiged proofii and documenta were {noduced ip.
favoor'of Tell. The rcseanchea of J. E. Kopp {t/rkunden wr
Cexkichfe 4. eidgmBsMsekm BihtiOt a parts, 1835 and t8$i, and
Ctsduchle ier eidgmifssisekm BUnde, voL ii., 1847), first cleared
op the real eariy history of the league, and overthrew the legends
of the While Book and TschudL Since then many writezs have
worked in the same direction. ViKher (1867) baa carefully
traced out the successive steps In the growth of the kgend, and
Rodihols (r877) has worieed out the real Mstoiy of Gessler as
shown in authentic documents. The general zesult has been to
show that a mythdogical msrkwnan and an Impossible bailiff
bearing the name of a real family have been johied with con-
ftised and distorted reminiscences of the events of 1245-47,
In which the names of many real persons have been inserted
and many unauthenticated acta attributed to them. Th. von
Liebenau has, however, shown ^in an article reprinted from the
Kaikolische SckweiserhUUler in the BoUdiino St&rico deila Stixatra
JtaHana for 1899) that in x^Sj the Emperor Rudolf of Habsburg
gave the rij^t of receiving the tolls for escort over the St
Gotthard Pass to his sons, the dukes of Austria. The levying
of these toUs gave rise to variofis disputes between the men of
Uri and the bailiffs of the dukes of Austria, and by 23x9 (if not
already in r309> the claim to levy them was silently given up.
These facts show (what could not hitherto be proved) that at
the time when legend places the raing of Uri, Tell exploit, &c.,
die dukes of Austria really had disputes with Uri
The story of the skilful marksm&n who succeeds in striking
some small object placed on the bead of a man or child is very
widely spread: we find it in Denmark (Tokko), Norway (two
versions), Iceland, Holstein, on the Rhine, and in England
(WHliam of Cloudesley). How it came to be localised in Uri we
do iK>t know; possibly, through the story of the Scandinavian
colonisation of Schwyz, the tale was fitted to some real local
heio.
The alleged proofs of the existence of a real William Tcfl in
Uri in the r4th century break down hopelessly, (t) The entries
In the parish registers are forged (2) As to the Tell chapels—
(a) that in the " hollow way " near Kfhsnacht was not known
to Mdchior Ruas and is first mentfoned by TiKfaudf (r572).
(6) That oi^Tdl's Platte is fiat mcntiened in XSC4. Thedocn-
BMikt wluch aUeges that this Chapel was built }^ order of a
" landqgemetnde " held in 1388, at which 114 men wnre present
who had been personaUy acquainted irith TeU, was never heatd
of till 1759. The procession in boats to the place where the
chapel stands may be very old, but is not connected with Tdl
till about 1582. (c) The chapel at Bttxglen is known to have
been founded in X582. Other documents and statements in
support of the Tell stoiy have even less chum to credit. It has
been pointed out above that with two exceptions the bailiff
is alw^rs called Giysslef or Orisslef, and it was Tid)ud! who
popularized the nam* of Gessler, though Giisiler occurs as
late as 1765. Now Genler Is the name of a real family, the
histoiy of which from i2$o to x 5x3 has been worked out by
Rochhols, who shows h» detafl that xio member ever played the
part attriboted to the baHlfl in the legend, or ooidd have done
so, and that the Gcsslexs oould not have owned or dwelt at the
castle of Kttasaacht; nor oouhl they have been called Von
Bmnedc
In the t/^merr^ the name of the iiaOiff's servant who guarded
the hat on the pole is given as Heintz V<igely, ahd we know that
Friedxich VOgeli was the name of one of the dilef military
oflSceis of Peter von Hagenbach, who from 1469 to 1474 ad^
ministered for Charles the Bold, duke of Brngoady, the hmds
(Alsace, &c.) pledged to him by Stgtenund of Habsburg. Now
Hagenbach is known to have committed many crudties Hkt
those attributed to the baihffs in the legend, and it has been
I^ausibly conjectured that his case has ivally given rise to these
stories, especially when we find that the Confedemtes had a
hand m his capture and executiott, that in a document of 1358
Hagenbachs and Gesders appear side hy side as witnesses, and
that the Hagenbachs had frequent tnmsactictas with the Habs-
buxgs and their vassals. .
In general see two excellent worica by Franz Heinemann, TeU-
Iconotrapkie, Lucerne. 1902 (reproductions, with text, of the chief
representationa of TeU ia art from 1507 oawvda), and TeU-Biblio-
^apkie (inchiding that of Schiuer'a play), published in 1906 at
Among the vast number of books and pamphlets on the Tell
story, the two moat to be recommended are W. Viacher, the Sagt
VM der Befreimti dor WoidstMtU (Leipdg. 1867), and E, L. Roebhota.
TeU mtd Cesskr, with a volume of documents 1250-15 Y3 (HcilfaCMm.
1877). Convenient summaries of the controversy wiifbe found in
any modern book on Swiss history, and more particularly in C. von
Wyss. Uher d. Gesck. d. drei Ldnder—Uri, Schwyt, ». Untervniden
-"•indenJehmt 1212-1315 (Zarich, 1858); Alf. Huber, Die WeUtUUk
bu mrfesten BeffUndunt mrtr Eidmatenensekaft.mii einem Amkcmn
...._ .f. ..„...r... . §uii^g^ ia jjr^jk. j-^ (Innsbruck, 1861);
kuUAfe et
^-- \^-Gov^A, Cvrious
Myths 0/ the MiddU Ages^ ch. v. (new edidbtt, Loncloo. 1884).
The setting up in X895 ux the market-place in Altdorf of a line
statue (by the Swiss sculptor Richard Kissling) of Tell and his son,
and the opening in 1899 just outside Altdorf of a permanent
theatre, wherein Schiller's play is to be represented every Sunday
during the summer months, show that the popular belief in the
TeU legend is stiU strong,^ despite its utter demoUtion at the hands
of a succession of scientific Swiss historians during the 19th
ccntaty. A. Gisler of Ahdorf (in his book, Die Tdifra^e, Bern,
1895) has also made an attempt to rehabilitate it from the
purely histoxical point of view. He is wcU acquainted with aU
the researches that have been made, but tries to save TeU's
refusal to do reverence to the hat, his leap from the boat in the
lake, and his slaying of the bailiff in the ** hollow way." To
effect the rescue of these incidents, he boldly adxnits the forgeries
in the registers, abandons aU the traditional dates, throws over
Tschudi's account, and regards the shooting by TeU of the apple
from his son's head as an " ornamental addition " to the tale.
Save a mention of the TeD chapel on " TeUsplatte" m 1^04
(the first known before was that by Tschudi in 1572)1 and a
proof that the pilgrimages to Barglen and Steinen had nothing
to do with *' St KOmmemiss," as her images are preserved In
the parish churches of those villages, whereas the pilgrims go
to the chapds therein, he brings forward no new evidence. His
book is a striking proof that the popular TeU legend cannot
576
TELL EL AMAIUSTA— TELLICHERRY
claim the sui^xxt oi ant&entlc history, whQe .his attempt to
find room for the aUocities of the wicked bailiffs dsewhere
than at Altdorf consists only in suggi^ting an intricate aeries
of possibilities, none of which are supported by any. positive
evidence.
In his pamphlet Die Sagen v. TeU u. Stauffadter (Basef, 1899)
August Berooulli, and in his elaborate Gesckiehk d. SckweU. PoltUk
(vol. L Frauenfdd, 1906) J. SchoUenberger. have applied the same
fort of method, but without attaining any greater deme of htS"
torical success. . (W. A. B. C.)
TELL EL AMARNA, the name now given to a collection of
ruins and rock tombs in Upper Egypt near the east bank of the
Nile, s8 m. by river below .Assiut and 190 m. above Cairo. The
niins are those of Ekhaton (Akhet-Aton), a dty built c X360 b.c.
by Akhenaton (Amenophis IV.) as the new capital ol his empire
(in place of Thebes) when he abandoned the worship of Anunon
and devoted himself to that. of Aton, i.e, the sun (see Egypt:
Histdry, \ AncierU), jShortly after the death of Akhenaton the
court returned to Thebes, and the dty, after an existence of
perhaps -only .twenty years— of fifty yvu% at the utmost—was
abandoned, . Not having been . inhabited since, the lines of
the streets and the ground-plans of many buildings can still
be traced.. The chief ruins are those of the royal palace and
of the House of the Rolls; there are scanty remains of the great
temple. In the palace are four pavements of painted stucco
work in fair preservation. They were discovered ia xSgi-pa
by Prof. Flinders Petrie (see his r«tf ^ Amarna, 1894). In the
Rolls House were discovered in 1887 by the fellahin some 300
clay tablets inscribed with cuneiform characters. They are
letters and state docimients addressed to Amenophis IV. and his
father, from the kings of Babylon, Assyria, &c, and from the
Egypdan governors in Syria and neighbouring districts. The
greater part of them were purchased for the Berlin Museum,
but a large number were secured for the British Museum.
Their contents proved invaluable for the reconstruction of the
history, social and political, of fgypt and Western Asia during
that period.
Hewn out of the sides of the hills wliich dose in on the east the
plain on Which Ekhaton stood are two groups of tombs; one
group lies xi m, N.E., and the oxhes 3 m. S. of the dty. The
toaibs, an of which belong to the time of Akhenaton, are fuU of
Interesting scenes in the peculiar style of the period, accompanied
by hynms to the sun god. The most important tomb is, perhaps,
that of Meri-Ra, high priest of the sun, which has a facade
neariy xoo ft. long and two large chambers. On one of the walla
of the main chamber is depicted the scene, now well known, in
which a blind choir of harpists and singers celebrate the arrival
of the court at the temple. In the early centiuies of Moslem
rule in Egypt the northern tombs were inhabited by (^ts,
one tomb, that of Pa-Nehesi, being turned into a church. In a
ravine opening iiito the pUin between the north and south
tombs, and some seven miles from the dty, is a tomb supposed
to be that of Akhenaton.
The tombs and the great stdae sculptured on the cliffs which <
mark the bounds of the city of Akhct-Aton have been the ob|ect
of special study by N. de G. Davies on behalf of the Archaeological
Survey of Ecypt. The results, with numerous ptates and plans,
are embodied in a series of memoirs, Back Tonu>s 9J El Amarna
(six parts, 1903-8).
For the tablets tetTtUd Amarna Tablets in ike Britisk Museum
(1892); C. Beaold. Oriental Diplamacy: the tmnslilerated text of
tht Cuneiform Despatches iiscofered al Tell el Amarna (1893) ; Tke Tel
el Amarna Letters (English translation by M. Wlnckfer, BerKn,
«896); J. A. Knudt2on, Die El- A mama Tafein (Leipzig. 1907-9);
W. M. F. Petrie, Syria and Egypt from the T^ el Amarna Letters
^(1898).
TELLER, ^ WUHBLV ^ ABRABAM * (i 734-1804), (krmaa
Protestant divine, was bom at Ldpdg on the 9th of January
X734. His father, Romanus Teller (1703-1750), was a pastor at
Leipzig, and afterwards became professor of theology in the
university. He edited the earlier volumes of a Bibdvxrh
(19 vols,, X749-70) which was dcs'"'"*^ -- -•* -Captation for
German readers of the exegeti' -ew WUIct,
Henry Ainsworth, Symon Patr Matthew
Henry and others. WiDidm Abriham studied phikiopfay
and theology in the uaiveiBity of his native town. Amongst
the men whose influence nudnly . determfaied his theological
podtion and line Jof work was J. A. Emesti Teller's writings
present rationalism in its course of development from biblieil
supematuralism to the borders of ddstiral natttralisni. His
first learned production was a Latin translation of Benjamin
Kennlcott's Dissertaiiam on Ike SlaU ej Ike FrnUed Hebrew Text
of Ike Old Testament (X756), lAdch was Mowed the next year by
an essay in which he expounded his own critical principles Iv
X76r he was appointed pastor, professor of theology and seneial
superintendent in the' university of Hdmstedt. - Here he pur-
sued his exegetical, theological, and historical researches, the
results of which appeared in his Lekrhmck det ckristUcken Gkmkdu
(1764). This work caused some oomiDotion, aa nmch by the
novdty of Its method as by the heterodoxy of its-matter, and
more by its omissions than by -its posttivc teaching, though
everywhere the author seduto put theoiogical doctrines in a
deddedly modem form. , In 1767 Tdler, whose attitude had
made his position at Hdmstedt intolerable, iras |M to accept
an invitation from the Prussian mini&ter lor ecdeaiastical
affairs to the post of provost of KCQn, with a seat in the su pie me
consistory of BerUn. Here he found himself in the tott ip aay of
the rationalistic theologians of Prusaiar-F. S. G.. Sack
(1738-18x7), Johaim Joachim Spalding (x 714-1804) and otheis
—and became one of the leaders of the ratiooalistic party,
and one of the chief contributors to C. F. Nicolai's AUgitmemt
Deutsche BiUiatbek. Tdler was not long in making use ol Us
freer position in Berlin^ In 1772 appeared the most popular of his
books, WSrterbuck des Neuen TesUmenUszm ErUHrmgdertkris^
lichen Lehre (6th ed., 1805). The object of this worit was to secsst
the language and ideas of the New Testament and give them the
form of x8th-centuxy illuminism. The author maintafaiB that the
Graeco-Hebraic expressions must not be interpreted litenlly,
but explained in terms intelligible to the modem mind. By this
lexicon Tdler had put himself amongst the nuist advanced
rationaIists» and his opponents charged him with the desiga
of overthrowing podtive Christianity altogether. In 1786 the
author became a member of the Berlin AcadenQr of Scien c es.
The " WOUner edict " of July 9> 1788, for the enforcement of
Lutheran orthodoxy, and Tdler's manly action, aa member of
the oonsistorial council, in defiance oi it (d. his Waklg^meinte
EHnnerungen, 1788), led the Prusdan government to pass upon
him the sentence of suspendoii for three months, with forfdture
of his stipend. He was not, however, to be moved by so^
means, and (179a) issued his work Die Rdigion der Vellkom'
meneren, an expodtion of his theological podtion, m which he
advocated at lepgth the idea, subsequent^ often urged, of
" the perfectibility of Christiam'ty,"— that is, of the ultimate
transformation of Christiaiuty into- a scheme of simple morality,
with a complete rejection of all specifically Christian ideas and
methods. This book represents the culminating point of
German Ulumixiism, and is separated by a long process of
devdopment from the author's Lekrbmh. In the same year
ht published his Anleitung xur Religion Hherhaupl und ttm
AUgemeinen des Chrislentkums besonders; fiir die Jugetid hOkertr
und gebildeter Stdnde alter JUiigumsparteien. Tdler died on the
9th' of December 1804. Besides his contributions to the
AUgemeine Deutsche Bibliotkek, he edited a popular and practi-
cally usdul MagaxinJUr Prediger (X79J-X801),
See W. Gass, Ceschu^ der proleslanttschen DotmaHi, >v. pp. 206-
322; P. Wolff, art. in Herzog-Hauck, Realencjfklopddie (ed. 1907):
Hdnrich D6ring, Deutsche Mnadredner des iSten wtd listen Jahrk.
p, 506 seq. : Edward Pusey. Causes of tke Late Nationalistic Ckaneier
of German Theology (i8a8), p. 150; and cf. the article in the
AUgemeine Deutsche Biographies
TELUCHERRT, a seaport of British India', in the Malabar
district of Madras, between (^nanore and the French settle-
ment of Mahe. Pop. (1901) 27,883. It is a healthy and
picturesque town, built upon a group of wooded hUls nmning
down to the sea, and is protected by a natural breakwater of
rock. The Iowa with its suburbs occupies about 5 sq. m., and
was at one time defended by a strong mud walL The old fort
TELLURIUM— TEMESVXr
Still stands to the DoitJi of the tomi. The East India Compoiy
cttiMwhed > factoty here in 1683 for the pepper and csrdsinom
timde. For two yean (17S0-43) the town withstood a liege by
Ryder's general, and u the sabseqnmt wars with Mysore
TeUicheiTy was the base of operations for the ascent of the Ghats
fron (he west coast. The town is a busy centre of export trade
in coffee, ooco-nnt pioducci spices and sandal>wood. The
Basel Protestant mission has a sUtion here. The municipality
manages the Brennen ooHege founded in 1863.
TBLLURIUM [Symbol Te^ atomic weight 197*5 (0««i6)], a
chemical clement, found to a certain extent in nature in the
uncombined condition, but chiefly ib combination with other
metals in the form of tdluiides, stK*h, for example, as sylvanhe,
black telluiium, and tetiadymite. Small quantities are oc-
casionally met with in iron pyxUxM, and hence teHurium is found
with selenium in the flue dust, or chamber deposits of sulphuric
add worlu. Telhuium was first recognised as a distinct ele-
ment in 179S by M. H. Klaproth. It may be obtained by
heating tellurium b&muth with sodium carbonate, lixiviating
the fused mass with water, filtering, and exposing the filtrate
to aiTt when the teUurium is gradually predpttated as a grey
powder (J. J. Berzefius). J. Farbaky {ZeU. engew. Chem.^ 1897,
p. 11) extracts the dement from black tdlurium as foflows: —
The ore b boiled with ooncentnted sulphuric add, the solution
diluted, hydrochloric add added and the tellurium (together
with sdenhun) predpitAtcd by sulphur dioxide and the process
repeated when a purer tellurium is obtained.* B. Bnuner
(JfaiMlr., 1889, xo, p. 414) recommends the foDowIng method
for the purification. The crude dement is treated with aqua
regia and then cvapoiated with an excess of hydrochloric add,
the solution diluted and the tellurium precipitated by a current
of sulphur dioxide. The precipitated tellurium is then fused
with potassium cyanide, thie mdt extracted with water and the
clement precipitated by drawing a current of air through the
solution and finally disdlled in a current of h3rdrogett.
Tellurium is a brittle silvery-white element of specific gravity
6- 27. It mdto at 45a* C. and boils at 478* C. (F. Kraft, Ber.,
19C>5> 3^1 P* 4344)- When heated in a current of hydrogen it
sublimes in the form of brilliant prismatic crystals. An amor-
phous form is obtained when tellurium is predpitated from its
solutions by sulphur dioxide, this variety having a specific
gravity 6-0x5. When heated in air, tellurium bums, forxning
the dioxide TeOi. The element is insoluble m water, but
dissolves in ooncentxuted sulphuric add forming a deep red
solution.
Like sulphur and adenlum, tellurium combines directly irith
hydrogen to form t^uretted k^rogen, TcHs, an extremely objection-
able amelUng and lughly poisonous gas, which was fint prepared
by Sir H. Davy in 1810. It is best obtained by decomposing
■letalUc telluridoa with mineral acids. It is soluble in water, the
solution gradually decomposing with deposition of tellurium; it
alao decomposes on exposure to light. It burns, and also, like
sulphuretted hydrogen, prectpiutes many metals from solutions ci
their nits. It may be hquehed, the Uouid boiline at o* C, and on
further cooling, it solidi6es, the solid melting at -48* C Many tellti-
rides of metals have been examined by C. A. Tiobals (7aiif. Amur.
Ckem. Soc.. 190Q, 31, p. 902) who obtained the sodium and potassium
tellurides by the direct union of thdr component dements and
others from these by pradpitatioo. The tellurides of the alkali
metals tmrocdiatdy daconpose oa exposure to air, with libera-
tion of tdlurium. Two chlorides are known, the dickUmde^ TeCl*.
and the UlracUerid*, TeCI*. They are both obtained by passing
chlorine over tellurium, the product bdng separated by aistilla-
tion (the tetrachloride is the leas vobtite). The dichloride is an
amorphous, readily fusible, almost black solid. It is decomposed
by water with formation of tellurium and teHuroua and:
2Tca,+8H|0-Te+H,TeO,-f4HCL The tetrachloride b a white
crystalline solid which is formed by the action of chlorine on the
dkhkmde or by sulphur chloride on the element. It meks at
sa4* C and is exceeduigty hygroscopic. Water decomposes it with
formation ^of telluraus add and other produces. It combines
directly with sulphur trioxide to form a complex of composi*
tion Tea«-2S0i. The tetrabromtde similaHy gives TeOBrr»Oi
(W. Prandtl. ZeU. anorg. Chem., X909, 6a, p. 237). Iodides are also
fcnowtt.
Two oxides of the element are definitely known, \iz., the dinide,
TcOh. and the tri4fxide, TeO.. whilst a monoxidt, TeO. has also been
described. The dioxide is formed by buraing teUurium in air or
577
bv waraaiag it with nitife add. It is a cokMiriess crystalline solid
which readily fuses to a yellow liquid. The tiioside is an orange*
coloured solid which is formed wiioi tdluric acki is stroogW boated.
TtUurous acid, HtTeOa, is obuincd when the tetrachloride is de-
composed by water, or on dissolving tellurium in nitric acid and
pouring the solution into water. It is a colourless solid and behaves
as a dibasic add. The alkaline teUurites are soluble in water. It
also gives rise to •upcr«add salts, such as KHTeOrHtTeOii
KiTeOj STcOi. TcUunc acid, HtTd34. is obtained in the form of
Its salts when tdlurium is fused with potasdum carbonate and
nitre, or by the oxidizinr action of chlorine on a tdlurite in alkaline
solution. The fice acid may be obtained by AM.>—|Mf *t« y the
barium salt with sulphuric add and coooentiating the solutioo*
when a crystalline mass oi composition HiTeOTzTl^O separates.
It b also formed when the dioxide b oxidized by hydrogen per>
oxide in caustk potash solution (A. Cutbier, Zetl. anorg. Chem.,
i^fi4t 40k p. ate), ami perhaos best ol all by wridiiiag teUarium
with a nuxtuce ol nitnc and chromic ackls. It cmtallises in
prisms, which lose their water of oystalUzatioo at x6o* C. The
teOurates of the alkali metab are more or less soluble In water,
those of the other metab bdng very sparingly or almost, tnioluble
in water. Soaie teUum,tes exist in two foma, a colourless form
soluble in water and adds, and a yellow form iosoUible in water
and acids. An oxychbride of tellurium has been described, but the
investigations of V. Lenher (Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1909, 31,
p. 20) seem to negative its enstence.
A considerable amount of work has beea done ott determinations
of the atomic wdght of telluriuin, the earlio' resulu giving the
value ia8. According to its position in the periodic dusin^tioa
of the elements one would expect its atomic wdght to be less than
that of iodine, instead of approximately equal, and on thb account
many efforu have been made to isohte another dement from
teUurium compounds* but none have aa yet been sttccessfuL Recant
investiaations of the atomic weight are due to C. GaUo (il/ls. R.
Acad. Jjncei, 1005 fiv.}, I4,_pp. I, 23. 104), who, by a determination
of the dectrocnemlcal eqwvalent of the element, arrived at the
__ . ^- . '"jtbier (Aim., tm, 34a, p. a66) by reduction
loed xa7-6; Marckwald, bydetenniniaB the
: to teUurium dioxide, obtained ia6-8^rH. B.
value I27'«i; A. Gutbier (Amn.,
of the dioxide obtained
ratio of teUuric add to tc«»..u» .ro, ^m^uuu^m *Mwp. n. ».
Baker (Jour. Chem. Soe., 1907, 91, p. 1819), by determining the
ratio of tellurium dioxide to oxygen and by analysis of tellurium
tctfa bromi d e, obtahied x^y-fio, and V. Lenher {Jomr. Amer. Ckem.
Soc, 1900, 3^1, p. 30). by heating the double salt, TeBr«'2KBr,
first in (Atonne and ftnaUy in a current of hydrochloric add to
convert it into potassium chloride, obtained the value 127*5^
P. E. Browning and W. R- Flint {Amer. J. Sci., 1909 (iv.), 28, p. 347)
claim to have separated two substances (of atomic weights t26'49
and I28'8s respectively) from teUurium, by fractional predpitatkNl
of teUurium chloride with water, but in the opinion of H. B. Baker
thb would seem to point to the fact that the teUurium used was
insufiidently purified, since hb work showed that there was no
difference btt w ean the first and last fractions (see Ckem. Soc Aim.
sup., 1900. 6k pL 39). Matdcwaki {fier., X903, 36. p. 3662) showed
that the Joachimsthal pitchUende yidds telluriam and a mioute
quantity of the strongly radioactive pobnium which b predpitated
by bismuth (see RADiOACTiviTy).
TELUOU» one of the five great Dravidlan languages. The
word b probably derived from Trilinga ("the three Hngat of
Siva), a name for the old Hindu kingdom of Andhra. It was at
one time caOcd by Etiropeans " Gentoo," from a Portuguese
word meaning (kntile. The Tdugu-speaking peoples are
partly subjects of the nizam of Hyderabad and partly under
British rule, beginning north of Madras dty and extending
N.W. to BeUary, where Tdugu meets Kanarese, and N.E to
near Orissa. They are taller and fairer than the Tamib, other-
wise they are of typical Dravidlan features. They are an enter-
prising people, good farmers and skilful seamen. They formed
the greater part of the early Madras or '* coast '* army, whence
sepoys even in Bengal were formerly called telingas. In 1901
the number of speakers of Tdugu in ^ India was nearly twenty-
o ne mini ons.
TKHBU (Ama-Tembu), popularly called TambookJes; one
of the most powerful of Kaffir tribes, who have given their name
to Tembuland, a division of Cape Colony which lies south-west
of Griqualand East. In Kaffir genealogy they hold an honour-
able portion, being traditionaUy descended from Tembu, elder
brother of Xoea, from whom most "Kaffirs** daun descent
(see Kaffirs).
TEMENOS (Gr. rl^icivr, rl/nviy, to cut), the Creek term in
archaeology given to a piece of land whidi forms the enclosure
of a temple , or sanctuary.
TEHESVilt, the capital of the county of Teto*« '*'"* *
x88 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900)
578
TEMPE-TEMPBRANCE
CO the navigable B^ ami aad on the river B^ga, and consists
4A the inner town, fonnerly uiooffy fortified, and of four out-
lytsg suburbs. SeveiaJ parks have been laid oot on the site
of the broad glads which formerly separated Tcmesvar from
its soburb», which are now united with it by broad avenues.
Tcmesvar is the seat of a Roman Catholic and a Greek Orthodox
bishop. Amongst its principal buildings are the Roman
Catholic cathedral, built (1735-57) by Maiia Theresa; the
Greek Ofthodoz cathedral; a castle built by Hunyady Janos
in 1442, now used as. an aisenal; the town and county hall,
the museum and huge barracks. In the prindqpal square rises
a Gothic column, 40 ft. high, erected by the Emperor Francis
Joseph in 1S51 to commemorate the successful resistance of
the town to the siege of 107 days laid by the Hungarian
Mvolutionaiy army in 1849. Temesv&r is the most important
centre of commerce and industry of south Hungary, and
carries on a brisk trade in grain, 6our, spirits and horses. Its
industrial esublishments indude factories for tobacco, doth,
matches, leather, artificial mantire, besides breweries and
distilleries.
Temesvir is an oid town, and although destroyed by the
Tatars in 124>» it was a populous place at the beginning of
the 14th century, and was strongly fortified by King Charles
Robert of Anjou, who resided here several years. The Hunyady
family had also their residence here. Ini 5 14 the peasant leader,
Stephan Dozsa, was defeated by the Transylvanian vmvod, John
ZApolya, near Temcsv&r, captured and executed. Unsuccess-
fully besieged by the Turks in 1552, it was captured by them
in the following year after a heroic resistance. It remained in
thdr hands untU 1716, when it was liberated by Prince Eugene
of Savoy. New strong fortifications were erected, and the
town grew steadily in importance, serving as the capital of the
whole Banat. It endured another siege in 1849, when it re-
sisted successfully the attacks of a Hungarian revolutionary
army.
TBlfPB. VALB OF, the andent name (f.e. "deft," from Gr.
rifuwp, to cut) of a narrow valley m N. Thessaly, through which
the river Peneus (mod. Salambria) reaches the sea. The valley,
which the Greeks were accustomed to associate with rural
delighU, is a chasm, doven in the rocks, the fable tells us, by
the trideht of Poseidon, between Olympus and Ossa; but
though it possesses every element of the sublime, yet its features
are soft and beautiful, from the broad winding river, the
luxuriant vegetation, and the glades that at inter\^ open out
at the foot of the cliffs. It is about four miles and a half long,
and towards the middle of the pass, where the rocks are highest,
the predpices la the direction of Olympus fall so steeply
as to bar the passage on that side; but those which descend
from Ossa are the loftiest, for they rise in many places not less
than 1500 ft< from the valley. Owing to the length and narrow-
ness of the ravine, it was a position easily defended, but stiU it
offered a practicable entrance to an invading force; a number
of castles (of which the ruins still exist) were built at different
times at the strongest points. Tempe was sacred to Apollo,
to whom a temple was erected on the right bank. Every ninth
year a sacred mission proceeded to the valley to pluck the laurel
for the chaplets for the Pythian games. Owing to its wide-
spread fame, the name Tempe was given also to the valley of
the Velinus near Reate (Italy) and that of the Helorus in SicOy.
TBHPBR (from Lat. temperare, to mingle or compound in
due proportion, to qualify, rule, regulate, to be moderate,
formed from tempus, time, fit or due season), to blend, modify,
or qualify by mixing, to combine in due proportions, hence to
restrain, calm. A specific application of the word is to the
bringing of steel or other metal to a proper hardness and
elastidty (see METXt and Ikon and Steel). The word is also
used as a substantive, especially in the transferred sense of
disposition or frame of mind, generally with some qualifying
epithet, but when used absolu^ * ' '>sty, passionate
temper, or display of such.
TBMPBRA (the Italian & method of
painting in which solid p lixcd with a
water mwiiwm,' in which aone load of gna or seltfiftaas sub
stance is dissolved to prevent the coliNies fnMS.scalivg off.
Tempcca is also called in Italy Jnu^ a jocev, as distingui&hed
iiomfraco bmrnt, or true freaoo, pointed on freshly bid patches
of stucco. Various media have been used for tcmpcn work,
such as the ghilinous sap of the fig and other trees* various
gums which are soluble in water, and sine made by boiling dowA
fish-bones, parchment and animals' hooCi^ A mixtine of egg
and vinegar has also been Imuid to make a 90od mrdiam,
especially when it is desirable to apply the coknas in coaaider-
able body or impasi^. Fix the nature and history of painting
in tempera and fresco^ see Padiiiik.
TEHPERAVCB. The word " ifmpwymr/' iriuch strictly
means moderation, has acquired a portkular —^^^iiig jn con-
nexion with intoxicatiiig liquor, and it is here wed in that
limited sense. The *' temperance qdcalion " Is the eqoivaJeni
in English of roikvo/tniie and AikakfllirtmuinFMmrh and Cennan-
speaking countries respoctivdy; it cmfaraoes aH the pcobkns
that arise in connexion with the use or abuse ol akohoKr drink.
This usage has arisen from the practaoe of aodeties fanned for
the purpose of suppressing or redudng the coBsuraptioii of such
liquors, and calling thcinaelvcs Tempennoe Sodrtica. Their
activity is often spoken of as the TenH;>ennce Movenijnt,
though that term properiy covers very much wkfar 0noand.
.Historical. — ^Ever since man in some distant age first dis-
covered that process of fermentation by which sugar is oonveited
into alcohol and carbonic acid, and experienced the intoxicating
effects of the liquor so produced, there has been, in a sense, a
temperance question. The records of the ancient Oriental
dviUzations contain many references to it, and from very
remote times efforts were made by priests, sa^es or law-giveis
in India, Persia, China, Palestine, Ei^pt, Greece and Cart hay
to combat the vice of drunkenness^ But the evil appears never
to have been so great or the object of so much attention in the
andent world as in Western countries and our own er^u Two
circumstances mainly differentiate the modem problem; one
is the use of distilled waters or spirits as a .beverage, and the
other the climatic conditions prevailing in the more northern
latitudes which are the home of Western dviliaation. The
intoxicating drinks used by the ancients were wines obtained
from grapes or other fruits and beers from various kinds of
grain. These-products were not confined to the East, but were
known to the andent dvilizations of Mexico and Peru and even
to primitive peoples who used the sugar-containing juices and
other substances indigenous in their country. In the time of
the Romans the barbarians in the north of Europe used fermented
liquors made from honey (mead), barley (beer) and apples
(ddcr) in place of grape-wine. All such drinks produce intoxi-
cation if taken in suffident quantity; but their action is so
much sk>wer and less violent than that of distilled spirits that
even their abuse did not give rise to any opposition that can
properly be called a movement, and the dUtinction has re-
peatedly formed the basis of legislation in several countries
down to this day. Extremists now place all alcohol-containing
drinks under the same ban, but fermented liquors are still
generally held to be coraparativdy innocuous; nor can any one
deny that there is a difference. It is safe to say that if spirits
had never been discovered the history of the question would
have been entirdy different. The disdllation of essences from
various substances seems to have been known to the ancients
and to have been carried on by the Arabians in the dark ages;
but potaUe spirits were not known until the 13th century.
The distilled essence of wine or aqua vUat (brandy) is mentioned
then as a new discovery by Amo.Idus de Villa Nova, a chemist
and physidan, who regarded it, from the chemical or medical
pobt of view, as a divine product. It probably came into use
very gradually, but once the art of distillation had been mastered
it was extended to other alcohoh'c substances in countries
where wine was not grown. Malt, from which beer had been
made from time immemorial, was naturally used for the
> Hence it used to be called " water-work **; see Shakespeare^
Htn. IV., part iL act ii sc. i.
T£MP£It:AKC£
S79
purpose, and then gin or Geneva spiifts and wUsky or tssqne-
bagh (Irish for " water of life '*) were added to grape brandy;
then came com bmndy in the north and east of Europe, mm
from sugar canes in the Indies, potato qiirit, and eventually,
as the process was perfected, rectified ethyl alcohol from ahnosi
anything oontaioing sugar or starch.
The concentmted form of alcohol, thus evolved^ for a long
time carried with it the prestige of a drvine essence from the
middle ages when chemistry was a mysterious art allied to
all sorta of superstitions. It had potent properties and was
held to pooess great virtue. This view is embodied in the
name "water of life," and was at one time universally held;
traces of it still linger among the very ignorant. Ardent spirit
seemed particularly desirable to the habitants of the cold and
damp regions of northern Europe, where the people took to it
with avidity and imbibed it without restraint when it became
cheap and accessible. That happened in England, as related
in the article on Liquor Laws, in the early part of the i8th
century; and out of the frightful results which followed there
eventually arose the modem Temperance Movement, The
legislature had been busy with the Kquor traffic for more than
two centuries previously, but its task had been the repression
of disorder; the thing was a rmisance and had to be checked
in the interests of public order. It is significant that though
drunkenness had been prevalent from the earliest times, the
disorder which forced legislative control did not make its ap-
pcarvBce until after the introduction of spirita; but they were
not cheap enough to be generally accessible until the home
manufacture of gin was encouraged towards the end of the 17 th
century, and consequently their use did not cause visible
demoralization on a large scale until then. When, however,
the spirit bars in London put up signboards, as rebted by
Smollett, inviting people to be " drunk for one penny " and
" dead drunk for ad.," with " straw for nothing " on which to
sleep off the effects, the full significance of unlimited indulgence
in ^irits became visible. Speaking in the House of Lords in
1743 Lord Lonsdale said:—
" In every ^rt of this great metropolis whoever shall pass along
the at! tela will find wretehedncas atretchcd upon the pavement
insensible and motionless, and onljr lenaovcd oy tbe* charity 01
passengers from the danger of bong crushed by carriages or
tcaniwd by horses or strangled with filth in the common sewers.
. . . These liquors not only infatuate the mind but poison the
body; they not only fill our streets with madness and our prisons
with criminals.^ but our hospitals with cripples. . . . Those women
who riot in this poisonous debauchery are quickly disabled from
bearing children, or produce children diyaiwd from thdr birth."
The htter part of this quotation is particularly interesting
because it proves the participation of women in public drunken^
ness at this period anid shows that the physical ruin caused by
excess and iu national consequences were then for the first time
recognized. It was the first step towards the inauguration
of the Temperance Movement in the sense of a spontaneous
and conscious effort on the part of the conuBUixity as distin-
guished from the action of authority responsible- for public
decency. The need was only realized by degrees. Intemper-
ance was one of many questions which we can now sec were
struggling into existence during the latter half of the iSih
century, to become the subject matter o( " social reform " in
the 19th. Like the majority of them it was a question of
bodily welfare, of health. A breach had been made in the
unthinking traditional belief in the virtue of alcoholic Uquor
by the experiences referred to; and medical thou^t, as soon
as it began to busy itseK with health as distinguished from
the treatment of disease, took the matter up. In 1S04 Dr
Trotter of Edinburgh published a book on the subject, which
was an expansion of his academic thesis written in 1788; Dr
Benjamin Rush of Philaddphb, a distinguished American
physician and politician, who had studied in Edinburgh and
London, wrote a striking paper on the same subject in the same
year; and very aooo after this the organized Temperance
Movement was set on foot in the United States, where the habit
of spirit-drinking had been transplanted from the British Islands..
Tempermei OtfSfiflMf»Mi.^tn 1806 a temperance society was
founded at Saratoga in the state of New York, and in 181 j
the Massachusetts Society for the Suppression of Intemperance
made iu appearance. These seem to have been the earliest
oiganixationS) though the device of a pledge of abstinence had
been introduced in i8oa The movement made rapid progress
mainly under the influence of the Churches. In 1826 the
American Society for the Promotion of Temperance was
founded in Boston, and by 1833 there were 6000 local societies
in several statea with more than a million meaberB. The
campnign was for the most part directed against the use of
spirits only, and the proposal to Include all dcohdic drinks in
the pledge of abstinence, though adopted by a few societies,
was rejected In 1833 by the Aimrican Society, but accepted in
Z836 and retained ever since.
In Europe the earfiest oiganisatioof were formed in Ireland.
A temperance dub is said to have been started at Sklbbereen
in r8r8, and others followed; but it was In 1899 that the
oiganized movement began to make effectud progress with
the formation of the Ulster Ttemperanee Society. By the end
of that year there were twenty-five sodeties in Irdand and two
or three in Scotland. In 1830 the movement q>read to York-
shire and Lancashire, and supported a newspaper called the
Temperance Societies' Record, according to which- there were
then 127 societies with 33,000 paying members and 60,000
associated abstainers. In 183X the British and Foreign Temper-
ance Sodety was founded in London with the Bishop of London
(Blomfield) for president and Archbishop Sumner for one of
the vice-presidents. This important society, of which Queen
Victoria became patrcm on her accession in 1837, came to an
end in r850, when the whole cause was under an edipse. At
the time it was formed temperance meant abstinence from
spirits, as at first in the United States; but very soon afterwards
the more drastic form of total abstinence began to be urged in
the north of England and acquired the name of teetotalism
from " tee-total," a local intensive for " total." It led to
strife in the sodeties and damaged the cause, which suffered
in public estimation from the intemperance of some of its
advocates. The early promise of the movement was not
fulfilled; it ceased to grow after a few years and then declined,
both in the United Kingdom and in the United States. The
most remarkable episode. in the temperance campaign at this
period ^'as the mission of the Rev. Theobald Mathew of Cork,
commonly known as Father Mathew, the greatest of all temper-
ance missionaries. He travelled through Ireland in the years
r838-42 and everywhere exdted intense enthusiasm. People
flocked to hear him and took the pledge in crowds. In 1841
the number of abstainers in Ireland was estimated to be 4,647,000,
which is mote than the entire population to-day. In three
years the consumption of spirits fell from 1 0,8 r 5,000 to
5,290,000 gallons. This was not all due to Father Mathew,
because great depression and distress prevailed at the same
time, but he unquestionably exerdsed an ea^traordinary in-
fluence. In 1843 he went to England, where he had less, though
sttU great, success, and in X650 to America. He died in 1856,
by which time the cause had fallen into a depressed state in
both countries. In the United States a flash of enthusiasm of
a similar character, but on a smaller scale, known as the
Washingtontan movement, had appeared about the same time.
It was started in Baltimore by a knot of reformed drunkards
in 1840 and was carried on by means of public meetings; many
societies were formed and some half-million persons took the
pledge, including many reformed drunkards. But the public
grew weary of the ablation and enthusiasm died donvn. The
decline of moral suasion and of the sodeties was followed by a
tendency to have recourse to compulsion and to secure by
legislation thai abstinence from alcoholic drinks which the public
would not voluntarily adopt or would not maintain when
adopted. In 1845 a law prohibiting the public sale of liquor
was passed in New York State but repealed in 1847; hi i85r
state prohibition was adopted in Maine (' " ^
The skme tendency was manifested in Engl
580
TEMPERANCE
in 1853 of the United Kingdom Alliance " to pzociue the total
and immediate legislative suppression of the traffic in intozi*
eating liquors as beverages.'*
Since that time the oiganized movement has embraced both
elements, the voluntary and the compulsory, and haa combined
the inculcation of individual abstinence with the promotion
of legislation for the reduction or suppression of the traffic.
Oh the whole the latter has predominated, particularly in the
United States, where oiganixed agitation has for more than half
a century made temperance a political question and has pro-
duced the various experiments in legislation of which an account
b given in the artide on Liquor Laws. In 1869 a National
Prohibition Party was formed. In Great Britain the political
element has been less predominant but sufficiently pronounced to
form a distinguishing feature between the early and -more en-
thusiastic stage of temperance agitation, which after lasting some
twenty years suffered a reaction, and the later one, which b^an
between x86o and 1870 and made way more graduaJly. In addi-
tion to combining the moral and the political elements th^
modem movement is characterized by the following features :
(i) international organization, (2) organized co-(^)eration of
women, (3) juvenile temperance, (4) teaching of temperance
in schools and elsewhere, (5) scientific study of aloohol and
inebriety.
(i) Internationa] oreanization appears to have been started by
the Order of Good Templare, a society of abstainers formed in
1851 at Utica in New York State. It spread Over the United
States and Canada, and in 1868 was introduced into Great Britain.
Some years later it was extended to Scandinavia, where it is very
strong. Temoerance societies had previously existed in Norway
from 1836 and in Sweden from 1837; these seem to be the earliest
examples on the continent of Europe. The Good Templar organixa-
tion has spread to several other European countries, tO Australasia,
India, South and West Africa ana South America. There are
several other international societies, and international conKresses
have been held, the first in 1885 at Antwerp. A Worid's Prohibition
Omference was held in London in is^. It was attended by about
300 delegates from temperance societies in nearly all parts of the
woHd, and resulted in the foundation of an International Prohibition
Federation, which embraces every country in Europe with three
or four minor exceptions, the United States. Mexico^ Arigenttna.
the British sclf-ffoverning Dominions, India, China, Japan, Palestine,
Tunisia and Hawaii. The formation of this body indicates the
growth of the most uncompromising form elf antagonism to the
liquor traffic. Its obiect is the total abolition of the legalized traffic
throughout the worid.
(3) The organization of women, which has also become inter-
national, dates from 1874, when the National Women's Christian
Temperance Union was founded at Cleveland in the United States.
In 1907 it had branches in every state in the Union and in about
10.000 towns and villages with an segregate membership of 350,000.
It employs all means, educational and social as well as political,
but it has exercised great influence in promoting that drastic legis-
lation which characterizes the United States^ It has also taken
op many other questions relating to women, in addition to temper-
ance. and h.as adopted the bsfke of a wMte ribbon. About the
year 1883 Miss Frances WillarC who had been the moving spirit
of the Union, carried the organization of women into other lands
and formed the World's Woman's Christian Temperance Union,
which now possesses branches in some fifty countries with a total
membership of half a million. It has held several conventions in
America and EUirope and dnrulated apdyglot petition, said to be
the largest on record, which has been presented to a large number
of sovereigns and other heads of states. There are several other
female organizations in the United Kingdom.
(3) The inclusion of children in temperance ocgahizadoo goes
back to 1847. when a society was formed at Leeds, in Yorksture,
of uivenile abstainers who had taken the pledge; it took the name
of Band of Hope. The practice spread, and in 1851 a Band of Hope
Union was formed. There are now a number of such unions, lor
the United Kingdom, Scotland, Ireland and separate counties in
England; the Bands of Ho^ are said to number 15,000 in alL
There are also several other juvenile organizations, some of which
are branches of the adult societies. By far the laiprst is ihe juvenile
section of the Chuich of England Temperance Sxtety. which has
485.888 members (1910). Children's societies in the United States
are usually called the Loyal Temperance Legion, but there art
some Bands of Hcpe also. On the continent of Eurroe juvenile
organizations exist in sex'eral countries and notably in Sweden and
Beigiura {ioeUUf uoUirts).
(4) The teaching of terapennoe in scboob. which has become a
great feature of the »of9l J$miypo(hk« *w begun by private effort
in 1852, when the la»» " ** ■■ "-ipe Inaugurated a regular weckfy
viatation of day-schools in Edinburgh. In 1875. at t^e invitation
of the National Terapcrarice League, the late Sir Benjamin Richard-
sod wrote his Tempa-ance Lesson Bea^, which wa« adopted by
many schools as a primer. In 1889 school-teaching by tsaveUing
lecturers was taken up by the United Kingdom Band of Hope
Union, and the example was foDowed by many other Mcieties.
The Band of Hope Unions in Enjgland alone have spent oVer £3000
a year for the last twenty years m itinerant lectures; object-lessons
on the nature and effects oi akohotic drinks axe given to children in
the higher standards. The Church of Eneland Temperance Socaaty
carries on similar work in diocesan acoooli^ and examines the
children in the subject of temperance; in 1909 it had in use 6000
lantern slides for lectures, and set 75^ exaimnation papers. The
voluntary temperance teaching having grown contmiiooriy and
become very extensive^ haa led to action by central edncatioA
authorities. In 1906 the Board of Education in Ireland made
le and Temperance " a compulsory subject in the public
In 1909 the Board of Education for England issued a
Hysiene and TcmpcFance " a compulsory subject in the public
schools. In 1909 the B<»rd of Education for England issued a
syllabus of temperance teaching, the adoption of which in ekramtary
schods is optional. In Scotland also courses of teachiqg in hygiene
and temperance are permissive and have been adopted by many
local educational authorities. In the United States compulsory
teaching is of much longer standing and more advanced. Thie
2uestion was first taken up by the Admen's Cbriatian Terapctanoe
fnion (see above) in 1879; it was believed that by teaching the
physiological effects of alcohol to all children the problem ot in-
temperance would be effectually " solved," and a systematic political
campaign was planned and carried out for the purpose of obtaining
compulsory legislation to give effect to this idea. The campaign
was successful in New York in 1884, in Pennsylvania in 1885 and
subsequently in other states. Laws have now been passed in every
state and territory, making anti-alcohol teaching part of the cum-
culum in the public schools, and tobacco is usually included: The
manner of teaching has given rise to nuicb controversy and opposi-
tion. Temperance is taught in connexion with physiology and
hygiene, but the promoters of the movement insisted that promi-
nence should be given to it and that the text-books should be adapted
accordingly. Consequently a class of text-books came into use which
were offensive to men of sgieoce and welt-educated teachers becaoK
they contained false sutemenu aad absolute nonsense. The effect
of forcing teachers to teach what they knew to be untrue was very
unfortunate, and in some states the laws have undergone revision.
With regard. to other countries the practice varies greatly. School-
teaching is compulsory in Canada, except in Quebec and Prince
Edward Idand. where it is permissive; tn France since 1902; in
Sweden since 1892,' and in Iceland. It is recognized by authority
but optional in Australia, South Africa, some proviiKres of India.
BelgiuBi, Finland, Denmark. Norway, Germany, Austria-Hungary
and Switseriand. The movement in favour ot school-teaching is
continuously and generally advancing.
(Sj The scientific study of the physiology and pathology of
alcohol is a very large subject in itself. As hu been shown above,
the pioneers of the temperance movement were medical men: and
though the Churches soon became the chief moving force, doctors
have always exercised an influence, and in more recent times since
people learnt to bow down to the name of Science there has been
a marked tendency to have recourse to scientific authority for argn-
ments and support, of whkh the teaching oC temperance asa branch
of physiolo^ or hygiene is an illustration. At the same time the
increasing interest taken in all questions relating to health has
directed the attention of scientific investigators .to this ' subject,
while advancing knowledge of physiology, pathology and chemistry
in general and unproved means ol investigation have enabled them
to pursue it in various directions. Consequently a large amount
of research has been de\oted to alcohol and its effects both by
experimentation on animals and plants and by observation of the
morbid conditions set up in human beings by escessive and long-
continued indulgence in alcoholic drinks. Another fieki of inquiry
which has been actively worked b the statistical study of drink i)}
relation to nationality, occupation, disease, insanity, mortality,
longevity, crime, pauperism and other aspects of 'social life. Ir.
London there is a society, consbting chiefly of medical men. for the
scientific study of inebriety; it holds periodical meetings at whidi
papers are read and discu^cd. But the subject is being worked at
m every country, and a vast mass of information has been accu-
mulated. An attempt will be made later on to summarize the more
important results 01 this activity. There is no doubt that it has
exercised a strong influence on public opinion and on the whole in
the direction of temperance. A great change of attitude has taken
place and is still going on. The ill-effects uf excessive drinking,
especially of disdUed spirits, have kmg been rocognized. but the
tendency now is to question whether any ah:ohd.contaiBing drinks
are of any value at all and to denv any valid distinction between
distilled and fermented liquors. Niedical abstinence societies have
been formed in England. Germany, Belgium. Holland. Norway.
Sweden and Denmark.
PftmU Stale of tke MooemenLSo cesnprehc nsi \-e daU arc
available for estimating -the numerical strength of the temperance
oiganizatioos or the number of abstainers at the present time; but
TEMPERANCE
SU
the AtHoMce Year Bsdk coauins ft directdty d todeties. whkh ftt
least give some idea of the wide distribution of the rooveifieat. The
folknyng sammary figures axe extracted from the Ustt they relate
to distinct organisations, exdusive of branches and sub-sections,
having for their object the promotion of individual abstinence or
of legislation :The United Kingdom. 63; Australasia. 11; Canada,
3; South Africa. 3: India, a; United Sutes. 10; Austria-Hungary,
8; Belgium. 3; Denmark, "$; France. 4; Germany. 12; Holland. 6;
Sweden. 6 ; Switseriand, 1 1. The figures are no doubt very imperfect
and roust not be taken in any way to represent the relative strensth
of temjierance organisations in the several countries. The ust
for the United Kinsdom is much more complete than for the other
countries. The Auianu Ywr Book indeed gives the names of 130
organisations in the United Kingdom connected in some way with
temperance work; but these include local branches, juvenile
■ections, insurance companies, orphanages and so on. An attempt
has been made to pick out the temperance societies as ordinarily
understood; but some of thpse included are merely committees
for promoting particular pieces of legislation, and on the other
hand bodies hke the Salvation Army and' the Church Army, which
do a great deal of temperance work but are not primarily and
principally eniaged in it. have been omitted. Altogether the subject
u full of coalusion and not susceptible of esact statement. The
number of societies is no guide to the number of individuals, for
many persons belong to several oiganisations. There can be little
doubt that the oraanised movement is numerically strongest in the
and next strongest in the United Kingdom, but no
United Sutes 1
'reliable estimates can be made.
Some of the British societies call for particular notice. The
two principal ones are the Church of England Temperance Society
and the United Kingdom Alliance. The latter, founded in 1853. is
the chief fighting political organisation, having total prohibition
of the hQuor tramc for its object; its income is about £12,000 a
Star. The Church of England Temperance Society is much the
rgest of the British societies. It was founded in 1862 and re-
constituted in 1873 00 a dual basis of toul abstinence and general
CoNsuMmoK PBJi Head or Population
Countries.
Wine in Gallons.
1891
1892
1893
X894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
United Kingdom . .
Russia
Norway
039
038
0-37
0-35
0-37
0-40
0-39
0-41
0-41
0.38
037
0'36
0-33
028
027
' '
"
l[
;;
;;•
*'
"
Sweden
. ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
. .
. ,
, ,
Denmark ....
, ,
, ,
, ,
Germany ....
057
I 01
189
1-43
1-06
2-29
1-34
0.77
103
1-45
114
114
1-61
174
i-6l
France
33-0
2I-0
3I-0
24-0
180
29-0
22-0-
32-0
310
40-0
340
240
22-0
40-0
33-9
Belgium
HoOand
0^
0-84
0-75
0-86
090
I -03
0-86
0-88
0-90
l-Ot
1-03
10 J
108
095
103
0-44
0-44
0-44
043
042
042
0-40
0-40
0-40
037
0-37
0-37
0-35
035
0-40
Switseriand ....
160
l«
I7-0
IJO
180
140
140
21*0
150
15-0
»4-3
24-6
9-5
Italy
26K)
230
21-0
I7-0
I9-0
21-0
20-0
22-0
29-6
27-0
26-2
18-5
Austria
2'2
2-4
3-5
3-1
3*3
3-9
3-6
3-3
3-3
40
4-0
40
3-5
4-0
4-2
United States . .
036
040
027
0-35
0*22
0-44
0-33
0-30
032
031
0*52
0-40
0.44
0-35
Canada
o-ri
O'lO
O-IO
0-09
009
0K)9
009
0-08
0-09
0^
?:52
0-09
?::i
O-IO
CIO
Australia ....
1-09
I-QI
0-95
r.i4
1-36
1-42
I -31
1-00
0-74
I>23
i-ii
1-24
127
NewZeatand . . .
0-17
017
017
014
0-13
014
015
015
015
015
016
0-I6
013
014
013
Beer in Gallons.
United Kingdom . .
302
29-8
29*6
U
29-6
30.8
313
^*!
33.6
316
30-8
^i,
a9-7
288
27-7
Russia . . .
:.f
0-70
0-62
084
0.92
0-94
0.89
0-97
0-94
092
105
103
Norway . .
n
4-6
4-4
3*2
3<>
3-9
4-8
5'
50
4-4
3-9
31
At
30
Sweden . .
6-8
.11
7-3
7-8
9-3
Ai
Il-O
12-8
12-4
133
^:|
129
Denmark
,,
17-9
191
191
20-2
30-8
220
217
21<I
20'2
20.5
20*5
Germany
233
23-7
239
40.3
255
25-5
271
27-3
37-5
27-5
27-3
471
35-7
1:1
482
263
France . .
Beljriara . .
Holland . .
Switseriand .
4*«
39-2
^l
5-3
400
5«
432
M
5-3
44-4
5-5
455
4^
4i:i
8-i
482
7-7
47-7
M
IO-6
ii*o
II-4
II'2
12-5
13-9
«4-7
15-4
15-4
14-7
13-4
13-6
14-3
143
, ,
Italy . . .
018
013
0-I2
o«io
o*ii
o-io
O-ll
0-12
9-I3
014
0.15
O'ld
017
0-20
0-22
Austria . .
,li
«•♦
8-8
90
9-2
9-9
9.9
9.9
9.9
9-9
9-9
9-5
9-2
9-5
90
United States
'U
13-8
12-6
13-2
"a
»3'3
127
«3-3
135
14-6
150
15a
15-4
16-8
Canada . .
3»
3-5
3-5
3-4
3-5
3-9
41
Ai
4-7
51
4«
50
5-4
Australia
"i
106
9-1
90
IO-2
xi«o
II-4
U'7
II-8
12*4
12-4
11-8
u-3
"•3
NewZeabnd . . .
7*
7-7
7-4
7-4
7-9
8*2
8-4
8-6
91
94
9-2
9-5
9-5
92
Spirits in GaUooa.
United Kingdom . .
103
103
098
0-97
I -00
I -02
103
104
109
I'll
1-09
1-05
099
0-95
091
RussU . . .
089
089
0*89
0-95
0>92
089
092
0-92
I-OO
097
0^2
6.92
t-oo
0-95
Noway . .
O-70
0-62
o*^
0-73
0-^
0-44
042
0.48
0-62
064
0-64
064
062
062
0-51
Sweden . .
128
I 30
130
1-34
1-34
I'M
x-45
l:g
1-63
1-67
1.65
152
1-43
1-34
1-36
Denmark .
2-67
?l?
•?
a-7«
2-79
3-71
2-77
l'^
2-69
2-69
250
2-44
2-42
Gerawny
;:s
169
163
167
163
1-63
169
163
I 61
1-54
1-54
1-43
Fraace . .
nt
1-65
J:g
1-55
1-59
1.63
179
1-75
1:2
;:i|
1-24
1-35
1-50
1-37
HoOuS '.
l»7
183
1-94
1*63
1-73
r^
l<3
I -61
l«OI
114
I-IO
1-72
i-7a
169
;s
'•*5
x-65
i-6t
'•54
I-.'JB
1-56
'•54
1-50
X-50
«-43
Switseriand .
i:J2
1-31
i-i^
108
l>13
114
TM7
1'I2
106
0>92
0-95
099
l-OT
Italy . . .
029
0*21
0'34
0-19
0-2I
?:g
0*21
022
V4
024
r^
?4i
0-28
0-29
Austria
198
2-20
1^8
1-98
198
198
1.98
220
198
1.98
198
United Sutes
124
127
1-12
076
0-84
0-8.S
093
098
104
109
i:i2
I '22
1-23
1-21
126
Canada
0-74
0-7I
0-76
069
0-65
075
0-78
t>-56
069
071
o-8o
083
ni
<H)4
Australia
113
097
0-68
0-75
0-73
0-83
079
o-8^
0-89
0.97
084
079
o.c)6
New Zealand . . .
070
0-71
0-70
0-6S
063
0-64
066
066
069
072
0-76
0-75
■"t
582
TEMPERANCE
anti-intemperance, its objocU tre {l) the promotion of habits of
temperance, (2) the reformation ol the intemperate; (3) the removal
of tne causes which lead to intemperance. Thus it embraces both
the moral and the legislative spheres, but the former takes fifst
place; and this wa« emphasized in 1909 by the inauffuration of a
forward movement " in spiritual activity. On the legislative
side the society supports measures of relorm rather than pro-
hibition, and particularly reduction of licences and popular control
of the traffic. Its activity is many-sided: it carries on an extensive
publication department and educational cour^ics. police court and
prison gate missions, missions to seamen, travelling vans, and in-
ebriate nomes, of which there arc 4 for women and 1 for men. It
works locally through 36 diocesan branches, of which the aggregate
expenditure in 1909 was £41.3^. exclusive of the central omce.
It haa Church temperance societies in Scotland and Ireland affiliated
to it, as are the missions to seamen, and it has given birth to a
temperance mission for railway workers and a Church benefit society.
Its comparative moderation contrasts strongly with the extreme
views ot many temperance bodies. One of its departments is a
semi-teetotal assoc'iation, which was founded separately in 1903, but
came under the society in 1904: the members pledge themselves
to abstain from alcoholic liquor between meals. This department,
which revives an old form of pledge, has been very successful; it
is found that members frequently go on to take the full pledge. The
total membership of the Church of England Temperance Society
in 1909 was 636,233, thus distributed : — General section. 35,901 ; total
absuiners, 1 14444; juvenile members, 48s,$88. The enormous
number of juvenile members b significant. The numerical strength
of the temperance societies in general, which u often greatly ex-
aggerated, seems to be largely made up by the juvenile contingents,
so far as information b available. Other note>\-orthy British
societies are the Royal Army Temperance Association and the
Royal Naval Temperance Society. The special liability of soldiers
and sailors to intemperance makes the work of these bodies parti-
cularly valuable, and it is strongly supported by the king and many
officers of the greatest distinction. Very striking results have been
obtained in the army. Twenty-five per cent of the Home Forces
and 42 per cent, of tne Indian army belong to the association; and
the movement is growing. In the navy 25,000 men have joined
the Temperance Swiety.
Like other propagandist cause* of the day the temperance move-
ment b supported by an enormous output of literature, including
books, pamphlets, leaflets and periodicals. The Alliance Year Book
gives a list of the latter. It names over 40 in the United Kingdom ;
the great majority are penny monthly magazines, but three societies
conduct wceUy journals — namely, the Church of England Temper-
ance Society {temperance Ckronide), United Kingdom Alliance
{Alliance News) and the International Order of Good Templars
{Good Templars' WaUhword). Several Nonconformist churches
have weekly papers in which temperance work b »pecially noted,
as in the War Cry, the journal of the Salvation Army. For other
countries the number of journals is eiven as follows: — Australasia.
10 (one weekly). Canada, 7 (3 weekly); India, 5; South Africa* 2.
U.S. A. 1 5 (2 weekly) ; Austria. 2 ; Belgium, 2 ; Denmark, i ; France, 2 ;
Germany, 8; Holland. 2; Italy, 1 ; Norway. 2; Russia, I : Sweden. 7;
Switzerland. 3. The list is no doubt imperfect. In the United States
newspapers 01 all kinds are many times more nun>erous than in the
United Kingdom, and the American Prohibition Year Book names 21
" leading " prohibition papers, of which 16 are weekl)^ and i daily.
There are probably hundreds of temperance journals in the United
Sutes.
Effect of the Temberance Mocement.^-The organised agitation
against tlie abuse and e\'en the use of alcoholic liquors thus briefly
described is a very interesting feature of social life in the present
state of civilization: but when a serious attempt is made to ascertain
its results the inquirer Is found to be beset with difficulty. It has no
doubt been largely instrumental in procuring the varied mass of
Ic^lation described in the article on Liquor Laws, particularly
in the United States, the United Kingdom and Scandinavia; and
these laws are in a sense results. Ardent advocates of legislation,
who are always apt to substitute the means for the end, point to
them with satisfaction. Those who demand prohibition regard its
adoption by this or that community as an end in itself and a proof
of '^progress"; more moderate rcforiners view the reduction of
public-houses in the same light. Facts of thb kind can be stated
with precision, but they go a very little way. The real point is not
the law or the number of houses, but the habits of the people,
and what we «'ant to know is the effect on them of legi^lauon, of
organization, moral persuasion and the other influences that go to
make up the Temperance MoN-ement. To this qucstiorvno clear or
general answer can be given. There is a ^ood deal of information
about the United Kingdom, where the subject has been much more
fully studied than anywhere clic, and about Noruay and Sweden,
but for other countries valid data are lacking to show whether
intemperance has increased or diminished. The fullest statbtical
evidence available relates to the consumption of drink.
CcntumpUom 0/ Drinlu
Iwumational SuUistus.—\a V ubibhed by the
Britbh BoMd of Trade giviof co aauai p Uon of
alcoholic beveracet in different countrie» for the year» 1891-15^)5.
The table on p. 581 b compiled from it. Information is also given
in the returns for Spain. Portugal, the Balkan States and South
Afrkra. but it is very imperfect and has therefore been omitted.
The only considerable movement during the 15 years covered
by the table is a marked increase in the consuinptk>n of beer. It
has occurred in some measure in the following countries: — Russia,
Sweden. Denmark, France, Belgium. Switzerland. Italy, Austria.
United States. Canada, Australia, New Zealand. The rise b notably
large in Sweden, France. Switzerland, United States and Canada:
and the upward movement has been particularly steady since 1898
in the United Sutes, Canada and >tew Zealand. Exceptions are
the United Kingdom and Norway, in both of which the oonsunption
has fallen largely and steadily since 1899. In Germany it haa ttbo
fallen somewhat since 1900. but not so steadily, and over the whole
period it has risen in that country. It b impoasible to connect
these various movements either with legislation or with temperance
organization. If the fall in Norway is ascribed to them, it must
be pointed out that they are much more directed against spirits
than against beer in that country, and the consumption of spirits
shows no such movement, having risen since 1897. No one who
has studied the subject in the different countries anocted can doubt
that the general rise is due to the introduction and growing pc^u*
larity of the light beers originally brewed in Germany and Austria,
and commonly called " lager." This is notably the case in France.
Belgium, Sweden and North America; It b an instance of the
force of popular taste. The increase in beer has not been accom-
panied by a corresponding reduction of other alcoholic liquor. Wine
might be left out of account in thb connexion. It b largely con-
sumed only in countries where it b extensively grown, naindy, in
France, Italy and Switzerland, out of the countnes enumerated. The
consumption is very irregular and dependent mainly on the abundance
of the crop. But the tendency of wine has also been to rise; it has
risen in France, Belgium, Italy, Austria, the United States and
Australia. With regard to spirits, the only general movement b that
consumption has fallen in most European countries since 190a
But this does not appear to be compensatory to the rise of beer,
which extends over tne whole period and went on when spirits were
rising too. Exceptions to the downward movement of spirits since
1900 are offered by the United States and Canada, and to a less
extent by Russb. Italy and Norway. The only country in which
all classes of drink have steadily fallen b the United Kingdom; thb
singular fact will be discussed presently, but its peculiarity should be
noted here in connexion with other countries.
Attempts have been made to express the total coBsumption al
each country in terms of alcohol by allowing a certain percentage
of spirit for wine and beer and reducing an three to a common
denominator. The calculation yields a simple and uniform measure
of comparison and permits the classification of the countries in the
order of their alcoholic consumptron; but it must be regarded as
a somewhat arbitrary estimate, because the strength of both vine
and beer ^'aries considerably. The Bretvers' Almanack gives the
following table based on the returns quoted above: —
Consumption of Alcohol at Proef Strengtk in Cdhns,
Annual Averaie per Head, 1901-5.
Wine.
Beer.
Spirits.
Total.
770
0-63
136
969
627
0-26
653
025
384
^
5-44
3:11
III
rs
427
..
j:U
0-97
J3
206
0-36
1-75
U
l^
a-54
OH>8
0-97
2-35
0-I2
?2S
i^
o>ii
123
l-OO
1*31
V^
Australb ...
0-32
0-94
a.14
Holbnd
009
l^
1*59
New Zealand . . .
0-74
I-43
Canada
0-40
0*I2
0-8S
1-25
Russia
Cape
Norway
0-25
00$
o.«5
o<4a
Natal
0-37
0-02
034
0.5
Apart from the gaps in the information, which speak for diem-
selves, allowance must be made for other defects. In 00 case b
the nominal consumption per head a valid index to the relative
temperatcness of dmcrent peoples unless other conditions are
fairiy equal. The distribution of the drinking has to be taken into
account, and this is conditioned by the age and sex constitutk>n
of the population and by Um habiu of tha paoplab A oannt i y ia
TEMPERANCE
583
which ev«ry pcfMti oKCpt infaatt fahn a miaata quantity of driak
at every laeal every day wfll have a far laifer consumpCMm per bead
and yet may be far more temperate tbaa one in wbkh a larse pro-
portkm of the population talcet none at all and the drinkioK is
ooacentiated in regard to both time and peraon. The Portugueae
and Spaniards* for instance, ate mote tenpeiate than any 01 the
nations below them on the list ; drunkenness is never seen in Portugal
and in the south of Spain fthe bishop of Birmingham has pablidy
borne tcstimonv to the sobriety even of such a large seaport as
Barcelona). The aggregate consumptkm is brouaht up to a com-
paratively hi|h level by the national practice 01 drinking a little
wine freely dilated with water, a b^rerage whkh containa less
alcohol than many " temperance " drinks. In like manner the
French and Italians, whose high place is due to wine, are more sober
than most of the nations ranged below them. The writer has made
extensive inquiries on this head in France. There is drunkenness,
to whi<h Zob's I'Assommair bears testimony, but outside Paris
and the seaports it is rare. Emplo^ws of labour in all the principal
industrial centres, including the mming districts of the north, agree
on this point. The very high position of Belgium is mainlv due to a
prodigious consumptioa of beer, wiuch is explained by tne general
practica of giving it to children. On the other hand, drunkenness
U eMcecdinujf prevalent in Russia, whkh is near the bottom of
the list, and is due to the consumption c^ vodka. The compaia-
tfvdy small amount per head put down in the returns may. if it is
convct, be explained by the very large propor t ion of children in
the population. The opposite condition is tliustrated by Western
AustraSa. whk:h has a consumptionpcr head oeariy thrice th£t
of any other Austialian province. These, instances will show the
conditions that must be taken into account in making international
comparisons and the fallacy of measuring natk>nai sobriety by
consumption per head. .
Coiunmptum in United Kingdom. — Statistics of consumption
for a longer period of- time than that covered by the table jjven
above are available for the United Kingdom, the United Mates
and Scandinavia, and they are of partkutar interest because these
are the countries in whkh the Temperance Movement has been most
active and productive of most legislation. The United Kingdom
is distinguished by being the only country in the list which shows
a distinct fall in the consumption of all three kinds of liquor since
1699. To estimate the significance of this interesting fact it must
be plaoed in historical perspective. The following table, compiled
from the official returns, gives the annual average consumption per
head in decennial periods from 1851 to 1800, and subsequently for
each year to 1909. No continuous reconl of beer was kept until
after i$56.
United Kingdom:
Avercge Annuel Consumption per head in Gallons,
ragaid to- beei^ whkh is the staple drink of the people; but the
period is too short to warrant the inference that it represents a
permanent movement whkh will continue. The fluctuatiofts shown
by the decennial table given above suggest the probalnlity of a
subsequent rise with a revival of trade. Chronk depreasioa and
unemployment have prevaifed in many industries since 1900, and
these conditions alwavs cause a diminished consumption. Never-
theless they do not fully account for the movement here shown,
because the fall in consumption has been progresave, whereas
the state of trade has fluctuated conriderably; the curvt^s do not
coincide. Some other factor has been at work, and there is reason
to think that it is a gradual change in the habits of the people. The
facts of consumption agree with much other evidence in pointing
to this conclusion. The expenditure in drink is not so hieh as it
used to be in the past, whether periods of prosperity or adversity
.are taken. The cakulation of annual expenditure prepared for
' the United Kingdom Alliance, and commonly called the National
Drink BQl, points to that conclusion. It is based on an arbitrary
estimate of tne cost of drink to the consumer and must not be taken
lo represent established farts; but it has some comparative value.
The lolkiwiitg tabk gives this cakulatmn for the last 26 years : —
National Drink BUI, United Kingdom.
Year.
1831-40
1841-SO
1851-te
1861-70
1871-80
1881-90
1891 .
189a .
1893 .
1894 .
\^ :
1897 .
1898 .
;899 .
1900 .
1901 .
1903 .
1903 .
19H '
1903 .
1906 .
;^ :
Wine.
Beer.
0-26
III
0-23
094
o?3
23s
l-CII
0-41
a7-5
0-94
05J
31-5
117
0-38
27-7
099
t^
301
103
29-7
103
0-36
295
0-9«
033
294
096
037
296
l-CO
040
308
102
0.40
31'r
103
041
3»-9
::3
0-41
327
0-4^
31-2
118
036
3»-4
110
0.35
306
lOI
0-37
30-2
103
0-3I
295
099
017
28.4
0-93
0-9T
0-17
27-9
028
aj'H
0-9»
o-i7
■27-6
0-9O
035
264
087
Spirits.
It will be ohserx'cd that the consumption has oscillated up and
down during the whole period of 79 years. More spirits were drunk
if» 1831-40 than in the three following decades, and more wine
than in the two following decades. The decennial period of greatest
consumption was 1871-80; and the highest point* reached were:
wine, o-sb gal. in 1876; beer. 34 o gals, in 1874; spirits, i«29 gals, in
1S75. Since then the consumption has always been tower, though
with fluctuations. The up and down movement i* always associated
with the state of trade, and the connenion is w^M marked in the
last tea years. Th& progresriva fall is striking, partkulaily ia
Year.
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1899
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
\^
ToUl
Expenditure.
144,734.214
J4 1. 039. 141
140,550,126
142.784.438
142,426,153
151,064.035
159.542.700
161,765.291
I61.527.717
15^0120.709
15S.932.134
1^.133.935
170426.467
Expendi-
ture per
head.
£ s. i
♦ I °
i 18 3
3 17 4
3 IB O;
3 17 2
4 I 3
5 1
5 7
31
I II
Year.
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
Total
Expenditure
174.365,372
176,967.349
185,927.227
184881,196
181,788,245
179.499.817
174.445.271
168,987,165
164,167.941
l6643S.9i>
167,016,200
161.060482
155.162,485
Expcndi*
tureper
head.
1. d.
I 8
456]
3 15
3 8
The table begins and ends in two periods' of marked depression,
with one of marked prMperity in between ; but it is to be noted that
in the earlier term of depression, although it was very acute, the
expenditure never sank so low as in toe later one. During the
four lowest years (1885-.88) the mean expenditure was neaHy 4s. a
bead more than in the fiVe k>west years (1905-9). At the other end
of the scale the high-water mark in the table, which is the year
1899, shows an expenditure of £4. lis. 8d.; but the previous high,
water mark comparable with it, namely 1876, showed an expenditure
of ^. IS. 9d.. when cakulatcd on the same bans. The figures, there-
fore, rather confirm than contradict the general belief that the
people have grown more temperate during the last y> or 40 years.
With regard to the expression national drink bill," which tacitly sug->
gesu so much money thrown away on drink, it must be remembered
that a large proportion is devoted to pubfic purposes and would
have to be found in some other way. In the year ending March
1909 the trade paid a direct contribution of ^7,404,575 to the
national exchequer in' excise and customs duties, in addition to
income-tax and local taxation; all this comes back to the public
pocket. Then it also maintains directly and indirectly a population
reckoned at 2,000,000. The net amount spent on dnnle whkh
might have been saved and spent on other things is not more than
a third of the total sum.
The United States.— Jht movement in the United States has
been toully different. The figures bek>w are taken from the
statistkal abstract of the V.S. government as quoted in the
American Prohibition Yeae Book. The figures, it may be noticed,
differ widely throughout from those given for the same yean in
the Board of Trade returns of interaational consumption quoted
en p. 581. The discrepancy is too great and too constant to admit of
any explanation, but that the two sets of returns are cakulated
from different bases. It Illustrates the defects of these statistics
and the need of caution in using them. The American figures show a
far larger consumption in the United States than the English.
The most no!k:eable fact here shoa-n is the continuous and large
increase in the consumptwn of beer. Every year shows a rise domn
to 1908. when for the first time in 70 years a fall was recorded. It
was continued in 1909, and being acrompnnied by a fall m spirits
and wine also is no doubt ^mainly attributable to the financial state
of the country. Down to 1880 beer was to a consWerable extent
taking the place of spirit*, the consumption of whkh had previously
been very high: but after that the steady increase in beer was not
accompanied by a reverse movement in spirits; aad ifom 1896 to
1907 sll three kinds of liquor rose together. 'aj
steaidiness. The rising consumption of bet
{
584
TEMPERANCE
by aa enormous increase in home production, the capital inveated
in breweriec having risen from 4 million dollars in 1850 to 515
million doUare in 190S. The consumption of q>irits b at a much
higher level than in the United Kingdom, and two considerations
aod greatly to the significance of the fact — oae is that drinking
takes place more between meals and less at them, and the other
that it is more confined to men. Women, other than prostitutes,
Consumption ptr head in Cottons, United States
Ve«r ending June 30.
^>irits.
Wioe.
Hale
TouL
1840 ... .
252
029
136
6-43
1850
I'd
0.27
1-58
i860
0-35
3-22
1870
207
oyi
ri^
7.70
I880
1-27
056
1008
1882
I 40
049
10-03
11-93
12-60
isit
148
037
10-74
1-28
0-6I
1I-20
12-93
14-67
1888
126
12-80
1890
140
0-46
1366
1553
1892
1-49
0-43
1517
17-10
16-96
:^
1-34
0-32
15-32
I'OI
027
15-84
17-13
1898
1*12
0-28
15-96
;;:2S
1900
1-28
0-39
i6-oi
1901
1:^
0-37
I6-20
1790
1902
063
048
17-49
19-48
1903
146
19-98
1904
1.48
0-53
18-28
20-38
1905
1-45
042
18-50
1906
1-52
0-55
20-19
22-26
\^
1-63
067
21-24
23-53
1-44
o-6o
20-98
23-02
i(>09.
1-37
19-79
do not frequent the bar as they do in the United Kingdom, and
children not at all. The expenditure in drink, so far as it can be
calculated, has fluctuated somewhat, but shows a general tendency
to rise. The followinp: table has been prepared bv Mr G. B. Waldron,
an American statistician. It is taken from tne Prokilntion Year
Bookt with the American currency converted into English on the
basis of 4s. to the dollar, omitting fractions of a penny, lor purposes
of comparison with the British statistics given above.
Annual Drink Bill, United States.
Tbtal
Rtpeodi-
l^iUl
Ell«Kli.
Yeu.
'h^r
Ytat.
Expeodituic
'IS^
£
£ s. d.
£
i s, d.
1878
1888
90.655.754
1 18 1
1898
208,312.573
3 17 1
\X'7ir4
3 14 7
1899
214.137.995
3 17 8
1889
3 14 II
1900
234.445,322
3 I 5
1B90
180.529.173
3 17 8
1901
243.999.598
269.556.728
3 3 10
1891
195.916.560
203,078.872
315.896.634
304.924,298
3 1 4
1903
383
1892
3 a 4
1903
282,132.043
292.735.700
293.i8o,3A2
321,604.383
3 10 3
1893
3 5 1
1904
3 " 7
3 10 6
1894
307
I906
;^
194.189.466
3 16 4
3 16 4
192.418.995
3 14
3 15 6
!?S
351.461,570
^5.167.^3?
4 I 11
1897
198,640,711
3 16 11
Comparisoo with the British table shows at a stance an opposite
movement in the two countries. While eamenoiture has sreadily
fallen in the United Kingdom since 1899. it has as steadily risen in
the United States; and whereas in 1888 the expenditure in the
former was 41 per cent, hieher than in the latter, the two had drawn
equal in 1906 and since then have changed places. Moreover the
different system of taxation brings back a much larie^er proportion
of the whole expenditure into the excheauer in the United Kingdom
(see LiQUoa Laws). The comparison is dt much interest in view
of the very different laws and regulations under which the trade is
conducted in the two countries. It may be objected that the
statistKs are merely estimates, but both sets are put forward by the
advocates of prdbioition and are of equal authority, so that they
hold good for comparison.
Norway and Sweden.^The sUtistics for these countries are im-
perfect, because there is no leoord of wine, and in recent years the
use of '-■ — * * • ... ..^.^..
extent
stand,
ditioni
compt
l»7l(
Consumption per head «n Litres, Norway,
Yctf.
BiteTfa.
B«r.
1851-60
1861-70
i87i4o
1881-90
n
5-2
18-2
3-2
16-0
1891
37
'^
1892
3-2
1893
il
30-8
1894
198
\^
3-5
3-3
\ll .
n
3-2
3-6
Hi
1899
3-3
33-2
1900
3-4
23.7
1901
3-4
30-0
1903
3-4
17-8
1903
3-3
I4-I
1904
3-3
131
1905 ...
27
13-7
Consumption per head in Litres, Sweden.
Ycmr.
Bitavia.
B«r.
l856-€o
1861-70
1871-80
9-5
9-7
109
lo-'g
161
1881-90
11
21-9
1891
i^l
1893
6-5
1893
67
316
1894
6-9
33-0
9 '■
69
7-2
35-S
42-4
\^
U
450
500
1899
8-3
8-6
8-^
7-8
58-1
1900
1901
56-1
1903
1903
7-4
58-7
1904
6-9
52-8
1905 . . .
7-0
The difference between these contiguous countries is remarkable.
The consumption of spirits has always been much higher in Sweden
than in Norway. I n the old days before any legislarion the estimated
consumption was in Sweden 46 litres (1839) and in Norway 16 litres
O833) a head. In recent years, under the company system, the
figures for both countries are vastly less, but the Sw«itsh con-
sumption has hardly ever been less than double the Norwegian and
sometimes three times as great. This difference, obswed over a
bng period before regulation and after, points to different condi-
tions and national, habits; but such constant differentiating factors
hardly explain the strikingly dissimilar movements shown by the
tables. Both countries are obviously affected by the state of trade.
The high-water mark of spirit-drinldng in moaern times for both
was the same period, 1874--76, as noted above for the United King-
dom; Sweden then averaged 13-4 litres a head and Norway 6Z.
Both show also the influence of the 1900 boom in trade and the
subsequent decline. But in Sweden the increase of beer-drinking,
which in 1.871-80 was less than in Norway, has been enormous.
If the two drinks are put together it cannot be said that the coo-
su: I in Sweden was appreciably leas in 1896-1905 than in
18 whereas in Norway it was distinctly lew. This may in
El explained by the substitution of the made wine, called
( , to which reference has already been made. The marked
fal he consumption of spiriu' which occurred in 1896-98 is
att d to this cause (Rowntree and Sherwell); the importation
of nose from 3,320,300 litres m 1891-94 to 5.876,750 litres in
18 subsequently importation was checked by heavier dutia
an. ..-uced consumption followed. In 1886-90 the quantity
consumed per head in litres averaged 0-88; in 1896-1900 it was
2-49, with a maximum of 3-75 In 1898; in 1905 It had fallen again
to 0-88 (Pratt).
A careful study of the foregoing statistics of coosumptkm ia
the three countnea— United fungdom, , United States and the
Scandinavian peninsula — which have paid most attention to the
' * ^ )« f or a long period applied forcible but uidcly
» of control, does not permit any confident con-
xxnparative merits of any particular system. The
whose multitudinous liquor laws prohibition plaj-s
tnt part, has most conspicuously failed to check
orway tad Sweden. boUi oC which comhiat the
TEMPERANCE
S85
of disint««iud
•t b oMgh not in the nme
lomi. with a certain amount of prohibition, show markedly different
lesulta. The British liceniing tyitem haa been at least as successful
as any of the othcn. The most probable conclusion to be drawn
from the facta is that the movement in each coontry has been
mainly determined by other forces; the rise of consumption in the
United States by the rapid and progressive urbanization of the
peo^ and the sreat increase of wealth; the diminution of con-
sumption in the United Kingdom bv a change in the halats of the
people due to many causes, to which further raerenot is nndc bdow ;
while the difference between Norway and Sweden is largely due
to differences of national character and habits already noted,
though some influence must be attributed to the superior system
and greater stringency of control in Norway. Bat ii we go back
to cariier periods there is no doubt at all that an incomparably worse
state of tninga eidsted in the United Kingdom and m Scandinavia
when the spirit traffic was under little control or none at aU.
Intemperanu. — Pblice sutistics are the best evidence we have
of the prevalence of dninkenncsa which is the most visible and
dutect result of intemperance. Like othet statistics, they must be
used with doe regard to the circumstances oi origin and compilat i on.
They vary according to (1) the laws relatins to drunkenness; (a)
the administration by poUce and jusrioes; (3) the method of com-
piling returns All thiese vary in different countries and towns
and at different times, so that the statistics must not be used for
minute comparisons. But properiy handled they are of great value,
and the discrepauides are less than might be supposed, because it
is found on inquirv that the actual behaviour of the police towards
drunken persons does not greatly differ. Neither exceptional seal
nor exceptional laxity lasts very long. The |;eneral practice is
only to interfere with those persons whose violence causes dis-
turbance or who^ helplessness creates obstruction or annoyance.
The mode of compiling returns is the most serious cause of error.
Many countries have no retoms, and in others they are incomplete.
Those available, however, throw considerable light on the subject.
The following quinqnennial table shows the movement in England
and Wales since the drunken period 1874-78- The important act
of 1872, which increased the number of offences, vitiates comparison
with the eariiest returns, which are, however, given in the article
go DtUlOCBlfMBSS.
DnatkefottUt Engfand and WaUs.
Nomlcc of PcaoM pnsBoded aniott pw to^BOO^
1«7^8 . . . 8l-2 I 1894-^ . .
1884-89 ! 63-6 1904-08 , i
1889^ . . . 61-4 I
. 60.4
. 655
. 63.4
There has been a marked improvement since 1874-78. and on
the whole a progressive 9ne, though interrupted by a moderate rise
in the period of prosperity about looa The figures for the most
recent years wouki be considerably lower but for the licensing Act
of 1902, which altered the police procedure and caused a sudden
rise, aa shown by the following table, for the last 10 ytu§i—
1900
1901
190a
1903
1904
634
69-0
674
190$ .
1906 .
1907 .
1908 .
1909 .
64-2
6o-i
59-3
53-3
When allowance is made for the act of 1902 it is seen that the
movement of drunkenness corresponds broadly with that of consumi^
tion, but the decline of drnnkuiness is more marked; the level w
lower than it used to be whether good or bad times be taken. This
plainly shows a laige change in toe habits of the people, which is
further eraphasiaed by the fact that polue procedure has become
roofe stringent and the returns more complete. The exceptional
figure for 1909 (estimated) is ascribed to the heavy increase of
spirit duties in that year. The change has been accompanied by
a continuous fall in the number of pubUc-houses in proportion to
population. Between 1870 and 1909 the number of ''on " Ucences
was reduced from 53-3 to 26-3 per 10.000 of the population; but
the correspondence Between the two movements is not exact. The
number of poblic-houses has ^en steadily from year to year,
whereas dntnkenneas, Hke consumption, hais fluctuated with the
state of trade. The facts, therefore, demonstrate a connexion,
but hardly esubfish one of cause and effect. The principal causes
winch have brought about the general decline of drunkenness are
wider and deeper. The standaroof behaviour has gradually changed
with education and the provisios of alternative recreations in many
forms, among whk:h the chief are games, theatres, kxomotion,
pubKe libraries, institutes, tea shops and eating houses. At the
same time great social chansea have taken effect and have tended
to remove dass barriers ana foster the aspirations of the working
dasses. who have more and more adopted the standard of conduct
prevalent among the more highly educated sections of society.
The oM drinking habits of the latter, which were notorious at the
end of the i8th century, began to give way to greater sobriety eariy
In the i9di ccstmy; and the movcoaeat was greatly promoted, as
a feature of social life, by the influence of Queen Vtetoria's reign.
Drunkenness went " out of fashioo." and the social standard hat
gradually permeated downwards. All this has no doubt beea
stimulated by temperance organization and teaching, which has
constantly loept the question before the public and exercised an
educatiofol inflbience m spite of ridicule and abuse. The change
has been veiy gradual, but far greater than can be shown in figuiea.
It can be better realized by contrasting the present state of Uiings
with that described in the past, as in the evidence given befbre a
select committee of the House of Commons in 1834, when witnesses
described the soenes that regulady occtured on Sunday morning
in London— the crowd round the public-houses, women with
babies to which they gave gin, and people lying dead drunk in the
streets. The evidence given at this inquinr and by contemporary
writera reveals a condition of things to wluch n^odcm times afford
no parallel; and in particular it disposes of the current belief that
fenuJe drunkenness is a comparatively new thing and increasing.
The practice of frequenring pubUc-luMises and dnnking to excess
in England has been noted Tor centuries and repeatedly denounced.
It was described at a meeting of the Mkldlesex magistrates in i8y>,
when the chairman said that of 72 cases of drunkenness brought
up at Bow Street on the previous Monday the majority were women
" who had been picked op In the streets where they had fallen dead
drunk.** At the inquiry of 1834 Mr Mark Moore gave the number
of customen counted entering la pubBc-houses in a week; out of
a total of 2^,^37 there were 108,599 women and 1 8, mi children.
Of late yeara the p r opo r tion of female drunkards to tnc whole hat
been perceptibly diminishing. In 1870 the proportion of females
to the total number proceeded against for drunkenness was 25-^
per cent.; In 1800 it was 23*4 per cent. The percentage of con-
victions credited to women In the last few yeara is: 1905, 20*42;
1906, 20*60; 1907, 20*26; 1906, 20*13: 1909, I9'79>
The foregoing observations on drunkenness apply only to England
and Wales. The returns for Scotland and Ireland are less complete,
but they show the movement in'those parts of the kingdom. In
Ireland a diminution has taken place in recent years, but in Scotland
Nnmber ef Ouufts ef Drunkenness.
Y«u.
SootllBd.
Iftlttd.
1890 .. .
36,293
100,202
1900
43.943
g.457
19OI
1902
••■
1903
36.930
41.853
*t2oS
$5,104
1904
ig -
1908.
It Is worthy of note that polkre drunkenness Is higher in Wales.
Scotland and Ireland than in England. The respective number of
proceedings per 10,000 in the year 1907 was: England, 598; Wales.
05-2; Scotland. 123-3 Ireland. 175*6. The figures for Wales are
strictlv comparable, those for Scotland and Ireland less so: but
the coincidence is striking. The greater prevalence of spirit drink-
ing as a national habit, particularly in Scotland and Ireland, may
iMv<nnn» i,j part foT the discrepancy. Other points which distinguish
1 countries from England are their Celtic blood and Sunday
< No connexion can be shown between the number of
1 louses and the prevalence of drunkenness; they are fewer
i nd than in England and Wales, but more numerous in
I though there luts been a diminution there since 1902,
^ ly have something to do with the fall of drunkenness.
i lack of correspondence Is shown more fully by the de-
1 ires for Englana and Wales published in the omdal volume
L- ng statistics. Taldng the county boroughs in groups
according to the number of licences in proportion to the population
we get the following : —
Licences and Drunkenness, County Boroughs, 1905.
Licencet
per 10.000 .
Convictions
per 10.000 ..
under 20
71-05
20 to 30
55-89
30 to 40
624
40 to 50
36*6
over 60
3527
The concspondiag figures for the counties are as follows ^~
Licences and Drunkenness, Counties, 1905.
Ucences per 10,000
Convictionr per 10,000
under 30
57-39
30 t'*
3C
*50 J
586
TEMPERANCE
If any other year be taken sbnilar discrepancies are shown, in
1909 the aix counties with the highest and the six with the lowest
number of licences exduave of county boroughs, gave the following
lesults: —
County.
ceoca
to.ooa
tiou
pet
Cooaty.
Li.
oeoccs
pcf
Coovic-
tiou
per
10,000.
Huntingdon
Cambridge . .
Oxford . . .
Brecon . . .
Rutland. . .
Buckingham .
Mean . . .
91-51
7404
6368
6328
61-79
59-72
6900
2060
III8
956
54;34
15-76
20-93
Middlesex . .
Northumberland
Essex . . .
Glamorgan .
Lancaster . .
Durham . .
Mean . , .
11-84
1909
20-56
21-67
18-95
33-32
I33-"
16-95
38-45
80-49
6294
It is curious that the mean figures for these two group* at oppo-
site ends of the scale almost exactly reverse the number of licences
and convictions; but the individual discrepancies show that other
factors really determine the results. The chief of these is unquestion-
ably occupation. AU the counties with the highest number of
convictions arc pre-eminently mining counties. Year after year
Northumberland, Durham and Glamorgan occupy the same place
at the head of the conviaions, and other mining counties are always
high up. These areas are not drunken because the public-houses
are few, but vice versa; the licences arc kept down because of the
drunkenness. The influence of occupation and character is further
revealed by^ a broader survey. The following table from the
judicial statistics for 1894 brings out these elements very dearly: —
Penons Proceeded A gainst for Drunkenness per 10,000.
Seaports . . .... 136-07
Mining counties 113-67
Metropolis - . • 63-74
Manufacturing towns . . . . . . 47'00
Pleasure towns ^'93
Agrkniltural counties —
fi) Home counties . . . • . 24-50
[21 South-Westem 2094
(3) Eastero 10-99
In other countries the same distribution is observed; dninken-
neas is most prevalent in seaports and mining districts. It is
further fostered by a northerly situatbn, and these three factors
go far to explain uie condition of Scotland, as of Northumberland
and Durham.
The Untied StaUs.— The Census Bureau at Washington issues
from time to time statistics of cities, which contain a good deal of
infonnation concerning drunkenness. The last return, published
in 1910, contains details of 158 cities having a population of over
^0.000 in the year 1907, to which the statistics relate. It appears
from these returns that drunkenness is exceedingly prevalent in
American towns. The figures are not comparable with the English
ones, because they relate to arrests, which are more numerous than
" proceedings " and still more than convictions. The number of
women included is very considerable, but the data are too imperfect
to permit the calculauon of a general percentage. In New York
the proportion of women arrested for drunkenness and disorder
was 24-3 per cent, of the whole number. The cities are divided
into four groups according to population: — (r) over 300,000,
(3) 100,000 to 300,000. (3) 50,000 to 100.000. i0 30,000 to 50,000.
The average number of arrests per 10,000 inhabitants in each group
and in all cities together is — (i) 191-0, (2) 19^-6, (3) 245-8, (4) 344-8;
mean of all cities. 205-1. Tnc comparatively small range <A differ-
ence between the groups is remancable, and indicates a general
prevalence of police drunkenness. The higher figures for groups
(3) and (4) are explained by the excessive number <» cases in certain
manufacturing, mining and Southern coloured towns of small and
medium stce. These figures are for drunkenness alone, so that they
cannot be confused with other otienoesi but on exanumng the
details of individual dties it becomes dear that the practice varies
conskleiably in making up the returns, and that in aoaie places
neariy all the arrests of drunken persons are charged to drunken-
nets whereas hi others a large propoitioo are returned under the
head of disorderly condoct. In co aa ide rin g tlw rdatioo between
Arresh and Ueenees per 10,000.
Arratt.
•ctai
ritltt.
DmakcDooi.
^cSSS?
assi
Group I
Over 300,000
191-0
108-8
30-3
Group 2
100,000 to 300.000
193-6
112-8
»7-7
Group 3
50.000 to 100.000
245-8
7S-7
284
Group 4
30,000 to 50,000
244.8
1214
31-5
Mean
205-1
106-8
29-6
There are large discrepandcs between different cities, but not
greater than among British towns. The following table gives the
figures corresponding to the above for each of the great dties in-
duded in group i. with the exception of San Frandsco, the popula-
tion of which could not be esdmated : —
Arrests and Licences per 10,000.
CitM.
OraBkeaMM.
^2v
Cowluct.
ReuB
New York .
Chicago.
105-9
169-I
287-5
106-3
614-9
751
331-4
318-9
87-2
82-4
I0O-5
239-5
130-6
120-2
„5-3
8i-o
'in
302-5
236-9
34-9
66-4
531
220-7
3384
25-5
34-2
131
33-5
13-5
41-3
153
70.4
50-0
16-^
Philadelphia
St Louis .
Boston .. .
Balttmore .
Pittsburg .
Cleveland .
Buffalo . .
Detroit . .
Cindnnati .
Milwaukee .
New Orleans
Washington
To a certain extent the same inverse rdation appears here as
in England; the places with the smallest proportion of licences —
namely, Philadelphia, Boston. Pittsburg and Washington — are con-
spicuous for drunkenness and disorder, while those with the largest
proportion of licences — namely, Detroit, Cindnnati, MQwaukee and
New Orleans — are distinguished by the lowest amount, with the
exception of New Oricans, which b a special case by reason of the
large coloured and Creole population. The exceptional position of
Boston is obviously due to exceptional police activity and that of
Chicago to the opposite. At Boston and Qcveland, it will be
noticed, the police prefer the charge of drunkenness: at Baltimore
the opposite. The position of Washington is explained by the
very large coloured population and the strength of tne police force,
which is greater in the capital than elsewhere and very strict in
regard to order in the streets. Philadelphia, Pittsburg and Cleve-
land are great manufacturing centres with a large population of
fordgn workmen; the vast influx of European immigrants, con-
sisting of men disposed to drink by aee, occupation, race and habits,
and receiving higher wages than tney have been used to, must
always be borne in mmd with regard to drunkenness in the United
States. It is interesting to note the condition of those dties in
which there is no licensed trade. There are none such In the first
two ffroups, but 14 in the third and fourth groups. The following
are thefiigures. —
Arrests for Drunkenness and Disorder per 10.000.
Group 3
Cambridge (Mass.) . . 218-5
Kansas City (Kansas) . 178-0
Somerville (Mass.) . . 1 30-5
Charleston (S. Carolina) M2-7
Portland (Maine) . . 605
Brockton (Mass.) .. . 240-9
Group 4
Topeka (Kansas) .
Maiden (Mass.). .
Chelsea (Mass.). .
Salem (Mass.) . .
Newton (Mass.) . .
Wichiu (Kansas) .
Fitchbuiv (Mass.) .
Everett (\lass.). .
227-1
100-8
336*0
?8:?
392-7
161-5
99-6
jority are prohibition dties in Massachusetts, the only
iiicb this measure was applied to any place of considerable
37. In all of them the drunkenness is below tl« mean
mp and considerably below that of similar and ndghbour*
, For instance. Brockton is a boot-manufacturing town.
TEMPERANCE
587
compMsbM with Lym 111 Ins wuut HMsi CM nipBotiw finiras
•m 340^ and 561*1. The evidenoB btre, to far «• It soe^lt ia
faToor of local proUUtioo. On the other hand there are a number
of liccttnd cities with lower figuiee, and two of those on ths list—
Chelsea and Salem— ore very high up. State prohibition does not
make such a good showing. Portland is one of the most drunken
placca in Aimrica— a fact confirmed by many observers— and
Wichita in Kansas is above the mean. Kansas City is better.
This place is peculiarly situated, being continuous with Kansas
City m Missoufi; the boundary b otw es n the two states passes
throogh the town. Con e s q nently the inhabiunts have only to go
into ue Missouri half to obtain drialE. Cambridge is very smiilariy
atoated in retation to Boston. Charleston, which ia above the
mean for the group, was under the stats dispensaiy system. In
sans, these police figures furnish some argument for prohibition
and some agaiast; but they clearly deownstrate the limitt of
eonpolsion. Altogether the statistical cvUcooe from the United
ScaMa. whether of consumption, cueoditure or drunkenness, offers
no inducement to the United iungdom to adopt any of the
AflMfiGan metmxls of control in place of its own system.
JVormsy and Afedm.— Police statistics for some of the principal
towns in Norway and Sweden, which are the seats of the company
system or disinterested management applied to spirit bars, are
frequently quoted and we will therefore give them here. When all
allowances have been made they show that drunkenness Is very
prevalent in these seaport towns, and that it ffuctuatesas in England
bat exhibit* 00 general tendency to improvement.
1865
1866
'^
1869
1870
1871
187a
1873
1874
il^
1881
1882
t883
1884
1885
Comictimu per 1000 in (Mrnnbwg.
1886 . . .
1887 . . .
1888 .. .
1889 .. .
46
26
a8
26
28
28
39
40
32
31
3"
3a
29
30
29
99
1890
1891
1894
:^
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
I9CH
1905
3t
32
31
34
40
44
*2
38
34
3«
35
44
54
54
51
4a
45
47
45
59
The principal feature of thia table is the much higher level in
the second 20 years than in the first, though the pobce procedure
has been the same. Several times in recent years the bgure has
enrreidrd that of 1665, which was practically the year befoie the
company system was introduced^ as it did not begin operations
until October. Once more the influence of trade oscillations is
well narked, particularly in the p r os per ous^ period of 1897-1900.
To convert convictions into arrests lor comparison with the iMlowing
tables about ^ per 1000 should be added; this difference is very
evenly maintauied in Gothcnbuig.
Arrests per 1000 in Berfm.
I88i
1883
1883
1884
:is^
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1897
26
21
19
21
»7
;i
«5
17
14
13
14
14
21
>9
1892
1893
1894
:§^
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
Arrests per 1000 in Ckrisliania.
70
77
75
77
«05
lit
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
I90»
\%
22
29
31
27
H
20
94
lot
90
75
5a
43
The evils caused by the abuse of alcdwlie Uqucrs have always
been recognised by mankind; they are too obvious to be ignored.
Intoxication produces Jrobecllity, bestiality, violence and crime;
continued excess produces Incapacity, poverr^, Blisery, disease^
delirium, insanity and death. But all fchese effecu afe produced
by other causes and it is very difficult to estimate the precise share
01 this particular agent. In. modem times scientific investigation
has attempted to do this and to give praciaion to the conchisions
drawn from ordinary observation. We will briefly summariae some
of the results.
Cn'mo.— Drink is associaled with crimes against the person, but
not with crimes against property, which fonn in Enjdand iune<
tenths of the whole (JodicMl Stttmtica, 1901). Dr W. CTSullivan,
medkal officer in the prison service, calculates that "alcoholic
intoxkation Is answerable for about 60 peroent. of indfeuble crimes
of violence and for a rather higher proportion of minor offences
of the Ame cUss "; and further that " it is probably the cauae of
neariy half the crimes of hist." but jt " makes no appreciable con*
tribution to crimes of acquisitiveness.'* He gives the foOowiag
table.—
Anmiet Averaff per 100,000—1891-1900.
Aim.
JS'aSX.
*tss^
Agricultural . . .
Muting
Mandactoring . . .
Seaports. ....
M6-3
i09i*>
479«8
990-6
Ii6«33
337-34
265-73
409-73
5-46
f43
6.4J
10-96
Thb does net show a tegular connexhM. The miidng area^
whkh have the most drunkenness, tx9 onhr second in violence and
lowest of all in suksideb Dr Sullivan explains this discrepancy by
the theory that chronic akoholism is less prevalent among miners,
and that this form b chiefly renonsible for the crimes in ouestion.
It is impossible, however, to esublish any coi^sUnt relation oetween
drink and vfotent crime; the two do not vary together. It was
pointed out hi the Judicial Statistics for 1901 that wheieas In the
drunken year 1899 consumption of drink was 8 per cent higher and
the p(4ice recotds of piosecutions for drunkenness 15 per cent higher
than in the piwvious qninquennial period, crimes 01 violence wers
1-62 percent, lower. These statistkrs apply only to England. When
other countries are taken it becomes still clearer that other factors
are more important. Mr W. D. Morrison gives the following table
of homicides in pcoportion to popuUtion in d&fferent countries {Cnm$
»miitsCtm$$B). —
Persons Tried for Homicide per 100,000.
Italy .... I5-4* France . . . 2-73
Spam .... 11-91 Scotland. . . 2-11
Austria . . . 4-01 Germany. . . 1*61
Ireland . . . 3*35 England, . . i-6o
Belgium . . . 3*02 Hothuid . . . i*io
Except that England, Scotland and Ireland are in the order of
relative drunkenness, the table shows no correspondence between
drink and homicide. National character and climate are evidently
more important determining factors. Some calculations of the
proportion of crime associated with drink have been made in different
countries. In Germany 36-5 per cent, of the prisoners in one ^ol
were found to be drunkards (Baer) ; assaults, 5f 3 per cent.; resist-
ance to the police, 70>i per cent.; offences against morality, 66 per
cent. (Aschafienbuig). In Italy 50. 60, and 75 per cent, of crimes
agninst the person have been attributed to dnnk. In Switaeiland
40 per cent, of male criminals in 1892 were found to have been under
the influence cf drink when thetr offences were committed. In
Denmark 43 per cent, of the men co tt n Ue d in 1903 were drunkards.
Them estimates, some of whkh are oflkial, suffice to confirm the'
connexk>n between drink and a great deal of crime, but the basis
of investigation is too narrow to oermit mo«c than a general con-
clusion. There is, however, one form of crime for which drink is
almost whoUy responsible, and this furnishes the blackest of aU
mdktments against it. The hitensity of suffering and injury uiifeteA
on children by the atrocious cruelty and neglect of drunken parents
cannot be overstated. The Society for the Prevention of Croelty
to ChiMren finds that 90 per cent, of the cases which come under its
notice are due to drink.
i»«eirly.-- Much poverty is undoubtedly caused by drink, but
it {» even kse possible to establish any constant connexion between
the two than in the case of crime. Pauperism and drink stand 10
a great extent in inverse rebtion; in good rimes the first dimini«hM
and the second increases, in bad times the reverie uhes pfaice. Fof
instance, pauperism in England, whkh haa had a general tendency
to fall for many years, rose rapidly in the per*^ -'■^--——nmiRlon
after i860, fell still more rapidly in the grr "^Jt*
and rose again when they gave place te "^g
after 1891 (see the table ab
(
r5
TEMPERANCE
Iter (1883
9t bnaA; and during the steady fall of drink
~ - joo -xuiperiam hasbeen rising again. The only exception
^ ••« li^ir ioiwvae novcroent is the very depressed period 1884-
•^ ~«ixa pKOBcrism was stationary. The concloaion to be drawn
^ «tide driidt is a chief cause of poverty in many cases and
» ^dK -^auat m sone. it is swamped in the aggregate by the larger
! cfice jtf work and wages. Mr Charles Booth's statistical
I ia East London resulted in the following estimates
amge ol poverty caused by drink: " great poverty "
gtdaases)— drink, 9 per cent., drunken or thnftless wife,
- powty " (the ti*o next classes) the figures were —
— . - jer cent., drunken or thriftless wife, 6 per cent. These
^. r*cm laidly be said to confirm the opinion that dnnk is the
.^^ ^sMT of poverty; they rather agree with the conclusions
_ .« raa dte iBovement of pauperism. Mr Rowntree's investi-
" -« X jcverty i» York did not enable him to make any numerical
• ' -— indk was not among the chief causes of primary
class), but he thought it the predominant
secondary " poverty. Alderman McDougall's
1883) lesalted in the following proportions
liale drunkenness, 24-^2 per cerit.; female.
I and children of drunkards, 21-84 per cent,
ed in 1894-9S by the Massachusetts Bureau of
__j^ 3 ,Nm^ found that 39'44 per cent, of paupers attributed
'^ ,s--« to their own intemperance and about 5 per cent, to
V « -SBT Mills All these inquiries are on a very small basis.
-* _,. jac ssrtknlariy deceptive. Drink is commonly confessed
'^ ' ,,.^p ^tmupen, as a venial offence to serve as a plausible
,^^cTr™iSa wally due to dislite of work. When poverty
• ,-. ,- -, bcal distributkm it » found to have very little
-*^ --V drink. In 1901 the average proportion of pauperism
-*^^ a Eagland was $.3 per cent. The cxccptionany
aTNorthumbcrUnd and Durham were all below
fern counties all above it (Blue-book on Public
1 Conditions, Col. 4671). ^ . r it *i
■X— Or Robert Jones finds that 16 per cent, of all the
'~:A2 ml €d 43,694) admitted into the London asylums
i sMHe years 1393-1905 " ^" <*«fi?"*^ ascertained
Z^ sBssMty to drink or intemperance. The proportion
^ M^wB during the same penod vww 17 pcr cent., being
^ ^cke men ami xa per cent, of the women, Dr R. H.
^-^.^--One may safely assert that from aoto 25 per
^^— <tf insanity under the poor tow «« directly due
- Dr T. R Hyslop says>— "With regard, to
m difference m experience as to the relauve
in its causation. This difference ranges from
■ mjmr - —.^ j^ oer oenL ... My own experience leads me to
. -^JL^oCl Neither a direct or an indirect factor in the
—•^ ^ ITkMt 50 per cent, of the cases of insamty. ' Dr
^' " -iJVstinuS t^t akoholk: excess is the cause of about
- r- -^s=J - ^ insanity in Great Britain and Ireland. These
- ^^ SkoI experienced medical men in charge of the inwne.
- -« *■ =?hSitho8e in charge of inebriates are inclined to
» » '^^5-St to a great extent to menul deficiencv of some
>-*i» ^!^Sraite, government Inspector under the Inebriates
- > ^'*^ his iepon for 1908. published in 1910, There
- «*^^f;*rver in detaining and treating persons sent to us
' ••'•■LlS^Acts that we are dealing to ajargeext^^^^
^ » *»«*CfvfecWe-mindcd.' ... It would be difficult to find
.« ,*-m •• |lyt a third of all persons under detention capable
•^'•^^f^'^-^^of average mcnul capacity." In support of
^ """^give* the following cUssification of 3032 cases?—
Number.
w-
to
the
was
into
Theavi
and in al
mean of
ence *"'
preva
(3)ai
manu
medii
^^^ gUve admission certified
*^«* JiJ^SSw* Win or' less con
'^Si5SS^
^B^^
«3|
377
1487
14-51
4904
deuil
consli
ncari:
drunk
desira
wiU t
of Uc
drunk
fourtl
disord
to an extent iriiich varies in an infiaite series of sradationa.
attempts. to estimate it. are morejor less plausible guessn. We
have, ttowever, some positive data. The Registrar-General's Returna
contain the heading "alcoholism, delirium tremens," aa a cause
of death. The fblTowing are tltt rates per millioa recorded in
guinquennial periods from 1870 to 1905: 37*6, 43*4, 48*2, 56^^
7'8, 85'8, 78'2. This is unsatisfactory for two reasons: the first
is, that alcoholism does not nearly cover all the mortality directly
caused by drink; and the second is that, being a very vague term,
its use in certifying the cause of death depends largely on the views
of the practidoner and current opinion in the medical profeadcui.
The attention paid to the subject has led to a growing recogsician
of alcoholism, whkh, indeed, does not appear at aU in the older text-
books. This accounts for the steady increase of deaths ascribed
to it, which b otherwise ineicplicable, being ciuite at variance with
the consumption of drink during the same period. The Seventy-firac
Annual Report of the Registrar-General states that the mortality
from akoholism in the years 1900 and 1901 was materiatty increaaed
by the transference of deaths that had been originally ceitified aa
from neuritis. It is now usual to classify alcoholism and cirrboais
of the liver together, since the latter is most frequently caused
by intemperance. The following are the crude death-tates for
twenty years.—
Dealh-Rales to a MiUum Lmnt-Entland and Wales.
Akoholitm.
Crriiosfa. 1
Year.
Male.
FCMk.
PcfHH.
Mde.
Pemde.
Pcfaom.
1889
7a
59
55
140
103
121
'S?"
94
50
70
!}t
105
124
'S?'
f
49
V
104
125
1892
49
67
142
104
122
1893
91
55
73
»39
103
120
1894
47
61
136
96
118
123
;i?i
51
52
67
71
133
140
JSJ
s
?i
58
11
151
152
115
112
133
132
1899
"3
90
ifr
119
142
1900
132
25
ii|
162
127
>44
I90I
113
90
151
115
132
1902
X05
S
8a
\tt
104
123
1903
11
62
70
100
"7
1904
55
70
135
101
"7
\^
U
53
U
131
127
•SJ
"7
112
1?3
79
63
123
101
112
65
45
55
120
88
104
These figures dispose of the current belief in an enormous increase
of female intemperance based on the progressive rise of the death-
ra' — ^'— '.ussing this question some years ago the present writer
pc : the defects of the statistics and said that the returns
of few yeara might upset the whole argument. They have
istics of akoholism and cirrhosis, however, are very
fa ivering all the mortality due to drink. Dr Newshcdme
ca y inference from the returns of Denmark and Switserland
th iths directly attributed to akohol in England and Wales
sh )me six times higher than they appear in the returns, and
tfa irould then amount to 5 per cent, of the total deaths of
ad — ^ ad of about o*8 per cent. He adds: " This percentage
probably grentl^ understates the real facts." It may be so, but
the calculadon is based on too many assumptions to be accepted
with confidence. In addition to the direct mortality there is an
unknown score against alcohol in predisposing to other diseases
and in accelerating death. Consumption is one of the diseases
thought to be particularly associated with alcohol, but there are
several othera. The following table shows the comparative mor-
*^i:*„ ^ — I 1 -,j fQ 65 from certain classes of disease In different
ns. They include those with the highest and
ist mortality. The heading " diseases of the
includes heart disease and aneurism ; diseases
n include bronchitis, pneumonia and pleurisy,
hkh is separately given | diseases of urinary
ht's disease. The table is compiled from the
Sixty-fifth Annua] Report of the Registrar-
tQo8. No other country has similar statistks.
tial ones for Switzerland, which attribute 2>a7
hs of males over 20 years directly or indirectly
Denmark, where the corresponding figure is
if a high degree of akohoix: mortality with
)rgans is dearly shown by the figures for unoc-
tl tabourers, dockers, costermongers, innkeepers
Ratters and file-makers. with a comparatively
kBc mortality, alone ahow a similar condition.
TEMPERANCE
589
CmmpanUm MmtaiUy-^Em^iami and Wwkt.
AU males ....
Occupied and retired
males ....
Unoccupied males .
Oer^ ; • •
Agncultunsts . .
Railway engine-drivers
CirilServioe
Navvies, ftc . .
Building trades
Metals. . .
Textiles . .
Dockers .
Potters . .
File^naken .
Innkeepers
Inn-servants . .
Coster mongers
General bbourers
1,000
1,004
2,884
IS
610
7»3
740
k
934
1,053
1,481
\n
1,700
1. 781
1.883
2,007
».a35
li
«74
«77
3«o
U
«54
139
t
213
193
365
473
220
325
224
392
444
and it is no doubt due to the inhalation or absorption o( irritating
or poisonous particles thfovv;h the nature of their occupation.
The ciergy, who have the lowest alcoholic mortality, show a remark-
ably low level of ocgank disease of all kinds: railway engine'driverst
who come next, suffer more from drculatory and respiratory
^iffyai*. navvies and coal-miners still more, while civil servants
are mora sosoepciblc to phthisis. Agriculturists, though with a
higher alcoholic mortality, nearly equafthe clergy in oenenl healthi-
ness, wUch must be attributed to the open-air Ufe. The low
alcofioUc levd of ooal-minera and navvies is striking, because both
are hard-driaJdog classes: their posi t ion can only be explained
by the fact that they drink beer, and it goes far to prove the inn^
cuousacss of beer when combined with hard work. The cnormoua
and afanurdly dispropor^nate mortality from diseases of the liver
among innkeepers* and in a lesser degree among unoccupied males,
b olmoQsly due to a preference for stating that cause on certificates
in place of alcoholism. The condition of unocospied males icvealed
by this table is worth a volume of sermons^ The mortality among
them between the aga of 2< and 65 is higher than that of any other
class of the oommuoity. It u also worth noting that poverty is
gpod for health. The clergy are the poorest of the educated and
professional classes; and agocnltusal labourers, who are the poorest
of the manual working classes, are ncariy as healthy all round
except that they are somewhat more liable to phthisis; their com*
parative mortality figure from all causes is only 621.
. iMifMilyi^A great deal of sutistical information with regard
to the oompnrative longevity or expectation of life at different
ages among abstainers and non-abstainers jus been collected by
hie-insuranoe companies and friendly societies. The following
ublc i» given in the syOabus of tempenmoe teaching in eleoKnury
•choob issued in I90Q»~
'BxpiciQiicyoflAfe.
Jl^.
JUSSSk
ESSSStT
,9*"-
Itecha.
UaftMl
^
OOkaa.
Mkmt.
^-s^
■^
20
41 -o
43»
VA
488
46-9
»5
370
39- »
44*3
%
30
331
351
34-0
39-7
3,5
2^2
31a
^i
351
34-6
40
25-6
27-4
30-6
30-3
45
22-2
237
233
26-1
26-1
50
151
12-9
20-1
199
21-8
22 H}
55
60
167
136
16-6
15:1
I8l
14-^
_,«raB at dMsisttt aces for all the societies
embraced in the Institute of Actutries tables, as compared with
the abstaining section of the United Kingdom Temperance and
Provident Institution, which b taken as 100: —
Mortality Bxperienct of Non-Abstainers to Abstainers as xoo.
I5-J9
20-24
25-29
30^
35-39
40-44
45-49
50-54
llcctality
67
21
^
173
«S-«9
194
70-74
11?
ir«
\ll
8S-«9
90-94
Ma gUty
144
132
120
116
91
107
107
127
Similar sutistics have been prepared showing the relative mortality
e s-p e ri e pee among insored persons. Mr R. M. Moore gives the
XXVI 10*
s show simifau' results^ thtts>
General. Tempenncc,
Sceptre Life Assodation (25 yean; . . 79-67 53*05
Scottish Temperance Life Assurance Co.
(25 yearn) 64 46
PatkoloU'-^Tyr Sims Woodhead thus summarins the results of c»>
perimentaTinvcstigatioo into the direct action of alcohol upon living
cells and tissues.
Alcohol pbys a prominent part in bringing about dcgencratmn
of nerves, muscles and epithehal cells: it dctennines the accumula-
tion of waste products in the tissues by paralysing the tissue cells,
interfering with oxidation, with secretion and with excretion; it
induces the proliferation of the lower forms of tissue, often at the
expense of the more highly developed tissue, which in its presence
undergo marked de^oeratlve changes; it interferes directly with
the production of trnmubity against specific infective diseases,
and rcasodng from aoalogjy it may be assumed that it plays an
aually important part in unpairing the reastance of tissue to the
vaoce 01 the active agents m the production of disease that may
have already obtained a foothold in the body.
With regard to this aspect of the subject it must be remembered
that laboratory experiments by which alcohol |s placed in direct
contact with cells and tissues are mi entirely different thing from
the dietetic use of bevetagcs containiog dilute alcohol with other
things. It would be interesting to know how the tissues would
behave when simibrly treated with common salt, kmon juice,
vinegar, thdne, caffemc or other substances in general dietetic
use. or with ordinary tonics such ta quinine, quassia and dilute
acids.
Inebriety. — ^Much study has been devoted to inebriety as a diseased
condition. It generally results from long-continued and excessive
indulgence in alcohol and is characterized by dipsomania or a
craving for alcohol, which b chronic or periodical and which tlje
subject cannot resist* It b accompanied by organic changes m
the nervous system, which probably begin in the stomach, but end
in disintegration of the Drain cells with the dcvclo|»ncnt of
alcoholic insanity. The only chance of cure lies in complete
abstinence from liquors with, at first, suitable medical treatment
The recognition of thb fact has led to the establishment of special
institutions for thb purpose, both of a voluntary and a compulsory
character. An account of the laws relating to the subject is given .
under the heading of Inebkibty. In accordance with the law
three classes of institutions have been establbhed in the United
Kingdom :~-(i) Certified inebriate reformatories, to which patients
are committed by the courts for various periods of detention.
They are II in number, and during X008 — the last year reported-^
the committals to them numbered 262 (218 women and 44 men).
The total number committed since their establishment in 1897 is
3002 (2548 women and 484 men) ; the highest number in any one
year was 49^ (428 women and 6^ men) in 1907. (2) State Inebriate
Reformatories, more of a penal character, for persons committed
but too refractory for the orevious class. There are two, one for
women and one for n»eo; tne aversge number under detention in
1908 was 74 women and 43 men; the Admissions were 27 women
and 10 men. C3) Licensed retreats, for voluntary patients. In
1908 they numbered 20, and had under treatment 493 patiento
(288 women and 205 men). In all about 800 habitual inebriates
are thus treated. The results cannot be sUted with any prccisioa,
but they are certainly dbappointing. The Inebriates Aitcr-Cure
Association gives the following analYsb of ^*!ed
from reformatories and kx>ked after in th- *»-
factory result. 82 (50 women, 32 men);
women. 36 men); not known, 221 (162
explanation of the failure of treatment and
59°
which has been vevealed by loficer and closer study o( the problem
is that many inebriates are really mental defectives, as already
noted in connexion with insanity. . Such cases constantly reappear
in the police courts after discharge.
Heredity. — It has long been generally assumed that the children
of alcoholics suffer in body and mind for the sins of their parents,
that they are weak, diseased and defective; and it is very often
assumed that they inherit an alcoholic craving. The latter
assumption is not admitted by scientific students of the question,
but the former has been gcnerallv held, thouch without any proof.
It has been made the subject of a statistical investigation (1910)
in the Eugenics laboratory of London University by Miss E. M.
Elderton and Professor Karl Pearson. The object was to " measure
the effect of alcoholism in the parents on the health, physique
and intellis;ence of their offspring, *' whether by toxic or environ-
mental influence, but not bv the transmission of original defective
characters, which is omitted from the inquiiy. The material used
is a report by the Edinburgh Charity Organization Society on the
children in one of the Edinburgh schools and one by Miss Mary
Dendy on those in the special schools of Manchester. The number
of chudren is not stated, but so far as can be gathered from the
tables the Edinburgh inquiry covered about 1000 and the Man-
chester inquiry about 2000. The ages were from 5 to la (Edin-
burgh report), and both sexes are included in approximatay equal
numbers. The general oondusioa reached is that "no marked
relation has been found bet w een the intelligence, physique or disease
of the offspring and parental alcoholism in any of the categories
investigated. " The principal particular conclusions reached aie as
follows: — Higher death-rate in alooholic than in sober families, more
marked in the case of mother than of father, but alcoholic parents
more fertile, and therefore nett family about equal: height and
weight of alcoholic children slightly greater, but when corrected
for age slightly less; general health «T alooholic children slightly
better, markedly so in regard to tuberculosis and epilepsy; parenUl
alcoholism not the source of mental defect in children; no per-
ceptible relation between parental alcoholism and filial intelligence.
These condustons, which run counter to current opinions, have
been much criticized, and it is true that the scope of the inquiry
is inadequate to establish them as general propositions. Moreover,
the chn}nolog;ical relation of rarental intemperance to the birth of
the children is not stated. But so far as it goes the investigation
is sound and it is the first attempt to treat the subject in a scientific
way. Nor is there anything in the conduaons to surprise careful
and unbiassed observers. The existence of a broad relauon between
superior vigour and an inclination for alcoholic drinks was pointed
out years ago by the writer; drinking peoples are noticeably more
energetic and progres si ve than non-dnnking ones. It is the uni-
versal experience of shipmasters that Brituh seamen, wh<jse in-
temperance causes trouble and therefore induces a preference for
more sober foreigners, exhibit an enei^ and endurance in emergency
of which the Utter are incapable. Similar testimony has repeatedly
been borne by em^neers and contractors engaged in large worlo
In the south of Europe. And that acute observer. Miss Loane,
has related a particular and striking case in regard to offspring
from her own experience, which is curiouiJy in keeping with the
conclusions of the Eusenics laboratory. The question, however,
needs much more elucidation.
_The whole subject has. in truth, got somewhat out of perspective.
The tendency of the statistical and experimental investigations,
summarized above into the relations of alcohol with crime,
mortality, disease. &c, has been to obliterate the distinction be-
tween the use and abuse of alcohol, between moderate and excessive
drinking, and to brine into relief all the evils associated with excew,
while lenonng the other side of the question. It is legitimate and
desirable to emphasize the evils, but not by the one-sided and
fallacious handling of facts. Alcoholk: excess produces the evils
alleged, though not to the extent alleged, but there is' no evidence
to show that its moderate use produces any of them. Yet they
are all put down to "alcohol," and the inference is freely drawn
that its abolition would practically put an end to crime, vice, poverty
and disease without any counterbalancing loss whatever. The
facts do not warrant that inference, nor has mankind at large ever
•ocepted it. Both the statistical and experimental evidence is fuU
« tanades, and especially the latter. The patholocical investiga-
*»"»• on the action of alcobol referred to above duciaate the orEanic
'"^awfes whkh the tissues undergo in the chronic Inebriate who is
«»• vested with spirit,. but to drzvr the inference thlt alcoholic
**■ <«^ taken hk moderation and consumed in the body have any
;''^' •^^^i is wholly fallacious. In point of fact we know that
- Wi- MC But there b morel
ce of akohol; the
along with it.
, kA foods; the bal
A.^«r sleeM itself u a f
TEMPEST, MARIE
We know that tliey odst by their taM* aod tbdlr effect: they
make the difference between port and sherry, between claret and
Burgundy, between one vintage and another, between brandy and
whisky, differences unknown to chemistry— which only recognizes
alcohol, and knows very little about that — but vastly important
to the human organism. Another group of experiments are equally
fallacious in a different way. The ^ect of alcohol in mental
operations is tested by the comparative speed and case with whkh
work is done after a dose and without it. The effect has been found
to be diminished speed and ease; but these experimenters do not
apply the same test to a good meal or a sound sleep or hard f^«^r n«y.
The writer finds in concentrated mental work that the immedate
effect of even a small dose of alcohol is to impair efficiency, but
the other three do so in a much higher degree. The inference is
not that these are injurious; but that the proper time for each is
not just before work; after work he finds them all. alcohol in-
cluded, beneficial. The morulity sutistics are treated in a similar
one-sided way. They ck^ariy show the injuiy done by the. abuse
of alcohol, but what of its moderate user Agricultural latxKirers
are the most typical moderate drinking class, and they are one of
the healthiest m spite of exposure, bad housinff and poverty. If
all the unhealthiness of those who drink hard is lefcired to tbeir
drink, then the healthiness of those who drink modcratdy sboiiid
be referred to it too.
The absolute condemnation of alcoholic drinks has never been
endorsed by public opinion or by the medical profession, because
it u contradkted by their general experience. That many persons
are better without any alcohol, and that many more would oe better
if they took less than they do is undeniable: but it i« equally
undcnuble that many derive benefit from a moderate amount of k.
Sir James Paget, than whom no man was more completdy master
of his appetites or better qualified to judge, drank port wine himself
because he found that it did him good. He represents the attiiude
of the medical profession as a whole and of temperate men in general.
Attempts to support the case for abolishing the use of aJcohoUc
liquors bjr denying them any value and by attributing to them
effects which spring from many other causes, do not carry conviction
or advance the cause of temperance. A much stronger argument
lies in the difliculty of drawing a definite line between use and abuse:
they tend to merge into one another, and it may be urged that
the evils of the latter are sufficiently great to justify the abandon-
ment of the former. But the use oC most things is open to the same
objection, and manldnd at large has never consented to forego the
patification of a natural api>etite because it is liable to abuse.
Nor is there any sien of an intention to make an exception in
favour of alcohol. On the other hand, moderation is attainable by
every sane individuaL It n in fact observed by the great majority
and to an increasing extent. There is a line between use and
abuse, and every One really knows where h is in his own cose. If
he cannot draw it let him abstain, as Dr Johnson did for that
reason. But sodety can do much to assist the individual fay
inculcating moderation, setting a standard, promoting its main-
tenance by hdpful environment, discouraging excess ami diminish-
In^ teniptatk>n. AH the evidence points to those means as the
effective agents in seeming the improvement which has taken
place in Great Britain.
This article should be read in conjunction with that on Liqooi
Laws, and it will therefore be in place h«fe to give some addkiomJ
information regarding the latter. The policy of prohibition has
recently gained ground in several countnea. In 1910 nine
American states hod adopted it — nomdy: Maine, Kansas,
N. Dakota, Georgia, Oklahoma. Alabama, Mississippi, N. Carolina
and Tennessee; and it was estimated that nearly half the popula-
tion of the United Sutes were living under state or local prohibitwn.
In Canada the province of Prince Edward Island has adopted
complete prohibition. In 1906 Iddand by a popular vote resolved
to prohibit the manufacture, importation and sale of intoxicating
liquor. In Norway nearly half the towns have adopted probifaitk>a
under the law of 1906. In Beleium and Switzerland the manu-
facture, importation and sale 01 absinthe was forbidden in 1908.
In New Zealand the principle of prohibitioa has gained ground,
and in 1910 was in force over one-seventh of the colony.
AuTBORlTifis.-~Licensing Statistics . Home Oftoe (annual);
Suttstlcal Tables of Alcoholic Beverages, Board of Trad^ 1005:
Report of Inspector under Inebriates Acts (annual); Judicial
Statistics (annual); Registrar-Gfneral's Annual Report; Statistics
of Cities, Urfited States Census Bureau; Alliance Year Book;
Church of Encland Temperance Society Annual Report; American
Prohibition Year Book; Btewers' Almanack; New Encyclopaedia
-# r.^..f o^ un^^ r%_^„,j Problem " (New Library of Jiedt-
r. Memoirs; Morrison, Crtme and as
i Temperance in Sweden, Norway and
Orwell, The Temperance Problem and
9rink, Temperance and IjeasiaHan.
(A.SL.)
866- )p the stage name of the
e Susan Etherington, who in 1898
inox v" Cosmo Stuart_")i « (randaon
TEMPIO PAUSANIA— TEMPLARS
59«
of the 5th do k« of Richmond, and himself an actor and phy^
Wright. She had a charming soprano voice and was educated
for the operatic and concert stage, but at first appeared in light
comic opera, in which she became very popular. Abandoning
music, however, for the comedy stage, she made an even greater
success as an actress, notably in Becky Sharp (1901); and under
her own management in later years she produced a succession
of modem comedies, in which her capacity for rivalJing in
London the triumphs of R^jane in Paris was conspicuously
di splay ed.
TSHPIO PAUSANIA* a town of Sardinia, in the province of
Sassarl, from which town it is s> m* £N.E. by road. It b
also reached by rail by a branch line (>s m.) N.W. from the
main line from Terranova to Cagliari, leaving the latter at
Monti, 14 m. S.W. of Terranova. Pop. (1901) 6511 (town),
I4.S73 (commune). It lies in a mountainous district 1856 ft.
above sea-level, to the N.N.W. of the Monte Limboia. It is
the chief town of the GaJlura, and has been an episcopal see
since the lyth century (with Ampurias). The cathednU is a
modem building. The district is agricultural and pastoraL
The costumes are picturesque, espedally those of the women.
For the name Pausania see Terranova Pausanu.
TEMPLARS. The Knights Templars, or Poor Kiughts of
Christ and of the Temple of Solomon {pauperts commilUcfus
Chrhti tempHque SdamoHtci), formed one of the three great
military orders, founded in the i3th century. Unlike the
Hospitallers and the Teutonic Knights it was a nuIUary order
from its very origin. lu founders were a Burgundian knight
named Hugues de Payns * (Hugo de Paganis) and Godeffroi de
St Omer, a knight from northern France, who in 11 19 undertook
the pious task of protecting the pilgrims who, after the first
cmsade, flocked to Jerusalem and the other sacred spots in
the Holy Land. They were quickly joined by six other knights
and soon afterwards organized themselves as a religious com-
munity, taking an oath to the patriarch of Jerusalem to guard
the public roads, to forsake worldly chivalry, "of which human
favour and not Jesus Christ was the cause," and, Nving in
chastity, obedience and poverty, according to the rule of St
Benedict, " to fight with a pure mind for the supreme and true
King."
To this nascent order of warrior monks Baldwin I., king of
Jerusalem, handed over a part of his royal palace lying next to
the former mosque of al-Aksa, the so-called " Temple of Solomon,"
whence they took their name. They had at first no distinctive
habit, wearing any old clothes that might be given to them.
Nor was their community exclusive. Their primitive rule
seems to have enjoined them especially to seek out excom-
municated knights, and to admit them, after absohitlon by the
bishop, to their order, and they thus served a useful purpose
in at once disciplining and converting the unruly rabble of
" rogues and impious men, robben and committers of sacrilege,
murderers, perjurers and adulterers"* who streamed to the
Holy Land in hope of plunder and salvation. It was this rule
which led later to the most important privilege of the order,
the immunity from sentences of excommumcation pronounced
by bishops and parish priests.'
This practice, as Pruts |>oinls out. might have brought them
at once under the suspicion of the Church, and it soon became
1 A fief in ChaimMgne, near Troycs.
* Bernard of Clairvaux. Da laud* novae mHitae, cap. v. (in Migne.
PalroL lat, \%2 |x 028).
' Prutz. Tempierkcrrenordeu, p. 12. The Latin copy of the Rule
(Bibliotbeque Naiionalc) reads " MitiUs non excommunicatos " for
"ck€9alMrs escomenUi"; which means, according to Pruti. that
when the Lada version was made the original significance of the
rule had been fofgotlen. M. de Curzon (/?^£/« du TempU, p. iv.),
on the other hand, assumes that the Latin text represents the
original rules drawn up in 1128 and that the French version is a
corrupt copy. That Pniir i* right would seem to be shown not
only by the reasonableness of the rule in itself («hy should the
Templars be instructed to look out for gatherings ol «o« excora-
munacated knights?) but by the language of cap. v. of the Dc laude
nacae militae. m which Bernard extols the knights for turning the
enemies qf Christ into his soldiers (ut quos diu pertulU oppugnalores
magitjam propuputtores habere incipiat; faciatque de hosU mihtem).
expedient to obtain the highest sanction for the new order and
its rules. In the autumn of 1127 accordingly Hugues de Payns.
with certain companions, appeared in Eurgpe, where be was
fortunate enough to secure the enthusiastic support of the all-
powerftil abbot of Clairvaux. Grateful pQgrims had already
begun to enrich the order; the De laude novae milUae, a glowing
panegyric of this new and holy conception of knighth<Md, ad-
dressed by Bernard to Hugues de Payns by name, insured the
success of his mission. In 11 28 the council of Troyes discussed
and sanctioned the rule of the order which, if not drawn up by
Bernard, w^ undoubtedly largely inspired by him,*
Rnle of the Temple.— fio MS. of the original French Rule of the
Temple [R^ile du TempU) exists. Of the three extant M5iS. repre-
senting later recensions, one is preserved at the Accadcmia dei
Lincei at Rome (Cod. 4A, A l^), one at the Biblioth^ue Nationale
(Jonds franqais i^Tj), tne third in the departmental archives at
Dijon (H. III). The last of these, probably intended for the use
of- •♦^ •"'»Bter of a subordinate house, is much abbreviated ; it
dai rever. from the eariv part of the 13th century, whereas
th( are of the end of tne century at earliest. In essentials
th( ?s preserve the matter and spirit of the primitive Rule,
an< )rove that to the end the order was, in pnncipic at least,
sul to the same strict discipline as at the beginning.*
jk du Temple in its final form as we now possess it con-
tai ulcs for the constitution and administration of the order;
the and privileges of the various classes of its personnel;
the tic rules, regulations as to costume and as to religious
ser..^^., . jles for the holding of chapters, and a summary of offences
and their punishment; the procedure at the election of a grand
master and at receptions into the order; a definition of the relations
of the order to the pope, and to other religious orders. It roust
be borne in mind, however, that the organization of the order as
described bdow was only gradually developed, not having been
fixed at Troyes. At first the master of the Temple at Jerusalem
was only one among many; the seneschal and marshal appear not
to have existed; and it was not till the bull Omne datum optimum
of Pope Alexander III. (ii6.^), the great charter of the order, that
its organization was definitively centralized.
Constitution. — As finally constituted, the order consisted of (1)
knights (fratres milites), (2) chaplains (Jratres capellani), (3) Ser-
jeants or esquires (fratres servientes armigeri), (4) menials and crafts-
men {fratres sereientes famuli and ofllcii). All were bound by the rules
of the order and enjoyed its privileges. Women were not admitted
to the order.*
1. At the head of the order was the master of the Temple at
Jeru-salcm (in Cyprus after the fall of the Latin Kingdom), known
as the grand master. His authority was very great — except in
certain reserved cases his word was law — but he was not absolute.
Thus in matters of special importance — ^alienation of the estates of
the order, attack on a fortress, declaration of war, conclusion of an
armistice, reception of a new brother— he had to consult the chapter,
and was bound by the vote of the majority; nor could he modify
or abrogate a decree of the council of tne order without their
consent. He had to obtain the consent of the chapter also to the
nomination of the grand commanders of the provinces of the order;
the lesser offices were absolutely in his gift. He was elected by
a complicated orocess, a chapter summoned ad hoc electing a " com-
mander of the election" and one other brother who. after vigil and
prayer, co-opted two more, these four choosing another two, and
so on till the number of the twdve apostles had been reached. A
chaplain, representing Jesus Christ, was then added to complete
the electoral college (sec Curzon. Ktgle du Temple, p. xxxv).*
The grated master was allowed four horses for his ordinary use.
His household consisted of a f rater capellanus, a cleric, a f rater
serviens with two horses, a Saracen secretary (^rwoin sarrazinois)
* Bemaid was not present at the coundl. But the " humble
escrivain" of the R^e du Temple, Johan MichiH, writes " pof
le eomamdement don coneile W dem wenerabU pere Bemart abbis de
Ctereoaus." Compare the rule also with the chapter (lii.) of the
De Imude: De milUibus ChrisH.
* Of a secret Rule, in spite of the most diligent researeh, no trace
has ever been found. It is now generally held that none ever
existed. The legend of its existence, so fatal to the order, is pro-
bably traceable to the fact that the complete Rule was jealously
guarded by the chief office-bearers of the order, only excerpts
beinc given to the heads of the lesser houses {e.g. the Dijon MS.)
and known generally to the knights.
* Rule 70. PerUhmae chose est compastme de feme, que le doable
ancien par comfaignie de feme a deg/M plmsora dou droit seuHer ds
paradis. It Is interesting to compare this with the more wholesome
view of the best of the contemporary chiv-' '«liher
von der Vogelweide or Wolfram voo tsch* old
up true love as the highest earthly if
' The bull Omue daktm optimwm (i 1^
must be a knight of the order who had
the election exclusively in the knights.
592
TEMPLARS
«& int\nurci«r, a tHn9f>te^ i.e. a soldier bdongiog to the Ilght-horse
.tit.uhixi to the onJcr, a farrier and a cook, two footmen (|ar(Oitf
a f^cJ) to look after his special Turcoman horw. only used in war
time, lie wm further attended by two knights of the older of high
faiik. The cnttcra of his presence on campaign were the large
round tent and tne tonfaaan baiKent. the black and white peasant,
charj;t\l with the red cross of the order.
J. The s«cond ofhcer of the Temple was the seneschal. He had
a right to attend all chapters, even the most secret. His equipage,
tent, banner and seal were the same as the master's. Attached
to hu person wxre two squires, a knight companion, a /rater semens,
a secretary in deacon's orders to say the hours,a turcopkt a Saracen
secretary and two foot servants.
3. Third in order was the marskal, who was supreme miUtary
authority, and had under his charge the horses and arms. In the
absence of master and seneschal he acted as locum tenens. His
equipage and swU were much the same as those of master and
seneschal
The provincial marshals were absolute in thdr provinces, but
subordinate to the marshal of the order.
The commander of the land and realm of Jerusalem was grand
treasurer of the order, administered its estates in the province of
Jerusalem, and was responsible for the lodging of the brethren.
He also had charge of the fleet, the commander of the port of Acre
being his subordinate. His equipage and.itfite were much the same
as those of seneschal and marshal.
The commander of the city of Jerusalem was the hospitaller of the
order He was charged with the defence of pilgrims visiting the
Holy Land, and with the duty of supplying them with food and
horses. Ten knights were specially attached to him for this purpose,
and to act as guard to the relics of the True Cross. Subordinate
to him was a second commander for the city itself.
The commanders of Tripoli and Antioch enjoyed all the rights of
the grand master within tiieir provinces, except when he was present.
They too had the round tent and the gonfanon.
Besides these, the rule mentions the commanders of France,
England, Poitou. Portugal, Aoulia and Hungary, whose rights and
privileges are analogous to tnose of the commanders above men-
tioned."
Lastly, of the great officers of the order must be mentioned the
drapier, who was charged with the supervision of the clothing
of the brethren. He was closely associated with the commander
of the kingdom of Jerusalem, his eauipage was that of the com-
manders, but his suite included a number oitailors.
Below the great dignitaries there were in the provinces commanders
of houses, under the provincial commanders, and the commanders of
she knights, who acted as lieutenants of the marshals.
Turning to the general body of the order: the knights (milites)
were entitled to three horses and a squire, or by special favour to
four horses and tw'o squires. They had two tents.
Of the Serjeants {sementes) five occupied an exceptional position:
the deputy-marshals {souz-mareschau), who lookea after the arms
and armour, the gonfanonier, who was responsible for the discipline
and catering of the squires, the kitchener {cuisinter) and the farrier.
These had two horses, a squire and a tent. All the others, even if
commanders of houses, had but one horse. At the head of all the
Serjeants in time of war was the turcoplier, the chief of the tur-
copies. He had four horses in his equipage and certain special
prerogatives; in battle he took his orders only from the master
or seneschal.
Of peculiar importance were the chaplains (fralres capellani).
These did not originally form part of the order, which was served
by priests from outside. The bull Omne datum optimum of 1 163
imposed on clerics attaching themselves to the order an oath of life-
long obedience to the grand master; by the middle of the 13th
century the chaplains took the same oath as the other brothers and
were distinguished from them only by their orders and the privileges
these implied {e.g. they were spared the more humiliating punish-
ments, shaved the face, and had a separate cup to drink out of).
The order thus had iu own clergy, exempt from the jurisdiction
of diocesan bishops and parish priests, owing obedience to the
grand master and the pope alone. By the rules, no TemjAAT was
allowed to confess to any save a priest attached to the order, if one
were available, and such priest was formally declared to have re-
ceived from the pope more power to absolve than an archbishop.'
It remains to be said that the brethren were admitted either for
life or for a term of years. Married men were also received, but
on condition of bequeathing one half of their property to the order
(rule 69).
The chapters of the order were either secret, composed of such
brothers as the roaster might esteem " wise and profitable for
* The titles varied. The provinda! commander is " Master " or
•* Grand Prior *' or *' Grand Preceptor " under him are " priors "
over large estates, and under them " preceptors " of houses. Pre-
ceptors took their name from the mandate of the master issued
to them : ** Prae^ptmus tibi. "
* Rule 1^9 . . . Car il en ont greignor povir de Vaposfoih {i.e.
the pope) d'eaus assoudre qm un areevesgue (Curzon, p. 1 65).
giving advice, or general assemblies of tlae order, at the diacictioii
of the master, who was to listen to the counsel given and do what
seemed best to him (rule36).
Habit of the Order.—The characteristic habit of the order was
the white mantle, symbolk: of purity, with the red croas. the enstgn
of the champions of the Church, first granted by Pope Eugeaius III.
(ii45~53}* Only the unmarried knights bound by life-long vows,
however, were privileged to wear the white mantle, which was also
Elven to chaplains in episcopal orders. The rest wore a black or
rown mantle, the red cron being common to all. The chai^iaine
were distinguished by wearing the mantle closed.
Conduct and Disci^ine.—The brethren were to attend daily
services; but the soldier outwearied with his nightly duties might
on certain conditions absent himself from matins wfth the master's
consent. Two rmilar meals were allowed for each day; but to
these might be added, at the roaster's discretion, a light collation
towards sunset. Meat might be eaten thnce a week; and on other
days there was to be a choice of vegetable fare so as to suit the
tenderest stomach. Brethren were to eat by couples, each keeping
an eye on his fellow to see that he did not practise an undue austerity.
Wine was served at every meal, and at those times silence was
strictly enjoined that the words of Holy Writ might be heard with
the closest attention. * Special care was to be taken of aged and
ailing members. Every brother owed the most absolute obedience
to the roaster of the order, and was to go wherever his superior bade
him without delay, " as if commanded by God." All undue display
in arms or harness was forbidden. Parti-coloured garments were
forbidden. All garments were to be made of wool: but from Easter
to All Souls a linen shirt might be substituted for one of wool. The
hair was to be worn short, and a rough beaxd became one of the
distinguishing marks of the order. Hunting and hawking were
unlawful; and the very allusion to the follies or secular achieve-
ments of earlier life was forbidden. A lion, however, being the
type of the evil one, was le^timate prey. Strict watch was kept
on the incomings and outgoings of every brother, except when tie
went out by night to visit the Sepufehrc of our Lord. No letter,
even from tne nearest relative, might be opened except in the master's
presence; nor was any member to fcef annoyance if he saw his
relative's gift transferred at the master's bidding to some other
brother. The brethren were to sleep in separate beds in shirts and
breeches, with a light always burning in the dormitory. Those
who lacked a mattress might place a piece of carpet on the floor;
but all luxury was discouraged.
A term of probation was asMgned to each candidate before od*
mtaion; and a special chiuse discouraged the reception of boys
before they were of an age to bear arms.^ Lastly, the brethren of
the Temple were exhorted to shun the kiss of every woman, whether
maid or widow, mother, aunt or sister.
For grievous offences, such as desertion to the Saracens, heresy,
losing the gonfalon, murdering a Christian, or failing to account
for all the property of the order in his |>08tession, a Tcmpd^r might
be expelled (perdre la maison); for minor offences, such as dis-
obedience, lowering the banner in battle, or killing a dave or a horse,
he suffered a temporary degradation {perdre son obit). No member
of another religious order was received by the Templars, and no
Templar could leave the order without permission of the ^master,
and then only on condition of joining a stricter monastic com-
munity. By mutual agreement the Templars and Hospitallers,
despite their long and deadly feud, were bound not to receive ejected
members of the rival order; and the Templar cut off in battle and
defeat from all hope of rejoining his own ranks might rally to titt
cross of St John.
History.— Long before St Bernard's deatb (11 53) the new
order was established in almost every kingdom of Latin
Christendom. Henry I granted them lands in Noimandy.
They seemed to have been settled in Castile by 1 1 39, in Rocbelle
by IZ31, in Languedoc by 1136, at Rome by Z138, in Brittany
by X141, and in Germany at perhaps a still earlier date. Al-
phonso I. of Aragon and Navarre, if. we may trust the Spanish
historians, bequeathed them the third of his kingdom spnng
(Mariana, x. c 9). Raymond Berengar IV., count of o/<*e
Barcelona, and Alphonso's successor in Aiagon, whose *'^*'*
father bad been admitted to the order, granted them the strong
castle of Monzon (i 143)1 '^^ establi^ed a new chivalry in
imitation of theirs. Louis VII. in the latter years of his reign
g^ve them a piece of marsh land outside Paris, which in later
times became known as the Temple, and was the headquarters
'The Bible was read In a French translation. A MS. of a
Templar Bible, exhibiting curious touches of the critical spirit, b
now in the Bibliothdque Nationale in Paris. See Prutx, Templer-
herrenorden, p. 116.
* This rule was not observed later on, postulants being admitted
without any period of noviciate, and among the Templars arrested
in 1307 were many young boys.
TEMPLARS
593
of the Older io Eitiope.* SteplKn o( EngUiid gnotcd them
the maoon of Creasing and Wit bam in Essex, and bis wife
Matilda that of Cowley, near Oxford. Eugenius III., Louis VU .,
and 130 bcetbren were present at the Paris chapter (1x47) when
Bernard de BaUiol granted the order 15 Ubrales of land near
Uitchm; and the list of English benefactors under Stephen
and Henry U. includes the noble names of Ferrers, Uarcourt,
Hastings, lacy, Clare, Vere and Mowbray. Spiritual privileges
were grated to them by the popes as lavishly as temporal pos-
scsaions by the princes and pec^. Pope Adrian IV. allowed
them to have their own churches; Eugenius HI. added to these
the r^ht to have churchyards; and churches and churchyards,
as in the case of the order generally, were exempted Crom the
operation of ordinary excommunications and interdicts. Thus
a person dying excommunicated, refused burial elsewhere,
sometimes— ULe Geoffrey de Mandeville *— found a resting-
place in the consecrated ground of the Templars. Eugenius III.
also granted the Templars the right to have interdicted
chur^es opened twice a year for the puipose of making their
coUcctions. They were, moreover, as defenders of the Church,
exempted from the payment of tithes. Finally, they were
exempted from the action even of general censures and decrees
of the popes, unless mentioned in them by name. Very soon
the order refused to submit in any way to the ordinary juris-
diction of the diocesan bishops and formed in effect a separate
ecclesiastical organization under the pope as supreme bishop.
The result was that, scarce twenty-five years alter its founda-
tion, the order was at open feud with bishops and parish priests,
and the popes found it necessary to issue decree titer decree to
protect it from violence and spoliation. The complaints of
the secular clergy, on the other hand, came to a head in 11 79
at the Lateran Council, when even Pope Alexander lU. had to
consent to a series of decrees directed against the abuse of its
privileges by the order (Prutz, p. 41).
So long, however, as the attention of the papacy and of
Christendom was fixed on the problem of recovering and safe-
guarding the Holy Land, the positioa of the Templars was
unasaailable and all efforts to curb the growth of their power
vain. The order as such had 00 European policy;' the whole
of its vast organization was maintained for the purpose of
feeding the holy war against the infidels with recruits and with
money; and its ultimate fate depended on its success or failure
in the East. (W. A. P.)
After the council of Troyes Hugues de Payns came to England
and induced a number of knights to follow him to the Holy
Land. Among these was Fulk, count of Anjou, who would
thus seem to have been a Templar before assuming the crown
of Jerusalem in xiji. Hugues de Payns died about the year
a»<b. 1 1 36 and was succeeded by Robert de Craon, who is
said to have been Anselm's nephew. Everard de
Harris, the third master, was conspicuous in the second
crusade. In the disastrous march from Laodicea to Attalia
his troops alone kept up even the show of discipline; and their
• In August 1279, Philip IV. ceded to the Templars within the
precincts of the Temple at Paris (tieus Templi), i^. ihe whole
lorti5ed quarter on the right bank of the Seine, the ri^ht to eserdae
higher and lower justice {aita et basse juslicia), to retain all property
uo,ually escheated to the crown, and to guard their fortress " night
and day " by means of their own semtnles without interference.
The king undertook, for himself and his successors, not to endeavour
to levy any iaiite or other tax nor to exact any of the customary
Icudal services within the Temple. Text in Pnitz, TempUrherrm-
oTiUHt p. 398.
* IIIo autem, in discrimine mortis, ultimum trahente spiritum,
qutdam sapervenere Templarii oui relieionis sacre habhum cruce
rubea sigilatum ei imposoerunt (Mom. Ang.^ iv. 14a). There must
be a slight error here on the part of the chronider; for Geoffrey
died in 1144 and the red cross was not granted to the Templars
until the following year. This does not, however, affect the main fact
that Geoffrey, though excommunicated, was buried in consecrated
ground at tKe New Temple in London. This was in 1 163, twenty-
two years before the consecration of the Temple Church now standing.
Ser Round, Ceoffrn de MandevilU, p. 224-
' Finkc. p. 42. Individual TcmpUrs, of coarse, acted from time
to time as diplomats or as royal advisers; but they in no sense
represe n ted the order.
success prompted Louis VII. to regulate his whole army after
the model of the Templar knights. In the FreiKh king's
distress for money the Templars lent him large sums, ranging
from 3000 silver marks to 30,000 loltdi. When Conrad III. of
Germany reached Jerusalem he was entertained at their palace
(Easter 1148); and in the summer of the same year they took
part in the unsuccessful siege of Damascus. The failure of
this expedition was ascribed by a contemporary writer to their
treachery— a charge to which Conrad woidd not assent. This
is the first note of the accusations which from this time were of
constant recurrence.'
Henceforward for 140 yean the history of the Templars is
the history of the Crusades (^.t.). In X149 the Templars were
appointed to guard the fortress of Gaza, the last Christian
stronghoM on the way towards Egypt. Four years later the
new master, Bernard de Tremelai, snd forty of his followers,
bursting into Ascalon, were surrounded by the Saracens and
cut off to a single man. William of Tyre has preserved the
scandal of the day when he hints that they met a merited fate
in their eagerness to possess themselves of the dty treasure.
Next year the rumour went abroad that they bad sold a noble
half-converted Egyptian prince, who had fallen into their bands,
to chains and certain death for 60,000 aurei. In 1x66 Ailialric,
the Latin king of Jerusalem, hanged twelve Templars on a
charge of betraying a fortress beyond the Jordan to an amir
of NQr al-Din of Damascus. The military power of KQr al-Dfaa
(1145^73) was a standing menace to the Christian if^i^
settlemenu in the East. Edeaaa had fallen to the tJbM
prowess of his father (1x44-45); Damascus was con- */JJ^'*'
quered by the son (XX53), who four years earlier had ^''*'"^
carried his depredations almost to the walls of Antloch, and in
XIS7 laid siege to the Christian town of Paneas near the sources
of the Jordan. In the disastrous fight that followed for the
safety of the fortress of the HospitaUers, Bertrand de Blanquefort,
the master of the Templats, ajad Odo de St Amand, one of his
successoiB, were taken prisoners. Bertrand was released later
when Manuel was prepsring to march against NQr al-Dlo. The
Templars do not seem to have opposed Amalric's early expedi-
tions against Egypt. It was Geoffrey Fulcber, the Temp.'':r
correspondent of Louis VII., who brought back (1167) to
Jerusalem the glowing accounU of the splendour of the caliph's
court at Cairo with which Gibbon has enlivened his great work.
Nor was the order less active at the northern limits of the Latin
kingdom. Two English Templars, Gilbert de Lacy and Robert
Manael, "qui Galensibus praeerat," starting from Antioch,
surprised NOr al-Din in the neighbourhood of Tripoli and put
him barefooted to flight. But jealousy or honour led the
Templars to oppose Amalric's Egyptian expedition of 11 68;
and the wisdom of their advice became apparent when the re-
newed discord on the Nik led to the conquest of Egypt by Asad
ai-DIn ShirkOh, and thus indirectly to the accession ttwiaOma
of Saladin.in XX69. In 1x70 they beat Saladin back ««*
from their frontier fortress of Gaza; and seven years *•*•**
later they dured in Baldwin IV.'s great victory at Ascalon.
Meanwhile Saladin had possessed himself of Emesa and
Damascus (xx74-*75)» and, as he was already lord of Egypt,
hn power hemmed in the Latin kingdom on every side. In
July XX 73 Amalric was succeeded by his son Baldwin IV., a
boy of twelve. Raymond HI., count of Tripoli, a man sus-
pected of being in league with the Saracens, was appointed
regent, although in 1x76 the masters of the Templars and the
Hopitalfers united in offering this office to the newly arrived
Philip of Fbmders. The construction of the Templar fortress
at Jacob's ford on the upper Jordan led to a fresh Saracen in-
vasion and the disastrous battle of Paneas (X179), from which
the young king and the Holy Cross escaped with difficulty,
while Odo de St Amand, the grand master, was carried away
captive and never returned.
During Odo's mastership the Old Man of the Mountains sent
to Amalric offering to accept the Christian faith if released from
the tribute he had paid to the Tempters since (according to the
« Hui. PwHti^ ap. Perti, xx. 5^5-MI^
59+
TEMPLARS
reckoning of M. De(rEmery) somewhere about 1149. The
Templars murdered the envoys on their ret urn (r. 1 1 7 2) . Amalric
demanded that the offenders should be given up to justice.
Odo refused to yield the chief culprit, though he was well known,
and invoked the protection of the pope. Amalric had to vin-
dicate his right by force of arms at Sidon, and died while prepar-
ing to take stronger measures. The connexion between the
Templars and the Old Man was still vital eighty years later when
the two grand masters rebuked the insolence of the Assassin
envoys in the presence of Louis IX. Odo de St Amand was suc-
ceeded by Arnold de Torroge, who died at Verona on his way to
implore European succour for the Holy Land. The power of
Saladin was now (1184) increasing daily; Baldwin IV. was a
leper, and his realm was a prey to rival factions. There were
two claimants for the guardianship of the sute — Raymond III.
of Tripoli and Guy de Lusignan, who in 1180 had married
Sibylla, sister of the young king. Baldwin inclined to the
former, against the patriarch and Arnold de Torroge.
There is something Homeric in the story of the fall of the
Latin kingdom as related by the historians of the next century.
FaUoi A French knight, Gerard de Riderfort or Bideford,
t Jtf* coming to the East in quest of fortune, attached
*'^»**' himself to the service of Raymond of Tripoli, looking
for the hand of some wealthy widow in reward. But on his
claiming the hand of the lady of Botron he was met with a
refusal. Angered at this, Gerard enrolled himself among the
Templars, biding his time for revenge, and was elected grand
master on the death of Arnold. Baldwin IV. died (1185),
leaving the throne to his young nephew Baldwin V., the son
of Sibylla, under the guardianship of Raymond, whose office
was not of long duration, as the little king died in September
1 186. This was Gerard's opportunity. The Templars carried
the body of their dead sovereign to Jerusalem for burial; and
then, unknown to the barons of the realm, Gerard and the
patriarch crowned Sibylla and her husband Guy. The corona-
tion of Guy was the triumph of Raynald of Ch&tillon, once
prince of Antioch, and Saladin*s deadliest foe. It was at the
same time the overthrow of Raymond's ambition; and both
Latin and Arabic writers are agreed that the Christian count
and the Mahommedan sultan now entered into an alliance.
To break this friendship and so save the kingdom, the two
grand masters were sent north to make terms with Raymond.
But the rash valour of the Templars provoked a hopeless contest
with 7000 Saracens. The grand master of the Hospitallers
was slain; but Gerard made his escape with three knights to
Nazareth (ist May 1187). In this emergency Raymond be-
came reconciled with Guy; and Gerard placed the Temple
treasures of Henry II. at his king's disposal. Once more it was
the Templars* rashness that led to the disastrous battle of
Hittin (4th July). Gerard and the king fell into the hands of
Saladin, but were released about a year later; Raymond of
Tripoli made his escape through treachery or fortune; and 230
Templars fell in or after the battle, for the light was scarcely
over before Saladin ordered all the Templars and Hospitallers
to be murdered in cold blood. One after another the Christian
fortresses of Palestine fell into the hands of Saladin. Jerusalem
pjUi of surrendered on 2nd-3rd October 1 187, and the treasures
Jf^ of the Temple coffers were used to purchase the re-
•■*"• deraption of the poorer Christians, part of whom the
Templar warriors guarded on their sad march from the Holy
City to Tripoli. Part of their wealth was expended by Conrad
of Montfcrrat in the defence of Tyre; but, when this prince
refused to admit Guy to his city, both the Templars and the
Hospitallers from the neighbouring parts flocked to the banner
SAv'a' of their released king and accompanied him to the
*"^ siege of Acre (aand August 1189). In his company
they bore their part In the two years' siege and the terriWc
famine of 1190-91; and their grand master died in the gmt
battle of 4lh October 1189, refusing to survive the slaughter
of his brethren.
On the fall of Acre Philip Augustus established himself in
^* * f t)}e Templars, who are, however, stated to have
sympathized with Richard. This king sold them the island of
Cyprus for 100,000 besants; but, unable to pay the purchase
money, they transferred the debt and the principality to Guy
of Lusignan. The EngU^ king consulted them before deciding
on any great military movement; and in June 1192 they ad-
vocated the bold plan of an advance on Egypt rather than on
Jerusalem. In the disputes for the Latin kingdom of the East
the Templars seem to have supported Guy, and, like Richard,
were credited with having had a hand in the murder of Conrad
of Montferrat (April 1192)* It was in the disguise of a Texnpbir
and in a Templar galley that Richard left the Holy Land.
When Acre was recovered, the Templars, like the Hospitallers,
received their own quarters in the town, which from this time
became the centre of the order. On the death of Henry of
Champagne (1197) they vetoed the election of Raoul de Tabarie;
after the death of his successor Amahic they refused to renew
the truce with Saladin's brother, Saif al-Din, and led an expedi-
tion against the Saracens before the arrival of the Jbft«*
new king, John de Brienne, at whose coronation in Br^mau,
1210 William de Chartres, the grand master, was present.
Seven years later, with the aid of Walter de Avennis and of
the Teutonic Knights, they commenced the building of their
fortress of Castle Pilgrim, near Acre, on a rocky promontory
washed by the Mediterranean on every side except the cast.
This wonderful structure, whose ruins are still to be seen, was
fortified with a strong wall, founded on the substructure of a
yet more extensive one running from sea to sea, and was flanked
by lofty towers of huge squared stones. Within was a spring
of pure water, besides fishponds, salt-mines, woods, pastures,
orchards, and all things fitted to furnish an abode in which the
Templars might await the day of their restoration to Jerusalem.
It was from this castle that in May 1218 the fifth crusade
started for the expedition against Egypt. The Templars were
the heroes of the siege of Damietta, at which William emk
de Chartres was slain. " First to attack and last to tatamit.
retreat," they saved the Christian army from annihilation on
29th August 1219; and when the city surrendered (5th
November) the only one of iU twenty-eight towers that had
begun to give way had been shaken by their engines. On the
other hand, it was largely owing to thek objections that John
de Brienne refused the sultan's offer to restore Jerusalem and
Palestine.
From the very first the Templars seem to have been opposed
to Frederick IL, and when he landed at Acre (7lh September
1228) they refused to march under the banners of an excom-
municated man, and would only accompany his host from
Acre to Joppa in a separate body. They were accused of
notifying Frederick's intended pil^mage to the Jordan to the
sultan, and they were certainly opposed to Frederick's ten yean'
peace with Al-Kimil, the sultan of Egypt, and refused to be
present at his coronation in Jerusalem. Frederick was not
slow to avenge himself: he left Jerusalem abruptly, publicly
insulted the grand master, demanded the surrender of their
fortresses, and even laid siege to Castle Pilgrim. He left Acre
on the 31x1 of May 1229, and on landing in Apulia gave orden
to seize the estates of the order and chase all its members from
the land.
Long before the expiration of Frederick's peace Europe was
preparing for a fresh crusade against the now divided realm of
t he Ayyubids. Theobald of Navarre and his crusaders firrutt
reached Palestine about August 1239. The Templars «■"»■*'
shared in the great defeat near Jaffa, an engagement which
their temerity had done much to provoke (i3lh November 1239).
If the king ever accepted the overtures of ^HLxYs of Damascus,
he was supporting the poUcy of Hermann of Pcrlgord, the grand
master, who towards the summer of 1244 wrote a triumpliant
letter to England, telling how he had engaged this sulUn and
NSsir of Kerak to make an alliance against the sultan of Egypt
and restore the whole of Palestine from the Jordan to the sea.
Theobald, however, before leaving the Holy Land ( 27th
September 1240), signed a ten years' truce with $&ll^ of J^gypt.
The Hospitallers seem to have been won over to his view, and
TEMPLARS
595
when Richaid of Cornwall itfrivcd (txth October) he had to
decide between the two rival orders and thetr opposing policies.
After some hesitation he concluded a treaty with the sultan oC
Egypt, much to the annoyance of the Templars, who openly
motked his efforts. On his departure the three orders came
to open discord: the Templars laid siege to the Hospitallers in
Acre and drove out the Teutonic Knights "in contumeliam
imperatoris." They were successful on all sides. The negotia-
tions with Damascus and Kerak were reopened, and in 1244
Hermann of Perigord wrote to the princes of Europe that after
a " silence of fifty-six years the divine mysteries would once
more be cdebrated in tlie Holy City."
It was in this moment of danger that the sultan of Babylon
called in the barbarous Khariamians, whom the Mongol in-
_ vasioos had driven from their native lands. These
■ «v savages, entering from the north, flowed like a tide
past the newly built and impregnable Templar fortress
of Safcd, swept down on Jerusalem, and annihilated the
Christian army near Gasa on St Luke's day (i8th October)
1 244. From this blow the Latin kingdom of the East never
recovered; 600 knights took part in the battle; the whole
force of the Templars, 300 in number, was present, but only
18 survived, and of aoo Hospitallers only 16. The masters of
both orders were slain or taken prisoners. Despite the admir-
able valour of the Templars, their policy had proved the ruin
of the land. Jerusalem was lost to Christendom for ever; and,
though the Khariamians melted away in the course of the next
three years, they left the country so weak that all the acquisi-
tions of Theobald and Richard fell an easy prey to the sultan
of Babylon.
Recognizing the fact that the true way to Jerusalem lay
through Egypt, Louis IX. led his host to the banks of the Nile,
LMto being accompanied by the Templars. Their master,
ix,'a William de Sonnac, attempted in vain to restrain
tnumOf, ihe rash advance of the count of Artois at the battle
of Mansura (8th February 1250), which only three Templars
survived. St Louis, when captured a few weeks later, owed
his speedy release to the generosity «-ilh which the Order ad-
vanced his ransom-money. Shortly after his departure from
Acre (April 1254) they consented to an eleven years' trace with
the sultans of Egypt and Damascus.
A new eiKmy was now threatening Mahommedan and
Christian alike. For a time the Mongol advance may have
been welcomed by the Christian cities, as one after another
the Mahommedan principalities of the north feO before the new
Invaders. But this new danger stimulated the energies of
gyp. Egypt, which imder the Mameluke Bibars encroached
c*MM year after year on the scanty remains of the Latin
•r eman, kingdom. The great Prankish lords, fearing that all
was lost, made haste to sell their hnds to the Templars and
Hospitallers before quitting Palestine for ever. In 1260 the
former purchased Sidon and Beaufort; next year the Hos-
pitallers purchased Arsuf. In 1267, by a skilful adaptation of
the banners of both orders, Bibars nearly surprised Antioch.
The Templar fortress of Safed surrendered with its garrison of
600 knights, all of whom preferred death to apostasy (June
1266). Beaufort fell in 1268, Antioch six weeks later; and,
though the two orders still made occasional brilliant dashes
from their Acre stronghold, such as that to Ascalon in 1264
and that with Prince Edward of England to destroy KH&n in
1 27 1, they became so enfeebled as to welcome the treaty which
secured them the plain of Acre and a free road to Nazareth as
the result of the English crusade of 1272.
But, though weak against external foes, the Templars were
strong enough for internal warfare. In 1277 they espoused
the quarrel of the bishop of Tripoli, formerly a member of the
order, against his nephew Bohemond, prince of Antioch and
Tripoli, and began a war which lasted three years. In 1276
their conduct drove Hugh III . king of Cyprus and Jerusalem,
from Acre to Tyre. In the ensuing year, when Mary of Antioch
had sold her claim to the crown to Charles of Anjou, they wel-
comed this prince's lieutenant to Acre and succeeded for the
moment in forcing the knights of that city to do homage to the
new king. Thirteen years later (26th A|Mil 1290) Tripoli fell,
and next year Acre, after a siege of six weeks, ^at the ,^ft,,^j
dose of which (16th May) William de Beaujeu, the maatot
grand master, was slain. The few surviving Templars P«ir*>
elected a new master, and, forcing their way to the ^'"^
seashore, sailed for Cyprus, which now became the headquarters
of the order. A futile attempt against Alexandria in 1300 and
an unsuccessful effort to form a new settlement at Tortosa about
the same time (1300-2) are the dosing acts of their long career
in the western parts of Asia.
For more than a hundred years the Templars had been one
of the wealthiest and most influential factors in European
politics. If we confine our attention to the East, we r^w^
realize but a small part of their enormous power. gm0 to*
Two Templars were appointed guardians of the dis- Awm»
putod castles on the betrothal of Prince Henry of ^H^,
England and the French princess in 1161. Other
Tempbus were alnumers of Henry III. of England and of
Philip IV. of France. One grand master was godfather to a
daughter of Louis IX.; another, despite the prohibition of the
order, is said to have been godfather to a child of Philip IV.
They were summoned to the great councils of the Church,
such as the Lateran of 1215 and the Lyons council of 1274*
Frederick II.'s persecution of their order was one of the main
causes of his excommunication in 1239; aiul his last will en«
joined the restoration of their estates. Their property was
scattered over every country of Christendom, from Denmark to
Spain, from Ireland to Cyprus. Before the middle of the 13th
century Matthew Paris reckons their manors at 9000, Alberic
of Trois-Fontaines at 7050, whereas the rival order of St John
had hardy half the latter number. Some fifty years earlier
their income from Armenia alone was 20,000 besants. Both in
Paris and in London their houses were used as strongholds for
the royal treasure. In the Temple in London Hubert de Burgh
and the Poitevin favourites of Henry III. stored their wealth;
and the same building was used as a bank into which the debloni
of the fordgn usurers paid thdr dues. From the English
Templars Henry HI. borrowed the purchase money of 01£ron
in 1235; from the French Templars Philip IV. exacted the
dowry of his daughter Isabella on her marriage with Edward II.
To Louis IX. they lent a great part of his ransom, and to
Edward I. of England no less tluoi 25,000 livra Tournois^ oC
whkh they remitted four-fifths. Jacques de Molay, the last
grand master, came to France in 1306 with iso,ooo gold florins
and teA horse-loads of silver.* In the Spanish peninsula they
occupied a peculiar position, and more than one king of Aragon
is said to have been brought np under their discipline.*
' The wealth of the Templars was due not so much to their
tcrritonal possessions as to tne fact that they were the great inter-
national financiers and bankers of the age. The Paris Temple
was the centre of the world's money market. In it popes and
kings deposited their revenues, and these vast sums were not hoarded
but issued as loans on adequate security. Above all. it was the
Templac9 who made the exchange of monejr with the East possible.
It is easy, indeed, to see how they were the ideal bankers of ihe age;
their stnmghokls were scattered from Armenia to Ireland, their
military power and strict disdpline ensured the safe transmission
of treasure, while their reputation as monks guaranteed their integ-
rity. Thus they became the predecessors, and later the rivals, of
the great Italian banking companies. See L. Deliate, " Mimoire sur
les op^ratKMis finandires des Templiers " in iiimoires de I'lmtilta
national de France, t. xxxii. To take interest (usury) was of course
unlawfu!. The method of drcumventing this seems to have been
that the mortgages paid to the mortgacors a nominal rent which
was used towards the reduction of the debt- The difference between
this and the real rent represented ihe interest. Sec A ncient Charters,
Pt. i. (Pipe RoU Soc., London, 1888). edited by J. H. Round, p. 94
note. A document throwisK a vivid light on the banking methods
of the Templars and Hoeptullers is a charter of Margaret, queen
of the English, a.d. 1 186, from the abbey of Fonteviault. printed
in Calendar of Documents, France (London, l899)« vol. i., cd J. H.
Round. No. 1084. . (W. A. P.).
The Templars in Aragon and the other kingdoms of the Spanish
insula were far more subordinate to the crown than elsewhere.
. ione but natives were admitted to their ranks, and there were very
few exchanges of kn^hts with foreign commanderies. They wtn
penin
None
598
TEMPLARS
that into the accusatioitt' against individual Temptan. The
papal commisnon in Paris began its sesaons on the 9th of
August 1309; on the 12th, citations were issued to those
Templars who ** of theii own fiee will " were prepared to come
and defend the order. There wss much confusion and delay,
however, and the actual public trial did not begin till the nth
of April 1310.1 Many Templars, trusting in the assurance
implied in their citation, had volunteered to defend the order
and withdrew their previous confessions. They were soon un-
deceived; the commission, presided over by the garde des
iceaux of the king, the archbishop of Narbonne, was paclced
with creatures of the crown. The evidence given in Paris for
or against the order was, it was soon found, used against the
individual Templars on their return to the provinces; the re-
tractatioo of a confession, under the rules set up for the diocesan
inquisition, was punished with death by fire. On Tuesday
Th» the 12th of May, fifty-four Templars who had re-
*'*^ tracted their confessions before the commbsion were
burnt in Paris by order of the archbishop of Sens;* a few days
later four were burnt at Senlis, and towards the end of May
nine more, by order of the archbishop of Reims. Forty-six
Templars now withdrew their defence, and the commissioners
iti Paris decided (30th May) to adjourn till November. The
second examination lasted from the t7th of December 1310 to
the 16th of May 1311. Meanwhile {c. April 1311) Clement and
Philip had come to terms. The pope condemned the Templars.
The council of Vienne met in October 131 1. A discussion arose
as to whether the Templars should be heard in their .oun de-
fence. Clement, it is said, broke up the session to avoid com-
pliance; and when seven Templars offered themselves ^ as
deputies for the defence he had them cast into prison. Towards
the beginning of March Philip came to Vienne, and he was seated
at the pope's right hand when that pontiff delivered his sermon
against the Templars (3rd April 131 2), whose order had just
been abolished, not at the general council, but in private con-
sistory (a and March). On and May 1312 he published the bull
Ad Providam, transferring the goods of the society, except for
the kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, Portugal and Majorca, to the
Knights of St John. The order was never formally pronounced
guilty of the crimes laid to its charge; its abolition was dis-
tinctly, in the terms of Clement's bull Cotisiderantes Dudum,
"non per modum definilivac scntenliae, cum eam super hoc
secundum inquisitionea et processus super his habitos non
possemus ferre de jure sed per viam provisionis ct ordinationis
apostolicae " (6th May 131a).
The final act of the stupendous tragedy came early in 1314.
Jacques de Molay, the grand master, had not hitherto risen to
(he height of his great position; the fear of torture alone had
been enough to make him confess, and this confession had been
used to extract avowals from his brethren, subject as they
were to unspeakable sufferings and accustomed to yield to the
military chief. Humiliation on humiliation had been heaped
on the wretched man, public recantations, reiterated confessions.
Before the papal commission he had flamed into anger, protested,
equivocated — only fai the end to repeat his confession once
more. The same had happened before the commission of
cardinals at Chinon; the audience with the pope, which he
demanded, he had never obtained. On the 6th of May 1313
Pope Clement issued his final decision as to the fate of the
Templais in general; that of (he five great offices of the order
he reserved In hfs own hand. With this a silence falls over the
history of the Templars;* the fate of the order had been de-
» This was, of coune. only one of some twenty-five separate com-
' "'^^s in dperent ooontties. it imt, however, the most important
"EnguefTand de MariRny, the
"""^ aichbitAiop of Sens at
Hatunlliy full of leol for
' I appealed to the papal
ttpeed that it had no
fM Mdioaiy jurisdiction.
" The
cided, that of the indtvidoab si in under trial was of little interest
to contemporary chroniclers. Then the veil is suddenly Ufted.
Jacques de Molay has found his wonted courage at last, and
with him Gaufrid de Chamey, the preceptor of Normandy; on
the 14th of March 1314 they were brought out on to a scaffold
erect^ in front of Notre Dame, there in the presence of the
papal legates and of the people to repeat their confession? and
to receive their sentence of perpetual Imprisonnient. Instead,
they seized the opportunity to withdraw their confessions and
to protest to the assembled thousands the innocence of the
order. King Philip the Fair did not wait to consult the Church
as to what he should do; he had them burnt " in the little
island " of the Seine " between the Augustinians and the royal
garden "; with them perished Ouy (the Guido Delphini of the
trials), the youthful son of the dauphin of Auvergne. After
the deaths of the pope and king, which followed shortly, the
people remembered that the grand master had summoned them
with his dying breath before the judgment seat of God; but
the sole recorded contemporary protest Is that of the Augus-
tinians against the trespass committed by the royal oflicers on
their land!
On the question of the guilt or innocenoe of the Templars in
respect of the specific charges on whk:h the order was condemned
opinion has long been divided. Their innocence was maintained
by the greatest of all their contemporaries, Dante,* and among
others by the historian Viltani ana by the sainted Antoninus,
archbishop of Padua. In more recent times a certain heat was
introduced into the discussion of the question owing to its having
been for centuries brought into the arena of party controversy,
between Protestants and Catholics^ Oallkans and Ultramontanes,
Freemasons and the Church. Thus m 1654 Pierre Du Puy, Hbrariaa
of the Biblioth^ue Royale. published his work on the Templars
to confute those who sought to establish their innocence in order
to discredit a king of France. On the other band, Nkolas Gurtler
published his Wsioria Ttmplariorum (Amsterdam, 1691, 3nd ed.
1703) to show, as a good Protestant, that the Templars had the
usual vices of Roman Catholics, while, according to Loiseleur, the
later editors of Du Puy (especially of the 1 751 edition.* ostensibly
printed at Brussels) were Freemasons who. under false names,
garbled ttic old material and inserted new in the interests of the
supposed origin of their own order in that of the Templars.*
Several Roman Catholic champions of the order now entered the
field, e.t. the Benedictine historian of Languedoc, Dom Doninioue
Joseph Vaissite, and noubly the Premonstratensian canon R. P. M.
cunc. prior of Etival.. who in 1789 published at Paris his Hisloirt
critique et apxdogitique de Cordre des chevaliers . . . dits Templiers,
a valuable work directed specifically against Gurtler and Du Puy.
In the 19th century a fresh impetus was given to the discussion t^
the publication in 18x3 of Raynouard's brilliant defence of the
property was nominally handed over to the Hospitallers, but roost
of It actually remained in the hands of the sovereigns or their
followers (Philip, e.g., claimed a vast sum for the expenses incurred
in suppressing the order and torturing its members). In the Spanish
peninsula the Temple castles and estates were in some cases handed
over to other military orders; in Portugal to the new order of Christ,
1319: in Castile to those of Udes and Calatrava; in Aragon one
frontier castle with its domain. Montasia, was given to the Icniahts
of Calatrava: the rest— so far as they had not been annexea by
the king and the ricos hombres — to the HospiuUers. As to the
Templars: they were granted in most cases generous pennons;
some continued to live m groups, though without organization, on
their old property; others jomed various orders: many macricd,
on the f>lea that the suppression of the order had reh^sed them
from their voWs; while others, again, took servure with the Moors
in Africa. (Finke, i. cap. x.)
* Veggio il nuovo. Ptfato si cnidele,
Che do Aol sazia, ma, senta dccreto.
Porta nd tempio le cupide vele. — (Purg. ax. 92.)
> Histoire de Vordre miiilaire des Umpliers, &c. The titles of the
various editions differ.
* There is, of course, no foundation whatever for this cfaim. It
is examined and refuted, inter alios, by Wilcke. Hi. 383 seq. A
delightfully absurd attempt to assert the continuity of the
mo(xm Order of Knights Templars, which still has a consklerable
organisation in the united States, with the suppressed order, is
made by Jeremy L. Cross in The Templars' Chart (New York, 1845):
he actually gives a complete list of grand masters from Hugues de
Payns to Sir Sidney Smith (1838), and asserts that " the Encamp-
ment of Baldwin which was established at Bristol by the Tempbis
who returned with Richard I. from Palestine, still continues to
hold its regular meetings, and is believed to have preserved the
ancient costume and ceremonies of the c~*~- "
TEMPLARS
599
The chaUeofe was taken up, amonf othtra. Inr the fafooiis
orientalist Fmdrich von Hammer-Purestall, who in I8i8 published
hi* MyaUrimn Bopkometis revehhtm,' an attempt to |>rove that
the Templara folbwed the doctrines and rites of the Gnostic Ophites,
the aiKUfneat being fortified with reproductions of ob«ccne rcprcsen-
tations of supposra Gnostic ceremonies and of mystic symbols said
to have been found in the Templars' buildlnn. Wflcke, white
rejecting Hammer's main conclusions as unptovod, argued in favour
of the cdsctoce of a secret doctrine based, not on Gnosticism, but
on the unitarianism of Islam, of which Baphomet (MahooKC) was
the aymboL* On the other band, Wilhelm Havemann (flesckiclUt
its Ausganges des Tempelhtrr^nordeHSt Stuttgart and Tubingen,
1846) decided In favour of the maocenoe of the order. This view
was also takes by a soocession of Germaa scholars. In England
by C G. Addison, and in France by a whole series 01 conspicuous
writers: t,g. Mignet, Guixot, Renan. LavocaL Othen, like
Boutaric,^ while rejecting the charge 01 heresy, accepted the evi-
dence for the spmituf and the indecent kisses, explaining the former
as a formula of forgotten aaeaaing and the latter as a nga of
(nUmiUI Michelec, who in his history of France had iApu ss i.d
bimaelf favounbly to the order, announced his conversion to the
opposite opinion in the prefaces to his edition of the Proch. This
view was reinforced by the worle in which Loiseleur ende av oured
to prove that the order had secretly rejected Christianity in favour
of an heretical religion based on Gnostic dualism as taught by the
Cathari:* it was crowned with the high authority of Ranke in the
great WtUieschkkU (8 Theil. 1887. p. 631 ff.): it has been adopted
fn the later WdigtsckichU of Weber (8 Theil, 1887. P- 5^1 ff).
The greatest impulse to this view was, however, given by the
brilliant contributions of Hans Prutx. The first of these, the
GekeimUkn, in the main an expansion of Loiselcur's aigument, at
once raised up a host of critics; and, as a result of five years'
study of the aicfaives at Rome and elsewhere, Koniad Schott-
raOHcr published in 1887 his UmUrgant des TemplerordMS. in which
he daimed to have crushed Phitrs concluaons under tne weight
of a mass of new evidence. The work was, however, uncritical
and full of cons^uous errors, and Pmtz had little ciiflSculty in
turning many of its author's arguments against himself. This was
done in the EnlwkUimg und Untergang dts Tempdkerrfncrdtns
(1888), in which, however, Prutz modifi«s his eariier views so far
as to withdraw his contention that the Templars had a " formally
developed secret doctfVML" while maintaining that the custom of
denying Christ and S|Htting on the cross was often, and in some
of later bcreries. • Tnis view was maintained by Mr T. A. Archer
in the oth ed. of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. It was criticized
and retectcd by DflUineer in the last of his univeraitv teaures
(19th Nov. 1889), and fay Kari Wenck in several artklea in the
further attacked by
. whose work, in spite
tie as a mine of leam<
C^tfisfsr CeUhrte AutdM; and it was f
J. Gmefin {Sckuld oder Unschuld, 2 Bd. 1893),
of its somewhat ponderous polemic, is valuabl
faicr and by reason of the sources (notaUy the tables of the evidence
taken at the trials) whkh it publishes. H. C Lea, in his Hiaorj
of the Iw^uifUiom (1888. vol. rii.)» bad already come independently
to the conclusion that the Templars were innocent. Lastly appeared
the fascinatingly interesting and ck>scly reasoned book of Professor
H. Finke (1907) whk:h, based partly on a mass of new material
diawB from the Aruoneso archives, had for its object to auople-
laent the woric of CmeKn and to establish the innocence of the
order on an incontrovertible basis.
> P. J. M. Raynouard, Homments kistorigues, rdaiifs i la can*
damnoHom des eieoaliers dm Temple, Ac (Paris, 18 13).
* In voL vL of Pmdgrukem des Orients (Vienna, t8i8). In reply
to his critics Hammer published in i8s5 his " Die Schuld der
Templer '* {K. Akad. an Wien DenMsehrijL, vi.), in which he repro>
duced drawings of two remarkable' caskets, sculptured with Gnostic
pictures, from the former cpllection of the due de Blacas, said to
have been found on the sites of Temples. To the present writer
the evklenoe that any of these objects had been connected with the
Templars seenwd nngulariv unconvincing even before he had seen
the trenchant criticisms of Wikke (it- ?90. ed. 1862, Beilase 22)
and Loiselettr (Poctrine secf^, 4me partle, p. 07 teq.). If such
objccto existed, why were none brought uo aa cvidenoe against the
Templara at their trial ?
• A^^elra Ferdinand Wik;ke, CescJhcaU des TempeOumaardens
Cs vols. Leipz^, I8a6 ff., 2nd ed., enlaiged and revised i860).
« Edgard Boutaric, La France sous Philippe le Bd (Piuis, 1861),
■ J. Loisdeur. La Doclrim ssaHe des TempUers (Oricaaa, 167a).
*Plnits points out. with much truth, that the failure of the
Crusades had weakened men's absolute belief in Christianity, at
least as represen ted by the medieval Church (Kidturgesehkkte der
Kretutage, p. 26B ff.). Walther von der Vogelweide had merely
accused the aichangeU of nealccting their duty (Pfeiffer's ed. 1880.
A. a88); a Templar minstrel complained that God Himself had
Ufe&aMep' ' - . ..
> I (Rutx, Tempeiherrenarden, 126.)
In the opinion of the present writer, the defendcn of the order
have proved their case. Even the late Mr Archer, who took the
contrary view, was inclined to restrict it to the Templars in France.
"The opinion that the monstrous chai]^ brought against the
Templars were false," he wrote (£i«cy. Bni., 9th ed. xiii. 164). "and
that the confcaskins were only extracted by torture is supported
by the general results of the investigation (in almost every country
outside France), as we have them collected in Raynouard. Labbc,
and Du IHiy. In Castile, where the king flung tncm into prison,
they were acquitted at the council at Salamanca. In Aiagon.
where they held out for a time in their fortresses a^inst the royal
power, the council of Tarragona proclaimed in their favour
(4th November 131 2). In Portugal the oommisrioncre reported
that there were no grounds for accusation. At Mains the council
pronounced the order blameless. At Trevea, at Messina, and at
Bokgna, in Romagna and in Cypras, they were either acquitted or
no cvidenoe waa forthcoming against them. At the council of
Ravenna the auestion as to whether torture shoald be used was
answered in the negative except by two Dominicana; all the
Templara were absol v e d e v en those who had confessed thromrh
fear of torture being pranonnced innocent (18th June 1310). Sot
Templara were exammwl at Florence^ and their evidence is for iu
length the most remarkable of all that is still extant. Roughly
speaking, they confess with the most elaborate detail to eveiy
charge,— «ven the most ksthsome; and the perusal of thor evt.
dcnoe induces a constant sospidon that their antweia were practi-
cally dictated to them in the process of the examination or invented
by the witnessea themselves.' In England, where periiaps tenure
was not used, out of eighty Templara examined only four confessed
to the charge of denymg Christ, and of these four two were apos-
tate knigihts. But some Ei^ish Templara woukl only guarantee
the purity of their own country. That in England as elsewhere
the chari^ were held to be not absolutely proved seems evident
' * a to be used before absolution, in
themselves to be defamed in the 1
from the form of confession to be used I
the Templara ackaowledse themselves to be defamed in the matter
of certain articles that they cannot purge themselves. In England
neariy ail the wprst evidence comes at second or tbird hand or
through the depositioas of Franciscans and Dominicans," i^. the
rivals and enemies of the order. But what is the nature of the
evidence " too strong to be explained away " on which Mr Aiclwr
bases hb opinion that certain of the chaiges were proved " at least
in France '^7 The modern practke of the English courts tenda to
discount altosethcr the value as evidence of confessions, even
free! V made. What is the value of these confessions of the Tempbre
which lie before us in the Tables published by Gmdin? The pro-
cedure of the Inquisition left no alternative to those accused on
'* vehement suspicion " of heresy, but confession or death under
lingering torture; to withdraw a confession meant instant death
by fire. The Templara. for the most part simple and illiterate
men, were suddenly arrested, cast separately into dark dungeons,
loaded with chains, sUrved, teirorired, and tortured. They were
told the charges to which their leaden had confessed, or were
said to have confessed: to repeat the monotonous formula admitting
the spuiiie suter crucem and the like was to obtain their freedom
at the cost of a compaxativelv mikl penance. The wonder is not
that so many confessed, but that so many persisted in their deniaL
The evidence, in short, is, from the modem point of view, wholly
worthless, as even some contemporaries suspected it to be.
A word must be added as to the ^'gnificance of the work of
the Templais and of the manner of their fall In the history ol
the world. Two great things the order had done for Euro-
pean civilization: in the East and in Spain it had successfully
checked the advance of Isbm; it had deepened and given a
religious sanction to the idea of the chivakt)us man, the homo
UgdiSf and so opened up, to a class of people who for centuries
to come were to exercise enormous influence, spheres of activity
the beneficent effects of which are still recognizable in the world.*
On the other hand, the destruction of the Templars had three
consequences fateful for Christian civilization: (i) It fadh'tated
the conquests of the Turks by preventing the 'Templars from
playing in Cyprus the part which the Knights of St John played
in Malta.* (a) It partly set a precedent for, partly confirmed,
the cruel criminal procedure of France, which lasted to the
Revolution. (3) It set the seal of the highest authority on the
' See the evidence in fuU, ap. Loiseleur, pp. 173-412.
• G. SchnOrcr, quoted in Finkc, i- i.
* In his essay on the Templara {The Spanish Story of tne Armada
and other Essays, 1893) Froode says that the order burked " the only
support that never fail s so me legitimate place among the useful
agencies of the time." Was there no use for them against the
advancing tide of Turkish conouest in the East? Or in Spain
against the Moorish powers? If not, why dkl the Hospitanera
survive? Froude's contribution is but a papular lecture, however,
and, for all its beauty of style, characteristically carelcaa (/t.g. such
mistakes as Hugh seii Peyraud. Esquin von Flonan).
6oo
TEMPLE, FREDERICK
popular bdicf in witchcraft and personal intercourse with the
devil, sanctioned the expedient of wringing confessions of such
intercourse from the accused by un^>eakable tortures, and so
made possible the hideous witch-persecutions which darkened
the later middle ages and, even in Protestant countries, long
survived the Reformation. " If I were to name a day in the
whole history of the world," said Ddllinger at the conclusion
of his last public lecture, " which appears to me in the truest
sense as a dks nefastus^ I should be able to name no other than
the 13th of October 1307." *
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1906-1907). ■ (W.A. P.)
TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902), English divine, arch-
bishop of Canterbury, was born in Santa Maura, one of the
Ionian Islands, being the son of Major Octavius Temple, who
was subsequently appointed lieutenant-governor of Sierra
t«one.' On bis retirement he settled in Devonshire as a small
landowner, and contemplated a farming life for his son
Frederick, giving him a practical training to that end. But
the boy was sent to Blundell's School, Tiverton, and soon ex-
hibited abilities which marked him out for a different career.
He retained through life a warm affection for the school, where
he did well both in the classes and the games, and was famous
as a walker. His father's means were narrow, and the boy
knew that he must win his own way in life. He took the first
important step in that way by winning a scholarship at Balliol
College, Oxford, before he was quite seventeen years old. The
*' Tractarian Movement " had set in five years earlier, but the
memorable tract. No. 90, had not yet been written, and Temple
entered a university which was vibrating with intellectual and
reh'gious excitement. After much discussion and reflection he
drew closer to the camp of " the Oxford Liberal Movement."
In 1842 he took a " double-first " and was elected fellow of
BallioI, and lecturer in mathematics and logic. Four years
later he took orders, and with the aim of helping forward the
education of the very poor, he accepted the headship of Knellcr
Hall, a college which the government formed for the training
pf masters of workhouse and penal schools. But the experiment
was not altogether successful, and Temple himself advised its
abandonment in 1855. He then accepted a school-inspector-
ship, which he held until he went to Rugby in 1858. In the
meantime he had attracted the admiration of the prince consort,
^d in 1856 he was appointed chaplain-in-ordinary to the
queen. In 1857 he was select preacher at his uruversity.
At Rugby Dr Arnold had died in 1842 and had been succeeded
by Dr Tait, who again was followed by Dr Goulbum. Upon
the resignation of the latter the trustees appointed Temple,
who in that year (1858) had taken the degrees of B.D. and D.D.
His life at Rugby was marked by great energy and bold initiative.
^ ^ Vortrdge (Munich, 1891), be. " Der UnUr-
Whilst making the school a strong one on the classical side, he
instituted scholarships in natural science, built a laboratory,
and gave importance to that side of the school work. He had
the courage also to reform the games, in spite of all the traditions
of the playing fields. His own tremendous powers of work
and his rugged manner somewhat alarmed his boys at first,
but his popularity was soon undiluted, and he brought up
the school to a very high level. His school sermons were
deeply impressive: they rooted religion in the loyalties of the
heart and the conscience, and taught that faith might dwell
secure amid all the bewilderments of the intellect, if only the
life remained rooted in pure affections and a loyalty to the
sense of duty. It was two years after he had taken up his
work at Rugby that the volume entitled Essays and Revievu
gave rise to an extraordinary storm. The first essay in the
book, " The Education of the World," was by Dr Temple. It
was declared in a prefatory note to the volume that the authors
were responsible only for their respective articles, but some of
these were deemed so destructive that many peopde banned the
whole book, and a noisy demand, led by Samuel Wilberforce,
then bishop of Oxford, called on the headmaster of Rugby to
dissociate himself from his comrades. Temple's essay had
treated of the intellectual and spiritual growth of the race, and
had pointed out the contributions made respectively by tl^
Hebrews, the Egyptians, the Greeks, the Romans, and others.
It was generally declared by the critics of the volume to be
in itself harmless, but was blamed as being found in bad company.
Temple refused, so long as the storm lasted, to comply with the
request that he would repudiate his associates, and it was only
at a much later date (1870) that he saw fit quietly to withdraw
his essay. In the meantime, however, he printed a volume of
his Rugby sermons, to show definitely what his own religious
positions were.
In politics Temple was a follower of Mr Gladstone, and he
approved of the disestablishment of the Irish Church. He also
wrote and s[x>ke in favour of Mr Forster's Education Act, and
was an active member of the Endowed Schools CommissioiL
In 1869 Mr Gladstone offered him the deanery of Durham, but
this he declined on the ground of his strong interest in Rugby.
When Uter in the same year, however, Henry Phillpotts, bi^op
of Exeter, died, the prime minister turned again to Temple, and
he accepted the bishopric of that city so dear to him from boy-
hood, and left Rugby for a home amongst his own people. The
appointment, however, raised a fresh storm.
G. A. Denison, archdeacon of Taunton, Lord Shaftesbury,
and others formed a strong committee of protest, whilst Pusey
declared that " the choice was the most frightful enormity ever
perpetrated by a prime minister." At the confirmation of his
election counsel was instructed to object to it, and in the voting
the chapter was divided. But Gladstone stood firm, and
Temple was duly consecrated on the 21st of December 1869.
There were at first murmurings among his clergy against what
they deemed his harsh control, but his real kindness soon made
itself felt, and, during the sixteen years of his tenure of the see,
his sound and vigorous rule dissipated the prejudices against
him, so that when, on the death of Dr John Jackson in 1SS5, he
was translated to London, the appointment gave general satis-
faction. In 1884 he was Bampton Lecturer, taking for his
subject "The Relations between Religion and Science." In
1885 he was elected honorary fellow of Exeter College. Oxford.
Dr Temple's tenancy of the bishopric of London was marked,
if possible, by more strenuous labours than ever. His normal
working day at this time was one of fourteen or fifteen hours,
and he refused to spare himself one hour of toil, though under
the strain blindness was rapidly coming on. He was stiU
felt by many of his clergy and by candidates for ordination to
be a' rather terrifying person, and to enforce almost impossible
standards of diligence, accuracy and preaching efficiency, but
his manifest devotion to his work and his seal for the good of
the people rooted him deeply in the general confidence. In
London he was not less conspicuous as a temperance worker
than he had been in Exeter, and the artisan classes instinctively
TEMPLE, SIR R;— TEMPLE, ist EARL
6oi
recoKniced htm as tKeir friend. Wlien, in view of his growing
blindness, lie offered to resign the bishopric, he was induced to
reconsider hb proposal, and on the sudden death of Archbishop
Benson in 1896, tliough now seventy-six years of age, he accepted
the see of Canterbury.
As archbishop he presided hi 1897 over the decennial Lambeth
Conference. In tlse same year Dr Temple and his brother
archbishop issued an able reply to an encyclical of the pope
which denied the validity of Anglican orders. In 1900 the
archbishops again acted together, when an appeal was ad-
dressed to them by the united episcopate, to decide the veied
questions of the use of incense in divine service and of the
reservation of (he elements. After fuU hearing of arguments
they gave their decision against both the 'practices in question.
During his' archbislAypric Dr Temple was deeply distressed by
the divisions which were weakenii^ the Anglican Church, and
many of his most memorable sermons were calls for unity. His
first charge as primate on " Disputes in the Church " was felt
to be a most powerful plea for a more catholic and a more
charitable temper, and again and again during the closing years
of his life he came back to this same theme. He was aealous
also in the cause of foreign missions, and in a sermon preached
at the opening of the new century he urged that a supreme
obligation rested upon Britain at this epoch in the worid's
history to seek to evangelize all nations. In 1900 he presided
over the Worid Temperance Congress in London, and on one
occasion preached in the interests of women's education. In
fQ02 he discharged the important datles of his office at the
coronation of King Edward Vn., but the strain at his advanced
age toM upon hb health. Ducmg^a speech which he delivered
in the House of Lords pn the 2nd of December 1902 on the
Education Bill of that year, he was seized with sudden illness,
and, thou|^ he revived sufficiently to finish his speech, he never
fully recovered, and died on the ajrd of December 1903. He was
interred in Canterbury cathedral four days later. I& second
son, William Temple (b. x88t), who had a distinguished career
at Oxford, was in 1910 appointed headmaster of Repton.
See Archdeacon E. C Sandford. Frederick Tempie: an Appre-
eiatian (1907). with biographical introduction by William Temple;
titmnrs of Ardihishap Temple, by *' Seven Frieads," ed. £. a
Saodlocd C1906).
TEKfUL IIR RICHARD, Babt. (i8}6-X9oa), English ad-
ministrator, a descendant hi the female line of the Temples of
Stowe, was bom on the 8th of March 1826, and after being
educated at Rugby and Haileybury, joined the Bengal Civil
Service. His industry and ready pen soon obtained apprecia-
tion, and after acting as private secretary for some years to
John Lawrence in the Punjab, and gahung useful finandfd
experience under James Wilson, he was appointed Resident at
Haidarabad. In 1867 he was made R.C.S.L In 1868 he be-
came a member of the supreme government, first as foreign
secretary and then as finance minister; and he did admhrable
work during the famine of 1874, in the course of which he was
made Ueutenant-govemor of BengoL His services were re-
cognised by the bestowal of a baronetcy in 1876. In 1877 he
was made governor of Bombay, and his activity during the
Afghan War of 1878-^ was untiring. In 1880 he left India
to enter on a political career in England r but it was not till 1885
that he was returned as a conservative for the Evesham division
of Worcestershire. Meanwhile he produced several books on
Indian subjects. In parliament he was assiduous in hb attend-
ance, and he spoke on Indian subjects with admitted authority;
but he was not otherwbe a pariUunentary success, and to the
public he was best known by the caricatures In Pmtek, which
exaggerated his physical peculiarities and made him look like a
lean and hungry tiger. In 188$ he became vice^hairman of
the London School Board, and as chairman of iu finance com-
mittee he did useful and congenial work. In 1892 he dionged
his constituency for the Khigston division, but In 1895 he
retired from parliament, being in 1896 made a Privy C6ttncillor.
He hod kept a careful journal of his pariiamentary experiences,
intended for posthumous pubUeatloD; and he himself poblished
a short volume of reminiscences. He died at Hkmpstead on the
t5th of March 1902. He was twice married, and left a daughter
and three sons, all of the latter distinguishing themselves in
the public service.
TBMPLB, RICHARD 6RB1IVILLB4BHPLB, ist Easl (1711-
1779), English statesman, eldest son of Richard Grenville
(d. 1727) of Wootton, Buckinghamshire, was bom on the 26th
of September 1711. His mother was Hester (c. 1690-175?),
daughter, and ultimately heiress, of Sir Richard Temple, Baft.
(1634-1697), of Stowe, Buckinghamshire,^ and sister of Richard
Temple, Viscount Cobham, whose title she inherited under a
special remainder in 1749; in the same year, her husband
having been long dead, she was created Countess Temple. Her
son, Richard Grenville, was educated at Eton, and in 1734 was
returned to parliament as member for the borough of Bucking-
ham. In 1752, on the death of his mother, he inherited her
titles together with the rich estates of Stowe and Wootton;
and he then took the name of Temple in addition to his own
surname of Grenville. The turning poinft in his political fortunes
was the marriage of his sister Hester hi 1754 to WilHam Pitt,
afterwards eari of Chatham. Although Lord Temple was a man
of little ability and indifferent character, Pitt persistently
linked his own career With that of his brother-in-law. In
November 1756 Temple became first lord of the admiralty in
the ministry of Devonshire and Pitt. He was intensely disliked
by George II., who dismissed both him and Pitt from office
in April 1757. But when the memorable coalitk>n cabinet of
Newcastle and Pitt was formed in June of the same year.
Temple received the office of privy seal. He alone In the
cabinet supported Pitt's proposal to declare war with Spain in
1761, and they resigned together on the 5th of October. From
this time Temple became one of the most violent and factious
of politicians, and it is difficult to account for the influence,
wholly evil, which he exerted over his illustrious brother-in-law.
He himself is said to have avowed that " he loved faction, and
had a great deal of money to spare." He was at variance with
his younger brother, George Grenville, when the latter became
first lord of the treasury in April 1763, and he had no place in
that ministry; but the brothers were reconciled before 176$,
when Temple, who probably aimed at forming a ministry mainly
confined to his own family connexions, refused to join the
government, and persuaded Pitt to refuse likewise. A few weeks
later the king offered the most liberal terms, to induce Pitt to
form or join an administration; and " a ministry directed by
that great statesman," says Lecky, " would have been beyond
all comparison the most advantageous to the country; it bad
no serious difficulty to encounter, and Pitt himself was now
ready to undertake the task, but the evil genius of Lord Temple
again prevailed. Without his co-operation Pitt could not, or
would not proceed, and Temple absolutely refused to take office
even in the foremost place." Pitt's continued refusal to join
the first Roddngham administration was no doubt partly due
to the same disastrous influence, though before the dose of
1765 the old friendship between the biotfaer»4n-law was dis-
solving; and when at hut in July 1766 Pitt consented to Ibrm
a government. Temple refused to join; being bitterly offended
because, although offered the head of the treasury, he was not
to be aUowed an equal shore with Pitt in nominating to other
offices. Temple forthwith began to inspke the moot virulent
libels against Pitt; and in conjunction with his brother Geoi^e
he concentrated the whole Grenville connesioB in hostility to
the govonment. After George GrenviHe's death In 1770 Ixffd
Tenqite retired almost completely from public life. He died 00
the 1 2th of September 1779.
* The Temple family bebnged origioany to Leicestershire, where,
at Temple Hall, the elder line had resided since the 14th century.
Peter Temple (1600-1663), the regicide, was a member of this elder
line: a younger hmnch had Mtcied in Oxfofdshtre and paaaed
thence to Bucldoshamahire. where John Tem(^ purchased Sto«(e
in 1^89. This John was brother of Anthcny, who was great-
grandfather of Sir William Temple, the famous statesman. John
Temple's son Thomas, who was created a baronet in 161 1, was
the great-grandfather of Earl Temple.'
<
6o2
TEMPLE» SIR W.
Lord Temple was entirely without statesnuuulup; he
possessed an insatiable appetite (or intrigue^ and a said to
have been the author oC several anonymous Ubeb, and the
inspirer of many more. Macaulay's well-known comparison of
him with a mole working below " in some foul, crooked labyrinth
whenever a heap of dirt was Aung up," which perpetuates the
spleen of Horace Walpole, perhaps exceeds the justice of the
case; but there can be no question that Temple's character as
a public man was rated very low by his contemporaries. In
private life he used his great wealth with generosity to his
relations, friends and dependents. Pitt was under pecuniary
obligation to him. He paid the cosis incurred by Wilkes in
litigation, and he provided the agitator with the freehold
qualification which enabled him to stand lor Middlesex in the
famous election of 1768.
In addition to the estates he inherited. Temple gained a
considerable fortune by his marriage in 1737 with Anne, di^ughter
and co«heireas of Thomas Chambers of Hanworth, Middlesex;
a volume of poems by her was printed at the Strawberry Hill
press in 1764. The only issue of the marriage being a daughter
who died in infancy, Temple was succeeded in the earldom by
his nephew George (1753*1813), second son of George Grenville
the prime minister, who then assumed in addition to the name
of Grenville not only, the name of Temple, but also that of
Nugent, his wife being daughter and co-heiress of Robert,
Viscount Clare, afterwards Earl Nugent. The 2nd Earl Temple
was lord-lieutenant of Ireland in i782->3; in 1784 was created
marquess of Buckingham; and was again lord-lieutenant of
Ireland in 1787^.
His son and successor, Richard Temple-Nugent-Brydges-
Chandos-Grenville (1776-1839), was created duke of Buckingham
and Chandos in 1823, his wife being only daughter of the 3rd
duke of Chandos; he Was in the same patent created Earl
Temple of Stowe, with special remainder as regards this title,
in virtue of which, on the death without male issue in 1889 of
the 3rd duke of Buckingham and Chandos and the consequent
extinction of the original earldom of Temple, the title of Eari
Temple of Stowe devolved upon William Stephen Gore^Langton
(18470100a), whose mother was granddaughter of the ist duke
of Buckingham, grantee of this earldom. In 190a Algernon
William Stephen Tempk-Gore-Langton (b. 1871) became 5th
Earl Temple.
See m* GrinSU Papers (LMidoa. 1853). m conaidemble portioa
of which consists of Earl Teinple's cocrespondence; Horace Walpole.
ifMMtrx of tk€ Reiin of Ctortt II., 3 vol». (Londoa. 1847) ; Memoirs
«f Iks RsigH of Gtorte III., 4 vols. (London, 1845 and 1894): Earl
Waldewaw. Jiewuws 1754^ (London. i8ji): Sir N. W. WnixaH.
His(<mcal Uemoirs, edited by H. B. ^Iieatley. 5 vols. (Londoa,
1884): Corrtspoitdemeo of Ckoikam, edited by W. S. Taykir and
jTH. Pringle. 4 vols. (London. 1838-40)1 W. E. H. Lecky, History
of England in Uio Eiikltenik Gentry, vols. u. and iit (7 vols., London.
I892). (R- J- M.)
TBHPLB. SIR WIUUH, Bakt. (i6ia'i6QQ), Englisb states,
nan, diplomatist, and author, was bora in London, and came
of nn old English family, biu of the younger branch of it« which
had for some time been settled in Ireland. He was the eldest
son of Sir John Temple (1600*167 7). Irish master of the rolls,
whose father was Sir William Temple (i555'>6r7), provost of
Trinity College. Dublin. His mother was Mary Hammond.
Temple recei\-«d a liberal education, caknlated to pioduce that
iBoderatioo of judgment for which he was afterwards lemarfc-
able. He w«s irst a pupil of his unde Dr Henry Hammond,
the divine, after which he went to the grmmmar-adiool at Bishop
Stenford. and then to the Puritan cdOege of Emmanuel at
Cambridge, where he came under the inlhicBce of Cudwoith.
At the commencement of the dvil troubles his father embraced
the popvAar cause and was depri\^ of his office. Coming to
England, he sat in tbe Long Parliament as member for Chichester.
and was one of the itcakitrant members turned out by Colonel
Pride. Befocc this event happened his son had left Cambridge,
without takli^ a degne. and in 1&47 started to traN-el abroad.
lilht Isle of Wight, while on hi^ way to Fraccv. be fell in with
taaUof Oiiborac* and wo« her alSectioaa. Hex father, Sir
Peter Osboroe, was governor of Guernsey and a Royalist. Her
family were opposed to the match, anid threw difficulties in
the way, which hindered its consummation for seven years.
During this period Temple travelled b France, Spain, Holland,
and other countries, gaining knowledge of the world and keeping
up a constant correspondence with his betrothed. At length,
apparently in 1654, the difficulties were surmounted and the
marriage took place. In 1655 Temple and his wife went to
Ireland. The next five years were spent in the bouse of Str
John Temple, who had made his peace with Cromwell, and had
resumed his official position. His son took no part in politics,
but lived the life of a student and a country gentleman.
The accession of Charles II. rescued Temple, like many others,
from obscurity. In 1660 he sat in the convention parliament
at Dublin as member for Carlow, and be represented the same
county along with his father in the regular parliament that
followed. After a short visit to England in x66i, as com-
missioner from the Irish parliament, he finally removed thither
In 1663. There he attadied himseU to Arlington, secretary of
state, and two years later received his first employment abroad.
It was in March 1665 that the disastrous war with the United
Netherlands began. Charies II. was anxwus to obtain allies,
especially as Louis XIV. was taking up a hostile attitude. At
this juncture Christoph Bemhard van Galen, bishop of Miiaster,
sent an envoy to England, offering to attack the Dutch if the
English government would supply the means. Temple was
sent over to negotiate a treaty, ami in this business gave evidence
not only of the diplomatic skill but of the peculiar candour and
frankness for which he was afterwards so diWingiiished. He was
successful in making the treaty, but it was rendered ineffectual by
the declaration of war by France, the threats of Louis, and the
double-dealing of the prelate, who, after receiving a great part
of the subsidy, made a separate peace with the Nethcriands. As
a reward for his services Temple was created a baronet, and in
October 1665 became the English represeoutive at the vioexegal
court at Brussels. While the war continued. Temple's duties
consisted chiefly in cultivating good relations with Spain, which
was a neutral in the quarrel between England and the Dutch,
but was threatened by the claims of Louis XIV. on the Spanish
Netherlands. Louis's designs became apparent m the spring
of 1667, when he marched an army into Flanders. This event
was one of those which led to the peace of Breda, and to the
subsequent negotiations, which are Temple's chief title to fame.
The French conquests were made at the expcastt of Spain, but
were almost equally dangerous to the United Netherlands,
whose independe n ce would have been forfeited had X^uis suc-
ceeded in annesing Flanders. While the French were taking
town after town. Temple made a journey into Holland and
visited De Witt. The friendship established and the com-
msnity of views discovered during this interview faciUtatcd the
subsequent negotiations. Tem|^ had for some time pressed
on his government the necessity of stopping the French advance,
and had points out the way to do so, but it was not till
December 1667 that he received instructions to act as he had
suggested. He at once set out for The Hague, and an January
166S a treaty was made between England and the United
Netherlands, which, being joined shoftly afterwards by Sweden,
became known as the Triple Alliance. It was a defensive ifcaly.
made against the encroachments of France. Whether we
regard the skiU and celerity with mbkh the ncgotiatioBS were
conducted or the lesuUs of the treaty, the transaction reflects
great credit on Temple. The French king was checked in oud-
career, and. without a blow being strw^ was obhced to sur-
render almost ail his conquests. I^epys records public opinion
on the treaty by saying that it was *' the only good public thing
that hath been done since the king came into Engbnd.**
Unfortunately the policy thus indicated was but shoit-lived.
In taking op a hostile attitude towards France Charles's object
had apparently been only to raise his price. Louis took the
hint, increased his offers, and two years later the secret treaty
of Dover rexxrscd the policy of the Triple Alliance. Meaav h«le
Ttofkt had devetoped the good nnderstandiag with the Dutch
TEMPLE
603
by contiacting a oominerdal treaty iHtb tlmn (Febniaiy 1666),
and bad acted as English plenipotentiaiy at Aix-Ia-ChapcUe,
irbere peace between France and Spain was made in May 166S,
Shortly afterwards he was appointed ambassador at The Hague.
Here he lived for two years on good terms both with De Witt
and with the young prince of Orange, afterwards William 1X1.
The treaty of Dover kd to Temple's recall; but the plot was
not yet ripe, and Temple oominally held his post for another
year. He perceived, however, that his day was over and retired
to his bouse at Sheen. In June 167 z he icodved his formal
dismissal. The war with the Netherlands broke out next ytar,
and was almost as discreditable to England as th^t of 1665,
Want of success and the growing strength of the opposition in
parliament forced Charles to make peace, and Teaaypk was
brought out of his retirement to ca^ through the change of
front. After a negotiation of three days, carried on through'
the medium of the Spanish ambassador, the treaty of West*
minster was made (February 1674). As a recognition of hia
services Temple was now offered the embassy to Spain. This he
declined, as well as the offer of a far more important post, that
of secretary of state, but accepted instead a renewal of hia
embassy to The Hague, whither be went in July 1674. In the
March following he was nominated ambassador to the congress
at Nijmwegeni but, owing to the tortuousness of Charles's
dealings, it was not till July 1676 that he entered that town.
The negotiations dragged on for two years longer, for Charles
was still receiving money from France, and English mediaiion
was no more than a ruse. In the summer of 1677 Temple was
summoned to England and received a second offer of the
secretaryship of sute, which he again declined. In the autumn
of the same year he had the satisfaction of removing the last
difficulties which hindered the marriage of William and Mary,
an event which seemed to complete the w<Nrk of 166& and 1674.
Louis still remaining obstinate in his demands. Temple waa
commissioned in July 1678 to make an alliance with the sutes,
with the objea of compelling France to come to terms. This
treaty was instrumental in bringing about the general pacifica-
txm which was concluded in January r679.
This was Temple's last appearance in the field of diplomacy;
but his public life was not yet over. A third offer of the
secretaryship was made to him; but, unwilling as ever to mix
himself op with faction and Intrigue, be again dccHned. He
did not, however, withdraw from politics; on the contrary, he
was for a short time more prominent than ever. The state ^as
passing through a grave crisis. Political passion was em-
bittered by religious fanaticism. Pariiament was agitated by
the popish plot, and was pressing on the Exclusion Bill The
root of all the mischief lay in the irresponsibility of the cabmet
to parliament and its complete subservience to the crown. To
remedy this, Temple brought forward his pkn for a reform of
the privy counciL This body was to consist of thirty members,
half of whom were to be the chief officers of the crown, the other
half being persons of importance, lords and commoners, chosen
without reference to party. Special care was taken to select
men of wealth, which Temple considered as the chief source of
political influence. By the advice of this council the king
promised to act. The parliament, it was supposed, would
trust such a body, and would cease to cBctate to the crown.
The scheme was accepted by the king, but was a failure from the
outset. Intended to combine the advantages of a parliament
and a coandl, it created a board which was ndther the one
DOT the other. The conduct of affairs fell at onoe into the haixls
of a junta of four, of whom Temple was at first one, and the king
violated his promise by dissolving pariiament without asking
the advice of the council. Temple retired in disgust to his
villa at Sheen, and appeared only occasionally at the council,
where he soon ceased to exercise any influence. In x68o be was
nominated ambassador to Spain, but stayed in England in
order to take his scat in parliament as member for the university
of Cambridge. He took no part in the debates on the great
qoeation of the day, and acting on the king's advice declined
to sit in the parliament of t68i. Early in that year his name
was sttock off the Kct of the ooundl, and henceforlrard he dis-
appeared from public life. He oonthiued to five at Sheen till
1686, when he handed over his estate there to his son, the only
survivor of seven children, and retired to Moor Park in Surrey.
WhieDr William in. came to the throne Temple was pressed to
take office, but refused. His son became secretary at war,
but committed sukide hnmediately afterwards. Sir WQIiam,
jthough occasionally consulted by the Ung, took no further part
in public affairs, but occupied himself in literature, gardening
and other pursuits. It shouM not be omitted that Swift lived
with him as secretary during the last ten j^ears (with one short
hiterval) of his life. Temple died at Moor Park on the a7th of
January 1699.
Temple's literary works are mostly poritlcal, and are Of con^der-
able importance. Among them may be mentioned An Essay on
Uu Prettnt State and SeUUment of Ireland (1668); Tka BmpiH.
Sweden^ &c, a survey of the different C^vemments of Europe and
their relations to England (1671); Obseroatunu upon tka UuiUd
Provinces (16^2); Essay upon the Original and Nature of Cotem-
ment (1673}; Essay upon the Advancement of trade in Irdand
(1673). Some of these were published in the first part of his Miseel"
Ionia (1670). In the same year apparently his Poems were orivatdy
printed. In 1683 he began to write his Memoirs. The mat part,
extending from 1665 to l67r, he destroyed unpublished: the
second, from 1672 to 1670, was published without his authority in
1691; the thhd, from 1^9 to 1681, was published by Swift in
X709. In 1692 he published the second part of his Miscdlama,
containing among other subjects the essay Upon the Ancient and
Modem Learning, which is remarkable only as having given rise to
the famous controversy on the " Letters of Phalaris.*'^ His Intro-
duction to tko History of Engfand, a short sketch of English history
to 1087, was published in 1695. Several colleetiofis <tf his letters
were published by Swift and others after his death.
His fame rests, however, far more on his diplomatk triumphs
than on his literary work. His connexion with domestic stairs
was alight and unsuccessful. He was debarred both by his virtues
and his defects— by his impartiality, his hoofnty, and his want of
ambition — from taking an active part in the diaersceful politics of
his time. But in the fo{eign relations of his country he was
intimately concerned for a poiod of fourteen yean, and in all that
is praiseworthy in them he had' a principal hand. He cannot
be tcalled great, but he will be remembered as one of the ablest
negotiators that ^England has produced, and as a pubUc aervant
who, in an unprincipled aee and in circumstances peculiarly open
to corruption, preserved a blarooless record.
See Life and Works of Sir WiUiam Tomph (2 vols., 1720: 2nd ed..
with Life by Lady Giffard, 1731); a more complete edirion, including
the Letters, was published in 4 vols, in 1814: Buntt, History of ku
ovm Time; T. P. Courtenay, Memoirs of the Life, ^c, of Sir WiUiam
Temple (2 vols., 1836) ; Macaulay, Essay on Sir WwUm Temple;
A. F. Sieveking, Sir W. Temple and other Caroletm Garden Essays,
(1908); and E. S. Lyttel, Sit WiUiam Temple (Stanhmie PrisB
Essay, Oxford, 1908). <a W. P.)
TBIIPLB, a city of Ben county, Texas, CS-A., about 35 «.
S.S.W. of Waco.' Pop. (1890) 4047; (1900) 7065 C1423 being
negroes and 360 foreign-bom): (1910) 10,993. It is served by
the Gulf, Colorado & Santa F6, and the Missouri, Kansas k
Texas railways (the former has repair shops here), and is con-
nected with Belton (pop. in 1910, 4x64), the county seat,
about xo m. W., by an electric railway. In thedty are a Caitiegie
library, a King's Daughters' Hospital, the Temple Sanitarium,
and a hospital of the Gulf, Colorado & Sanu F^ railway.
Temple is situated lA a rich fannitig country; cotton is ginned
and baled here, aijd there are various manufactures. The dty
owns the water topply. Temple was founded in xSSi-Ss by
the Gulf, Cotorado & Santa F6 railway, and was chartered as
adtyfa 1884.
TEMPLE, a term derived from the Lat. temphm (Or.
T^fsoor), which originally denoted a space marked off by the
augurs for the purpose of observing the flight of birds or other
ceremonies; Jater ft was applied to the dwelling-place, the
aedes sacrae, of the gods. In this latter sense it Is the equivalent
of the native Hebrew expression bitk 'UdMrn, literally ** a god-
housc," and of the foreign kikal, pahce, temple, a loan-word
from Sumerian through the medium of the Babylonian t-kcllu
(lit. great house). A temple or " god^ouse," however, repre-
sents a comparatively advanced stage In the development of
Semitic religion. At first the Semite recogniaed the abodea
of his deities in certain outstanding and hnptessivv natural
6o4
TEMPLE
oojccU, A tpreadifig tree, a bubbling spring, a conapicooua
rock or stone, a lofty mountain peak and the like. Beside
these he met and held converse with his gods. The native
rock was the first altar.
It was a distinct step in advance when it was lefiognized
that a deity might take op his abode elsewhere than in such
natural sanctuaries^ as in the mauebak or stone ptUar and the
askirak or sacred post of wood, reared not by nature but by
the hand of man (d . Geo. zxviii. i8, %2, the origin of the sacred
pillar at Beth-el).
The further advance to a real house or temple may be traced
to the influence of at least two factors in the social and religious
life of a people. One such factor came into play when men
began to represent the deity by means of an image, or even
when some object, whether natural, like the black stone of
Mecca, or manufactured, like the ark of the Hebrews, came
to be regarded as specially sacred from its association with the
deity. Such objects or images required a house to shelter and
guard them. Another factor is to be found in the advance in
material comfort which foUows the transition from the nomadic
to the agricultural mode of life. Among the settled Semites
there arose the feeling that the gods of the community ought
also to share in this advance (cf. a Sam. vii. a). Accordingly
they were invited to take up their abode in a htik 'iUklm or
temple. The dignity and comfort of the gods advance pori
passu with those of their worshippers.
It must be kept in mind, however, that the altar remained
as before the centre of the sacrificial worship. Around it or
before it, under the open sky, the worshippers assembled. To
the temple the priests alone, or the head of the sacral community
in his priestly capacity, had access. In this respect the worship
associated with altar and temple offers a striking contrast to
the more spiritual wonhip of the Jewish synagogue and the
Christian Church.
At the date of the Hebrew invasion of Canaan its numerous
city-states had reached a fairly high level of civilization.
Alongside of the typical Canaanite sanctuary, as known to us
from the Old Testament references and from recent excavations,
with its altar of earth or stone and its stately massebahs, a
temple was probably to be found in all the mOre important
centres. In an early Hebrew document there is a reference to
the temple of El-berith at Shechcm, which was large enough
and strong enough to serve as a place of refuge in time of war
Oudges ix. 46 ff.). The Philistines also had their temples in
this period: thus we hear of a '* house " of Dagon at Gaza
{ib. xvi. 33 ff.) and also at Ashdod (i Sam. v. a), while a temple
of Ashtart (Ishtar-Astarte) is mentioned in z Sam. zxzi. xo,
probably at Ashkelon (Herod, i. 105).
The earliest reference to a temple built by Hebrew hands is
to " an bouse of gods:" reared by Micah to shelter an ephod
and other sacred images which he had made (Judges xvii. 5).
Micah's images were soon transported to Dan, where doubtless
another house was built iot their protection (zviii. 18, 30 f.).
Somewhat later we find the ark of Yahweh installed in " the
house of Yahweh " at Sbiloh, which house was not a mere tent
but a real temple {htkdly i Sam. i. 9, iii. 3) with doors (ui. is)
and doorposts (i. 9), and a hall in which the worshippers partook
of the sacrificial meals (i. x8y Greek text; cf. ix. aa " the guest-
chamber," Heb. lishkak). After the destruction of ShUoh at
the hands of the Philistines, its priesthood migrated to Nob,
w^ere also the incidents recorded in x Sam. zxi. — ^note eq^edidly
the presence of the shew-bread and the ephod— imply the
existence of a temple.
The TmnpU oj Solomon.— The primary source of our informa-
tion iffgardii^ the enecUoa oC Solomon's temple is the account
' '\ the details of which must have
ijenple archives. On this
*" " r.) and Joscphua
are aiaodg the moit
' ear ignorance
partly owing to the trasatirfactery state of the received test, wfckh
ha« been overlaid with later additions and glosses. As regards
both text and interpretatkm, most recent writers have adopted
in the main the resulu of Stade's epocb-auJdag essay in his Zeitsck.
/. d..aUtest, Wiutnsckatl, ifi. ^t68^), ia9^77. reprinted in hU Akadt-
mische Reden, Ac, with which is now to be compared Stade and
Schwally's critical edition of Kings in Haupt's Sacred Books cftiu
Old TesL See also, in addirion to the standard commentaries.
Bumey, Notes 'Om Iho Heb. Toxi 0/ . . . Kints, Vincent's critical
and exegetical study. Reo. bihUquo (OcL 1907), and the literatnre
cited at the end of tnia article.
(a) The Site of the Temple.— On this important point ocr
earliest authority is sUent. It is now universally acknowledged,
however, that the whde oomplez of buildings erected by
Solomon stood along the crest of the eastern hill, crowned by
the temple at the highest point, as Joeephus expressly testifies
(BeU. Jtid.; V. V. X, with which compare the letter of (Pteodo)
Aristeas, sect. 84). This at once brings the site of the temple
into proximity to the worid-famous sacred rock, the sakhra,
over which now stands the buildl&g known as the Mosque of
Omar, and, more correctly, as the Dome of the Rock. Here
another important consideration ooraes to our aid. From the
recognized persistence of sacred sites hi the East through all
the changes in the dominant religion, it b well-nigfa certain
that the sanctity of the sakkm rock goes back t6 the days of
David and Solomon, or even, it may be, to prehistoric times.
On it, or over it, the angel was believed to liave been seen by
David, and there David built his altar (s Sam. xxir. 18-25;
cf. Judges vi. ao f., 24; zlii. 19 ff.). This is undoubtedly the
site assigned to the temple by the oldest exunt tradition (see
I Chron. xxU. x; cf. s Sam. xxiv.). By every token, then,
Solomon's altar of bumt^offering, if it was not identical with the
sakkra (see below), at least stood upon it Since the altar
necessarily stood in front, s.e. to the east, of the temple, the siu
of ike latter was a short distance to the west of, dnd in line with,
the sacred rock (see Jxiusalem).
The alternative view, associated in recent times with the names
of Schick and Condcr, which places the most holy place, or inner-
most shrine of the temple, over the sakkra^ has now few advocates
(e.^. Col. Watson in the Quarterly Statement of the PaksOne Explo-
ration Fund for 1806 and loioj. Apart from difficultica of space
towards the east, which this location involves, it cannot be accepted
in face of the fact that the sakkra still bears the marks of ite former
use as a rack-altar (see eap. Kittel. Studien ear kekr. ArehOologie,
12 ff.). Moreover the rock, measuring as it does some xs ft. by
40, could not have been contained within the "holy of nolies.
which was less than 30 ft. square (see below).
A third nte, still within the present Haram area, but towards
its south-west angle, favoured by Fcrgusson {Tke Temples tftks
Jevfs)t Robertson Smith {Eucy, Brit., 9th cd., art. " Temple ") and
others is open to even more serious objection, and bin no pn^
mincnt advocate at the present day.
(b) Tke Temple Building,— In the fourth year of his reign
Solomon " began to build the house of the Lord " with the
laying of a massive foundation of " great stones," aa required
by the rapid fall of the ground to the west of the sakkra. Archi-
tecturally the temple consisted of three distina parts: (x) the
naos or temple proper, (a) a porch or pylon in front of the naos,
^d (3) a lower and narrower building which surrounded the
naos on its other three sides (see fig. x).
(x) The first of these, " the house of the Lord " in the strict
sense, in which alone He was worshipped, waa oblong in plan,
and waa divided Into two compartments in the proportion of
a : x by a partition wall. The room next the porch was 40
cubiu in length by ao in breadth, with a height of 30 cubits,^
*The tengfth of the cubit at this period cannot be determined
with absolute certainty. From the fact that Herod's aaoa was an
exact replica of Zerubbabel's as remrds inside measurements^
coupled with the presumption that Zcrubbabel built upon Solomon's
foundations, it is permissible to suppose that one and the same
standard of length was used throucbout. Now the present writer
has shown from an inductive stuoy of the height of the courKs
in the walls of the Haram and^ of other exisriog remmaa of the
Hcrodlan period that the cubit used by Herod's builders was
exactly 17-6 in. or 447 millimetres (see Expository Times, xx.
[t908-<»1 24 ff.). There is therefore good reason for believing
that this was also the cubit of Solomon^ temple, ootwithstaodiog
the stateoMOt of a Chron. iii. 3 that the latter was a cubit " after
TEMPLE
605
iH intide raetturtiaeots, and is termed in oar oldest souroe die
hikat or palace; later it was known as " the holy place;" It
was dimly lighted by a row of latticed windows, which must
- necessarily have been placed in the upper third of the side walls,
as will presently be seen. Adjoining the h£ksl on the west lay
the dibir or sanctuary, later termed "the most holy place"
(lit. " holy of holies "). The inside space formed a perfect
cube of ao cnbits, say 30 ft., in length, breadth ahd height
(vi. 20), symbolizing the perfection of the Deity, for whose
abode this port of the naos was specially designed. The dCbtr,
as has been said, was separated from the h^2l by a transverse
wall, whose ezistenoe we are left to infer from the obscure de-
scription of the door between the two compartments (vi. 31,
see neat section).*
;.J^ — 'I.I 1.1 ,1 . 1,, J J I .1
"I
i"" ^
'<;'^-
T71
debir
hekal
I n il. ■ . i iy y i ^i» .mi i ^ P ^ ^
J — I — I I 1,1 i .,1 L-O-JUJW
f.».f..Jfi..
Scale of Cubit*
? 5 y. *>. y ■
. SeaJcofFwi
y <p y 80 y 190
23Su
Fig. I. •'Ground Flan of Solomon's Temple.
Ftc. 3.— Section.of Temple along or-b of Cpound Plan.
(a) In front of the h£kil and facing eastwards rose the porch,
its inside *^ length " io cubits " according to the breadth of
the house " (vi. 3), and its inside depth from east to west xo
cnbits. The more precise character and elevation of this ele-
ment will fall to be considered at a later stage.
(3) The third architectural element was a lateral building
enclosing the naos on the other three sides, and consisting of
three storeys, each 5 cubits in hei^t from floor to ceiling.
Each storey contained a number of small storage chambers,
probably thirty in all (Esek. zIL 6). A peculiarity in the
aicbiteeture of this ptet of the temple is notewotth/. Instead
tne former neasure.'* For this statement is probably a mere
lAference from Esek. xL 5, where the divine messenger uses a cubit
of seven bandbieadths or 2o| in., the royal cubit of Eaypt. For
the smaller measurements the cubit of 17*6 in. may for greater
convenience be reckoned at i) ft.
' If the view presented below as to the height of tne various
parts of the temple is accepted, this wall becomes a structural
necessity, betog required to support the back wall of the lilkU.
of the beams forming the floors and ceilings of the several
storeys being let into the wall of the htVSX^ three successive
rebatements of one cubit each were made in the latter for their
support (see fig. a), consequently the width of the chambers
was s, 6 and 7 cubits in the three storeys respectively (vL 6).
The total height, allowing for floors and roof, of the lateral
building cannot have been less than 17 cubits. Entrance to
the side-chambers was provided by a single door on the south
side (see ground-plan, fig. i).
So far there is no difficulty as rej^ards the ^eral plan ana
dimensions of the temple, provided it is kept in mind that the
figures given in the text of Kings are all inside measurements. It
is otherwise when one endeavours to calculate the area covered
by the temple, and to determine the elevation of the several parts
and the general architectural style of the whole. As to the area
much depends upon the thickness of the walls. Here our only
clue is furnished by the figures for the corresponding walls of
EzekieKs temple, but the necessary caution has not hitherto been
observed in applying them to the proportions of the actual temple
of Solomon. It cannot be too strongly emphasised that in the
dimensions of his temple of the future and its courts Ejsekiel is
dominated by a oassion for symmetry and for the number so and
its multiples.* which there is no ground for importing into the
dimensions of the older temple. Nevertheless the walls of the naos
may be taken at Esekiel's bgure of 6 cubits (xli. 5), with succes-
sive rehatemcnU of one cubit (fig. 2) until the thickness is- reduced
to 3 cubits (^\ ft.) above the side-chambers, as explained above.
If one cubit is allowed for the partition wait corresponding to the
-space in Herod's temple, where a curtain took the place of the
wall, we c^tain a total of 73 cubiu for the length of the naos and
of 33 for the outside width, or I07 ft. by 47. If 3 cubits— equal
to the thickness of the wall of the naos above the side-chambers
— be allowed for the outer wall of the latter, the extreme width
of the temple works out at 48 cubits, or 7o| ft. Adopting EzekJel's
thickness of 5 cubits for the front wall of the porch, we reach a
total of 96 cubits or 141 ft. for the extreme length from cast to
west (see the accomoanying ground-plan). The proportion of
length to breadth is thus a : I, precisely as Ezckiers temple with
its artificial numbers of 100 and 50 respectively. The area of the
platform on which Solomoa's temple stood probably measured
100 cubits by 6o» as in the plan annexed.
As regards the height of the various parts even fewer data
are available. Our primary source gives the height of " the
house " as 30 cubits (z Kings vi. a). By the great majority
of previous students this has been understood to mean that a
sinsile flat roof, at this hdght from the floor, covered the three
parts— porch, hCkal and dSbtx^— leaving an empty space of
xo .cubits above the last of these. But the Hebrew document,
as has been repeatedly pointed out, is concerned only with
inside dimensions, and in vi. a has probably in view the inside
height of the hCkfil, as the largest of the three compartmenU.
On the other hand, a characteristic feature of the contemporary
Egyptian temples is the gradual diminution in the height of
their component parts from front to back (Maspero, VArckio-
logit ifyptienne (1907), p. 77; Erman, Handbk. oj Egypin.
Religion, 41; cf. the restoration of a typical temple in Perrot
and Chipiez, And. Egypt, Art. i. 373, and in Erman, Uft m
Ana, Egypt, aSo).
In this respect the present writer believes that Solomon's temple
followed the Egyptian model, the height decreasing as o ^
from the porch to the h£kjil, d£blr and side^hambera respectively.
The porch, for instance, was probably modelled on the pylons
whk:h flank the principal entrance to an Egyptian temple, tall and
narrow, with a sloping front wall surmounted by a cornice with its
characteristic cavetto moulding. The 120 cubits which a Chron.
Hi. 4 gives as the height of the porch, followed by Josephus, Ant.
XV. XI. I and elsewhere, seem to be out of proportion to the prob-
able height of the rest of the building. But this objection docs
not aoply to the 60 cubits given as the extreme height for the
second temple in the trustworthy document, Ezra vi. 3.* Thb,
'This has led Esekiel certainly to increase the depth of his
porch from ro cubits to 12 (original text of Ezek. xl. 49), and
probably to add a cubit to the thickness of the partition wall
(xli. 3), in order to bring up the total length of his temple to
100 cubits.
* The numoers of this passage have been unneoessarify called
in question by recent critics. The figures given are natttrally
those of the two extremes, which were not to be ex ce eded, viz.
60 cubiu for the extreme height, that of the porch, and the same
figure for the extreme width, that of the raised platform.
6o6
TEMPLE
it may reaaoaably be inferred, was the heisbt o£ the porch in the
first temple, from which, in that case, the ^ure was derived. The
probable outside measurements for the porch are thus ^ cubits
lor the breadth across " the house," IS for the depth mdudmg
the front wall, and 60 cubits or 88 ft. for the height. ,
Still following the Egyptian model, the hik&l will have had its
separate roof of massive cedar beams, covered probably by heavy
limestone slabs, for which i|-2 cubits may be allowed, giving a
total of 33 cubits (47 ft.), equal to the outside width of this part
of the tem|>le. lo die same way the roof of the d£blr will have
been 10 cubits lower, or circa 32 ft. in all, that of the lateral building
about 4 cubits bwer still, say 26 ft. (cf. the section through the
temple from W. to E. in fig. 2). While the measurements above
given are. as they must necessarily be, in part conjectural, it is
claimed for them that they introduce the element of proportion
between the parts to an extent not attempted hitherto.
(c) The Interior of Ike Temple and Us Purnilure.'-lht entrance
to the temple was through a wide and \clty opening in the front
wall of tlie porch. Crossing the vestibule one entered the hekil
by a laige folding-door of cypress wood (vi. 34)— probably
10 cuMts wide as in Ezekid's temple — each of its four leaves
ornamented with carved figures of cherubim, palms and flowers,
all overlaid with gold. The inner walls of the h&OX and the
dCbtr were lined with boards of cedar from floor to ceiling, while
the floor was covered with phmks of cypress wood.* From the
h^ftl a door in the partition wall gave entrance to the dSbtr.
The doorway was not rectangular but apparently pentagonal
in form (see the commentaries on vi. 31), the lintd consisting
of two blocks of stone meeting at an angle, a feature " intro-
duced to distribute the pressure cf the superincumbent wall "
(W. R. Smith).> The walls of the dl^btr were overlaid with
" pure gold " according to our present text (vi. 20) ; this
enhancement of the dignity of the adytum as the earthly
dweUing-pIace of the heavenly King is not so incredible as the
profuse application of gold decoration to other and inferior
parts of the house, even, as we have seen, to its floor (on this
question see the critical works cited above).
As regards the funiiture of the bouse, it is probable that the
original text of x Kings introduced only the altar of cedar now
found in the corrupt text of vi. 30, and to be identified with
the table of sbewbread, as the sole furniture of the holy place.
The ten golden candlesticks, properly lampstands, of vii. 49
are generally believed to have been introduced at a later date
(cf. Jer. III. x8 f.). In the most holy place stood the paQadlura
of Israel's religion, the sacred ark of Yahweh. On either side
of this venerable relic of the past were two cherubim, sculptured
from olive wood and overlaid with gold, each zo cubits high,
their outstretched wings reaching right across the d^btr, and
forming a baldachin over the ark (vi. 23^38).
Although forming no part of the interior lumiture of the
temple, the rcmaricable twin piUars which stood on either side
of the entrance to the porch may be mentioned here, since
they belonged rather to the temple than to its court. These
pillars, which in the received text bear the enigmatical names
of " Jachin and Boaz,"* were hollow columns — the bronze metal
being about 3 in. in thickness — over 26 ft in height and 6 ft.
in diameter, surmounted by elaborate capitals about 7I ft.
high. The latter were gkbukr in form, ornamented by a
specially cast network of bronze, over which were hung festoon-
wise two wreaths of bronze pomegranates, each row containing
a hundred pomegranates. As the pillars doubtless stood on
plinths, the total he^ht of each will have been at least 35 ft
Such free-standing pillars were a feature of temple architecture
in Phoenicia and elsewhere in western Asia, as later reproduc-
tions on local coins attest, and would appear to Solomon's
'The owAayxag of the floor with sold (i Kings vi. «>) is a
later interpolation; the same is probably true of the guding of
the sculptures on the walls, which may have been added at a
later date (cf. Esek. xli. 18).
* This partition wall, it will be remembered, had to support the
back wall of the hik&l according to the view of the temple archi-
tecture advocated above,
* The various forms which the^latter name assumea, in the Greek
text, suggest that Boas is an intentional disguise of an original
Baal, appied oC count to Yahweh (Barnes, /our. of Tktoi, Studiet,
V. 447 ».).
Phoenician architects ss a natuvil adjwet of his temple
Jachin and Boaz, therefore, may be regarded as conventioDal
symbols of the Deity for whose worship the temple was de-
signed.*
(J) The Temple Court, Altar and other Apparatus of the Ctdi.^
The temple stood within the westem half of *' the court of the
house of the Lord," also known as ** the inner court " to dis-
tinguish it from " the other court " round the adjoining palace
and from " the great court " which sunoundcd Che wh^ com-
plex of Solomon's buildings. AU three had walls in whidi three
courses of hewn stone alternated with a course of cedar beams
(see next section). To the " court of the house " laymen as
well as priests lu4 access (Jer. zzzv. i S.., xzzvi. xo). Several
gates gave entrance to it, but their precise posttloii is uncertain.
The principal entrance from "the gnat court" was doubtless
in the east walL Another was in the south wall and communi-
cated with " the other court " and the loyal palace. There
were also one or more gates on the north side of the court.
In our present text of x Kings vi.-viL, there is no mention
of so indispensable a part of the apparatus of the cult as the
altar of burnt-offering. This silence has been explained in
two ways. The majority of critics belfeve that the origiiul
account did contain a reference to the making of a bronze
altar (cf. > Chron. iv. i), but that it was^ excised by a later editor,
who assumed that the bromse altar of the tabemade accompanied
the ark to the new sanctuary. Othen, with greater probability,
maintain that the silence of our oldest source is due to the fact
that Solomon followed the primitive Semitic custom and used
the bare sakkra rock as his great altar. In this case the altar,
whkh was removed by order of Ahaz to make way for his new
altar after a Damascus model (3 Kings zvi xo-x6), must have
been Introduced by one of Solomon's successors.*
c In the court, to the south of the Une between the altar and
the temple, stood one of the most striking of the creations of
Solomon's Phoenician artist, Huram-abi of Tyre. This was
the " brazen sea,", a large circular tank of bronze with the
enormous capacity of over x6,ooo gallons (x Kings viL 23-36),
resting on the badcs of twelve bronze bullae which, m groups of
three, faced the four cardinal points. ^
It is doubtful if this strange *' aea " served any practica! purpose
(see 3 Chron. iv. 6). Most recent writers a^ree in ahsignlAg to it
a (Nxrely symbolical significance, like the twin pillars above described.
Babylonian temples are now known to have had a similar apparatus,
termed a^sit. which symbolized either the orimeval abyss, personi-
fied as the monster Tiamat subdued by Marduk, wnose symbol
was the bull, or, according to a later theory, the upper or heavenly
sea, bounded by the Zodiac with its twelve signs.
Asasociated with the " brazen sea " were ten lavera of bronze,
also the work of Huram-abi (vii. 27--39). Each laver consisted of a
cuxutar basin holding over ^00 gallons, and borne upon a wheded
carrier or " base."* The sides of the carriers were open frames
composed of uprights of bronze ioined together by transverse bars
or rails of the same material, the whole richly ornameoted with
palm trees, lions, oxen and cherubim in relief. Underneath each
stand were four wheels of bronze, while on the top was fitted a
ring or cylinder on whkih the ba«a rested. Accorabg to Kittel,
" it is highly improbable that these lavers served any pncttcal
purpose. They were rather like the gieat ' sea,' the embodlioent
of a religious idea; they were symbols of the rain-givtng Deity "
[pp. cit., p. 242).
The Rdation of the Temple to Contemporary Art.—CX the many
problems raised by the description of the temple in r Kinsk
none is of greater interest than the question of its rdation to
< Robertson Smith's theory that they were huge cressets in
which " the suet of the sacrifices." was burned (Rd. Sem., and ed..
488) has found no support. For recent attempts to explain the
symbolism of the pillars in tenas of the " earW oriental IVettra-
" see A. Jeremias, Dss alte Test., Ac, 2nd ed.« 494;
Benzinger, Heb. Archdol., 2nd ed., 323, 331.
* For a detailed study of the successive altars that stood apoo
the sakhra and their relation thereto, see Kittel, Shdien amr kehr.
Arch&ologie, pp. 1-65. with illustrations and diagrams.
' This section of Kings is peculiarly difficult, and has been ma<Ie
the subject of a special study by Stade in his ZeUukrtft (1901 ).
145 fF. (cf. " Kings " in Haupt's critical edition), and more recently
by Kittel. op. cit., pp. 160--342. with ilkistratioas of similar appa*
ratus f oimd m Cyprus and Crete.
TEMPLE
607
eonfemponiy art. TTfiere, ft h$B cftm been nsked,' shall we
lo«>k for the model or prototype of the temple edifice? Whence
were derived the iMtifs to be seen m its decoration? What
influences can be detected in the elaborate apparatus above
described? Now it has for long been recognized that Syria,
including Phoenicia and Palestine, was from the eariiest times
the meeting-place of streams of influence, religious, artistic
and other, issuing from the two great fountains of civilization
and culture in the an.dent world, Egypt and Babylonia. To
these must now be added the early dvitization of the Aegean
as revealed by the excavations in Crete, and the htcr but
highly developed culture of the Hittites. As a result the art of
Phoenicia and Syria, originally borrowed from Egypt mainly,
had by the loth century become thoroughly edeclic. Of this
syncretism the best illustration is furnished by the masterpieces
of contemporary art, for which Solomon was indebted to
Phoenician architects and Phoenidan artists. Thus the general
disposition of the temple with its walled court, porch or vestibule
and naos has been shown by modem excavation, and by later
representations on coins, to be characteristic of Phoenician and
North Syrian temple ardiitecture. Here, however, we have an
adaptation of the earlier temple architecture of Egypt.
Egyptian influence is most deariy seen in the gradual decrease
in the illumination of the several parts. In the temple court,
as in its Egyptian counterpart, men worshipped under the
bright eastern sky; in the covered porch there was still no
door to exclude the light which streamed in through the lofty
entrance. But in the holy place only a dim light was admitted
through latticed windows high up in the side walls, while the
holy of holies, like the Egyptian ce2Zii, was completely dark.*
The sculptured panels of the interior were shown by Robertson
Smith (Ency. Brit.^ 9th cd., art, " Temple ") to reveal familiar
Pliocnician motives, although Babylonia is probably the
ultimate home of the cherubim. Excavations at Sinjiili in
Northern Syria and at Megiddo have, further, solved the prob-
lem of the " three rows of hewn stones and a row of cedar
beams ** which was the architectural feature of the walk of the
various courts (i Kings vii. 12).* The use of wooden beams
altematdy with courses of stone was a familiar expedient in
early times. The practice of buHdiiig walls with recurring
rebatements has also been illustrated by the recent excavations.
While the prototype of the temple itself is to be sought, as
has been said* in Egypt, Babylonian influence Is clearly traceable
in the symbolical "brazen sea," the apsu of contemporary
Babylonian, and doubtless also Phoenidan, temples. The
bronze lavcrs, finally, have been found to be dependent, both
in their construction and in the tnotijs and execution of their
reliefs, on the art of the Aegean. From Crete and Cyprus
they pa^u&ed through Phoenidan intermediaries to S>Tia and
Palestine. The temple of Solomon, in short, is a product of
the best Syro-Phocnidan art of the period, itself the product
of ideas which had their source in other lands.
The Temple of Zcrubhcbel.-^ln the year 586 B.C. the temple
ol Solomon was committed to the flames by order of Nebuchad-
rezzar (2 Kings XXV. 8; Jer. lii. 12 f.). Seventy years later its
successor was finished and dedicated, the foundation having
been laid in the second year of Darius Hystaspes (530) during
the governorship of Zerubbabel (Hag. ii. 18). There is every
reason for assimiing that the massive foundation courses of the
cariier temple were stUI in situ, and available for the new build*
ing.* The latter's inferiority, attested by Hag. il 3, was rather
in respect of its decoration and equipment, as compared with
the magnificence of the first temple, than as regards the size
« This feature gives \-aluab1e support to the view presented above
that Solomon's temple resembled its Egyptian contemporaries in an
equally^ strikin;; characteristic, the decrease in height with the de-
creax in illummation.
'This detcription poasibty applies to alt the biiiklinKS (note
verse 9), including the temple itself, and was m> undentood by
the wnter of Eara vi. 4.
*Froai Hag. L 8. Driver indeed infers that "there would
probably be almost safBdent stonework remaining (for all pur^
poae»l from Sok>mon's temple " (Cnil. BibU in ioc,).
dL the building. The dinMnsionS given in th« wyal decree
(Ezra vi. 3)--6o cubiu for height And the same for breadth—
probably refer, as was pobited out b a previous section, to th«
extremes of height and breadth applicable to the poich and
platform respectively. In these and most other respects it
may be supposed that Zerubbabd's boiklen followed the linei
of Solomon's temple. It is probable, however, that the wallt
of the naos, indudhig both the hdy and the most holy pbce,
were now raised to a uniform height, the separate back wall of
the former having been abolished and the naos covered by a
single roof. This seems a legitfmate inference from the absence
in the second and third temples of a supportfaig partition wall
withfai the naos. Its place, as separating the two compartments,
was taken by a magnificent curtain or *' veil," which Is men-
tioned among the spoils carried off by Antiochus Epiphanes
(i Mace. i. aa).*
In the matter of the sacred fnniture, the holy place coa-
Uined from the first the table of shcwbread, and one golden
" candlestick " or lampstand in place of the ten which illumi-
nated the h&LSl in the later days, at least, of the first temple
(Jer. lii. 19). The golden altar of incense, which fell a prey
with the rest of the furniture to Antiochus (z Mace. I xxi. f.)
was probably mtroduced later than the time of Zerubbabd,
since a Jewish author, writing in the 3rd century bjc. under
the name of Hecataeui of Abdea, mentions on^ '* an altar
and a candlestick both of gold," and it is natural to identify
the former with the gold-plated table of ahewbread.* In one
important respect the gloty of the second house was less than
that of the first. The holy of holies was now an empty shrine,
for no one had dared to construct a second ark.
The second temple also diflered from the ihst in having
two courts, an outer and an inner, as prescribed by Ezckiel
for his temple of the futore. The outer court formed a square,
each side of which was 500 cubits in length, also as prescribed
by Eaekid, with the sakkra rock in the centre (see Exp. Timts^
xz. 1 8a). Within the inner court stood the altar and the
temple. The former, as described by Hecataeus, was composed
of white unhewn stones (cf. Exod. xx. 2$), " having each side
20 cubits long, and its height 10 cubita " (Josepbus, Cpntm
ApioH, L S 198), dfaneikiions which agree with those assigned
by the chionider to the eariier altar of bronze (s Chron. iv. x).
In 165 •.€., three yeani after the spoliatioQ of the temple and
the desecration of its altar by Aatioekus IV., Judas Maccabaeus
rcdcdicated the holy house, made new ncred f umiture, and erected
a new altar of bunit-oflering (i Mace iv. 41 ff.). But k>ng before
this date the temple had assumed a character which it retained
to the end of the Jewish state.. It bad become a fortress as well
as a place of public worship, and existing records tell of the repeated
strengthening of its defences. "At tne time ol Pompey's liegc
(63 B.C.) it constituted an almost impregnable fastAess. strengthened
on its weakest or northern side by great towers and a deep ditch
{AnL^ xiv. 4, • 2). Twcnty-aix years later the temple was again
besieged by Herod, who, attacking like Pompcy from the north,
had to force diree lines of defence— the dty wall, and the outer
and inner temple," ix. the walls of the outer and inner courts
(W.R. Smith).
The TempU ofBerod.^Jn the i8th year of his reign (ao-19 b.c.)
Herod obtained the rductant consent of his subjects to his
ambitious scheme for rebuilding the temple and for enlaiging
and beautifying its courts. The former was finished in dghteen
months by a thousand priests trained for this special purpose,
the courts in dght years, but the complete reconstruction
occupied more than eighty years, lasting almost till the final
breach with Rome, which culminated in the destruction of the
sacred edifice by the soldiers of Titus in a.d. 70.
• M. Clermont-Ganneau has put forward the interesting conj^-
ture that the vdl presented by Antiochus to the temple of Zcvs
at Olympia (Pausanias. V. jui. 4) was that taken from the temple
at Jeru^em (see " Le Dieu satrape" &c., in the Journ. Oiiali^f,
1878).
^The witncsA of the Pseudo-Hecataeus and of another Jewish
Hellenist, the Paeudo-Aristeas, regarding the second temple has
recently been examined by G. A. Smith m his volumes on ^Jeru>
salem (see esp. index to vol. it., and cf. Vincent, " Jerusalem d'aprte
la lettre d'Anst^." Xet. biUique (1908). $20 ff. (1909). 555 ff)-
6o8
TEMPLE
(a) The Oulef Court, its Gates end Cot^nades.—Thc outer
court of Zcrubbabel's temple (500X500 cubits) was doubled in
area according to Josephus {Beil. Jud. L zzi. x). The extension
was principally on the south, which involved enormous sub-
structions on both sides of the hill, in order to secure the necessary
level surface. There can be little doubt that this part of the
present Hanun area with its containing walls is essentially the
work of Herod. The northern boundary of this great court,
termed " the motmtain of the house " in the Mishnah, and now
generally known as " the court of the Gentiles," remained as
before, and is represented by a line of scarped rock immediately
to the north of the prtoent inner platform of the Haram. This
line of scarp, when prolonged east and west for about xooo ft.
in all, meets the east wall of the 0aram a little to the north of
km|,
Pwt A iatot»ito»j^>a»>4b4i» '
COURT OF^THE GENtILE3
THE JiiROYAL i|:PORCH
fff
• •••••••••••• •'•!»«i •••••••••• ii***********!
Fig. 3.— Plan of Herod's Temple and Courts.
Ttm tte DiiStaiury of Ike BibU (i9oq).> by kind pctaiW«
ol T. ft T.- tluL
the Golden Gate, at a point 390 yds. (800 cubits) from the S.£.
angle, and the west wall at the same distance from the S.W.
angle.*
The principal entrance to the temple enclosure, and the
only one on a levd with it, was on its western side by a bridge
or viaduct which spanned the Tyropoeon at the spot marked
by Wilson's arch. It is first mentioned in connexion with the
siege of Fompey in 63 B.C., and according to the Mishnah it
bore the name of the Gate of Kiponos (probably Coponius, the
first procurator of Judea). Of the other three gates which
Josephus assigns to this side {Ant. XV. zi. 5), the two leading
I IVhich see for key to the several parts.
* The area of the " court of the Gentiles," including the walls.
was thus 800 cubits in length from N. to S., with an average width
of circa 650 cubits of 17-6 in.— the present south wall measures
922 ft. — ijf., circa 520,000 sq. cubits as compared with the former
area of 250,000, a remarkable confirmation of Josephus' statement
as to the doubling of the temple courts. For the statements and
measurements in this and the following sections differing from
those of pre^ous writers, reference may be made Co the series of
preliminarv studies entitled " Some Problems of Herod's Temple,"
£y th*^ -hich appeared in The Expository Times,
vol. ff'. 66 ff., 181 flf., 270 ff.
to "the suburb" necessarily lay further north; one is repre-
sented by the old entrance now named Warren's gate, the other
has not been identified. Josephus' third gate which led to the
" other " or lower dty was undoubtedly Barclay's gate, and not,
as is usually maintained, an entrance from Robinson's arch.
In the south wall were two gates— the Huldah or "mole"
gates of the Mishnah {Middoth, i 3)— represented by the present
" double " and " triple " gates. Like the three last mentioned
they had to be placed at the foot of the lofty retaining wall.
From either gate a double ramp, which passed under the royal
porch, led into the court in the direction shown on the accom-
panying plan. The Mishnah also names the " Shush&n gate "
on the east and the " Tadi gate " on the north.
Ri6und the four sides of the great court ran a succession of
magnificent porticoes m the style of contemporary Hellenistic
architecture {Ant. XV. xi. 5). Those on the £., N. and W. sides
had each three rows of columns forming a double walk or aisle;
the eastern colonnade bore the old name of " Solomon's Porch "
(John X. 23; Acts ilL 11). The southern portico was still
more imposing and magnificent.
It had three aisles formed, by four rows of monolithic marble
columns of the Corinthian order,* the first row engaged in the
south wall of the court. The two ade aisles were 30 ft. in width,
the central aisle half as wide again (45 ft.); the height of the
former may be estimated at circa 60 ft., that of the latter at 100 ft.
(Exp. Times, xx. 68 f.). The roofs were formed of deeply coffered
cedar beams, that of the centre aisle being supported on piUars
partly engaged in an ornamental stone balustrade. The royal
porch," as it was termed, worthily represents the hfgh-water mark
of Herod's architectural achievements in connexion with the lecon-
stniction of the temple.
(6) The Inner Courts and Gates. — ^To the outer court Jew and
Gentile, under certain conditions, had aUke access. The
sanctuary proper, from which the Gentile ^as ri^dly excluded,
began when one reached the series of walls, courts and buildings
which rose on successive terraces in the northern half of the
great enclosure. Its limits were distinguished by an artistic
stone balustrade, named the sdrlg, which bore at intervals notices
in the Greek tongue warning all Gentiles against advancing
further on pain of death. Beyond the sdrlg a narrow stone
terrace, approached by flights of steps, was carried round all
sides of the sanctuary save the west (Ke BeU. Jud. V. i. 5 [§ 38]),
and extended to the foot of the lofty fortified walls of the temple
enclosure (see X Y Z on plan, fig. 3).
The walls, over 35 ft. in height (25 cubits), were pierced by
nine gateways, marked Hz to H9 on the accompanying plan,
of which four were in the north and south walls respectively,
and one in the east wall. These nine gates opened into massive
two-storeyed towers, each 30 cubits deep {BeU. Jud. V. v. 3).
Eight were " covered over with gold and silver, as were also
the jambs and lintels" (ibid.), while the ninth, the principal
entrance to the sanctuary, in the east wall (H5) was composed
entirely of Corinthian brass, the gift of a certain Nicanor. Hence
it was variously named " the Corinthian gate," " the gate of
Nicanor "and " the beautiful gale " (Acts iii. 2, 10).*
Entering the sacrosanct area by this gate one found oneself
in a colonnaded court, known as the court of the women (A)
since women as well as men were admitted to this court,
which indeed was the regular place of assembly for public
worship. The four corners of the women's court were occupied
by large chambers for various ceremonial purposes, while be-
tween these and the gate-houses were smaller chambers, one
set being known as " the treasury " (Mark sdi. 42). The
western 'side was bounded by a high wall, beyond which, on a
higher level, lay the inner or priests' court. The entrance to
the latter was by an enormous gateway, 50 cubits by 40,
through which an uninterrupted view was obtained of the
alt&r and of the temple beyond it. To this "upper gsic"
'One «uch gigantic monolith was discovered a few vears ago
in a disused quarrv (see Exp. Times, xx. 69).
*For this triple identincation see Schiirer's essay, Ztits. /.
neulest. Wiss. (1906), Si -58: Berto. Rev. des itudes juiMS, lis.
(1910)1 30 f.; also Exp. Times, xx.,270 f.
TEMPLE
60^
(Hio) a fligbt ol fifteen seaicircuUr slept led 1^ Ciqa the court
of tbe women.
On a level with the entrance and running round three ddes
of the inner court (so Josephus) was a narrow strip (B), about
x8 ft. bnad, called the" court oC the men of Israel" The test of
the oblong area, however, was reserved for the priests and such
of the laity as might require admission for the offering of their
sacrifices. As in the lower court, the spaces between the gates
were occupied by chambers, as to the purpose of which details
are given in the Mtshnah..
With regard to the more precise location of these temple
courts, the present writer in the series of essays above referred
to (see csp. Exp. TinteSt zz. z8x £F.),>'has endeavoured to prove
that the vikok fortrtss-sanauary wiikin Ike great walls stood on
wkat is new Uu inner platform of Ike Haram, the present extended
area of which is indicated by the double dotted line on the plan.
According to the Mishnah (Middolh, ii. ^. 6) the upper and lower
courts together formed a rectansle measuring 333 cubits from west
to east by 135 cubiu from north to south, the upper court 187 by
13s. the lou'er 135 by 135. But. on the one band, no account
b taken of the gate-towers and priests' chambers which lined, the
courts, and on tne other, the frequent recurrence of the number
II and its multiples in the deuils which make up the above totals
awakens raspidon as to their accuracy. The measurements of the
accomcanymg plan are based on a critical oomparnon of the data
of the Mtshnah and those of Josephus with tbe relation of the whole
to the altar on the joMra (see next section). The total area
covered by the sanctuary, including the terrace or kkU, b entered
as 415 cubits (463 ft.) across the rock from west to east, and 350
cubtts C367 ft.) irpm north to south (for the detailed measurements
! Exp. Timos, xx. iBi ff., 371 ff.).. The upper court shows an
area of 170 cobita by 160, the lower court has a free space between
the colonnades of 135 cubiu (the Mishnah figure) by an average
width ol 1 10 cubits.
(c) Tho Altar of BnnU-offering.—Btnd'B great altar (D on
the plan) was formed of unhewn stones, like t^t which preceded
it lu sise, however, was increased till it formed a square,
each side of which measured 33 cubiu or 47 ft. at the base, thus
occupying almost the whole of the exposed surface of the
takkra. The si4es of the square decreased upwards by three
sta^s. until the altar-heaith was only 34 cubits square. The
priests went up by an inclined approach on the south side
(ct Exod. XX. 36). To the north was the place where the
saoifidal victims were slaughtered and prepared for the altar
(ci LeviL i. ix). It was provided with rings, pillars, hooks
and taUea. A bver (O on the plan) for the priests' ablutions
stood on the west of the altar ramp.
id) The Temple Building.— K few yards to the west of the
altar fote the temple itself, a glittering mass of white maibk
u
n
• * * * JLJVA>* * * *
Fig. 4.~Dbgfammatic Section of Herod's Temple and Pbrch.
and gold. Twelve steps, correqwnding to the height (13 baU-
cubiu)of the platform, led up to the entrance to the porch. In
the disposition ol its parts Herod's temple was in all essential
■ A •ommary of the results b given In the article '
Hastings' Dia. efike BibU (1909).
Temple** in
6io
TEMPLE
Fig. 5.~PIan
oC Mammcisi
Egyptian TimpUs.—ln the uthitectunl wnae the earfiest
temples in Egypt probably consisted only of a small cella, or
sanctuary, with a portico, such as are represented in the models
of soul-bouses found in 1907 by Flinders Petrie at Rifeh; in
front of these various additions were made, so that eventually
the temple assumed far greater importance than was at fint
contemplated. This custom is at variance with that which
takes place in the development of other architectural styles,
where the older buildings are constantly taken
down and rebuilt in accordance with the in>
creased knowledge acquired in construction and
design. It follows from this that although the
Egyptian temples vary in their dimensions and
extent, as a rule they present the same dis-
position of plan. The principal exceptions to
this rule are the sepulchral temples, such as
those of Deir d Bahri, and the more ancient
example adjoining it, discovered in 1906, in
which there are no enclosed halls of columns
or sanctuary, and the Mammeisi temples
^ _^ ^^_ (fig. s), which in pUin resemble the Greek
Temp^V'PhUael peristylar temples and might have been sug-
gested by them, had not the example at
Elephantine (destroyed in 182 s) been of much earlier date,
having been built by Amenophis III. (1414-1379).
The earfiest example of which remains have been found is the
temple built by Cephren in front of his pyramid at Memphis, and
this consisted only of a sanctuary of small size without any archi-
tectural pretensions. The next in date would be the sepulchral
temple built by Mentuhotep (2832-3796) adjoining Deir el Bahri
at Thebes: then follows the sanctuary of Kamak, built by Senwosri
(Usertesen) I. (2758-2714), which formed the nucleus of that
immense temple, wnTch coveted an area of 400,000 aq. ft. This
temple may be taken as an extreme type of the accumulation
which is found in neariy all the Egyptian temples, owing to the
additions made to the original structure by successive monarchs,
instead of rebuilding, as was the general custom in all other stvles.
To a certain extent the same conservative principle seems to have
governed the design of all other temples, and even the temple at
BdfQ. which was set out on a plan conceived from the first, has
the appearance of having been added to at various periods, the
fronts of the inner halls showing inside those built in front. It is
not only in the plan that the ckm reaemblanoe of one building
to another is shown; the architectural design is repeated in the
earliest and latest temples; the raking ndes of the pylons and
walls with the torus-mouldixig of the quoins and the cavetto cornice
are identical, so that it b Ofuy by the inscriptions that one is able
to ascribe the buiMings to the kings of the i8th or following dynasties
and distinguish them from those erected by the Ptokmiesj or evea
under Roman rule. The only differences are those exhibited in
the great halls of columns, which, in the eariier temples, were built
in between the pylons and side walls, receivinff their light through
" * (fig. 6), tat other t e m pl es to
derestory windows, as at Kamak , _ ..
its vidmty and the Ramesaeum; whereas
the later temples
I
FiG> &~Hall of Columns, Karaak.
00 oike side of the wails a screen was boilt b et w een the rolwmni^
over wbkh the interfoc was tiahred. The aeoood diaoce was that
made in the capitals of the columns, which are of woadeifal dtver>
■ity of aeaii;n, even ia <be same hall, iariading every variety of
fiver plant, u addition to the papyrus and lodis flowen; in the
bter camples also the columns are moee sleader in their <propor>
tionsand not sec ao closely one to the other.
Although generally the temples are built symmetrically on a
oeatfal axis, witk walb at right angles to one another, there are
some special exceptions; thus the axial line of the great entnanoe
court oil the tem^e at Luxor is at an angle of about 15* with that
of the temple in its rear, and in the island of Philae no two buildings
are on the same axis or are parallel to or at right angles to one
another, thus conforming to tne Irregubr site on wfaicb tibey were
built.
Assyrian.— Tht temple in Chaldaea or Assyria (known as a
tiggurat) was of an entirely different class, and took the form of
a many-storeyed structure, of which the typical example is the
Birs Nimrud. This originally consisted ai six storeys, each
one set behind the other, so as to admit of a terrace round each,
the uppier storey being crowned by a shrine.
Access- to the wveral storeys was obtained by flights of steps,
either lying parallel with the front or in one continuous flight in
centre of same, or again as at Khoraabad by a ramp winding round
the tower; the architectural design consisted of sunk paneb on
the various storeys with battlement parapets, and, like the Birs
Nimrud, the several storeys were dedicated to the seven planets,
the waUs bdng enriched with the colours sacred to each.
Creek and Rinnan.— Jn Greece the earliest example of a temple
ia that of the Heraetun at Olympia, ascribed by Dr Daipfcid
to the xoth century B.C The Heraeum (fig. 7) coanisted of
i
J-
i
i
g..I s
Fk& 7.--The Hemeom.
9mihSar»0hmti^krim\'m' i<fl
itCk
a central naos or sanctuary with pronaos in front and opis-
thodomvs in the rear, the whole enclosed by a pcrisljde, thus
presmting the duracteristics of the fully de\'doped temple
of the 5th century. As, however, the description of the aevnal
types woold be r endered dearer if they were taken from the
simpint plan to the more dabotate, adofittag Co a oertaia
extent the drfinirinBa fivea by Yimvioa, tkgr are ss
foDows:—
TEMPLE
6ii
Di$iyl0 im a w J to , a odk er mm pwfcaded by a portioo of two
columns |>lao8d betwwa the ptokfn^tiML of the cdla wall. Fig. 8.
The Teaiiple of Themis Rhamaus.
Fic. 8. Fic. 9. Fig. 10.
Am^hidistyU-in^ntis, nmilar to the forcing
but with a second portico in the rear. Fig. 9.
The Temple of Diana Propyloea. Cleusis.
TetnufyU ptost^de, with a portioo of four
Golumos m front. Fig. 10. The Temple B. Selinus,
Sicily.
TeinutyU ampkiprostjfk, with an additional
portico of four columns w the rear. Fig 1 1 • The
Temple of Nike Apteros, Athens,
HexastyU peripteral, six oolumsi in front
and rear and a peristyle round the ceUa form-
ing a covered passage round.
Fir. I a. The Temple 01 Theseus,
Fig. II.
Octostylt period, eight col-
umns in front and rear and a peristyle round.
Fig. 13. The Panhenon, Athens.
Ottost^ apteral, dght columns in front and
rear and a double row in the peristvle. Fig. 14.
The Temple of Jupiter Olympius, Athens.
Oidojfjws pstudthonpieTalf similar to uie last,
except that the inner row of columns is omitted,
thus giTiM a puHse lomid of twice the ordinary
width. ¥tg. 15. The Temple of Apollo (Smln-
theus), Troad. _
Fig. i».
DecaatyU dipteral, ten columns in front and
rear axMl a double row in the peristyle. Fig. 16. The Temple
of ApoUo Didymaeus, at Braachidae* near Mil>
^ etua.
To these there are a few cxc^itions^^
HepkutyU puudthperipteral, seven columns in
front and rear with walla built in between the
outer range of columns, 10 that they were only
semi-detadied, as in the temple of Jupiter Olympius
at GifgentL
Enneastyle peripteral, nine columns in front and
rear and a peristyle round as in the so-called
Banlica at raestum.
were two varieties ^-
Monopttral, a series of columns balH in a circle,
- but without any cella in the centre; and
Peripteral, with a dituhr cella in the centre.
Fig. 17. The Philippeion, dympia.
Of circular temples there
m
!••••••«
>• PMMMI •i
• • «
»• ■<
>•
> •
r* :i
»• •<
>■
: : 21
»•
>• ••
> •
■ ■■ fl
»• •<
»•
*• m m •*
• •
• •
)•
• • t
LIA
■• •••• •<
Biz:!;!::a
Fic. 14.
Fio. 15.
Fig. 16.
The above definitions apply to Greek temples, whether of
the Doric, Ionic or Corinthian orders. The Romans in some
of their temples adopted the same disposition, but with this
importaat difference, that, instead of the temple resting on a
o:
Fig. 17.
stylobate of three steps, it was raised on a podhin with a flight
of steps in front. In some of their tempU», requiring a larger
celU wherein to store their works of art, it
occupied in the lear the full width c»f the
portico in front; they retained, however, the
semblance of the peristyle, the columns of
which became semi-attached to the ceUa
wall If the portico had four colunms, the
temple was known as tetrastyle pseud<h
peripteral, of which the ad-called temple of
Fortuna Virilis at Rome is an example;
and if six columns, hexaslyle pseudo-peripUrd, as in the
Maison Carr6e at Nlmes.
In front of the naoa or oeUa of the Greek temple there was always
a pronaos, viz. a vestibule with two or more columns in anHs, and
in the rear a nmOar feature kno
in a few cases, as in the Ptfrthet
which was entered through a 1
the naos; this same vestibui
chamber was sometimes endoi
the opisthodomus; the Latin
frequently given to this rear vc
the Germans and Americans 1
term epinaos when speaking c
In Roman temples the posticui
the portico, on the other hand
importance, being frequently t
bays or columniations. In n
Greek temples the cdlas we
narrow, owing to the difficulty
over, as the Greeks do not ac
acquainted with the prindph
beam. When therefore more
width was required it becai
introduce columns 00 each sid
to carry the ceiling and toed, tb
of which existed in the Hecai
There are two other temples i
these internal columns still
temples at Aegina and Paestum. mncyuwMivic
were five columns on each side, carrying an archi- Flo. 18.
trave with fiv« smaller columns s u pe r posed; in
the temple of Nepcune at Pacstom there were seven 00 each side;
and in the Parthenon nine columns and a square pier at the end
with three columns in the rear, thUs constituting an aisle on three
sides, round which privileged visitors, Uke Pauianias, were allowed
to pass, there being bronze tails b e t wee n the columns. In the
temple of Zeus at Olympia traces of the barricn have been found.
as also of an upper gallory, access to which was given by a wooden
staircase. The question of the lighting of these temples has never
Fig. 19.— Temple of Aphaea at Aegina. West Front.
that aa a rule the only <&ect
theopen doorway (see Hvpabthmw).
been denurely settled; it is 1
Ugfat received wasthatthrougL ,
In the eariiest temples, those 01 the Heraeum at Olympia, id
Apolk> at Thermon. and the archaic temple at Artos, the oolumas
of the peristyle were in wood and earned a wooden archkreve;
in the Hefaeom the wooden columns were replaced by columns ia
stone when they showed signs of deterioration; the earliest stooe
colunms whkrh were introduced date from the 6th century, and
Pausanias in the and century saw one wood column etiU tn sitm
m the opisthodomoa. From about the middle of the 7tb '^••*»»v
(
6l2
TEMPLE
the cblumiM vtre always in ttone, and wen generally built in
several counes with drums or frusta^ there being very few instances
<^ monolith columns in Greek temples; the Romans, on the other
hand, in their principal columns considered the monolith to be
more monumental, and not only employed the finest Greek marbles
to that end. but used granite and porDhyry.
The favourite type of Greek temple was that known as heza-
style peripteral, of which the temple of Aphaea at Aegina. of the
Fio. 20.
Doric order, is one of the best-preserved examples: on account
of the width of its naos it was necessary to pcoviae columns inside
it to cany the ceiling and the roof, so that it represents the fully
dcvelopea type of a Greek temi^. The plan of the temple is
shown in fig. 18 ; the elevation is given in fig. 10, representing
the west front, the columns of which rest on a stylobate of three
steps, and carry the entablature and pediment. Fig. ao shows
the three first columns of the flank elevation, the entablature
carried by them, and the tiled roof with antefixa and crested ridge.
:""" - ^^ ^ Tic. 21.
Fig. 21 gives the section through the stylobate, peristyle and
pronaos, and half of the naos, slMwing the superix>sed columns,
ceiling and roof, all based on the conjectural restoration by
CoctefcU. The temple of Aegina is supposed to have been erected
tboarfM B.e., the magnificent sculpture with which it is enriched
^. • ^ - I ^ , ^|gg, ^^^ f 1^ temple was built of a fine caJcareous
I dose by, whidi was coated over with a thin
' — wid marble dust; tiits enabled the masons
I the tnonldinnt and afforded a field for
t is ttown in Cockerell's Tempi*
rations are taken; the cymatium
tin Farian marble; .
1 in a tewcnos, in which
were other shrines, altars and treasuries; in Athens the 1
was the Acropolis, on which the temples were built; at Delphi
it was in a valley on inclined ground ; and in Girgenti the temples
were raised on the ridge of a hill: in all these cases the Greeks
accepted the inequalities ol the site, and. adding art to nature,
Scak of Yards _
T 1 T ? 1 ^ : — ?
Fig. 23.
united tbdr work with that of the Creator, so that it seemed to
form part of the same dedgn. Some of the sites of the temples,
such as those at Olympia, Epidaunis and Dek>s. were pcacticaUy
level, but even in thoise the temples and other structures were
arranged in groups, thus producing a much more picturesque effect
than tn those of the Romans, which, when enclosed, were always
Fie. 23.
planned on axial lines and raised on artificial platforms or terraces,
as at Baalbek, Palmyra and Aizani, with peristyles round the
raised court. The best-preserved Roman temple is that known as
the Maison Carrie at Nimes in the south of France, a hexastyte
pseudo-peripteral temple, of which the elevation is ^ven in fig. 32
and the j^n in fig. 23. It was of the .Corinthian order, and
instead of a stylobate oithree steps was raised on a podium 1 1 ft.
high with a flight of steps in front. For further descriptions ol
both the Greek and Roman temples Me Architecturb.
(R.P.S.)
TEMPLE FAR— TENBY
613
I BABt ah hntaric site in Londoii, England. In more
tluui one of the main roads oonverging upoa the city of London
a bar or chain marked the extra-miiral jnriadictwn of the
Corporation. Temple Bar stood at the junction of the present
Strand and Fleet Street, over against the Lav Courts. A bar
is. fixBt mentioned here in xjox, but the name b most familiar
in its application to the gateway designed by Sir Christopher
Wren, which replaced an older structure on this spot in 167s.
lins was removed in 1678, and set up in x888 at the entrance
to Theobalds Park near Cheshunt, Hertfordshixe. A pedestal
surmounted by a dragon or "griffin" marKs the old site.
When the- sovereign is al^out to enter the dty in state, whether
by Temple Bar or elsewhere, the Lord Majror, in accordance
with ancient custom, presents the sword of the city to him, and
he at once returns it. Formeiiy the bar or gate waa closed
against the sovereign until this ceremony was carried out.
TBMRYUK* a seaport of Russia, in northern Caucasia, and
in the government of Kuban, on the Sea of Aayv, 8t m. W.NW.
of Ekaterinodar. Pop. (x897y- 14,476. Here was a Turkish
fortress, Abas, tiU 1774. The place is now a growing seaport
for the cxportxf grain, and has many flour-miUs.
TBNAMT (from Lat. tetterej to hold), one who holds real
piope r ty by some form of title from a landlord. For the forms
of tena ncy, ftc, see Landlosd amd TsitAmr.
TBRAMT-IIIGHT, In law, a term expressing the right which
a tenant has, either by custom or by law, against his landlord
for compensation for improvements at the determination of his
tenancy. In England it is governed for the most part by the
Agricultural Holdings AcU and the Allotments and Small
Holdings Acts (see Lamdloed asd Tenaitt). In Ireland,
tenant-right was a custom, prevailing partiaUaxly in Ubter,
by wfakh the tenant acquired a right not to have his rent raised
arbitrarily at the expiration of his term. This Tesulted in
Ulster in considerable fixity df tenure asd, in case of a desire
OB the part of the tenant to seO his farm, made the tenant-right
of ooomderable capital value, amounting often to many years'
rent.
TBHASmni, a division of Lower Burma, bordering on
Siam. Area, 36,076 sq. m. Pop. (190X) x,xs9,5s8, induding
38,>69 (Christians, the great majority of whom are Karens.
The headquarten of the commissioner are at Moulmeln. It is
divided into six districts: Toungoo, Salwven, Thatdn, Amherst,
Tavoy and Mergui. It formed the tract south of Pegu con-
qiiered from Burma in 1836, which was for many years known
as the Tenaaerim province. The southern extremity of the
(fividon approaches the insular region of Malaysia, and it is
fringed along its entire western coast by a number of islands,
forming in the north the Mososs and in the south the Mergui
Archipelago. The eastern frontier is formed by a mountain
range 5000 ft. high, which acts as a water-parting between the
Tenasserim and the Siamese river systems.
TBN BRINK, BBUIHARO mDlin KOWBAD (x84t'x69a),
German philologist, of Dutch origin, was bom at Amsterdam on
the X9th of January 1841, hot was sent to school at Dftssddorf,
and afterwards studied at Mansier, and later under Dies and
Ddtus at Bonn. In x866 he began to lecture at the Mttnster
Academy on the philology of the En^h and Romance languages.
In 1870 he became professor of modem languages at Marburg,
and alter the reconstitution of Strassburg University was ap-
pointed professor of English there In 1873. In 1874 he began
to edit, in coajunctioB with W. Scherer, E. Martin and E.
Schmidt, QutUm und Parsekungen %ur Spraekt nmd KvUw'
gtsckkkte der gcrmitmUehen VMker. He devoted himself for many
yean to the study of Chaucer. In 1877 be published Chamuf:
S h i du m wur GetddckU tHner EntmkkduMg und wur Ckr&nthgie
teiner Sckriften; in 1884, Ckaueets SpfotU und Ymkunst. Ha
also paUisbed critical editions of the Pfol^gm and the Cmii-
fUpOe to Pili, Ten Brink's work in this direction stimulated
a revival of Chaucer study in the United Kingdom as well «s
in (krmatty, and to him was inditectly due the foundation of
the En^isfa Chaucer Society. His Beatndf-UnUrsuckungeti
(t888) proved a hardly less vahiaUe ooBtribmion to the study
of Early English literature. HIa best known work is hit
GesekkkU der engHscken UUrtUur (1889^3), (English by H.
Kennedy iti Bohn's Standard Library)^ which was unfortunately
ne^er completed, and broke off just before the Elizabethan
period. It was his intense admiration of Shakespeare that first
attracted him to the study of English, and five lectures on
Shakespesre delivered at Frankfort were published after hfs
death (1893). Ten Brink died at Strassburg on the dpth of
January xSgs. He .was a great teacher as well as an accurate
and brilliant writer, and from many countries students flocked
to his lecture-room.
mfBURY, a market lown in the Bewdley parliamentary
division of Worcestershire, England, on the Kidderminster-
Wooferton branch of the Great Western railway, x 53 m. W.N.W.
of London. Pop. (xgoi) ao8o. It is pleasantly situated on the
right bank of the Teme, here the boundary with Shrop^re.
The town has a ^mi, whose waters are efficacious in rheumatic
affections and diseases of the skin. The church of St Mary the
Virgin has Norman remslns hi the tower and chancd. The
district produces hops and fruit, and there is trade in dder.
The) Teme abounds in trout and grayling, and Tenbury is in
favour with anglers. At Old Wood, a m. S.W. of Tenbury,
are St Michaiel's church and college (1858), founded and partially
endowed by the Rev. Sir Frederick Gore Onseley, in which the
ordinary preparatory education of boys is combined with «
school for choristers and instruction in ecclesiastical music
T8NBY, a market town, seaside resort, a munidpal and
contributory parliamentary horough of Pembrokeshire, Wales,
findy situated on a long narrow promontory' of limestone rock
washed on three sides by the sea on the west shore of Carmarthen
•Bay. Pop. (xQox) 440a Tenby is a station on the Whitland>
Pembroke Dock branch of the South Wales system of the Great
Western railway. Its dnef attractions as a watering-place are
iU picturesque appearance and surroundings, its extensive
antiquarian remains, its mild dimate and its two excelleni
beaches known as the North and South Sands. The ancient
town walls survive almost intact on the north and west sides,
and reUhx the fine St George's gateway, locally called the " Five
Arches." These walls, which were hirgely rebuilt by Jasper
Tudor, earl of Pembroke, during the Wars of the Roses, were
again repaired under Elisabeth during the alarm of the Spanish
invasion, as is shown by a contemporary tablet bearing the
queen's dpher and the date 1588. The inconsiderable ruins
of the castle, presenting a portion of the keep and outer walls,
occupy a rocky peninsula to the S.E. of the town known as
the Castle Hill, which also contains the Welsh national monu-
ment to Albert, prince consort, an Immense statue and pedestal
-of white marble erected in 1865. Upon the Castle HiQ is a small
museum, containing some antiqultiea and good collections of
the focal flora and marine fauna, for which last Tenby has fong
been celebrated. Opposite the Castle Hill, about xoo yds.
distant, but only accessible to foot passengers at low tide, is
St Catherine's Rock with a fort constructed in 1865. Fadng
the Esplanade and Sout}i Sands, about 2} m. from the shore,
stretches Caldy Island, x m. in ?^ngth and trd m. in breadth,
with a population of seventy persons and containing a ruined
priory, which was a subsidiary house to St DogmeU's Abbey.
To the west, between Caldy Island and Giltar Point on the
mainland, lies St Margaret's Rock. The parish church of
St Mary, situated at the northem end of Tudor Square, the
prindpal open space in the town, is one of the largest churches
in South Wales, and exhibits all varieties of architecture from
tha X3th to the x6th centuries. Its massive tower, crooned
with a spire, b xsa ft. high, and forms a prominent object In
all views of the town. The handsome interior is remarkably
rich hi early tonibs and monuments, the most Important of
them being the elaborate altar-tomb of John and Thomas
White {e. X48s), members of an opulent family of merchants
long seated in Tenby. In the adjoining churchyard are some
remains of the (Carmelite friary founded by John de Swyncmore
in r399. The harbour on the northern beach Is protected by
ail andeat stime pier, and in 1895 an Iron pier waa erected befow
6 14
TENCH^TENDER
the Ckstle Hfll lor tke owveaience oC the steamboau whkfa ply
between the town And Bristol, Ilfncombe, &c. The tnde of
Tenby is inoonndenble, but the fisheries, for which the place
was noted at an eariy period and whidi gave it its Welsh name
of Dinbych y Pysgod, are of gntat value.
The name of Tenby b undoubtedly a corrupted form of
Daneby, recalling the Scandinavian origin of the place. The
real importance' of Tenby dates from the i2lh century, when
walls, castle and church were erected for the convenience of the
•Flemish colonists, who were then beini^planted in Dyfed. On
more than one occasion the newly-bounded town was captured,
sacked and destroyed by maranding bands of Welshmen,
notably in 1153; but on each occasion the place was rebuilt
and relortified by the eark-palatine of Pembroke, who greatly
favoured this important settlement. The first eari of Pembroke
to grant a charter of incorporation was William de Valence,
9th earl (lemp.HeDry III.), and these privileges were extended
by his successor, Eari Ayhner. Henry IV., by a charter ob-
tained in 1402, vested the government of the town in a mayor
and two bailiffs to be elected annually. Elisabeth in 1580
confirmed all previous charters and incorporated the freeholders
under the designation of " the ma3ror, bailiffs and burgesses of
the borough of Tenby." During the 15th century and under
the Tudors the town grew extremely prosperous, and contained
many wealthy mercantile families, of which that of White offers
the most striking example. A member of this house, Thomas
White, whibt mayor of Tenby, did signal service to the Lan-
castrian cajose in 1471 by harbouring Jaq>er Tudor, eari of
Pembroke, and his nephew Heniy Tudor, eari of Richmond
(afterwards king Henry VII.), prior to their escape to France.
John Leland {c. 1540) described Tenby as being " very wealthy
by merchandise," and noted its stone pier and well-built' walls.
The town suffered severely during the Civil Wars, undergoing
two sieges, firstly in 1644 when the parliamentarian, Colonel
lAUghame. took the place by storm, and secondly in 1648 when
it capitulated to Colonel Horton. After the Restoration the
importance and wealth of Tenby showed a constant tendency
to decline, but towards the dose of the i8th century it rose into
great popularity as a watering-place, and it has since maintained
its reputation as the most picturesque seaside resort of South
Wales. Since 1536 Tenby has been a contributory borough
to the Pembroke (now Pembroke and Haverfordwest) parlia-
mentary districu
TENCH (rtnco Mt/fom), a small fish of the Cyprinid family,
which is one of the commonest and most widely spread fresh-
water fishes of Europe. It is generally distributed in all suiuble
localities throughout England, but is limited to a few lakes and
ponds in the south of Scotland and in Ireland. As the tench
b of comparatively uncommon occurrence in unenclosed waters,
its place among the indigenous fishes of Great Britain has been
denied, and it has been supposed to have been introduced
Tench.
from the Continent; a view which, however, is not supported
by any evidence, and b practically disposed of by the fact that
fossil remains of the fish are found in the Plebtocene deposits
of Great Britain. In central Europe it thrives best tn enclosed,
preserved waters, with a clayey or muddy bottom and with an
abundant vegetation; it avoids dear waters with stony ground,
and b altogether absent from rapid streams. The tench b
ditdnguished by ks very small scales, which are deeply imbedded
lt>l|.tWdt ilnm whose surface b as shppery as that of an etL
All the fins have a rounded outline; the short doifeal fin b
without a spine, but the males pomcss a very thick and flattened
outer ray in the ventral fins. The mouth b rather narrow and
provided at eadi comer with a very small barbcL Tench if
kept in suitable waters are extremely prolific, and as they grow
within a few years to a weight of 3 or 4 fl>, and are then fit for
the table, they may be profitably intiodnced into pomds which
atealreadystockedwhhotherfishea,sochascarpandpike. lliey
live on small animab or soft vegeuble substances, which they
root up from the bottom. The albino variety espedaBy, which
b known as the " golden tench," can be reoonnnended for orna-
mental waters, as iu bright orange colours render it visible for
some distance below, the surface of the water. Thb variety,
which seems to have been originally bred in Siksia, b not less
well-flavoured than the normally coloured tendi, and grows to
the same size, viz., to 6 and even 8 lb.
The tench b really an excellent fish for the table, if kept in
cool, dear water for a few days, as it b the costom to do in
(jermany, in order to rid it of the muddy flavour impnrtwi to it
by its favourite abode.
TEMCm. CLAtlDOiB ALBZAMDEin ADiRDI DM (1681-
X749), French courtesan and author, was bom at Gramble.
Her father, Antoine Gu£rin, sieur de Tendn, was president ol
the parlement of Grenoble. Qaudine was brought np at a
convent near GreaoUe and, at the wish of her parents, took the
veil, but broke her vows and succeeded, in 17x4, in gaining
formal permission from the pope for her secularization. She
joined her sister Mme. de Ferriol in Paris, where die soon estab-
lished a salon, freqoented by wits and rou^ Asnong her
numerous lovers were the Chevalier Le Camus Destoadies, the
due de Richelieu, and according to her biographer many other
persons ol distinction. The last of her liaisons had a tragic
ending. M. de la Fresnaye committed saidde in her house,
and Mme. de Tendn spent some time in the Chitelct in conse-
quence, but was soon liberated as the result oC a dedazation
of her innocence by the Grand ConseiL From thb time she
devoted herself to political intrigue, espedally for the prefer^
ment of her brother the abb6 Tendn, who became MxdMUbop
of Embrun and received a cardinal's hat. EventnaOy shci
formed a literary salon, which had among iu kq^iuis FontencUe,
Montesquieu, the abb£ de Saint Pierre, Pierre Marivanx, Alezb
Piron and others. Hers was the first of the Parisian literary
salons to which distinguished foreignery were admitted, and
among her English guests were Bolingbroke and Chesterfield. By
the good sense with which she conducted what she called her
" menagerie," she almost succeeded in effadng the record of
her early dbgrace. She was a novelist of considerable lodriL
Her noveb have been hi^y praised for their sunpHdty and
charm, the last qualities the drctunstances of the writer's Kfe
would lead one to expect ,in her work. The best of them b
Mtmoircs du comU dc Camminties (i73S)> which appeared, ss
did the other two, under the name oC her nephews, Mlf. d'Ar-
gental and Pont de Veyle, the real aothoiship bdng carefully
concealed. Mme. de Tencin died on the 4th of December 174^
Her works, with those of Mme. de b Fayette, were.edited by
Etionne and Jay (Paris. 1835): her noveb were reprinted, with
introductory matter by Lescure. in 1885; and her correspoadcnce
in the LfUres <fc Mrms. de ViOars, dt La FayeUe et de Tenan (Pari*,
1805-1832). See P. MaSson. Madame de Tencin (f^aris, 1909).
TEICDI. PIERRE GUfelN DE (X679-X758), French eocksi-
attic, archbishop of Embrun and Lyons, arid cardinal, was bora
at Grenoble on the 22nd of August 1679. He owed hb quick
advance to power to hb sister CUudine (see above). He was a
strong opponent of the Jansenists, and in 1743 was appointed
a minister of sute to Loub XV., though he bdd no portfolio.
He died on the and Cf March 1758.
TENDER, (i) An adjective meaning soft, dther physically
or figuratively, derived from Fr^ tendre^ Lat. tener^ soft, allied
to Umuis, thin, and ultimately to be referred to the root, tan-,
to stretch out, as in Lat. tendete. (2) A legal term meaning an
offer for accepunce, particularly an offer in OK>ney for the
I satisfaction of a debt or liability or an offer to pay or dehwr
TENEBRAE— -TENERIFFE
615
«ocofding to the terns o£ a contract; for " legal tender/' the
currency which can legally be offered and must be accepted in
payment, see Payiknt. The term is also applied specifically
to an offer to do s ^Mcified piece of work or to supply certain
goods for a certain sum or at a certain rate or to purchase goods
at a certain rate. Contracts for large or important works or
for the supply of lai^^c amounts of goods an usually put oat to
tender in order to secure the lowest price. In tUs sense the
word is from " to tender/' to offer, Fr. tenire, Lat. tendert, to
stretch ouL (3) A " tender " is also one who " attends " (Lat
aaender0f to stretch towards, to give heed to), and to is applied
particularly to a small vessel which brings supplies, pas-
sengers, &c^ to a laiger vessel, or which b used to take or bring
messages from or to her, and similaxly to a carriage attached to a
locomotive engine on a railway which carries coal or other fael
and water.
TBIfBBRAB (Lat for "shadows," ''daikncM"), the name
for an oflioe sung in Roman Catholic Churches on the afternoon
or evening of Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday of Holy Week.
The name is derived, accordhig to Duimndus {RaHon., lib. vL
cap. 7a, n. a), from the fact that ** the church on these days
cultivates darkness (tene^as coNt): firstly because it is in
sorrow and grief on account of the Lord's PasskMi, and because
for three days it celebrates his ezcqxiies since for three days he
was dead; secondly, the office of Tenebrae 63rmboIizes the
darkness that fell on the face of the earth while the Sun of
justice was hung upon the cross," &c The falling darkness is
ssrmbolited by a peculiar and sfaigulaiiy impressive ceremony
(see LiGBTS, Cekeitonul).
TBNKHBNT (Med. Lat tenemetiktmt from tenete, to hold),
in law, a term whkh, according to Coke, " inchidcs not only
all corporate inheritances which are or may be holden, but also
all inheritances issuing oat of those inheritances, or concerning,
or annexed to, or exercisable within the same " (Co. Utt aoa).
In its more gcneiol legal sense it is applied to realty, as exposed
to personalty. In its popular sense tenement is used as mean*
ing a house or dweilfng, and, more particukrty in hirge cities>
tenement hooses are buildings occupied by several families
living independently of one another, but having a common
light in the hall, staircases and outhouses. In the heart of
great towns the problem of housing is a difficult one, and it is
only of recent years that attention has been directed to the un-
suitable and insanitary condition of many houses occupied on
the tenement system as defined above, but in many cases never
bant with the conveniences necessary for joint occupation. In
most of the large cities in Great Britain and the United States
tenement houses are now buHt on the anost modem plans (see
HoDsmo), and It is to be noted that the municipality of New
York has a special Tenement-house Department, under charge
of a commissbner, with wkie authority to supervise the structure
of tenement houses and their occupancy in the interest of health
and genera l wel fare.
TBNBRIFFB [Tenerife], the largest of the Canary Islands;
in the Atlantic Ocean, and belonging to Spain. Pop. (1900)
138,008; area, 782 sq. m. Teneriffe lies s little west of the
centre of the archipelago, between the islands of Grand Canary
and Gomera. It is of irregular shape, 60 m. long, with an
extreme breadth of 30 m. A chain of mountains traverses the
island in the direction of its greatest length (east to west), and
m the middle of the broadest part rises the celebrated peak,
fecaOy known as the Pico de Teyde (or Teide), whkh, with its
supports and spurs, occupies nearly two-thirds of the whole
island. It has a double top; the highest point, El Fiton, is
ia,soo ft. above the sea; the other, Chahorra, connected with
the fisst by a short narrow ridge, has a height of 9880 ft They
are both orifices in the same grand dome of trachyte. Neither
leaches the line of perpetual sofw. There is, however, a natural
cavern, 11,050 ft. above the sea^ where snow is preserved all the
year. Snow remains for about four months on the upper part
of the peak.
For merr than on » h alf of its cimimference tne base of the true
peak rise* from an elevated but compacacively level tract, called
by the Spaniards Bl Umo d« la RUama fyOoma hAog the name of
the Cytisus nubigenus which abounds there), and by the EngUsb the
Pumice-Stone Plains. On the south-east, south and south-west
there is a high curved ridge overlooking the Pumice-Stone Plains,
and presenting a very steep face to the peak. Between the ridge
and the sea the dope is more gradual, and there are intervening table-
lands. Peaks rise from the ridge, one of which (Guajara) attains
the hdght of 8900 ft This ndge (the Llano) and the modern
volcanic cone resemble in aspect a fortress with circular ramparts
and a fone. The ramparts are about '8 m. in diameter, and tower
in some places moie than 1500 ft. above the fosse. On the north-
west comparatively^ late eruptions have filled up the iamt. The
modem cone is a pile of lava, pumice and ashes, thrown up in an
ancient crater which had become greatly enlarged dthcr by a falling
hi of the upper part of the cone, or by a aeries of violent exploeions.
Both £1 Piton and Chahorra have craters on their summits, from
whkh issue steam and a little sulphurous vapour. The crater 00
EI Piton is partly surrounded by a wall of lava, which has been
made white by the action of snlphurous vapours, and every crevice
contains smaU crystals of sulpnnr. The thermometer nses coa«
siderably when thrust into theground. The crater is about 500 ft.
across, with a depth of 70 ft. Toe crater on Chahona has a diameter
of 4000 ft. : its depth is scarcely 1^0 ft The view from the highest
point, when no clouds intervene, is very extensive. All the ishuids
of the archipelago are visible, and the horizon is 140 m. distant
Neither the coast of Africa nor the island of Madeira is within the
range of vision.
The ascent of the peak is usually made from Orotava, on the
northern side of the island. After the cultivated grounds are left,
the region of arborescent heaths b crossed. Above this is a belt
covered with codeso {Adenocar^ frmUunioidds), and this escteads
to the rsgion of r^loeHi, the first bushes of which are found at the
pass which admks the traveller into the Llano de la JUtama. The
scenery here is in striking contrast with what it has previously been.
Instead of a steep and nigged ascent among black basaltic rocks,
the traveller eaten upon gently sloping ground, covered to a con*
Mderable depth with white pomke gravd, amongst which spring
bushes of retama. The tender shoots of this shrub serve the wild
goats for food, and the flowers yield a rich honey. The entrance
to the Llano at a sort d natural gateway (called PorHtto) between
two basakic hills, is about Tooo ft above the aea. Between two and
three hours are ooasumed m crossing the Llano to the base of the
Then comes the Malpays, xooo ft. in altitude, eonttsting of rough
black lava streams brolaen un into bkicks and stones, laese oeaae
at the Rambleta, the Hp 01 an older crater over whkh the lava
poured before the supr-Ioaf cone of pumice and ashes was thrown
up. The pumice b in such quantity that at a distance it has the
appearance erf snow coating the peak. From twenty to twenty-foor
hours are consumed in ascending the peak and returning to Orouva.
To the north-west of the grand cone, some thousands of feet below
Chahorra, there are many small cones of eruption, showing that
the intennty of vokank action was greatest on this side. East-
ward from the ridge bounding the Pumice«Stonc Plains extends
a chain of mountains to the north<eastem extrenuty of the isbnd.
The highest peaks are Uana (7^74 ft-)* Perejii (6037), and Cuchillo
b no record of eruptions from dther crater of the peak. In
1795 a great quantity of lava was poured out from three vents on
the eastern nde; and in the same year lava atreams issued from a
crater near Guimar. half-way between Santa Cruz and the peak.
In the year 1706 a vent on the north-western side of the peak dis-
charged a copious stream, which flowed down to the sea, and nearly
filled up the harbour of Garachico. For three months in 1798 much
lava and other volcank matter were ejected from orifices to the west
of Chahorra.
SanU Cruz, the capital of Teneriffe and of the Canaries
(pop. 1900, 38,4x9), and La Laguna (x3*o74)» the former capital,
are described in separate articles. A good road connecto SanU
Cruz and OroUva, a town on the north coast 35 m. W.N.W.
It passes through Lsguna sad Mataasa— a place deriving its
name from the overthrow of the invading ^)aniards by the
Guanches m 1494. All trsveUers speak in terms of warm sd-
miration of the scenery in thb part of the island. Date-palms
form a striking feature in the landscapes. The town of Orotava
(pop. 9192) b XQ40 ft above the sea. The houses ate solidly
buHt, but it has a deserted aspect. A stream of water b con«
ducted through every street. The famous dragon-tree, which so
many travellers have described, no longer exbts. Port Orotava,
3 m. N.of the town, is a clean place, with about 4500 inhabiunts.
The streets are broad and the houses well built The roadstead,
protected by a fort and some batteries, affords little or no
shelter against wind. At Icod de los Vinos, a pretty low^ '
6i6
TENIERS
fartber to the west, in & fertile district, is a
U
^ \^V^t, Urceat now existing in the island. The stem
**' '*"?!. !!:»«nd ha» » circumference of 38 ft. and its height is
mur ine gniu» ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ .^ ^ immense cavern, in
IISTk «M^v Guanche bones were found. There are several.
V moiijr importance, principally in the north-west,
other towns ^» '^;^j, jhe highest inhabited place is Chasna,
^ifuiink. the name of a family of Flemish artists who
» ^.K^rj Antwerp and Brussels during the 17th century.
"^hTJ^ -^Niwsrthe ^^"^ (158^x649), was bom at Aiiwerp.
u .?.;. r^*ivcd hU first training in the painter's art from his
Ir.^hw TuUacn he studied under Rubens in Antwerp, and subse-
** Atlv Snd« E^cimer in Rome; he became a member of
?k. Aniwero Bild of painters in x6o6. Though his ambition
^ him at times to try his skill in large religious, historical and
mv4h6lcirical composiUons, his claim to fame depends chiefly
«^; his landscapes and paintings of peasants carousing, of
kcrraesse scenes and the like, which are marked by a healthy
wnse of humour, and which are not infrequently confused with
ihe early works of his son David. There is a Urge painting by
the elder Tcnicrs at St Paul's church in Antwerp, representing
the '• Works of Charity." At the Vienna Gallery are four
landscapes painted by Teniers under the influence of Ebheimer,
find four small mythological subjects, among them " VertumnuS
and Pomona," and "Juno, Jupiter and lo." The National
Gallery has a characteristic scene of village life, " Playing at
Bowb " a " Conversation " of three men and a woman, and
a large "Rocky Landscape." Other examples of his work
arc to be found at the galleries of St Petersburg, Madrid,
Brussels, Munich, Dresden and Berlin (" The Temptation of
St Anthony"). Teniexs also achieved success as a picture
dealer, and is known to have attended the fair of St Germain in
Paris in 1635, with a large number of paintings by himself and
by bis four sons. He died at Antwerp in 1649.
David Teniebs, the younger (1610-1690), the more cele-
brated son of the last-named, almost ranking in celebrity with
Rubens and Van Dyck, was bom in Antwerp on the xsth of
December 1610. Through his father, he was indirectly in-
fluenced by Elsheimer and by Rubens. We can also trace the
influence of Adrian Brouwer.at the outset of his career. There
is no evidence, however, that either Rubens or Brouwer inter-
fered in any way with Teniers's education, and Smith (Catalogue
Raisonni) may be correct in supposing that the admiration
which Biouwer's pictures at one time excited alone suggested
to the younger artist his imitation of them. The only trace of
personal relations having existed between Teniers and Rubens
is the fact that the ward of the bttcr, Anne Breughel, the
daughter of John (Velvet) Breughel, married Teniers in 1637.
Admitted as a "master" in the gild of St Luke in 1632,
Tcuicrs had even before this made the public acquainted with
^ works. The Berlin Museum possesses a group of ladles and
gentlemen dated 163a No spedal signature positively distin-
fjl^hes these first productions from those of his father, and we
^> w>t think it correct to admit with some writers that he first
•vnted religious subjects. Dr Bode, in a remarkable study of
-^rMU«cr and his works, expresses the opinion that Teniers's
.— est ijktures are those found under the signature " Tenier."
■*; •<9' is a Flemish veision of a thoroughly Walloon name,
- <aa:'* which the painter^ grandfather, a mercer, brought
^. . nn wbn he came from Ath in 1558; and Dr Bode's
^ ..^.TtfB s pcttly strengthened by the circumstance that
^.. <i.i« i^ftf^ the dder but his brother Abraham and his four
,^my yr'^ U aacr^ * "in the ledgers of the Antwerp
^. A 2t iMt t-rate works— Che " Prodigal
s» * 4Rii a r the Munich Gallery, as wdl
« -wcye' at dinner, termed the " Five
*««».* • %nth the above signature are
:t{oa attained by the artist
! been scarcely twenty. His
is colour at once gay and
harmonious, ^aagen and Smith agree that the works painted
from 1645 to 1650 testify most highly to the master's abilities;
there is no doubt that a considerable number of eaxlier produc-
tions wotild have been sufficient to immortalize his name. He
was little over thirty when the Antwerp gild of St George
enabled him to paint the masvellous picture which ultimately
found its way to the Hermitage GaUery in Sfr Petersburg—
the " Meeting of the Civic Guards." Coned to the minutest
detail, yet striking in effect, the scene, under the lays of
glorious sunshine, displays an astonishing amount of acquired
knowledge and natural good taste. This painting leads us to
mention another work of the same year (1643), now in the
National Gallery, London, " The Village Fttt " (or " LaftU
aux ckaitdrtms ") (No. 952), an equally beautiful repetition of
which, dated 1646, bek»gs to the duke of Bedford. Truth in
physiognomy, distribution of groups, the beautiful efifect of
light and shade, command our warmest admfiation. A work
like this, says Waagen, stamps its author as the greatest among
painters of his dass. Frankness in expression and freedom in
attitude guided his preference in the choice of a model, but
we may suppose him occasnnally to have exaggerated both.
He seems anxious to have it known that, far froxn indulging
in the coarse amusements of the boors he is fond of painting,
he himself lives in good styb, looks like a gentleman, and behaves
as such. He never seems tired or showing the turrets of his
ch&teau of Perck, and in the midst of rustic merry-making
we often see his family and himself received cap in haiod by the
joyous peasants. We may also observe that he has a certain
number of favourite models, the constant recurrence of whom
is a special feature of his works. We have even met them in a
series of life-size portrait-like figures in the Doria Pamphili
Gallery in Rome.^
Teniers was chosen by the common coimcil of Antweq) to
preside over the gild of painters in 1644. The archduke Leopold
William, who had assumed the government of the Spoish
Netherlands, being a great bver of art, employed Teniers not
only as a painter but as keeper of the collection of pictures he
was then forming. With the rank and title of ' aytida de
camera," Teniers took up his abode in Brussels shortly after
1647. Immense sums were spent in the acquisition of painting
for the archduke. A number of valuable works of the Italian
masters, now in the Vienna Museum, came from Leopold's
gallery after having belonged to Charles I. and the duke of
Buckingham. De Bie (1661) slates that Teniem was some time
in London, collecting pictures for ihe duke of Fuensaldafia,
then acting as Leopold's lieutenant in the Netherlands. Paint-
ings in Madrid, Munich, Vienna and Brussels have enabled art
critics to form an opinion of what the imperial residence a as
at the time of Leopold, who is represented as conducted by
Teniers and admiring some recent acquisition. Ko picture in
the gallery is omitted, every one being inscribed with a number
and the name of its author, so that the ensemble of these paint-
ings might serve as an illustrated inventory of the ooUecimn.*
Still more interesting is a canvas, now in the Munich Galleiy,
where we see Teniers at work in a room of the palace, with an
old peasant as a model and several gentlemen looking on.
When Leopold returned to Vienna, Teniers's task ceased; in
fact, the pictures also travelled to Austria, and a Flemish priest,
himself a first>rate flower painter. Van der Baren, became
keeper of the archducal gallery. Teniers nevertheless remained
in high favour with the new governor-general, Don Juan, a
natural son of Philip IV. The prince was his pupil, and de Bie
tells us he painted the likeness of the painter's son. Honoured
as one of the greatest painters In Europe, Teniers scema to have
made himself extremely miserable through his aristocratic
• Under" the name of Weenrc.
' ft was not until recent year* that the MS. inventory of this col-
lection was discovered among the papers of Prince Schwartaeaben|
in Vienna. It was published in 1883 by Adolf Berger. In i6w
Tenicre published 343 etchings after the best Italian works of Lcopok
William s collection, which, with the portraits of the archduke and
Teniers. were brought together as a voluae ia i^^^o, iindcr the
tick El Teairc de Pittturas,
TENISON
617
_ . Shortly after the death of hit wife In i6s6 he married
babdJa dc Ficn, daughter of the fe^retary of the council of
Brabant, and strove his utmost to prove his right to armorial
bearings. lo a petition to the king he reminded him that the
honour of knighthood had been bestowed upon Rubens and Van
Dyck. The king at last declared his readiness to grant the
request, but on the express condition that Teniers should give
up selling his pictures. The condition was not complied with;
but it may perhaps account for the master's activity in favour
of the foundation in Antwerp of an academy of fine arts to
which only painters and sculptors should be admitted, whereas
the venerable gild of St Luke made no difference between art
and handicraft: carvers, gilders, bookbinders, stood on* an even
footing with painters and sculptors: the separation was not
obtained till 1773. There were great rejoicings in Antwerp
when, on the 26th of January 1663, Teniers came from Brussels
with the royal charter of the academy, the existence of which
was due entirely to his personal initiative.
Teniers died in Brussels on the S5th of April 169a The date
is often wrongly given as 1694 or 1695. A picture in the
Munich Gallery (No. 906), dated x68o, represents him as an
alchemist, oppressed with a burden of age beyond his years.
From this date w^ hear more of his doings as a picture-dealer
than as a painter, which most probably gave birth to the legend
of his having given himself out as deceased in order to get higher
prices for his works. David, his eldest son, a painter of talent
and reputation, died in 1685. One of this third Teniers's
pictures—" St l>ominic Kneeling before the Blessed Virgin,"
dated 1666 — is still to be found in the diurch at Perck. As well
as his father, he contributed many patterns to the celebrated
Brusseb tapestry looms.
Smith's Catahpte RaisonM gives descriptions of over 900 paint-
ings accepted as original productions of Teniers. Few artists ever
worked with greater case, and some of his onaUer |Mcturc»— land-
scapes with fiaure*— ^have been termed "afternoons," not from
their •subjects, but from the time spent in producing them. The
muaeums in Madrid, St Petersburg, Vienna, Munich, Dresden,
Parts. London and Brussels have more than zoo pictures by Teniers.
In the United Kingdom 150 may be found in private hands, and
many other examples are to be met with in private collections
througboBt Europe. Although the spirit of many of these works
is as a whole marvellous, their conscientiousness must be regarded as
questionable. Especially in the later productions, from 1654 onwards
we often detect a lack of eamestoess and of the calm and concentrated
study of nature which alone prevent expression from flegeneiating
into grimace in situations like those generally depicted by Teniers.
His education, and still more his real and assumed pontion m society,
to a great degree account for thia, Brouwer knew more of taverns;
Ostade was more thoroughly at home in cottages and humble dwell-
ings; Tenien. throughout, triumphs in broad daylight, and, though
many of his inter ion may be justly tenned mastcn>icces, they seldom
equal his open-air scenes, where he has. without constraint, given
full play to the bright resources of his luminous palette. In this
respect he often suggests comparisons with Wattcau. But his
subjects taken from the Gospels or sacred leecnd are absurd. An
admirable picture in the Louvre shows " Peter Denying his Master "
next to a table where soldiers are smoking and having a game at
cards. A similar example is the " Deliverance of St Peter from
Prison " of which two versions, curiously altered, are in the Dresden
Gallery and the Wallace Collection. He likes going back to subjects
illustrated two centuries before by lerome Bosch — thcf " Temptation
of St Anthony." the " Rich Man in Hell." incantations and witches —
(or the simple purpose of assembling the most comic apparitions.
His villagers arink, play bowls, dance and sin^; they seldom
quarrel or fight, and. if they do, seem to be shammmg. This much
may be said of Teniers, that no painter shows a more enviable
abioty to render a conception to his own and other people's satis-
factkm. His works have a technical freshness, a straigntforward-
m-ss in means and intent, which make the study of them most
delightful; as Sir Toshua Reynolds says, they are worthy of the
closest attention oiany painter who deures to escd in the mechani-
cal knowledce of his art.
As an etcher Tenters compares very unfavourably with Ostade,
Cornelb, Bcga and Dueart. More than 500 plates were made from
his pictures; and, if it be true that lx)uis aIV judged his " baboons "
{maf^ots) unworthy of a place in the royal collections, they found
admirable engravers in France — ^Le Bas and bis scholars — ^and
passionate admirers. The duke of Bedford's admirable specimen
was sold for 18,010 livres (£1 860) in 1 768. The " Prodigal Son." now
in the Louvre, fetched 50,000 livres (£3095) in 1776. Smith's
highest estimates have loog since been greatly eace eded . The
"Archers" In St Petersburg he givea as worth £aooQ. The
Belgum government gave Aooo in 1867 for the " Village Pastoral "
of 1652, which is now in the Brussels Museum: and a picture of
t^k^ <' Pr<w4:<Ml Cam" m.^, ■ --' *--- -- • • • . •■^» -
the " Prodigal Son," scarcely 16 by a8 inches, fetched £5280 in
1876.
Althouah van Tilborgh, who was a scholar of Teniers in Brussels,
followed his style with some success, and later paintere often ex-
celled in figure-painting on a small scale, Tenien cannot be said to
have formed a school. Properly speaking, he is the last repre-
sentative of the great Flemish traditions of the 17th century.
See T. Smith, A Catalotue RaisonnS of the Works of tke most
Eminent Dutch, FUmuh and French Painters; lohn Vcnnoelcn,
Notkc kisiorigue sur David Teniers et sa JamiUe; L. Galcsloot,
Otuigues renseiptements sur la famille de P. P. Rubens et U df^bs
de David Tenters and Un procks de Daoid Teniers el la eerporaiian
des peintres A BruxeUes; Alph. Wauters; Histoire des emnrons de
BruxeOes and Les tapisseries bruxelMses; F. T. Van der Brandem.
Cesckiedenis der AiUwerpscke SckOderschcd: Max Rooscs, Gesckichte
der Malersckule Antwerpens; W. Bode, Adriaen Brouwer, ein Bild
seines Lebens nnd seines Schaffens. (H. H. ; P. G. K.)
TEMISOlf, THOMAS (x636>i7X5), En^ish archbishop, was
bom at Cottenham, Cambridgeshire, on the 39th of September
1636. He was educated at the free school, Norwich, whence
he entered Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, as a schohir on
Archbishop Parker's foundation. He graduated in 1657, and
was chosen fellow in 1659. For a short time he studied medicine,
but in 1659 ^u privately ordained. As vicar of St Andrew-
the-Great, Cambridge, he was conspicuous for his devoted
attention to the sufferers from the plague. In 1667 he was
presented to the living of Holywell-cum-Needingworth, Hunting-
donshire, by the earl of Manchester, to whose son he had been
tutor, and in 1670 to that of St Peter's Mancroft, Norwich. In
1680 he received the degree of D.D., and was presented by
Charles 11. to the important cure. Of St Martin's-ip-the-Field».
Tenison, according to Gilbert Burnet, " endowed schools, set
up a public library, and kept many curates to assist him In his
indefatigable labours." Being a Strenuous opponent of the
Church of Rome, and " Whitehall lying within that parish, he
stood as in the front of the battle all King James's reign." la
1678, in a Disccurse, of Idolatry, he bad endeavoured to fasten
the practices of heathenish idolatry on the Church of Rome,
and in a sermon which he published in 168 x on Discretion in
Giving Alms was attacked by Andrew Ptdton, head of the
Jesuits In the Savoy. Tenison's reputation as an. enemy of
Romanism led the duke of Monmouth to send for him before
his execution in 1685, when Bishops Ken and TUmer refused
to administer the Eucharist; but, although Tenison spoke to
him in " a softer and less peremptory manner " than the two
bishops, he was, like them, not satisfied with the sufficiency
of Monmouth's penitence. Under William III., Tenison was in
X689 named a member of the ecclesiastical commission appointed
'to prepare matters towards a reconciliation of the DisseiiterB,
the revision of the liturgy being specisily entrusted to him. A
sermon which he preached on the commission was published
the same year. He preached a funeral sermon on Nell Gwyn
(d. 1687) In which he represented bet as truly penitent— a
charitable judgment which did not meet with universal approval.
The general liberah'ty of Tenison's religious views commended
him to the royal favour, and, after being made bishop of Lincoln
in 1691, he was promoted to the primacy in December 1694.
He attended Queen Mary during her last illness and preached
her funeral sermdn in Westminster Abbey. When William in
1695 went to take command of the army in the Netherlands,
Tenison was appointed one of the seven lords justices to whom
his authority was delegated. Along with Burnet he attended
the king on his death-bed. He crowned Queen Anne, but
during her reign was not in much favour at court. He was a
commisMoner for the Union with Scotland in 1706. A strong
supporter of the Hanoverian svccesaon, be was one of the three
officers of state to whom on the death of Anne was entrusted
the duty of appointing a regent tiU the arrival of George I.,
whom he crowned on the 31st of October 17x4. Tenison died
at London on the 14th of December 1715.
Besides the sermons and tracts above mentioned, and various
others on the " Popish " controversy, Tenison was the author of
The Owed ef Mr Hibba r ' ''
( Maittmimd (1670) and Bacoma, or Certain
cd
sneten
asons/*
6i6
4006 mhabiUnts, farther to the west, in ft fertile district, is a
dragon-tree, the largest now existing in the island. The stem
near the ground has a dicumference of 38 ft. and its height is
upwards of 60 ft. Near the town is an immense cavern, in
which many Guanche bones were found. There are several
other towns of less importance, principally in the north-west
not far from the coast. The highest inhabited place is Cbasn
on a plain more than 4000 iL above the sea, to the south of T
peak. See also Canaky Islands.
TENXBRS, the name of a family of Flemish artists
flourished at Antwerp and Brussels during the X7th centuT>'
David Teniebs, the elder (1582-1649), was born at Ar*
Having received his first training in the painter's art f-
brother Juliaen, he studied cmder Rubens in Antwerp, ai
quently under Elsheimer in Rome; he became a vr
the Antwerp gild of painters in t6o6. Thou|^ hi^
led him at times to try his skill in large religious, hi
m3rthoIogica] compositions, his claim to fame de[
on his landscapes and paintings of peasants
kermesse scenes and the like, which are markec^
sense of humour, and which are not infrequent!'
the early works of his son David. There is a 1
the elder Teniers at St Paul's church in Ant'
the " Works of Charity." At the Vienna
landscapes painted by Teniers under the inf
and four small mythological subjects, amor
and Pomona," and " Ju^^o, Jupiter anf'
Gallery has a chaiacteristic scene of vil
Bowls," a " Conversation " of three r
a large " Rocky Landscape." Other
are to be found at the galleries of
Brussels, Munich, Dresden and Ber
St Anthony"). Teniers also ach-
dealer, and is known to have atten-
Paris in 1635, with a large numbt
by his four sons. He died at Ant^
Davd Tenters, the younge
brated son of the last-named, .
Rubens and Van Dyck, wa-
December 1610. Through
fluenced by Ebheimer and
influence of Adrian Brouwr
is no evidence, however, •
fered in any way with T<
Raisonni) may be cor
which Brouwer's picl\'
to the younger artisr '
personal relations ha
i% the fact that tii
daughter of John
Admitted as a '
Teniers had evct
bis works. Thf
gentlemen dat<
guishes these
do not thfnl'
painted rclf
Brouwer -
earliest \\
Tipnier I-
"Taisr
with I
supfv ^
not ■
TENIH:!^ tiSSBNT
in hot
.,j); Palm-
rs of Poesy,"
^xtic fame in
' These poems
<r tongue and a
jk gnicef ul vigour
^tifuUy displayed
^y of the master-
^^^^(fjcan language. He
\^ lot learning alien
* vctign lyrics into dear,
'*','* Kate's versatility in
'^ extended from Tasso
J, Hugo, Milton, Tennyson
^J^erdam on the 34th of
ygilished after his death in
^4J;jS), Scottish industrial
"^yyiJhire, on the 3rd of May
** A hieacher at Damley, and in
* ^ l^Acb liquor formed by passing
' ^ water. This produrt had
,^ the Eau de Javelles, then
' "t^^ base, lime, was substituted for
^''^ when he attempted to protect
"^^^ his patent was held invalid on
^'Im specification was incomplete and
"xv* anticipated at some bleach- wocks
" ^«^ be patented a more convenient
*^^^x or " chloride of lime," formed by
^ 4* slaked lime, and for its manufacture
^ i^eo the well-known St Rollox chemical
^ \ht United Alkali Company. He died
^.. ji^B-master, Sir Charles Tennant (1833-
w CJ*^^ ^^ ^^78 to x88o and for Peebles
1^ to x886i be was created a baronet in
Si
/,*a,-,8j5)^ English chemist, was
th of November 1761. He
irgh in 1781, but in a few
ire he devoted himself to
ed M.D. at Cambridge in
vied an estate near Cheddar,
experiments. He was ap-
ttbridge in 1813, but lived
*''«^fS ^^^''^ ^'''^^^'^^ **^ '"'W «^
«»n^. ^'^'^nri^xs by tlwiali of a bridge over which
a»i Wsclii? *^** * """^ *^ "®^ promise than perform-
tadhua a&rf ***«v«nent was the discovery of the ck-
ttidn o£n? *^»*«. wbich he found in the Ksidues from
fof theiAf^"" ^^ ^'***>- ^^ *^ contributed to
AKT Wirf?^'^ of diamond and chareoaL
1 ontht^^ (1784-1848), Scouish scholar and poet,
He wta I. ^ ,*' ^^y '7^ *^ Anstrulher Easter. Fife-
rsitvlrT?*/'?" chiWhood. His father sent him to
his i#.. ^V^***^**' **>"* ^ remained for two years,
, aor T? ^*. ^"^"^ "^^ *o <^°« 0^ Ws biothi«r«
. «nri 1? r* ^^^ ^* ^ mastered Hebrew aa weU as
-nik h^rii.*^ ^? ''"^y ^^ ^^" ^«»^ bore fruit in
.nock-bcroic poem of AnsUr Pair (i8ia), whkb cave an
ising account of the marriage of " Maggie Lauder." the
.romc of the popuUr Scottish ballad. It was written in the
citava ri»w adopted a few years later by " the ingem'oua hrothen
Whistlecraft" Qohn Hookham Freii). and tum^ to such
brilliant accotrnt by Byron in Don Juan, The poem, un-
hackneyed m form, fuU of fantastic classical aUusions applied
to the simple story, and brimming over with humour, had an
immediate success. Tennant'a brother, meanwhile, bad failed
in business, and the poet became in 1812 schoolmaster of the
parish of Dunino. near St Andrews. From this he was pro-
moted (18x6) to the school of Lasswade, near Edinburgh; from
that (X819) to a mastership in Dollar academy; from that (1834),
by Lord Jeffrey, to the professorship of oriental languages in
St Andrews. The Thane of Fife (xSaa), shows the same
humorous invagination as Anster Pair, but the subjert was more
remote from general interest, and the poem fell flat. He also
wrote a poem in the Scottish dialect, Papistry Stormed (1827);
two historical dramas. Cardinal Beaton (1823) and John Baliei
(1825); and a series of Hebrew Dramas (1845), founded on
incidents in Bible history. He died at Devon Grove, on the
14th of February 1848.
A Memoir of Tennant by M. F. Connolly was published in !86t.
TENNBMANK. WILHBLM GOTTUEB (176X-X819), German
historian of philosophy, was bom at Erfurt. Educated at his
native town, he became lecturer on the history of philosophy
at Jena in 1788. Ten years later he became professor at the
same university, where he remained till X804. His great work
b an eleven-volume history of philosophy, which he began at
Jena and finished at Marburg, where he was professor of philo-
sophy from 1804 till his death. He was one of the numerous
German. phik>sophers who accepted the Kantian theory as 'a
revelation.
In 181 2 he published a shorter history of phitcMOphy. whfch was
translated into Lnglish in 1852 under the title Manual (^ the History
of Philosophy. '
TENNBNT, SIR JAMBS EMERSON. Bakt. (X804-X869),
English politician and traveller, the third ton of William
Emerson, a merchant of Belfast, was born there on tiie 7th of
April 1804. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin,
of which he afterwards became LL.D. He took up the cause of
Greek independence, and travelled in Greece, publishing n
Picture of Greece (1826), Letters from the Aegean (x8»o), and a
History of Modern Greece (1830) rand he was called to the English
bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1831. In this year he married the
daughter and co-heiress (with her cousin, Robert Jamea Tennent,
M.P. for Belfast, x848-s») of WOham Tennent, a w-ealthy
merchant at Belfast, who died of cholera in x83a, and he
adopted by royal licence the name of his wife fn addition to
his own. He entered parliament in 1832 as membM for Belfast.
In X841 he became secretary to the India Board, and in 164s he
was knighted and appointed colonial secretary of Ceylon, where
he remained till 1850. The result of his residence there ap>
peared in Christianity in Ceylon (1850) and Ceyian, Physical,
Historieal and Topographical (2 vols., X859). On hia leturxk,
he became member for Lisbarn, and under Lord Derby was
secretary to the Poor Law Board in 1852. From 1852 till 1867
be was permanent secretary to the Board of Trade, and on hia
TENNESSEE
619
retirement he receivsd a baronetcy from Lord Palmerston. In
his eady yean his political views had a Radical tinge, and,
ahhou^ he subsequently joined the Tories, his Conservatism
was of B mild type. He withdrew from the Whigs along with
Lord Stanley and Sir James Graham, and afterwards adhered
• Peel. He died in London on the 6th of March 1S69. His
'v consisted of two daughteia and a son, Sir William
1 Tenncnt, 2nd baronet (1835-1876), who was an official
r<\ of Ttade, and at whose death the baronetcy be-
W^ above mentioned, Enwtson Tennent wrote
}i), and Wine; its Duties and Taxaiion (1855).
r to magazines and a frequent correspondent
(H.Ch.)
!h Central state of the United States of
.g between latitude 35* and latitude 36** 40'
vngitude 81' 37' and longitude 90* 28' W. It
the N. by Kentucky and Virginia along a line
.^e of erroneous surveys, varies considerably, east
.inesace river, from the intended boundary— the line
^(ie 36* 30^ N. — the variations all being measured to the
of that parallel; on the E. by North Carolina along
. line of the crest of the culminating ridge of the Vnaka
.fountains till within a6 m. of the Georgia frontier, where it
turns due south, giving to Tennessee a triangular piece of territory
which should have belonged to North Carolina; on the S. by
Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi along the 35th parallel of
N. lat.; on the W. by the Mississippi river which separates
it from Arkansas and Missouri. The extreme length of the
sute from E. to W. Is 432 m., and the extreme breadth is
109 m. iU area being 42,022 sq. m., of which 335 sq. m. is
water auifaoe.
Physical Features. — ^Tennessee is traversed in the east by the
Unaka Ridgca of the Older Appalachian Mountains and by the
Great Appalachian Valley; in the middle by the Cumberland
Plateau, the Highkind Rim Plateau, and the Nashville Basin of
the Appalachian Plateau; and in the west by the Gulf Coostal
Plaina and a nanow atrip of the Mississippi Flood Plain. From a
maxiroun devatkm of 6636 ft. at Mount Guyot on the North
Carolina bonier, in Sevier county, the surface descends to 117 ft.
or ieaa on the MtaaiaBippi Flood Plain in the S.W. corner of the
state -The general slope, however, is west by north. About 1700
«]. m. are at kait aooo ft. above the sea. but 28,200 sq. m. are
loa than tooo ft. above the sea, and the mean elevation of the state
m approadoMtely 9m ft. The Unaka Mountains, which occupy
a belt 8 to ID m. wide along its E. border, are a series of somewhat
irregular ridges developed mi complexly folded and faulted crystalline
rocio. Sixteen peaks exceed 6000 fL in height. They are Mount
Guyot (6636 ft.), Clingman Dome (6619 ft.), Mount Le Conte
2613 ft.). Mount Curtis (6568 ft.). Mount Safford (6^ ft.),
ouat Love (6443 ft.). Mount Henry (6373 ft.). Roan Mountain
(6313 ft.). Lnftce Knob (6233 ft.). Peck Peak (623a ft.). Raven
KnobJ6a30 ft.). Mount Collins (6188 ft.). Tricorner Knob (6188
ft.), Tl i eiinouieter Knob (6 ' - '-
and Master Knob (6013 ft.).
I T«
Knob (6157ft.), Otonce Mountain (6135' ft.).
" '' ^ That port of the Great AppaLcI '
Valley which travenes Tenneawe is cbmmonljr known as the Valley
of East Tenncsaee. It consists of parallel ridaes and valleys de-
veloped by erosion on folded sandstones, shales and limestones.
the valley quality predominating bocauae the weak limestones
were ol graat thickness. The valley areas vary in heieht from
600 ft. in the south-west to 1000 ft. in the north-cast. In the north-
cast the ridges are more numerous and hieher than in the south-
west, where White Oak Rid^ and Tavlor s Mountain are among
the hiefaast. although Missionary and Chickamai^a Ridges arc
better known, because of their associatbn with battles of the Civil
War. Along the north-west border of the valley a steep escarpment.
known as tneCumberland Scarp, rises to the Cumberland Plateau.
This plateau has a mean elevation of about 3000 ft., is only slightly
rallinff. and slopes gently toward the north-west. The W. edge of
tbe plateau is much broken by deep indentations of stream valleys.
and drops suddenly downward about 1000 ft. to the Highland Rim
Plateau, so named from the scarp formed by its western rim about
the NashviWe and (farther north) Louisville basins. It is Benerally
levd except where it is cut by river valleys. The Nashville Basin,
with a more rallinr soriace, lies for the most i>art 400 to 600 ft. below
the Rim; a few hiUs or ridges, however, rise to the level of the.
Rim. The Basin is elliptical in form, extending nearly across
the state from N.E. to S>W.. with an extrense width of about 60 ra. :
near its centre is thecity of Marfrecsbonx and Nashville Kes in the
north-west. Westward from the Lower Tennessee river the surfac*
of the East Cul! Coajtal Plain rises rapidly to the sammit of a
brokcfi cucsu or ridge and then descends gently and terminates
abruptly in a bluff overiooking the Minissippi Flood Plain. The
E. dope, about one-fourth the length of the W. slope, is steep and
rocky, and the W. slope is broken by the valleys of numerous streams.
The bluff, 150 to 200 ft in height, traverses the iUte in a rather
straight course and between it and the meandering MiarisEippi,
except at a few points where the latter touches it, lie low bottom
lands varying in width according to the bends of the river and
containing numerous swamps and ponds. In the northern portion,
principally in Lake county, is Rodfoot Lake, which occupies a
depression formed during an earthquake in 1811, It Is 18 nu long,
has a maximum width 013 m., and is the only large lake in the state.
The whole of the Appalachian Province of Tennessee and the
southern portion of the Cumberland Plateau, the Highland Rim.
and the Lowland Basin are drained southward and westward
by the Tennessee river and its tributaries. The valley of the Lower
Tennessee i» drained northward by the same river. Tbe northern
portion of the Cumberland Plateau. Highland Rim. and Lowland
Basin are drained northward and westward by the Cumberland
river and its tributaries. The western slope of the East Gulf PbunS
is drained directly into the Mississippi by several snuill streams.
Faunc^A few black bean inhabit the Unaka Mountain region.
Deer are quite numerous in the forests of the east half of the state.
The wolf, fox, lynx (** wildcat "), otter, mink and beaver have
become rare; Squirrels, rabbity wood-chucks, skunlo, muskrats
and opossums are common. Among game^binds there are a few
wild turkeys, wild geese and bob-white (locally " partridge "), and
greater numbers of grouse and various ducks; among song-birds
the robin, bluebird and mocking-bird are common; and there are
also woodpeckers, whippoorwilla, blackbirds, hawks, owls, crows
and bunards. There are a few speckled trout in the mountain
streams, but the commoner fish are baas, pel%h. catfiah. crappies.
pike, drum buffalo, carp, suckers and eels. Rattlesnakes an^
moccasins, or cottonrooutns, both venomous, are occasionally seen.
F/ora.— Originally the state was well covered with forests, and
about one-hall of it is still woodland containing a laige variety of
trees. On the mountains the trees are chiefly pines, firs, spruce
and hemlock. In the swamps of the western part of the sUte.
especially on the Mississippi Flood Plain, the cypress is dominant.
In the Lowland Basin small rroves of what was once an extensive
forest of red cedar remain. Ptoplar and larch are much more abun-
dant in the western than in the eastern half of the state, and pine
is much more abundant in the eastern than in the western half.
But in most parts of the state there are mixed forests of white oak,
red oak. ash. red gum. bbck gum, maple, hkkory, chestnut, syca-
more, magnolia, tidip tree, cherry, pecan, walnut, elm, beech, locust
and perdmmon. Birch, mulbeiiy, linden, willow, bass-wood,
dogwood, the sorrel tree, pawpaw and wild plum are common.
There are a few varieties of the rare shittimwood tree (Bumeita
lanufinosa). Among indigenous shrubs and vines are the hazel,
blackberry, gooseberry, whortleberry, huckleberry, grape and
cranberry. Blue grass is indigenous in the Lowland Basin. Of
numerous medicinal herbs ginseng is the most important.
Climate. — ^Tennessee is noted for its delightful cKmate. The
mean summer temperature ranges according to elevation from
62* F. on the Unaka Mountains to 72* on the Cumberiand Phteau,
to 75* in the Valley of East Tennessee and on the Highland Rim.
to 77* in the Lowland Basin, and to about 78* on the East Gulf
Plains. But the mean winter temperature for each of these divisions
varies little from 38*, and the mean annual temperature ranges only
from 57* in East Tennessee to 58* in Middle Tennessee ana to 60*
in West Tennessee. The altitude being the same, the mean annual
temperature on tbe south bocder of the state is about a* higher
than that on the north border. Usually the highest temperatures
of the year are in July and the lowest in January. In some regions
there is no record of a temperature as high as 100*; in others there
is none as low as -to*; and the average absolute range is about
90*. However, during a period of fifty-four years (1854-1908) the
records show a ranee of extremes from -30* at Erasmus. Cumber-
land county, in February 1899, to 107* at several places in July
1 901. Rarely there are killine frosts, esfxrially in the southern
and western parts of the state from the third week in April to the
middle of October. An average annual prcctpttatien of about 50 in.
is quite eoually distributed over the state and a little more than
one-half of it is well distnbuted through the spring and summer
months. The avtra^ annual sno^K-fall is about 8 in., and the
snowfalls are usually light and melt within a few days. The avera^
number of clear, fair, or only partly cloudy days during a year in
Tennessee is 260. The warm, moisture-bearing winds blow low
from tbe south or south-west with a free sweep across the state in
a direction nearly parallel with the trend of the mountains. Above
these arc upper currents from the north or north-west. The com-
mingling of the two currents gives rise frequently to westerly and
occasionally to easterly winds. The awrage velocity of the winds
is comparatively low and violent storms arc rare.
5<»j7.— The Lowland Basin, the less elevated parts of the Valley
of East Tennessee, and parts of the outer portion of the Highland
Rim have a fertile limestone soil. The deep deposit of silt on the
Mississippi Flood Plain is even more fertile. There are narrow
strips of rich alluvium along many other rivers. The s^*'
620
TENNESSEE
-ses ana cattle, i oe
1st of January ipio
935.670,000; milch
le. $8,3i6,ooa
mountains. 00 the ridges of the Valley of Ea«^ Tennessee, and on
the £. slope of the East Gulf Plains vary greatly according to the
rocks from which they are derived. In the Cumberland Plateau* in
the toner portion of the Highland Rim, and in the W. slopae of the
East Gulf Plains there is for the most part a light sandy soil, much
of it too poor for cultivation.
A gncviturt.— The total area of farms in the state in 1900 traa
20,343.058 acres, of which about one-half was classed as " improved."
Tlie average size was 90*6 acres, and the average number -of acres
of improved land per farm was 45*6. Of the total farm acreage
68*8 per cent, was held or operated by owners or part owners,
9*4 percent, by cash tenants, 17-4 per cent, b/ share tenants, and
the remainder under miscdlaneous tenure. Some 15*1 per cent.
of all the farms were operated by coloured farmers; who in 1899
produced 33-3 per cent, of the agricultural products of the state,
fliot fed to live stock. The total value of farms, including buildings,
was $365,150,750 (the value of buildings being 33*8 per cent, of
the total); in acklilion implements and machinery valued at
If 5^33,670 were employed. The principal products and their values
in 1909 were: wheat, 8,330,000 busheU (§9.568,000): Indian
corn, 78.6«MX>o bushels (S55«o^5.ooo) ; o^ts, 4,000 fioo bushels
(|3, 1 30.0001; cotton, 240,000 bales; tobacco, 53>390>ooo lb,
($4,156,630). The average yield per acre in 1909 was, of wheat
IO-4 bushels, of Indian com 22 bushels, of cotton (1908) 3i8 lb,
of tobapco 730 lb. Cotton is not raised to any extent except in
the rich alluvia] land of the Mississippi Valley. Tennessee ranked
fifth among the tobacco-growing sutes in 1899 and fourth in 1900.
C^nsideraUe areas in the central part of the state are admirably
adapted for grazing and the raising of fine horses and cattle. The
value of live stock on farms and ranges on the 1st ' '
was as follows, hcfses. $36,288,000; mules, $
cows, $8,828,000; other cattle, $7,797,000; swine.
J/iiMfif.— Previous to the close of the Civil War (1865) mining
had been carried on upon a comparatively small scale, but im-
mediately there^ter attention was attracted to the extensive and
valuable deposits of cosl and iron ore, and their development was
begun on a large scale. The minerals of most commcrdad im-
portance are coal, iron oies, copper ores, marble and phosphate
rock.
About $000 sa. m., or almost one-eighth of the area of the state.
Is underlaid by the coal measures, which occupy a belt in the Cumber-
land Plateau from 50 to 70 m. wide extending entirely across the
easteriy part of the state in a north-easteriy, south-westerly direction.
The coal is of the soft or " bituminous " kind, generally of excellent
quaUty, and much of it suiuble for conversion into gas and coke, of
which latter 468,093 long tons were produced in 1905. The mining
of coal in the state has developed rapidly in co>^pexion with the
notable expan&ion of the iron and steel industries of the SoQth.
In 1908 the product was 6,199.171 tons, valued at $7,118,490.
Iron ore is found and has been mined in many places in the state.
The deposits of most commercial importance are the Umonites and
brown henuitites found west of the Cumberland Plateau, and the
fosMliferoos red hematite which crops out along the eastern base
of that plateau. In the cariy history of Tennessee iron of superior
quality was produced, in amaA\ charcoal furnaces, from the brown
hematites of the central part of the sute. A little later, considerable
quantities of this iron were shipped and marketed at Pittsburg.
After the dose of the Civil War (1865) the iron resources of the
state attracted renewed attention, partKularly the brown and red
hematita, and large aiMl modem furnaces were erected in the
Chattanooca daitrict to reduce these ores. The output of iron ore
was 874.543 tons (valued at $1,123.5^7) «n »9<», when Tennessee
ranked fifth among the iron ore producing states. Owing to the
industrial depression following IQ07 the output was only 635.343
tons, valued at $876,007, in 1008.
The only copper mines of irufustrial importance are the Ducktown
mines in the extreme south-eastern corner of the state. Copper
has been mined here ance 1847, and notwithstanding the difficulties
of transportation throus^ a rough mountain region, mines were
rapidly developed, and fa 1855 over 14,000 tons of ore, worth more
than a million dollars, were, marketed. These mines were the
prindpal source of the supply of copper for the Confederate States
is Knox coonty, the deposiu extendiiic toiithward into Ceoqn.
Those marbles are of a distinctive character, being usually mottled
in bright shades of red. pink, chocolate and grey. They are em-
ployed principally for interior decoration, and were thus largely
used in the capitol at Nashville and in the National CapiioT at
Washington. Systematic quarrying of these marbles was begun as
eariy as 18^8. ami the output of the quarries has constantly increased
since the ClvQ War.
In 1908 Tennessee prod u ced 179 on. of fine gold and 57*696 oza.
of fine silver, a part of each coming, as a by-product, from the copper
refineries. Zinc ore is mined on a small scale in the eastern part
of the state, the product in 1908 being 341 short tons of metallic zinc
valued at $33,054. Among the other minerals found and reined to
a limsted extent are lead, manganese, baryta, fiuorspar, slate, granite
and petroleum. The total value of all minerals was $19,377,031
in 1008.
Manufactures. — ^To an unusual degree the natural resources of the
state supply the raw material for its manufactures. The ownership
of industrial establishments is largdy in the hands of individuals,
firms, and comparatively small corporations, rather than of large
combinations, the average capital per establi^ment in 1905 being
about $33,ooa The amount of capital invested in manufacturing
in 1880 was $30,093,845. and the value of the products «-as
^37.074.886. In 1905 capitalization (under the factory system)
had increased to $103439481, and value of products to $137.960476.
This rapid industrial growth has been due m no small degree to the
grtAt natural resources o( the state and its excellent transportarioa
facilities. Judged by the value of products, regardless of cost of
materials used, the flour and grist mill industry ranked first in
190^ ($25,350,758). Second in importance was the timber and
lumber imiustiy and lumber products ($31,580,130.)
The state has always held an important jJace in the iron and
steel industry. The capital invested in blast furnaces in 1905 was
$5,939,783* they employed i486 persons, and the value of their
products was $3,438,049. The foundries and machine shops of the
state had a capital of $5,516.45^ they gave employment to over
4000 persons, and the value of their products was $6,946.56^.
These figures are exclusive of the numerous and large railway repair
shops, the value of whose products was $5,839,445.
The manufacture of leather is another important industrv.
Large tanneries were attracted to the state, soon after the Chil
War, by the abundaixre of tan bark in the forests, and the cheapness
of labour. In 1905 $4,013,389 was invested in the mannfacture
of leather, and the producU were valued at $3,583,871.
In 1905 the textile industry had an invested capital of $$.$83,133,
and a product valued at $6,895,303. The manufacture of cotton
goods was the chief sub-division of the industry, employing 153.375
spindles, 3008 looms and 1787 knitting machines.
The printing and publishing industry of the state had an invested
capital of $44o8,5&i and products valued at $5,o63,58a The manu-
facture of malt and distilled liquors employed (1905) a capital of
$3,230,899, and the value of the product was $3400,356. Anaoog the
other important manufacturing industries of the state aitd che value
of their products in 1905 are: men's clothing, $3,961,581: patent
medkines, $3,680,610; cotton-seed oil and oil cake, $3,743,937;
tobacco, $404,241 ; artificial ice, $737,363; agricuhnral impitTnents,
$768,895; and coke, $809,801.
TranspcrUUitm, — The railway mileage of Tennessee increased
from 1353 m. in i860 to 3184 in 1900, and ^80 on the 1st of January
1909. The principal railways operating in the state in 1910 were
the Louisville & Nashville, the Nashville. Chattanooga ft St Louis,
the Qncinnati Southern and the SoutheriL Hie navigable water*
ways include the Mississippi river (which forms the western boundary
of the state); the Tennessee river, navigable throughout its length,
from Knoxville; and the Cumberland river, lUNigable throughout
its length in the state. ChatUnooga. Knoxville. Memphis and
NashviUe are ports of entry.
Populatum. — The total population in 1880 was 1,543^359; in
1890, 1,767,518; in 1900, 2,030,616; and in 1910, 3,184,789.* Of
the total population in 1900, 1,523,600 were native whites.
17,746 were foreign-bom, 480,343 were negroes, 108 were
Indians, 75 were Chinese and 4 were Japanese. Of the in-
habitants bom in the United States 38,561 were bora in Georgia,
36,053 in Kentucky, 38405 in North Carolina, 37,709 in AU-
bama, and 35,953 in Virginia. Oi the foreign-bbra 4569 were
Gcnnans, 3373 were Irish and 3307 were En^ish. Of the total
population 59,033 were of foreign parentage — i.r. either or.c
or both parents were foreign-bom — and 11,164 were of German,
9368 of Irish and 3533 of English parentage on both the falhei s
and the mother's side. Of the total population of the state m
1906, 697,570 were members of religious denominations. There
'The populations in other census years were n followa: firoo).
35.691: (1800). 105.603: (1810). 361.727: (1820). 433333: (I^30).
M1.904: (1840), 839.310: (1850). 1.003.717; (i860). i.io9.boi;
(1870). i.3S$.S3a
Enfili-wh SJiIrt
o 5 lo JO yo 4 jp
Hailmat*
G Lonfiitudc WfM Vof GrrrnwiL-h H
TBMNESmS
trat
«tfle 977,170 BufOtth 141 1396 Methodiali, 79i537 '^m^
terians, 56^15 Disciples of Cbrbt, 17,3$^ Roman Catbolics,
7874 Ftotestant Epkcopalians, 3225 LuUierans, 2875 United
Bntbnaand 1446 CoiBsitgationalut&. Fsom i8go to 1900 the
wbaa popubtfoa (ie. the population of places having 4000
inliabitants or more) increased from 2x9,793 to 385,886, or
50- X per cent., the semi-urban population {tje. the population of
incorpomted places, or the appnnimate equivalent, having
las than 4000 inhabitants) incstaaed fiom 87,351 to 114^837,
xo-9 per cent of the total increase in population; vrbOe the
rural population {i.e. population outside of incoTporated places)
increased from 1,460^75 to x,$X9p8g3, 63 p» cent, of the total
The pxinctpal citiea of the state, witli population for 1910, are
Memphis, I3x,x05; Nashville, 1x0,364; ChatUnooga, 441604 and
Knoxvflle, 36,346.
G0ecr«m«ii<.— Tennessee has had three constitutions, but the
porescnt one, adopted in 1870, is a reproduction of the aeooad
(1834) with only a few changes. Amendments may be proposed
not oftener than once in six yeazs by a majority of the members
elected to each house of the legislature, but before they can be
adopted they must be agseed to first by two-thirds of the
members elected to each house of the next succeeding legis-
lature, and later by a majority of all the citizens of the state
voting for representatives at the next regular election. The
kgialatin* may, also, submit to the people the question of call-
ing a convention to amend or revise the constitution, and such
a convention must be called whenever, upon the submission of
this proposition, a majority of the votes are cast in favour of it.
Every attempt to amend or revise the present constitution has,
however, been uHsucccKf uL The right of saff rage is given to every
male dtizcn of the United Sutes who has attained the age of
twenty-one years and has been a resident of the state for one
year, provided he has paid his poll tax and has not been cod>
victed of bribery, hiroeny or other infamous crime. The eko-
tion of the governor, members of the General Assembly and
congressmen is held biennially, in even numbered years, on the
fizst Tuesday after the first Monday in Kovember, but the
election of judicial and county officm is held on the first
Thunday in August.
The governor is the only itate executive officer who is elected by
the people. He is elected for a term of two years and is not digibte
tot more than three conaecuttve tcnns. He must be at least thirty
jrears of age and have beca a citizen of the state for the last seveo
years before election. Although commander-iorcluef (A the itate
lorcet, he may call the militia into service only when there is a rebellion
or an invasion acul the General A&scmbly declares that the public
safety reauires it. The officers of the penitentiary and of the reforma-
tory lor ooys are authorized to advise the governor with respect to
an appUcatioa for the (>ardon ot an inmate of their institution, but
be is not bound by their advice and there is no real restriction on
his pqwer to pardon except that he is not permitted to pardon in
cases of impeachment. Among the more important officers ap-
poiated by the s^overnor are the superintendent of public inttruo*
tion, the commisstoner of agriculture, statistics and mines, an asnyer,
state entomologist, and omcers of the penitentiary. The governor
may v«:to bills passed by the General Assembly, but to override
his veto the vote of only a bare majority of the members dected to
each hoase is required. The governor's salary is I4000 a year.
There is no lieutenant-governor; in case of a vacancy in the office
of governor the speaker of the Senate becomes acung go\'ernor.
The secretary of state, the comptroller, and the treasurer arc cVccted
by a ioint ballot of the Senate and the House of Rc(>resenutivc8
each lor a term of two years; the attomey»generaI u appointed
by the judges of the supreme court for a term of eight years.
Both senators and representatives are elected for a term of two
years by counties or by districts having approximately, the same
population. The number of representatives is limited by the con-
stitution to 99|. aad the number of senators to one-third toe number
of representatives. The qualifications prescribed for senators and
representatives are that they shall have been citizens of the state for
three years and residents of the county or district they arc to repre-
sent for one year immediately preceding the election, and that
•enators shall be at least thirty years of age. The legislature meets
biennially, in odd numbered years, on the first Monday in Januan^,
aad the length of the session is limited by a provision that tne
members shall be paid four dollars a day, besides an allowance for
travelltng expenses, not to exceed 7$ days; whenever the governor
calls an extra session they are not paid for more than 20 days. Bills
of whatever character may originate in either house, but no bill can
becotne a law until it has passed both houses by a majority of all
XXVI II
this BMBibsfa to whieh the honsc is wttithid under the ffimst itu tifln
and if the g o ver n or vetoes a bill it cannot bcootac a law tmtil it has
again passed both hoiiaea by such a majority. Only the more
cttstooMry restrictaoaa are plaoed upon the kgislatura by the con-
•titutioo: such, for example, as that it shall pav no kwa impairing
the obUgation of oootracts» no as pottfaOo law& 00 law authorizing
iasprisonment for debt, no law restraining the freedom of the press
or freedom of speech, and that it shall not lend tho credit of the
etaae or make the state *' owner in whole or in part d any bank
or a stockholder with others in any association, company, coqian^
tion or mimicipality."
The administrstion of justice is vested in a supreme court, a court
of cfvil appeals, chanmy courts, circuit courts, county courts,
justice of the peace courts, and, in certain cities and towns, a
itcorders Court. The supreme court consists of five judges elected
by the state at large for a tepn of eight years, one for each of three
grand dlvirions Qeastem. middle and^westem) and two for the state
at larve. Each ;udge must be at least thirty-five years of age and
have been a resident of the state for five years beiore his election.
The judges deragnate one of their number to prerideaschief justice.
The court has appellate jurisdiction only. For the eastern district
it idts at.KnoxviIle; for the middle district at Na^ville; and for
the western district at Jackson. The concurrence of three judges
is necessary to a decision. The court of dvil appeals, which In 1907
was substituted for the court of chancery appeals, is also oomp<Med
of five judges not more than two of whom shall resi<te in the same
grand division. They are elected for a term of eight years, and
each of them must be at least thirty yean of age and have resided
in the state for five years before election. This court has jurisdiction
of appeals from equity courts in which the amount in controversy
does not exceed $ tooo, except in cases involving the constitutionality
of a Tennessee statute, contested election or state revenue, and
ejectment suits; it has jurisdiction also of dvil cases tried in the
arcuit and common law courts in which writs of error 'or appeals
in the nature of writs of error are applied for. It may transfer any
case to the supreme court or the supreme court may assume jurisdic-
tion of any ot its cases by issuing a writ of certiorari^ but otherwise
Its decrees are final. The state is divided into twelve chancery
districts in each of which a chancellor Is elected for a term of cigw
yearsj and at every county-seat in each dtstiict a court of chancery
IS held. The court has exclusive original jurisdiction in eOutty
cases in which the amount in controversy exceeds fifty dollars,
concurrent jurisdiction with the county court in such matters as the
administration of estates, the a^ipointment and removal of guardians,
and concurrent jurisdiction with the circuit courts in proccedingB
for divorce. The state is also divided into nineteen drcuits. in
each of which a circuit judge is elected for a term of t^At yeara, axid
at every county-seat in each circuit a circuit court is held. The
ori^^nal jurisdiction of the circuit courts extends to all cases both
civil and criminal not exclusively conferred upon some other court,
and they have nppellate jurisdiction in all suits and actions begub
in the lower courts. In several of the counties the county court
Is composed of a county judge, elected for a term of dght years,
toeether with the justices of the peace in the county, and in the
otner counties it consists ol the justices of the peace alone. Its
ludkial bttsineas is principally the probate of wills and matters
relating to the administration of estates. Each county is divided
Into civil distnets varying in numbo' according to population, and
each district elects at least two justices of the peace for a terra
of six years; each coovty town or ineoiponted town also elects
one iostice of the peace. The jurisdiction of a justice of the
peace, usually coextensive with the county, extends to the col-
lection of notes of hand not exceeding $1000; to the settle-
ment of accounts not exceeding $500; to soits for the recovery of
property or suits demanding payment for damages, except for
Bbel or slander, not exceeding $SpOt to equity cases m which the
amount in controversy does not exceed 9^; and to x'arious other
small cases. A recorder has concurrent jurisdiction with a justice
of the peace.
Local CcoemmenL—Tht government of each county is vested
prindpaUy in the county court. This body represents and acts for
the county as a corporation; has charge ol the erection aad repair
of county buildings; levies the county taxes, which are limited by
law. however, to three mills on the doIUr exclusive of those for
schools, public highways, interest on the county debt, and other
special purposes; divides the county into highway districts, and
chooses a highway commissioner for each district for a terra of
two years; and chooses a superintendent of schools, a survevor,
a public administrator and public guardian, a board for the equaliza-
tion of taxes, a corpner, a ranger, and a jail physician or health
<^cer each for a term of two years, three commissioners of the poor
for a term of three yean (one each year), and a keeper and sealer
oi weights and measures to serve during its pleasure. A county
trustee, whose duty it is to collect state and county taxes, and a
sheriff are elected by the county for a term of two yeara; a cledc
of the county court and a register are also elected by the county
for a term of four yeara: and the county judge or chairman of the
county court, the clerk of the county court, and the county healdi
officer constitute a county board of health. In each d* *
it2t
rmwEssEE
of a ooimty which contains tlw eooniy tent there nreMiooMitCabloi.
and in other civil diitricts ol th* eounty one coneuble elected for
a term of two yean. The geneial law for the incorporation of
cities and towns vests the aovemment of each asnnidpality aooeptinr
nrisions principally in a mayor and two aldermen tnm each
AU are elected for a term of two yean, but one-half of the
Its pnovisions
ward. AU an
aldermen letiie annually. The mayor and aMermen may appoint
such officers as they «>nsider necessary. The mayor may veto aw
action of the aldermen, and to override his veto a two^tfairai
majority is required.
MiseeUatuous Laws. — For the protection of the property rights of
married women the code of Tennessee provides that tlie wife's real
estate shaU be exempt from her husband's debts; that the proceeds
of her real or personal proper ty shall not be paid to any other person
«xcept by her consent certified u^n privy examination of her by
the court or a commissioner appointed by the court: and that she
may morteage or convey her real estate without the concurrence
of her husoand providea she be privately examined regarding the
matter by a chancellor, circuit judge, or the cleric of the county
court. When a husband dies his widow' is entitled to a dower in
one-third of his real estate, and, if there be not more than two
children, to one^third of his personal estate; if there are more than
two children her share of the personal estate is the same as that
of each child. If a husband die intestate and leave no other heirs
the widow is entitled to all his real estate in fee simple. When a
wife dies leavings a husband of whom there has been issue bom
alive, he has by the courtesy a life interest in all her real estate and
all her personaT estate; if the wife die intestate and leave no other
heirs the husband is entitled to all her real estate in foe simple.
The causes for divorce are impotency, bigamy, adultery, desertion
for two years, conviction of an infamous crime, the attempt of one
of the parties to take the life of the other, the husband's cruel and
inhuman treatment of his wife, refusal of the wife to remove with
her husband into the state without a reasonable cause, pregnancy
of the wife at the time of the marriage by another person without
the knowledge of the husband, and habitual drunkenness, provided
the habit has been contracted subsequent to the marriage. The
plaintiff must be a resident of the state for two years before fiUng a
petition for a divorce. If the husband is the plaintiff his interest
in his wife's property is not impaired by the dissolution of the
m^rrifige. out the defendant wife forfeits' all her interest in his
property. Either party may marry again, but a defendant who
oas been found guUty of adultery is not permitted to marry the
co-respondent during the life of the plaintiff. A homestead of a
head of a family to the value of $1000 is exempt from forced sale
except for the collection of taxes, debu contracted (or its purchase
or in making improvements upon it. or fines for voting out of the
election district, lor carrying concealed weapons, or for aiving away
or selling intoxicating hquors on election days. If the owner is
married the homestead cannot be sold without the joint consent
of husband and uife, and the wife's consent, as in other conveyances
hyi married wi-omen, must be certified before the court or a oom-
misuoner appouateo by the court. The homestead inures for the
benefit of the widow and minor children. Ninety per cent, of the
saUiry, wages or income of each person eighteen vears of age or
over is also exempt from attachment provided such salary, wages
or income docs not exceed I40 per month, and in any case $36 per
oionth of the salary, wages or income of a person eighteen v-ears
of age or over cannot be attached. The employnoent of children
under la years of age in any workshop, factory or mina within the
state is forbidden by a law of i(^i. and the employment of WDnea
or of boys under 16 >-tar» of asc in any manufacturing establishment
is limited to 60 hours a v^-eek Dy a law of 1907. Both the sale aoa
the manulaaure of intoxicating drinln are prohibited by law.
CkariHes. &c~The charitable and penal institutions of the state
coosst of the Central HosfNtal for the Insane near Nashville; the
Eastern Hosfutal for the Insane near Knoscville; the Western
Hospital for the Inasne near BoIi>-ar: the Tennessee School for the
blind at Nashv-ille; the Tennessee Deaf and Dumb School at Knox>
ville; the Confederate Soldiers' Home near Nash\-ille. on the
*' Hermftage,*' the estate forraerty belomii^ to Andrew Jackson;
and the Penitentiary and the Tennessee Inoostrial School! both at
Nashville; and in 1907 the le^»hiture passed an Act for the estab-
lishment in Davidson count)* of the Tennessee Reformatory for boys.
Each hospital for the insane is governed by a board of five trustees
appointed by the oownor. with the consent of the senate, for a term
of six years, and for the immediate supervisaon of each the trustees
appoint a superintendent for a term of oght )Tars. The Schoob
for the Blind and the Deaf and Dumb are each managed by a board
of trustees, vacancies in which are filled bv the ivmaining trustees
with the concurrence of the lecisUture. TTie Confederate Soldien*
Home is managed by a board of fifteen trustees, of whom m are
women, each serving until death or resignation, when his or her
successor is appointed by the »«v-i««««» »fWMi the leco mm endatioo
of the corporation known as • Confederate Soldiers.
The Penitentiary is govcr ree vmon commiv
sinners, a superintendent, )r deputy warden,
a matron, a physician, anc I bv the TOvemor.
the commissioners for a other officcn for
« ttnl.of two yean. The tftSsaum «ie kapC at t^boiir priadptBy
in the state coal;mioes, in manvfacturing coke, on farms, or at
contract labour within the prison walls; not more than 199 pidsonera
are to be leased to any one firm or corporation, or to tie employed
in anyone basiness within the walls, llie income ta the «tate froaa
the prison it greater tbas the disbfrsaaeata f qc ito 1
By good conduct a convict may aoortea lys tam of service one
month the first year, two months the second year, three months
each year from the third to the tenth inclusive, and four montla
each subsequent year. Thb Industrial SchooU which is for orphan,
helplcssk wayward and abatBdoaed children, is gtiwer—d by a Doanl
of dijrecton consisting of the governor, comptroller, secretary of
statei and treasurer as ex officio members, and seven other memocrs^
a portion retiring every two years, and their successor belne ai>-
poittted by the reinainins dicecton with the ooncurrence of the
senate. The act for ee ta hfalifa g the Tennesaee RefomatDry for
Boys provides that the institution shall be governed by a board
of trustees consisting of thfe governor and five other members, one
retiring each year; that boys under eighteen years of age who are
convicted of a penitentiary offence shall oe sent to it ; that the trustees
saay transfer inoornpUe boys to the penitentiary, pot othen oat
in the service of dtuens on probation, or recommend them to the
governor for pardon. A general contnM of all public charities and
correctional institutions is ekercised by an unsalaried Board 0^ State
Charities oonsisting of the governor and sl« members appointed
fay him for a term of three years, two ntiriag every Via» years.
The principal duties of this b<Ard are to examine the condition and
the management of such institutions and report to the governor;
and eounty and dty authorities must submit to it for criticism all
plans for new )aila, public infirmaries, and hospitals.
£tfiicalssM.-~For the adminiscmtion of the oomnon aefaool systcoa
each oountsr having; five .or more civil districts ta divided into five
school districts, and in counties having five or less than five ci^-D
districts each civil district constitutes a school district. Each
school district elects one member of the county board of education,
and in oouaties having leae than tve school districta«sw or more
membera of the county board, the number of wl^ ia always
five, besides the county superinteiident who ia ex officw its secretary,
are elected by the county at large, and to th>s county board ol
edttcation together with district advisory boards b entrusted the
snanageanent and control of the conmoo schools. By the geaeiat
edocatioQ law enacted in 1909, as per cent, of the gross state reweniae
u paid into the general edur^tion fund, fit per rent, of this fund is
apportioned among the several counties according to their school
population, and 10 per cent, of it constitutes a special furxl to be
apportioned among eligible counties in proportioo to their school
po^ulatbn but in Inverse ratio to their t»nble property; to have
the use of anyjmrtion of this special fund a county must krvy
for the maintenance of common schools a tax not less than forty
cents on each $too of taxable property, a tax of ^ 00 each taxable
poll, and such privilege taxes as the state permits it to levy for school
purposes. Each county court may provide for one or more county
nigh schools to be maintained in part by additional county taxes
and miscelhineoiis funds, and 8 per cent, of the state school fund is
set apart for the encoura^ment of counties in this matter. In
1908 there was a county high school In each of 33 counties, and ia
IQTO in each of 30 counties. The high schools are Uirgely under
tfie control of the state board of education, consbtiiig of tK governor
(president), state superintendent of pubtk: iimniction (secretary
and tteasurer), and six other members appointed b>' the governor.
When the general education bw «-as enacted in 1909 Tennessee had
no state normal schools, but by the bw 15 per cent, of the state
educational fund is set apart fur the establishment and maintenance
of schools solely for the education and professional training <A teachers
for the elementary schools ; one for white teachers in each of three
grand di\isions cm the slate, and one agricuttDial and industrial
normal school for the industrial education of neeroes and for pre>
paring negro teachers for the common schools, and the managercent
of these schools is vested in the state board of education. At the
head of the state educational system is the Unixersity of TenoesEcc.
which embraoBS a college of liberal arts, a graduate department,
a college of engineering, a coIh»e of agriculture, aschoolofpbarmac)-.
an industrial department, an^ a law department at Knor^-iHe. arid
medical and dental departments at Nashville. The iastitutioa
ts governed by a board of trustees consisting of the go\^emor. the
state superintendent of public instruction, the coaunisaoner of
agriculture, the president of the uni\-ersity and twelve other
members: two from the city of Knox%-ilIe and one from each
congressional district, two elected each year. Se^^n per ceat of
the fcnerll school food is set apart for its maintenance: it «as
founded in 1794. For the higher education of teachers Teoi*e?cee
has the Peabody Coflege for Teacheni, at Nashx-iBe. founded (1^75
and maintained chiefly with proceeds from the Gcot« Peabody Fuivl
for the impro\'ement of education in the South. Other iasUtuticos
of higher learning, not under the oonrrol of the state, are: the
rnK-ersityof NashWDc (non-sect.. I7?3"i : \VasiuT»*on andTcscuIuai
CoSege «n-«i-9ect.. 1794). at Creen\-iMc : Man-kiiVr CcTlcse ^Predfcr-
teran. iflto), at Marwille; Cumberland Vrr\er?ity ^Presb\t«r^-
i&^). at L^naoa; Burritt College (non-sect., iSiS), at Sp
TENNESSEE
6aj
ffS^teS^LiSsl^^t McKemde: Canon and Newman OM^
(Baptist, 1851), at Jefferson City: Walden University (Methodist,
iM6>, at Nashville; Fisk University (Congregational. 1866), at
Nasliville; Univenity of Chatuoooga (Methodkt, 1867), at Chat-
tanooga; Uaivenitv of the South (Ptotqitaat E^bobpaK 1868),
at Sewanee; King College (Presbyterian. 1869). at Bristol; Christian
Brothers College (Roman Catholic. 1870, at Memphis; Knoxvflla
College (United Presbyterian. 1875), at Knoxville; Milligan College
(Chftttian, i88y), at Milligan; South-weMiem PrMbyteran GoUcge
(i88«), at Qarfcville: and LinoolA Memorial Uoiwenity (ooa-aect^
1805). at Cumberlaod Gatp.
innanct. — ^The state revenue t^ derived lipom a general property
tax. a poll tax, an income tax, a tax on transfer) of reahy) an otf
vaicrtm tax on the average capital invested by mefchanta in their
busineas, a privikgie tax on meipduMBta aod maay other, oocupaikms
and burinesaes; a tax 00 litigation, levied on the unsuocescful nuty,
a collateral inheritance tax, and fines and forfeitures. State,
county and municipal taxes arc assessed by a county assessor,
«1io ta electod for a term of font years, ahd one or more deputiea
wboni the asscnsor ia •iithoriaed to appoint. The law lequires
that aU property shall be assessed at its full cash vahic. but pcnonal
property to the value of $1000 is exempt from taxation. Real
estate is assessed biennially; personal property, privileges and polls
attatially. Assesaments are examined and itevised both^ a county
boatd of e<tuaIiiation and a atate board of oqualintion. Tho eoonty
boanl coosiats of five members elected annually by the oouoty
court; justices of the peace are ineligible to election on this board.
as are also all persons who have served on it within five years.
The state board conMsts of the secretary of atate, treasdrer and
comp t r o ller. The clerk of the county court collect* all taxea of
persons, companies or corpocationa subject to a privilege tax;
the county trustee the taxes of other persona. Three revenue
commisstoners, one of whom is an expert accoantant, are elected
biennially by each county court to examine the books and reports
of the ooHtctoiv, and three stale revenue ageau aie ap^onttBd
biennially by tbe comptroller to examine the reoordaof all officiala
chacgied witn the collection or disbursement of state or county
revenue. The state revenue for the two years ending the 19th oi
December 1906 amounted to $3,804,740. and the cost of conducting
the state gov^ermneot for these two yean was S3.568,977- The
bonded debt of tbe sute grew fiom $16,643,6^ 00 the lat of October
1859 to $37,080,666 on the 1st of October 1860, but by the 19th of
December 1906 it had been reduced to $14,236,766^
Hufary.-^The present site of Memphis may be the poizit
where the Spanisb explorer,. Hemandp de Soio, reached xht
Misfiisaippi river^ but this cannot be determined with oerUioty.
Father Marquette in his voyage down the Miisissippi camped
upon the western border, and La Salle built Fort Prud'hoamie
upon the Chickasaw Bltiffs, pxohably on the site mi Memphis,
in 1682, but it was abandoned, then rebuilt, and again aban-
doned. The territory was included ta the English grant to Sir
Walter RaJfeii^ in 1584 and hi the Utier Stoatt grants, indtidmg
that of Caniina, in 1663. Na peraanept aettltoient, however,
was made until 1769, thmigh Waodering' eKpfctcrs and fuf
traders visited the eastern portion much eaiiier. A paity of
Vifgimaiis led by Dr Thomtt Walker (1715-1794). in 1750
teadied and named the Cumberland xivrc wad inouiitatni in
hooDur of the rojral dbke. In 175^ ^ i757» F<»t Loudon,
named in honour of John Campbell, eaii.of London, was bult
OB the Little Tennessee liver, about 30 m. N. of the ptcscnt site
of Knoivile, as An ontpoat agiCinst the French, who were now
active in the whok Mississippi Valley, and was ganisOned by
n^ troops. The fort was captuztBd, boweveri by the Cherokee
Indians in 1760, and both the garnon and the neighbouiing
settlett weie massacxed*
Eastcni Tennessee was recognised as n oommen hunting
ground by the Cfaerakees, Cie^s, Mhunis and other Indian
tiibcB, and the Ibd^oois of New Yoric also kbimcd a considetahle
poftiott by right of conquest. In 1768 the Iroquois ceded what*
ever daim tbey had to the English, and in 1769 levecal cabins
wcce httilt aJoag the Watauga and Hobtxm rivers upon what
was thought tor be Viigfaiian aoO. A asttlciaent near the present
Rogectville was made in 1771 end in the next year another
sprang up on the NoUichncky. After the laslure of the Re-
gulator Insurrectkm in North Carohnn in 1771, hundseds of the
Regulators made their way mio the wilderness. When the
settlements were found to be within the Umifs of North Carolina,
that cobny.made no effort to assert jnrisdiction or to protect
the settkm iomx Indian dcptedationa. Xhenfiarein 1772 the
resldenU o^ the ffast two settlements met m genend convention
to establish a form of government since known as the Watauga
Association. A general cdmmittee of thirteen was elected to
exercise legislative powers. This committee elected from its
members a committee of five in whom executive and judicial
powers were lodged. The smaller committee elected a chair-
man, who was also chairman of the committee of thirteen. A
sheriff, an attorney and a clerk were elected, and regulations
for recording deeds and wills were made. Courts were held,
but any otmlict of jurisdiction with Vii^nia or North Carolina
was avoided. In 1775 the settlement on the Notlichucky was
forced to join the association, and in the same year the land was
bought irom the Indians in tbe hope of averting wsr. With
the approach of the War of Independence, the dreaih of be-
coodng a separate colony with a royal governor was abandoned,
and on petition of the inhabitants the territory was annexed
to Noith Carolina In 1776 as the Washington District, which
in 1777 became Washington county, with the Mississippi river
as the western boundary. The population uicreosed rapidly
and soon several new counties were created.
During the War of Independence the hardy monntaineerv
under John Se^er and Evan Shelby did valiant service against:
both the royal troops and the Loyalists hi South Carolina,
dnefly as partisaa rangers under Charks McDowell (r 743*-f8i5).
Major Fsttick Ferguson with several hundred Loyalists and a
small body of regulnrs, made a demonstration against the western
settl em en t s, but at King's Mountain in South Caixilina he was
completely defeated by the Americans, among whom Colonel
Sevier and the txoope led by him were conspicuous (see KiNC^i
MoOlfTAOl).
After the War of Independence the legislature of North
Carolina in Z784 offered to cede her western territory to the
general govomment, provkled the cesskm should be accepted'
within two years. The WaUuga settkn, indignant at thIS'
tnnsfeir without their consent, and fearing to be left without
Any form of government whatever, called a oonveotMin which
met at Jonesborou^'on the 23rd of Augest r784, and by which^
delegstes. to another convention to form a new state were ap-
pointed. MeanwfaUe North Carolina repealed the act of <xssioa
and created the western counties into a new jndldal district.
A second convention, in November, broke ojy in eonfusieft
without aocnmplishing an3rthlng; but a third adopted a oon>
stitutioQ, wUch was submitted to the people^ and ordered the
eleetkm of a legislature. This body met early in 1785,
elected Sevier governor of the new state of FmnkUn (ait first
Franklind), filled a number of offices, And passed several other
acts loakhdg to sepaiato eodstcnce. Four new counties weie
created, and taxes were levied.^ Later In the year anothei'
convention, to which the proposed constitution had been re-
ferred, adopted instead the constitution of North Carolina with
a few trifling changes, and WlUtam Cocke was chosen to present
to CcBigress a memorial requesting recognition as k state. Con-
gress, however, ignosed the request, and the diplomacy of tbe
North Camlinn authorities caused a reaction. For a time two
sets of officials claimed recognition, but when the North Csrolina
legisbture a second time passed an act of oblivion and remitted
the tanss unpaid shioe 1 784, the tide was tunied* No successor
to Sevier waa elected, and he was arrested on a charge of treason,
but was allowed to escape, and soon afterwards was again ap-
pointed brigadier^gencral of militia.
Meanwhile, settlers had pushed on further into the wilderness.
On the tyth of March 1775 Colonel Richard Henderson and his
a ss o d a tes ortinguished the Indian title to an immense tract of
land in the valleys of the Cumberland, the Kentucky and the
Ohio tivecs (see Ksntuckv). In r778, James Robertson
(i74a-tSi4), a native of Virginia, who had been prominent in
the WaUuga settlement, set out with a small party to prepare
the way for permanent occupation. He arrived at French
* On account of the scarcity of a circulating medium ' '*^
twenty articles were valued and declared legal ter
them ware foa rtans^ is. 6d.; beaver skins. 6s. r bi
pound; lye whisky, as. 6d. the gallon.
624
T£NN£SSE£
Lick (so caUed from & French tmding post esUblished there)
early in 1779, and in the same year a number of settlers from
Virginia and South Carolina arrived. Another party led by
John Donelson arrived in 1780, and after the dose of the War
of Independence, the immigrants came in a steady stream. A
form of government similar to the Watauga Association was
devised, and block>houses were built for defence against the
Indians. Robertson was sent as a delegate to the North
Carolina legislature in 1785 and through bis instrumentality
the settlements became Davidson county. Nashville, which had
been founded as Nashborough in 1780, became the cotmty
seat. Finally, in 1843, it became the state capital.
Robertson, the dominant figure in the early years, straggled
to counteract the efforts of Spanish intriguers among the
Indians, and when diplomacy. faUcd led the settlers against the
Indian towns.
On the 25th of February 1790 North Carolina again ceded the
territory to the general government, stip^ilaUng that all the
general provisions of the Ordinance of 1787 should apply except
that forbidding slavery. Congress accepted the cession and,
on the 26th of May 1790, passed an act for the government of
the "Territory south of the River Ohio." William Blount
was appointed the first gavtmott and In 1792 Knoxville became
the seat of government. The chief events of Blount's adminis-
tration were the cu tests with the Indians, the purchase of their
lands, and the struggle against Spanish influence. A census
ordered by the Territorial legislature in 1795 showed more than
6o>ooo free inhabitants (the number prescribed before the
Territory could become a state), and accordingly a convention
to draft a state constitution met in Knoxville on the irth of
January 1796. The instrument, which closely followed the
constitution of North Carolina, was prodai med without sub-
mission to popular vote. John Sevier was elected governor,
and William Blount and William Cocke United Sutcs senators.
In spite of the opposition of the Federalist party, whose kadem
foresaw that Tennessee would be Republican, it was admitted
to the Union as the sUteenth state on the ist of June 1796.
With the rapid increase of population, the dread of Indian
and Spaniard declined. Churches and schools were buHt, and
soon many of the comforts and some of the luxuries of life made
their appearance. The public school system was inaugurated
in 1830, but not until 1845 was the prindple of taxation for
support fully recognized. As in oU new states, the question
of a drculating m^ium was acute during the first half of -the
19th century, and sute banks were organised, which suspended
specie payments in times of financial stringency. The Bank of
Tennessee, organized in 1838, had behind it the credit of the
state, and it was hoped that money for education and lor 'in-
ternal improvements might be secured from its profits. The
management became a question of party polities, and during
the Civil War iu funds were used to advance the Confederate
cause. The development of the westekn section along the
Mississippi was rapid after the begiiming of the century.
Memphis, founded in 1819, was thought as late as 183a to be in
Mississippi, and not until 1837 was the southem boundary,
^riiich according to the North Carolina cosibn was 35^, finaiiy
cstahlished.* In common with other river towns,, the dis-
ookriy dement in Memphis was large, and the gamblers, lobbeia
i thieves were only supprttsed by local vigilance com-
The peculiar topographical conditions made the three
. of die state almost separate commonwealths, and
^ood fiv better means of communication was insistent.
"^m filiqi of state aid to internal improvements found ad-
^■•a ^«Kf cariy in spite of the Republir^ *"*' * '? the
ted
Lhe
)ur
se
agreements were soon fepesled, the general policy ww eon*
tinued, and in r86r more than $17,000,000 of the state dtht was
due to these subscriptions, from which there was little return.
Though President Andrew Jackson was for many yeatt
practically a dictator in Tennessee politics, his arbitrary methods
and his intolerance Of any sort of independence on the part of
his followers led to a revolt in 1836, when the dectoral vote of
the state was given to Hugh Lawson White, then United Sutes
senator from Tennessee, who had been one of Jadcson's most
devoted adherents. White's followers called themsdvcs Anti-
Van Buren Democrats, but the proscription which they suffered
drove most of them into the Whig party, which carried the
state in presidential elections mitil 1856, when the vote was cast
for James Buchanan, the Democratic candidate. The Whig
party was so strong that James K. Polk (Democrat), a resident
of the state, lost its dectoral vote in 1844. With the disintegna-
tion of the Whig party, the sUte sgam beame nommally
Democratic, though Union sentiment was strong, particular^
in East Tennessee. There were few Urge plantations and fewer
slaves in that mountainous region, while the middle and western
sections were more in harmony with the sentiment in MississSi^
and Alabama. In 1850 representatives of nine Southern states
met in a convention at Nashville (g.v.) to consider the questions
at issue between the North and the South. The vote of the
state was given for Bell and Everett in x86o, and the people
as a whole were opposed to secession.
The proposition to call a convention to vote on the question
of secession was voted down on the 9th of February x86x, but
after President Lincoln's call for troops the legidature sub-
mflted the question of secession du^tly to the people, and
meanwhile, on the 7th of May 1861, entered into a " Military
League" with the Confederacy. An overwheUning vote was
cast on the 8th of June in favour of secession, and on the 34th
Governor I. G. Harris <i8t8-i897) issued a proclamation de-
claring Tennessee out of the Union. Andrew Johnson, then a
United States senator from Tennessee, refused to resign his
seat, and was supported by a krge dement hi East Tennessee.
A Union convention, mduding rq>resentatives from all the
eastern and a few of the mid(fle counties, met on the 17th of
June r86r and petitioned Congress to be admitted as a sepamte
sute. The request was ignored, but the section was strongly
Unionist in sentiment dining the war, and has $ince been strongly
Republican.
The state was, next to Virguaia, the chief battlegnmnd during
the Civil War, and one historian has counted 454 battles and
skirmishes which took pbux within iU borders. In F^bniaiy
1862, General U.S. Grant sad Commodore A. H. Foote captured
Fort Henry on the Tennessee river, and Fort Dondson on the
Cumberland. The Confederate line of defence was broken end
General D. C. Budl occupied Nashville; Grant next ascended
the Tennessee river to Pittsburg Landing with the intention
of capturing the Memphis & Charleston railway, and on the
6th-7th of April defeated the Confederates ha the battle of
Shiloh. The capture of Ishnd No. 10 in the Mississippi on the
7th of April opened the river as hi south as Memphis, which
, was captured in June. On the 31st of December aiad the and
of January General ¥^illiam S. Rosecxans (Federal) fought with
General Braxton Bragg (Confederate) the bloody but indecisive
battle of Stone River (Murfreesboxo). In June 1863 Rosecrans
forced Bragg to evacuate Chatttaooga. Bxsgg, however, turned
upon h» porsuer, and on the 19th and soth of September one
of the bhiodlest battles of the war was fought at Chickamauga.
General Grant now assumed command, and on the S4th and
ssth of November defeated Bragg at Chattanooga, thus opening
the way mto East Tennessee. There General A. £. Bnmsidc
at fiist met with success,. but was shut up m Knoxvflle by
Ckneral James Longstnet, who was not able, however, to
capture the dty^, and on the approadi of Geneeal W. T. Sherman
retired into Viiginia. Almost the whole state was now faeM by
Fedeod tBOopa^ and no considerable military movement oo*
curved until after the fall of Adanta ha September 1864. Tlicn
General J. B. Hood moved into Tennessee, expecthig Sbecnaa
TENNESSEE. RIVIK
6a 5
Thomas and ecmtiimed his march to the set. Hood fought
with General John M. Schofield at FVankliii, and on the
xsth-idth of December vaa utterly defeated by Thomaa at
Naah^riUe, the Federals thus securing victaally undiiputed
ooBtrcd of the sute.^
After the occupation of the. state by the Federal azmles in
tS62 Andrew Johnson was appointed military governor by the
l»ea&dent (oSBfirmed March 3, 1B62), and hdd the office until
inaugurated vice-preaideot on the 4th of March 1865. Re-
publican electors attempted to cast the vote of the state la
r864, but were not recognised by Congress. Tennessee was
the first of the Confederate states to be readmitted to the
TTMou Qt4y >4» 1866), after ratifying the Constitution of the
United States with amendments, declaring the ordinance of
secMsion void, voting to abolish slavery, and declaring the
WW debt void* The state escaped ** carpet bag '* government,
but the native whites in control under the leadeishlp of WHfiam
G. Brownlow (180S-1877) confined the franchise to those who
had always been uncompromisingly Union in lentiment and
conferred suffrage upon the negroes (February 15, 1667). The
Ku Klux Kian, originating in 1865 as 4 youthful prank at
Pulaski, Tennessee, spread over the sute and the entire South,
and in 1869 nine counties in the middle and western sections
were placed under martial law. At the clcctiooa In 1869 the
Republican party split into two factions. The conservative
candidate was elected by the aid of the Democrats, who slso
secured a majority of the legislatoie, ^hich has never been lost
since that tsme. The constitution was revised in 1870. For a
considerable time after the war the state seemed to make little
material progress, but dnce 1880 it has made rapid strides.
The principal occurrences have been the final compounding of
the old sUte debt at fifty cents on the dollar in 1882, the rapid
growth of dties, and the increased importance of mining and
manufacturing.
John Sevier
CovaaMOBS or Tbnmussb
WiUiamBlettM
T^nUmySMahtfOieOkh
Stale of Temusite.*
John Sevter, DeioQCratac-RepubUcan
Archibald Roaile, ,. »
lobaSevicf. ^
Willie Blount.
Jpaeph M'Minn, „
WiOian Carroll, ,, ,»
San Hooaton,'
WOttam KaU (acting)
GunMl, Demociat
Ntwtoa CaoBoa, Anti-JackaoD Densnat
lames K. Polk, Danocrat ....
Jamas C Jones, Whiff ....
Aaron V. Bro#n. Denaocrat
Neil S. Brawn, Whiff ." ; . .
WiHIam Trouadalc Dcioacfttt . . .
WQliafli B. CaapbeU, Whiff . . .
Andrewjobnaofk, Democmt
Ikham G. Hagni^* ., ...
Afldfcw JohnsDB, MiKtaxy ....
Interreffnum," 4th Marcb-^th April
W31iam G. Brownlow, RcpobGcaa
De Witt C Senicr. Confervative Republkan
John C Brown. Democrat .
Jamet D. Porter, ,.
Albert S. Marks. .,
Alvin Hawkina, Republican
William B. Bate, Democrat
179^1788
1790^796
, I79^f8ot
. 1801-1803
• 1803^1809
. 1809-I815
. 1815-1821
• i83r«j827
• 183701819
k 1839
. 1829-183^
. l83»-r899
' >839-t«4«
. 1841-1845
.. 1845-1847
^ 1847-1849
• i849-r85r
.: I8sr-i853
. 1853*1857
. 1857^863
. I86a*f865
1865.
. 1865-1869
. 1869-I871
. 1871-1875
'. 1875-1879
: i879-i88r
. 1881-1883
. 1883-1887
> The atatt furnidsed 1x5,000 aoldien to the Confederate and
31,000 to the Union Army
» The Constitutions of 179^' 1834 sod 1870 all provided that the
govcfa^ sball not serve more than six yean in succesdoa.
• Forced to leave capital by invasion of Federal troops.
* Andrew Jobnaoo, tbe goveroor. wsa Inaueurated aa Vke-
PMsUengt. March 4. t8^ therdqr vacating the omosb
RflbartUTayloi;
iphsP. r '
Peter Ttti
Robert]
Beatoa McMOSn.
El B. Fraaer,*
LCoa^
Am R. Patterson, „
B. W. Hooper. Republican
I887^ta9t
I89I-I8W
I897-1S9
189^1903
1903-1905
'905-1907
1907-1911
1911-
BrsuoGiAPBT.— For a general phywcal description of the atate
see the J^porU ^ ikgTeimtssu Ceolnicol Survey (Nashville. 1840)
and E. C Hewett. GeotrAfky of Tennessee (no place. 1878), On
administration see L. S. Mcrrian. Higher Sdvcalion m Tennessee,
m Cicnlan ef Inlbrmstfion of the United States Bufeau of Educa-
tion, Na 5 (Waahtufftpiv ite3)..anA j, W. CaidweU. .Su^ms w tHo
Coi^^titk9nal History ^ Tetmessee (Ondnnau, 1895; new ed..
Is fio satiifactofy optnptete Ustonr of the state. The best
rames Pbdaa'a History a/ Toimoaooe cBoaton, 1888). For tbe
pcsiod aee John Haywood, Cioa and PotiHeol History <Kno».
There
Rooeevelt, Wtnuing ef the WeH (New York, r889^r896); John
Carr, £ar^y 2lMMt «» ifiVMi^ rsmieaiM (NaahvUe^ rt57). Foftbe
aaoce recent period aee a P. Tcraple, Bast Tottnoesee isnd Ike Cioa
Wot (Cincinnati. 1899): / " . - .
ConuiHttoo
mz penoa aee u. r. icrapie, Jiaa lonuoesee and the GtoH
Kinnati. 1899); Jam^ W. Fertiff, Secession attd Jteeon-
qf Tennessee (Chtcan>. 1898); and the Report of Joint-
9 on ReconstrucHon (U.S. Pub. Docs., Wuh.. x666).
TSmiBSSBB RIVBR, tbe largest tributary of the Ohio river,
U.S.A. It is formed by the confluence of the Holston and the
French Broad rivers 4-5 m. above Rnoxville, Tennnsee, Bows
S.S.W. to Chattanooga, there turns W. though the Cumberland
Plateau and into the N.E. comer of Alabama, continues W.
across the northern part of Alabama, turns N. on the boundary
between Alabama and Mississippi, and continuing N. across
Tennessee and Kentucky unites with the Ohio at Paducah.
Its principal tributaries rise in the Appalachian Mountains;
the Holston and the CHinch on the. mountain slopes that flank
the Appalachian VaUey in western Virginia; and the French
Broad, the. Little Tennessee, and the Hiwassee tn the mountains
of western North Carolina. The Tennessee itself is ^52 nu
long, and with the Holston and the Korth Fodc of the Bolston
forms a channel about 900 m.^ Iq;^« Its drainage basin
covers about 44iOoo sq. m., and fts low .water discharge at
Paducah is 10,000 cu. ft. per second. Its average fall is 0*79 ft.
per mile: 0-956 ft from KnoxviHe to Chattanooga;, I'Zp ft.
from (^ttanooga to Florence, Alabama; and 0-39 ft, from
Florence to its mouth. The banks are everywhere easily
accessible except at KnoxviUe and Chattanooga, where, for
short 'distsnces, high elevations rise precipitously from the
water; and as the banks are mostly of day or rock the channel
is permanent and the river is unusually free from silt.
The Tennessee is navigable by stea m bcau throughout its entire
course of 6S2 nk f or several months of the year; its tributaries
have a neaiiy equal navigable milease, and the main river and its
tributaries togcner have a navigable mileage for rafts and flat-
boota of 9400 m. At low water there are three obatrticiiona to
ateaokboar navigation in the main atieafn: the Colbart aod Bee
Tree shoals, ii '
Florence; and
of Alabama, aide . .
canal, affonsng a depth of % ft., around the Maacle dioals in 1831*
\%^ but beaufe of the obstnictk>na above sad bdow the canal
was little used and was soon abandoned. The Federal government.
bcfi^nnioff in 1868, completed the reconstniction of the Muscle
Slmls Oma] in two dfrisions (one 3*5 m. long with two tocfca, the
other 14*5 la. long with nine locks, and boa providing a depth
of 5 It) in 1890^ began in 1895 the oonatmctiaB of a canal about
8 m. long and with one lock, around Colbert and Bee Tree shoals,
and la 1904 authorind the conatructioa with private capital of a
lock and dam at Hales Bar to provide a channel 6 ft. deep at low
water hetween it and Chattaaooga, the water power to be osed by
the persons furnisfanig the capitaL^ In 1905 a conunittse ef the
"**'*''" • . -. ^ future
Urated Sta t es Senate 1
I that!
tbe rii»«r be made with • view of obtain'ng uMmBtely a channel
having a waniiiMnn depth of is ft. at low water; end in 1907 Con*
' peed a ptojcrt for duxuniun to 5 ft. a* few wMer the
[145 m. long) Luneiii Hales Bar and the **'
1^06 the cuas metee cawKO en t he Tei
> Resigned to enter the US. Senate
6t6
TENNIEL— TENNIS
a
Ii
fo
to
Ano
■001
tbeii
in i:
iupp<
of « *■
t9ih c
■pccie
Tenncs
Hate, a
temol ii
managcn
tbeavil
cauM. 1
Missitaipp
Memphia,
Mittisaippi.
whkh accoi
caublished.*
orderly elemt
andlKNraethi
mitteea. The
sccUona ol iti
demand for bet
The poU<;y q-
vocatcs very eai
alate, but a defi
when comimssion
and an cipenditu
alaie agrwd to aul
panics organixed to
yean later the pr*
> For account of th'
boundary, tee Kucnic
bom in
_ ior Us career, and
tka a student, of the
^ggm^M.^ acaads where at that time
h Btfi he sent his first picture to
^~SKisty tf Mtah Artists, and in 1845
,^ asMit- An AWotyol Justice," to the
.Tt a^ f^; €l *s^ far the mural decora-
" r^?^" ^,- — For tha he received a
^^T^a^mi^ ta pmA a fresco in the Upper
.^l^p^^«)^ the' House of Lords. In
^ ^^^^^«.^^Mt,* he was alreaidy known
^"^ ^BH^ aad Us early companionship
^ * *.j,i,,l — » dmfaped his talent for
Ji^ ^ - y^*^** time 1850 he was invited
""^ ^ ^ jr it^— of y**^ cartoonist (with
*" -- - mciiard Doyle, offended
towards the Papal see at
' had suddenly resigned,
ghstrations to Aesop's
Mr of observation, and
^— » J apparent, Tcnniel was
^ fc^ ^rhe. to fill the breach, and
*" ' -- ^ the milial letter appearing
^^T?^^,^. was "Lord Jack the
^^_» 'l^ Iteidl, whose letter on
Ma adbSshed, valiantly assail
■« ^^' '^Z Mf ar-tty Cardinal Wiseman
— ■ * ^i^ w M Tenniel's first supcib
' ^" ^ ^ Triim CnduaHy he took over
• •• *"'L^lrf the political "big cut,"
. «^ •••■» ^^^ ^^ y^ hands in order
.*• ••***'* *^^3j^ character. Leech's
«*• * ^'"'^^^ « Itfce; Tennicl's was high
^^ . ^ ^•'^ ^ ^ the freedom of
^ * ■"'*'^*- ^J^iiiatScs of the satirist.
^^ w*-*" '^ -— ^ml hb work alone, and
• -A ^ * *T--^^-«. <■«« »*»<** "P^ ^'
'^ 1 ri% ^ •• '^4 i^ «ck. About ijoo
* M W»«*^ ^ ^'^ — jiJi^rr cartoons for
• •• .^--^^••^•^Ti^hBS, and ay> designs
\* • * ,j^ m •'•iSL^^ «^* J**** Tennid's
'••**' M*h*s**'^I^^«hichhe spent the
*^*'"^'^ ••**•• ^ *l5^**^iJ retired from the
, \ * iTw«^ ^^3-4 the honour of a
f • • f?^4 ^ )*«• '•^ ^ JL J. Balf ofur. then
^ ** •* '^ f»^^«^ •'T^fcL^ ^""S supported
..•• '^^ * C«»* T^^ best in English
■' !w«**'^'^!i-^ofTennielaa
*^'*^^*»«^^r^Siwd«I by the
Aw
that Teoaiel'a woadaff ol oha nwaii e w has U ,
aad has Icaowledse aommulaeBd, litenlly through a «i^ eye,
the other havii^ been lost during a (eadng bout m his youth. It
was in recognttiott not only of his ability as an artist in black and
white, but of his aervioe in infunng good humour aJMl good taste
inco one phase of oohtical life, that a knighthood was cowtf en e d
upon him 00 Mr Gladstone's recommendatioa ia 1893. Without
pcooouooed political opinions of his Own, Sir John Tennid adc^ted
m his woric those of hts paper, of which the Whig proclivities were
to some degree softened .by his penciL The political history
not of England only, but to some extent of the world, of half a
century appears in ^ John Tenoiel's weekly cartoons, which are
dig n ified by a number of types inventjod by the artist, the classic
beauty of whkh may be looked for in vain in kindred work by any
py,g,4^^ . — ... «._u_ * .. «,_ ,^^,^ (mtomn
PKture m PmKh on
aoth ¥ Bs of Sir John
Tennicl John Tennid
IS also I da Vinci," in
the Sot im:' while his
highly 1 tine to tisse
in the tern in Water
Cbknin i 1874. As an
itlustral ; his ** Lalla
Rookh of conception.
Piaure Book,
awin«(i848):
Cordian Knot
''joUa Xookk, 69
restM Womdtf-
rroU's TIfMif*
^oration: (11)
eUentk Cemtury
ttHons (1858);
3); <i6) tL
(1864); (18)
ial PkOosopky:
k> contributed
Won
the Loot
Pollok'i
Arabia*
Legends
(ao^Ba
to Onu a Week, the An Union publications, ftc
TENNIS (sometimes called royal tennis, and, in America,
court tennis), one of the oldest of ball-games, and one of the
most difficult to learn. It is now played in a walled and roofed
court, no ft. by 38 ft. 8 In., the floor, however, measuring but
96 ft. by 3 1 ft. 8 in., the difference being the width of a roofed
corridor, the " penthouse," which runs along the two end walla
and one of the side walls. Across the middle of the court a
net is stretched, and the first object of the game ia to atrike the
ball over this with a bat or racquet. The net is 5 ft. high at
the ends, 3 ft. 6 in. at the middle, and divides the floor into two
equal parts, the '* service *' aide and the " hazard " side. Tbe
floor and walls are made of cement and should be smooth bat
not polished.
The court is lighted from the roof and sides. Tbe h^ht of the
court to the tie-Beam is 30 ft., the height of the play-fine, above
which the ball must not go. 18 ft. at the sides and 23 ft. at the ends.
The roof of the penthouse, which is made of wood. Mooes dowmwmrda
towards the court, the bwer edge being 7 ft. i| ia. iiom the floor.
the upper 10 ft. 7 in., the width 7 ft. The iUusttmtiDoa show that
each of the walls has its own pecuUaritiea. The *' dedans *' Is aa
opening in the end wall on the service side, under the pentbooae.
where prevtatoa is made for specutors, who are p wH j e c ted fay a net.
It b SI ft. 8 in. in wkith; the upper edge is 6 ft. lO ia. from tha
floor, the kiwer edge 3 ft. \ in. The opening of the dedans is 4 ft.
6in. fromthemainwau, sfL6in. fromthecuieffsideWaO. Looking
from the dedans {j^. from the service side), the right-hand or main
wall faasoae pecuharity. the " tambour." a doping buttssas to form
which the wall is boilt inward, redudag tbe breadth of that pant
of the court to 30 ft. a in. In the right-hand comer of the haxard
side end wall (as viewed from the dedans) is the " grille." an (^>eninc
lined whh wood. 3 ft I In. square; and on thb wall is paintevi a
continuation of the " pass-line.** The left-hand «-aD. akog wlucb
runs tbe pent-house, b not continoous. being broken by a hxig opesi-
ing between the floor aad the penthouse simuar to the dedans, and at
he same height from the ground. The low walls under this opening
nd the dedans are calkd the " batteries." There b no wall im
-ont of the " marker's box." through whiA the court is eatev^d
I cidker aide of the net-post. Thb fang opening in the I ti t h aL»d
an b divided into ** gaOnies ** and " doors.** the btter «tiiat«ti
here the entrances to the court used to be in eariy ^nca.
tasorements In order from the dedans are as foRows. the r
The
the galleries being oouatad from the net: Service ride— last gaBery,
t,6in.; secoodganCTy.9ft-6lB-: door. 3 ft- 6 m. ; fintgrf^y ,
t. 8 in.; marker^ t»ox or fine^opening. 7 ft. ro In.: baaard side —
ft gallery, S ft. 8 la.: door, 3 ft. 6 in.; iecoodgaBery.9ft « aaa.s
TENNIS
627
ei5l
mi
Th
; t
lato out o( thei
ooont were otbi
boanl9(t.by t
Uom or U inm, i
of that waB. AIM
poc St cadi cad
wMs pAuiled on
•D the vaUs.
I oai playei
fo/ra, **Soonag
8 in. from the n
vmll. The recti
the "eervke^d
rbe
the
the
leh
tm
kk
wd
id$
ide
The coet of a tcanu-couit ta about iaooo.
i%e JmpUmenU. — ^The balls, for which there are no regulation
dfaaensiona, weigh 2^ ot. and are a^ in. in diameter. They are n^ade
olatripa of cloth, ao twine being used except to keep theoetiide layer
Bt I %fmf fro* Uoi if it ia allowed to etfifce the eqd walls
th se being the effect of twist from a back-hand stroke.
" a eeriee of etrokes between the two player*. "Service":
th itrofce of a " rest." The server may serve from any part
of irt on the service side. The ball must strike the roof of
th peMhouse, aad fall within the seivice<ourt. " Fault ":
a , aeryed that it either does not touch the side penthouse,
or Mitside the service-court.' " Pass ": a service in which
th. ...^ drops beyond the pasa-line; the service in this case does
not couatk but a ^ paia "^ does not aanul a previous fault, as was
onoe the caee. "Force"; to strike the ball hard; a hard-
hit stroke. " Volley "; to strike a ball in iu flight (d la 9oUe)
before it has touched the floor. " Half-volley '*: to strike a ball
immedUtely after it touches, and before it rises from, the floor.
*' Nick "i the angle whcie the floor and waOs meet. " Marker ":
the attendant who marks and calls the chasea and other pocnta
Scoring and Handkapting.''h. outch coosuta of three or five
"^sets "; a " set '* of Heven gamesi The winner of six games
wins the set. If a player wins six games consecutively he wins a
" love set," even thoun hia opponent may have won several game»
The loser of a loveaetrby an old custom, gives the marker a shilling
Should the score be called "Five games all," the phyers may
arrani^ to play a " vantage game." the set in that case not being
wen till ode «* other haa won two games in succession. A game
From the Hazard Side. From the Service Side.
Tenni»<ourt at Crabbett Park. Sussex, belonging to the Hon. NevIUe Ltytton.
in place, and are cohered with white Mellon doth. The Amerfean
beUa, made of layers of ooaon and doth ahersately. are somewhat
lighter and slower than the English, A aet ,of balb condtsts of six
or seven doten; the same set should not be «acd twice in a day.
The racquet is usually about 37 in. long and weighs about 16 oz.
The bead is about 9 in. long and 6 in. broad, but there are no restric-
tfcMM aa to aiae or weight. The head ia somewhat pear-ahaped» but
iM$ centre tine does not torrcafMod with the centre-hne of the handle,
as it is curved upwards to faciliute the stroke when the ball is
taken close to the floor. The earliest ractiuets were strung diagonally.
ijt, in diamonds; later the present vertical-horizontal stringing
■wna adopted, then followed knottina at the potnu of interaection;
bat nowthe knotting has diaappcared. The nanenicflarl (or lacket)
Appears in French as racquftU and in ItaMan as racduUa, It is
variously derived from Latin retiadata (netted)j Dutch racjteu (to
atretch), later Latin racMa (palm of the hand or wnst). or the Arabian
tdkai (palm of this hand): m favtoar of the two last derivatkms is
dm iact that tennis is M devetopment of a game orig'mally playsd
-with the hand, protected by a leather gk>ve, and bter on strings
were stretched vioiln-fashion across the palm, to give more power
to the stroke. Then followed a wooden bat {bamir), and then a
ehort-handkd lacquct, either strung or covered irith parchment.
Ajad finally the snodcm impknent.
Ttdutical rfrfiu.<— Some of these have slready been explained,
but the following may be added. *' Bisque ": tbe4>rivile^ given
as a form of odds, of scoring a stroke during anv pan of the ^me.
encept after the delivery of " service " or after a '' fan* " "
to hit the haU on. to the side wall first.
with thr head of t
'boast
* Cut "1 to strike the ball
.,. .. .J the racqaet heU at an anale to the bajl'a CQurae
instead of meeting it with, the fuU face, thus causing backward
TDtatkm of the ball (similar to the "screw " in biltUrds). which
alters its natuial rebound from the waU. "Twist": anak>gous
to "out," but the atrincs are dnuwa across the ball at the moment
of impact, so as to make it rotau sideways. A ball so struck with
a fore-hand stroke twists inwards towards the other player oif the
s onfinarily of four winning' strokes, called by the marker
_ .ifteen." ''^Thirty," "Forty," "Game"; if the score is
" fort^-all," the marker calls *^ Deuce," and two strokes have tp he
won in succession by one of the players. When one has won a
stroke hb score is called ** Vantage ''; if he wins the next, he mins
the game; if he loses it, the score reverts to deuce. The scone of
the pbver who won the last stroke or made the last diase is called
first. In handicapoing the usual odds are (t) bisqnea, which may
also be given in aoaition to other odda. or to balance odds received;
(3) hall-fifteen, or one point to be taken at the beginning of the
second and every alternate game; (3) fifteen, or one point m every
game; (4) haH-tldrty, or one point in every odd game and two
points in every evea game; (5^ thirty, or two pointa ia every
^ame; (6X hall-forty, or two poiata in every odd fame and three
incverv even game; (7) forty, or three pointa m every game.
Other handicaps are:^" Round services," the giver of odds laving
to serve ao that the ball hits both the side and end penthouse:
" half the court, " the giver of the odds confining his strokes, except
service, to one side of the court as divided by the half-court Hne^
a stroke played into the other half countii^ to his advtrsairy;
" touch no waBs," the giver of odds confimi^ hia play except
service to the floor; " bar the openings," the giver of odds losing
a point if his ball goes into a aaUery or into the dedans or grille;
"bar ^-inning openings." whicn are dosed to the river of odds^
who loses a point if the ball enters them; " side walls." the giver
of odds losing a point if he playa the ball on to any side wall, the
end penthouses being open to him. and the dedans and grille. In
these ** cramped " odds the rules do not apply if the ball goes out
of limits after the second bound.
Th€ Ganu and Hinlt cm PUy.—Tht players dedde who shall
serve by spinoing a nta|uet on iU hea4- Or^ '*
other calls " rough " or •• smooth," the " ft
hrad of the racquet showing the knots of
626
TENNIS
BtringB. - The winner takes the service side, service being an
advantage. He serves from any part of the court, and in any
way lie thinks best, and the ball must go over the net, stcike
the side penthouse, and fall into the service-court (see " Fault "
and *' Pass "). His opponent C striker-o«t ") tries to return
the ball over the net before it has touched the ground a second
tiine; he may volley or half- volley it For a stroke to be
" good " it must be made before the second bound of the ball,
and the ball must go over the net (even if it touches it), and
must not strike the wall above the phy-line, nor touch the roof
or rafters. The first point to be attained is to be sure of getting
the ball over the net, the next to do so in such a way as to
defest the opposing player^s attempt to make a "good" stroke
in return.
It often happens that a player, either intentionally or from
inability, does not take or touch a ball returned to him over
the net. In this event, chiefly on the service side, a ** chase "
(in Italian caecia, in French chasse) is made, the goodness or the
badness of which depends upon the spot on the floor which the
ball touches next after its first bound. The nearer this spot
is to the end wall the better the chase. The chase lines are
numbered, being one yard apart, the shorter lines representing
the half-distance. The chases are noted and called by the
marker. Thus if a ball fell on the line marked 4, he wouM call
" chase four "; if between 4 and 3, he would call " Better than
four " if it feU nearer to 4 than the short line, and " Worse than
three " if it fell on the short line or between the short line and
3; for if the baU fall on a line the striker is credited with the,
better stroke. Strokes into, the galleries and doors, with the
exception of the winning gallery (last gallery, hazard side)
coiint as chases. The making, or, in tedmical language, the
"laying down" of a chase does not immediately affect the
fccore: it has to be won first, i^. the other player tries to nuJce
a better chase; if he fails, the original maker wins. For this
purpose after two chases have been laid down (or one, if either
player's score is at 40) the players change sides, e.g. if X has
been serving and Y has laid down two chases, Y becomes the
temr and tries to defend them, X to win them by making the
ball fall nearer to the back wall after its first bound than Y did.
Either player wins-(he-«hase if he ** finds "-(i.e. hits the ball
faito) one of the winning openings, or if his opponent fails to
make a good return. The winner of the chase scores .a point.
The chases are played off in thai order in which they are made.
Should ^ in trying to win a chase make the same chase as
Y originally laid down, the chase is off and neither side scores.
In France the chase is played again. The " rest " goes on till
one of the players fails to make a good return, or deliberately
leaves the ball alone in order that his opponent may lay down
a chase (a procedure to be followed at the discretion of a player
in whose judgment the chase will be a bed one), or lose a d^se
already laid down and in the course of being played off. Either
player can score, there being no " hand-in " or " hand-out "
at at racquets,' A point is sccMred by that player whose opponent
fails to inake a good return stroke in a rest, or who strikes the
hall into a winning opening, or wins a chase, or to whom two
faults are served in succession. A j^yer loses a stroke who
Strikes the ball twice, or allows it to touch himself or his clothes.
" He who would cxo
is the dkhtm of an amat
the difference between 1
onl^ be explained by
Variety is all-inaFwrtant
is most \'aluable in defe
be heavily " cut." Foi
for all purooses, the " i
to make the service d
floor. In attempting 1
it is better for the ball
allows the cut to act.
to perfection, if possibli
sk>n. Agabi. the teaM
f ftrni the racquet arrol
yood teacher: bj»i|is
iB an important petat of etfc uwjtla ' it b not "cornet ** to foiee
for the dedaaa when the striker m dose to the net, unlen the f oacc
is " boasted *' or there is no danger of hitting his oppooeoc la
some clubs such a stroke is forbiciden by a by^w. bome modern
players play a faster and harder game tnan their predecessors, wbo
coasideted strokes " on the floor," is. carefully judged chase*, to
be the true feature of the game; but in any case the bi^inacr
should renember that it is better to save his breath and to trust
to winning an easy chase by-sjid«by than to run after a hdod-hit
stroke, which if left alone would kave " c^ase the door " or " sccovid
galkxy " to be played for afterwards. Similariy in defendiag a
chase, he shouM renember during the rest what that chase is, and
not endeavour to return a stroke which would have lost it. Chases
set as breathing-spaces, cspectslly to the player who can trust to
hb skill "on the floor," and these, toi^ho' with good service,
form the reason why men can play tennis, aad pby it wcU. at a
time of life when cncket, racquets and other active games have te
be abandoned.
History.— Tennb may well he called a royal ganse, havwg
been popular with various kings of England and France, though
it b fanciful to connect it with Homor's Nausicaa, princess of
Phaeada (Odyss. vi. X15), who b represented by hiin as throw*
ing, and not as hitting the ball to her mai(b of honour. lathe
ball-games of the Greeks and Romans we
may see the rudiments of the French feu d$
paume, which b undoubtedly the ancestor
of modem tennb in a direct hne. The
origin of the name b quite obscure. Some
give a numerical derivation from the fact
that la UmgHe paume was played by ten
players, five on each side; others regard it
as a corruption of tamis (sieve), for in a
form of la paume the server bounced the
ball on a deve and then struck it: there
b no possible reason for connecting
" tennb " with the term Tenob, or Senob;
most probable b the derivation from
Venal (Take iti Phyl), especially when
we remember the large number of French
terms that adhere to the game, e.g., grille,
tambour {drum, from the sound on the board
that formed the face of that buttress) and
dalans. Further, s poem dealing with the
game, written in Latin degiacs by R.
Frissart, makes the striker cry " Excipef'* \
(Take itO after each stroke: thb seems to
correspond with the custom which enjoins
the racquet-marker to call " Play " when-
ever a legitimate stroke has been made.
In the "Alenad" of Anna Comnena
(about A.D. 2120) b a reference to a game played on horseback
in which a staff, curved at the end and strung with strings of
plaited gut, was used. Thb game was played in a court called
" a court for goff {sic)" (according to the lactam ef Atexanirim
Creek), and some similar game, corrupted through kJtangan into
ckicam, was pUyed in France. In aj>. 2300 the game was abe
known as La boude, Throughoat the centory indeed it was
pbyed in France and by the highest in the land: thus Lonb X.
died from a chill contracted after playing; Charles V. was
devoted to the game, though he vainly tried to slop it as a
' the lower dasies; Charies VI. watched the game
Dm where he was confined during ha attack of
] Du Guesdin amused himself with it during the
in. In England thegame, or some form of it. was
lucer possibly alluding to it in the worda ** But
rca racket to and fro "; and hand-ball, which may
ither tennb or cricket, was proscribed with other
iward IIL in 1365. In France the game was pio>
Jests in aj>. 1245, and also in 1485^ i5x« and 1673.
tear of a woman named Margot, who was a skOfol
her forehanded and backhahded strokes being
hence we may infer that the racquet had now
ced. Tennb was at thb time frequently pkycd in
Ibnn in the moats of castles, wtiere Charies VIIL
ch the game. Henri II. b described as the best
Tennb Racquet.
TENNIS
629
(Slayer in France, and worthy of the stiver ball given to <be
finest players. Later, Henri IV. and Louii XIV. (wbo kept a
regular ^ staff to look after bis court) weie patrons and playoa
of tennis; indeed, in Henri IV. 's reign so popular was tlie sport
that it was said that there were *' nuMe tenms-players in Paris
than drunkards in England" ; in the i6tlr ceatuiy Paris alone
could boast of 950 courts, yet it is stated that in 187^ there
were only six courts in the whole o( France. The word *' tennis "
— the game having hitherto been described as iuem j^ilae-'ii
first found in Cowcr's "Balade unto the wortliy and noble
kynge Henry the fourth " (1400), but Shakespeare's allusion
to tennis as known to Henry V. must not be omitted. In reply
to messengers from the dauphin, who had sent him a present
of tennis-balls by thrir handily Mmsy' saya.^~
" When we have niatch'd Our taxSketa to these halls.
We witl» in France, by Cod's g^ace, play a set
Shall stnke hts father's crown into tne nasard.
Tell him he hath made a match with such a wrangler
That all the courts of France will be disturb'd
With chases.''
^(/Vbwy K.. Act i.. sc. ».>
Even if it be an anachronism that the poet should ptft these
tochnical terms into (he king's mouth, "yet the fact is estab-
liahed' that the terms wene familiar in Elizabeth's time.
Hcniy VIL indeed both played the game and revoked the edicts
that foibaft it; there was a court at Windsor Cftstle in his
time, an open oouit with four bare- walk, no penthouse, ftc,
being visible, and connected with the palace by a covered way.
This court still ented in 1607. It was m that t«ign, possibly
io that oouft, that the king of Castile played a match with the
marquis of Dorset, the king, who used a racquet, conceding
'* fifteen " to the mavqnis, who played wfth his hand. The
king won the set. Henry VIII. probably built the court at
Hampton Court Palace. In t6ts there were further courts in
London of various sizes, and a picture of James ,n. as a boy
represents him standing in a tennis-court lioltiing a short-
handled ncqaet, strung diagonally. Pepys frequently aDudes
to tennis at a tine whta there were two courts at Oxford and
five at Cambridge. Though the game ffeurished in the r^th
century, it lost some of Its popularity, mainly through the
demoUtipB of coutts as building opeiations increased; more*
over, courts complete^in every detail alone were built, the play
being eonscquently cotifined to the membets of the clubs that
could afford the ctpense. The last of the old courts to dis-
appear stood io Windmill Street, at the top of the Haymaiiiet,
London^ Ring Edwaid VII., whc» pfhice of Wales, frequently
played tends at ^ Prince's'* Coott.
Tbe evotatibn of the couit as now bnih is not ea^ traced,
but oemta UHtonbCedly existed side by side wUch differed
from each other both in dietail and in dbnensions. It is generally
aSDined thai sbdi details as the penthouse, grille, galleries, &c.,
were deliberately pUnned to elaborate the game, but it is not
unreasonable to suggest that the game, played , as it must often
have been, in eitemporiaed courts, took some c^its modsficatioos
from them: it is at least significant that in an old iOustration
of fa piumm a ndniature penthouse appears <from which the ball
I is roOfaii^; apparently a shelter for a be&. The net does not
appear tUI the 17th century, a rape, fringed or tasseOed« being
^ stretched across the court: furtlier, the racquet was not in
oniveraal use in 1597, feiMe Erssmus in his CMopdes says,
'* ReUeuimm (net, or racquet) piscctarihtts rdinquomusr ek-
tmUiu$ i$t fdhM uU." ' An ItaBan, Antonio Scamo de Sslo, is
' the fint biMiogrspher of tennis. In his Trattato delta PaUa
\ (treatise on the Ball) he mentions a large court for tbe game as
\ played with a racquet, and a small cottrt for the hand-game.
' The laife court was 121 ft. long; it was entered by two doors,
' one between the first and second galleries on either side 6f the
^ net; there were four galleries on each side; ' the dedans ex<
tended aetoss the whole width of the court? the tambour was
^ there and two grilles. De also mentioned chases, but these
' were decided by tbe place where the ball finally stopped, the
\ spot being marked by a small movable standard. In another
kind of court he says that there was no tambour, but two grilles.
Hie penthouse was somethnes confined to two walls, somelfimci
to one, the end wall Service skle. In the hand-court one side
was opeor all its length, with the exception of tlie battery and
some piuars that perhaps gave variety to the stroke. The
Latin poem to which alhision has been faiade shows the similarity
of the 17th-century game to the modern: the racquet fis spun;
tbe marker {HgM$or) is there to mark the chases (mefae) with
the movable sUndard; there is the grille {Jeneslra)\ the
scoring by. *' 15, 30, 40, game"; the voUey (vo/ofo htierey,
the nick {peH ludere, Frtnch au pkd); the appal to the
spectators; the board (tatella, Frendi- /'aii) : deuce aad vantage,
aiid the penthouse. In the isth aUd xoth centuries tennis-
balls were no fairgely imported from France that the Iron-
mongere* Company, who were the English manufactures, twice
petitioned*— the last time in isgi^for "protection" in the
matter of balls. The term " bisk ** (bisque^ originally bisqitaye)
does not appear in EAg^ tennis till 1697 (Sbadwell's True
Wid&m), nor is the Winning gallery mentioned before 1767. In
tbe t7th century tennie became a spectacle in France, and the
professional player came into existence, the most famous of
that time being Le Pape, Clerg€ and Servo, and about the same
time was formed the gild of Pouhnffs-racqudiers ' (manu*
facturen of tenhis material) with its arms, " Sable, a tennis-
racquet proper; !n a cross four tennis-baUs of tbe aame."
De Garsault, writifig m 1797, says, " La Paume is the only game
that can take raftk in the list of Arts and Crafts," aind Ms- book,
Uaft du Paumier-RacqueHer, was adopted by the AcadlmU
Rffyaie. In France very large sums m money were, wagered
on the game, especially at the end of the i6ih century, the stakes
being deposited under the cord or net, while in England, about
1750, there was so much betting and swindling, especially by
ptofessional phiyers, that the game as pteyed in the public
courts fell mto disrepute. In the middle of the 19th Century,
tennb-courts were rare indeed m England, the best known
being those of the Marylebone Cricket Dub (built fn i8j8), of
the Messrs Prince in Hans Place, S.W., besides one at Bi^hton,
one at Han&pton Court, two at Cambridge, and one at Oxford;
but the game progressed so fast that in 191 o there were between
thirty and forty courts in England, one eadi in Ireland and
Scotland, five in America, six in France, one in Melbourne
(Australia) and one ia Tasmania. The game has disappeared
in Italy, Germany, Austria and Spain, though in Spam it waff
popular in the days of Philip III. (X578-162X) who was himself
fond of pfaiying.
The great French players mentioned above were foQbwed by
others — Cabasse (who invented the ''boa&tfd force" known
as the coup de Cabasse), BarceDon, Faxolaib and Barnion, and
in the x8th centnry the Cbamicrs, Bergeron and Masson, the
bst-named a leajly great player who coidd give fifteen to any of
his contemporaries. One of ha feata was to stand in a barrel
before receiving tbe service, spring out of it and into it before
and after etich strolce. Other good players of later date were
C. A. I>elabaye, and greatest of all, J. E. Barre, who in 1855
reopened the Versailles court, famous for the meeting of
the Tiers £iaS on the 20th of June 1789, which body there
assembled and took the celebrated " Oath of tiie tennivcourt."
Masson is supposed to have visited England in 1792 and to
have pbyed against Messfs Hawkins and Price, and a professional
called Pillet (or Pilet); but of Barre's visit there can be no
doubt, as hf played on the new court of the Marylebone Clubia
1839, meetfaig " Peter " Tompkins, the English dnunpion, and
beating him so seveifely that when they met again next year
Tompkins received the odds of thirty and a bisque. As an in-
staace of the meagre interest taken in tennis at t^ time, Julian
Marshall in his Afmaie of Tetmis states that in BOPs JJfe, the
leading sporting paper, Barre is reported as playing C^x and
Tompkins " giving 7! for a bisque," the tennis term " half
fifteen " being arithmeticaUy rendered. C. G. Ta-i- •«<* «^n
cricketer, was one of the best amateurs, abouf
eventually resigned the championship in
Lambert, who was beaten in 1885 by T.
U.S.A. Athletic AssodaUon, an Englishn
TENNYSON
tW
ftssisx wmmm^ ^f
f&e VIM,
ti^dttmtmm << the
la »|a< C F«» (-
r^ 1 1% mrif f^^^ far ike
9^ ecWr pisfcr » the
to tae fiaiiriia #< rfciiM|>iMi Tke
fi^co byr Gu F, C0V17, cJk ■Hi-fc Ik the <
21 Bri^KMi « the «HB0 «f H((», beii« warn hj Fa
clMe faftii, m w^kk the yvoagrr pfert* ■" ■ ■^ n sets to
hi» w^nmMt'% aev«% aad Mty-thRe fOKS to fiftjHMe mb hy
M( wtaJ-iahed tiS x£3^ the — -e c Mfrd rhiwipiM bch« the
wiaacr «i the foid pcoe aaBsalj gmm bf the M aofcb o*^
Chckex O^ to ks fm^rT^. the ooa^cLxio* mA hai% mmie
" «pes " tJk ti^. Fat ifuca ]P«aa» Ixoa iMj to iJti, .
y U, Ueaihcaiu held the tJiie, mmw thow vhas he ddaud
dchaf that pcrmf hcaif aach iae tesBaa-piajco as Joiiaa
ManhaA C, B. Ccnrier, the Ham. C a LfUthom IzbaimAi
Laid Cobhaai j , R. D, Wa&cr, C £. Boyie, aad the Hm. Atficd
Lftuktm, la x^Si A, LjrudtMi deigat«^ Hcathcote, makf to
he bcatea aesi year bjr hkm, amA to beat has ia taea ia 1XI4 ,
aad «Ms; Ua m tS$6 Hfathcote (thea hitjr-thnec yeats ai aft;
«a» agaia fhtiaptna Fnat 1M7 to iB^s iadasve the Hoa, |
A. LfUthaa was chaaipjoa, defeatiac <iada« thit time (bcsades
Bcaihci>U) A. |. Wchfae, Sir £d«axd Grey aad IL £. Cawity. <
Cf ey'* pencr e c a wce — he aoa the mhnx prise oa « ncciiiiina
waa rewarded with the gold priac ia g^g6, bat he was d'nfKwatneti
fia 1S97 by E. H. MtM, who woji for the aext tea yeao, with
the excepcioa of 1900 whca he waa bcatea by J. B. Cribble
Oa lia oc ca aiOM dnriaf thb ieriea Sir Edward Caqr
to the ainatr.
af thawodl, wasfiornuay
aad Foeestcr.
i8q:,
Bw S dr Gannaufis,
» (chaapioa ol Gfttt
mkitud at Qutta'ft Chib, '
hcm» the wiAatn: —
iSa^. Sir E. Ctey-
l«90. E:. B. Curtis.
1891. Sir E. Grey.
1891. H. E. Crawley.
1893- H. E. Ciawley.
1894- H. E. Crawley.
1895. Sir E. Grey.
1896. Sir E. Grey-
1897. J. B. GffflbUe.
1898. |irE-C?y«
19001 E. H. MiksL
1901. E. H. Mika^
1907. E. H. MSo.
1903^ E. H. MOes.
1904. V. Pcxmril.
1905. E. H. \U',e%.
1906 E. H. Mi!«a.
1907. lay Gould.
1906. JayGoukL
1909. E. H. Miles.
1899L E. H. Milei. I 1910L E. H. Miles.
It taay be meatioaed that IfcathfWf aMi Lyttehoa, who
pcilixed Che Maryl^one Oab's eoU pnae foe twenty- '
were Mrict adbcvents to the old- fa ih i o o fd d a«ica l
winning and defending of chaaes aad \
boll beint the Icadiof featare of their (a
aitractivc style of play. uMuu t iag of bar
ia MUas's 6nt tucctm, which was foBoN
S»y Gould, ao Aa»erkan aoatear, who be:
•lap im 1907 aad again in 1908, owed fail
cl his style in the older and more taet
defcad fais title in 1909, wbea Miles a^na I
in bis abseace, a title which Miles again r
The ooiversitics of Oxford and Can
Biatches, two-handed and four-handed. <
caceptioa of 1864 whea aesther natch
ase played at the coort of the Marykbooi
Ttmh in Ammcc—Ytm tea]u»<oi
before 1880, about which time the I
Athletic AModation aad the New Yo
OttbwcrebuOt. There are now also coi
Lakewood and leveral other places, b«
pUyed by comparatively few penoos.
game, the
awi New Yod
ase fniiKt
m Tntma, Xadets, Fho. a
>i iv-suul erfiticMi (Loodos,
hy Emmxm Mfles (Londos.
(1S09-1893).
ithe6Ui
of Aa«iit X&19. Be was the fBOfth of tltf twcHjB chBdren of
the BcT. GeoKse Oijtaa Teaaysoa (177S-1S3X) and his vife
Ffcraherh Fytche a;Sx-«a6s;. The Teaaysom wcxc an old
fJ a ro hi Ain faaiOy aettk^ at Bayon's MaasL The poet's
graadfaflher, Gcomr Teaajjua^ M P^ kad <hsuiherited the poet's
father, who was settled hod by ia the acctaty at Sonenfey ia
fawsaroithe j i— g il l im . GhatfcsT t n a jFam lyEyeomt. The
rich pestocal accaery of tUs pan at liarsdaihiii isflwanfrh
fniagsiriw «f the hoy. aad b pbialy icflected ia aB his early
pactry, ihhongh it has aaw bees stated wkh Aisthodty that ik
locai^iies at ks sabjectpwT, which k '
tdraffaed wkh real hesaks aad giaag i w w
At a wcsy cady a^ he hegaa to wme ia piain aad wesse. At
Chnstnas Uns he was seat to the gnnaaai school at Loatli,
his Bother ha viae k*^ ^ * caaaesiaa widh this typical liacola*
shiR bona^u of which her iaiher. the Kcw. Stephen Fytche.
had heea vicaxi Teaagooa was at this school lor fi^ yean,
aad thea fctaraed ta Siwuhj to he tzaiaed hy his fathec. Ii
the rectory the boys had the raa of aa mrihai hbeazy. and
here the y^taa^ poet baaed his wide kaowiedgr of the Ea^
clasMca. The aews of Byroo's death (19th April 1A24) nade t
deep ia^wcssioa oa hin: it was a day, he said, ** whea the
whole wocid sccMed to be darheaed fior aae **; he weat oat ista
the waods aad carved "Byraa is dead **ipoa a rock. Temysoa
was already wriiiog cofwoosty — ** aa epic at 6aoo hacs " at
twchre, a dzaaaa ia Uaak verse at fcwntem. aad so oa: theie
ezerdbcs have, vciy properly, not beta priatcd, bat the poet
said at them at the chise of his lif^ "It seeae to ae, I wnu
ihea all ia perkct aMtrc." The faxaily was ia the habit of
sfwiMiiaK the somaaer holidays at the caosl of the csoaty,
commonly at hiafakthorpe, aod here Tcaajrsoa saiaed his im-
picsBaoas of the vastoess of the tea. FitaGctaki very jiatiy
attributed the t*«'^'^p» character of Tca^FOoa's ceaias la
the iaipicas kft oa his ifnagi'^^*''^ fay " oU Uaoolafihiir. whoe
there wesc aot only sxh gaod seas, hat aisasach iaehiBaad
dale amoQg the wolds."
Ia ZS37 Frederick Tcaayaoa (1807-189S), the cldesl sardnag
brother, anitiog with his yooaeer biothcfs Charles aad Alfnd,
poblisbed at Loath aa aavayims cnlhrtian of Faem* ky Tm
Brothers. The " two " we
i
TBNNYSON
631
«l mmatiB whidi iMvt teen highly pmimdJ In Jaae iBto
Alfred TennTson won the ChanctUor's priae mcdkl for his poca
called " Timhucteo." With great ivpcrfcctions, this sUidy in
Mihonic blank verse diiplajv the genius of a poet, in spiuof a
carious obscurity both oi thought and style. Here are ahtoady
.both nehness and power, alrbroigh their atpression is not y^
clarified by taste. Bat by this tine Tennyson was writing
lyiks of still hi^MT promise, and, as Xithur HaUam dily
perceived^ with an ^xttaotdinaiv earnestness in the worship of
bcaaty. The reaolu of this cnthusiassB and this Jaboinr of the
artist appeared in tho vofaune' of F§em9, cki^ Lyrkti, pub-
Bflhed in 183a This book wiMiki have been astonishing aa the
peodnctlDn of a youth of twenty-one, even if, sinoe the death of
Byron six years befsrey there had not been a singuhv dearth of
good poetry in EnghuiA Here at least, in the skader vofanne
of iSie, was a new writer revealed, aad in " Mariana," " The
Foet," '* Lo«« and Death," and " Oriana," a singer of mmdcrfnl
though stiU unchasteoed melody. Through these, and through
kia perfect ezampks, was exhibited an amariny magnificence
of fancy, at present inteffideatly under control, and a vohiptueus
pofuuft of imagery, tending to an over^sweeCness. The veteran
S. T. Coleridge, praising the gemua in the book, blamed the
metrical impeifectiaa of it. For this oritidsm he has himself
constantly been reproved, and Teanyson (whose hapatieooe of
anything like censure waa phenomenal) continued to resent it
to the end of his Itfe. Yet Cqkxidge was perfectly iust hi his
femark; and the. metrical anarchy of the '* Madelines " and
'* Adelines " of the r^so vohime showed that Teiuiyson, with
all his dehcacy of moduUtion, had not yet mastered the arts
of vorse.
In the summer of' 1830 Tennyson ond Haliam volunteered
in the army of the Spanish insurgent Tordjos, and a a a r ch ed
about a little in the Pyrenees, without meeting with an encaay.
Ho came back to find his father ailing, and in February i8ji he
left Cambridge for Somersby, where a few days later I>r George
Teanyson died. The new incumbent was willing that the
Tbuqraons should continue to live in the reaory, which they
did not leave until six years later. Arthur HaOam was now
betrothed to Emily Tennyson (afterwards Mrs Jesse, 18x1-^188^,
and stayed frequently at Somersby. Thii was a very happy
tsme, and one of great physical darelopment on Alfred's part.
He took his shase in all kinds of athletic exercises, and ft was
now that BrookfieM sakl, " It is not fair that you should be
Hercuies as well as ApoUo." This Ingfa physical sestin Uf eseenos
to have dechaed after 183 1» when hh eyes began to trouble him,
and he became liable to depression. The poetical work of these
three years, mainly spent at Somersby, was given to the world
in the volume of Poe»is which (dated 1833) appeased at the end
of 183s. This was ceruinly one of the most astonishinf re-
vdatioos of finished genius ever produced by a young man of
less than four^and-twcnty. Here were to be read ** The Lady
of Sbalott," " The Bream of Fair Women," " Oendne," " The
Lotea-£aters." "The PaUce of Art," and "The Miller's
Oanghter," with a score of other lyrics, dehdous anddivjne.
The advance in craftsmanship and command over the matiriel
of verse shown since the volume of 1830 is abaohitely astound-
iag. U Tennyson had died of the savage article wbfch presently
tk« n»M,M^^fy Rniew, literatoce wouki have sas-
'kis name would have lived for ever
t EagKsh poets. Indeed, it may be
ral directions, he ever suipassed the
nd in this most exquisite aad moat
ell that its publicatk>n was completed
Tennyson which took for a wbile all
August 1833 Arthur Haliam started
historian, for Tirol They went no
re Mr HaDam, returning to thehotd
1833, found his son lying dead on a
>roken in his bnin. His body was
\, and buried at Clevedoa on the 3rd
events affected Tennyson extreinely.
Idling to Come foncard «nd face the
worM; hb health hdcaaM ** variable aad hit spirita faidiffeitat."
The earlieat effect of HaUam's death upon his friend's art was
the compoeltioa, hi the sammer of 1834, of The Two Voius;
aad to the same period bekmg the beginnings of tbtMjUi «/
tk» Kimi aad of /• MmioHmi, over both of which be meditated
loag. In X83S he visitad the Lakes, and saw much of Hartley
Coleddge, but wouki not ** obtrude on thefrcat man ct Rydal,*'
aUhou# "Wordswonh was hospitably disposed." Careles
alike of fame and of influence, Tennyson spent these years
waaiafy at Somtnby, in a oalfona devotkn of his whole seal
to the ast of poetry. In 1^37, to their great distress, the
Tennysoas were turned out of the LincrJnshire rectory where
they had Uvtd so long. They moved to High Beech, in Epping
Forest, whkh was their honw until X840. The poet was already
ei«Bged, or " quasi-betrothed/' to Emily ScUwood, buf ten
years more had to paaa befoee they couM afford to many. At
Torquay, in t838, he wrote jf mttiy Ctfarf on one of Ids care ex-
cunioas, for he had no awney for touring, nor did he wish fm
change: he wrote at this time, ** I requite quiet, aad inyaelf
to myself, UMie than any nnan when I write." In 1840 the
Tennysoas moved to Timbtidge Wells, and a year later to
Boodey, near Maidstone, to be close to Edmund Lusfaingtoi>»
who had noii^ aMrried CecfUa Tennyson. Alfred was frsm this
time more a^ more frequently a vWtor in London.
In 184a the two-vohime editkm of his i^Mots. broke the ten
years' silence whkh he had eafoiced himself to keep. Here,
with many pieces already known to all lovers of modem verse,
were found rich and copious additions to his work. These he
had ofigihally intended to publish alone, and an earlier privately
printed Mtrtt dtArtktir, Dmt, end aCAer Idylist of 1849, is the
despair of book-ooUoctoft. Most of those studies of home-life
in Eagkad, wUch formed so highly popular a sectfcm of
Tennyson's work-«uch as "This Gaidener's Dau^ter,"
** WalUag to the MaO," and " The Lord'of Burleigh "--were
now first issued, aad. In what we have grown to consider a
much higher order, "Locksley Hall," "Ulysses," and "Sir
Oatahad," To the older and more hunrioas lyrics, as reprinted
in 1849, Tennyson dkl not spare the cutting and prunhig hand,
and in some cases went too far ia restraining fht wanton spirit
of beauty in its youthful impulse. It is from 184a that the
universal fame of Tennyson' must be dated; from the time of
the publication of the two volumes be ceased to be acurioslty,
or the darling of an advanced clique, and to^ his pbce as the
leading poet of his sge in England. Anung the friends whom
he BOW nude, or lor the first time cultivated, were Carlyle, Rogers,
Dickens, and Elisabeth Barrett. Material dificulties now,
however, for the first time intruded on his path. He became
the victim of a certain ** earnest-frothy " speculator, who in-
duced him to sell his little Uncofaahire esUte at Grasby, and
to invett the proceeds, with all his other money, and part of
that of his brothers and sisters, Ina "Fstent Decorative Carving
Company": in a few months the whole scheme ooUapsed,
and Tennyson was left penniless.- He was attacked 1^ so
overwhelming a hypochondria that his life was despaired of,
and he was placed for some time under the chaige of a hydro-
pathic physician at Cheltenham, where absolute rest and
isolation gradually brought hhn round to health again. The
state of utter indigence'to whkh Tennyson was reduced greatly
exercised his friends, and in September 1845, at the suggestioa
of Henry Haliam, Sir Robert Peel was induced to bestow on
the poet a pension of £aoo a year. Never was public money
expended in a more patriotic fashfon. TennysonV hedth
slowly became restored, and in 1846 he was hard.at work on
The Frineess; fai the autumn of this year he took a tour ia
SwitzerUnd, and saw great mountains aad such " stateliest
biu of Undskip " for the first time. In 1847 nervous prostra-
tion again obliged him to undergo treaimar'— »— *Hury:
" They icD me not to read, not to thi' ''s
well teH me not to Uve." Dr GuBy'i
with success. Tiie Frhut$9 was now pu
wards considerably modified and added
OenU " gave up all hopes of him a:
630
leaxat.
in 188
Saundc
Pcttitt
in Ma)
tbe tit
challer
the ch
Amerii
lacquc
chaUei
challer
in 19c
challer.
to the
1910 b
at firi^
close c
bis<^{i
the ch.
not est
winner
Cricket
"open-
J. M.H
during t
Marshall
Urd Col
Lyttelton _
be beaten , ^ . •• ar i- :;:— — __
and 1885; - •^- — ^ . '~'~^ '^' T — -
was again - - .- «. . J " ~ •• -^s' "«_ _
A. Lyttelto - " ^ ^ ^ ^' " - - -^'s:.-— ^_ ::^
Heathcote) . , - ^ .^l^ — »_ ^i-^r^ ,sr-
Grey's perse
was rewarded _
in 1897 by E - - .""... ^ ^*' ^- — ^
the exception , - , , ,. ,"'"''-- i ~ J~^ «^ -««: := J
On six occasion *'*'-'-*'""- ^=^'v«rr -»-». s .1
to the winner. . " • . . •. ^ , **--... -^^^ «. ^^^^ ^ , . .. . -|
In 1880 the am ' - •" ' . . . , , " " - ^ ^ '^ ^-^ ^ rx:^ ]
instituted at Queen - * • , --y. • , , '*••-," "^^-^-^ - m :- *• -^.]
•hows the winners:— * y.^ ^^.^ 4m. '**•-. " -*=^ ^'-*ti_ • -
1889. StrE. G " -^ »^m-mm^ »^ «» ^', . . ^ ' " -. ^ _ *- - cj_-- r=-»— »— ^ . ..
1890. E. B. Cui Mtatm # ^^^
1891. Sir E. Grc, '**• ' ^^
189a. H. E. Crawi _ ^_
1894. H.E. Crawley. ^ * ^X-^TZT^. / ^^- i. ^_
189$. Sir E. Grey.
1896. Sir E. Grey.
1897. J. B. Gribble.
1898. Sir E. Grey.
1899. E- H. Miles.
It may be mentioned that Heathcote <r
polized the Marylebone Qub's gold pria . «^ *.'"-"', ' *^''-^ "^-•^ v~"
were strict adherents to the old-fashiont g^ ^ ^ ' ' "-^j , *^ ^s 2--l.ir^^ -
winninff and defending of chases and the \ . * - - "'""y y^^ ^ *^'-T'^^ — dn-na to i
ball being the ■ " "* -^ ^' ^T*^ ^^^ it It:
attractive styl ^ -^^"^^r^r-,^ . j
in Miles's fir* • :-» tor?^ ^ *"*
Jay Gould, an tie *-n!!:H** ^^^
ship in 1907 a t - . r**"'^*caiioo '
snip in 1907 a t -^ . r^^*-**
of his stvie in , ^^ lus i|-™„_. ,
defend hi!» title ^ Aprfl ^8l^?'> ,
in his absence. ^o»e IrfL - * *® ^^ '
The univcn Bd hiii i^' "* * 1^-
before x88o, er. din '*^**^-
Athletic Asso< "^ ol?*?^ *PP - 1
Qubwcrebui] «JI, *»^^i!***^ ^ -
Lakewood an< V n^«ir\ N^o::-
played by con NsirTi!**^ sr . |
tbnktoon;
f>3%
X
~=tte nming wamtoBc ht Umvdhd in ijemmy- The
-*ped by wicb inckkaU bat ie» and sUiht, Ttanyaaa's
•>y in Gmt Briuin growing «11 the time to an extent
Med in the ivfaole muvIs of £ngMrii poetiy. This
-Uty of fuae led to oonsideimble piactied discomfort;
- ttesicged by sightseeia, and his nervous trepidation led
'- ~ lups to exaggerate the intensity of the bfliction. In
"=- '< dotermiaed to make for bimsell a haven <tf refuge
: -^the mvndii^ Pkilistiae, and bought some land on
-=- awn, above Haslemere, then a secluded comer of
' . zs; here Mr (afterwards Sir) James Knowles b<«an to
- - — am a hovae, yltinately named Aldworth. This is the
two of his Baae, privately printed pamphlets, Tke
— K or, tke Loves of tke Wrau (1867), and Tke VkHm
-=L The noble poem LucteHms, one of the gfMtest of
son's versified nw>oo9nphs^ appeared in May 1868, and in
-tf Tkf^ Holy Grail waa at last fiaishcdi it waspobUifaedin
L 'gethcr with three other idyls beloi^ing to the Arthurian
id various miscellaneous lyrics, besides LmreHue, The
^=:r«n of thi^ volume was coidial, but not so univcnaUy
T «ul as that which Teni^yion had grown toeqxa from hb
public. The fact waa that the heightened repuUtion
4ming, and still more the sudden vogue of Swinburne,
^2. And Roasetti (i866>i87o), oonsiderabliy disturbed the
of Tennyson's moat ardent readers^ and exposad himself
— veier critidfin than he bad lately been accnstomed to
. He went on quite calmly, however sure of his mission
_. his music His next volume (1873), Garttk ond liyetU
te last TountamtiU, continued, and, as he then supposed,
^eATke Idylls of Ike King, to the great satisfaction of the
rho had found much difficulty in rounding off the last
— _ _ -s of the poem. Nor, as he was to find, was the poem yet
___ 'ted, but for the time being he dhmiswcd it from his mind.
_ i he was offered a baronetcy by Gladstone, and again by
^, _^ li in Z874; in each case the honour was gracefully de-
_ Believing that his work with the romantic Arthurian
. ^ras concluded, Tennyson now turned his attention to a
— nent of poetry which had Jong attcacted him, but which
^ 1 never seriously attempted— the drama. He put before
- ^ Kheme, which be cannot be said to have carried far,
'. . . 'f illustrating " the making of England *' by a. series of
__^ historical tragedies. His Queem Mary, the first of these
_, ^- cle-plays was published in 1875, and played by Sir Henry
_ . ; *t the Lyceum in 1876. Although it was full of admir-
^ " , Iraniatic writing, it was not theatrically well composed,
^ t failed on the stage. Extremely pertinacious in this
_ __ -*• the poet went on attempting to storm the theatre,
__ assault upon assault, all practical^ failures xmtil the
-^ th and last, which was unfortunatefy posthumous. To
/^ really succeeded on the stage would have given Tennyson
j^ gratification than anything else, but he was not permitted
- ^ 'e long enough to see this blossom also added to the heavy
nd of his glory. Meanwhile Barold, a tragedy of doom,
published in 1876; but, though perhaps the finest of its
1 .^" ~ "** dramas, it has never been acted. . During these years
\__,jy*on's thoughts were largely occupied with the building
_ ■ J^Wwonh. Hb few lyrics were spirited ballads ot adventure,
f—ied by an exalted patriotism— " The Revenge" (1878),
_7TlSJ ^^cfence of Lucknow" (1879)— but he reprinted and
' ~ "^ *y published his old suppressed poem, Tke Lover's Tale,
-- -^ a little play of his, Tke Falcon, versified out of Boccaccio,
^^^ produced by the Kendab at thca- theatre in the last days
*^J^79- Tennyson had reached the Emits of the threescore
^ ^"^ »nd ten, and it was tacitly taken for granted that he
f- ""^dd now retire into dignified repose. In point of fact, he
-' ^""i^. .»tarted on a new lease of poetical activity. In 1880 he
^^''"''2? ^^^ eadiest of six hnportant collections of lyrics, this
"ff? entitled BaUads and otker Poems, and conUdnkg. the
- ta^re and magnificent •• Rirpah." In 1881 Tke Cup and fa
^lLS^ ^wi»ie of May, two little plays, were produced
^flhout substantia! success in London theatres: the second of
f ^^h peihaps the least aoccessful of all the poet^ longer
i
Mt its lalluie aanoyed him unreaaonably. Tbk
determinatkm to be a working playwright, pushed on in the face
of critical hoslility and popular indiffereace, is a very cnrioia
tmk in the chacacter of Tennyson. In September i88j Tenny-
son and Gladstone set out on a voyage round the north of
Scotland, to OAagy, and across the ocean to Norway and
Denmark. At Copenhagen they were entertained by the king
and queen, and after much fdting, returned to Gravescnd: this
adventure served to cheet the poet, who had been in low spirits
siiKe-the death «f his favourite brother Charles, and who now
entered upon a phtse ol adakabk vigour. During the voyage
Cladatofie had deiemiaed to off^ Tennyson a peerage. After
some demur, the poet consented to accept il, bnt added, " For
ny own part, I »hatt legRt my simple name all my life." On
the xrth of Maich 1884 he took his icat in the House of Lords
aa Baron Tennywtt of Aldworth and Farringford. He voted
twke, but never spoke in the Houms. In the autunm of this
year his tragedy ol Becket was pubtished, but the poet at last
d e spai r ed of tbe stage* and disclaimed any hope of " meeting
the exigencies of our modem theatre." Curiously enough,
after his death Beckei was the one of all his plays which tsQioytd
a great suoces on the boankk Jn 1885 was published another
interesting miscellany, Tiresias end other Poems, with a poafr*
humoua dediaukm to Edward FiuGertld. la this volume, it
should be noted, Tko Idylls of tke King waa completed at last
by the publication of ** Balin and Balan "; it oontahied also
the luperb addrcm " To Virgil" Li April r886 Tennyson
suffered the kam of hk aeoood son, Lkmel, who died in the Red
Sea on his retnm from India. The untiring old poet was
stoadi^ writing <ui, and by x886 he had another collection of
lyrics ready, Locksley Hail Sixty Years After, Iec; hb «yei
troubled lum, but his memory and his intellectual curiosity
were as, vivid as ever. Late in 1888 he had a dangerous attack
of rheumatic gqut, from which it seemed in December that he
oDuld scascely hope to rally, but his magnificent oonstitution
pulled him through. He was past eighty when he published
the collection of new vcnes entitled Demeler and otker Poems
(1889), which appeared almost simultaaeouily with the death
of Browning, an event which left Tennyson a solitary figure
indeed in poetic literature. In X89X it was observed that he
had wonderiully recovered the high spirits of youth, and even
a remarkable portion of physical strength. His latest drama,
Tke Foresters, now received his attention, and in March r8ga
it was produced at New York, with Miss Ada Rehan as
Maid Marian. During this year Tennyson was steadily
coffsged on poetical compositwn, finaHing " Akbar's Dream,"
"Kapiolani" and other contents of the posthumous volume
called Tke Dcalk of Oenone, 189a. In the summer he took a
voyage to the Channel Islands and Devonshire; and even this
was not his latest excursion from home, for m July 1893 he
went up for a vbit to London. Soon after entering his eighty-
fourth year, however, symptoms of weakness set in, and early
in September his condition began to give alarm. He retained
his intellectual lucidity and an absolute command of his faculties
to the last, reading Shakespeare with obvious appreciation until
within a few hours of his death. With the splendour of the full
moon falling upon him, his hand clasping his Shakespeare, and
looking, as we are told, almost unearthly in the majestic beauty
of his old age, Tennyson passed away at Aldworth on the night
of the 6th of October 1892. Cymldine, the play he had been
reading on the last afternoon, was laid in his coffin, and on the
X 2th he was publUcIy buried with great solemnity b Westminster
Abbey. Lady Tennyson survived until August 1896.
The physical appearance of Tennyson was very remarkable.
Of his figure at the age of thirty-three Carlyle has left a superb
portrait: " One of the finest-looking men in the world. A great
shock of rough, dusky, dark hair; brigh* 1— ^a— «•— ^1 eyes;
massive aquiline face, most roassivr • of
sallow brown complexion, almost Ind' *c-
ally k)ose, free-and-easy, smokes in
Is musical, metallic, fit for loud la
and all that may lie between; speed
TBNORr— TBNT
.X *. fc #s. ;vi«»c«ed in advanced
4,J s,.-x J** M M tombre majesty.
\ . \ . «.v>^i ^vflictiy « temperament,
V ^ \ ,^^* .>^v^ ^muxirt in eatreme old age
^ ^^.... iMlMKWy mmI sweetneaa. Al-
. > ^«o««ikt<tl. Tfcnnysim was * veiy dofe
" ' "I* k.»i Ai the age of eighty hia dark and glowing
' \ * TxxN **-* »«roM. ewitinued to permit Wm to en|oy
* K s*.%««t« ul countiy Ule aiound him, both at Ald-
* v' ' * lilM^ l«k ol Wight. HIb Uftf written with admirable
''r'v r,i tM4* by hia son, HaUam, second Lord Tennyion,
I^* s. NiijiicU in two volumes m 1897.
\ th« lime of his death, and for some time after it, the
«»tbiu^stic wcognition of the genhis of Tennyson was too
rfctravagant to be permanent. A reaction against this eitrava-
mnct yf» perhaps ineviuUe, and criticism has of late been little
occupied with the poet The reason of this is easy to 6nd. For
an unusually long period this particular poetry had occupied
public and professional opmion, and all the commonplace
things about it had been said and re-said to satiety. It ladcs
lor the moment the interest of freshness; it is like a wonderiul
picture seen so constantly that it fails any longer to concentrate
attention. No living poet has ever held England^-no poet but
Victor Hugo has probably ever held any country— <|uite so long
under his unbroken sway as Tennyson did. As he recedes from
us, however, we begin to see that he has a much closer relation to
the great Georgian writers than we used to be willing to admit.
The distance between the generation of Wordsworth and
Colerklge and that of Bsrron and Shelley is not less— 4t is even
probably greatei^—than that which divides Keats from Tenny-
«on, and be b more the last of that great school than the first
of any new one The qualities in which he seems to surpass
his immediate predecessors are exactly those which should be
the gift of one who sums up the labours of a mighty line of
artists. He is remarkable among them for the breadth, the
richness, the substantial accomplishment of his touch; he has
aomething of all these his elders^ and goes farther along the road
of technical perfection than any of them. We still look to the
eariler masters lor supreme excellence in particular directions:
to Wordsworth for sublime philosophy, to Coleridge for ethereal
magic, to Byron for passion, to Shelley for lyric intensity, to
Keats for richness. Tennyson does not excel each of these m
his own spedal field, but he is often nearer to the particular
man in his particular .mastery than any one else can be said to
be, and he has m addition his own field of supremacy. What
this is cannot easily be defined; It consists, perhaps, m the
beauty of the atmosphere which Tennyson contrives to cast
around ha work, moulding it in the blue mystery of twilight,
in the opaline haze of sunsets this atmosphere, suffused over
his poetry with inestimable skill and with a tact very rarely at
fauH, produces an almost unfailing fllusion or mirage of loveli-
ness, so that, even where (as must sometimes be the case with
every poet) the thought and the imagery have little value in
themselves, the fictive aura of beauty broods over the otherwise
undistinguished verse. Hence, among all the English poets, it
is Tennyson who presents the least percentage Of entirely un-
attractive poetry. In his luminous subtlety and his broad
undulating sweetness, his relationship with Virgil has long been
manifest: he was himself aware of it. But he was also con-
scious that his exquisite devotion to mere lucidity and beauty
might be a snare to him, and a happy instinct was always
driving him to a study of mankind as well as of inanimate
nature. Few English writers have known so adroitly as Tenny-
son how to bend the study of Shakespeare to the enrichment
of their personal style. It should be added that he was a very
deep and original student of literature of every description, and
that the comparatively few specimens which have been pre-
served of his conversation contain some of the finest fragments
of modem appreciation of the great poets which wc possess.
Th'« * **■" '' consideration in any attempt made to sketch
who was above all other masters of recent
literature u artist, aad who must be studied fn the vast and
orbic fullness of hit accomplishment in order to be appreciated
at all. (E.Gl)
Alfred, Lofd Tnmyumf a Mmmi* (l8$7)> by Haflam, second
Banm Tennyson, is the authoritative aoerae for the poet's bio-
graphy. Mr R. H. Shepherd in hit Twnystmioma (i866)» tuppUed
a list of critidsmt on his worlc, and a bibliography issued aeparately
in 1896. Among the numerous books on the subject of hb Uie
and writings may be mentioned: A Ccmmentary oh Tennysoi^s
lu Memoriam (1901), by Prof. A. C Btadlr^ Caaon Rawnsley's
Memories of the Tonnysons (1900); Alfred Temnton (1901), by
Mr Andrew Lang; an eapay on " The Mission 01 Tennyson " in
Mr W. S. Lilly's Studies tn "Rdigion and Uteratute (j^o^^; and
The Life of Lord Tennyson (1904), by Mr A. C. Benson, who gives
a more cnCical erthnate of Uie poet than was pessU>lein the Memoir
by his son.
TBNOR (through Fr. and It. from Lat. tenor, holding on,
couiae, sense of a law, tone), a general course or dvection, the
drift or general meanmg of a statement or discourse, hence, in
law, the true purport and effect of a deed or Instrument The
most general ase of the word is, In music, for the highest kind
of the natural adult male voice. This use descends from the
Medieval Latin tenor, which was applied first to the chief
melody, the eanlut firmus, end then to the male voice to which
th e sfagi iig d this was assigned.
TBKREC {CeiOtles ennctfa/ttf), one of the largest representatives
of the mammalian order Inaectivora, the length being from
X3 in. to x6 in.; called also the taiDess ground-hog of Mada-
gascar, to which island it Is restricted. The coat consists
chiefly of bristles and hairs, with an admixture of flexible spines,
which in the young form longitudinal lines down the back; but
bi the adult they are limited to the back of the neck. The
general hue is brown tinged with yellow. FVom twelve to
sixteen young are produced at a birth, and twenty-one have
been recorded. In habits the tenrcc is fossorial and nocturnal;
its home is in the brush in the mountain regions, and in the cool
season, from May or June till December, it hibernates in deep
burrows. The long flexible snout is used to root up worms and
grubs, and ground-insects form part of its nourishment. These
animals are very fat when hibernation begins, and are then
mu^vahied for food by the natives (sec s5so Insectivora).
TENT. A tent is a portable habitation or place of shelter,
consisting in its simplest form of a covering of some textOe
substance stretched over a framework of cords and poles, or of
wooden rods, and fastened tightly to the ground by pegs.
Throughout the greater part of the interior of Asia the pastoral
tribes have of necessity ever been dwellers in lents — the scanti-
ness of water, the consequent frequent failure of herbage, and
the violent extremes of seasons compelling a wandering life.
Tents have also been used in all ages by armies in campaign.
In ancient Assyrian sculptures discovered by Layard at Nineveh
the forms of tent and tent-furnishings are similar to those which
still prevail in the East, and it appears that then as now it was
a custom to pitch tents within the walls of a city. The ordinary
family tent of the Arab nomads of modem times is a com-
paratively spacious ridged structure, averaging from 30 to 2$ ft.
in length, but sometimes reaching as much as 40 ft. Its covering
consists of a thick felt of black goat hair (cp. Cant. i. 5—" black
as the tents of Kedar "}i or sometimes of alternate stripes of
black and white disposed horizontally. The ridge or roof is
supported by nine poles dbposcd in sets of three, the central set
being loftier than those at each end, whereby a slope outward
is -formed which helps to cany off rain. The average height
inside at the centre b 7 ft. and at the sides 5 ft., and the cloths
at the side are so attached that they can easily be removed, the
sheltered end being always kept open. Internally the tent is
separated by a partition Into two sections, that reserved for
the women containing the cooking utensils and food. The
jowrt or tent of the Kiighia of Central Asia b a very capadous
and substantial structure, consbting of a wooden frame for
sides, zadiatiog ribs lor loof, and a wooden door. The sides
are made up of sections of laths, which expand and contJict in
lozenges, on the principle of lajy tongs, and to their upper
extremities ribs are lashed at regular intervals^ Over tbb
TENTERDHN, in- BARON-r^TENTERDEN
*35
fRKineworic ft httvy oovQin^ of fdt is tfarowB, wbmr u other
weighted down with stones or, when neeetsaxy, stitched together.
In Western countries tents are used chieff^ in military en-
campments, by travellers and explorers, and for temporary
ceremonial occasions and public gatherings. The material of
which they are composed is commonly a U^t linen canvas or
navy dock; but for tents of small siae stout cotton canvas ia
employed, befaig light, strong, elastic, and sufficiently water-
proof. These tents vary in size from a iow-pitched covering,
ander which a couple of men can with diflkulty creep, up to
spacious marquees^ in Which horticultural and agricultural
shows are held, and which can accommodate thousands of
persons.
The marquee is distinguished from the tent by being a ridged
structure, devoted to show and social uses; but tne humblest tent
made— the tetUe (Tabri or shelter tent of the French a r my is aho
ridged ia form. The inUt d^abH aHecds sleeping aeoommodataon
for six nneo; and coniats of a rope atrttdicd over three low polea
and fixed into the ground. Four separate squares of canvaa
buttoned together are thrown over the rope and pegsed to the
ground on each side so as to form a low ridge. Two otner squares
art naed for covering the ends, being thrown over the sbntHig
rope ends fay which the polaa are peggixi t0 the ground. Each oi
the six men using the lent carries one of the squares of canvas
besides his quota of the poles, rope aod pegs. In the British
anvice tentes dCabri are often improvised Sy fastening together
blankets or waterproof sheets over a stick. Tne gipsies and travel-
ling tinkers of England hav« an aqoally unpictcntiooe lent* which
oooMsts of a framework, of haael rods bent so as to^ form a aeries
of low ridges, the ends being stuck into the ground, and over this
frame blankets or other coverings are thrown and pegged down.
The aimfriest, but at the seme time the least eonvenient, of onMnary
tenti is the conical, consisting of a oeotral pole with lopes and
canvas Fadbting from it i^ an unbroken slo^ to the ground. -The
common army nell tent is of this type, but the conical roof ter-
minates at about i ft. 9 in. from the ground, and from it there hangs
vertically a curtain which is looady pegjped to the ground or looped
up to allow of the bee circulation of air when the tant is unooow-
|ied oc Che weather is^ favottrable. This forn^ however, coven
much ground in proportion to the acconunodation it affords, as the
space round the circumference is of little value. A tent, therefore,
which has sides or a fall b a much more con ve nien t strocture.
Hw oonnierpBrt of the conical is the pynunidal tent, the (our
eiiual sides alopiag to the gnwad: and this fotyn with a fall or
skies makes the square tent, which is both convenient In shape
and firm. In structure. Snult tents are also made, modified from
the Arab form, with a central pole and two lower lateral poles.
In the umbrella tent the roof is supported by a set of ribn which
rsdiate fnun the pole, precisely as the cibe of an umbrella spread
outfrom the stick* ^
The teats and marquees m use ia the British army are the follow-
ing; The bell tenu (single or double thickness) 16 ft. in circum*
ferenoe, aocommodatina m active service 5 officers, 7 sergeants or
15 men each; the Indnan general service tents, of various sizes,
square with pyramidal roofs, the Indian " E.F.'* and " Staff*
nts* " tents, which are much roomier than the tents used in
on active service, "hospital marquees*' and "operating
In former wars» when snail professional armifs were employed
«Ad it was customary to pay extraordinary attemton to the soldier's
comlorts, the train 01 an army Included a full tent equipment, which
helped to diminish the already small degree of mobility of which
it was capable. Under the Revolution and Napoleon, and generally
in the I9ih oentfiry, the system of housing annes in the field under
canvas was practically abolished (except at lei^rds morc^ or less
rough Unta d'abri) and replaced by that of biUcts and bivouacs.
The strain entailed upon the transport by complete tentaee may
be judged from the fact that a single battalion on the minimum
scale would require four waggons, ^ch with one ton load of polea
and canvas, that is, the regimental transport would be doubled.
A tent equipment (of tne tenie i'ahrt type) was introduced Info
the German array about 1888. and the troops of Austria and Switzer-
land also posseie tents. In the Russian army cavalry and engineer
tfoopa are eaocpted fraas the otherwise unfversal iaua of canvas
TOTfiSHDKll, CHARiB ABBOTT, 1st Baxok (1761-1833),
lord chief justice of England, was bom at Canterbury on the
7th of October 1762, his father having been a hairdresser and
wigmaker of the town. He was educated at Canterbury King's
School and Corpus Chriiti College, Oxford, of which he after-
wards became fellow and tutor On the advice of Mr Justice
Buller (i74tJ-i8oo), to whose son he had been tutor, he dctcr-
mfned on the legal profession, and entered at the Middle Temple
in tjBt Pot several ycata ha pfaetiM« as a apeelal iftesdet
under thh bar,- and was finally called at the Inner Temple in
1796. Ha JoiiMd the Oxford circuit and soon made rapid bead-
way. In 1601 ha was appointed recorder of OxfoM. In i8eis
appeared hia Lam rdatim l» MttduaU Skif9 €nd Seamtn, a
ooBcJse and cftcettent ttcatlse, whkh baa mahitained its posilioft
as an authoritative work. Itt pvhlicatkm brought to hha so
mnch comMierdal and other work that in 1808 ha was in a
position to refuse a seat on the bench; this, however, he mt-
cepted fai 18161 being made a judge of the court of common
pleas. Ob the resignation of Lord Elknbormigh in 1818 he
was promoted to the chief jnstlcBsbip of the king's bench. In
his capacity as chief fostice he presided over several Important
stale trials, nntaMy dtet of Atthur Thlstlewood and the Cato
Street eonspiraton (iSso). He was lalsed to the pceniiie in
1817 as Baron Tenterden of Heiidon. Never a great lawyer
and with no pretence to eloquence, Tenierden made his way by
sound common sense and steady. hard work. He was an un-
compromising Tory, «nd bad 00 ^rmpathy with the reform of
the criminal law eairied out by RMnilly; while he strongly
oippowd the CaUwUc Relief Bill and the Reform BiH. He
died on the 4th of November 1831, and was bnried, by his own
desire, in tho Foobdling Hospital, London, of which he iSns a
governor.
Tenterden was succeeded hi his title by his son, John Henry
Abbott (1796-1870), then by his grandson, Charles Stuait
Aubrey Abbott (i834-i88»), permanent under-aecreUry for
foreign affairs, who was madie a K.C<B. in 1878. In 1882 the
letter's son, Charles Stuart Henry Abbott (b. 1865) became the
4t h Baron .
TDmROBI, a maikeC town and municipgl borough in the
Ashford parliamentary division of Kent, England, 6s m. S.B.
by E. of London by the South-Eastem and Chatham railway.
Pop. (1901) 3943' It lies on an elevation above the Newnill
Channel, a tribufaiy of the Rother, whose flat valley, called
the Rother Levels, was an estnary within historic -times; and
even as late as the t8th century the sea was withfe s m. of
Tenterden, which is a member of the affiliated Cinque Port 6f
Rye. The churdi of St Mildred is Early English and htter,
and its tail, massive Petpendicutar tower is well known for the
legend connecting It with Goodwin Sands. The story is that
the Abbot of St Augustine, Canterbury, diverted the funds by
which the sea-widl protecting Earl Godwin's island was kept
up, for the purpose of bnUding Tenteiden steeple, the conse-
quence being that in 1099 an inundation took place and ** Ten-
terden steeple was the cause of the Goodwin Sands." Attached
to the church H a penitentiary nsed in the reign of Queen Mary
for the confinement of persons awaiting trial on a charge of
heresy. The church of High Halden, hi the neighboorhood,
b remarkable for its octagonal wooden tower constructed of
huge timbers, with a bdfry of wooden files (shingles), of the
time of Henry VI. Tenierden has a considerable trade in
agricultural produce and stock. It is governed by a mayor,
four aldermen and twelve councillors. Area, 8946 acres.
Tenterden {TefOerdemte, Tentyrden) figures frequently in
contemportry reconis from 1300 onwards. In 1449 Heniy V!.
incoiporated it by the name of a " Bailiff and Commonalty,*'
and united it to Rye. In return for these and other privileges
it was to contribute towards the services due froin the latter as
one of tho Cinque Ports. The troubles of 1449 appsrenfly
hindered the issue of the charter, since in 1463 Edward IV.
brought it into operation. In 1600 it was incorporated undd-
ihe title of the " Mayor, Jurat* and Commons " of the tOwn and
hundred of Tenterden, in the county of Kent, the mcmbtts of
the corporation ranking henceforward as barons of the Onqtie
Pons. A weekly com market on Friday and a yearly fair on flie
first Monday in May were granted, both of which vfc held at the
present dsy In 1790 a contemporary writer mentions the
market as being little frequented, whilst the fair was large and
resorted to by all the neighbourhood. This charter was ex-
emplified by that of the year 1700. The size and importance
of Tenterden can be estimated from a receipt of 1633 Ibr £90
636
: TENURBr^^TERAMO
1
)•
•hip-money, as compaxtd irith £90 oontiibutcd by Favenli»in»
tad £60 by Hy the. Under Edward UL aevectl nf ugee Flemings
settled in the town and established the wmUen manulacture.
An old waste book, stiU preserved, contains entries of amounts
of doth sent tnm Tentetden to London. By 1855 this trade
had completely died out, and Tenterden was siififering from
the depression of agricultaral interests.
TfiNURR (Fr. ienme, from Lat. Imcre, to hold), in law, the
holding or possession of land. The holding of land in England
was originally either allpdial or feudal. Allodial land was land
held not of a superior lord, but of the king and people. Such
ownership was absolute. It possibly took its origin from the
view that the land was the possession oC the clan; that the
chief was the leader but not the owner, and was no doubt
strengthened by the ten^rary and partial occupation by the
Romans. Their withdrawal, followed by the Saxon invasion,
tended, without doubt, to re^tablish the principle of common
village ownership which formed the basis of both Celtic and
German tenure. In the later Saxon period, however, private
ownership became gradually more extended. Then the feudal
. idea began to make progress in England, much as it did about
the same time 00 the continent of Europe, and it received a.
great impetus from the Norman conquest. When English law
began to settle down into a system, the principle of feudalism
was taken as. the basis, and it gradually became the undisputed
maxim of English law that the sovereign was the supreme lord
of all the land and that every one held under him as tenant,
that there was no such thing as an absolute private right of
prq>erty in laiyl, but that the state alone as personified by the
sovereign was vested with tMt right, and conceded to the
individual possessor only a strictly defined subordinate right,
sobjcct to conditions from time to tittie enacted by the com-
munity (see also Feudausm). Feudal unure was divided into
fne and non-free. Free tenures were frankalmoign, knight
service, serjeanty and free socsge. These tenures are dealt
with under their separate headings. Base or non-free tenure
was tenure in villenage iq.9.) and copyhold (f.v.), and see also
Manor.
nPIC a territory of B^exioo facing on the Pacific Ocean and
bounded N., £. and S. by Sinaloa, DurangQ and Jalisco. Area
ix,a75 sq. m. Pop. (tgoo) 150,098. The active volcano of
Ceboruoo rises in the western part of the territory. The slopes
and yalleyi are densely wooded, the lower regions being very
fertile and adapted td tropical agriculture. The rainfall is
abundant, and the climate hot, damp and malariaL The Rio
Grande de Lerma, or Santiago, is the principal river, whose
souicesare to be found on the hi|^ plateau in the state of
Mexico. The next largest river is the Mezquital, which has its
sources in the state of Durango, not far from the city of that
namew The products of the territorul coast lands are sugar,
cotton, tobacco, maize, palm oil, coffee, fine woods and medi'
dual plants. Mining attcacu much attention in the sierras,
and its mineral deposits are rich. There are cotton and cigarette
factories at the town of Tepic, besides sugar works and dls-
Cillcries on the plantations. The capital of the territory b
Tepio (pop. X900, is,4&8)» attractively situated on a small
plateau 3950 ft. above sea level, 36 m. E. by S. of iu port, San
Bias, with which it is connected by rail.
The territory of Tcpic was detached from the State of Jalisco
in 1889 on account of the belligerent attitude of its population,
chiefly composed of Indians. A territorial form of government
places it more directly under the control of the national executive.
TBPIDARIUII, the term given to the warm {upidus) bath*
room of the Roman baths. There is an interesting example at
Pompeii; this was covered with a semicircular barrel vault,
decorated with reliefs in stucco, and round the room a series
of sqoaie recesses or niches divided from one another by
Telamoncs. The tepidarium in the Roman thermae was the
great central hall round which all the other halls were grouped,
and which gave the key to the plans of the thermae: it was
probably the ball v^here the bathers first assembled prior to
t tb or passing through the various hot baths.
sad was decorated with the richest marbles and mosaics: It
received iu light through clerestory windows, on the sid;;s, the
front and the rear, and would seem to have been the h^ in
which the finest treasures of art.were placed; thus in the thermae
of Caracalla, the Famese Hercules, and the Toro Famese, the
two gladiators, the sarcophagi of green basalt now in the
Vatican, and numerous other treasurt*s, were found during the
excavations by Paul III. in 1546, and transported to the
Vatican and the museum at Naples.
TBPUTZ (Czech, Teplice)^ or Teputz-SghOnau, as it is
officially called since the incorporation of the village oi SchOnau
in 1895, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 80 m. N.N.W. of Prague
by raiL Pop. (1900) 24,420. It is picturesquely situated in
•the phun of the Biela, which separates the Erzgebirge from the
Bohemian Mittelgebirge, and is a favourite watering-place,
containing a large Kurhaui and numerous handsome bath-
houses. The environs are laid out in pretty «id shady gardens
and promenades, the finest being in the pork which surrounds
the chateau of Prince Cl^ry-Aldringen, built in 1751. The
other chief buildings are the Roman Catholic SchlosaJtlrdie,^
built in xs68 and altered, to its present form in 1790, the I^
tesunt chuivh,. the Jewish synagogue with a ood^mcuous
dome, and the theatre. In the garden of the chAteau are two
ancient towers, probably the remains of the Benedictine con-
vent, but ascribed by local tradition to the knight Xolostuj, the
legendary discoverer of the spring*. The saline-alkaline springs
of Teplitz, ten to twelve in number, ranging in temperature
from 90* to 117^ Fahr., are classed among what are called
"indifferent" waters. Used almost exclusively for bathing,
they are prescribed for gout, rheumatism, and some scrofulous
affections, and their reputed efficacy in alleviating the effects
of gun-shot wounds had gamed for Teplitz the sobriquet of
" the warriors' bath." Military baths are maintaired m Ibe
town by the governments of Austria, Prussia and Saaony, and
there are also bath-houses for the poor. Teplitz is niudi visited
for the after-cure, after Carlsbad and similar spas. Tlie number
of patients is about 6000 and the passing visitors about 95,000.
The presence of a bed of Kgnite in the neighbourhood has
encouraged the industrial development of Teplitz; which carries
on manufactures of machinery and metal goods, cotton and
woollen goods, chemicals, hardware, sugar, dyeing and calico-
printing.
The thermat snringt are fabled to have been discovered as caify
as 762, but the first authentic mentMn of the baths occurs In the
1 6th century. The town h mentioned in Che lath century, when
Judith, queen of Ladislaus I. of Bohemia, founded here'a convent
for Benedictine nuns, which was destroyed in the Hussite wars.
In the 17th century TepUtc belonged to the Kinslqns, and after
Kinsky's murder (25th February 1634) the bixlship wasgmDtcd
by Fefdinand 11. to Johann Count Aldringen. His sister Anna,
who inherited it, married Freiherr Hieronymus vtn. Clary, who
aswmed the additbnal name and arms of Aldrinaen/ The tamily,
which was raised to the rank of count in 1666 and of nrinoe of the
Emphe in 1767, still reuins the property^ TepUtz fgures in the
history of Watlenstein, and is also intef^ng as the spot where
the monarchs of Austria, Russia and Pmssia first signed the triple
alliance against Napoleon in 1813. It is a curious fact that on the
day of the earthquake at Lisbon (rst November 177$) Che msia
spring at TepUtz ceased to flow for some minutea^
TERAIIO, an episcopal see of the Abruzri. Italy, the capiisl
of the ptovince of Teramo, 16 m. by rail W.S.W. of Oiulianova,
a junction on the Ancona-Brindisi railway. Pop. <r9oi)
10,508 (town); 14,091 (commune). The town stands on the
left bank of the Tordino, where it is joined by the Vexzola, at an
altitude of 876 ft. above sea-kvd. The picturesque valley ol
the Tordino is here dominated by the pnks of the Gtm Sasso
d'ltalia. The town is traversed by one straight wide street
with large houses, but for the most part it consists of narrow
lanes. The cathedral has a Romanesque Gothic portal of 1332
by a Roman marble worker named Deodatns, and the interior
is decorated in the Baroque style, but still retains the pointed
vaulling.of 1154, introduced into Italy by French Benedictines;
it contains a splendid silver antependium hy the 15th-century
goldsjofiith Nicob di Guardiagrele (1433-48) The tower is fine.
The church of S. Antonio is also in the RoinaBCsque Gothic
TERAPHIM-^TEREDO
*57
iCylft.- VaSer fbe dnifch'of S. Asm dd Fodipetll fenaiBS of
Koman houBts *nd of the original cathedral have been dis-
covcnd (F/Savtni in Notine de^i scam, z898» 137). In the
Coimnanal Gallery is an altaxpieoe (mm the cathedral by the
Venetian Jacobello dd Fiore (x40»-X439}- The antiqoittes in-
dttde remains of a gateway, a theatre and baths, as well as
aiuneiotts inscriptions. There are manufactures of wool and
aflk, and of straw hats and pottery.
The ancfient Interaaina Pnetuttiomm (so called to distin-
guish it from Intetamna Urenas and Interaama Nahars) was
the chief town of the tribe of the PraetuttiL Its pre-Roman
necropolis was discovered in 1905 (F. Savini in ifafm* degj^i
M«n, 1905, 367). Of its mtinidpal eonstitntion little is known,
indeed in an mscription of the end of the Republic k is spoken
of both as a colottia and a mumcipium. It was situated on a
branch of the Via Caedlia (q.vJ). Remains of an ampfaitheatte
■tin exist. In the vafley of the Vomano near Montorio was a
Roman village, probably dependent on Interanma, with a
temple of Hercul^ (C«rp. inscr. Lai,, ix. p. 4^).
See V. Biodi^ Mtmumenli 4*^i Abrum (Naples, 1889), z aqq.
TSRAFHIM (A.V. somefimes tranacribes, e.g. Judges xviL s;
xviii. 14 seq.; Hosea ill 4; sometimes translates ** Image,"
X Sam. xiiu 13; " idols," Zecb. a. a; " idolatry," i Sam. xv. 23:
R.V. renders consistently " teraphim "), a Hebrew word, found
nnly in the plural, of uncertain etymology. The name appears
to be applied to some form of idol (d. Gen. xzsl 19 and 30)^
but details as to its precise configuration, ftc, are lacking.
From X Sam. zix. 13, x6 it would seem that in the eariy
fH^\Mrrt«iral period a fcgular place in every household was stiU
reserved for the teraphim; while' in the 8th century Hosea
(ill. 4) speaks of ** ephod and teraphim " as essential elements '
in the national worship. Later the teraphim with other ad-
juncts of heathenish worship were banned by the prophets.
The meaning of the £k)histic stoiy in Gen. zsocv. a-4 clearly
is that the employment, of teraphim and of other heathen
practiccsof Aramean paganism was given up by Israd in order
that they might serve Jehovah ak>ne at BctheL In Judges and
Hosea the teraphim arc dosdy associated with the ephod; both
axe mentioned in connexion with divination (cf. 2 Kings xxiii.
M; Ettk. xsL 71 [s6l; Zech. x. s>« Whether the terafdiim
were '* consulted " by lot or net is uncertain. In view of
£zek. xxi. sx and Hosea iii. 4 it is difficult to suppose that the
t^raj^^n^ yttn puxc^ houscliold IdoIs. The lUbbifucal con<
jectnres on the subject can be found in Buxtoif, Lex. TqUm.
(ed. FlKher), 1315 seq. One of the most curMus is that the
teraphim consisted of a mummified human bead (see also
Epboo). (W.K.S.;G.H.Bo.)
TEBBIUM [symbol Tb, atomk weig^it X59*a (0«i6)], a
metallic chemical element bdongfaig to the rare earth gioop;
it was originally called erbia by its discoverer Mosander (see
Raes EAaxB). Pure terbium compounds were obtained by
G. Urbain {Compi. rend., 1904 aeq.) by fractional cxystaUiaa*
tion of the nickel double nitrates, the ethyl sulphates, and the
bismuth double nitrates of the terbium earths. Terbium appears
to be txivalent. The oxide is a black or brown powder according
as it is prepared from the exalate'or sulphate, and when pure
it is non-fiuofescent, but mixed with gadolinia or alumina it
possesses this property. It yidds colourless salts; tbe ctystal-
Gzed sulphaU has the formula Tbt(SO|)r8HiO.
TER. BORGH (or Tsunsc), GERARD (x6i7>x68x). Butch
subject painter, was bom in 16^7 at ZwoBe, in the province of
Ovcxyssd, Holland. "He received an excellent education from
his father, also an artist, and developed his talent very early.
The inscription on a study of a headprotrea that Ter Borch. was
at Amsterdam in 1633, where he studied possibly imder C.
Duystcr or P. Codde. Duystcr^ faifluence can be traced in a
picture beazmg the date Z63S, in the lonides Bequest (Victoria
and Albert Museum). In 1634 he studied under Pieter Moljm
in Haarlem. A record of this Haarlem period bthe ** Con-
solution " (1635) at the Berlin Gallery. In r635 he was in
London,. and subsequently he travelled in Germany, France,
Spain' and Italy. It is. certain that he was in Rome ini64x,
whsB bs painted th« Midi poHraits on Mppet ^ " )^ Shi^
and " A Young Lady " (Six GoUection, Amateniam). In 1648
he was at Mfinstet during the meetinf of the congress whkii
ratified the txeaty of peace between the Spaniards and t1^
Dtttdi, and executed his celebnted little pictura, fainted npoft
copper, of the assembled ptemxtoCetttlariea-a woit wfcieh^
along with the '* Guitar Lesson '^ and a pottxalt of a ^Mem
Standing," now xepiesenta the mailer in th« national coltottioft
in London. Tlie picture was bought by the marquess of
Hertford at the Deaidoff sale for £7280, and presented to^ the
National Galleiy by «r Ridiard Wallaoe, at the soggesilonof
his secretaiy, Sir John Murray Scott. At this time Ter Borch
was invited to visit Kadiid, where he lecdved employment
and the honour of knighthood from Philip IV., but, m coMe-
quence of an xntrigoe, it IS said, he was obHged to letura to
Holland. He seems to have resided for a time in Haarlem;
but he finally settled in Deventer, where he became a member
of the town ooundl, as which he appears in the portrait now in
the gallery of the Hague. He died at Deventer in tMt.
Ter Borch is cneellent as a' portrait painter, but still greiter
as a pafaiter of genre subjects. He depicU with admirable
truth the life of the wealthy and cultured classes of his timoy
and his work is free from any toudi of the grossness which fint^
so huge a phce in Dutch art. His figures are well drawn and
expressive in attitude; his ooloaring is dear and xidi, but his
best skill lies in his unequalled rendering of texture in,dxapetie&
which is seen to advantage in such pictures as tbe " Letter^
In the Dutch royal collection, and in the '* Paternal Advice*^
(known as the "Satin Gown ">— engraved by Wile— which
exists in various repetitions at Berlin and Amsterdam, and in
the Bridgewater Gallery. Ter Borcfa's works are- comparatively
rare; only about eighty have been catalogued. Six ef these
are at the Hermitagie, six at the Bedin Museum, ^ve at the
Louvre; four at the Dresden Museum, and twp at tbe Wallace
C-4>llf rt ioD.
See Gtmrd 7>f5i(yt (TV BmX) ef saJamOU^, by Ehiife Mldid
(Paris, i8«7); Der^tAnstkriatke Entmckdttnpgfmgdes G. Ter
Borch, by Dr W, Bode; Matins d'aiUrefois, by jS. Froqientm
(4th ed., Paris, l88i).
TERCBIRA, an island in the Athmtic OceSa, belonging to
Portugal, and forming part of the Azores archlpdago. Pop.
(xQoo) 48,770; area, 224 sq. m. Terccira, 'i .«. "the third/*
was so called as being the third island of the archipelago to be
discovered by the Portuguese. From its cenUal paction H
was k>ng the seat of administration, but its capital, Angra (?.v.)
or Angra do Herolsmo (pop. 10,78^), hjis lost much of its com^
merdal importance. Tbe other chid towns are Ribeirinha
(3090), and Praia da Victoria (3336). . Unlike the ndghbeuiiing
islands, Tercdra exhibits few extensive traces of volcanic BCtJon;
and the summits of its mountains are generally level It
abounds in grain and cattle; but the wines ara inferior, and
fruits are raised merdy for internal oonsumption. (See also
Azo>g 8.>
. TBREBniTH/ botanical name Pistada Terebintkut, a'membet
of the natural order Anacardiaceae, usually a small tree oonunoa
in the south of Europe and the vdiole Mediterranean area, it
has a purplish grey bark and compound leaves with two M four
pairs, and an odd terminal one, of smooth dail grten oval Uunt
leaflets, which when young are thin, translucent and strongl^y
tinged with reddish purple. The vexy small numeroes ufiiscaual
flowers are borne on panldes which ^ring from just above the
scars of last year's leaves. Tht fruit is a small rounds bright
red drupe with a scanty pulp. The plant has been long known
in English gardens. A liquid oleo^resinous exudation, knfrwn as
Chian, Sdo or Cypsus turpentine, Is obtained by cuttihg^tbe
stem. The Chian turpentine of commerce is obtained cXr
dusively from the island of Sdo; the produce is very small, a
latge tree yidding only to or XI ounces in ode yeaxk An allied
spedcs^_^. LenHuus, is the mastich tree.
TBRiSDO, a genus of Lamelfibranchiate Jtfotlusca, of tbo
order EulamellSbranchia, sub-order Adcsmaoca, family Tere^
dinidae. . The animaic induded in this genus arc commonly
638
TEREDO
kaoum as " ihip-wonns/' and are notocioiis for the dotraction
which they cause in ihipa' timben, the woodwork of harboucs,
and piles or other wood immersed for a long period in the sea.
They inhabit long cylindrical holes, which they excavate in the
wood, and usually occur in great numbers, crowded together
so that often only a veiy thin film remains between the adjacent
bumwSk Each burrow is lined wilh a layer of cakareoos
substance secreted by the moUusc; this lining is not usually
complete, but stops short a little distance from the inner end
of the burrow, where the boxing process oontimies to take places
In some burrows, however, the lining Is complete, either because
the animal has reached its fuU sixe or because some cause pre*
venu it continuing its tunnel; In such cases the calcareous
tube has a hemispherical terminatinn. The burrows are usually
driven in the directiOQ of the grain of the wood, but not in-
variably sow When a knot or nail or the tube of a neighbour
Is reached, the coutk of the burrow is altered so as to bend
iou6d the obstruction. One burrow is never found to break
into another,
,. The adult TertiOf wHtn removed from its bunow and cakaroous
tube, is from a few inches to % ft. io length, acco r d ip g to the apecies
to which it belongs, and is cylindrical and worm-like in appearance.
The anterior end, which lies at the bottom of the bunow is some-
what enlarged and bears a p«u- of shells or valves, which are rwt
ooBoected by the usual Itgainent. but are widely separated dorsallv.
The valves are triangular in shape and very concave 00 the side
which is in contact with the animaL In front their edges are
widdy separated, and the mantle tube, which is elsewhere closed,
has heft a slight median aperture, through which the
shot sdckor-fifce foot can be protruded. The next
portion of the body behind the shell-bearing part is
naloDd, except for the shelly lining of the burrow., vV
which is secreted by this part. Anteriorly thls^^ '
portion contains part of the body proper; posteriorly ^^^
It forms a tube divided intcmally by a horizontal
partitioa into two chambers and rencesieating the two ^"^ _
tubular outgrowths of the mantle called siphons, p§
here united together. In the lower chamber are the
elongated gill plates, which have the typical lamelli- FVc. I.— Sagittal median section of Dereda. a., anus; a.a., anterior adductor
bnuKhiate structure, In the upper chamber anterior^ muscle; aa., anal dpfaoo; ir.x.. bcanchial siphon: <:f.,cerebal ganglion; f-tgill;
Is the rectum. A thick muscular ring terminates this k,, heart; m., mouth; ^.a.. posterior adductor; >.f., pedal gaagliooL r.«.» renal
legion of the body, and bears two calcareous plates opening; r.O., reno-pericardisl orilicej^
shaped like spades or battledores. The expanded Grobben and Beuck, from Lankester'
parts of these plates are free and project backwards;
heroMphsiE^ in shape, so thai the whole larvm when its
retracted is contained in a globular case.
Concerning the later changes of tbb larva and the method by
which it bores hito wood little or nothing b icnown from direct
observation. Much has been written about the boring a£ diis and
other marine animals, but even yet the matter caaoot be said i»
be satisfactorily ducidated. Osier, in a paper in Pkit, Trans,, iSaeL
argued that the Tkredo bores b^ means of its shells, fixing itself by
the surface of the foot, which it usss as a sucker, and Chan rasping
the wood with the rough front edges of the sbeU-valves. This view
was founded on the similarity of the arnuwement of the shells and
muscles la Ttredo to those occurring In PMas, in which the method
of boring described was actually observed. W. Thompson, in a
paper in the Edinb, New PhU. Jonm., 1835, supported the \*iew
that the excavation is due to the action of a solvent secieted froos
the surface of the animaL Albany Hancock, again Mnn. 4uuf i/ag.
Nat. Btsi., voL xv.). thinks that the excavating power of Teredo
b due to siliciou!) partictes imbedded in the anterior portion of the
integument, in front of the valves. But the actual existeoce of
either sHiciQus particles or acid secietion has been deiried by othsnu
Jeffreys believes that the foot is the oiaan by which the animal
burrows. In the larger number of LameUibranchs the foot is doubt-
less a burrowing organ, and it is difficult to see how the limprt
hollows out the rock to which it is attached if not by means of the
surface of its foot. At the same time it is diflteult to explain how
the soft muscular foot can penetrate into hard woodi The praoesa
. * .^ jw« .. . .. re detached
t b applied.
b of course slow, and Jeffreys supposes that partkles are detached
one by one from the moUtened surface tp which the foot b applied.
In any case the valves are covered by an epidermis, whkh could
Icaicdy be there if they were used in burrowing.
Taeedo grcws aod burrows at an extiemely rapid rate: raawnaog
fakes place in the spring and summer, ana before the end of the
year the animals are adult and their burrows^of laige sise. Qu^tre-
cancmai stpnon; cf., cereoai ganglion; g ., gui ;
or adductor; ^f., pedal gaaglioo; r.«.» renal
rifice: s.r., visceral gangupiu (ParUy a(ter
;er's Trtalxu m Zoohgy.)
the handle b fiaoed ki a. deep soeker or dt lined by epilermis.
These csJcaieous plates are called pallets (Fr. pdinailes). Behind
the pallets the tubular body bifurcates, forming two siphons
similar to those of other LameUibranchs; the siphons can be con-
trscted or expanded within wide limits of length. The principal
ormns of the bod y etoinsc h, heart, generative organs and ncph-
rioia^-are dtaateo in the anterior part of the body, forming a
visceral mass, whkh extends some distance behind the valves.
The heart b above the Intestine and not perforated by it. There
are two adductor muscles of whkh the anterior b radimeirtary
and situated just above the mouth, while the posterior b large
and passes between the middle parts of^ the sheU-yalvee. The
visceral mass extends some dbtancc behind the posterior adductor,
and behind the rectum, and the visceral gandia, whkh in most
LameUibranchs are attached to the ventral surface of the posterior
adductor, are in thb case at the end of the Visoesal mass and at
the anterior end of .the giUs. Beskles the visceral ganglia a cerebral
and a pedal pati are present. The stomach is movided with a
brge crystalline style. The function of the pallets b to form
an operculum to the cakareous tube when the siphons ate with-
drawn into it. In some species tho extiynal or namwer end
of ths cakareous tube b pcovided with ttaosvcne laminae
projecting into the lumen; and in some the external aperture
dhrkled by a horixontal partition, into two, one for each
The Tsrsds b dioecious^ and the males axe only hi the
of I : 500 of he females. As In the case of the oyster, the oya are
retained in the branchial chamber during the early stages <h their
development The segmentation of the ovum b unequal^ and leads
to the formatkm of a gastnila by epibole. By the growth of a
preoral lobe onwided utth a ring of ciliav and by the formation of
a mouth and an anus, the trochosohere stage b reached- A pair
of thin shelb then appear on the sides of the larva, connected by a
hinge on the dorsal medbn line, and the foot grows out between
month aod anus. By the time the larvae " swarm,'* or leave the
branchial cavHy of the parent to live for a time as free-swimming
peUgk larvae, the valves of the shell have grown so large as to
cover the whole of the body when the velum b retracted; the
foot b also long, cvlindrical and flexible, and can be protruded
far beyood the sheO. The valves of the shell at thb stage are
(N. Spain) a feny-boat was sunk
^ /as raised four months af terwards^
ly rendered useless by T. ppdiceUata,
lages lelattt that at Guipuseoa
aockientally in the spring, and 1
when its timbers were already „ ^. _, ,,
How long the animab live Is not' accurately faiown, but Qwatre-
fages found that they neariy all perished in the winter. Thb cannot
be generally the case, as the sue of the tubes varies so greatly.
In HoUand their greatest ravages are made in July and Aegust.
Iron ships have nothing toiear from their attacks, and the copper
sheathing now ali — " — ' ** -* ^-^ ^ " *
great deal '
now almoel universally used protects wooden hulls.' ' A
of less is, however, caused by Teredo in harbour works
J shipping stages, and the embeakments in Holland ai« con-
tinually mjuied by it. The rooft ciikicnt protection is afforded by
large-headed naib driven in in close proximity. SoakiiMr wood in
creosote b not a certain safeguard ; Jeffreys found at Christiania
in i^ that a large number of harbour piles previously soaked in
creoaote bad been completely destroyed by T. imaiis. Coal tar
and the siUcate of lime used for coating stonework hav« been
suggested as pratective coverings hut th^ do not seem to have
been adequatdy tested.
Species of Teredo occtrr in all seas. The animal was known to
the ancients end b mentioned by Tbeophmstus, Pliny and Ovid.
In 1 715 it b mentioned by Valisnitfi, in 1720 by Deslsndes la
1713 P<eat attention was drawn to it on account of the discoxtrry
that the wooden dikes of Holland were being rspklty destroyed
by ship-wonns, and that the country was in danger of inundation.
Three-treetises were publbhed eokiceming the animal, by P.Massoet,
J. ,Rousset and Godfrey SeUiua. The work of the Ust-pamcd.
which was the best, docribed the anatomy of the creature and
showed that Its affinities were with bivalve molluscs. The truth
of Sellias's view was not grasped by Linnaeus, who plaoed Teredo
together with Strptds in tbe genus Z>SMlah'mf; but its proper
position was re<establbhed by Cuvier and Lamarck. Adanson* un-
aware of the work of Scllius, in 1757 believed himself to be tbe
first to dbcover the molluscan aflinittea of Teredo. It will not be
necessary to give here a definition of the genus taken from any
Mematfat; it will be suflkient to point out that the toog cylin*
drical bodywith its two naall amerior polygonal valves, the absence
of a ligament and accessory valves, the muscular ring into whkh are
Inserted the calcareous pallets, and the continuous cakareous tube
lining tiie bole bored by the ammal are the diagnostk featiutsi
TERHC-^TERENCE
Bntub: Jcrcitf ncn€pca, ^peoslo-: T. notu^, Linn. : T. pedi-
tdlaUi, Quatrifages; T. meiptarOf Hanfey. T. norvtpca occurs
chiefly on the west coast of Great Britain; It was taken fay
Tbompton «t ntrtpatrkk in Wigtownahire. and icoiirred in Jeifrtya'a
tine n abmdaace at Mitfoid Haven. . Thia ^eciea haa been d«-
639
aoribed 1^^ Cmelin and a number of British authors aa T. nmdis,
Linn. It is distinguished by having the base of the pallets simple,
not forked, and the tube temi-concamerated at its narrower poa>
tenor end. The length doea not usually csBoeed a foot It ia th*
r. umium of Sdliua. T, matoUa haa beea idcati&ed from tha
fignxea of SeUius,. to which Linnaeus referred; Sellius called it T,
fnorMO. It occurs on all the western and aouthcni coasts of
Europe, from Christiania to tiie Black Sea, and is the species whidi
cau eca so aoch damage to the I>itch embanknents. The palleu
of thia apedea am small And fackad* «nd the atalk it cylindricaL
The tube as simple luid not chambered at its narrow end. r./tei2s-
€«Uata was origmaUy discovered by Quatrefages in the Bav 01 Lot
PUsages on the north coast of %ain; it has also been found in
the Channel Islands, at IbukMi, in Provence and in Algeria. In
r. Mfalera the tube jd ainple nod the palleta like thoae of T,
nmMgica; it occurs at Shetland aod Wkk, and also on the western
shore of the Atlantic, where its range extends from N
to South Carolina. T. malUtdus, Turton, and T. bipim
beloag ro the West Indiea, but am often drifted ia flot
tP the coaau of Eutope. Other oocarfooal vaaitanfti t
ahofes am T. «ccaw<a. bipartita, sUttka, fuatiailns, c\
Jbmbriata. These were described py Gwyn Jeffreys
'Mag. Nat. Hist., i860. T. fimbriata is stated to be of
Vancoaver's island. A Mnd of ship-wonn, the Nmui fti
iat iViceval Wright, haa been discovered itt India, 70 the
aea, in a stream of perfectly fresh water, namely, the 1 ar,
one of the branches of the Ganges. T. comiformis, L; ind
burrowinff in the husks of coco-nuts and other wood> «t^
lag in the tropical aees; iCa tubes are extremely < md
peotor t ed lor wast of. vpust. Fossil wood and pt ol
Sheppey and Brabant are pierced in the same way.
Twenty-four fossO species have been reoxrmzed in the Lias and
•occeeding beds of EttrT>pe and the United States. The sub-genus
>«tf)Ma» Lam., b a fbasQ of the Eocene of Great Britain aad
'fiJ^7>:.Quatref.ge..
AnnaUt da Set NaL {iBO-^oi); Forbes and Hanley; BnL M$Ui$ca
(iflu); B. HatBchefc. EtUmcMlmni 9. Ttnio: Arbriim cas Stm
ZoU,JtL Wie» (iSao): Desha vea.iiratfMi9«<s d'AIt^; Sir £.
Home, " Anatomy of Teredo^* m Phil. Trans., vol. xcvi. ; Frcy
and Leucfc " ^' " ^ ' ' ' " — ^~ '
Woodward,
oatbe . _,
of Shipworma," Johns Hopkins Univ. CinruL, xv. 1896; Keer,
oe, " Anatomy of Teredo^ m Phil. Trans., vol. xcvi. : Frcy
Leaclan, BeiiHlge sur Kenntniss trirhtUoser Tkien (1847);
xlwani, M^nusl of M^ttluta (London, 1851); Sigerfoos. ^* Note
he Orgaaisation 01 the Larva and the Post-iarval Development
• a tivcr of Russiaa Caucasia. It riics in the Caucasus,
#a the slopei of. Mount Kasbek, ia several head-iircams, and
iowt north as far as Vladikavk^ just above wliidi it eioergss
from ths moantains. Then it ftvws N.W. aad N. a> far as
approximately 43** 45' N., whereupon it swings round to the £,
aid puBtttcs that direction as f ar as 46"* ao' £. FinaUy, after a
oomparativelr short run towards the N.N.E., it branches oul
into a latfe delta on the ivest side of the Caspian Sea. This
river, the ancient Aluia*, b at first an impetuous mountain
tontnt, as art also all iu chief tnbotarica-Hhe Zunzha on the
Bgfaft, and the Ank>n, Urukh* Chetek, Urvan, Cbegem, Baksao
Mad Malka 00 the left. All these sUeams, eicept the fint-
named, rise at altitudes of 8000 to 9000 ft. between Mount
Karf>ek and Mount Elbrus. In Iu kmer course the Terek
becomes very sinoous and sluggish, and frequently over6owB
Its banJcs with disastrous rciulta. Opposite iu month it forms
large sand-banks in the Caspian, and b nowhere navigable»
Iu length b 300 m., and the arsa of its drainiie basin extends
to J3,8oosq. m.
miK, a province of Ruflstan Caucasia, situated N. of the
Caucasus chain. It b bounded by the government of Stavropol
4M1 the N., by the Caspian Sea and Daghestan on the £., by
Tlib aad Kutab on the S., and by the Bbck Sea district and
the province of Kuban on the W., aad has so area of 95.551
aq. m. From Mount Elbruz to Kasbek the southern boundary
coincides with the main range of the Caucasus, and thus includes
some of iu highest peaks; further east it follows a^iauous line
•0 sa to endose the secondary chsjas and their ramtficatbna.
Nearly' ono-third of the area b occupied bgr hOly- trscu, the
remainder being undnlating and flat land bdonging to the de-
prmsion ol the Terek; one-half of thb Ust, on the left bank of
the rivcTf b occupied by sandy deserts, salt clay steppes, and
add stretches unsnited for cultivation. The Caucasw Mountains
are described under that headings' Tertiary formations, over-
lain by Quate^iary deposiu, cover a wide Area in the prairies
and steppes. Mineral sprinsi occur near Pyatigonk.
The cfimale b continentaL - The mean annual tempceaturee
are 49*6* Fahr. at Pyatigorsk (1680 ft. above the sea; January 39*.
July 70*) and^ 47-7* at Vladikavkaa (3345 ft.; Januaiy 23V
J^ily 69*), but frosu a few degrees below xero are not uncommon.*
KNintain dopes receive an abundance of rain (37 in.), but
mpes waStg much from drought (rainfall between 10 and
. Needy the whole of the government bdoogs to rhe drainage
I the river Terek, but the north-west comer is drained by the
tributaries of tne. Kuma. In the lower part of its courw
mountain dopes receive an abundance of rain (37 in.), but
the steppes suffev much from drought (rainfall between 10 and
join.). Needy "•^' ' "^ ' "^ ' ' ' '
area of t
upper ti
the Terek flows at' a higher level than that ^of "the neighbouring
plains, and b kept ia its bed by erobankmentSL Neverthelese
raundationa are frequent and cause great destructioo.
The estimared popuUtion in 1906 was i/>44,8oo. The province
b divided into seven districts, the chief towns of which are
Vladikavkax, Grosnyi, Kldyar, Nakhik, Pyatigorsk, Sunahinsk
and Khasavyurt, the bet two being noeaad centres of administra*
tion. Agricuhum haa d e v e l op e d greatly on the pcairbe. the area
under crops being 9 per cent, of the totaL Rye, wheat, oats,
barley and potatoes are the principal crops. The vine » very
extensively culrivated, e^>eciajly in the districu of Kialyar and
Pvatigorsk, where r,MOtO0O gaUeds of wine are made anaaally.
Live-atock breeding Is widely encaged in, and fishing b an im-
portant source of mcome, especially at the mouth of the Terek.-
Bees are generally kept, and yield every year neariy.balf a million
sterling worth of honey and wax. Melons, cucumbers and son-
flowen are extensively grown. The railway, whkh formerly
8tOf);ped at Vladikavkas, has been coatiauea from the BesUa
• near Vladikavlas, to Fetrovsk on the Caspian Sea, and
to Baku.
Onr knowkdce of tlie life of the celebrated
Latin ptajrviight, Puhlius Terentius Afcr, b derived chiefly from
a fragment of the lost work of Suetonius^ De wins iUustribus,
pNStfved in the commentary of Donatus, wbo adds a few words
of hb own. The pralogues to the comedies were among the
original soorces of Suetonius; but he quotes or refen to the
works of various grammarians aad antiquaries— Pordus Lidnus,
Vdcadns Sedigidis, Q. Cosconius, Ncpos, Saatra, Fenestella.
There b uncertainty as to both tbe date of the poet's birth and
the maiUKr of hb death. Hb last play was exhibited in 160 bx.»
aad dmrtly after iu production he went abroad, " when be had
not yet completed hb twenty-fifth year." Cornelius Nepos b
quoted for the statement that be was about the same age as
Sdpio Africanns the younger (bom in 185 or 184 B.C.) ami
Laelius; whik Fencstella, an antiquary of the later Augustan
period, represented him as older than cither. If Terence was
bom in ifts« he published hb six pbys between the oges of
eighteen and twenty-five. Even in an iaiitativa artist such
precodty of talent b remarkable, and tbe date b therefore open
to Ifgirimato doubt.
He b said to have been bom in Carthsge, and brought to
Rome as a slave. At Rome he sras educated bike a free man
id the house of Terentius Lucanus, a senator, by whom he was
soon emancipated; whoeapon he took his master's momtu
Terentius, and thenceforward hb name was Publius Terentius
Afer, of which the last member teems to imply that he was not
a Phoenldsn {P§emm) by blood. He was admitted into the
intimacy of young men of the best families, euch as Sdpio,
Laeiias sad Futnis Philus; and he enjqyed the favour of
older men of literary distinction and official position. In the
circle of Sdpio he doubtlem met the historian Polybius, who was
brought to Italy In 167. He b sskl to have owed the favour
of the gBsat as mock to hb personal gif u and grsoes as to hb
literary emiaenoe; and in one of hb prologues he declares it
to be hb ambetioD, while m>t offending the many, to please the
"bom."
Terence's earliest pby was the Andria, exhibited in 166 b.c
A pretty, but perhsps apocryphal, story b told of hb having
read the pby, before its exhibition, to Caedlius (who, after the
death of Ptaotia, tanked as the foremost comic poet), aad of
Ho
•raiRENCE
the generous admiration of It manifested by Caedliut. A
•tinitar intunoe of the recognitioB of riting genius by a fwet
whose own day was past is found in the account given of the
visit of Acdus to the veteran Pacuvlus. The next play was
the Heeyra, first prodaced in t^s, but wKhdrawn in consequence
of Its bad reception, and reproduced in x6o. The HumUoh
TtmcfumtHot appeared in 163, the Bunuchtu in x6i, the Pkarmio
in 161, and the Aidphct in 160 at the funeral games of L. Aemi-
lius PauUus. Of these six plays the Phomio and probably the
Il^cyro wore drawn from ApoUodorus, the rest from Menander.
After bringing out these plays Terence sailed from Greek parts,
cither to escape from the suspicion of publishing the works of
others as liis own, or from the desire to obtain a more intimate
Itnowledge of that Greek life which had hitherto been known
to him only in literature and which it was his professed aim to
reproduce in his comedies. The latter is the more probable
motive, and we recognize in this the first instance of that im-
pulse to visit the scenes familiar to them through literature
Which afterwards acted on many of the great writers of Rome.
From this voyage Terence .never returned. According to one
account he waa lost at sea, according to another be died at
Stymphalus in Arcadia, and according to a third at Lcucas,
from grief at the loss by shipwreck of his baggage, containing
a number of new pla)^! which he had translated from Mcnandcr.
Aft old poet quoted by Suetonius states that he was ruined in
fortune through his intimacy with his noble friends. Another
accbunt speaks of him as having left behind him gardens, to
the extent of about twelve acres, dose to the Appian Way. It
is further atated that his daughter married a Roman knight.
No writer In any literature, who lias contented himself with
so limited a function, has gained so great a reputation as
Terence. He lays no claim to the position of an original artist
painting from life or commenting on the results of -his own
observation. His art has no relatk>n to his own tiow or to the
country !n which he lived. The chief source of interest in
(he fragmentary remains of Naevius, Ennius, Pacuvius, Acciua
and Lucilius Is their relation to the national and moral apirit
of the age In which they Were written. Plautus, though, like
T^renee, he takes the fiist sketch of bia ptots, scenes and char-
acters, from the Attic stage, is yet a true representative of his
time, a genuine Italian, writing before the genius of Italy had
learned the restraints of Greek art. The whole aim of Terence
was to present a faithful cony of the life, manners, modes of
thought and exprfs&ion whidi had been drawn from reality a
century before his time by the Writers of the New Comedy of
Athens. The nearest parallel to his literaiy position may be
found In the aim which VIrgtt puts before himself in his BmcoHgA.
He <Ioes not seek in that poem to draw Italian peasants from
the Ufe, but to bring back the shepherds of Theoczkus on
Italian scenes. Yet the lesult obtained by Viigil is difieient.
The charm of his pastorals is the Italian sentiment which
pervades them. His shepherds are not the shepherds of Theo*
rritus, nor are they in any sense true to life. The eztnoidiaary
t^ntuU obtained by Terence is that, while be has left no trace
In any of his comedies of one sketching from the life by which
he was sarrounded, there is pcdiapa no more truthful, natunsl
and A^Ucate delineator of human nature, in itaoidinary and more
lewl moods, within the whole imnge of dasaical literature
His permanent position in literature is due, ao doubts to the art
and ire olus of Menandcr, whose creations he has perpetuated, as
a Ane engraver may peipetuate the s^t of a great painter
whvvie tir»rks ha\-e perished. But ao aaere copyist or vctbal
trsnithttxr couM have attained that result. Though without
Claims to creatWe originality. Terence must bave had not only
tritica) genius, to enable him fulty to appreciate and identify
himself with his oslginaK but artistic genius ei a high and pore
type. The impottance of hb position in Roman htemlufe
coosUtS in this« that he was the first writer who set before him-
sctf a Mgh idsnl of artisiie perfection, and waa the ftitt to seaBxe
UkA l^eifiKtlha iti «lyle> f»rm. and eonsteewey of conception
|i9>^y^ •" - •" • - Ih the iNitefval bc^wfen finniiis and
■idf tict SAd geniin snrv^ only In nids
and Inartistic fragments, he produced six playa, which bave
not only reached our time in the form in which they were given
to the world, but have been read in the most critical and »T>r»fn|>
literary epochs, and still may be read without any feeling of the
need of making aUowance for the rudeness <rf a new and un-
developed art.
While his great gift to Roman literature is that he first made
it artistic, that he imparted to " rude Latium " the sense of
elegance, consistency and moderation, his gdt to the world
is that through him it possesses a living image of the Greek
society in the 3rd century B.C., presented in the purest Latin
idiom. Yet Terence bad ho affinity by birth either with the
Greek race or. with the people of Lathim. He was more dis-
tinctly a foreigner than any of the great classical writers of
Rome. He lived at the meeting-point of three distinct dviUza*
tions— the mature, or rather decaying, civilization of Greece,
of which Athens was still the centre; that of Carthage, which
was so soon to pass aw^y and leave scarcely any Vestige of
itself; and the nascent civilization of Italy, In which all other
modes were soon to be absorbed. Terence was by birth an
African, and was thus perhaps a fitter medium of connexioii
between the genius of Greece and that of Italy than if he had
been a pure Greek or a pure Italian; just as in modem times
the Jewish type of genius is sometimes found more detached
from national peculiarities, and thus mere capable of repro-
ducing a cosmopolitan type of diaracter than the genius of
men belonging to other races.
The pro^boguea to Terence's plays are of high interest. Their
tone is for the most part apologetic, and indicates a great
sensitiveness to criticism. He constantly speaks of the malevo-
lence and detraction of an older poet, whose name is said to
have been Luscius Lavinius or Lanuvinus. The chief charge
which his detractor brings against him is that of caniamimatiOf
the combining in one phy of scenes out of different Greek plays.
Terence justifies this practice by that of the older poets, Naevius,
Plautus, Ennius, whose careless freedom he follows in preference
to the " obscura diligentia " of his detractor. He xecriminatca
upon his adversary as one who, by his dose adherence to bis
original, had turned good Greek plays into bad Latin ones. He
clears himself of the charge of plagiarizing from Plautus and
Naevius. In another prologne he contiasta his own treatment
of his subjects with the sensational extravagance of otheiSw
He meets the diarge of receiving assistance in the composition
of his plays by claiming as a great honour the favour which
he enjoyed with those who were the favourites of the Roman
people. But the gossip, not disoonniged by Terence, lived and
throve; it crops up in Cicero and Quintilian, and the aacriptioii
of the plays to Sdpio had the honour to be accepted hgr Mon-
taigne, and rejected by Diderot.
We kani from these prologuea that the best Roman Bmatui w
was ceasing to be popular, and had come to rely on the pntraoage
of the great. A consequence of this change of ciromnstaaocs
was that comedy was ao longer national in chaiactcr and senti-
ment, but had become iiaiutive and artistie. The life witfch
Tnence represents is that of the well-to-do dtiicn class wfagae
interests are commonplace, but whose modes of thoni^ and
speech are refined, humane and antelHgent. His chaiactcis
are finely delineated and discriminated lather Hian, Hkc tibase
of Plautus, boldly conceived. Delicate ireny ^d pointed
epigram take the place of broad humour. Love, In Che form of
pathetic sentiment rather than of irregular pasaion, is the chief
motive of hs places. His great characieiistica are hiManiij
and urbanity, and to this may be attributed the attiactSea
which he had for the two chief repreaentativcsof these^pMfties
in Roman litcratare— Cicero and Hoiacn.
Tesence's pre<«Bttaciioe in art was reoognized in the Aa^BUm
age; and Horace rspwwas this opinion, thongh not aa hisov^
in these woids (Epislks U. L S9)^—
** \'iaccre C^eci&Bs graviute. Tereetxus »te.**
Theaitof hiB<
wiUi which ihea
TEKENTIANUSJ-TERM
6+t
' aatf nodentiofi wkli wUdi his vuiMi chtnetrrs
pUy their pMta. Bafc hii grefttcst attraction to both anoieat
aad nodem w litcfs has 6eea the ptidty and cham el hb itjde.
He maJua no daim to the creative exnbemnoe ol Phuitas, but
be is entirely free fmoi his extravagance and ahaanerisms.
The superiority of his .style over that of Ludlus, who iprote
bb satires a generation later, is immeasurable. The best
judges and the gieateat masters of style in- the best period of
Eoman litecatuie were his chief admifera in ancient timesi
Qcero frequently reproduces his eapressioiis, applies panagei
in his pbys tohisowndrcmnstances, and lefeis to Us perMnages
as typical lepcesntadons of chaiacter.* JuUns Csoar's Knss
on Teance, the " dioidtatus Menahder/' whSk they eompbln
of lack of comic power, chaiacteiue him as **puri aBrmonis
amatoc;*' Horace, so depredatory in genenl of the older
Ktecature, shows his appeedation of Iteence by the freqjoent
Bproduotion in ha Saiirm and Oda of his lawgnsgr aad his
phitoaophy of hfe. Qointilian applies to his wrttingi the word
deg^miissima. His works were studied and learned by heart
by the great Latin writeia of the Renaisance, such as Erssmus
aad Melanchthon^-and Casaabon, in Ms anxiety thst his son
shouhl write a pure Latin style, inculcates on him the constant
study of Terence. Montaigne* applies 'to him the phrase of
Horaoe: " Liquidua poxoqoe simlliimua anmi." He speaks of
" fab fine expresskm^ekgaacy and ciuamtness, " aad adds, ** be
does so possess the soul with his grsocs that we Ibrgcc those of
Ub fable." Saiote-Beuve devotes to him two papeis of delicate
and admiring czitidsm. Ha quotes F^nekm and Addison,
" dcttz espiita polis et doeo^.de la mtaie famiUe littfrairt,'' as
expicssuig their sdminifinn for the inimitabk beauty and
BSftarainesa of one ^f his scenes. Ffoekja is sidd to ha'vw
preferred him even to Moli^ie. Sainte-Beovo calls Tertnoe
the bead of union between Roman urbanity and the Attidsm
of the Orteks, and adds that it was in the zTth century, when
French literature was most truly Attic, that he was most ap-
pcedated. M. Joubert' appGesto him the words, ^'Le mid
attique est snr ses Idvies^ oa cioirait aliteent i^tfik naquit tor le
Hymette."
The chief manuscript of Terence is the famous Coda BemiiHUSt
of the 4tb or 5th century, in the VaticafU Another Vatican MS.
•f the loth century conuins illustrations based on an old tradi-
tion. Each play bos an argmnent in metre by Sulpichis ApdUoaria
r of our em). We 1 ' • •■
jrly edited by P. Weasoer) on ^ .
from Euanthius and Donatus (both of the 4th century), and another
Uad century 01 our em). ^ We have also a valuable conimeatsiy
Cnewly edited by P. Weasoer) on five of the play^ derived chiefly
of 1cm importance by one Eugraphius.
The t£li& primtp$ was published st Strasabuig In t49^ The
aaost famous edition is that of- Beotley, publisbM at Cambiklgs
in 173^ At present the best tsssts are those by K. Datatako
(JUiSpdg, 1884), and A. Fleckdsen (Teubner, and ed., 1898). Each
of the plays has recently been edited with English notes.
For a conspectus of Terentian studies see Teuifd-Sehwabe-Warr,
Bislory cf Somen LUtntmt, and Scfaans's Guckiekt t dm rhmachm
IMUratur (3rd ed.. xp07). Among critical estimates of Teresce
may be mentioned Sointe-Beuve's in Nomeata Jundis Csrd and
lotn of August 1863), and Monunaen's in the Bist»ry ^ Rome;
book iv., chapter aiii.
Moliftre naade lam uw of the PAonwie ia Lsr FevrAcria dff seo^M*
and the subject oCrEooU des nwris u taken from the Addfko**
Terence was translated into English verse by George Cobnan (1765).
TERSNTIAIIUS. sunanked KAtniOB Ca naitive of Mautetank),
Latin grammirian and writer on prosody, flourished probably
at the ead of the snd century a.0. Hisrefeieacesto ^ .
Screnua and Alfita Avitns^ wbo beloagsd to the achoeLof
poeU" {p0da» makrid or mmdli^ of the reign of Hadrian and
later, aeem to show that he wta a aear oontemporsry of those
writen. He was the author of a treatise (iacotaplete) in lour
books (written dnefly in hexameters), oa kHers, syHtbtes, feet
and metres, of which considerable use was made by later writeta
oa similar subjects. The most important part of it la that
which deals with metres, bssed oa the work of Caosais Bassus^
» See E/». «f Fam, I. ix. 15. Pro Caaina aj, PiUippk II. 15.
* Essays (trans, by C Cotton), chap, btvit.
• Quoted by E. Megrette in his flutoire di fe MMPotaM Isiias;
the friend of Pentas. By some aathoritles Tereatiattus has
been identified with the prefect of Syeae meationed in Martial
(L 86), whkh wduU make his date about a century earlier;
othes, again, who plaoed Fctronins at the end of the jid century
(a date ao longer hdd), assigned Tetentittsus to the same period;
from his frequent leferenceato that author.
Best edition, by R. Kdl. Orammatki Latini, vi.; with commen-
tary by L. Ssntctt <i895); see also Teoffd-Schwabe, Hist, tf Raman
Ukntwt (Eag. U.h ^30*
(mod. Triitle, f.t.), an aadtat dty of Xstria,
36 m. by VDsd E^E. of Aquileia, at the northern extremity of
thepeaiasidaof Istria, la a bay at the head of the Adriatic
Sea. Its impoKtaace was ia ancient days, as now, mainly due
to its oonaaeroe as the outlet of Pannonia and Dalmatia. It is
firrt mentkmed aboat soo Bx. as a village. In 5s a.a it was
attacked by barbarian tribes from the interior. In 33 b.c.
Augustus during his Dalmatian wan buHt a wall and towers
thne, as an inscription records; hi a medieval copy of it the
emperor Frederick lU. mentfons his own restoration of the dty
walls for the fourth time fa 1470. At this time it probably
becsme a colony, as it certainly wss in Pliny's days. It appears
to have had an extensive territory asdgned to it. The loftily
situated cathedrsl of S. Giusto occupies the site of a Roman
tempte, some of the walls, and columns of which may be seen In
the tower Into the facade ate built fragments of sepulchral
idiefk The Gharch itself has a curious plan which is due to
ito baidng been formed out of two <fistinct churches standing
side by side« iridch wen united in the t4th century. Each of
these Is a barilka with andent columns and mosaics in the apse.
The so a thtein diurchv S. Giusto, has a central dome. The ¥>*
oaBed Aroo di Rjocardo is a half-buried Roman ardi with
Oorinthiaa piksters, possibly a triumphal arch, possibly coo*
nactad with an aqueduct
The muMUiB contains faseriptfons, mosaic pavements, &c.,
from the aadeot town, of whidi no remahis beyond those
aentioiisd iio# eibt abofve ground.
See Th. Mommsen In Corp. inser. laiiH, V. (1883), p. 53 sqq.;
T. G. Jsckson, Dalinaiia, Istria and Ike Qnamero (Pxfordri8i7),
UI..34KGwCkpfhil,rH«Ke(Bef8anKsr906). (T. As.)
flHtngl» a town in Apulia, Italy, in the t>rovince of Bari,
and 18 BL fay steam tramway W. from that town, situated in
the midst of a fertile plain, 627 ft. above' sea-leveL Pop. (1901)
*3i994* ft has a castle whfch at one time wss veiy strong.
and odcasloaally resorted to by the Emperor Frederick n. and
afterwards by the Aragonese soveztigns. The wfOIs and towers
of the town remain, but the fosse has been turned into boule-
vards. Teriizsi has some trade in the wine and fruit of the
dbtilet. Near it. In an aadent tomb, was found b 174$ a fine
in kstan d inlaid in diver.
TBBH, an English word which has various meanings, afi
arising from iu etymology (Lat. krmmu), and the idea of
liaituig or defining.
A ktm of yMTTf in Zti^Ssh Uw, b the time during which
an KBterest in an estate for Bfe or for years is enjoyed, also the
interest itself, because ftuch an interest must determine at- a
definite tinse. If the interest be for life, it is an estate of free-
hold*,' if for yean, only a penonal interest in reel estate, and so
personalty, even though the letagth of the term — ^for instance,
tooo ycars*-may far exceed in duration any possible life estate.
A term of years Is of two kfaids^^he fitst that crested by an
ofdiaary lease wservihg a rent, as of a house or a building
lease; the second that created by a settlement or a will,
usually without rent tesferved, for the purpose of securing
payment of money, such as portions to younger diildren, by
the owBer of the land. Both kfisA have been considerably
affected by the Conveyancing Acts of x88i and 1882, which
arable m mortgagor or mortgagee in possession to make certain
leases. Before 1845 provision was always made hi conveyances
for keeping on foot a term to attend the inheritance, as it was
called— that is, for assigning the remainder of a term to trustees
for the protection of the owner of the property against rent-
charges or other faieumbmnees created subsequently to the terat
64^
TERMINAL FIGORES—TEJIMINUS
allbough the term bad bem aatii6ed— that is, the piupoK far
which the term has heeo created had been fulfiliecL By the
Auisnment of Satisfied Tenns Act 1845 the asBgnment of
satisfied terms was lendeted tiniwiwMry. The Conveyandng
Acta x88i and 1882 give power to enbuge the unexpixed residue
of a long term in certain cases into the fee simple;
Terms, In the sense of a limited and ceztain period of time
duzing which the law courts axe open, used to affect only what
were caDed in England the superior coart»-Hhat is, the king's
bencl^ common pleas and cauhequer. They were oiigloaUy
the leisure seasons of the year which were not oocnpicd by great
feasts or fasts of the Qiurch or by agiionltiire. Their origin
is no doubt to be traced bock to the legiwiafinn of the eaiiy
Christian emperors, the principle being adopted in England
through the influence of ecclesiastical judges. Terms were
regulated by many acts of parliament, the effect of which was
to confine to a comparatively short period the time duzing
which the courts could sit iu banc^—ihMt is, for the dedsion
of questions of law as distinguished from the dedsion of ques-
tions of fact. There were four tenns, Hilary, Easter, Trinity
and Michaelmas, the average duration of each being about
three wedcs. AU legislation on the subject previous to 1873
is now merely of historical interest, for by the Judicature Act
of that year terms were abolished so far as related to the ad-
ministration of justice and sittings substituted. The previous
subdivisions of the legal year were, however, retained, the dates
of commencement and termination being somewhat changed.
The Michaelmas sittings of the high court and court of appeal
are now held from the 34th of October to the 2i8t of December,
the Hilary sittings from the itth of January to the Wednesday
before Easter, the Easter sittings from the Tuesday after Easter
week to the Friday before Whitsunday, and the Trinity sittings
from the Tuesday after Whitsun week to the lath of Attgus^
all dates indusive. Tba oki terms, with their duration as ited
by statute, axe now kept alive only for the purpose of reference
in all cases in which they are wd as a measure of time. In
the United States the terms or sittings of the courts are not
limited to any fixed period of time, but vary according to the
Judges available and the amount of judidal business which is
likely to coipe before the courts. The dioing-terms at the Inns
of Court also correspond in point of time with the okl terms
and not with the sitting!..
In universities and schools the word term is used for tlie period
during which instruction is given to the students or pupils.
University and school terms differ from law terms and ftom
each other both in period and duxatwn. At the university of
Cambridge the academic year is divided into thne terms,
Michaelmas, Lei^ and Easfcr; while at the university of Oxford
there are four terms in the year, Michaelmas» Hilary, Easter
and Trinity. School years now generally oosisist of three
terms, divided by Christmas, Easter and Summer holidays*
the old half-years having gradually been abolished* In higher
educational institutions in the United States the university or
college year is generally divided into three terms called cteher
the Fall, Winter and Spring terms, or much leM fzeqjuently the
first, second aud third terms. In some inftitutions> however,
the so-called semester system baa been adopted, the year bang
divided into two terms, so far as instruction is oottcemed,
though even in these casea vacations at Christmas time and in
the early spring divide the year into three parts, whidi are
sometimes, though not in the usual or proper sense, caUed terms.
In Scotland terms are the days at which rent or inUrest is
payable. They are eitlmr legal or conventional: the legsl are
Whitsunday and Martinmas; the conventional are fixed by
agreement between the parties. Terms as times of court
sittings were defined by 6 Anne c. 55, which fixed four terms—
Martinmas, Quidlemas, Whitsuntide and Lammaa— for the
now obsolete court of exchequer, to which the winter and summer
sittings of the court of session now correspond.
^ TBRMIKAL FIGURES, also called "termini" or ♦'terms,"
in fir" '>f which the upper parts OBly» or perhaps
th'' done, are carved, the rest running into
a pafalkl6pqped,*and smnctinKS imo a diwItiWifag rwtlnral.
with feet indicated below, or even without them (ese iiBKicas).
TBRMUATMl (from the Latin termuun^ to limit), in
astronomy, the bounding line beween light and darkness 00
th e app arent disk o f the moott or of a phnet.
TBtMmi DBBBSI (anc Tkerwuu Himerawe), a seaport
town of Sicily, In the province of Palenno, S3 m. E^S^ of it
by laiL Pop. (xgoi) 20^33. It Is finely situated on a pro-
montory above ita haiiMur, and it is possible that it waaoocopied
by an early Fhncmrian settlement; as a town, however, it
was not founded until 407 B.a by the Carthaginiam, after their
destruction of Himcra, in the vicinity of hot springs mentioned
by Pindar {Od. xiL 19) wfaidi are still resorted to and are well
fitted up (temp, iro* F.). It remsined a Cartiiaginian colony,
though thoroughly Gpeek^ in character, until it was taken by
Rome in the First Punic war. In the time of Ocero it was
flourishing, though, not- of great impoctaace. Augostna sent a
Roman ookmy to it, and a Roman road ran from it to Catena.
Its medieval castle was destroyed in x86ou The. modern town
presents no features of interest; there is a colkction of anti-
quities and pictures, with a coasideimble number of Roman
inscriptions. Scanty remains Of buildings of Roman times (an
amphitheatre and a so^alled basilica) exist in the upper part
of the town; and outside it on the S. are considerable remains
of two aqueducts of the same period crossing a deep ravine.
The surroundtag district is fertile^
Four m. £. of Termini, about rra. W. of the rsilway sUtion
of Cerda, on an E. sp«r of tise MoAte S. Calogem, caUed Monte
CasteUacdo, Is a Cydopean wall, about 66 ft. kmg, ro ft. thick,
and 30 ft. high in the middle, blocking the only access to the
summit of the spur, on the NX Fortifications in thu style
are very rare in Sicily.
See B. RoiaaM. AwHckUd TvmUoM <FBlenno« iaxa)< Mauoeri,
Acrppdi Paasgjua mi dttUonti di Termiai lmtr€H (Pakrnn. 1896),
^. As.)
TERMINUS, in Roman nqrthoksy, the god of boundaries,
the protector of the.liaoita both of private •property and of tbe
public territory of Rome. He was represented by a stone or
post, set up in the ground with the following religious ceremonies.
A trench was dug, in which a fire was fig^ted; a victim was
sacrificedj and its blood poured into the trench; the body,
upon which incense and fruits, honey and wine were thrown,
was then cast into the fire. When it was entirely consumed,
the tMundary stone, which had been previously anointed and
crowned with garlands, was placed upon the hot ashes and fixed
in the ground. Any one who removed a boundary stone was
aocuned {sacn) and might be slain with impunity; a fine was
afterwaxds substituted fbr the death penalty. On the asrd
of February (the end of the old Roman year) the festival called
Terminalia, according to Wissowa a festival not of the god but
of the boundary stones (teniMns), was hekl. The owners of
adjacent lands assembled at the common boundary stone, and
crowned their own side of the stone with garlands; an akar
was set up and offerings of cakes, corn, hon^y and wine were
made (later, a hmb or a sucking pig wss sacrificed). The
proceedfatgs closed with songs to the god and a general merry-
making, in which all the members of the family and the servants
took psxt. A rimilar festival was also held at the old boundary
of the Roman territory between the fifth and sixth milestones
on the road to Lanrentum. The custom of &dng the boundaries
of pooperty and the institution of the ycazly festival were both
sscribed tt> Numa. Another Sabine prince, Titus TatSus, had
dedicated a stone to Terminus on the Capttohne hill. When
Tarqniuius Supezboa desured to build a tempte to Jupiter, the
auguries forbsde ita removal, and it was endoecd within the
waUs o£ the new sanctuary, an indication of tbe immovability
of such stones and of the permanence of the Roman territory.
Terminus was probably in its origin only an qnthet of Jupiter,
The fact of tbe indusion of his status in the temple of Jupiter
(^pitolinus; the hole cut in the temple roof so that he midit
be worshipped in the open afr as bong, like Jupiter, a god pf
* Anthod^ was a pativs of Thermae.
TERMITE
^3
the sky; tad tHe Itter UBuaipcloii of a'JMter Teradnits or
Terminalis (d. the Greek ZcOt 6fiu$) support tjils view.
See Dion. Halic. u. 74; Plutarch, Ifuma, 16, QmssL Rom., 15;
Uvy i- 55; Horace, Bpoiei, iL 59; Ovid, FaiU, \L 617, 677;
SicaliM Fbccuff in Gtomakki ttkns, ed. Lachounn (1848); G.
Witaow*. BdifUm wtd KmUus dtr Rdmsf (1902); W. W. Fowler*
Tht Romnn Ftawah (1899); Gi Jourde, Lg Calk dm ditu Ttrmt
(PW«, 1B8Q.
TBRMITB; the name applied to • |roap of inaects irlth four
winp which are develc^)ed outside the body (a large proportion
of the individuals become adult, however, without wings appear-
^ at aU). The winfi am o| nearly one eiie^ of long, namw
tonn, of paper-like GOnsistenoe, and in repose are plaocd flat
on the back of the Insect so that only one wing shows. After a
short time the wins* ve shed, and on^ small stumps remain as
cvidenoe of the individuai being a winded form. The mouth
has strong nandlMea. Formerly temhes were classed as a
part of the order Neuropten, but more recently they have been
separated by certain zoologists from the true Neuroptant, and
— *'*'^**^ with aooae other forma aa an enter Conodcntia.
By Packard they have been aasteiated with Malkidiaga, ^nd
called Platyptera. lliey now constitute. with the Ehiblidae—
a small and obscure family — the order Isopteca, of which about
300 spedes are known. Termites are aaore widdy known aa
white ants, but as they are extremely different from true ants,
and as they are rarely white, this designation is veiy dec^tive^
and should be abandoned.
Termites are |ound only iA warm dimatest where they an
sometimes very destructive. They are vegetarian, but oc-
casionally eat, ror dcstipy, dry animal matter. The basU of
their alimentary regimen is woody matter. Somo-of them make
use of fungi grdwing in their abodes as food; some cat and store
gi^ss; others prepare a peculiar kind of food, which is stored
in a toigh, dry form, so that it has to be moistened before it can
be eaten. Termites are social insects; many of them construct
large edifices called termitaria and often spoken of as nests. A
termitarium frequenthf contains m enormous number of in^
dividuals forming the society or colony. Termites are totally
different m structure and dovelopment from aU other aocial
insects, but their soeial ezstence ezhiMts numerous analogies
with that of th« anu and other social Hymenoptera. The most
remarkable of these analogies is that the reproduction of th'e
species in each commimity b confined to a single pair, or to a
vary limited number of
individuals. The mem'-
bca of one sodcty or
colony, however nnmeroos
or dissimilar they may be,
are the descendants of a
single pair. The colony Ss
— so far as b known, and
on this, as wdl aa on many
other points, authehtk in«
formation is scanty— first
started by a pair of winged
indivMnals that cast their
wings, secrete themselves
in a suitable place,
and produce young; the
cokmy, however hi^,
bdng subsequently deve-
loped by the extreme fcr-
Fio. I-— A. newly hatched termite; B, ijUty of the reproductive
worker term.te; Term** Mtnorofus. ^^ y^ ,.^^ ^ ^^^
as to how long a colony
endures, and. as there is peat variety in the social conditions
of different kinds of termites, It is probable that there Is con-
siderable difference as to the point in qnestion. As a rule a
fiamily or colony has only a singte termitarium, but there are
cases in which a 8!ngle faimW hds several separate abodes,
though usually only one of them is a real home containing
reproductive individuals. The sodal Ule In termites, aa well as
hi an other tocfal fanecfs, Is ckaxf y a development of the famffy
life. It is accompanied by extraordinary modifications of the
forms of the individuals constituting the society, and by a
gnat diviskat of Ubour. As regards the forms, or castes,
termites differ tota^y from .
other social bsects; hi .x-*v 1
the latter case there are
great diffettnoca between
tbo miles and females,
and the whole of the
« of the female
Fig. a^— a, naodibubitc lokiier of
T*rmes ntmorotus; B, nasute soldier
of r. ho»pitalu.
the maks and femalea are
extreme^ similar, and the ,
castes are in no way cor-<
relative with sax. Aa the
termite, life is a fam^y life,
and as there is normally
only a single pair of re-
pcoductiva Individaala m
each oommonity , ft is casOy
comprehensible that if any-
thing goea wrong with tlis
pair, the community is at
once thrown into a state of
complete disorganization.
But this tai&fiortunelsaBiti-
gatecf by ■ me tho d which
termites have -of ksspin^
individuab in an nndiffcr-
entiated state, and Of turn-
ing some of them speedily
into reproductive Indi-
viduab, whereby the eom*
munity b restored to
something Gke a natusal'
condition of activity and
ffOWtb.
Apart frsm the fonns
that are merely fovenSe,
the foUowing kinds of
adults are normally present
in a colony: (r) workcn, (9) soMiers, (3). winged'individuab
ready to leave the nest, (4) king and queen.
(i) The wufhtr tcrmito resenibles the young na generd appear-
aoea, and, like the yonng. ha* no trace of wings (fig. 1). The
two foments behind the head are more contracted, so that head,
thorax and abdomen are more differentiated than Aey are in she
young. The colour too b different, the young being milky-white,
whereas the adult worker b variously pigmented according to its
•pedes, hot b never milkyAMttte. The worker b generally blind,
and In only a few species does it poesess rudimenteiy eyM. The
spccbs of the group C^lermitide$ nave no workers. In the other
species the worfcen look after the eggs and young, aod perform
most, if not alt. of the industrial work of the community. They are
also, in some casea, effective combatants, though qait^e destitute of
any spccbl structures to suit them for this purpose. The sexual
organs do not undergo development, but It has been satbfactorily
ascertained that both sexes are r e pre s e nt ed amottett the workers.
In certain species the worlcen seem to be dtmorrAiic, so far assise
b conc er ned, but tbb point has apparent^ been only very in*
adequately consideNd. Workera form a very large but variable
proportion of the members of a community.
(2) The soUiff termite b the most extraordinary featiare of
termite biology. It b more varied than any c* the other castes,
so that most of the species of termites cSn be best distinguished by
their soldiers. The chief feature of the soldier b an extnwidinary
development of the head, or of the head and mandibles. Thcfl
are two very distinct kinds of soldiers: (a) the flat-headed or
.mandibulate soldier, and ib) the nasute or rostrate foMSer (fig. s>*
In the first kind the head b usually developed out of all proporthm
to the rest of the body; the mandibles are frequently enormous,
and, being, in many cases as^'mmetric, give the appearance of de-
formity. In the nasute soldier the head Is thick or coovc*. and
may be described as unicorn—that is to say, it is prolottged ra the
middle so as to form a single pointed horn; the mandibles are
never largely developed. No species of termite has both mannibv*
lare aad nasute soldiers, akhough the reverse b soroettmes stM
f>^6
TERNATB
the sub family 8t«muwic of the gulb «r taridw, but, Accdcding
U P. J. Selby» properly belonging, at least ia the Fame Islands^
to the species known by the book-name of Sandwich tern, all
the others being those called sea<swaUows— a name still most
commonly given to the whole group throughout Britain from their
long wings, forked tail and marine habit. In F. Wtllufl^by's
Ornilhologia (1676), however^ the word tern is used for mote
than one species, and, thoii^^ it docs not appear in the older
English dictionaries, it may well have been from early times as
general a name as it is now.
Setting aside those which are but occasional visitors to the
British Islands, six species of terns may be regarded as in-
digenous, though of them one has ceased from ordinarily breeding
ia the United Kingdom, while a second has become so rave and
regularly appears in so few places that mention of them must
for prudence sake be avoided. This last b the beautiful roseate
tern, SUrna dougalli', the other is the black tern, Uydrockdidon
ttigra, belonging to < genus in which the toefl are only half-
webbed, of small sLse and dark leaden-grey plumage. It is
without doubt the SUrn^ of Turner, and In former days was
abundant in many parts of the fen country,^ to say nothing of
other districts. Though nearly all its ancient abodes have been
drained, and for its purposes sterilized these many years past,
not a spring comes but it shows itself in small companies in the
eastern counties of England, evidently seeking a breeding-
place. All around the coast the diminution in the numbers of
the remaining sp^es of tems is no lest deplorable than de-
monstrable.
The Sandwich tern, 5. canUaea — named from the place of its
discovery, though it hsa long since ceased to inhabit that
neighbourhood— is the largest of the British species, equalling
in siae the smaller gulk and having a dark-coloured bill tipped
with yellow, and dark legs. Through persecution it has been
exterminated in all iu southern haunts, and is become much
scarcer in those to which it still resorts. It was, however,
never so abundant as iu smalkr congenerv, the so-called
common and the arctic tem-Hwo species that are so nearly
alike as to be beyond discrimination on the wing by an ordinary
observer, and even in the hand require a somewhat close exa-
mination.' The former of these has the more southern range,
and often afifects inland situations, while the latter, though by
no means limited to the Arctic circle, is widely distributed over
the north and mostly resorts to, the sea-coast. Yet there are
localities where, as on the Fame Islands, both meet and breed,
without oocupying stations apart. The minute diagnosis of
these two species cannot be briefly given. It must suffice here
to state that the most certain difference, as it is the most easily
Tccogniiable, Is to be found in the tarsus, which in the arctic
tern is a quarter of an inch shorter than in its kinsman. The
remaining native spedes is the lesser tern, 5. mntUat one of
the smallest of the genus and readily to be distinguished by its
permanently white forehead. All the spedes already mentioned,
except the black tern, have much the same general cobration—
•pedes as "noatrati lingua sterna anpellata.** In at least one
inatanoe the word hat bran confounded with one of the oM foms
of the modem Starling (9.0.). To Turner's name, repeated by
Cesncr and other authors, we owe the iotxoductioa by Linoaeas oif
Sutna into scientific nomenclature. '* Ikstem " is another Dutch
form of the word.
> It was known there as caffv^ewallow. carroow (eomipted fato
" acareaow "), and blue dsr (91*. • daw?).
* Ltnnaeus's diagnosis of hu Stvna htrundo points to his having
had sn "arctic" tern before him; but it is certain that he^did
not susDcct that spedfic appellation (already used by other writeia
for the ^' common ^' tern) to cover a atoond spedes. Some modera
autbpritiea diaregard his name as being iasuftdently definiie, and
much 19 to be asid for thia view of the case. Undoubtedly
•* kirnndo ** has now been used so indiacriminatdy for one spcdca
or the other as to cause confusion, which is perhaps best avoided
bv adoptiag the epithets of Naumann (Ins, 1819. pp. 1847, 1848),
who acckig oa and conftrmiag the diaoovccv of Nitach (who
first detected the spcdfic differences), called the aouthem apedea
Sf J hn f a l U it aod the aocthera .$. marmm. Temmlnek'a name
^ fut^ta. AiinliM to the laltera year eftenruda. haa, hotawvcr, beaa
Morit
the adulu ia snauncc phimse^ weadng a fabck cap aadkatfiag
the upper parts of the body and wings of a more or less pak
grey, while they are mostly hghur beneath* They genenUy
breed in association, often in the closest praximity-4heir nests,
containing three eggs at most, being made on the shingle or
among herbage. The young are hatched dothed m varic^ted
down, and remain in the nest for aome time. At this season the
parents are ahnost regsrdksB of human pcesence and expose
themselvca f lee^.
At least half*a-doeen other spedes have been recorded aa
occurring m British waters, and among them the Caspian tern
5. caspia, which is one of the largest of the genus and of wide
distribution, though not fareoding nearer to the shores of
England than on Sylt and its neighbonring islands, which still
afford lodgings for a few pairs. Another, the gull-billed tern,
5. anglka, has also been not infrequently shot in England. Ail
these spedes are now recognised — though the contrary was once
maintained— as inhabiunts of North America, and many go
much farther. S, forskfi is the North American, and S.
mtlanogaster the Indian tern.
Terns are found all over the world, and among esodc forma saay
be particuUriY mentioned the various species of noddy {&.%), Often
confounded with these last are the two species called in oooks sooty
terns {S. juliginosa and S, anaestheta), but by sailors " egg-birds '*
or *' wide-awakes " from their cry. These crowd at certain aeasons
in innumerable multitude to certain islands within the tropics,
where they breed, and the wonderful aasemblage known aa " wide-
awake fair " on the island of Ascension has been more or less fully
described from very ancient times. W. Dampier in hb voyage to
New Holland in 1699 particularly described and figured the sooty
tern (Voyagfis^ iti. p. 14a), discriminating it from die noddy, from
which it had oot before been distinguished. (A. N.)
TBRNAT^ a small island in the Malay Archipelago, off the
west coast of Halmahera, in o*^ 48' N., 127** 19' E. It is nearty
drcular in form, with an area of about 25 sq. m., and consists
almost entirely of a remarkable volcano (5400 ft.) formed of
three superimposed cones. Frequent destructive eruptions
have occurred. On the island is the small town of Temate,
which, in spite of its good harbour, carried on no considerable
trade or shipping, and haa only 3000 inhabitants. But it is
the headquarters of the Dutch residency of Temate, which
exercises authority over the area of the andent kingdoms of
Terqate and Tidore. The residency consbu of the followbig
groups of islands: the Halmahera group, the Bachian and the
Obi group, the SuLi Islands, the i^ands near the western half
of New Guinea (Gebeh, Yaigeu« Salawati,. Miaol, collectively
called the Papuan Island^, the western half of New Guinea as
far as 141" E., with the idands tn Gedvink Gulf on the norUi
coast Of Nc^ Guinea (Scbouten Islands, Yapen, &c>, ah>^
with others on the south coast. Tb this residency alae bekmg
the state of Banggsi in Eaat Celebes, and the Banggai Islands.
The residency streUhes from 3^ 43' N. to 5° 45' S., and lai* to
141^ £., with an area of 155,800 sq. m. The IXitch government
exercises direct authority only over parts of Xematr^ Halinahera,
Badiian and Obi isUnds. lu mle over ths other groups it
carries on through the sukans of Tecnafe and Tidore (^.t .).
Both the island and town of Ternate feuffer from .then isolation,
and have never regained the tmpoitaoos they had in focraa:
c entur i es. Pop. of (he whole residency (1905) ioS,4lS* Ilis
itthshitants are of Malay tace and MahomnMsdans in religioo.
The breaking up of the old government of the Mnhiccas tended
to make Teoutte perhaps the most important Datch-Indisn
political centre of the archipeUgo east of Cdebes- Nominally
the saltan la still ndei^ but viitually his powers were grently
curtsiled by his oonventioiu with the Dutch-Indian govertunent,
under which he surrendered, with the concuRcnoe of his grandees,
many of his former rights (p the Dutch resident, who became tte
d€ Jaeto governor of the easternmost oobnial poaKssioiis of
HoUaad, especially since the tnmsfer of Dutch Me« Guinea Sa
ipos. Ansong the nghu surrendered by thesukss cC Tetnate
to the Dutch were these of gtaating mooopoKcs.and mabag
ee nrm ions, now Hiested in the Dutch resident. The idsad of
Bachian is worked by a kind of ohanexed osmpanT. For
surrendered lights and privileges the sultan and his j
TERNI—TERPENES
647
K t d fed nonettfy com p e na ttttw in the shape > of umual sab-
vcniiODS, and these also have been paid for the losses formezly
incuned by the wiUul destruction of the nutmeg plantations,
ctfosd oat in ocder to enhance the value of this commodity
and monopolise its cultivation. The restrictiont on nutmeie-
growing have long since been removed, and many plantations,
with free labour, have been sUrtcd in Temate since 1885. It
is a curious fact that Christianity has decUned hi Temate in
modon times, though it was an early strongbold and the
number of EniopeaaB settled th^te has materially incieaaed.
TBIIM (anc. Inleratmta Nakars)^ a town, episcopal see, and
the seat of a sub-prefectnre of the provhice of Perugia, Italy,
situated among the Apennines, but only 426 ft. alwve scar
level, in the vaUey of the Nera <«nc. Nar'i, from which the town
took its distingubhmg efMthet, s m. below its junction with the
Velhio,. and 70 m. N. by £. of Rome by rail. Pop. (1906)
30,330 (town), 33,256 (commune). It has important iron and
steel works and iron foundries, at which axniour-pbitca, guns
and proiectiles are made for the Italian navy, also steel castings,
machmery and rails, a royal arms factory, and lignite mining.
Term lies on the main railway line from Rome to FoUgno and
AnoQiM, and ia the junction for Rieti and Subnoaa. Its moot
interesting buildings ase the cathedral (trth century, with
remains of the earlier xjth century facade), the church of
S. Francesco (partly dating from the 13th century, with some
frescoes of the t4th), and other old churchca. Its antiquities
include traces of the city walls of recungular bk>cks of tra-
vertine, remains of an amphitheatre of the time of Tiberius,
a temple» theatre and baU» (?), and numerous inscriptions.
Remains have Also been found of a pre-Romaa ncaopoUs.
The excavations and the objects found are described by A.
Pasqoi and L. Lanst in Notuk dtgli scarij X907, 595 seq. Five
miles to the east are the falls of the VeUno (Cascate ielU Mamon).
Alike in volume and in beauty these take a very high place
among European waterfalU; the catanct has a total descent
of about 650 ft., in three leaps of 65, 3jo and igo ft. respectively.
They owe their ori^ to M^ Curius Dentatos, who in 272 bx.
first opened an aitificial channel by which tlie greater part of
the Lacus Velinus in the valley below Reate was drained. Hicy
supply the motive power for the factories of the town.
Temi U the ancient Jnteramna (inUr amnes. " between the rivers, **
i,e. the Nar and one of its branches), orif^iaally belonging to Umbna,
aad founded, accordir^ to a local tradition preaerved in an inacrip-
tion, in the year 673 b.c. It is first mentioned in history as being,
along with Spoletium. Praeneste and Fk>rentia, portioned out
among his soldiers by Sulla, lu iahabiunts bad frequent liti^-
tians and disputes with their neighbours at Reate in connexion
with the regulation of the Velinus, the waters of which are so
strongly impregnated with carixsaate of Ume that by their deposits
thry tend to block up their own channel. The mat interference
with its natural course was that of M*. Curius Dcntatus already
rctored to. In 54 B.c the people of Reate appealed to Cicero
to plead their cause in an arbitration which had been appointed
by^the Roman senate to settle dispotes about the river, and in
connexion with this he made a personal inspection of Lake Velinus
and its outlets. In the time of Tiberius there was a project for
regulating the river and its outlets from the lake, against which
the citixens of Interamna and Reate energetically ana successfully
pioteated (Tac Ann. i. j^). Similar questions arose as the river
formed fresh de^wsits dunng the middle ages and during the 15th
and Ifith centuries. A branch of the Via Flaminia passed from
Narnia to Forum Flominii, and is given instead of the direct line
in the Antonine and Jerusalem itineraries. A road led from here
to the Via Salaria at Reate. Interamna is also mentioned in
Gcero's time as being the place where Clodius wished to prove
that he was on the night when he was caueht in Caesar's house
at the celebration of the rites of the Bona Uea. The Emperor
Tacitus and his brother Florianus were probably natives of Inter-
amna. wbkh also has been claimed as the birthplace of Tacitus
the historian, but with less reason Dunns most of the middle
ages and up till 1860 Temi was subject to the popes. It was the
scene of the defeat of the Neap<^tana by the Freocn on the 27th of
November 1798*
TBBPAIIDBR, of Antnsa in Lesbos, Greek poet and musician.
About the time of the Second Messenian war, he settled in
Sparta, whither, according to some accotmts, he had been
summoned by command of the Drlphiaa oiaclei tQ coopoie
tJbe diffeftoccs which had arisen betwMB diffctcnt dHscs la
the sute. Rei« he gained the prize in the musical eoBtcsts at
the festival Camea (676-a b.c; Athenaeus, 635 c). He is
reprded as the real founder of Greek dassical music, and of
lyric poetry; but as to bis innovations in music our informatioa
is imperfect. According to Strabo (ziii. p. 618) lie increased
the number of strings in the lyie from four to seven; others
take the fragment cf Teipander on which Strabo bases his
sutement (Bergk, $) to mean that he developed the dtharoedic
nomos (sung to the accompaniment of the dthara or lyre) by
making the divisions of the ode seven instead of four. The
seven-stringed lyre was probaiily already ib existence. Ter-
pander is also said to have mtroduced several new rhythms in
addition to the dactylic, and to have been famous as a composer
of drinking-soB^s.
Fragments (the genuineness of which is doubtful) in T. Bergle,
FoeAis Lyriei Ct>tteei, til.; see alw O. LOwe, De TerpMdri LesUi
e<ft><s (t8i69), lirho places hita about 676 b.c.
TEBPBIIS. in organic chemistry, the generic name of a
group of hydracacbona of the general formula (CiHs)., and tU.
vMt im p ert a pt oxygen derivatives, mainly alcohob, aldehydes
and ketones, derived frem them. They may be dassified into
several distinct groups: ktmkrpenu, C|Hi; Urpaus proper,
CisHm; sesquUerpenes, CuHm! and fdyttrpmes (C«Ha).. In
addition to these, a series of open-chain olefine tetpenes is known.
Iht chief sources of the terpenes and their derivatives are
the essential oils <4>tained by the distillation or estractioo by
p wa s m e of varioua plants, chiefly of the Conif cne and different
■pedes of CUnu. Certain of these oils consist very largely of
Hydfocarbons; for example, those of ttxrpentine, dtron, thyme,
orange, pme-needle, goldearod (from Solidago canadennt) aad
C3rpcc88, while others contain as their chief constituents
various akoholfc and ketonlc substances. With the exception
of camphene, all the terpenes are liquids, boiling approximately
between 160* and 190* C, so that it is almost impossible to
separate them from the various essential oils by fmctional
distiSation. In 6ider to piepare the individual memben pare,
advantage Is taken of the different physical properties of their
derivatives. The terpenes all possess a duoacteristk odour
and lie fairly stable to alkalis, but are easily decomposed by
adds or by heating to a sufficiently high temperature. Msny
polymerize readily, or are transformed into isomers by boiling
witii dilute alcoholic sulphuric add. Some oxidize rapidly on
exposure to air, passing into resinous substances* The f^rmar
tiOB of addition compounds with the halogens, hal<^Ben hydrides,
and with nitrosyl chloride, is dtaractetistic of many, whihd
others unite readily with nitrogen peroxide. According to
A. V. Baeyer (^«r., 1895, 28, p. 648; 1896. ag, p. 10) the
nitrosochlorides are not simple addition products, but hi*
molendar compotuds or bisnitrosochloridea.
HmiiTEa PBms
The best known is Isoprene, C»H|, which is obtained on distilling
caoutchouc or gutta-percha. It was synthesized by W. Eulcr
{Btr^ 18^, JO, p. 1989) by distilling the addition compound of
methyl iodide and 2 • 3 • 5-trinieth]^lpyrollidine with caustic potash.
It is an unstable liquia which boils at 33-5* C, and on heating
rapidly polymerizes to dioentene. the same change being effcdca
by hydrochloric add. in ethereal solution it combmes with
bramme to form an unsuble liquid dibromide; it also unites with
one molecule of hydrobromic acid to form the same tertiary bromide
as diroethylallvlene; this points to its being /9-methyldi vinyl.
CH>:C(CH.)CH:CH, (V. A. Mokiewsky, Jntr. Soc Phys. CUm.
Xmss., 1900. 32, p. 207).
Tebpbnes PifOfsn
The terpenes proper may be subdivided into the simple mono-
9 relic terpenes and the more complex (uMaOy Irieyelie) terpenes.
he moriocyclic t e rpene s af» hydro derivatives of paracymene.
A. V. Baeyer proposed the folfewing nomenclature: the dOiydm>
paracyroenes are called terpadienes, the tetrahydnocymenes be-
cominx terpenes and the nexahydrocymene terpan, the carbon
atoms being numbered as shown in the inset (ormula :
In the moR complex terpenes the name ^'^v m ^ ,
camphene is reuined. and camphaac is ,,. c-A* *\J?^/^ **
used for the dihydrocampheae. G. ™ ^"Vs sV^ \c (loi
Warner {Ber., 1894, 27. p. i«36 Anm.) ^— ^'^
designates the hexahydranrmenes mentkana, the te tm h y drocygieneB
asentheasaraad cha dihyasocyaMMS menthadkasi The posbion
6^8
TERPENaSS^:
of the doubl* Unkins in the nolecale U shown by the use of the
symbol A followed by the number of the carbon atom immediately
preceding it.
Monocyclic Tsrpens Grotto
Limanenej,Ai:8(!9) terpadiene. CioHu. is known in three forms,
namely <^finioneoe, A-hraonene. and t-limonene or dipentenc.
^Umonene is the chief constituent of oil of orange-rind, and b
also found in oil of lemon and oil of bergamot. Mimooene is
found in oil of fir-cones and in Russian peppermint oil. Both are
pleasant-smelling liauids, which boil at 175-176* C. The^j differ
from each other only in rotatory power. Dry hydrochloric acid
gas converts then mto optically active Umonene hydrochloride,
while in the moist condition it gtvea dipentene dibydrochk>ride.
When heated to a sufficiently high temperature they are con-
verted into dipentene. Four optically active nitrosochlorides are
known, two corresponding to each of the active Hmonenes, and
these on heating with alcoholic potash are converted into d" and
^carvoxime. Dipentene (s-limonene) is found widely distributed
in many eaeentiu oils, «.(. of camphor, Russian turpentine, cubebs,
bergamot, cardamom, &c., and is also a product of the dry dis-
tillation c^ manv vegetable resins. It may oe moduced by healing
many terpenes (pinene, camphene. sylvestrene, limooene) for seversu
hours at jt^o-370* C; or by the polymerisatioa of isoprene at
Aoo* C. To obtain pure dipentene it is best to beat dipentene
Dydrochloride with anhydrous sodium acetate and glacial acetic
acid (O. Wallach, ^iiw. Chem, Pharm., X887. 339. p. 3). It is a
pleasant-atnelling liquid, which boils at 175-176* C, and poly-
meriaes on heating to high temperatures, whm
akohofic sulphuric add it
^ warmed with
yields terniaena, whilst oonoentrated
U
sulphpric acid or phosphorus pentasulphkle convert it into para'
cymene. Dipentene dmvdrochloride, CuHu-2HQ, best prepared
by passing a current of nydrochloric add gas over the surface of
a giadal acetic add solutiott of dipentene, crystalliies in rhombic
tables which melt at 50* C and boil at 1 18-120*. C. (10 mm.). It
b apparently a (ratu-compound, for A. v. Baever (Ber., 1893, 26,
7. 2863) has obtained a m-dihydrochloride of mclting-p<unt 25*
[circa), by the action of hydrochloric add on dneol.
' TlirpiweUme, /ii:4(8) terpadieas, baa not as yet
been observed in eaeential oila.^ It b formed by the
action of hot dilute sulphuric add on terpineol, terpin
hydrate and dneot It b an inactive liquid boiling at
i83-r85* C, and b readily converted into terpiner«
byadds.
T^rpifumt, Ai : 4(8) to^adieae (?). b found in cardamom oS and
in oil of marjoram. It la formed by the action of alcoholic sul-
phuric add on dipentene, terpin hydrate, dneol phellandrene or
terpineol: or by the action of formic add on linaloof. .
i PktUmktnM b a mixture of Ai:5 terpadiene and As: 1(7)
terpadiene (pseudo-pbeUaadcBne) (F. W. Semmfer, Ber„ 1901
dioxide yiekb i-matb^-4-isopfOfwldiketalieKamethykoapJlaakctoae
b then reduced to the secondary alcohol, the bydroxyl groupa
replaced by bromine, and hydrobromk add b then removea from
the bromo-compound by boding it with qwiioline, leaving the ter-
pene. It b a liquid which boila at 174* C. and shows a *1^^i^pfnr
terpeoe character.
Alcohol and KBtonb DbmvatiVbs
UetUkol (terpan-oI-3), CiaHwO. The laevo variety is thfe chief
portion of oil of peppermint ; it may be prepared by reducing the
menthone obtained by £. Beckmaim and M. Pkissner(i4mi.. 189I,
362, p. ai) from palc^ooe hydxobromida with sorUmn and alcoluiL
It crysuUiaes in prisms which mdt at 43* C and boil at aia* C
It is readily oudued by chromic acid to the corresponding ketone
menthone. By the action of phosphorus pentoi^de, or dnc chloride,
it b converted into menthene, CioHn, and when heated with
anhydrous copper sulphate to 250** C it yields paaa-cynena. It u
reduced by bydriodic add and phosphorus to hexahydrocymena.
The phosphorus haldds yidd haloid esters iJ composition CuH»CI,
which, according to I. Il Kondakow {Jour, prakt. Oitm.^ wgg (2I.
60, p. 357) are to be regarded as tertiary esters; a similar type of
reaction is found in the case of carvomenthoL A ^aaeathol has
been prepared from the »-miitare obtained 1^ redudag meothone
with sodiunu The mixture b benzoybted, ana the liquid d^menthol
benzoate separated and hydrolysed.
Tertiary mM/Ao/-(terpan-oI-4). a fiqukl boiliar at 9t-loi* C
(20 mm.}, has been obtained by the h yduiysb of toe ester ptcpaicd
by heating menthene with trichloiacetic add (A. Reychler and
L. Masson, Bar., 1806. 29, p. 1844). It possesses a faint pepper-
. ^ t», wy, p. «i>4^/. It. tw #Bai.*afca m. i«uii pepper-
mint odour. W. H. Perkin, junr. {Proc Cham, Soc, 19(0$, 31,
p. 35s) synthesised it from 1*4 methylrycfohcxanooe: sodium
carbonate converts a-brombeiahydn>para-^aic add (t) into
A-i-tetrahydro-paraHoluic add amd »«xyhexabydiro-panHtoliHC
add. and the latter on treatment with dilute sulphuric add yields
i-4-ihethylc7c'o>iexanone (3}, which by the acti(m of magnesium
isopropyf iodide and subsequent hydrolysb b oonverted into
tertiary menthol (3).
cm
Br-0(hH-»Ca<
(I)
-*caf
p. 1749). It b found as ifrphcUandrene in oil of water-fi .
oil cl elemi, and as /-phdlandrene in Australian eucalyptus dl and
oil of bay. It b an exceedingly unstable compound, smd must be
CBCtracted from the oOs by distiUatioa fa sooio. The hydrocarbons
obtained from elemi oil and eucalyptus oil corre sp ond ta Ai*^
terpadiene. A similar hydrocarbon was obtained by C Harries and
M. Johnson (Ber., 1965, 38, p. 1833) by converting carvone hydro-
bcoiaide into A6 te r peoooe-2. theiu by phosphorus pentachloride,
into chk>r<3-pbellaiiKirene, which b finafiy reduced.
S y l HUrtm , Ai : 8(9) meta-teipadienej b fonad in Swedish and
Russian oil of turpentine and in various pine oUs. It boils at
175-176* C and b dextro-rotatory. It b one of the most stable
of the t e r penes aixi gives a chaiacteibtic deep blue colour on the
addition of a drop of sulphuric add to its solution In acetic an-
hydride. On treating the hydrbbromide with . bromine in the
presence of iodine, a product b otttained which on reduction yields
meta-cymene (A. v. Baeverand V. VilKger. Ber.. 1898, ^. p. 2067).
Carudrene is obtained by the distillatioo of carylamine or vestry^
famine hydrochkxide (A. v Bao-er, Ber., 1804, 27, pp. t48^ seal).
It b rqrardcd by Ba^r as i-syhrestrene. It was syntnesized by
W. H. Perkin and G. Tatter^iall {Proc. Ckem. Soc. 1907. 23. p. 368)
b>r the application of the Giignard jreaction to the ethyl ester of
Y-ketohexah\'drobenaoic add (i). By the action of magnesiom
methyl iodioe thu ester )ridds the lactone of T-hydroxy-henhydro-
meta-toloic add, whkh is transformed by hydrobromk: acid into
the corresponding T-bcomo-hexahydro-meta-tohuc add. This
fatter subsonce by the actkm of pyrkliae yiekb tetrahydro-meta-
tohiic awU the ester of which by faagnesiani methyl iodSde b oon-
verted into A-i-mcta aentheaol-8 (2). The meta-oMnthenol o«
dahydratiQa by potassium blialphatc yieMs carvtstreae <3) of
boiliag-point 179-ido* C
A a>'nth9t>cal monocydk terpeae. vix.
dihydrocymfene was pcepaied by A.
Tarpin (terpanKiiol I-8X CiJlii(OH)s. b known in tfpo
isomeric fonniL cir-terpin and (roiu-terpin. The Irnns- form _
obtained by adding silver acetate to a glacial acetic add solution
of dipentene dihydrochloride, filtering and netttraliang the filtrate
by caustk soda. It b then extracted with ether, and the acetyl
derivative so obtained is hydrclysed by alcoholic potash. It
crystallizes in prisms, which melt at 156^58* C, and boil at
26^-265* C It is converted into terpineol by ddute sulphuric
ac"* ^^- -* -" -adts at 104-105* C and may be pre-
pa ite. Terpin hydrate, C|«H)«<0H),H,0.
cr h mdt at 116* C It b prepa r ed by
ac adds on limooene or dipentene. When
be cid it b converted into terpineol. while
CO I at 210* C. reduces it to hesoJiydro-
31 dilute sulphuric acid it gives a number
be con s idered as arising from the hMs
of vatcr from one mobcule of terpin.
-., . aer oxide of terpin. It b found in the
oib of wormseed, cajapot, eucalyptus, huref. gafanga. camphor
and of favender. It may be prepa r ed by passing a current 01 dry
hvdrochkKic add gas into worxnseed ou, the predpitated hydro-
cnloride bdng then distilled in a current of steam (O. Wallach
and W. Brass, Ann., 1884. 325, p. 397). It b an inactn'e liqukJ.
which boib at 176* C. The oxygen atom in the molecule does ix>t
appear to possess dtber an alcoholic, ketonic, aldehydic or add
function.
rrr^'sMl. (Ai-terpen-ol-8). CioH»(OH). The term " terpineol**
has been used to oeoote what b now known to be a mixture of
vaitous boroeric alcohols. Liquid terpineob lave been isolated
from the oih of Eri^rom canoinue, kA marjoram and of cam|rfior.
Liquid terp i neol b generally prraarcd by the action of dihite sul-
phuric ado on terpm hydrate. It cortsists of a mixture of varioos
isomers, from which a solid terjuneol mdring at 35* C and an
isomeric A-8(9) terpen-ol-i. melting at 33* C, have been isoUted
fK. Stephan and J. Halle. Brr., 1903. 35, p. 3117. See also
on 4 G. Boochardat. Camptes renins, 1887, 104. p. 996; 1895. I3i.
p. 141 : Schimmd ft Co., Senn-anMnal Rtports, Oct- 1897, p. 11:
J. Godkwsky, Ckem. CentralUatt, 1899 d). P- X241). Sofid^ ter-
pineol exists in acti\'e and cacemic forms. The
active form was obtained by F. W. Semmler {Ber.^
189^ ^» l^ ^'9») by repbcin^ th e h alogen ato ms
^y in the active awsioayoio i n n B aae cn-fisMMfeaa by
the hydroayl group; it has aho baca ohtaaaad fay
l-nethyi-4-bopiopyl I the action of acetic acid on Enalool. The racemic variety has been
Bae)<er (&r., 1893. 26. ' prepared by the action of formic add on geraniol. aad was s\-ttthesi2ed
.-^ * . ....J :_ C .w .^t-^— method (W. H. Parkin, lanr.. Jom.Ciewn. Soe,. 1904.
ttaae tricnteybc asnr (I) (pscpaicd ^ tte
9b 48*)^ " Steins nirnaic eaiar Is oanvcrted mto the naathyl ia»^ , by the foUbwiagfl
Qft^ daifeiativ^ whidi na hydralysia aad ffaanarioo ai caifaoa 1 85. P^ ^M)-.'* ^]
TERPBNBS
^9
MroD^4odop0Dpi0iifeMtar)brks
pHMne-ffTTtncvlMKylie add (?)» which when boOid with acetk
Mliydridb aad diitJM givca MDetohexahydrobaaaoie acid U).
The etum U thk addl when treated with the Grignaid reagent.
yieUa Amhtxafaydratohik add (4), whkh is converted into the
'T"TT"Hr^ tnoetomipouad by luminir hvdrobromic add« This
latter oomyoond on traatment mth (Shite alkaK or pyridine yields
Ap»«Btmhydio»parirtohiic add (5). the ester of wfakh with mag.
neaimn and awthyl iodide Cunishes terptneol (6):—
(6) (s)
This ^yntheos detennines. the constitudon of terpin (7) and of
dipehtene (8). since the former is praduced by the action of s per
cent. sulDhutic acid on tcrpineol. and the latter by heating teipineol
with add eodiam sulphme.
C(€HiM>H. C&a-<
"(jJ'ffilJa. U)
Terpineo! adds on attiosyl chloride to form a nitrosochloridc;
which on elimination of hvdrochloric acid yields the cadme of an
onasturated oxykatone; this on boilinc with adds is converted
into inactive carvone. When reduced by the method <d Sabatier
and Senderena it /orms hexahydiocyroene (A. Hatter, Cmmptis
nniut, 1905, 140, p. 1303): woen oddiacd with Caio's reefent
it yidds trioKyhexahydrocymeoe (A. v. Baeyer and V. ViUiger, Btr.,
'899^ 3'iJP* 3^5)* "Por an isooieric terpineol ^'8(9) terpenol^f)
see A. V. Baeyer, ^sr., 1894. a?, f^ 443. «I5.. , ^ , . .. ^
Mtntkmu (terpan-one-3). CmHiA occurs with menthol m oil of
peppermint. It was first obtained by M. Moriya (Jour, Ckem. 5ae.,
1881. 39i p> 77) by OKidiaas mentnol with cnnMnic add mixture
at txr C, and was describea as an inactive compound; but R. W.
AtJdnson (ibid.. 1B83, 41, p. 50) showed that when menthol was
oddiaed at 135* C a strongly dextro-rotatory mentheoe was pro-
duced. For the preparation of ^menthone and ^isoroentbooe
(Beckmann's d-menthone) aee £. Beckmann, Ann,, 1889, ay^
2: ^S* >^'* ^'> PP* a' "^ ^*^ menthone obtained Dy
BecKmann ^ the reduction of pulegooe hydrobromide was shown
by C. Martine {Ann^ eJHm, pkys.^ 1904 (8). 3, p. 49) to be not com-
Metdy identical with l-mentoone; it is consequently dengnated
P-menthone. An inactive menthone has been synthedttd as
follows. ^-Methyl pimelic ester is converted I^ sodium ethylate
into methyI-K>U0hexanon*3<arboxyIic ester-4, into which the iso-
propy! group is introduced (alio in position 4) by the action of
isopropyl iodide and lodium ethylate. The ester m then hydrdysed,
and carbon diodde eliminated from the carbonrl ppup, when
inactive menthone is obtained (A. Eiohom and L. tOaffes, Ber.,
>90i« 34* P« 3793)* It boils at 204-306* C wheieas Beckmdmn's
menthooet boQ at 3o8* C A. Haller and C Martine (CompUt
nndms, 190$, 140, p. Ito) synthealaed natural menthoiae from
yl iodide and tne eodium derivative of methyl-i<tf>K/0>
hennone-3. It has also been prepared by condensing meuayl^
Kexanane with ethyl acetate, the resulting siiethyJ-i-acetyl'^<>c20>
bexanone-3 bdng converted into the isopropyl derivative, yidoiag
aoetylmenthone. which is then hydrolyied to menthone (G. Leser,
CompUs rendust 1003, 134, p. 1 115). A. Koitt and L. Hesse {Ann..
I90S> 34>* P* 306) convert methythexanone (i) by means of ethyl
oxalate and subsequent hydrolysis into methylhexanone oxalic
acid (3). the isopropyl ester of which on treatment with a methyl
alcohol solutxoo of caustic potash yidds d-meothone (3).
f ram cttroodfad by ooovcrdag thb coamovnd Imo isopolegot aoeute
by acetic anhydride; this ester is hydrolysed, and the isopulcgol
<nidiaed to isopulegone^ which on treatment with baryta ytdds
pulcgonei Pulegone reduces ammoniacal diver nitrate on long
LoUing. It b reduced by hydrogen to Amenthol. When heated
with water to 350* C it yields methyl-i'^jpdshexanono-s and acetone.
When methylc yr toh eM no ne and acetone are condensed together in
the presence of sodinsoj methjdate, an isomer of pulegone boilAng
at 8I9-316* C is obtained. Pulegone combines with bydrebromic
addtoformn hydrobromide. which on heatikig
in methyl alcohol sokition with basic lead nitmte
b converted into isopukspne <A 8(9>tefpenone«3)
(C Harries and cTRflder, B«r.. 1899. 33.
p. 3361). h b a laevo-rotatonr liquid. Adattro-
torm (a mixture) b also obtamed by the odda-
tion of isopulegoj with chnomic add. On
00^ reduction it yidds isopukgol and no aenthd
(cf. pulegone).
Camme (A 6 : 8fo).terpadieneK>ne^)) CioHii»0,
b an unsaturated optically active ketone which b found
very widely distributed in nature. The dextro-form b the
chief constituent of oil of canway, and b also iound in oil
of dUl; the laevo>form b found in oil of spearmint and
kuromoji oil. The dextro-form b obtained practically pure
by the fractional distillatk>n of canway oil; the laevo-form
from the oib containing it, by first forming its addition cool*
pound with sulphuretiM hydrogen. deoompo«ng thb by afcxihoUc
potash, and distilling the product m a cureent of steam. It may
be synthetKaUy prepared from limonene aitrasochloride, aicobolK
potash converting this compound into ^carvoodme. whkh on boiUng
with diluto sulphuric add yblds /-carvone; dmihrly terpioMMd
nitroaochloride by the action of sodium ethylate yidds oxydihydio*
carvoxirae. whkh on bydrolyns yields s^arvone. On heating with
phosphoric acid carvone b converted into carvacrd (l-metiiyU»>
oxy-^-isopropylbemene). Carvone b dosdy related to pbeUandrefiBi,
(or C. Harries and M. Johnson (Ber„ 1903. 38. p. 1832), by reduction
of carvone hydrobromide, Obtained A 6>fceiiienone-3, whkh witb
phdsphorus pentachloride gives chtor-3-«,-phriHandrene.
Bx-<:ycuc Tskpems Ckocp
A nomenclature for the bicyclk hydrocarbons was devbed by
A. y. Baeyer [Ber., 1900, 33. p. 377O. According to thb system
each hydrocarbon contains two tertiary carbon atoms, whkh are
combined with each other three tiroes, either directly or by means
of other intervening carbon atoms, the combination forming a
series of " bridges." These bridges are distiagubhed by nurobcn»
denoting the number of carbon atoms oontainod in tjiem. the.
direct union of the two tertiary carbon atoms being designated
as o; if one carbon atom intervenes, then the numbor i b used,
and so on. Thus three numbers serve as the " characteristic
for the compound. . Hydrocarbons of thb class with five atoms of
carbon are termed " bkychfeaiBan," with six atoms of carbon
" 6K>ic/0hcxaDes," &c. Thus, for example, the compound
be called " bicydo-ii • I • 3)- ac-CB v
Thujene (tanacetene), HiC-CH''
CioHift, 18 a derivative ofbicydo-{o • 1 • 3)-hexan
first given to the hydrocarbon obtdned by ^
iBcr., 1892, 35, pu 3345) on the dry distilUtion of thujyUroioe
hydrochloride^ It b a liquid whkh boils at 60-63* (>4 *nm.)t
and has been shown by L. Tschugaeff to be a monocyclic
hydrocarbon, for which he proposes the name " isothuiene." The
true thujene was prepared by L. Tschugaeff {Ber., 1900, 33. p. 31 18)
by hcatina the methyl xanthogenk ester obtained from thujyi
akohol. It b exceedingly unstable. The isomeric fi-thujme was
(i)wouU
OC-CBs
The name was
F. W. Scmrolcr
(>)
CBi.
U)
[-OChOOPl -> CBi
(1)
CiHt.
O. WaOach (Ann., 1900^3, p. 171) showed that the oodraes of
cycDc ketones are converted by phosphorus pentoxide utto iso*
odmes, whkh are readily decomposed by co n ce n trated faydro-
chlork add to yidd alipnitk amino-acids; in thb way menthone
nay be converted into «4imido-decylk add,
(CHi)4CHCH(NH«)(CH|)rCH(CH0-CHrCOai.
DiMpktncl, CiJfi^, whkh occmt in the essentbJ dl of buoeo
leaves (Borosma b^Hia) may be synthesiaed by oxididng oxy-
BKthylene menthone. Sodium in. aloohdk solutioa reduces it to
para'^erpaneKii->ot (3*3).
PMk^ome (A 4(8)-terpenone-3), CitHt A b an unsaturated ketone
found m pennyroyd oil, from sddeh it may be obtdned by dia>
filiation Ml socns. It b a dextro-rotatory liquid whkh boib at
ati-^si* C. F. Tiemann (Aer., 1897, 3p, p. 33) syntbesind it
dso obtained by the same investigator by the dry distillation of
tximethylthujyl ammonium hydroxide. It boib at 130-151 " C. and
po ss es s es a different rotatory power.
Sahinene, CuHi», also a hicycUh{Q • i • 3)«Iiexane
derivative, b found in oil of savioe. from whkh
-|j)^ It was first obtdned by F. W. Seromler (B«r., 1900,
33t P* I455)« On shaking with dilute sulphuric
add It yidds terpmenol (di-terpen-ol-4) (O* WaUach. Ber., 1907.
40, p. 593).
Ftncne, Q«Hia, derived from Hcydo-U • i • 9)-hepfeaoe, b found
m many essentid oils, and b the chief constituent of oil of tur-
pentine; the f-variety b found in French oQ of turpentine, the
d-vaiiety in Rossian. American and Swedish oU of turpentine.
PInene is also a constituent of the db of sage, lemon, eocdyptus,
dibanum. bay, fennd, sassafiaa, rosemary and of Valeria*. The
acdve varieties are obtained by the fractwnd distillation of the
various db of turpentine. The inactive vaiiety b obtained by
heating pinene m*trosochk>ride with an excess of aniline (O. Wallacb,
Ann,, iSte, 353|P. 133; 1890^ 358, p. H3)i-^ better with locdQrl-
aniUne (W. A. lilden). The three vanklea bdl at ISS'IS^^ C
Pinene readily absorbs oxygen from the air, redooua products bdng
lonned. together witb souul quantities of fomk and aoedc aadi^
6so
TERPENES
Acid caUUiM^ afestt ooawHt it into tereplithalic tad terebic add*,
whilst •Ikaline pouaMum pemangMUtte mi dilute solution osidiMs
it to pineoe glyool. CuHuCOHk pioooic add, CmHj^i. pinic add.
CtHid04. Ac, the producu o( the leacttan varyiaf accordiaf to the
tenpenitiiie (G. Wagner. Ber.
F. W. Semmler, 5«r., i8^. a8, pp. .„^, „_,
■ulpkuric add converts it into canquiene: and an alcoholic solution
J 1894, 27, p. jaTO; F. Tiemann and
Semmler, Btr.^ 18^. 28. pp. 1344, 1778). Concentated
of sulphuric add gives termnene and terpinokne. When heated
to 250-270* C. it yidds dipentene; the mdat halogen adds at
ordinary teinpcrature convert it into the dihalogen halides of
dipentene. ury hydrochloric add givts pinene hydrochloride
(artiScial camphor), Ci«HmC1, a white crystalUne solid identical
with bomyl chloride which melts at i^i* C Elimination of hakMten
hydride by means of a weak alkali {e.g. soap, silver acetate. &c.)
converts it into camphena. Thus the conversion of* pinene into
its hydrochloride is probably accompanied by an intramolecular
1 "I HiCC(CH>>-<:Ha
[iC-CCR j
Nitric add in aqueous alcoholic solution converu it into terpin
hydrate. Pinene nitrasochkMide. Ci«HmN0C1, was first obtained
in 1S74 by W. A. Tiiden {J^kmb., 187A p. 2 if) 'from nitrosyl
dUoride and a mixture of pinene and chloroform. O. Wadlach
(Aim., 1889, 2S5, p. 2^1) prepared it by the action of acetic add
and ethyl nitrite on oil of turpentine in presence of fuming hydro-
chtoric add. W. A. Tiiden (Jpttr. Ckem. Spc., 1004, 8s. p. 759)
showed that strongly active ptnene gives bad yidds of the nitroeo-
chbride. since, bemg bimolecular, its formation is reurded by the
inversion of half of the terpene. The nitrosochtoride melts at
115* C. (circd) and is a white pteattnt-smelKnr powder. Alcoholic
potash oooverts it into aitrosopinene, Ci»Ht«NO«
BamyUne, CioHi*. derived from hicych-(i • 2 • 2)-heptane. Is pre-
pared by heating bomyl iodide to 170* C. for several hours with a
concentrated solution of alcoholic potash (G. Wagner, Ber., 1900,
xanthate, CitHitOCStNa, whidi with methvl sulphate yields the
corresponding methyl ester. The unchangea isobomeol is leoKAed
by steam distillation, which also deooasposcs any methsrl xanthalc
01 isobomeol that may have been formed. The ijesidue is crystal-
lized and 1iydroly«d, when pun boiveol ia obtained. It behaves
as a secondary alcohol. ^ Nitric acid oxidises it to camphor and
when heated with potaumim bisulphate, it gives camphene. With
. phosphorus pentachbride it forms a boniyl chloride, identical i^itl^
pinene hydrochtoride.
Isoberneol u a tertiary alcohol whkh may be obtained by dis-
solving campbene id gUcial acetic acid, Mding dilute sulphuric
acid and heating to S^-60* C. for a few minutes, the isobornyl
ao — ' ^ • • • "^ ^ • ^ ^» r» .
ba
a
X^, p. 3I2I), or by decomposition of the methyl esters of the /- and
«-bomyl xanthates, the former yielding <f-bomylene and the latter
l-bomylene (L. Tschugaeff . Chem, Centraiblca, 1905, i.*, p. 94).
Camphene, CioHu, also a 6ic>ic/o-(i • 2 • 2)-heptane derivative, is
a constituent of the oils of citrondla, cam(uioi\ ginger and of
rosemary, and also of French and American oil of turpentine. It
may be obtained by the action of sulphiiric add on pinene; by
heating (xnene hydrobromide or hydrochloride with sodium acetate
or glaoal acetic add to 200* C. ; or by heating bomyl chloride
with aniline (O. Wallach, Ber., 1802. 25. p. 916). According to
Konowalow it is best prepared by neating bomeol with a diluted
sulphuric add fi • 2) tor about 6-8 hours, between 60-100* C,
with continual shaking, a yield of about 90 per cent, being obuined.
The melring- and boiUng-points of camphene vary slightly according
to the sources from which it is obtained, the former bdng about
«>* C. and the latter about IS9-161* C. It is known in d-, t- and
t- forms. It combines )irith hydrochloric acid to fonti a hydro-
chloride, which on redactk>n with sodium and alcohol yields cam-
phene. Many different oxidation products may be obtained from
camphene by varying the conditions of experiment (J. Bredt and
W. Jagelki, Ann., 1900. 3«o. J^ "4.* G. Wagner, Ber., 1890. 23,
p. 2311; S. Moycho and F. Zienkowski, Ann., 1905, 340, p. 17;
). E. Marsh and J. A. Gardner, Jmtr. Ckem. Soc., 1891, 59, p. 648;
Ftnckene, CioHu. a hicjdo-ii • 2 • 2)-hq>tarie derivative, is not
found in any naturally occurring products. The hydrocarbon may
be obtained by the reduction oifenchone and*elimination of water
from the resulting fenchyl alcohol, or by the elimination of halogen
hydride from the fenchyl halogen compounds (O. Wallach, Ann.,
xSm, 263. p. 14^; 1898, 302. pp. 37T seq.).
The above htcydo-xtxptnt hydrocarbons are most probably best
lepreaentec) by the following formulae (pinene b given above) : —
^ -CSS- "^^
a-Tbt^M* #-nuJttS StblDCM
Ca QCHklCH CHiCH C:CBa CHiCB— C:C
tEkSi — csL ab-2u-6cBi)t CBktn — ob
l
Alcohol and Ketone DEMVAnvEs
Bomeol (Borneo camplior), CiJIiiOH occurs in the pith cavities
of Dryobatanops eamfmora, and in the oils oC spike and rosemary:
esters are found in many fir and pine oils. It may be prepared
by beatiRr camphor with ak»holic potash (M. Bmhdot, Ann.,
1859, 12, p. 303): or by reduoing ca m pho r in alcoholic aolutioa
with sodimB (0. Wallach; Ann*, 1885, sjo. p. 995; J.
and H. Walbaum, JoflV'. praik. CAml 1894 (2), 49, p. 12). L.Tsch«s.
gaeflf (CAtfM. CenlrulbUU. 1905 i , p 94) obtains pure tf-boraeol as
follows. — Impure tf-bomeol (containing isobomeol) obtained in the
reduction of camphor is dissolved in xylene and ooovetted into the
sodium salt by metalbc sodium. This salt is then tamed ioto the
'ormed bdng then hydrolvsed (J. Bertram and H. Wal-
ciL). It co'stalliMs in teaflcta, -which readily subhme.
id oxidixes it to camphor.
(fanererone), CitHiJO, is found in many essential oils,
a contains chiefly arthuione, and oil of tansy chiefly
Oil of artemisia and oil of sage contain a nuxture of
hUst oil of absinthe contains principally the ^-variety.
>rms nury be obtained by fractional distillation of the
ri by a fractional crystallization of their semicarbazones
yi alcoliol. a-Thuione is laevo-rotatory and when
Kb alcoholic potash it is partially converted into
Sodium in the presence of alcohol reduces it to thutyl
r e-eiudation b converted into A-thuione. The
lich on
dcsrtro-rotatory and
. Jiuioi -
b partially converted into the
rakxAolic potash. When heated to 280* thujone U
into the isomeric carvotanacetone (A6^erpenone-3).
with ferric chloride it yidds carvacrol. Hot dilute
su :id converts it ime isothutone (dimethyl- 1 • 2-i8opropyl-
3*4 sne-i*one«5). Thujone behAvcs as a saturated compound
aik. iviin. a characteristic tribromide. When heated with zinc
chloride it yiehls hydropseudocumene. According to F. W.
Semmler (Be^., 1900, 33, p. 275: 1003, 36, p. 4367) it b to be
conskiered as a methyl-a-isopropyl-s-6tc!)w/*-(o - 1 • 3)-hcxanone-3.
Carone, CicHi^, Is a trhncthyl-^ • 7 • f-hkydo-io • i • 4)-hepta-
none-2, obtained by acting with alcononc potash on dihydrocarvone
hydrobromide (A. v. Bacyer, Ber., 1890. 29, pp. 5, 2796; 1898,
31. pp. 1401. 2067). It u a colourless oil. having the odour of
camptior ana peppermint, and boiline at 210* C. It b known in
d'. A, and «-forms. It does not coniDine with sodium bisulphite.
When heated it is transformed into carvenone. It is stable to
cold potassium permanganate solution, but on heatiM gives a
dibasic add, < — ^- --A r-u./-/^ux _.,..-..«.„._■»„•
was a grm-dir
confirmed t ,
p. 48) who synthesized the acid from diroethylacylic ethyf
Thb ester with ethyl maknate yields ethyldimetbylpropane-
tricarboxylic ester, which on hydrofysb and subseouent heating
b converted into AMimethyl giutanc add. The o-bromdimethyi
ester of this add when heated with alcoholic potash yields cis-,
and frafi5<aronic acids. Eucarvone, CioHuO. b a trimethyl-
3-7-7**«^«'^(o*i*4)-heptene-3-one.2. O. Wallach {Ann., 1905,
3^« P* 94) suggesb that the ketone possesses the structure of a
tnmethyl-i • 4 • 4-<>eib1ieptadiene'5 • 7-one-2. Phosphorus penu-
chloride converts it into 2><:hlorcymeoe (A Klages, Ber., 1899,
32. P- 2558).
Camphor, CtJIi/), Is a trimethyl^l • 7 • 7-hkydo-{i • 2 • 2)-bepU-
Done-3. The d-vanety b found in the camphor tree (Lanna
campkora), from which it may be obtained by distillatioa in steam.
The /-variew is found in the oil of Matncaria portkenium. Jt
crystallizes in transparent prisms which possess a characteristic
odour, sublimes readily and b easily soluole in the usu^l organic
sohreats. It boils at 209* C. and mdu at 176* C. \circa). The
d-form may also be obtained by the dbtiUation of caldum homo*
camphorate (A. Haller. Bull. Soc. Ckim., 1896 {<), 15. p. 324).
When hdated with pbosphoras pentoxide it yields cymene, and
urith iodine, carvacrol. Nitric add oxidizes it to camphoric add.
C«Hu(C(^H)t, camphoronk add, C*Hii04. and other products. It
forms an oxiroe with hydroxylamiae which on dehyaratkM yields
a nitrile, from which by hydrolysb campholenic add, CtHi^OSH,
b obtained It combines with aldehydes to form alkyUdene com-
pounds, and yi^Ms oxymethytene compounds when subjected to
the " Claisen reaction. It does not combine with the alkaline
bisulphites. It b readily aul»tituted by chlorine and bromine;
and with fuming sulphuric add forms a camphor sulphooic add.
Sodium reduces it. in alcoholk: solution, to borneoL When heated
with ^sodium formate to^ 120* C. it b converted into bomylamiDe.
Caro's add converts it into campholid, and a compound CiiHi^«
CA. V. Baeyer and V. Villigcr. Ber., 1899. 32. p. 363^). Wbea
heated with concentrated sulphuric add to 109^1 10^ C it yields
carvenone and 4*aceto-i • 2-xyk>l (J. Bredt. Ann., 1901. 314.
P^ 371).
TERPENES
6s.
A vHt tsnoMit of wdfOt tiM beMi -done on Che <ei « im k >ii of
Che camphor motecote. The earlier frtvcsfcigatione on the raidy
lonmtioo d benxene derivstivcB by the brealong down of camphor
fed to <he view that the mofecufe was a limple aat-membenMi
carbon ring. Subsequent research, however, showed that the
formula proposed by J. Bredt {Ber., 1893. 26, p. 5047), in which
camphor la to be regarded as a kuych-hepune doivative, b correct.
Thb formub is based on the fact that ttmphoronic add yields
trfmethylsucdnic. isobutyric, and carbonic acids, and carfson ,,— ^--, ^^..^^ ,,*»,« ,^» .«„ ^.*w*-. *w»»..— ... .^^
on dry distillation, and Bredt suggested that it was an m^- (CHW3tCQ*4<HWX»O0ia-KCHi)iC(a«)C(O^CH0 CH»CMt
trimcthylcarbanylic acid. ^y
was an aa^tHlmthylcarfaallylie add. « « ^. _
confirmed by its vyntpeut by w. H. Perkin. juar.. and J. F. Thocpa
(/oar. Ckem. Soc., 1897, 71, 1169).^— Aoeto-acetic ester b con-
densed with ••bromisobutync ester, the lesuhiag hydroxytrimethyl
gluurate (i) converted into the chlor- and then Into the oone-
spondins cyan-trimethyl glutarate (j). which on hydrolysb with
hydrochlonc add yields camphoronic acid (s}'and some trimethyl
glutaconic acid : —
a conclusion confirmed by its syathesu (see below). The Bredt
formula b also supported by the syntoesb of r-campboric add by
G. Komppa (fitr., 1901, 31., p. 3473 ; 1903. ^6, p. 4333)> In thb syn-
thesb ethyl oxalate b coooiensed with 4l9-dimethyl glutaric ester, and
the resulting diketoapocamphoric ester (1) b then methyUted to
diketocamphoric ester (2). The keto groups in (3) are coavected
in CHa group* as foUows, — Sodium aroabam converts thb ester
into dimycamphoric ester (3}, which with hydriodic acid and
phosphorus yields r-dihydrocamphonc add At I35* C. thb oom-
pouad corobmes with hydrobromic add to form ^momcamphoric
add, which on reduction with ainc and acetic add )wds r<ampboric
add(4):—
O)
(*)
CO CO
BOmC-^* C(CHi). QCCHi) • COiH^
CO CHi
aoic- ca ■ C(CHi)i* q(cbi) * csot
ROiC- pT- C^CRi)i- CCCRi) -OOkft
BaOH>— CBlOH) '
(A)
Thb series of reaaions leads to a complete synthesb of camphor,
since A. Haller iComptes rendus, 1896. 133, p. 446) has shown that
camphoric anhydride (i) on reduction yields campholid (3), which
by the action of potassium cyanide and subsequent hydrolysb of
the nittib formed is convened into homocamphoric acid (3), the
cakium salt of whkh yields camphor (4) on distillation.*—
0> (1) (i> (4)
llUH camphor and tta rnddatlmi pcodacts are to be r ep re se n ted as
C(CHi)i f) I
••QC81) 60
V>.
k9(CII.W
•C(CH.)akH.
Cuafhaorscid.
ail • C<ClL)<50lK
Camphor yields three classes of halogen substitution derivatives
Imowa respeaivdy as a. ^ '"^J^ compounds, the positions beii^
shown in the formula above. The • compounds result by direct
substitution, the and t derivatives being formed in an indirect
manner. Cyancamphcr, CioHiiO*CN, b formed by passing cyanogen
gas into sodium camphor, or by digesting sodium oxymethylene
camphor with hydrozylamfaie hydfochlonde (L. Claisen. Anu.t
1494> 361. p. 3Si)-
ir-Camphor sulphonic acid resulta from the action oC fuming
sulphuric acid 00 camphor (F. S. Kmping and W. J. Pope. Jour.
Ckem. 50C., 1893. ^3' P- 573)- Camjtooxirae. CitHidOiNOH. was
first jxepared by E. N&geli (Brr.. 1883. 16. p. ^7).
M^mphor b formed by the action of nitnc add on f-bomeol
CW. J. Pope and A. W. Harvey, Jour. Ckem. See,» 1901. 79. p. 76).
r-Campbor melts at 178-179* C <for its pccparation see A. Debierne,
Compies rtndus, 1899, 138, p. 11 10; W. A. Noyes» ^smt. CAsm.
Jomr., IQOS, 37. p. 4^).
Ctrnpiunc aruf. Tour optically active and two inactive forms
e( thb acid are known. The most important b the ^orm, which
is produced by the oxidation of ^<campbor with nitric add. It
crystallaes in plates or prisms which melt at 187* C. Potassium
Mrmanganate oxidises it to oxalic acid and Balbtano'a add,
CiHisOt. together with small quantities of csmphanic, camphoronic
aad trimethyl sucdnic adds. It yiekis two series of aoid eaters,
the al/0-estera (1). formed by the partial sapomfbation 'of the
neutral esters, and the 0rfA»-esters (3). foraied by heatiqg the
anhydride with aloohob or sodium alcohoiatea.
c»m;hcc«
obcncDhi
C(CH.)i
caiC(CH.)COkK
cat'CiObycooi
<«)
U)
ICamphoifc acid results on fflridiring Mx>mcol or matricaria
camphor. It melts at 187* C. r-Camphork add b fonncd oa
OHDng akoholic solution* of eqaimolfecular quamitles d the d*
-«ad f-adds. or by oxidiring s-camphor. It melts at 303<-9Q3* C.
Om^k^nmc acid, C•H|/^. From a atudy of its dat i Ua t ion
productt J. Bredt {fifr^ 1893. 36, p. 3049) cooduded that thb acid
thyl-(3 • 7« 7)-Wc>efa-(i -a'aM.^,.
1 Morms, the former in oil of fennel
Fenchane, CioHmO. b trimethyl
mc-A. It occurs in d- and Al
and the btter in oil of thuja. It may be obtained from these
oib by treating the fraction boiling between 190-195* C with
nitric add aad distilling the product in a currtnt of steam. . The
fenchones are pleasant«smdling oib 'which boil at 193-193* C.
and on solidification melt at 5-6* C They do not combine whh
sodium bisulphite. They dbsolve unchanged in cokl conoeptrated
hydrochloric and sulphuric adds, and are very stabfe; thus the
monobromfenchone b only formed by heating the ketone wUh
bromine to loo* C. under pressure (H. Caemy, £«r.. 1^00, 3^
p. 3387). On oxidation -with potasnum permanganate it yietds
acetic and oxalic acids together with dimethylmalonic add. By
the action of hot concentrated sulphuric add it yidds acctyl-ortho-
xykait,
CHiCO<4)CJi.<CH0»(i-2/
Q. E. Manh, Jour, Ckem, Soc,, 1899, 75*p- i<>59). When heated
with i»hosphonis pentoxide to 115-110* C it forma metacymene.
^nce it does not ybid any oicymetnylene compounds, it cannot
conuia the grouping— CHi'CO--in the molecuie.
HVDROCAMONS, CiJfu, OP THB TbIFBNB S^UBS
JfmfArnr.CtH«(CHi)(CsH7),bmethyl-i-isopropyl>4-oclohe9iene-3.
methyl ester of mentnyf xanthate^L. TschuganT. Ber.j 1890, 33,
nene.
„ . „ pure
menthene of the above constitution, the m e n t h ene obtaioed from
p- 3333)* It b a colouriess liquia which boils at 167-
When strongly heated with copper sulphate it yields cymene.
According to Tschugaeff, the xanthate method alone gives a
the dehydration of menthol bdng a c^cMiexene-a; am! the one
obtained by O. Wallach (i4»n., 1898, 300, p. 378) from l-menthyl'
amine bdng a cyc/ohexene-s.
Quvomentktne, C«Hf(CHt)(CsHr), b probably methyM-boprofM.
4-cyelohexene-i. It b prepared by hditing carvomenthyl bromide
with quinoline. or by heating carvomenthol with potassium bbnl-
phate to 300* C. It is a liquid which boib at 175-176* C.
Camphane, OH»(CH|)i is i>7-7-trimethyl-6«o«b-(i-3-t)-hepUne.
It is prepared by the action of sodium and alcohol on pinene hydrio-
dide, or by redudng the hydriodide with zinc in acetic add itolution.
It is a crystalline solid which melts at 153* C. and boib at 160* C.
Olefins Terpembs
Myrcene. CmHm. was^rst isolated by F. B. Power and C. Kleber
from oil of bay (Schimmel A Co.. BuUeim, April 1895. p. if); if
b abo found m oil of sassafras leaves. It b obtained from bay
oil by shaking the oil with a 5 per cent, solution of caustic soda,
followed by fractionation in vacmo. It boib at 67-68* C (30 mm.),
and polymerizes whoi heated for some time. When oxidiacd by
potassium permanganate it yields sucdnic add. By the action ol
pladal acetic add in the presence of dilute sulphuric add. a liquid
IS produced, which on hydrolysb yields myrcenol, CmHi^. an alcohol
' ' ' b probably an isomer of hnalod (P. Barbier. Cample* rendus.
"' le hydrocarbon b probably to be considered
(CH.), • C( : CH,) • CH . CH. (EnkUar. Bul^
'.p. 93). Ocymene is an isomer
wown can oe excreaea irom cne leaves of the basil. Enkbar (ise.
€ii.) repiesents it as (CH,)«C : CH • CH. • CH : C(CH<) • CH : CH«.
Anhyoro-geranioU CmHm. the first olefine terpens isobted, was pre*
asrsd in 1891 by F. W. Semmler: it is formed when gecaoiol b
aibang(CHi)^:CH-
lelm ofRous^Serinndfils, Nov., id
1 with potossium bisulphate to 170* C
Alcobols, Aldbbydbs and Ketones
d.C»fr»iulW.CwHi.OHorCH.*C(:CHO(CHi)rCH(CH,>-(CHt)aOH.
or 3*6 dimeihyl'octene-i-ol'ft occurs in R6union geranium oil aad
■''■'"""' " ' Ckem. Jour., 1889.
ivde (^itraneUaO.
U7 mm.).^ Oxida-
tion by chromic add mixture converts it into \
or 3*0 oimeinyi'OCtene-i-oiHi occurs m Keunion ge
was finrt prepared by F. D. Dodge UaMr. CJbrs
II. p. 463) fay fcdndng the corresponding aldehyde
It b an odoroBs oil which boib at 117-118* C. (17
6£d
T£RP£N£S
am>i«]dfeiiticailNMDa with pManiaa perainiMate yfaUtaoetoiie
and ^mefhyUdipic acid, .
l-iUddMM(.Ci«atfOHor(CHi),C:CH(CHi)rCH(CH,)-(CHi)rOH.
or a*6 dimetliyl^octeoe-a-ol-S. oocare in the essence of geranium
and of HMOr It ia a stnictiual isomer of cttrooeUol (P. Barbier
and L. Bottveault. CompUs nndtUt 1896. iZ2, op. 539,673:
BuU. Soc Ckim., looo, (a], 33, p. 459), and its inactive fo^-m
has been tynthesizea from ethyl hepteaone. It is an oil of strong
rose odour, which boils at 1 10** C. (10 mm.). Chromic acid mixture
oxidizes it'to rbodjnal and rhodinic add, whilst by drastic oxidao
tion it yields acetone and /3-methyIadipic acid.
, GeroMol, CttHaiOH. or(CHa)«C:CH-(CHa}rU(,UMi;.-v.H*UMiUH,
2*6 'dimethyl-octadiene-a*6-oI-8, is found in the oils of geranium,
citronella, neroli. petit^grain, spike, ylang-ylang, and in Turkish and
German rose oiL It is prepared from the oils by treating them
with alcoholic potash and then fractionating in vacuo. The gerantol
fractioa ia then mixed with freshly dried calcium chloride and tl»6
mixturs'-allowed to stand in vacn^ at a low temperature, when the
comoound CioHi^>CaCIi separates out. This is washed with
abtoiute ether and finally decomposed by water, when pure geraniol
is liberated (O. Jacobsen. X««., 1871, r57, p. 232; J. Bertram and
£. Gildemeister, Jour. prak. Ckem., 1897 (2), 56, p. 507). It mav
also be prepared by reducing the corresponding kldehyde (citral;
with sodium amalgam. It u a colourless, plcasant-^mellingf oiU
which boils at 230* C. Oxidation converts it into citral &nd gei^nie
add, (CH,),CK:H-(CH,VC(CHt):CH.COiH. By shaking it
with S per cent. 8ul|ftiuric-add it yidds terptn hydrate, and whfcn
heatQd with contenCrated alcoholic potash to iy>* C. it is con-
verted into dimethylheptenol (P. Barbier, CompUs renduSt 1899, 126,
p. no). Geraniol may be converted into Unalool by distilling a
faintly alkaline solution of acid geranyl phthalate with steam.
ii;^«/. CtHiTOH* was obtained in 1902 from neroli oil by A. Hesse
aad p. Zestschd (Jour. prak. Chan., 1902 (2). 66, p. 481}: it also
is found m petit-grain ou. It boils at 226-227* C. (75s mm.), and
has a distinctive rose odour. It is inactive and is to oe regarded
as a stereo-isomer of geraniol. It does not form a compound with
calcium chloride. It combines with four atoms of bromine to form
a characteristic tetrabroinide. It Is formed (along with other
pcoducts) by the action of acetic add 00 Unalool (O. Zd^phel,
B«r., S906, ^ p. 1780) and also by the reduction of citraI-6.
i/iMiAio/,C,jf„pH,or(CHi),C:C:H.rCH,)rC(CH,)(OH)CH:CH,.
is 2*6-dimethyloctadieiie-2*7-ol-6. o^Li^lool' was first found in
coriander oil, and Miaalool in oil of liaaloe. It is also found in
oil of bergamot, petit-grain, lavender, neroli, spike, sassafras lesves
ai\d lemon, either in the free condition or as esters. It is a pleasant-
smelling Ikiuid which boils at 197*199" C. (according to its source).
The inaptive variety can be prepared from geraniol, this alcohol on
tfeatmfen^ with hydrochloric acid Yielding, a mixture of chlorides,
which when digested with alcohofic potash are transformed into
vUnalool Qf. Tiemann and.F. W. Semmler. Bet., 1898, 31, p. 832).
It is oxidised by chromic add to dtraL When shaken for some time
with dilute sulphuric acid it yidds terpin hydrate. ^
CHrqnellalj Ci«HuO, is the aldehyde of dtroneOoL It is a con-
stituent of many essential oils, and was first discovered in dtrondla
oil hy F. p. Dodee {Amer. Ckem, Jour., 1889^ |i, p. 456); it is
also found in eucalyptus <m1 and in lemonngrass oil. It is a dextro-
roUtory liquid whidi boils at 203-204"* C It la. readily reduced
bv sodCum amalgam to dtrondlol, and oxidized by ammoniacal
sQver oxide to citronellic add. Potassium permanganate oxidizes
it. to acetone and /9-methytadipic add. It forms a dimethyl
acetal, CioHia(OCMa)t. which on oxidation with potassium perman-
ganate yields a dioxydihydro-dtronellaldimethyl acetal,
- CHsC(CH,0H)(6H).(CH,)rCH(CH,)-CH,CHO,
trhich must possess the above composition^ since on further oxida-
tion by chromic acid it yidds a keto-aldehyde of die constitution
CHiC6(CH^.CH(CHi)CHiCHO (C. a Harries and O. Schau-
wecker, Ber., '19OT, 34, p. 9981); this reaction leads to the formu-
lation of dtronellalas a dimetliyK2>d<oetefle-i-al«8. Citnonellal is
readily oonverted into an isomeric cydic aloohol isopuUgol <A8(9)^
(eipenol-3) by acids or acetic anhydride ^F. Tiemann, Bsr., 1896, 29,
p. 91^). It tombines with sodinn bisulphite, giving a aomai
hite and also a monO* atad dihydrosol^ionic acid.
- Ceramial (dtral), CioHiA » the' aldehyde corresponding to
geraniol. It occurs in the oils <A lemon, orange lemon-ipass,
dtfonellat bay. verbenar and in various eucalyptus oils. It may
be obtained from the oils by means of its bisulphite compound^
provided the operation is carried out at low tempeiatnrB, other-
wise loss occurs owing to the formation of suJphonic adds, ^n-
thecicalty it iway bo produced by the oxidition of geraniol ^th
chromk: add mbcture, or by dastilUn^ a mixture of cakiom fomato
and caldum geraniate. lu aldehydic nature is shown by the facts
that it forms an aloobol on reduction, and tha^ on oxidation it
yields ao add (geranic add) of the same carbon content. The
lAMtfofl df the ethylene linkages hi the molecule is proved \9f the
lormAtion of addition oompounds, by its products of oxidation
(acetone; laevuKnic add), and by the ifact that on warming with
pota«6um carbonate solutioii it yidds methyl hept^nooe and
'^idehydt (P. Ticm*nn, Ber., 1899, 32, p. 107). .On '
with noUMiMm biwilglMite it locaui ymmmm. It ooiafaiaaa with
/Niaphthytamine aiM oyruric add. an aioohoUe solutioo. to fonn
the characteristic dtryl-^rnaphthocindiootcAcad, CMHsaNOf4HsO«
which is useful for identifying dtial. The cnuk citral ■ ob-
tained from essential oils is a mixture of two ethylena stereo-
isomers which are designated as dtral-a and dtral-6 v^. Tiemaan
and M. Kerschbaum, J3<f., 1900, 33, p. 877). Citral-« boils at
110-112* C. (X2 mm.) and dtral-^ at 102-104* C The striKtuml
identity of the two forms has been confirmed by C Harriea (fitr,,
1907, 10, p. 2823), who has shown that their oaooidea (prepared
from the atrals by the action of ozone on thdr aolutioo m carbon
tetrachloride) are auantitacivdy decomposed in both cases into
acetone, laevulinic aldehyde and glyoxal. Lemon-grass oil contains
7^ percent, of citral-o and 8 per cent, of dtral-d. (Titral oomUnef
with sodium bisulphite to fonn a noma! bisulphite compoond, a
stable dihydroeulphonate, an uhstable ^ydrosulphooate aad a
hydromonosulphonate (F. Tiemann, Rsvns {At. ds dkirm fmt H
offi., t, 16, p. tip). Citral condenses readily wtth acetone, fai the
presence of alkalis, to form, peeudo-fonone (see Imane, below).
The compounds of the citral series are readily converted into
cyclic isomers by adds, the rimr dosing between the first and sixth
carbon atoms in the chain. Two senes of such compounds eaiai,
namdy the « and fi series, differing from eadi other in the position
of the double linkage in the .moMcule. The constitution of the
a-seriesis determined by the fact that on oxidation they yield
isogeronic add, which can be further oxidizujd to A^-dimethyladipic
acid} the B-aeAta in the same way yidding geromc aad and
aa-dimethyladipic add. The cydoatrals themselves cannot be
obtain^ direct from dtral by the action of adds, anoe under
these conditions para-cymene results, but they are psepared by
boiling dtrylidenecyaoacetic ester with dilute sulphuric add and
subsequent hydrolysis of the cyclic ester with caustic potash
(F. Tiemann, Ber., 1900, 33, p. 3719). or dtral may be condensed
with primary amines to the corresponding aldefayddmino com-
pounds, vhich are theo isomerized by concentrated adds, the
amine group bdng hydrolysed at the same tune (Germah Patent.
12^747 (1901)).
Jonone, QsNt/). By condensing dtral with acetone F. Tiemann
(Ber., 18^3, 26. p. 2691) obtained pseudo-ionone (x), an oil of
boiling-point T43-145* C. (12 mm.), which on boiling with sulphuric
add is converted into a mixture of the isomeric «- and /l-iononca
(3 and 3)
(O (CTi>C:CB(CBdt acaO:Ca(S:CRCO-CHa
•-lonone b an oil which boils at 127-128* C. (12 mm.) and j
a characteristic vk>Iet odour. The ^«ompound boils at 128-129* C.
(10 mm.) and possesses a similar odour. They are largely used in
perfumery. An isomer of ionone is irone, the odoriferous principle
of the iris root. It boils at 144" C. (16 mm.). When heated wnh
hydnodic add and phosphorus it yields the hydrocarbon irenc,
CiiHu (F. Tiemann, fee. cfiO-
SESQUITBRnUTES
.<:ad«iMfie, CuHm, b found in the oils of cade (from the wood of
JutUptms oxyOdrusU cubeb, patchouli, galbanum, cedar-wood and
janiper. It ma^ ^ obtained by fractionating oil of cade, con-
v«rting the crude hydrocarbon into its dihydrochbride and decom^
posing this by boiling with aniline. It Is an oil whkh boib at
- ^ C. andi* "
*74-:|»75" .
in oil of cloves and in
00 exposure. Cary9pkyUm$ b found
of copaiba balssim. Various other sesqui-
terpenes have been described* e.g. dngiberene (from aasence of
^linger), cedrene (from oil of oedar^srood), saotaleoe (from qU of
sandal-wood), humulene and clovene.
Of the sesquiterpene akohols pure sa««afel, C.tH«0. has been
obtained from caseoce of sandal-wood by oonvetdon into the add
They are disani
Ferent optical activities, one
' laevoHTotatory (see abo
Butf. &v. Ckim,,
obuined from oil
inoubhed by thdr diffc r™
being practically Inactive, the other strongly bevo
M. Guerbet. Cmptu riudui, 1900, 130, p. 417:
1900 (3), 9%, p. 540).. Caryophylbne akohd is
of cloves: by elunination of water it yields clovene, CuHm. a
lunitd which boils at 261-^3* C.
Many di- and tri-terpenes have been described, but as yet are
not thoroughly characterised.
R^ereHca^-mdftnmvta and Hoffman, Tht VohUte Oil* (MO-
waukec, 1900); R. Mddob, Tht Chemical Synthesis of Vital Pro-
oacto (London, 19--*^ "^ "' " • -v .... ^
rao6>; O, Cohn, i
Die synthttucktn
F, Heusbr. Die J^,„_ , ._^„. ._
A. Lapworth, Brit. Assoc. Rep. for 1900. and O. Aaehan, Die Ket^
MUhaion dm Kamphers (Brunswick, 1903). <F. G. P.*)
TERRACOTTA Plate I.
Fig. I. — Etruscan Sarcophagus, 2nd century B.C.
Fig. 2. — Archaic Relief from Rhodes,
about 480 B.C.
Pi^TE II. TERRACOTTA
Fig. 4. — Greek Terracotta Statuettes.
1-3, from Tanagra (3rd century B.C.), 4-7, from Rhodes and Sicily (Archaic period).
S. — Vase ^^ith Terracotta Figures from Fig. 6. — Roman Bas-Relief for Mural
'ithem Italy, 2nd century B.C. Decoration.
TERRACB~TERRACX)TTA
Pss
(Ft. l i iwi i , tmuu, from lu
Lat. tarat earth), a raised platform of earth; in
geology the term is used qI level horizontal ridges on the side
of a slope, fanned by volcanic action, or aoore usnalJiy by the
action of water; they are thus frequent along the shores of
lakes or by rivets; on the searsbore they ace generally known
as *' raised b ea c hes. " The term is used in architecture of an
artificial platform in front of a building, which is utilised as a
prorjeoade; sometimes, when the bidding is erected on an
elevation, there may be a series of terraces rising one above the
other, with flights of steps leading from one to the other, as in
the Villa D'EsU at Tivoii; or there may be n single temce
raised high above the ground and supported <» arches, as the
terrace to the Adelphi boildlngi In the Strand, or the river
front at Somerset House, or in France at the castles at Amboise
and St Germain-en-laye, or again a low terrace like that in
front of the Houses of Parliament at Westminster overlooking
the Thames, which is 670 ft. long and 35 ft. wide. The terraces
of the gardens at Isola Bella on the Lago Maggioie are known
as hanging gardens {Hortus peasiiis), and were similar to those
which wtie built by the Assyrian Ung at Babylon. Tbon^
property applied to a row of buildings on a raised level, the word
is often used of any row of houses.
1BRBACIMA (Lat. Tanacina^ Vobc Ansmr), n town and
episcopal see of the province of Rome, Italy^ 76 m. S.E. id Rome
by ran (56 by the Via Appia), 40 ft. above sea-kveL Pop. (xpot)
7S97 (town), 10,995 (commune)* Its position, a4 the point
wiu»e the Volscian Hilb teach the coast, leaving no space for
passage between them and the sea, oommaoding the Pomptine
Marshes {urbs prona in palnda, as livy calls it) and possrwlng a
small harbour, was one of great strategic in^ortanoe; and it
thas appears vezj early in Roman history. It appears in 509 n. c
as under Roman snprcmacy, bat is not faiduded in the list of the
Latin league of 499 b.c In 406 it was stormed by the Romans,
lost in 403, recovered in 400, unsuccessfully attacked by the
Voladans in 397, and finally secured by the establishment of a
colony of Roman citisens in 339 b.c As such it frequently
appears in history. The construction of the Via Appia in
jxs B.& added to iU importance: the road at fint crOaMd the
hill at the back of the promontory by a steep ascent and descent.
An attempt was made in 184 9.C. to gK round H by an embank-
ment thrown out into the sea: but it was probably not until
early in the imperial period that a cutting in the rocks at the
foot of the promontory (Pisco Montano) finally solved the
problem. The depth of the cutUng is indicated by marks on
the vertical wall at intervals of 10 Roman ft.-«-figttres enclosed
in large s««Uow-tail Ublets— the lowest mark, 3 or 4 ft. above
the present road, is CXX. Not far off are mineial sprinp by
the coast {Ntpttmiae aquae), known to the Romans and stiU
in nse— except one containing arsenic which was blodied up
both by the andents and again in 2839 *» * precaution. The
two roads met some few miks E. of Tamdna, and the Via
Appia then traversed the pass of Lautnlae, between the
moixnta&is and the Lake of Fondi, where the Samnites defeated
the Romans with bss in 315 b.c This pass, the frontier be-
tween the Papal States and the kingdom of Naples, was also
fortified in modem days. It was probably in consequence of
the catting Just mentioned that some of the mow important
buildings of the in4>eiial period were erected in the low ground
by the shore, and near the small harboor. The eonstructkn
of the coast road, the Via Severiana, from Ostia to Tarradna,
added to the importance of the place; and the beauty of the
promontory with its luxuriant flora and attractive view had
made it frequented by the RomanB as early aa aoo bxl Galba
and DonStian possosed onmtry houses here. It appears In
the history of the Gothic wars, and Thcodoric Is said to have
had a palace here. It was sacked in 409 and 59$. In 87s
Jakn Vni. brought it under the dondnadon of the Holy See.
The pictnresque modem town occupies the site of the old;
the present piaaa is the andent Forum, and its pavement of
dabs of travertine with the inscriptkm *' A. Aemilius A. F./'
in Ictteo onee filled in with b>SHCb k wctt pccNrved. It is
XXVI II*
supported by naasive afdhedsiibstmctans, whkii extend vnder
the suRoonding houses. The cathedral of SS. Pietso e Cesareo,
fronting uponit»iseaaqonocdinatempleof RomeandAugnstua,
part of the side wall of which, with engaged cohonna, is still
visible. The vtstibule, in the Cosmatesqve style, is supported
by-ten ancient columns resting upon recumbent lions, with a
mosaic friese upon them. The brick campanile has small
colttmns with little pointed aeches. The interior haa a fine
Cosnatesquo pulpit suppoitad by andent columns resting on
liona, a Paschal candlestick of i345i snd a good pavement of
thesameperiod with beasts and dragona. Tlie sacristy contains
a carved wooden nuptial chest of. tbe sotb or sxth ccntnry.
There are also remaina of the town wall in the " polygonal "
style, and above the town are several massive platforms foff
supporting buikiings» in a more axcbaistic form of this style}
these may well bdong to the Roman period, and the hitter even
to the empire. The ■unmit of the promonloiy (748 ft.) is
reached by the old line of tte Via Appia, which is flanked by
tombs and by remains of an andent defensive wall with dmlar
towen (currently attribntcd to Theodoric, but probably a
good deal earlier in date). The summit is ocgyied ty a rtasiitB
tctrace, supported by aiosdes of fine 9^ imtriitm (traditionallyi
but wrongly, called the palaoe of Theodotic) on all sides «xocpl
the £», and fnmmendhig a magnHirmt view seaward over thn
coast and aver the Pomptine Msnhm On the terrace, as vaf
ascertained in 1894* stood a OwMithian temple of the early
impesial period, ito by 6s ft.; the oella was decorated in*
ternally with engaged half-oolnmns, and contained the pedestal
for tiie Btatue of the ddty, actording to some authorities Venus,
but sBore probably Jupiter Anxur wordiipped ss a dii]d--«
theory cwnfimifd by the discovery of many curious leaden toyst
like those made lor dolls' houses at the present day, in the
/soMor 00 the £. of the temple; Of the kmer town hf ihk
harbour, which had bttfldingi of some importance of theimpetiti
period (amphitheatre^ hatha. Ice), littk is now visible, and iU
site is mainly occupied by a new quaiter boUt by Pope Pius VL,
who restored the Via A^ipia thrfrngh the Pomptine Marshci.
Ck)8e by it in the S.W. Isagroup of huu inhabited in whiter by
labouren from the Afanixsi, as is tiK case in many other parts
of the Campagna. Of the *«»<'^^"t harbour oonatmcted by
Aniownua Fins (M. R. de la filaadidw in MUmges ds Piuk
fnmtt iat 4$ Rome, i 3ss; 1881) inaignffiaoit remains- exist,
snd it b largely silted npw Onmt to it ia the small modem
port. Near the ampfaftheatre was found in 1838 the famous
sUtue of Sopfaodes now in the Laterstt museum. Thecomnaae
of ToBadna iadudes a considerable eatension of tenittay
towards the N.W. with much underi^owth {wtfouhim) vahiable
for charcoal boningi and a considerable extent of pasture and
arable land. The aadent aqimduct, bringing water some 35 m.
from the siopflB of the VolBdaa liiOs, haa been repaired and Is in
.use. Three mUes to the N.W., at tbe foot of the Monte Leano^
waa tiie ahdsK of the nymph Foonia, where the canal following
the Via Appia through the marshes ended. Alang these s m*
of the Via Apfna are mmmrons andent tomfaa, and thfc fertile
valley to the N.E. was tUckly popdated in Roman days.
See M. R. de U BUi^Mre, Terneime (Paris* 1884). O*. As.)
nRBACOTTA. GrecJk.--71ie nse of day anolivit the Orecki
was very varied and extensive, .hut sn an here on)y ooneemad
with one aspect of it, that hi which the day was baked withoot
any glaae, whether empbyed for utHitaxian or ornamental
purposes. The Greek term for this » ^9 AM,
earth "; the word v^Xir when applied to worked day ]
"tas-dried" on^. Amoog the maidfokl potposca to
terxacotu waa put by the Greeks may be mentlOBed parU of
public and private buildiagh siKh aa bricks, roof tOes, dtsfa
sttd flue tilm, and architettursl omamente; tombs and coffins;
statues and statnettca, for votive or sepnlchral purposes or fof
the dscoradon of houses; ilnitetiotts ol metal leases aai
jewelry; and such everyday objects as spindle whods, thatre
tkkats, lamps, fasaxiers and domestic utcnsib. It atoo supplied
the potter with mouMs and the sodptor with models of works
of art, espedaUy in bsonae;.
^54
TERRACOTTA
Uu' 4m AnkiUclm$,-^lti aithitecture temcotu iri» «x-
tMiiivcly employed for roof tflct and other decorative details,
aa baa been ahown by many recent discoveries, especially at
Qlympla. la the Henion we have the oldest example of a
teaacotta roof. A 6cb-«entQry temple at Thermonin Acaraania
is also constructed of wood and terracotta, with painted terra-
ootu sbbs in wooden frames for metopes. The generic term
far a roof tile was x^o/jos, and these are classified as flat
square tiles {(rnyaffTiipit or tHMiwn) and semi-cylindrical
covering tiles («aX»vT#pct). Other varieties of ornamental
tiles used in buildings are (i) the covering slabs along the
raking-oomice iywmf) of the pediment; (2) the woitkrwf or
tomioe above the 7eiMsr; (3) the cornice along the sides with
lions' head spouts to carry off rain-water; (4) the t^puHipM
at antefixal omamenis surmounting the side-tiles. These
latter varieties were usually enriched with decoration in colour,
the sv/i&nor being painted with elaborate patterns of lotos-
and-honeysockle or Greek key-pattesn, in red, blue, brown' and
yellow, curvilinear patterns being restricted to curved, recti-
linear to flat surfaces. The antefixal ornaments were usually
modelled in the Jorm of aa aathemion or palmetto, bat were
soaietimes adorned with reliefs or sculptured groups, as in the
case of the temple of Zeus at O^pia, which has figures' of
Victory along the cornice. The British Museum has aa interest-
ing series of 6th-century date from Capua, with gorgons* heads,
fSBMle basts, and other subjecU in relief, and others coaie from
aa eariy stluceatury temple at Oviu Lavinla. Many coloured
loof tiles have been found at OlyBq>ia.
in Sicily and soothem Italy a fashion pnvaitod of sailing
slabs of terrscotu over the surface of the stoaewock (a legacy
from the epoch of wooden buildings which required protection
flnan the weather). These were ornamented with lotos^aad-
honeysuckls and other patterns, somethnea in relief but always
fckhly colonnBd. Th^ occur at Olympia in the Treasary of
Gela, by a Sdlian architect, and also in a temple at Selinus.
Hie best example of this piactaoe is the temple at Civita Lavinia
abesdy dtcd, the remaina off which belong partly to the 6tfa,
pnrtly to the 4th ceatuty B*c.
Seuifhtn.'^-flht subject of Greek sculpture fa terracotta Is a
large one, and only its brief outlines can be given here. Of
large or life-sim statues coaiparatlvely few examples are known,
and they can only be said to be common in Cyprus, whcrQ
marble was 'difficult to procure; they are also more frequent
in Italy, sa will be aeen later. But the use of day for the
lapnxhiction of the human figure waa one of the earliest in-
itincU of the race, and may be traced back as far as arcfaaeft-
logical records exist, to the days of the Minoan and Aegean
supremacies. Terracotta figures of a very primitive character
have been found in Crete, in Mdos and at Olytnpia, and one
jeries of figures from Petsofa in Crete is remarkable for the very
aaklem Isshions of head-dress and oostujoaes. Terracotta
figwes of more advanced style have also been found in Rhodes
and other places dating from the Mycenaean period.
Greek traditions on the subject go bade to one Butades of
Sikyon, a potter who was credited- witb the invention of model-
ling clay in relief; and the> Ssmian sculptors Theodoras and
Um&os, who lived about the end of the 7th century B.C.,
were said to have been the fiiat to use day models for statues.
As they were supposed to have introduced hoOow casting in
broroe, it was obviously for this purpose that they employed
day. But this material was later supcneded by wax, Md for
Bsirhle statues was not used until Roman times,
• The small terracotta figures used as ornaments or household
^s, buried in tombs or dedicated in temples, trace theif
pedigree from the prehisteric examples already mentioned*
They have been fouiad in large numbers on nearly all the WelU
known sites of antiquity, the most fruitful being Tuiagra^ia
Boeotia, Myrina In Asia Minor, Rhodes, the Cyrenaica, Athens,
SicHy, and some of the towns of southern Italy. They are also
found in Cyprus and Sardinia, where, as to some extent in
Rhodes, thqr follow a peculiar development, under the domina-
tion of Phoenidan influence, and many of the cadisr types
bw^e a markedly oriental dufficter. But in the Greek terrap
eottas we may trace a steady devebpment from the primitive
types which correspond to the ^ioMi of primitive Greek re-
lignn, and for the most pari represent actual deities, down to
the purdy tl^nn figures of Tanagra and other Heflenbtic pr»
ducts of highly-developed beauty. For beauty and charm the
palm has by general consent been given to the Tanagrai figures
of the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C. which were known in antiquity
as tsbpojL or '* maidens," from the presence of seated or standing
types of girb in various attitudes. The makers of these figures
were kncrwn as nporXivrctt or toptnThittm^ and are spoken of
in literature, together with their wares, with some contempt.
j|fant</ac/iffe.->The processes emploved in the manufacture of
terracottas are five in number: (n the preparation of the day;
(>) moulding: (3) retouching: (4) baking ; and (5) colouring and
^ding. The last named, though not e«entlal, was almost univeml
tn some form or anocber.^
Theclay uaed for the statuettes'variesgreatly indifferent localities,
and this is an important criterion for distinguishing the different
sites of manufactuie. It ranees in colour from a deep red (as in
the brick-like termoottas of Naukntis) to a pale buff or drab aa
in Cyprus, and the fired product is generally softer than that of
the painted vases. It was prepared by washing the local day free
from aH granular substances and then kneading it with the aid of
water. The modelling was done by hand in the case of the eariier
figures, and snail obiects sudi as toys and doll*, which am solid;
tte day was worhed up into a aiaas with the nngera, the iMrks
of which may often be seen. Subsequently the use of moulds
became universal, the final tobdies bang dven to the figure cither
with the fingers or with a graving tool. The finer statuettes, such
as those of lanagra, are mvaxiably mouldedt and the bettercsamples
show tcaces of very careful setouchiag. The advantage of moulding
was that the " walls " of the fisure could be reduced to a very
regular thickness, obviating the danger of shrinkage In the baking;
it also rendered them very light, and permitted great accuracy m
detail A modd (tMrvnt) waa first made in tertaootta wkh
modelling tools, from which the mould (fisw) wais ukeo. alao in
terracotu and usually in two pieces, which were then baked to a
considerable hardness. From this moi^a the figure was made by
smearing it with byerr of day until a sufiicient thickness was
reached, leaving the figBie<ho1low. The back was awde aoiaiatdv,
either from a mould or by hand, and then fitted carefully to tne
(font, the seam or join bemg run up with soft day. The base was
usually left open, and a vent bole was left in the back, which aided
the elay to dry and to be re-fired irithout cmddng, and was also
used aometSBes for suspending the %uie when finlsbed. The heads:
aod arms were usually moulded sepanMtdyi and attached or luted to
the body with soft day. Greek moulds for statuettes arcT somewhat
rare, but there are examples known from Kcrtch, Smyrna, Cirgentl
and Tarentum; the Bntish Museum has a series irora the 1ast>
named site (PI. I. ig. 3). Most^ these are for
The shrinkage of the dav as it dried permitted tlie figure to be
drawn easily from the mould, and the reproduction was then ready
for retouching. It is obvious, from a glance at any collection 01
terracottas, that there is a great similarity between the various*
examples of any one type, and that many are virtually, if not
actually, renlicas of oae aaothei. This of course was due to the
fact that only a Umitednumber of moulds were used, corresponding
to the various types. The minute dllTcrences between them, which
eonstitute the charming variety found amongst these figures, and
prevent monotony even where the type is constant, were obtained
by the procea of retouching, as well as by varying the pose of the
head or limbs, or by dinereoccs of attributes and colourings.
Actual retouching by a skilled modeller is seldom found except
The
mpie
of bakine required great care and attoitian, for it
no ailowaooe were mane for the evapocatbn of nsoistore, or if
too great a degree of temperature were reached, the result was
disastrous. The clay was ensured against dryine too rapidly by pre>
liminary exposure to air and sunshine, while the temperature em«
pbyed in bring was low even lower than that useo for psjated
. The colouring of the baked statuettes waa falriy universal, the
diief exceptions bdng some of the more archaic examples, and
roanv of the Roman period. The surface on which the colours
was laid waa foemed by a white slip or tntph* of a creamy o^our
aad consistency, with which the whole uoot of the fisurc was
coated. This whea dry became very flaky and has often lallen off.
carrying the colours with it, though most statuettes retain at least
traces of this treatment with slip. It is very untikdy that this
slip-coating waa fired at all. On the white slip-faang opaqna
* Qever forgeries of Greek terracotta figures are now bdng pro-
duced both in France and Italy. Admitted copies are also made
in Bct4tn and Vienna, but these are gencrany so inferior in artistic
not todSFdtvoaay on* who Knows tho geauinaartleife.
TERRACOTTA
*5$
fidMdiatai
to tbft finra^ It wu neoumdkf m
ct tbc ptgracnts OMd wou l d bikvtt 1
the firing tenpcmtuve of the hodv. The tints ivtre hodyKskMO,
•ppficd withoat ahadiHg, aad Md* blae, ytilow «nd Uack an «ho«
most oomiMMdy employed, the whhe slip aerving for the aude porta
•ad cenenlly «!■> rar the gnNud^werk. Blue uid icd were c^Kci-
ally Mvoured for dnpery, aa ia many of the Tanapa figuccs; the
red fmnfiM bom aoairlct to pink or nae purfriei Black was only
■aed for the cyea or detaSs of Ceaftuiea; yelioar (varying to deep
bcown) Cor the hair, and alio for jewdry. Gildhig brva hut was
ffcqncntly cmpioyad n later tii*ea for tettttODtta iaiiftatiDna of
jewelry. In the primitive terraoottaa and thoK of Cypnia « other
centraa which aiUierMl to pcimitfve methoda* the deotntioo it ia
ctripa of flMtf Mack and led paint applied in o coaventioMl maattcr
to nnman figuais and aniwala alike. Trot, glaaee or taantb are
Mold, aa for inaunoe an the btcr lesAMttaa of SkUy*
r employed both lor drap«y and for fkahoolonra. '
nttta Matuettea hatve been dmavtnd in tosba. on
The tomb-niMis
Otyaapia, the AonpoKa at Athena, the tancnei of Dcneter at
loa, Ihe teapka at Naukratis in the "* '^ '
ma, and templea at Selinua '
• for nrhieh these ■tatnettct i
■itea in Cypns, and templei at Selinua in Sicily and TnrentiHn..
The pofpoMB for which these statnettct ncrr uaBd. to) fo
rites, (h) in <httly life, (c) in funeral ootmonica. have
Delta.
i> for rdigioua
anbicct of much ddiate. Sinoe tho samo types and aubiecta are
common to each of theae daaaea of dfacoMncs it la nbfioua '*-*
tlie terraoottaa cannot have been intended for on
cvcnif their primacy aignificanoe was religions, Nt_ . _
have been advanced on this aubject. some anthocitiea having main-
tained that their meaning wnn caduaiveiy leKgkmsor mythological,
that they originally carrespomfed to tne Egyptian wAoM. nno
fc^gious types were aflerwni d s amoiMBd for ordinary
ica tymbouing the life of the deccaaed beyond l^
gndnal change in popular tnate from figarea of deitiea
to figures of a flMre type i* unqoettionably a feature of tbe develop-
mcnt of this branch of art. but that the development was affected
by relipooa ideas b more open to doUhc It b mnre probable that
it foll uwul the lines of artistic cvohitioo. and that the continued
use of tcn«oottaa aa votive or funeaal offerings became moreor
In fact, the identity of the types, under what-
. I they are found, seems to Indicate that the
aignificanoe was given to them by the purrhaaar, who would decide
for himocif whether he offered them- to some appropriate deity,
deposited them in the tomb of some rdntrve. or kept them for use
inma figoica
mbk Thegn
Std^U and Tyf€S.—Tht catliett be^nningi of the sUtuettca
pfoper show, aa might be expected in prioaitive Gaeek art, a very
Mmited range of subfects* At in other matcriak, so abo in clay,
the femab deity reiens supreme. The primitive Hellenic type of
goddem adopb two lonma. both derived from an original in wood.
the boaid4ann M»(f. and the oalumo form mt^ or f fsaw. botb
of which ire find also in sculpture The limbs ara wanting, or arc
at best rudimentary, the figum terniinaling bebw In a uMvading
base. Both types are found in Rhodes, but on the m a inl an d <tf
Creeee the oolumoar type died out after the Mycenaean period,
and only the board-type remained, this being specially popular in
Bocotia. where both standing and sitting figures oocun painted in
the same style as the local vases. This type was adhered to for
the bodies <rf figures even when the head was modelled in a more
advanced style of art. The column-tyne b abo well exemplified in
Cyprus. The standing and seated goddesses arc the two principal
t^)cs in archaic Creek art (PL II. fis- a) . and are widely distributed
and of universal popularity; thougn the conception oT the goddess
may vary with the locality, the types are almost Identical, and the
attributea are but slightly varied. A certain proportion of these
deities are differentiated as nature-goddesses, either as a nude
goddem in a shrine or a seated figure with a diild in her bi> who
may be desc r ibed as the Earth-Mother. Both types arc of oriental
orbin. Another common archaic type b the funeral mask or bust,
hoflow at the back, which b found both in central Greece aod
Rhodes. Being almost always fcmlnioe it seems i>robable that
thrte are not images of the deceased, but the Chthonbn goddesses
Demeter and Pttsephone. playing in the tombs the rfilc of pro-
tcctrem against evil influences. We may also mention here the
little figures of animals, women and chiidfen variously occiipied,
and jointed doUs (^wpUraarm) which can only have served the
purpose of children's toys. In Athens, Melos and Rhodes* many
of these have been found in children's graves. The evidence of
finds and other indications seems to show that these archaic types
were not affected by the rapid development of Creek art in the
»h century, but continued m vogue until the end of that period.
Certainly there are very few terracottas of devdooed style which
can be assigned to an cariier period than the 4th century, and
' rca of archaic type can be shown from the contents of
(in whkrh they are fcond not to tc carlicf than tho
Sdiccnttfyw^. T1i»Miaii1ard|bb9als«Myhbt«!ie. Oivli«
to their religioua assocbtions old oonventkmal types oontinued ia
nm. ithareaapaiatcdvaMm and the majority afaculpturm of a higfier
dam «en not affected by such coaaidciationa. Therefore we are
ffot aurprisod when we come to the later tenracottaa of the fine
periad. or 4tb oentory. to fiod the standing aod aaatcd feminiaa
But the change in style b abo acoompoaied
by a change ia conception, and in place of the goddam we now
have the vredc bdy-m place of the mythobgicarthe mom. Tht
Muwfuoutioa was ^uite a aimpb one» nod it aaeded htUe chaaga
tocoovtct a Bursiag goddem into* mother with her littb one, or a
Fcrsephone holding a flower into a giri of Tanagia. The change
ia fact was.artisck father than relijnous: an evolution rather than
a levolutioo. The figurm were atifl placed in tombe aad ahiinob
though the oU aaaodations went bm atsoagly felt.
Im anbr to know what wcee the dMracterbtios of the best Creek
work ia termoeita we must turaour atteatkm to Ita most typical pro*
ducts* the T|M«m autaectca (PL II. fig. 4)* Here webaveaaalmoat
ummtmi but maay hoU a fan, a mirror, a wreath, or a theatrical
maak in one hand, wkib with the other they ^ther together the
folds <rf their draaeries. The long tuak or dtUom and tBe aiaatb
or kimaHon, which all without eaocptioa wear, formed the typical
dram of the Grmfc matron nndgirl: and to thb was added for out>
deor wear a brge shady bat. The seated types foUow oa the
aame lines, but are not ao co re mo w . Thcae agurm nnm, in date
from about 35^ to aoo a.c* end tbeb invimtioo b pfobauy drawn
rather from the painting than the aoulpture of the period. The
tmsacettaa of Eretria ia Euboea aad of Myrina in Asia llimv
atand nett ia artiatic merit, but are of more markedly Hellcnistje
character; they are freer from andent tradition, but tend to de<
ga n era tc into exaggeration of poe and conception. Here the typm
of divinities ao coaspicuoualy abaent at Tanagia reappear: in par*
ticubr Eros or Cupid* the one deity who amversaUy caught the
popubr taste ia tbe HeUenistK age, aad in the nsaay rrareaeata-
' om we aee the prototypea ef the Pompcmn Amoretti;
Dipoyaoa and Victory are also popular themca. At
the Tanagca types are repeated here^ aa, with varying
tioos of whom
Aphrodite.
some timea the Tanagca types are repeated herc^ aa, 1
artistic aiicomsb la other pane of the Mediterranean littoral.
Though no other GraA site haa produced terracottas of such
anistio merit as the two iust diacuascd, thers an others where the
art enjoyed great popularity, either for a comparatively brief
period or through the whole history of Creek act. Some of these
centres of inanufacCvrB have already received mentioo or at least
aUoMMif but we amy briefly call attention to a few others. From
Sicily we nom e m a coasplete eeriea. from archalcto later tiroes,
the earlier oeing best represented at Selinus, where a great variety
of richly cokmred figurm have been found; there ara also nuny
fine beads of Sth ceotuiv style, aad btcr figure* of Aphrodite.
Ero* and other deities imitatii^ the btec typm of Hdbmstb art.
At Naukratb m the Egyptbu Delta the bter terracottas are
strongly inmienced by E^ptian ideas, and figures like Bes an4
Horus are found ia ooniunctioa with orientalised Apbroditc-typea.
In the Cyienaica on the noith coaet of Afrioa the influence 01
Tanagre b apparent, but the styb b for the most part degenerate.
The terracottas of Tarcntum stand a|»rt from those of other sites,
being markedly funereal in character; maiw represent Dionyaos
reclining at a banquet. Elsewhere in Southern Italy the typm
eeneapood to those of Sidly aad other Mediterranean sttes.
Temootta work in rehef. apart from definitely arcUtectufal
b almost limited to two so^ riMiri. both belongiiig to
of the sih century. Thme groups, known respectively
. ' aad Lpcriaa reliefs, consist of small plaifucs,
PMsibly intended to be inserted in the walb of temples or shrines.
The aubjects of the Locrian nriiefs. whbh mostly relate to tht
myth and cult of Persephone, seem to indicate that they at least
were of a votive character. They occur at Locri in Southern Italy»
aod aimibr <nmn | i i r» dedicated to Athena have been found on the
Acropolb at Athens. The Mclian reliefs exhibit a widcrscopeof
subjects, mainly mytholegkal; the work b exceedingly delicate
aiul refined in character. Soine are sirapb plaques; others have
the figures cot out without background, or only the outer con-
tours. Tbey have been found oa various Creek sites, the majority
in Mekys (pf. I. fig. 3).
There b a cUss of vases which comes nther under the headhig d
terracotta than of pottery, from its technical character and general
appearance. These are found at Canosa. Calvi. Cumae and dsewfiere
in Southern Italy, and belong to the Hellenistic period (PI 11. fig. 5).
They combine la a marked degree the characteristic df the vase
and the sutuette, some being vases with moulded reliefs or small
-^ . figures i
heads modeM in vaee form, with the additkm oT inoul
figures ia the round ati
lemg vas
ttacncd;
others actual I
i or colosmi
and base. 11iey are often of gigantic sixe. and do not appear to
have served any practical smrpoee: probably tbey were made
Mxcbny for the tomb. They are covered with a white sHp like
the statuettes, and are often richly cokniied. Some even have
ea^jecte painted in some permanent pfooem like encaasric. The
65«
TERRACOTTA
t vtt a iat bandte
pecu!
ir£
fdnn undny adopted U that of a ^llMfiBit
bo the top and three tall moutha.
Stnucam Tenaeptta Work.— Guam fcaturet of tcnaootta wwk ai*
culiar to the people of Etraria, who emplovcd thu naterial both
„r fiaer voricB of art and for more utiUtarkn parpoaea. Several
aadeat writen speak of their preference for day and their skUl in
its use. Pliny attributes iu iatroductfoo to Corinthian ref ogees in
the 7th oentory. and states that the art of modelUng in day was
brought to perfection in Italy, and espedally in Etniria. Cer-
tainly for their statues the Etruscans appear to have ptcferred
day to other materials (except perhaps bronze), and also for use
in architecture. The Romans employed Etruscan artists to decorate
their temples, and the sutue of Jupiter on the Capitol was made
by Voica of Veii about 500 B.C., in day painted vermilion, as wae
also the chariot on the pediment of tne temple. For the decora-
tion of temples terracotta remained in use even down to Roman
times; these buildings being usually of wood covered with slabs
of terracotta, Hke the eariy Greek tniildhigs discussed In the pie-
oeding section. Remains of templea with tcrraootu decoration of
thn Clnd have been found at- Cervetri (Caere), at Alatri, and at
Gvita Castellana (Falerii), as well as at Civita LavSnb (s. $upra\.
Other remains of terracotta decorations come from Conca (Setricuro),
Orvieto, PItigliano and Luni, where the pediment of the temple
has the fi|rures of Olympian ddties, muses and the slaoghter of
Nibbids. aU executed in terracotta on a large scale. The date of
these sculptures is about 200 B.C. At Alatri and Falerii the decora-
tion oonsBts of a complete system of tenacotra plating over the
woodworic of the roofs and architraves, ornamented with patterns
in relief or painted and surmounted with carved antefixal ornaments.
Some of the (mUfixae from Cervetri are very effective examples of
sculpture and esdiibit in a marked degree the influence df Ionic
Greek art, due to the Hdlenic elements with which the dvilintion
of Caere and the Otmpanian dties was permeated.
The form of monument which best exhibits the Etniecan fond-
oeas for terr a cot t a as a material for sculpture is the saroophasus, bf
which some remarkable archaic examoles exist, and a constcterable
number of later date. Among the former the most conqncuoos
example is the well-known Castdlani sarcophagus in the British
Museum, datinf^ from the end of the 6th century B.C. The ddes
are decorated with f rieaes of figures in relief, and on the cover Is a
I of a man and a woman redining. executed in the round
ce. These figures are undoubtedly genuine native work, and
in the obvious inability of the sculptor tp achieve success in work-
ing in the round they contrast strongly with the reliefs, which are
truly Hdlenic in style if not in subject. There are simihir examples
In the Louvre, and in the Museo Papa Giulio at Rome.
The later sarcophafi which belong to the $Td century B.c. follow
on the same lines. Hiey invariably consist of a rectanguhr body
or coffer with sculptured reliefs on the front and sides, and a flat
cover on which reclines a figure representing the deceased person.
They were used for holding the ashes of the dead. Usually they
are of small siae, measuring not more than 18 by la by la in.,
but some are laree enough lor a body to lie in at full length. The
relids fredy moadled in the style of later Etruscan art are often
of a funerary character, representing the last farewell to the dead
in the presence of Charon and. other death-ddties; othen have
mythotcwical subjects, such as the combat of Eteokles and Poly-
neikes; die daying o( the dragon by Kadmos; or the parting of
Admetos and Alkotis. They are usually painted tn tempira on a
white ground, the bright colourifw having a very vivid effect.
By far the finest examples oT this daas are one from Cervetri,
now in the British Museum, and another very nmilar in the Archaeo-
logical Museum at Florence, arith which were found coins of about
iy> B.C. The former (PI. I. fig. i) is shown by its inscription to be
the tomb of one Seianti Thanunia, whose life-sise effigy adorns its
cover; a most realistic example of Etruscan portrait-sculpture in
perfect preservation, richly coloured, and adorned with jewdry. The
dimennons of this sarcophagus are 6 ft. by a ft. by i ft. 4 in.; it
has no rdids on the frant but a simple pattern of pilasters and
qaatrefoils. Owing to its great siae the figure of the lady was diaped
in two halves, the joint being below the hips. The Florence sarco*
phagus represents a lady of the name of Larthia Seianti.
RomaH Terracotta Tfor*.— The uses of day among the Romans
werp much the same as amongst the Greeks and Etruscans, in
architecture and sculpture, as Well as for other purposes; the main
differences were that in some cases its use was more extensive in
Rome, in others less; and generally that the producu of Roman
^rksnops are inferior to those of earUer times. But the technical
processes are in the main those previously employed. The Romans
divided the manufacture of objects in day into two dasses: ppux
figuliuum for fine ware made from ariiUa or creta jtgularis and opus
idtare for tiles and common earthenware. Of their use of tiles
and bricks in architecture this is not the place to speak, except
for the ornamental architectural details which come stricdy under
the heading of terracotta.
Ornamental tOes foHowed much on the lines of thoae used in
Greece, whether roof -tiles or antefixal ornaments, though the latter
are both simpler and inferior in design. Terracotta was largely
used at Pompeii for this purpose, aod also (or guttera and wcu
good <
found
A cfcara ct ei i stfe fefw of Feipdan he nw ia the tna^
Uka gutter wuch formed an ornamental cornice to the csia^aaiaM
or open skylight of the afrtwo and peristyle; those were adorned
with spouts in the fbnn of masks or ammals* heads, through which
die ram-water fdl from the guttera into the sio^MenMi. Sane
id examples of rool«tiles and antefixal oraameata hai« alao been
jndatOstia.
Terracotta mural decoration was aho largely employed by the
Romans for the interior and exterior of tndr buildings; in the
form of slabs ornamented with reliefs hung on the wakb or round
Ckero speaks of fixing the baa-i
relids iiypos) "00
These slabs usually measure about
ly 9 to 12 in., and have neariy all been found in Rome, though
I'ted examples oocor io other places. There is a series of
ID other places. There is a series
n (PI. II. fig. 6), whole or fraanientar
nllccted at Rome by Gharies Toumdr
the cornices.
the cornice of his little atrium."
18 bv «
iaolato
t6o in the British Museiim (
nearly all of which were odlccted 1
and there is another large cdlection io theLouvse. Otberafrbm
the Baths of CaracalU are in various museums at Rosae.
These rdiefs were pressed in moirfds, as is shown by the frequent
repetition of certain subjecu with at most only dight differenoes:
moreoiver the relid is low, with sharp aad definite outlines such as
a mould would produce. They were sometimes #ctoocfacd bdore
baking, henoe the variations. Relids entirely modelled are mudi
rarer. Dot some examples exist, of considerable artistic feeling and
freedom. Circular hdes are Idt in the slabs for the plugs by
which they were attached in their ptooes. The day vanes in
rility and appearance, and in tone ranges from a pale buff to a
k reddish-brown. Traces of ookMiring are sometimes found:
backgrounds of a light blue, and figures or more oommonly details
such as hair bdna painted red, ydlow, purple or white. These
ooloura are painted m fna^irro, aiad thdr ute is purely cooventional.
The disbs are usually ornamental, with conncea of egg-pattern and
palmettes, or with an edsing of open-work.
The figures are mostly in low rdid, grouped with large, flat
surfaces between in the nunner of contemporary Roman an ; ia
some cases the whole groundwork ia cjo iupu i itd of rattems of scroll-
work or fdiage, more or less conventiooaliaed. The compodtions
condst dther of narrow f rieies with rows of Cupids or masks, or
gftMTps of two or three figures resemblins temple-metopes. The
Myle is in general bdd and vieorous, and bdng essentially archi-
tectural it is not devoid of oignity and beauty. The known
examples fdl into two groups aorording to thdr treatment: (a) The
naturalistic style, corresponding to the so-called "Hellenistic"
rdids of Augustan art; (6) the oonventiond, not to say archaisiic,
corresponding to the classidst tendendes of another school d
Augusun artists represented by the ** New Attic " relids. Both
groups find close parallds in tiie metal-work and pottery of this
period, to which date they may therefore be assigned.
The subjects cover a very wide field. Many are no doubt in-
spired by well-known works of art; others are closely related to
the " New Attic *' types, including dandng and frenzied mminads
or the seasons. Othere again, reflecting the spirit of the time,
reproduce Egyptian landscapes. Scenes from the drcus or arena,
or <]uad-historical vubtects, such as triumphs over harbariaRS.
agam illustrate favourite themes of Roman Imperial art. Of
mythological subjects, the most popular are Dionysiac scenes,
Satyre gathering and prssang grapes, and Victory slaying a bull;
whOe heroic legends are also reptresented. Of a more ccmventiond
type are figures of Cupids carrying wreaths, priestesses sacrifidng.
or single figures surrounded by elaborate scrolls.
Roma* Sadpture in Torracotla. — Frequent allusions in da»ical
writers indicate that the ancient statues of the Romans u-rre
mostly of terracotta, and Pliny notes that even in his day statuettes
of clay were still prderred for temples. There are also rderenccs
to Stella JUtUia olaoed on pediments of buildings such as the Capi-
totine temple. As noted in the previous section, during the greater
part of the Republic, Rome was indebted for these to Etruscan
artists, but the style of the figures was probablvr more Greek than
Etruscan. In 493 B.C. 0>rgasus and Damophilus of Himera in
Sicily ornamented with terracotta rdids and figures the temple d
Ceres (now Santa Maria in Cosmedin). Towards the end of the
Republic modellers in day are mentioned, such as Posds, who
imitated grapes and other fruit, and the sculptor Arcesilaus. But
thdr work in this material appeara to have been confined to models
for sculpture or metal work, and the invasion of the masterpiecn
of Greek art and the genenil adoption of marble by sculptors led
to the neglect of terracotta as a medium of the glyptic arts. Few
statues olany size m this material now exist, but there is an interest-
ing aeries in the British Museum, found in a wdl near Porta Latina
at Rome in 1767, restored by Nollekens, and acquired by Charles
Towndey. Some terracotta figures of considerable size were found
at Pompeii, having formed tne cult -statues of a temple; others
were employed for adorning gardens, like the scries from Rome
just mentioned. Terracotta figures were also employed as archi-
tectural membcn of the caryatid type. All these belong to the
Augustan and succeeding penod, or at least are not later than the
reign of Nero.
Terracotta statuettes similar in style to those of Greece are alao
found in housea aod tombs of the Roman period or as votive
TBRRAGCyrTA
657
jiaieitdatet. TheyiwvekacmlitotlM . .
Mad wtn uaed as preaeou, or pUoed in the Urari^ or d^ncsdc
•hrines. Some 200 tv«re found in the poorer quaners of Pompeii,
tmplvinc that tbey took the place of the marble and bronze figures
which the wealthier inhafakante alone eonld afford. At the festival
oC Sifillaria, part of the December Saturnalia, tenracotta figBrea
and masks were in great deasaod. Origioally diese vera votive
offerings to Saturn. t>ut later the custom degenerated into that of
giving them as presents to friends or diildren, a practice indulged
IB bv the EmpeitMS Hadrian and CaracaHa.
The osakers of these figotes west known as sqgiBoffii or )lg«B
ngittoprar. and tbev lived in the ^m SipUm. Thek. social
position appears to have been ver^r low; but it must be remem-
bered that they were diiefly patronised by the poofer dksses; pro-
bMf aaany 01 them were sbves. The tedtnical pr oc es s ts whldi
they employed were practically those of the Graeb cra tfts m eo .
Lai^ figiwes were made from models {pnpla$wt1a) and bM*it up
on a wooden fiaihe-work known as craec or sHpesi but the smaller
ones were made from moulds. The range of subjects is much the
same as in the later Greek tenaooltas. At Po m pe ii femv figures
prodomiaate, SKh as cladiatMS, athletes and slaves, awl in geseral
there is a preisrenoe for ^ostraiu and grotesques* On the whgle
these late works have Itttle artistic merit. Votive figures have
been found at Praeneste on the site' of the temple of Fortune, and
also at Nenn and Gabn.
This industry also eatended from Raaw le the proviaoes, aad
t err a cott a statuettes of local make have beeafcwmd even to Britain,
as at Rkhboroogh« Colchester and Loudon. In Gaul in particular,
and in the Rhine district, there were very extensive manufactures
of terracottas after the conquest of Julius Caesar in 58 B.C. They
were made by local crsftsmen for the Roman oolooists, who intro-
dsnad their own typm of desiga. The principal centre of manu-
(actore was the dismct of the AlUer ia Central France. Potteries
have been found at Moulins, as well as in other parts of France, in
Belgium and Alsace, and akmg the Rhine. The figures found in
the AUier district are made of a peculiar white day, the technique
iiwiidiiiHi that of Rooaan work, bot the ssodellinf is heavy sind
oftaa baroaric Nomeroos moulds have also oome to light which
show that the figures wese made ia two pieces; on the exterior of
these moulds the potter^ names have frequently been scratched
(to iwlioate ownenUp). Names appear 00 the figures as wcB as
on tiie aoolds, sod maay c< these areof Gaafjshor^^ The com-
wiiafsf names me those of PisciBus of Aiitun, Rextugenos. a potter
of nmth -suj t France and Vindes of Cok)goe. The subjecu i»-
ditde (fivioitks, fear* figures, and animals; among the former tht
ore-eminent type is that of a Natttre*Goddess, c haracte r i sed either
tt Vesa GMTk or as a Mother with a ChiU (.. u p T^ ^ m ).
Both in sotvect and m artistic character tjbcae statuettes appear
to have been hf«d7 inflnenced by the GfQec»-Etypt»am art of
Alexajadria during the HeOenistk period. They appear to have
be» used for domestic and foaerary pivposes aad as
Alter the dovniaO of the Roman Empire m the west, the aitistK
ore of temoottn was abandooed lor nmax centuries, though, here
and there, both m Italy aad in. the distnfts that had been once
Roman provinces, decorated teiiaco tu work w as carrie d on snoradl-
c^ly both to pmts of France aad of Germaay. The trae reaaissaaoe
sf its ase casse dortof the i4th aad isth c en tur ie s ^ when it was
f^»mtmA oaoe more to architectanl service m the Gothic buildings
of northern Italy aad of Germaay. In Germany the mark of
Brandenbors is espedaHy rkh to bail£ngs enriched with modeflcd
terracotta. The diarch of St Catherine to the town of Brandenberc
h deoocstcd to the most lavi* way with ddicaae tapery and
firkfir**- atris««o«rses aad conioes enrxfaed srith foliage aD
MAiHM to day; the town-hall of Brandenburg is another tostance
of the same use of terracotta. At TangermOnde. the ctoirch of
St Stephen aad ether boildiags of the bcfuninrof the iSth ceaXary
are woade rf al iiBBiiiIri af dns method of decoration: the aorth
4oer oi Sc Sinhea's cspectoDy being a masterpiece of rich and
effective m~''^"C- In aorthem Italy thk use of terra cotu was
carried to an equally higji pitch of porfection- The western fa^ad^
of the cathedral of Crema. the oomaumil boadiags o( Piaonua.
aadSuMaitoddfeGcBsietoMiaaarean stcikiag csam^ics of the
miiif gghailaar oi effect that can be obtained by terracotta
work The Cotoaa near Pavia is a 0orgcous s p ec i mm of the early
work of the l6th centmy; the two OMsters are r» pr ri a!?y magnifi-
cent. Favm itself b very rfch to terracpCU deoorarioa. espeaatty
the aaeal palace aad dm dmrehea of S Freaossea aad S. Mam del
rmmtofi Some delicate wqiIl exHta amoag the medieval build'
tngs of Rome, daring from the 14th and 16th centuries, as, for
rcamplew the rich oomioes of the south aisle of S. Maria to Ara
Gxfi.'c'l30o; the front of S. Cosimato to Trasteye. tog t cj^fi^ ,
aad a mma eery amgaifioeat hoase, aear the Vto m Tsadinoae,
which dana from the i4ih oeatvy.
With the revival of temcotta as aa adjunct to medieval arcU-
tcctare we fiad the scalptofB of the Italian renaissance turning to
thm ^tfmtol, as a amrtmm lor the prodactiaa of reliefs, l»«s,
Md cs«a HI Hi I «f nmay life siaid fig ar es aga to foOovioc the
Moch of the Floreauae terracc^tsa
elih« 15th eeatarr Is ameaf the mc
"' ' tver seen, espedallv that by Jaoopo della
d the sculptors of the next generatton.* For
trutii, combined with sculpturesque breadth,
npieoes of invention and raanipulatton. The
lect modeb of iconic sculpture. In some
nrnit day for sculpture hss great advaa-
arble; the soft day is easily and rapidly
le the sculptor's thought is fresh to his mind.
rracotta <rf ten Pmksb a sfrfrft and vigour
reproduced m laboriously finished marble,
more realistic style was iatrodaoed. and this
custom of paintmg the figures m on colours.
rpB of thb Kind were produced by Ambcogio
S. Satiro at Milan and by Guido Maxsoni
Production of enamelled reliefs to terrscotta
soc ia te d with the Florentine sculptor Loca
kesceodants, b tpaaaSij treated to the article
tree the devdopmeut of afdutectural terra*
over western Europe. The German s chool
le to the Low Countries and finally m Entbnd,
direct influence of the Italbn school due to
id by Italbn artists such ssTorriciano and
d to Ei^land dudag tho ictgns of Henry VII.
IS only m the eastern aad southern coaaties
ad in s ts B crs of the terracotu work of thb
t b so nn-Eaglish to style that most a«tho>
ot nmde to England at al but was imported
iders. Essex poimsBs the finest caampbs;
ad to the Manor House at Layer Mamey. aad
Kotta tomb to the church at the ssme pboe,
KigaofHearyVHL
burch at Wymoadham fa Norfolk tfaene ase
kte sediUa with caaopisd nichca aA of tena-
iod and apparently of the same manufartiim
^ foUowed the Reformation to England aad
Stuart period seeass to havw pot aa end ta
1 it b only to aiodem tiBMs ^at we fiad a
I tenacotta work to Fjmbnd.
ffshoot from the fertile plains of aorthera
ia Frsoce during the ifitn centnty. Many
a aad oential Italy were attocted to Fcanoe
l uccas s Dr i, and, aaaome other arts, they tntiD*
utistic terracottas.. The most famous name
aliaa artisu b that of Girolaam dclfa Robbb
«bia). who eaecvted, to 1539, the enamelled
sratioa of the *' Pttit Chfaeau de Madrid "
ae, Paris, for FsaadsL* Many other kaUaa
e imported their arts Into Franca, aad the
esses an embossed tite bearing the head of
encirded by a Gothic i n s cr ip t ion, which was
yoas dartog the i6th oeatary. The very
ether with other sabiects of similar type, was
, whifa it b psofaafale that the workmaaship
T the modelling b entirdy French to dur-
j Rrvo!atxm m 1792. bot exact drawings
I tfaowingantfae
period dw Italian modellers or
ft iato Spam, and maay extraordinary works
rious Spanish churches remarkaUe for their
a too pictorial styk^ which degrades them
I architBctaral deooration.
ad 18th ceaturim the architactaral use of
iway owiag to the iacressiac ase of marble,
survived m other forms b shown by the por-
(17th century), thoogh they were made ip
nagbsrd tenacotta; and the charming little
amde to Lonaine aad the adjacent paru of
ihk aad Lemire, scu l p to rs employed at some
I of the period.
Med that during the l8th century ordinary
disrepute, but the porcelato ^gures asade at
Lher ooatjaeatal faoories show howpenistcat
andrlling to day had become — though the
r aad not ordinary terracotta (see CaaAiiics).
le last fifty years there has been thnou^iout
fa the sBsmdactare of terracotta, both ^ased
ive to Eacfand, for cxaauie, soam very ia»-
k as the Natural History Maseaauthe Albest
Albert Museum has a splendid and repre-
these Italian terraroffsa
It extensive of the works to terraootta ea»>
family was destroyed duri^ the French
ings 01 it are stiB to
6s8
TERIIAMARA
Hall, and the Royal College of St^tno^ all U South Keodiigtoii,
Londoo, which illustrate to perfeaion the Englith terracotta work
of the mid-Victorian period. The Rijks Muieum at Amsterdam,
and many important buildinf(s in the north o( Germany, in Belgium
and in France, display the increasing use of baked day for archi-
tectural purposes.
The effort of all terracotta makers during recent times has been
to produce a building material capable of resisting the adds and
soot contained in the atmosphere of our great towns. Techakally
many of the leading manufacturers in England and the continental
countries have been very successful in thu effort, as they are able
to produce building materials of pleasant colour and texture which
are practically acid-resisting. Critic* of this modem development
ci terracotta as a building material frequently complain of the
want of truth in the lines of cornices, door or window jarolM, &c
For this default the manufacturer is not so much to blame as are
those modem architects who design a building for stone construc-
tion and then decide to have it executed in terracotta. The shrink-
age of clay both in drying and firing is well known, and it b thb
sbriakage which causes large pieces of terracotta to twist or become
crooked. When our modern architects shall have realised that the
details of a building must be designed specially for the material
that is to be used in its conatruawn, terracotta will come into its
own again as a decorative building material. The present method
of constructing buildings in reinforced concrete, faced with glaxed
or unglazed terracotta, will afford the architects of the 20th century
an unrivalled opportunity for the use of this material.
Collections. — ^The Louvre, Brituh Museum, and the moteums of
Beriin and Athens have remarkably fine collections of the Greek
and Aoman terracottas, and many provincial museums, such as
those of Florence, Perugia, Rome, Naples, NImes and Aries, have
ako eollections of importance. The best collections of Greek terra-
cotta $|ui«s are in the British Museum, the Louvre and the
museums of Berlin and Athens: but a large number of the finest
Greek terracotta figures are in private collections. In the Victoria
and Albert Museum there b a remarkable collection of fine Floren-
tine terracottas of the beat periods.
LiTSiiATVRB. — Lion Heuxey, " Recherches sur les figurines de
femmes votl^" in Mon. assoe. des itwUf grecques (Paris, 1874};
<M., " Rech. sur un groupe de Praxit^le, ... en terre cuite,*^ m
Oat. det B.'Arts (September 1875); id., "Rech. sur les tcrres
cuites grecques,*' in Mon. asioc. des ilud. tree, (1876); id., Les
Orieines dfis terrts cuites (Paris, 1882): id.. Catalogue des fipmnes
ahUquos du Lomre (Parb, 1882-83); id., " Pappoeiltoe ct le dieu
Bes,^* in BuU. Cor. HeU. (1884). pp. 161-167; FrtJhner, Us Terres
cuites tPAsie-Mineure (Paris, 1875^81); id.. Cat. de la CM. Lecuyer
(Paris. 1883). and Col. de la CM. Barre (Paris, 1878): Kekul«,
GfieehisckeroHfiguren aus Tanagra (Beriin, 1878); id., Griechiscke
TerracoMen vom Berliner Museum (Berlin, 187a) *i id.. Die antiken
Terracotten von Pompeii (Stuttgart, 1880); Rayet, Monuments de
p^,i ^miij^mM 'o— •- -OCX ir —-90; id., '*Sur une plaque
pp. 211-221;
). pp. 329-333; «•. Cat'Jf, f^
les de Tanagra (Louvre), in
grec au Trocadiro," in Gob.
La Coll. Sabouroff (Phris,
cc^ours; Martha, Cat. des
id., " Figurines corinthiennes
79)*^ PP- 29-42; id., " Figurines
-75; rottier, "Terres cuhes
*-^; Pottier and Reinach,
articles in vols, for 1 882*81;
rke du Nofd," iM. (1879).
de. Santonn,"
Fart antique
estampie,'^ ii
CoU. Rayet (
Gas. des B.-/
des B.-Arts
1882-85), sp
figurines du n
en terre cuite
de Tanagra,'
Chypriotes,"
" Fouilles de
Paul Girard,
ique estamoie
. (!88i), 1 Z^* (London, 1877): Schlie-
mann, Troy, B. Curtius, Ciebelgruffpen aus
Tanagra (Be _.,,, ,, "Terre* cuites de Tanagra."
m Reeue de Finance (May and June 1878). An account of the first
discovery of the Tanagra figures b given by Otto LUders in BuU.
Inst. Cor. Arck, (1874), p. 120; see also varwus articles in Caa.
ArchM., Archdol, Zeitung, and Mon, Inst, Arck, Rom, (especblly
vol. vi.). For the eariier known tenracottas, see Panofka, Torra-
cotton des k. Museums eu Berlin (i8a2); Ombe, Terracottas in tke
Britisk Museum (London, 18 10); and Gerhard, Monumenti fitidini
di Sicilia (Berlin, 183^); A. Baumeister, Denkmdler des Uasstscken
Attertums, 3 vols. (Munich and Leipsig. 1884-4)9); E. T. Cook.
Handbook to tke Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities, Britisk
Museum (London, 1903): A. S. Murray, Handbook of Greek Arckaeo-
logy (London, 1892); S. Reinach, Tke Story of Art tkrougk tke Atfis,
chaps, iv.-x. (Eng. trans.. 1904); H. R. Hall. Tke Oldest Cm/tso-
tion of Greece (London. 1901); Annual of Britisk Sckool at Atkens,
vol*. viL-x. (1900-4) (for excavations in Crete). See also Quarterly
Review (October i^), p. 374; W. J. Anderson and P. Spiers.
tke Greeks (London, 1906); G. E. Street. R.A., Brick and Marbk
Arckitecture in Ngrtk Italy (London, 1855, second edition 1874).
(W. B.»; H. B.Wa.)
TIBBAMABA (fMra ItiO. Umsmmna, *' mail "), tlM noM
given by trchaeologists* to a type of piimitive cidtiire mamly
of the eariy bronze age, but stretching back into the later stone
age. Thb civilisation » represented by a number of mounds,
formerly thought (e.g. by Ventoxi) to be sepulchral; Irat really
the remains of human habitations, anaJo^ous to shdl heaps
iq.v.) or kitchen middens. They are found chiefly in north
Italy, in the valley of the Po, round Modena, Mantua and
Parma. A tummaiy of early results as to these moimds was
published by Munro {Lakt Dwellings) in 2890, but sdentiic
investigation really began only with tbe excavation of the
termmara at Castellazzo di Fontanellato (province of Farma)
in 1889. From tins and lacceeding investigations certain
general conclusk>ns have been xeached. The tetramara, in
spite of local differences, is of typical form; It Is a settlement,
trapcsoidal in form, built upon piles on dry land protected by an
eaxthwock strengthened on the inside by buttresses, and en-
circled by a wide moat supplied with running water* Tbe east
and west sides are parallel, and two roads at right an^es divide
the settlement into four quarters. Outside are one or two
cemeteries. Traces ol burning whkh have been lound render
it probablo that, when the refuse thrown down among tlie piles
had filled the space, the settlement was burned and a new one
buHt upon tbe remains. The origin of the terramara type is not
definitely ascertained. The most probable inference, however,
is that these settlements were, not built to ovoid ^ danger
of inundation, but r ep resent a survival of tbe ordinary lake
dwelling.
The remains discovered may be briefly summarized. Stone
objects are few. Of bronze (the chief material) axes, daggeis,
swords, razors and knives are found, as also minor imfrfe-
ments, such as sickles, needles, pins, brooches, &c. There are
also objects of bone and wood, besides potteiy (both coane
and fine: see Cexaiocs), amber and glass-paste. Small clay
figures, chicfiy of animals (tbotigh human figures are fotmd at
Castellazzo), are interesting as being pracUcaUy the earliest
specimens of plastic art found in Italy.
The occupations of the terramara people as compared with
their neolithic predecessors may be infeired with comparative
certainty. They were still hunters^ but had domesticated
animals; they were fairly skilful metallur^ts, casting bronze
in moulds of stone and clay; they were also agriculturists,
cultivating beans, the vine, wheat and flax< According to
Prof. W. Ridgeway {Wko wtrc tke Romans? p. 16; and Early
Age of Greece, L 496) burial was by inhumation: investigation,
however, of the cemeteries shows that the bodies were burned
and the ashes placed in ossuaries; practically iu> objecu were
foimd in the urns.
Great differences of opinion have arisen as to the ori^n and
ethnographical relations of the terramara folk. Brizio in his
Bpoca Preistorica advances the theory that they were the
original Ibero-Ligurians who at some early period took to
erecting pile-dwdlings. Why they should have done so is
difficult to see. Some of the terremare are deady not built
with a view to avoiding inundation, inasmuch as they stand
uponhflls. The rampart and the moat are for defence against
enemies, not against floods, and as Brizio brings in no new
invading people till long after the terramara period, it isdifficiili
to see why the Ibero-Ligurians should have abandoned their
nnproteaed hut-settlements and taken to elaborate fortifica-
tion. There are other difficulties of a similar character. Hence
Pigorini regards the terramara people as an Aryan lake-dwelling
people who invaded the north of Italy in two waves from
Central Europe (the Danube valley) in the end of the stone age
and the beginning of the bronze age, bringing with them the
building traditk>n which led them to erect pile dwellings on
dry land. These people be calls the Italici, to whom he attri-
butes also the culture known as ViUanooa (q.v.). This ^w
. ^ Since the Intematk>na1 Congress of Prehistoric Ardkaeology
at Bologna in 1871, when the shortened form terramara (phir. Mrf»>
mart) was adopted.
TBRRANOVA—TERRISS
6$o
is Kguded tt faffing Is ivith t
k it true) in HungKy and Bosnia.
AiTTBOKiTnu.— All the evidence U coflected by T. £. Peet, 71#
Si^nt amd Brwu Ages in Italy and Sicily (Oxfoid, 1909). ziv. and
xviiL. whieh fives illttstntione and feierenco ta the more itai-
poctaat literature; thia work lupenedes all prevfc» a ymtka 00 the
itrrammrwi Ffoi. Figorini'a actide. ** U ntt antieha oMM^ dcU'
Italia,** ta 9ntU0ina di pcUtnaiMM imitrn, ^ * , is cimical
See aUo the works of Montelius, Modestov, and tUdeeway USar/y
Ate 0f Greta, vol. i.). U- M. M.)
nBRAXOVA, a tom of Sicfly, on tiw S. oOMt, in Che pio-
vlnce of Caltaniaetta, 74 ol by nil and 4t m. diaect EAE. of
OinStntL Fop. (1901) aa^ip. Hie pooily bvOt nvdera town
contains no boOdio^ of interest or impoitaaos; it itaiidk on n
aaod-hitt near the sea, with a iertils plain (the andcnt Caai^^
Gd^O to the N. of it. It has sosae ttade bat no poft,ciily an
open roadstead. It almost certainly oceupiea the site of the
ancient Gela (^.v.). Ontside H on the E. an scanty teouilos of
a Dovk temple (4S0-440 n^.?) «f irhkh m single pOkr only
remains, which was still standiiBg in the i8th oentnry (hdght
about s6i ft., toarv diameter si ^-h
dccontive terracottas have been found (ws Oni fai AtH dd
Congresso di Scicnu Storickey Roite, 1904, v. 188). Between it
and the modem town the stylobateof a large teoqile was found
in 1906. This seems to have beeti constructed towards the end
of the 7th century b.c on the site of a stU earlier edifice. The
styfebate measures rts by sS ft. A hufe number of deoorathe
terracottaa were found, among them a small helmetpd heed of
Athena: her name recurs upon the lip of a large fUkot, and it is
probable that the Umple w» dedicated to her. Them is no
trace of any object that can be dated after the end of the 6th
century B.&, and it is therefore probable that this temple was
destroyed when the other was constructed, and that thektter
ako wasdedioafed to Athena. On the W. of the town, on the
Cepo Soprano, was the ancient necropoDs, wliere many tombs
of the Grade period have been ^SiooTend; the objects found,
iadodfng many fine Atik vases, are partly in private coUeo*
tSons at Terranova itself, partly in foreign museums, while the
reeulu of hiter escavatfoos, Jhduding sdme kffs tenaootu
sarcophsgl, an in the museum at Syracuse,
See Orsi m Noti^ det^i fcari, 1901, 307; 190a, 408; X907, 38.
TnmAliOVA PAQMSIA. a seapett of SanUnla, hi the
province of Sassari, situated on the E. coest, 14 m. $.W. of
Golfo Arand, and 71 m. S. of Saasari hj rail, and hi the hmer>
most recem of the ahtfttend gulf of iWranova. IVip. (1901)
4348. It ooeupies the site of the andent Olbia (9.9.), and until
the tFsiic was transferred to Golle Annd, was the port of
embarkation for Italy, aa hi andeat times. Then b seme trade
in oofk and chaivoaL Hie piece h kNr4ying and malsiioue.
The onfy hidklmg of hiterest is the Rooumesque churdi of
S. SimpUdo, onoe the cathednl, which ss It standa dates pro-
bably firom' the irth century. It was the seat of the gindki of
Oalkm, sent here by the PiiAos f n the- 1 rth century (but probably
the native giudiel resided at Tempio), and of an episcopal see,
united In 1506 with that of ^Ampuifaa. The name Pausania is
the consequence of an error; It is a oomiptSon of' Fausiaaa, a
town and episcopal see of Sardinia mentioned by Giegoty the
Great, the sit e of w hidi is fatreaBty uncertain.
nSRI HAm a dty and the countyeeat of Vigo coimty,
Indiana, U.S.A., on the eastern bank of the Wkbaah river,
about 186 m. S. by E. of Chicago and about 73 m. W. by S.of
Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 30,jr7; (1900) 36,673, of whom
isao were negroes and S9S> foreign-bora; (f9ro, census)
58,t^. Land area {1906), 8-15 sq. m., of which oevly ene-third
had been annexed since 1890 and a consklenble part since 1900.
It b served by the Chicago ft Eastern Illinobr the Oeveiand,
Ondnnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Evansvflle 8r Indiana-
poDs, the EvansviUe & Terre Haute, the Southern Indiana,
the Vandalia and several electric interurban railways. It is
findy situated en hi^ ground 6e ft. above the rfrer level, and
has wide,well'paved streeu shaded by oaks and efans. It is
the sestof the Indhma State Udmal fidiMl (s87«); wUch laid
in 1909 a library of about 50,000 vokunes, 5a instmcton and
an anwnge term eniolment of 988 students, and of the Rose
Polytechnic Institute, which was founded in 1874 by Cbaunoey
Roee (1794-^877), was opened in 1883, efieia eoarses in me-
chanical, dectrfcal, civil and chemical mginefriag and m
ardateaure, and in 1909 had 22 instiucton and S14 students^
About 4 m.W. of Tare Haute is St Maty-of-the-Woeds
(founded in xfi4o by the Sialen of Itevidence, and chartered
in Z846), a acbooi for girls. The Emehne Fslrbanka Hemorial
Librsiy (i88a) fwitained 3o,odo vohmiea in xqso, housed In a
bafldingeeBCled in 1903 by Mr Cmwford Fairbanks in memorir
of his mother. Tern Haote's industiia] and commerdal
importance Is isrgdy due to Its proximity to the vahuiUe
cmaUields of Clay, Sullivan, Park, Vennilkm, Greene and Vige
wmntifs The total vahie of iu factory product in 1905 was
$99,991 fisi; both in 1900 and in 1905 it ranked aecond among
the manufacturing dtiaa of the stata It Is the krgHt distillmg
oentn in the state and one of the largest in the country, the
value of the output of this industry in 1905 being more thaa
half the total value of the dty'a factory pradvct for the year*
The vafaie of the gbos product hi 19^5 «es4's4 per cent,
of the value of all factory producta of the dty, and x*6
per cenL of the value of all glam manufactured in the United
The first settles at Terre Haute built their caUns near Foit
Harriaon, which waa erected bycommand of Governor Wflliam
Henry Harrkon m the winter of i8ro-xz. In i8xa the fort
was successfully defended against an attack of the Indiana by
ita commandant Captain Zachary Taylor, and in 18x7 was
abaadooed. After the dose of the War of x8is the town grew
rapidly and became an Important oammerdal centre, owing
to in river connexions and to the fact. that the National (or
Cumberland) Road crossed the Wabaah here. Tern Haute
wasiocoiporatedasatownin 1838, became a dty in 1853 (under
a genenX state Uw of June 1851), receded a special dty diaitcr
in 1899, in 1905 was organised as a dty cf the third dsm, and
b ecame adty of the second claw in 1909.
TRlRKtU a dty of Kaufman county, Tnss, U.S.A., aboot
33 m. E. of Dallas. Pop. (1890) 9988; (1960) 6330 (t$r7
negroes),* (19x0) 705a Terrell is served by the Texaa ft Pacific
and the Teiaa Midhmd rsilways. The dty ia the seat of Wesley
CoSkg^ (MediodiU Episcopal, South), untU X909 the North
Texas Uaiveidty School, and of the North Texas Hospital for
the Insane (r885), and has a Csumcgie library. It H situated in
a rich famdng region. ' The dty has a cotton compress and
cotton-gina, and various manufactures. The Texas Midland
railway has shops and general offices here. TerreO, named hi
honour of Robert A. Terrell, an esriy settler, was founded hi
X87S and was chsrtered es a dty in 1874.
TIRIUai, WILUAH (i847-i897)> English actor, whose ted
iMune was William Charles James Lewin, was bom In. London
on the 2eth of February 1847. After tryteg the merchant
service, mecfidae, sbeep-farmhig ui the Falkland Islea, and
tea-planting in Behgal, In x86^ he took to the stage, for which
his handrnme presence, fine voice and gallant bearing eminently
fitted hxm. HSs first sppeannce In London waa as Lord
Chmdnys In Robertson's Sedety, at the old Prfece of Waks'b
theatre. He quickly came into favour hi ** hero " parte, and
appeued at the prindpal London theatres from' 186& onwarda
In x88o he joined Irvhig's company at the Lyceum, playing
sndi parts as Cassio and Mercutio, and in 1883 he acted there
with Mary Anderson, as Romeo to her Juliet, 8cc. He was
then engaged to take the leading parts in Adelphi mekidrama,
and it was in this capadty that for the rest of his career he was
best known, though he occasionally acted elsewhere, notably
with Irving at the Lyceum. His last appearance was hi Surei
Servkt. On the 16th of December 1897, as he was entering
the Adelphi theatre, he was stabbed to death by a madman,
Ridiard Arthur Prince. Terriss married Miss Isabd Lewis,
and his daughter Ellatine Terrisa (Mrs Seymour Hkks)
a weU-knewn actress ia musica] comedy, hi sssodation
66o
TERRY, EDWARD— TERTIARIES
her hnsband Edwaid Seytxxnir HTcks (fr. 1871), proprietor of the
Aidwych and Hicks theatres in London.
See Afthvr J. Smytlie, Tk» Life ^, WWitm Tenia (London,
1898).
TBRR7, BDWARB O'CONNOR (1844- ). EngUsh actor,
ms born in London, and began his stage career in a small and
struggling way in the provinces. Between 1868 and 1875 he
was the leading comedian at the Strand theatre, London, but
h was not till he joined Hollingihead's company at the Gaiety
in 1676 that he became a public favoorite in the burlesques
produced there during the next eight years. With Nellie
Farren, Kate Vaughan and Royce, he made the fortune of this
house, his eccentric acting and singing creating a style which
had many imitators. In 1887 he went into mansgement,
opening Tcrr/is theatre, where his production of Pinero's
Sweet Lasemder was a great success. But in subsequent years
he was only occasionally seen at his own theatre, and made many
tours in the provinces and in Australia, America and South
Africa. Off the stage he was well known as an ardent Free-
mason, and an inddAtigable member of the councils of many
charities and of public bodies.
TERRT, ELLEN AUCIA (184^ ), English actress^ was
bom at Coventry on the 27th of Fcbmary 1848. Her parents
were well-known provincial actors, and her sisters Kate,
Marion and Florence, and her brother Fred, all joined the
theatrical profession, sod her own first appearance on the stage
was made on the 28th of April 1856, undo: the Keans' manage-
ment, as the boy Mamilioa in The WhUer's Tale, at the Princess's
theatre, London. Two years later she played Prince Arthur
in King John with such grace as to win high praise. From
i860 to 1863 and again from 1867 to 1868 she acted with yarious
stock companies. During this period she played, on the. 36th
of December 1867, for the first time with Henry Irving, being
cast as Katharine to his Petruchio in Garrick's version of The
Taming of the Shrew at the Qoeen's theatre. When quite a girl
she married G. F. Watts the painter, but the marriage was soon
dissolved. Between x868 and 1874, having married £. A.
Warden, an actor whose professional name was Chatles Kelly,
she was again afaseftt from the stsge, but she reappesnd in
leading parts at the Queen's theatre under Charica Reade's
management On the 17th of April 1875 she played Portia for
the first time in an elaborate revival of The MerehatU of Venice
under the Bancrofts' management at the old Prince of Wales's
theatre. This was followed by a succession of smaller triumphs
at the Court theatre, culminating ui her beautiful impersonalioit
of Olivia in W. G. Wills's dramatic version of Goldsmith's
Vkar of Wakefield, in 1878, the result of which wss her engage-
ment by Henry Irving as his leading lady for the Lyceum
theitxe, and the beginning of a long artistic partaecaUp, m the
success of which Miss Teri^s attractive personality played a
large part. Her Shakespearean impersonatioiis at the Lyceum
were Ophelia in 1878, Portia in 1879, Desdemona in x88i, Juliet
and Beatrice in 1882, VioU in 1884, Lady Macbeth in x888,
Katherine, in Henry VIIL, and Cordelia in 1^2; Imogen in
1896, and Vohmmi^, in Coriolaniu, in 1901. , Other notable
performances were those of the Queen in Wills's Charles /. in
1879, Caroma in Tennyson's The Cup in i88r, Margaret in
Wills's FoMjl in 1885, and the title-part in Charles Reade's
tee-act play Nance Oldfietd (1895), Rosamund in Tennyson's
Bechet (1893), Madame Sans^G^ne in Sardou's play (1897), and
CUrisse in Robespierre (1899). With the Lyceum company she
several times visited the United Sutes. In 1902, while still
acting with Sir Henry Irving, she appeared with Mrs Kendal
in Becrbohm Tree's revival of The Merry Wives of Windsor, at
His Majesty's theatre, and she continued, after Sir Henry
Irving's death, to act at different theatres, notably at the
Court theatre (1905) in some of G. Bernard Shaw's plays. In
1906 her stage-jubilee was celebrated in London with much
enthusiasm, a popular subsaiption in England and America
resulting in some £8000 being raised. In 1907 Miss Terry
married James Carew, an American actor.
Marion Terry (b. 1856) became only less distin-
guished on the EogUsh stage than herself; and her tnollier
Fred Terry (b. 1865) also beoune a leading actor, and a sticcesB-
ful manager in association with his wife, the actress Julia
Neilson.
See Charles Hiatt, Ellen Terry and her ImpersonaHwt (1898);
Clement Scott, Ellen Terry.
nRBTEKENf GERHARD (1697-1769)', German religious
writer, was bdrn on the S5th of November 1697, ^ l^drs, at
that time the capital of a countship belonging to the house of
Orange-Nassau (it feU to Prussia in 1702), which formed a
Protestant tndgee in the midst of a Catholic coimtty. After
being educated At the gymnasium of his native town, Tersteegen
was for some yean apprenticed to « merc(ianL He soon came
under the mffuenoe of Wilhehn Hoffman, a pietistic revivalist,
and devoted himself to' writmg and public Spcsking, with-
drawing in 1738 from all seadar porsuits and pviag lumself
entirely to idigious work. His writin0i iodude a collection
of hymns {Ihs ^eitUUht BlumengUrSeinf 1729; new edition,
Stuttgart, x868), a vobme of GeM, and another of Brief e,
betides translations of the writings of the French xzkystics.
He died at Mllhlheim in Westphalia on the 3rd of April 2769^
See Hymms. and the anide by Eduaid Simons in Herzog-Hauck,
IUakiuyklopddie,.voL xix, (ed. 1907).
TBRX2ARIE8 (LaU krtiarii, from Urtms, third), aasodations
of hiy folk in connexion with the Me n d ic a nt Orders. The old
monastic orders had had attached to their abbeys confrater-
nities of by men and women, gohig back in some cases to the
8th century. The Confraternity Book of Durham is extant
and embraces some 20,000 names in the course of eight centuries.
Emperors and kings and the most iUustrknis men in church
and state were conunonly confratcrs of one or other of the great
Benedictine abbeys. (On this subject see article by Edmund
Bishop in Domnside Reoiew, 1885.) The cofifraters and con-
socors were made partaVeM in -all the religioua exercises and
other good works of the community to which tbey were afiUiated,
and they were expected in return to protea and forward its
interests-, but they were not called upon to foUow any special
rule of life.
Although something of ihe kind existed among the Humiliati
in the 12th century, the institution of Tertiarifes arose out of
the Franciscan movement. It seems to be certain that St
Francis at the beginning had no intention of forming his
diddples into an Order, but only of taaJkia^ a great brotherhood
of all those who were prepared to carry out in their lives certain
of the grfeater and more arduous of the maxims of the Gospel
The format^n of the Frandscan Order was necessiutcd by
the success of the movement and the wonderful rapidity with
which it spread* Wheir.the immediate disciples of the saint
had become an order bound by the religioas vows, it became
necessary to provide for the great body of laity, married men
and women, who could iM>t leave the vorki 01 abandon their
avocations, but still were part e( the Franciscan movement
and desired to carry out in their lives ita 4)irit and. teaching.
And so, probably m 1221, St Francis drew up a Rule for those
of his foUowers who were debarred from being- members o| the
order of Friaxs Minor. At first they were called. " Brothers and
Sisters of the Qrder of Penance"; but later on, when the
FriaiB were called the " First Order " and the nuns the " Second
Order," the Order of Penance became the " Third Order of
St Francis "--whence the name Tertiaries: this threefold
division already existed unong the Humiliati.
In 190X Paul Sabatier published a " Rule of Life of the
Brothers and Sisters of Penance," which probably contains,
with additions, the substance of the original Rule of 1221. It
prescribes severe simplicity of dress and of life, and certain
abstinences and prayers and other religioua exe rcis es , and
forbids the frequentadon of the theatre, the bearing of arms
and the taking of oaths except when administered by magis-
trates. In 2289 Nicholas IV. approved the Third Order by a
Bull, but made some alterations in the Rule, and this form of
the Rule remained in force until- our own day.
Immediately on its establishment in |3»| the Third Orda
TERTIARY— TERTULLIAN
661
wetteni Euiope, and inbrTBd aulUtiHles «l mea and nomeft
^ all naks fiom highett lo lowest.. Eyeaynhtn it «■< cob*
aectfid dotdy wtih the Fint Order, and was under the oontioA
oitfaeFriawMinmr.
In time * tendenqr set in for nembeis oC the Tbiid Order
to live together in oommiDuty, and in this way cvngnpitions
weic formed who took the usual religious vows and liwed a
fttUy oiganked rcUgioua life heacd on the Rufe ol the Third
Older with sopfdcmentaty legulatioBS. These oongiegatioos
aie the "Regdbr Tertiaries" as distinguished IrOm the
** %«ii*r Tertknes/' who lived in the-woiid, according to the
^»4|pti«i idea. The Regular Tertiaries are hi the f ulL techakal
,*.>■* *«idigioas/' and there have been, and an» many oon-
gn^tianft of them, both of men and of women.
There can be little, donbt, whatever counter claims nay be
eet up, that the Third Older was one of St Frauds' creations,
and that his Third Order was Che exemplar after which the others
wcfm fashioned; but at an early date the other M cnd if a nt
Oidets formed Third Oiden on the same hoes, and so there
oune-into being Dominican Tertiades, and Cannelite, and
Aogmtinian, and Servite, and abo Premonstralensian and
many others. These foUowed the same lines ol devefepment
as thnFrandscan Tert>aziie% «nd lor the asost part divided mto
the two bnncbes of Tcgnhr and secular Teztiaries. The Kides
of the various Third Ordeis have proved very adaptable to the
needb.of modem oongmgaiiona devoted to active wotka of
charityr and so a great nomber of teaching and nnning oon-
gregatioos of vromen bebng to one or other of the Thisd Orders.
TbeFrandscan Third Order has always been the priadpai one,
and k received a great unpetas and a renewed vogue from
Leo XUL, who in Z883 caused the Ride to be recast and made
more soiuble for the requirements of devont eaen and Women
at the present day. In consequence ii is estimated that the
nnmber of lay Praadscan Tertisries now exceeda two millions.
BisUQCRAnnr.— The moat lervioBableajithority oa the FraaoKan
Teniariea is probably Max Hdmbucher. (?rim aiwi Kgnrregfitiatitn
(1907). u. U 103. J<H. 105. where an ample MbliogTaphy b supplied.
The »rac wk gives informatioii on the other Tawtrto at the end
i the sectlowi on the variou. Ofdn* Sfamhiiir hif ocmatjn ^
be (bund in Hdyot, HislMrt dtt Ordm nhptitx UjiAh aiter the
chapters on the different Ordera. Heimbucjer namesTachy^Lw
TiehOrdres (1897), and Adderley ahd Marwn, T^.Order^
(1902). ^' ^ **•'
tUniART, in geofegy, the thne^ffskm wWA inchides
the Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene and PBocene periods, in other
words, it is the earlier portion of the Cainozoic era. By some
authorities the term Tertiary is made lo embrace in addition
to the foregoing periods tSwsc of the Quateraaiy (Pleistocene
and Hotoccne), i.e. "Tertiary" is made the equivalent of
Cainoioic On feg^ca! grounds there is much in favour of this
InterpreUtion; but having hi view the sUte of geok>gical
Hteratnre, it is certainly better to restrict the uSe of the term
in the manner indicated above. Tertiaiy rocka were among
the latest to receive the careful attention of geologists, and the
name was faitioduced by G. Covicr and H. Biongniarl in i«io
{Essoi nr la ggograpkU mineralogt^ue ies emfrons de Pans,
i8ro-tx, rated.).
Deahayes (1830) worVed out the percentages, of recent foMiU
found at several horisons in thoM rtrau. and upon thto Sir C. LyeU
(iBsa) ibonded the main perioda. vi* the Eoceae with 3* per cent.
U SkosL fonns, Miocene 17 per cent., Plio^ne 35 to 50 per asnt-
Subaequent investigations naturally modified the numerical values
nponwhich thb nomenclature was based, bat without altenng the
order of the periods. Later, E, Bcyrfch introdoced the Ohsocene
period, aod aome geoiogista recognise a Falaeoccne or eady Eocene
period. European geologiau very gcaeraUy uae the grouping
adoptedby R. tidrn^;— ^ ^.
Younger Tertiary - Neogene (Miocene, Pliocene). ,
OlderTertiary-Palaeo^ (Palaeocene, Eocene, Oligooene).
The Bvat namber and variety of manunaliaii »«»«» |»«« "»««
k posJble for the Tertiary rocks to be daasificd by their ni«in*:
aee A. Gaundry. Us enckafnements du monde OMimd^-^mmifires
TertUnrts (1878); W. B. Dawkina. (?• JGid. ^oc.Lof^. U^h
•Foivyth fkzjir, Geot. Mag. O^don. 1899): *»! M. F..O*wj.
I. L. Wortman, G. F. Matthew, for western North Ainen<a, BmB.
An. Mms, Hal, HiO,, iSL (1^90).
During the Tectkry em the geographical configuration of ths
globe waa steadily approaching that ol the present day: but ia
the eariier part of the time there still existed the great equatorial
ocean " Tetfays," and there is evidence that East India and Africa,
Auatralia aad Asia, aocth Europe and Noith America were pfdl>
ably aeveraUy united by land conncaiooaw Aa the pciiod advanced,
akmg the very Coe that had been occupied by the nummuUtic aea
fTethyB) the crust began to be folded up, giving riae to the Alpa.
CarpatMans, Gaucaaua, Himalayaa and other niountaina. aome of
the early Tertiary maime formationa being now Coond raised woae
than I^OQO ft. above the preaeat level of the aea. Aaaodated
with these cruatal movementa were enormous outpourings of vol-
canic materials.
The faunal aspect of the Tertiary periods di£fers strildnaly from
that of preceding Seamdary or Bleaoaoic; in pbioe of the great
saurian reptiles we find the rapid development and finally the
maximum expansioB of mammala. Snakea and true birds advanced
rapidly tovrards their modem porition. In the aeas, bony fish and
crab-like decapoda increased in numben and variety, while pelecy-
podsand gasterepods took the proouneot phux prevtoasly occupied
hf ommoaitca and belemnites^ aad, leaving beliiad such forms as
RudisUs, Jnoceramus, &c., they gradually developed in the direction
of the modem regional groups. In the plant world, the dicotvle-
donous angiosperms graooally assumed the leading rOle which they
occupy to^Uiy. . ,
The climate in nofthem latitudos seems to have passed from
temperate to sub-tropical, with minor auctuations, until at the
dose a rapid lowering of temperature ushered m the glacial
period. 0« A. M.)
TERtniLIAK (c. i$s-c,''222)f whose full name was QtnMTUs
SEPiumrs Fxx}S£N8 T^TULUANDS, is thc earliest and after
Augustine the greatest of the andent church writers of the
West. Before him the whole Giristian literature in the Latin
language consisted of a translation of the Bible, the OUaviuf
of Minucius Ftiix (^.v.)— an apologetic treatise Written ia the
Ciceronian style for the higher drdea of sodety, aod with no
evident effect for the church as a whole^ the brid Acts of the
Scillitan martyrs, and a list of the books recognized as canoni c al
(the so-called Muratorian fragment). Whether V|ptor the
Roman bishop and ApoUonius the Roman senator ever really
made an appearance as Latin authors is quite uncertain.
TertuUian in fact created Christian Latin literature; one might
almost say that that literature sprang from him full-grown, alUx
in form and substance, as Athena from the head of Zeus.
Cyprian polished the language that TertuUian had made, sifted
(he thoughts he had given out, rounded them off, and turned
them into current coin, but he never ceased to be aware of his
dependence on TertuUian, whom he designated as xar* l^ox^y, his
master (Jer., De mr. ill. S3). Augustine, again, stood on the
shoulders of TertuUian and Cyprian; and these three North
Africans are the fathers of the Western churches,
TertuIUan's pUce in universal history is determined by (z)
his inteUectual and spiritual endowments, (3) his moral force
and evangeUcal fervour, (3) the course of his personal develop-
ment, (4) the circumstances of the time in the midst of which
he worked.
(x) TcrtxdUan was a man of great originality and genius,
characterised by the deepest pathos, the Uveliest fancy, and
the most penetrating keenness, and was endowed with abiUty
to appropriate and make use of aU the methods of observation
and spccidation, and with thc readiest wit. His writings
in tone and character are always aUke " rich in thought and
destitute of form, passionate and hair-splitting, eloquent aad
pithy In expression, energetic and condensed to the point of
obscurity." His style has been charaaerized with justice as
dark and resplendent like ebony. His eloquence was of the
vehement order; but it wins hearers and readers by the
strength of its passion, the energy of its truth, the pregnancy
and elegance of its expression, just as much as it repels them
by its heat without light, its sophistical argumentations, and its
elaborate hair-spUttings. Though he is wanting in moderation
and in luminous warmth, bis tones are by no means always
harsh; and as an author he ever aspired with longing after
humility and love and patience, though his whole life was lived
I in the atmosphere of conflict. TertuUian both as a man and
as a writer had much in common with the apostle Paul,
(a) In spite of aU the contradictions in which he involved
6da
TERTULUAN
Umself tts a thinker and as a teacher, TertiilUan was a compact
ethical personality. What he was he was with his whole bein^.
Oace a Christian, he was determined to be so with all his soul,
and to shake himself free of all half measores and compromises
with the world. It is not difficult to lay one's finger upon very
many obliquities, self-deceptions and sophisms in Tertullian
in matters of detail, for he struggled for years to reconcile
Uiin^ that were in themselves inreconcibble; yet in each
base the perversities and sophisms were rather the outcome
of the peculiarly difficult circumstances in which he stood. It
is easy to convict him of having failed to control the glowing
passion that was in hisL He is often outrageously unjust in
the substance of what he says, and in manner harsh to cynicism,
scornful to gruesomeness; but in no battle that he fought
was he ever actuated by selfish interests. What he did was
neally done for the Gospel, as he understood it, with all the
faculties of his soul. But he. understood the Gospel as being
primarily an assured hope and a holy law, as fear of the Judge
who can cast into hell and as an inflexible rule of. faith and of
discipline. Of the glorious liberty of the children of God he had
nothing but a mere presentiment; he looked for it only in
the world beyond the grave, and under the power of the Gospel
he counted as loss all (he world could give. He well understood
the meaning of Christ's saying that He came not into the world
to bring peace, but a sword: in a period when a lax spirit of
conformity to the world had seized the churches he maintained
the '^ vigor evangeh'cus " not merely against the Gnostics but
against opportunists and a worldly-^ise clergy. Among all the
fathers of the first three centuries Tertullian has given the most
powerful expression to the terrible earnestness of the Gospel.
(3) The course of Tcrtullian's personal development fitted him
in an altogether remarkable degree to be a teacher of the church.
Bom at Carthage of good family— his father was a " centurio
pro coneularis " — ^he received a first-rate education both in
Latin and in Greek. He was able to speak and write Greek,
and gives evidence of famih'arity alike with hs prose and with
its poetry, and his excellent memory— though he himself
complains about It — enabled him always to bring in at the right
place an appropriate, often brilliant, quotation or some historical
allusion. The old historians, from Herodotus to Tacitus, were
familiar to him, and the accuracy of his historical knowledge is
astonishing. He studied with earnest zeal the Greek philo-
sophers; Plato in particular, and the writings of the Stoics,
he had fully at command, and his treatise De Anima shows that
he himself was able to investigate and discuss philosophical
problems. From the philosophers he had been led to the
medical writers, Vrhose treatises plainly had a place in his
working h'brary. But no portion of this rich store of mis-
cellaneous knowledge has left its characteristic impress on his
writings; this influence was reserved for his legal training.
His father, whose military spirit reveals itself in the whole
bearing of Tertullian, to whom Christianity was above every-
thing a " militia," had intended him for the law. He studied
in Carthage, probably also in Rome, where, according to
Eusebius, he enjoyed the reputation of being one of the most
eminent jurists. This statement derives confirmation from
the Digest, where references are made to two works, DcCastrensi
Pteulio and Quaeslionum Libri VIII., of a Roman jurist named
Tertullian, who must have flourished about x8o a.d. In point
of fact the quondam advocate never disappeared in the Christian
presbyter. This was at once his strength and his weakness:
his strength, for as a professional pleader he had learned how
to deal with an adversary according to the rules of the art— to
pull to pieces his theses, to reduce hira ad absurdum, and to
show the defects and contradictions of his statements,— and was
specially qualified to expose the irregularities in the proceedings
taken by the state against the Christians; but it was also his
Mr<t«kness, for it was responsible for his litigiousncss, his often
doubtful shifts and artifices, his sophisms and argumcntationes
&d komfnem, his fallacies and surprises. At Rome in mature
manhood Tertullian became a Christian, under what circum-
'^'•ttces we do not know, ^nd forthwith be bent himself with all
hb energy to the Andy of S<iUpUfre nd ol Christian lltenitme.
Not only was he master of the oootents of the Bible: he also
read auefully the works of Henlaag, Justin, Tatian, Miitiades,
Melito, Ixenaeus,- Procnhis, Clement, ts well mm iway Gnostic
treatises, the writings of Mardon in particular. lu'^npologetics
his principal master was Justin, and in theology proper and in
the CQBtrovtisy with the Gnostics, Itnnactts. As a thinker he
was not original, and even as a thcobgian he has pioducnd but
few schemes of doctrine, except his doctrine of sin. His
special gift lay in the power to make vfast had been traditionally
rccseived impressive, to give to it its proper fona, and to gain for
it new currency. From Rome Tertullian visited- Greece and
perhaps also Asia Minor; at any rate we knowr that he had
temporary relations with the churches there. He was conse-
quently placed in a position in which he could check the doc-
trine and practice of the Roman church. Thus equipped with
knowledge and experience, he returned to Carthage and there
laid the foundation of Latin Christian literature. At first,
after his conversion, he wrote Greek, but by and by Latin
almost exclusively. The elements of this Christian Latin
language may be emi m e ta ted as follow8>-'@.)it had 'its origin,
not in the litenry language of Rome as developed by Ciceru,
but in the hmguage of the people as we find it in Plautus and
Teienoe; (ii.) it has an African complexion; (iiL) it is atzon^y
influenced by Greek, particularly through the Latin trknsbtion
of the Septuagint and of the New Testanaent, besides being
sprinkled with a large nnmbcr of Greek words derived from the
Scriptures or from the Greek litiu;giBs; (iv.) it beass the stamp
of the Gnostic style and contains also some military expressions:
(v.) it owes something to the original creative power of Tertullian.
As for his theology, its leading factors, were— (i.) the teachings of
the apologists; (ii.) the philosophy of the Stoics; (iii.) the role of
faith, interpreted in an anti-Gnostic sense, as he had received it
from the Church of Rome; (iv.) the Solcriological theology of
Mdito and Irenaeus; (v.) the substance of the utterances .of the
Montanist pivphets (in the closing decades of his life). This ana-
lysis does not disclose, nor indeed is it possible to discover, what
was the determining element i^r Tertullian; in fact be was under
the dominion of more than one ruling principle, and he felt him-
self bound by several mutually opposing authorities. It was his
desire to unite the enthusiasm of primitixT Christianity with
intelligent thought, the original demands of the Gospel with every
letter of the Scriptures and with the practice of the Roman
church, the sayings of the Paniclete with the authority of the
bishops, the law of the churches with the freedom of the inspired,
the rigid discipline of the Montanist with all the utterances of the
New Testament and with the arrangements of a church seeking
to set itself up within the world. At this task he toiled for
years, involved in contradictions which it took all the finished
skill of the jurist to conceal from him for a time. At last he
felt compelled to break off from the chvurch for which he had
lived and fought; but the breach could not dear him from the
concradiaions in which he found himself entangled. Not only
did the great chasm between the old Christianity, to which his
soul clung» and the Christianity of the Scriptures as juristical])'
and philosophically interpreted remain unbridged; he also
dung fast, in ^ite of his separation from the Catholic church,
to his position that the«church possesses the true doctrine, tlut
the bishops per nKUssiontm are the repositories of the grace
of the teaching office, and so forth. The growing violence of
his latest works is to be accounted for, not only by his burn-
ing indignation against the ever-advandng secularisation of
the Catholic church, but also by the inc6mpatibility between
the authorities which he recognized and yet was not Able to
recondle. After having done battle »ith heathens, Jews,
Marcionitft, Gnostics, Monarchians, and the Catholics, be died
an old man, carrying with him to the'grave the last remains of
primitive Christianity in the West, but at the same time fn
conflict with himself. , , ,,
(4) What has just been said brings out very dearly how im-
portant in their bearing on TertuUian's development were the
circumstances of the age in. which be Uboured. . His activity
TERUEL
»3
as a CliiJstuui fab between 190 aad 93«, ft period of very sreat
momcBt in the history of the Cstholic church; for within it
the straggle with Gnc»ticism wss brought to a victorious dose,
the New Testament establisbed a finn footing within the
diurcfaes, the ** apostolic ** nilca which thenceforward regulated
ali the alEtUB oi the church woe calkd into exisUnce, and the
ccdesiasticsl pritethood came to be developed. Within tUs
period afao faUs that evangelical and kgal reaction against
the political and aeddaE tendenries of the driirch which is
known as Montaaism. The same TcctuUian wbo«had fortified
the Catholic chttrdi against Gnostkbia was none tbe ktsannous
to pititeet it iwm beo oain g a political organiaatiott. Being
oBsible ip icconrile incompatible^ he broke with tha church
and became the moat powerful repieaentotiva ci Montaniam
ia the West
' Although TertUltUn's extant works are both namerous and
copious, our knowledge of his life is very vague. He cannot have
been boni omch later than about isa His acdtityaa a jurist ia
Rome mutt fall within the period of GmuDodus; tor there is no
indication in his writings that he was in Rome In the time of Marcus
Aureus, and many passages seem to preclude the supposition.
The date of his conversion to Christianity is quite uncertain;
chciw ia' ranch in fiavoor of the years between tgo ami 105. How
feog be reamtned in Aame after becomiim a Chnatian, whether be
had attained any office in the church before leaving Rome, what
was the date of nis visit to Greece — on these points also we remain
in Ignorance. It is certain that he was settled in Cartha^ in the
•Bcond half of 197, the date of his wrking his Apalo§eUems and
^thottly afcenMaros) his two books Ad mKtowt; we also know,
that be became a presbyter in Carthage and was married. His
recognition of the Montanistic prophecy in Phrygia as a work of
God took place in 302-M3, at the rime when a new persecurion
broke out. For the next m yean It was hia constaat eadeavnur
to secure the vktory for Montanism within the church; but in thia
he became involved more and more deeply ia controversy with the
maiori^ of the church in Carthage and especially with its clergy,
which had the support of the clergy of Rome. As Jerome wntca
(He sir. ill. 53): " Uaque ad mediam aetafem presbyter fuit
ecdcaiae Africanae, invklia poatca et conenmeliisclericorum Romaaae
ecclebiae ad Montani diM:ma ddapsus." On his breach with the
Catholk: church, probab^^ hi 207-208, he became the head of a
•mall Montamst community in Carthare. In this position he con-
tinued to labour, to write, and to assail the lax CathoKcs and theif
cfergy nntU at least the rime of Bishop Calixtua in the reign of
F^ag^^^ti^ the year of his death ia uncertain. Jerome Od sup.}
says: "Fertur vixisse usque ad dccrepitam aetatcm." That ne
returned at last to the boeom of the Catholic chuicb is a mere
kgeod, the motive of which is obvioua; his adheveata after his
' ' I to maintain themadvcsaa a small commmiity ia
Caithagr. ' Akhoiigh he had left the church, his earlier wriunga
contimicd to be csctensively read; and in the 4tfa centuiy Us
works* aioag with thorn of Cypriaa, were the principal raading of
I Christians, until
pnn
byt
al they were s u perseded ny those of Jerome,
m1 Gregory. Jerome has iadaded him in
his catalogue of Christian " viri Ulustrea^" but only as a Catholic
to whom reference shouU be nsade with caution.*
The works of TettuOlan, on the chsoDokigy of which a great
deal has been written, and which for tha most part do not admit
of being dated with perfect ccttainty. fall into three claases^the
apologetic, «lefending Christianity against paganism and Judaism;
the polexmcal dogmatic nefuting henstm and heretics; and the
aacetK or practical, drallng with points of morality and church
di9HplTn& In point of riine aho three periodii can be readily distin-
guiahed, the years aos-so^ and ao7-soS constituting the divisiona.
Some of the books he wrote have unfortunately disappeared--
in particular the De spectaeulit, De boplumo, and De viriimibus
vetandis in Greek; his works in Latin on the same subjecu have
survived. .
1. H^orb daU9i ftom btfon 209-203.— To das chua belong the
ApUeiUUmi ^97) ^^ ^^ ^"^ hofAn Ad noHants, D4 s^tatidiSt
De idelolatria, De ctdtu Jeminarum Libri 11.^ De lestimonw animae
(written soon after the Apotogehcus), Ad martyres (perhaps the
eariiest of aH), De baptumtf kaereticcrum (now lost), De baplismo,
De poemiieMha, De watione (the last three written for catochumens),
De paiieadia. Ad tatrem Libri IL* De pnescripliotu kaereHeorum^
and Ado. Marcumem (in its first form). The Apehgeticus, which
in the 3rd century was translated into Greek, is the weightiest work
in defence of Christianity of the first two centuries. It disposes
ef the chaigcs brought aj^nst Christisns for secret crimes (in-
c«t, Ac) and public oflencel (contempt of the State religion and
high treason), and asserts the absolute superiority of Christianity
as a revealed religion beyond the rivalry of all human systems.
> Compare also the judgment of Hilary and of Vincent of Lerins,
Raepccting iu rebtien to the O^anm of Miaucius Fdixmudi has
been written; to the present writer it seems unquestionable that
TertuUlan's work was the later. Df great moment alao fs the
De praescripH<m9 haereHcontm, in which the jurist is more Clearly
heard thaa the Christian. It ia the chief of the dogmatic or
polemical works, and rules the accuser out of court at the very
opening of the case. The De spectactdis and De idotoUUria show
that Tertulliaa was already in a certain sense a Montanist before
he formally went over to that creed; on the other hand, his D*
poenUemiia proves that his earlier views on church discipline were
much more tolerant than his later. To Icam something of fsu
Christian temper we nuist read the De oraiume and tiic De paiienlia.
The De baptwno it of special interest from the archaedog^
point of view.
. IL Works wriUen between aoa-20j and 2O7-208.^De wginibm
velattdis, De corona mililis, De fuea in ftersuiUiont^ De exhoriO'
Hone castUatis, De scorpiact {tihooSiicX against the Gnostics, whom
he compares to scorpions; it is written m praise of martyrdom),
Aioersus Hertnogenem, De censu animao adv. ffermofenem (lost).
Ado. VaientintastoSt Ado. ApeOeiacos (lost), De jparadtso (lost), Vo
fato (lost), De anima (the first book on Christian psychology),
De cano Ckristij De resnneUione eamis, and De spe JUeiwm
(lost), were all written after Tertullian had recognised the prophetic
claims of the Montanists. but before he had left the churclf.
III. Worko later than aop^aoS.—To this period bebng the five
books Ado. Jliomostfrn, his aiain anti-Gnostic work tin the third
form — the first of the five was written in J07-S08), Ad ScapuUim
(an admonitbn to tfie persecuting proconsul oT Africa, written soon
after 212), De fallio (a defence of his wt
wearing the palKum instead
of the toiiga). Ado, PraaBoon (his pimdpal work against the Mon-
archiaas), and Ado. Juiaeos, chapa; ix.<-aiv. of which are a com-
pletion by another and less skUful hand. The latest extant worka
of Tertullian (all after 317) are his controversial writings against
the laxity of tne Catholics, full of the bitterest attacks, especially
upon Cidixtus, the bishop o€ Rome; these are Do monogamia»
Do Mjnnio, Do pmdoeitia, and De eesuui Libri VIL (kist). The
arguments against the genuinenem of soma of the above writings
do not seem to the present writer to have weight. It is quite
possible that Tertullian was the author of the Acta perpetnae a
feHtiiaiis, but he did not write the LibeUus ado omnes kaereus
often appended to Do pnosetiptuoM; or the poems Ado, Mar*
cunum. Do Sodoma, De Jona, Do Gram, Do judieio Domini; or
the fragment De execrandis genHnm diis; or the Do TriniUUe and
De cibis Judaicis of Novatian.
EnrnoKs.-^For the MSS. see E. Prnischen m A. Harniack,
Couhicbto dor aUckfioO. LUontmOf I 675-7- Of printed ooUectioaa
the chief are the editio prinups hy Beatus Rhenanus (Basel, isai)^
Migne. Patr. Lot. i.-ii. (Paris, 1844): Fr. Ochler (3 vols., LMpsig,
1851-4): and A. Reifferscheid and G. Wiseowa ia the' Corput
uriptomm oceL Lai. (PSra i.. Vienna, 1890). Editions of the
■Bpuate books are alnsoot rnmunemble.
TaANSLATioKS.— German by K. A. H. KeUoer (a vols. Cologne*
1882) and selections in BiUtotUh dor Kirckeno&Ur (1869. 1872);
English by S. Thelwall and others in Ante-hficene fathers, lii.
and iv., and (apok>getic and practical writings) by C. Dodgson hi
Library of tko Mors, a. (Oxford. 1842).
LiTBaATURK.— Fr. Oshkr's third volume oontaias a coUectioa of
early dissertations. See also A. Hauck, Terttdlian*i Leben und
Schrifton (Erhingen, 1877); J. M. Fuller in Diet, Ckr. Biog., jv.
818-864; £• NoHdechen, TerfmUian ((kitha, 1890); P. Moneeaux,
Histoin UMmiro do VAfrimu ckrihouno, uoL i. (I^s, 1901)^
T. R« Glover, The Coiifiia of JUUgiiono im tko Early Roman Empire^
chap* X. (London, 1909) ; and the various Histories of Dogma and
Church Histories.
For a complete bibliography see G. KrOger. ffisl. of Early Christian
Litorainro (Eng. tr. New York and Loadoo, 1897): Heraog*Hauck,
Reakncyk. fur M. Tkooloete, xix.; and O. Bardenhewcr, Patroloip
(Eng. tr. Freiburg im Breisgau and St Louis. 1908). A large
nuniber of cariier monographs on special points are cited in the'
9dieda.ofthe£ac7.M. '^ ^ *^ (A.Ha.:X.)
TBRUBU a province of north-eastern Spain, formed in 1833
ftom part of the ancient kifigdom of Aragon; bonnded on the
N. by Saiagossa, E. by Tarragona, S.E. and S. by CasreHon de
la Plana and Valencia* S.W. by Coenca, and W. by Guadalajara.
Fop. (1900) 346,001; area 5720 sq. m. In the centre of the
province rise the Siema of Gudar and San Jnst; in the south*
west and west are the lofty Albarradn range, the Montes
Universales, and the isolated ridges of Palomera and Cucalon.
Outlien of the CasteOon and Tarragona hi^klaads extend along
the eastern border. The northern districU belong to the £bra
bnrin. In the west there are a few peaks, such as the Ceno tie
San Felipe and Muela de San Juan, which exceed 5000 It. in
altitude and are covered with snow far mai^ montha; but Jks
highest point is Javalambre (6568 ft.) in the aoot)-
sicrras give rise to several large rivets, the prind<^
664
TERUEL— TESSIN
tlie TagttS (q.v.); the Giuidalaviar, vrhkh rises in the Montes
tJiuveisales and flows south-east to enter the Mediterranean at
Valencia; the Jiloca, which flows north from the lake of Cella
to join the- Jal6n at Calatayad; the Guadalope, Martin and
Matattafia, tributaries of the Ebro.
Notwithstanding the fertile character of the ptaina and the
abundance of mineral wealth, the trade of the province is un-
important and civilization in a backward state, owing to the lack
of means of transport, want of enterprise and imperfect com-
municatioo widi the outer world. Much land is devoted to pasture
that could be cultivated. Extensive forests with fine timber are
neglected, as are some important coal beds in the eastern districts.
Tl» chief products are corn, wine, oil, cheese, fruits, timber, flax,
hemp, silk, wool and saffron, together with cattle, sheep and
swine; while in the buuer centres some slight manufacture of
coarse cloth, paper, leather, soap, pottery and esparto goods is
carried on. The only railway is the line from Murvicdro^on the
Gulf of Valencia, to Calatayud.
TBRUBU the capital of the Spanish province of Terud; on
the left bank of the river Guadalaviar, at its confluence with
tho Alfambra, and on the Murviedro-Calatayud railway. Pop.
(1900) 10,797. The older part of Teruel is a walled dty with
narrow gloomy streets and crumbling medieval bouses, but
modem suburbs have been built outside the walls. Some of
the numerous churches are worth seeing, with their paintings
by the 17th-century artist Antonio Visquert. In the doisters
of San Pedro lie the remains of the celebrated "loven of
Teruel," Juan de Mardlla and Isabella de Segura, who lived in
the 13th century and whose pathetic story has fonnod the
subject of numerous dramas and poems by Perea de Montalban,
YaquS de Salas, Hartxenbusch and others. The cathedral
dates from the x6th centuzy. The great aqueduct of 140
arches was erected in i55sHk> by Pierre Bedel» a French
architect Terud has several good hospitals and asyioms for
the aged and children, an institute, a training school for teachers,
primary schools, a public library, an athenaeum, a meteoro-
iogKsi station, and a Uige prison.-. The see was created .in
1577, and- forms part of the archiepiscopal province of
Saragossa.
TBRVUBREN. a small town of Belgium in the provmce of
Brabant, midway between Brussds and Louvain. Pop. (1904)
4017. It contained an ancient abbey and a hunting' chfttcau
bdoDging to the dukes of Brabant. The fine park of Tervueren
h really part of the forest of Sojgnies. The Colonial Museum
and World's Colonial School are established here, and Tervueren
is connected with Brussds by a fine broad avenue, traversed
by an dectric tramway- as well as by carriage and other roads,
a nd be tween 6 and 7 m. in length.
. TBRZA RIMA, or " third rhyme," a form of verse adapted
from the Italian poets of the 13th century. Its origin has been
attributed by some to the three-luied ritoumd, whfeh was an
eariy Italian form of popular poetry, and by others to the
sirventcs of the Provencal troubadours. The serveniese in-
catemUo of the latter was an arrangement of triple rhymes, and
unquestionably appears to have a rdatk>n with terza rima;
this connexion becomes almost a certainty when we consider
the admiration expressed by the Tuscan poets of the 15th
century for the metrical inventions of their forerunners, the
Provencab. In Italian, a stanza of tena rima consists of three
lines of deven syllables, linked with the next stanza, and with
the next, and so on, by a recuncnce -of rhymes: thus aba,
bcb, cdc, ded, &c., so that, however long the poem is, it can be
divided nowhere without severing the continuity of the rhyme.
Schncfaardt has devdoped an ingenious theory that these suc-
cessive terzinas' are rctdly chains of ritoumds, just as ottava
ima, according to the same theory, is a chain of rispettL There
vere, nnqucstionaUy, chains of interwoven triple rhymed lines
>efore the days of Dante, but it was certainly he who raised
erza rima from the category of fblk-vers^ and gave it artistic
rhaiacter. What this character is may best be seen by an
axaminatioD of the austere and majestic lines with which the
''»f'^o opens, no more perfect example of tena rima having
"^composed:—
*' HfX B% ff , m^ 4d ^ « if>««* di f
Mi retrovai pjer una sdva obacura,
Che la diritta via era smarrita.
Ahi quanto a (Hr quarera i cosa dura
Quests sdva sdvaggla ad aspra e fortey
Che nel pensier rinnova la paural"
It is impossible, however, to bxcik off here, snce tiiefe is no
rhyme to /arte, which has to be supplied twice hi the sncoeeding
terzma, where, however, a fresh thyme, tnwai, is introduced,
Imking the whole to a atill further tetfzina, and so on, inde-
finitdy.' The ttafy way in whidi a poem in tena tkaa, can be
closed is by obandonbig a rhyme, as at the end of Canto i of
the Inferno, wboe no third rhyme is supplied to Fidto and
diaro, Boccacdo wtote tciza rima in dose following of Dante,
bat it has not been a farm vny frequently addpted-by Italian
poets. Nor has the extreme difliculty of sustaining digaity
and force, in these complicated chains of verse made writers
in other hnguages very anxious to adventure on tena rima.
In the age of Elizabeth, Sannid Daaid employed it in his
" Epistle to the Countess of Bedford,'' but he found nof followers.
Probably the most successfully sustained poem In tena rima m
the English language is Mrs Browning's Coxa Guidi Windems
(1851). The Germans have always had an ambition to write
ih terza rima. It was used by Paul Schede, a writer of whom
little is known, bdore the close of the x6th century, and re-
peatedly by Martin. Opitz (1597-1639), who called the form
driUreime. Two centuries and a half later, W. Schlegd had the
courage to translate Dante in the metre of the Italkm; and it
was used for original poems by Chamisso and RUckert. Goethe,
in 1826, addressed a poem in terza rima to the praise ofSchQler,
and. there is a passage in this metre at the beginning of the
second part of Paust.
3ee Hugo Schuchardt, Ritouriutt uni Tertite (Halle, t87g.
(E. G.)
TESCHEN (Czech, TfSm; Polish, Ciesayn), a town of Austria,
in Silesia, 50 m. S.E. of Troppau by rail. Pop. (1900) r9,r4>,
of which <iver half is German, 43 per cent. Polish and the rc-
nuunder Czech. It is situated on the Olsa, a tributary of the
Oder, and combines both PoUah and Gemuui peculiarities in
the style of its bufldings. The only reUc of the andent castle
b a square tower, dating from the xath century. There are
several furniture factories and large saw-mills.
. Teachen is an old town and was the capital of 'the duchy of
Teschen. It was at Teschcn that Maria Theresa and Fredleriek II.
signed, in May 1779, the Peace, which put an end to the war of
Bavarian succession! The duchy of Teloiea bdonged to the dukes
of Upper Silcria, and since 1298 it stood under the suzerainty of
Bohemia. It became a direct apanage of the Bohemian crown -in
1625 at the extinction of the male line of its dukes, and since 1766
it bore the name of Saxe-Tesehbn, owing to the fact that Prince
Albert of Saxony, who married a daughter of Marin Theiesa. re-
cdved it as part of his wife's dowry. In 1822, it was bestowed on
the Archduke Charles, the victor of Aspem; it was taberited by
his eldest son, and, at his deaths in 1895 it passed into the hands
of his nephew, the Anhduke Frederick.
TESSELLATED (Lat tesseHtttut,), formed' of tessdiae, or small
tesserae, cubes from half an Inch to an inch square like dice,
of pottery, stone, marble, enamd, &q. (See Pavbidciit and
Mosaic.)
. TESSTlft CAR! QU9TAF, Comn (1695-1770), , Swedish
statesman, son of a great ardiitect, Nicodenius Tessin, began
his public career in 1723, at which time he was a member of
the* Holstein faction. In 1725 be was appointed- ambassador
at Vienna, and in that capadty. counteracted the plans of the
Swedish chancellor, C^ount Arvid Horn, who was for acceding
to the Hanoverian Alliance. During the riksdags 1726-27 and
X73X he fiercely opposed the government, and his wit, eloquence
and imposing presence made him one of the foremost pro*
tagontsts of the party subsequently known as ** The Hats " (see
Sweden: History). From 1735 to 1736 he was again Swedish
ambassador at Vienna. During the riksdag of 1738 h« was
dected marshal of the diet and contributed more than anyone
else to overthrow the Horn administration the same year. On
the division of the spoil of patronage be chose for himself the
post of ambassador extraordinary at Paris, and from 1739 to
TEST ACTS
**5
■7«s Mk^fd Veaatlka mOi hti 1
, at
Fn
oaduUty vfakh cmnBittal tke ''Hi^'' to
t war witk Rain iD i74i-43» tkmgii
> it nmt be added that Tean helped tkam out «f
I by hia adwi i tiww aa a paitjr laadv and
He gMicd Ma ana-dak m the miiIii
aa a levaad for hia serricca oa thk firmkm, Mm S74a Teani
r—paawl the kas otstairfng dtfefleaeea between Svedes
aad Dt— aaik in •> apenal aJMion to Copenhap n la 1744 he
iHaaeat at thelHadaf aa eatraaediaaiy eaahewarie to Bcriia
to caooft to Stecfchoim Faednicfc the Gceat'a liiaer, Laima
Uhkn, tfae chaaen beide of the Swedish croir»faact» Adeipina
Fiodoidu Aa tmgAtfmankalk of the young onurt, Tchb
ipeaday captivated the ro^ pear. Be aba aaHwdrd in
' the uu a m iaiBCC frota beneath the hifleeaca of
the RnaBaa eaqpicsa FKahrth, to whom Adolpfane Ficdericfc
he becaaM king of Sweden m irs^,
to Ae mainiewra of the
of Sweden. Fioai 1746 to 17s* Teaia waa
of the chancellery, aa the Swedish prise auaiiter
'waa called in those dayi. Hit " tystcs " ahned at a ra/^recAo.
MHf with DennMtk with the view of connfctbalaaciaK the
iafaewea of RaMia hi the aoMb. It waa a ilftiilisil and pradent
peScy, hot hia endeawour 10 coanfidste it by prooMtiag a
mtrioioBiai. alliance between the two coons alienated the
iacnfficafak hatnd of cwythiag Danish. Am,
the ammion of Adolpiras Ptederick in 1751, Tessia itfused
to oonntenance any ntmsSea of the loyat prerogative, the
nptnie bct w t e n him and the eeurt became final. On the
oeeaaioB of the co wa atl o n (175^) ^ assigned the pmdu s hip ,
and in 1754 the gDvemorship of the young erown-pnnoe
GuAavas abo, spending the V«t of hia days at his esute at
Akoft. Tcasin waa one of the moat brflliaBt penooages of hia
day, and the meat piomlnent repieseautfve of French cultose
in Sweden. He waa also a fine oiaior, and his Rfcnry style
bcxcellcttt.
His principal worfa am his siitobiosrapfiicaf Trajpneota (nt ed.
^^H-fcWniia, 1819), r«Mi» «ch T«*9imim»; K, G. Ttnim's ifcifo^
(Siockhatai. if^). both of them extmcu from his volyniiiious M&
1IIIIIMH in 39 vofauocs: and his (amous Eft fommal mans krtf tU
ca Mif Prwu (Stockholm, 17535 En|J«»h <dition». 1755 and 1756),
addressed to hb popil, afterwards Guttavus III., one 01 the moec
deliahtful books for the young that ever mw the lighc.
See IL Nisbet Bain^^rfMiseM ///. •nd kit Cwmiampmwies (toadea,
i6qs>. vol. is Bcmhard von Bsskow, Mmnt nj Cttht K. C T*ssim
(Scockbolro, 1864): Bembard Elts MaImMr«m. Sverites pplUuka
kistoria Mu Kattmug Karl XIJ,'s dad liU statsktatfninftn, 1773
CScockhofan. i893-»90»>. (R. N. B.)
TEST ACTS. The prhictple that none but persons professtog
the established religion were eligible for public emplojrmcnt
was adofHed by the legislatures of both Engbiod and Scotland
soon after the Reformation. In Enghnd the Acts of Supremacy
and Uniformity and the severe penalties denounced against
recusants, whether Roman Catholic or Konconformist, were
affirmations of this principle. The Act of 7 Jac. I. c. i provided
that all such as warn naturalized or restored in blood ahoald
receive the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. It was not, how-
ever, until the reign of Charies 11. that actual receiving of the
oomm«nk>n of the Church of England was made a concfition
precedent to the holding of public offices. The earliest impost-
uon of tids test waa by the Corporation Act of r66t (13 Car. IL
St. 3, c. 1), enacting that, besides taking the oath of allepance
and supremacy and subscribing a declaration against the
Solemn League and Covenant, all memben of corporations
were within one year after election to receive the sacrament of
the Lord's Supper according to the rites of the Church of Eng-
land. This act was followed by the Test Aa of 1673 (35 Car.
IL c. a). The Immediate cause of the Test Act (the full title
of which b " An act for preventing dangen which may happen
fimmpopbfarKums'^iMstheUiig^dechMtSoaaftedulfeence.
dispensing with bwa i uflLiiug disahifffiw on Nonconformists.
Tl^ act enfocced upon all peiaoaa filling any office, civil w
mflitaiy, the oUigatiaa of taking the oatha of sapmBucy and
aDegiaaee and subecrifaing a dedaratiOB agatnet tiansabstantia-
tiott, and abo of xcceivxiig the sacrament within three moBtha
after admittance to ofiioe. The act did not cxtciui to peers;
bat in 167S 30 Car. IL at. a eaacted that afl pccn aad — j^*******
of the House of Commons should make a dedaiatioB against
tnnsobstantiatToa, invocation of saints, and the sacrifice of
the masBp— a special eiception being niade in favour of the
dnkeefYeck. Tim pnvbkma of the Test Act woe violated
by both Charies II. and James IL on the ground of the cfi^ens-
ing power daimed by the Stuart kings. In the well-known case
of Coddtm V. Hales (ix Sute Triab, 1166), an action for penalties
oader the Test Act hiwigbt agaisat aa offiecr ia the army, the
judges decided ia favoov of the disprmdng pow er- a power
finafly abolbhed by the BiS of RfghtSL After a coasidcrahfe
namhcr of a mfndmea i a and pmtial sepcab by the fcgblature
of the acta of t€6i, 1679 aad 1678, and of acts of ladunnitj
to protect persons wider cettani orcnantaaces from penaltiics
incurred uadcr the Test Act, the necessity of receiring the
sacrament aa a qnalificatsoa for ofice was abolished by 9600. IV.
c 17, and al acts rcqutfing the takiag of oaths and dccbsatioBS
agsinst ttaasubstaatiatioo, Ac, were repealed by the Utrnxc
Catholic Relief Act of 1829 (10 Geo. IV. c. 7)- Thb general
repeal has been foilowcd by the special repeal of the Coipeiation
Act by the r m mta ser y Ohths Act 1971, of the Test Act by the
Statute Law Revision Act 18(3, and of the act of 1678 by aa
act of 1866 (19 It 30 Vict. c. 19). Rcfigieus tests remamcd
in the F.ngji^h universities until 1872, in Dublin Uni ve i sf ty
antn 1873, and the Scottaib univciaitics aatS r889. 7^ be a
m e mb er of the Churdh of England was a ncccsasfy conditiMi
p re c edent for holding most amversily or cdlefe offices by the
Act of Uniformity of x66s, and sudi offces were not affected
by the Telention Act of i669 and the Roman CfttholSc Relief
Act of 1819. In r87i the Univetaity T^s Act abofished sub-
scrfptlens to the articles of the Church of En^and, aH dedsra-
tions and oaths respecting refigioas belief, and all cbmpnbory
attendance at public worsUp in the universities of Oxford,
Cambivl&e and Durham. There b an e xc ep ti on confining to
persons* m holy orders of the Church of Enghind degrees m
divimty and positioos restricted to persons m hoqr orders, such
as the divinity and Hebitwpcofessocdiipa.
tert wm hapoMd iMMdiatelv after the
. By 1567, c. 9, no one was to be appnatcdto a puhhc
office or to be a notary who did aot profess the Kcformcd religioo.
The Scottish Teat Act was i68r. c. 6. rescinded by 1690, c. 7. R^
■oodstioo of popery waa to be made by person* «mi*M m
cdacarioo (1700. c. 3). A morion to add. after the t8th artarie of
union, an esiemptioa of S cotsme n from the sacTamc otal^teat la tae
United Kingdom was negarivcd by the Scottish pviTiaiuut. A
tiniilar fate awaited a proposal that while a fcitumental test was in
focre in Eagbod al persons in public office m Sco tland sbonM
subscribe their »M>mmi^^ to the Pwibytena n Choiv h Kw itmintnt.
By 1707. c ft. allpm«es8om. psincioab, »««»*»• ■•■*^,*'i*!f2
b4ri^ office « a^niverwtTTcolKe or sdio^ « Scot^ndweje
to pcofe» and subcctibe to the Confcssioo of Fa rth. AB p ei sog
wefe to be hee of any oath or teat cowtrarv t<»o r tetsnwrtfti t ^
the IVotCMant leligioa and Pie sb yteri an ChurA yiv«f«n« at^ w
reception of the commaaaosi «» »«v« • ¥•« o* ^?tJS£r!c1K
as mEngUnd and Ireland. The necessay for w^*f"55S toS?
ConfcssSi of Farth by peisoas hoWng amuverwty oft«^»«^
than that of principal or piu fcasot- «f theology/ w^
I* A 17 Vict. i. ■9.Trho art pwr*«*^ ^*!i^^ ^
every petM appoiamd to a aaivesyy office /g* J*
d«clantiMacco«dingtotheforiointbc»rt,p«mwgt« ^^
anyopi«io.i^;^.othediy«ea«J^^^^ t.
CooiessMMi
Onirdi of f
finMvaboG
nw>fnbet« of the House of Comm ons, - ^^ °— ^^"^^^
and srtwfs a dedarsrioa ><M»^,yf'^^
the Vimia Maty awl the aa»iiaj»d<2^
the IrahAct of a Anne, c 6. every ^^>"
666
TEBTAMEMTS
civil cr tuShtryt «mt to taks And Mbicnbe tke oatht of aUegiattce.
supremacy, and abiutatioa, to sulMcribe the declaration against
cransubstantiation, &c.. and to receive the Lord's Supper according
to the usage off the Church of Ireland. English legislation on the
subject oT oaths and declarations was adopted in Ireland by
Yelverton's Act. 21 & aa Geo. III. c 48. (5 dr.). These provisions
' ^ Y Oaths Art " — -
were aU repealed by the Promissory (
1871. The Roman
Catholic Relief Act of 1793 (3i Geo. III. c. 21. Ir.) excepted Trinity
Dublfn. from its orovisions, and testa existed in Dublin
College.
oaivcrsity until 187^.
■' ] profesi
Tney were abolished as far as regarded
. >fessonbffifl in 1867 by 30 Vict, c 9> and were
finally abolished for the whole university by the University of
certain sdentifVo profc
Dubfin Tests Act 1873, eaocept as to professors of and lecturers in
divinity.
Uuitid States, — ^By art. 6 of tha constitution, " ao reugioas test
shall ever be required as a qualification to any oflke or oxJhMc trust
under the Unitol States." A similar provision is generally included
in the state constitutiona.
TESTAMBNTB OF 1HB THREE PATRIARCHS. Tliii a|>o-
cryphai woik of the Hebrew Scriptuxes was first published by
M. R. Jajoes {The TeshmaU 0/ Abrcham, the Grteh Tex$ now
fortl ediled with an ItUrciuOian end Notes. With an appendix
eenlaimng extraeit from the Arabic Version oj the Testaments »J
Abraham^ Isaac and Jacob, by Barnes, Txxts amd Studies, ii. 2:
Cambridge). The Greek testament of Abcaham is preserved
In two recensions from sis and three MSS. zespectlv^y. This
testi^ncat is also edited by Vassiliev in his Anecdota Graeco-
Byaantin^, 1893, i 292-308 from a Vienna MS. already used
by James. According to James, it was written in Egy^ in
the 2nd century hJK, and was translated subsequently into
Slavonic (Tkbonrawow, Fam^atniki otretschennoi russkoi Lite-
raturi, 1863, i« 79-90), Rumanian (Gaster, Proceedings of the
Society of BibUcal Archaeoiogy, x8S7» ix. I9S''36), Etbiopic
and Arabic
Thia testament deals with Abraham's rehiotance to die and
the means by which his death was bcoucht about. As ngarda
its origin James writes (op. ciL, p. 55): " The Testament waa
originally put together in the second century by a Jewish
Christian: for the narrative portions be employed existing
Jewish legends, and for the apocalyptic, he drew largely on his
imagiBation.'' He holds that the book is referred to by Ori^en,
Howi. in luc, zszv. With the espeption of z.-xL the work is
tealiy ^ legend and not an apocalypae.
To the above conclusions SchtLrer, Cesch. desjud. Volhes, 3rd
ed., iii. 252^ takes objection. He denies the reference in Origen,
and asserts that there are no grounds for the assumption of a
partial Jewish origin. But the present writer cannot agree with
SchUrer in these criticisms, but is convinced that a large body
of Jewish ttaditiOB Ues behlnH the book. Indeed, Kottler
(Jewish Quarterly Review, 1895, v. 581-606) has given adequate
grounds for regarding this apocryph as in the main an inde-
pendent work of Jewish origin subsequently enlarged by a few
^Christian additions.
, Aa English translation of James's texts will be found in the
Ante-Nicene Christian Ubrary (Clark. 1897)1 PP- «85-2pi. The
testamenu of Isaac and Jacob are in part still preserved in Arabic
and Ethiopic (see James, op. cit,, 140-161). (R. n* C.)
TRSTAnOm OP THE TWELVE PATRIARCHSw The
Testaments o£ the Twelve Patriarchs (sec AfoCAtYPtic Iote-
hature: //. (M Testament), are aa impovUnt constituent of
the apocryphal scriptures connected with the Oki Tesu-
ment, comprhing the dying oommands of the twelve sons of
Jacob.
They " were written {n Hebrew in the later years of John
.Hyicaatt»--in all probability after his final victory over the
Syrian power and before his breach with the Phariseee^a
her words, between xog and 106. Thdr author was a
visee who combined loyalty to the best traditions of his
ty with the most unbounded admiration of Hyrcanus. The
ccabean dynaity had now reached the zemOi of its proir
ity, and in its rdgaing representative, who atone in the
it^rv ni Judusm DOssesscd the triple offices of prophet,
' 'ng, the Pharisaic psrty had come to recognize
esi^ To thia John HyroanuB, in whom had
the glories and ^fts of this great family, our
author addmiefl two IfesKianfchymos. The writer already
sees tlie Messianic kingdom estabiiihed, under thb sway of
which the Oeotiles will in due course be saved, Beliar overthrown,
sin disappear from the earth, and the righteous dead rise to
share in the blessedness of the living. Aiaa lor the vanity of
man's judgment and man's pcesoienoel Our book had hardly
been published, when Hyrcanus, owing to aa injury done him
by tlie Pharisees, broke with their party, aiad, joimng the
Saddnceea, died a year or two later. His successors proved
themselves the basest of men. Thdr infamy is paiikled in lurid
coloufs by ooatempomry writea oC the 1st century bx., and by
a strange irony the work, or, imther, fiagncnta of the work of
one of these awsilantt of the later Kaoeabees, has achieved
immortality by finding a covert In the dueC mtnifisstio that was
issued on behalf of one of the earlier members of that dynasty.
This second writer singles out three of the Maccaheati priest
kings for attack, the iirst of whom he charges with every
abomination; the people itself, be declares, is aposute, and
chastisement will foUow speedil3r--the temple will be laid wasu,
the nation carried afresh into captivity, whence, on their re-
pentance, God wfll restore them again to their own knd, where
they shall csgoy the blestedneaa of God'a presdoce and be ruled
by a Mcttiah sprung from J«dah. When we ooatesst the
expectations of the original writer and the actual evenu that
foUowed, it would seem that the chief vahie of his work would
consist in the light that U throws 00 thia obscure and tenporaiy
revolution in the Messianic expectation* ef Judat»m towards
the dose- of the and century^ But this is not so. The main,
the overwhehnittg vslue of the- book lies not in thia province,
but in its ethical teaching^ which has achieved a real im-
mortality by influencing the thought and diction of the writers
of the New Testaaaent, and even thoee of our Lord. This
ethical teaching^ which is indefinitely higher and purer than
tlat of the OU Testament, is yet iu true spiritual child, and
helps to bridge the chasm that divides the ethics of the Old and
NewTestansents."*
In the early decades of the Christian era the text was current
in two forms, which ait denoted by H* and H^ in this article
and in the editkm of the text pubtished by the Oxford Uni-
versity Presii '* The former of these was translated not Later
than AJO. so into Greek, and this translation was used by the
scholar who rendered the second Hebrew recension into Creek.
.The first Greek translation waa used by our Lord, by St Paul,
and other New Testament writers. In the second and following
centuries it was interpolated by Christian scribes, and finally
condemned undiscriminaLingly along with other apocryphs.
For several centuries it was wholly kat sight of, and it was not
till the rsth century that it was rediscovered through the
agency of Robert Grossetcste, bishop of Lincoln, who translated
ll into Latin, under the .misconception that it was a genuine
work of the twelve sons of Jacob, and that the Christian inter-
polations were a genuine product of Jewish prophecy. The
advent of the Reformation brought in critical methods, and the
book was unjustly disparaged as a ooere Christian forgery for
nearly four centuries^ The time has at last arrived for this
book, so noble in its ethical side» to come into its own." *
Versions and MSS.-^Tht two recensions * of the Hebrew originsl.
to which we have alrea<j^ referred* were translated into Greek, the
former being attested by the Greek MSS. cki and the latter by
a b d e f r, which eroaps for the sake of brevity we designate as
« and 0. The Grcelc version was in turn rendered into Annenian
in the 5th or 6th century. The rendering was made, esicept in a
limited number of passages, from fi. Of this vereiun there are at
least eleven MSS. known. Here again two types of text. A« and
A^, are represented, but for the most part the differences orieinaicd
wkhin the Armenian. Finally about the 13th century the Slavooie
Version was made from the fi iona of the Greek version. Here
> From S I of the Introduction to R. H. Charles's The Testaments
ef the Twlve Patruirchs, translated from Ike Editor's Creek Text
(A. ft C Black, t90g).
> From I I of the Introduction to R. H. Charles's The Greek
Versions oflke Testament of the XII. Palriarchs (Oxford University
I*ress, 1908).
* Some of the evidence for this conclusion wfll be given later.
•reSTAMENTS
'667
«fpio ^«f haw ««<» ^ . _^^
the wiicJe reaaofubiy described as an abbreviation of the
The relations of tne above authorities are too complicated to be
treated of here m detafl, but they are represented on the subjoined
9 aad'S^* but the one ony be on
other.
OHatmal LampuM^^^AMtt (torn Grabe. till within the last fifteen
years no notabw scholar has advocated a Hebrew original. Nitzsch,
DillBiann, Ritschl and ^nker are convinced that the book was
not a translation bat was written originally in Greek. To Kobler
and Caster bdoogs the honcNir of reH>petti0g the question of the
Hebrew original of the Testaments. Only the latter, however.
offcrcd any linguistic evidence. In his article ^ on the <iuestion he
iougfat to estabhsh a Hebrew oricinal of alt the Testaments and to
pro«« that the Hebrew text pf Naphtali which he had discovered
waa the original testament, and that the Greek Naphtali was a
lata and corrupt reprodoctioo of it with extensive additiona from
other sources. But be failed in estabtishiM either thesis. The
subject was next taken in hand by R. H. Charles, who in a pre-
linunary form in the Emcyelopatdia BiblicA (i. 341. 1899}, and later,
with considerable fullness, m his edition of the Greefc text of the
Testaments (1908), brought to light a number of facts that put the
jQuesticm of a Hebrew original beyond the range of doubt. We
will now place a few of the grounds before the reader.
(a) Hwrtv c^mstructigiu ami ex^essi0tis an lo 6$ finud «• every
paft. Tkeugk the vocabtUary is Greek the idiom is J^equenUyHebrate
anafereipi to the gtntus of the Greek lantuaee. Thus in T. Reub.
vi. 11, (» d^ 4^^aro-in3 la. In T. Jud. Xk. 4, (r rr^fitt
Artkof dMt—va utterly unmeaning phrase— becomes intelligible
onretrovenrion-^esF aSa, " on bar very hcnrt." 4n T. Bcnj. x. 11
Mf«M4r«r« hr* IXvUi tr ii»(«"ye sbaJl dwell securely with me":
for here <v* iXrUt, as several tunes in the Septuagiat, is a wrong
rcnderiiy of nuV.
(6) Duiograpkic rttiderings fa Ou Greek of On same Hebrew ex-
pwsion: oho dittogra^ic expressions in the Greek imptying dittO'
graphs in the Hebrew, Se^ Introduction to R. H. Charles's Text, 1 1 1.
U) Fanmomasiae which are lost in the Creek can be restored by
ftlranstation into Hebrew. There are over a dozen of such instances.
(^ Mamy passaMs which are obscure or n^koUy uninteUigible in
ihe Greek be^me dear on retmnsiation into Hebrew. Of the larce
body of such passans (see op. cit. I 12} we will give only one. In
T. Jud. ix. 5. we have the folk>wmg impossible sentence, where
Emn la referred to* 4a^ rwpbt tr ^i Zulp, koI woptviiupoi tp
Here a fragment of the Hebrew original,
wbkh has happfly been preserved, reads rhv\ " wounded," where
the Creek has pvtp6e»!nsi, which is maoifcitly a corruptioo of
the former.
In all the above cases there Is no divergence among the MSS.
and Versions. Yet the restorations are so many and so obvious
that OttT contention might be taken for proven. But there is
stronger evidence still, and this is to be (oand where the MSS. and
VeTMons attest different texts, a standing eenerally in opposition
to tf . A (-Armenian Vernon), and S (= Slavonic Version). By
means of this evidence we are able to prove not only that our book
is from a Hebrew original, but that also the Hebrew existed in two
recensions, H* and H^, which are the parents respectively o( « and fi
(see diagram above).
'"The Hebrew Text of one of the Testaments of the XIT.
^triarehs " (Proceedings of the Sdc. ef BiU. Arehaeelogy, December
i89S* January 1894).
M and fi are not, strictly speaking, Gnek t«cenak>nsi for their
chief variatkms go back to diverse f^rms of text already existing
in the Hebrew H« and H^. For theconsklerable body oTevtdente
supporting this conclusion see the Introduction to R. H. Chailes's
Text, I 12. A couple of the many passages in which the variations
in a and fi are due to variations in H« and HP will now be given.
In T. Benj. xn. a a reads ImmM^ Sn^ <aX^ and ^ AS^ *wtf«M . . .
ir t4^» '«^* Here tKoiM^ and Avifaixt may be taken as render*
ings of the same Hebrew word, but fhnnv ica)^«>mo ra*v3, an un-
doubted comiption of nsw mws «*' at a good old age." The
same corruption invaded both Hebrew recensbna in T. Zeb.
X. 6; T. Dan. vii. i; T. Ash. viiL i; T. Jos. xx. 4, whereas in
T. Im. vii. 9 both recenaiona we^ right. In the late Hebrew text
of Napb. i. 1 th« correct Hebrew phrase is found. Again in T.
Ash. vi. 6 a reads tUr^pu alMr «b r««4r eUmao and fi A 9
vrnpOfHtiturtn miirbr to C«ft» Here vaip«|w#Hrat i- onr. a corruption
of nts^mdo^heu It is the soul of the righteous that is here
spoken of, and • rishtly mya that the ai^l of peace " leads
him into eternal life. ' The rigfatnem «f H« is confirmed by T.
Ben). tL i. which reads b yhp ArrAoi r^t sMnit b»rr£ r^ ^hne^
H« and W, however, differed mainly from each other in wwda
and phrases, as we infer from naadfi. In some passages, however,
the divergence is on a Urger scale, as in T. Lev. ii. 7-iii. Not-
withstaname these divergences, however, the great similarities be>
tween a and /7 oblige us to assume that the translator of H^ used
the Greek version of H^ or vice Tersa. That the former is the
more likely we riiall see presentlyv To the above we have a good
parallel in the Book of Daniel: for the variations of ito two chief
Greek Verstons— that of the Septuagint and of Theodotion— fo
back to variations in the Semitic
Date of the Original Hebrew.-^** The date of the groondwofic of
the Tesumenta is not difficult t» deteimine. Thus Reuben (T.
Reub. viw io>ii) admonishes his son^: IIp^ rir AeU frrfvatc tr
•rurmriirH KUpiiat bft&r Ira M(i|«#c el^onflor bt r«9 orb^mrot •broS . . .
9rt y tAr^ f^Mlaro Khpue fiueAOHr Mtwier nvrbt rs9 XsoO. Here
a high<pnest who is also a king is referred to. Such a comblaarion
of oRices naturally makes us tmnk of the Maccabean priest-kings of
the and century B.C. The poesibUity of doubting this reference is
excluded by the words that irnmedatedy follow >— teal vpevxfo^ar*
t6 oniptta obn9 In Mp bfttir ■ iareBoimmi io woktpett bpofnUs eol
Aopdrws Koi l» bfup torm. $aotMt eUmas* A nmilar statement is
made in T. Sim. v. 5. Thus the high-pdest is not only a high-priest
and civil ruler, but also a warrior. That the Maccabean high-priests
are here designed cannot be reasonably doubted. But the identifica-
tion becomes undeniable, as further characteristics of this priestly
dynasty come to light, ft was'to be a new priesthood and to be
called oy a new name (T. Lev. tpiii. 14 UpattUr Ha9 . . . broita
Kau6»). Now the Maccabean high-priests were the first to assume
the title 'priests of the Most High God '—the title anciently
borne by Melchizedek. But the praises accorded in this book
could not apply to all the Maccabean priest-kings of the nation.
As it was written by a Pharisee, it could not have betfn composed
after the breach arose between John Hyrcanus and the Pharisees
towards the dote of the 2nd century b.c. Thus the period of
composition lies between 153, when Jonathan the Maccabee assumed
the high-priesthood, and the year of the breach of John Hyrcanus
with the Pharisees ; some time, therefore, between XSS and 107. But
the date can be determined between closer limits. To one member
of the Maccabean dynasty are the prophetic gifts assigned in oui:
text (T. Lev. viii. 15) in conjunction with the functions of kingship
and priesthood. Now. in aft Jewish history the triple bffices weit
ascribed to only one individual, John Hyrcanus. Hence we con-
clude that the lestamentt were written between 137 and 107." But
the limits ^ the date Of composition be fixed still more definitely.
For the text refers most probably to the destruction of Samaria,
T. Lev. vi. 1 1. In that case the TestanenU were written between
109 and 107 B.C.
Date of the Greek Version.-^Tht • Version seemk to have been
translatM first, indeed before- a.o. 50; for it is twice t|uoted by
St PauL The first paasafe b in Rom. u Xieb pt/ror oArA vAtoSvir
iXX4 R«J 9Mwi8w(owru' roat rcpiaooMiM which is taken almost
verbally from T. Ash. vi. 7, bn of btnplbrijnw. iirviis fcoXAaevrat
{rd. bitmoripoort) bri tal TpAtfVoiwi rb umnbr tad ovrtdboKOun TtMf
rpiowmrtr. Since bgi A omit the words 0r( . . . rpbarottotr, we
conclude that, though it is now found in «, ddeft S^, It waa
originally wanting in fi and probably also in H^. For as we have
already seen (see diagram abo\-e) aef were early influenced by a, and
d h conflate m character. Hence in reality the passage was pre-
served only by a originally.
The second passage is the 'welLknown one in 1 Them. ii. 16.
f^arty M ir' abroin 4 i^rri (-l-roD bmtv DEFC it, Vutg. go) tit riV*.
which is borrowed from T. Lev. vi. iLl^aafrM ( + *»*« •Irobi
4 ioyt^ na 9«ev «It rtXot.
Here fi reads Myptoo for f«9 ItoS. The M Is omitttd by •
through a simple scribal error.
On the ground of the above quotations we assume, therefore,
that ■ was used by St Pmil, and that H« was therefore tmndated
into Greek at latest before A.l>. sa
668
TESTAMENTUM DOMINI
It '
tranilator of H^ ape ire
him, And to liave i ere
maiiif 68t divei]^eiicia
jMntk AddUioms U ms
can h» ckued uoder Dct
•od at a definite pe nd
the object of the ad an
bwfa-priesthood, vbi Ity
oTevery lewdnos; 1 ?}.
nd. 6~xxiii., xxiv. 4 t);
T. Naph. iv.; T. Gi ms
are identical in obje on
with the Paalnu of Solomoa.
(Jt) Other addition* are of various dates and cannot be aoore
than mentioned here, t^, T. Reub. iL 3-iii. 3; T. Lev. xviL 1-9:
T. Zeb. vi 4-6. vii.-viii. x; T. Jos. x. s-xviiL
Ckristiam Additions to Uu Texl.— These additions are to be found
in most of the Testaments and wcce made at different periods.
The existence of these Christian elements in the text misled nearly
every scholar for the past four hundred years into believing that
the Dook itsdf was a Christian apocrvph. To Grsbe, Schnapp
and Conybeare belonn the credit of snowing that the Christian
elements were interpolations— to Conybeare especially of the three,
since, whereas the two others showea the high probability of their
contention on internal evidence, Conybeare proved by means of
the Armenian Version that when it was made many <rt the inter-
polations had not yet found their way into the text. For a full
treatment of these passaces see R. H. Charlca's Tt sU mo iUs nf the
Twelve Patriarchs (1008), Introd. | 30.
ln/lM$mt on Um New TestamenL—VJe have already shown that
St Paul twice quoted from the Greek text of the Testsmmts. These
two passages in Rom. and i Thesa. give but the very faintest idea
of the degree of his indebtedness ia thought and pbraseokigy in
several of his Epistles, especially that to the Romans. But of
still greater interest are the passages in the Gospeb which show
the influence of the Testaments, and these belong mainly to the
sayings and discourses of our Lord. We may mention two of the
most notable of these. Thus Matt, xviii. 15, iS, which deal with
the great question of forgiveness, are clcariy dependent fia our
text.
Matt xviil 15. *Zlaf U invP' T. Gad. vL 3. I&r ru iiimo-
T^of 6 AM^ ctn «ard ffow, r^«i tlf 9I ctvl d^^ ir «i/>4*T
35. *EA» m4 ^^ fca^roc ry vi. 6. VMx^awf n^ IXlYtot.
<»iAr. V. 7. 'A^«f airv A«d c^pj/ai.
Next, the duty of lo^ng God and our neighbour is already found
in T. Dan. v. 3, which is the oldest literary authority which enioios
these two great commands. The form is iniiaitely finer in Matt,
xxii. 37-39> but the matter is already in the Test. Uan. See Introd.
S 36 to R. H. Charles's Testaments »f the Twelve Patriarchs.
LiTEaATURB.— (o) rcc/i.—Sinker, TestanuntaXIJ Palriarcharum
(1869): [this work ^ves 6 in the text and o in the footnotes: sub-
sequently (1870) Sinker issued an Appendix with variations from
ClU ^Charles, The Creeh Versions of the TeslamenU of ike \IJ,
Patriarchs from nine MSS., with the VarianU from the Armenian
and Slavonic Versions and the Hebrew Fragments (1908). . Com-
mentary.— Ouxiea, The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs trans-
lated from the Editor's Creeh Text (1008). Critical Inouiries.—See
SchQrer, C. J. V, iu. 261-262: Charfcs, The TesL XJL Patriarchs,
pp. xxxvi.-xli. CR.H.C)
TBSTAMINTUM DOMINI ("Testavent Of ovx Loki>'0-
Eztxacts from the book which beats this title, contained in an
Sthrcentnry MS. at Paris, were published by Lagardcr in 1856
iReHquiae iuris ecclesiostiei antfquUsimae So-Sg); and a Latin
fragment, edited by Dr Montague James, appeared in 1893
(Texts and Studies, I 154). T^c whole book was first published
in Syriac in 1899, with a Latin translatioa by Mgr Ra^nuni,
the Uniat Ssrrian Patriarch of Antioch. His text is that of a
i7th-cenHiry MS. at Mosul, the colophoh of which says that the
Syriac text was translated from the original Greek " a Jfxcoho
paupere, " evidently James of Edessa, in a.0. 687; but be makes
use of othet material, bchiding an Arabic version made from
t Coptic copy written In a.o. 927. The Mosul MS. contains
the whole Bible in the Peshitto version, followed by the Syrian
" Clementine OcUteuch, " i.e., the collection of ecclesiastical
law, in eight books, which was used by the Nestorians and
^ I If of the Introduction to R. H. Charics's The Creek Veniom
Testaments of the XIL Patriarchu
Jacobitflt. Of this xht Tisl^ntint fonus fhe fiiit tw» booki;
and according to the title (which, apparently by an error, is
made to apply to the whole eight books) it contains the " testa-
ment, or words which Our Lord spake to His holy Apostles
when He rose from the dead. " Plainly, it is one of that series
of writings, claiming to embody^ the fundamental rules of the
Church, which culminates in the Apostolical Constitutions (9.V.).
It faUs into three distinct parts: an apocalyptic mtroduction
(book i. chapters 1-18; the division into books, however, is dearly
not originaJ) ; a " church order ** proper (i. 19-iL 34) ; tud a
conclusion (ii. 3«-^) of the s^me apocalyptic cfaacaetir as the
introduction, (a; Tiie Introdttctton professes to contain the reoocd
of the revelation of Himself by the Lord to Hb Apostles, with
whom are Martha, Mary and SUome, on the evenii^ after His
resurrectkm. He b re pr esen ted as unfolding to thep, at tiieir
request, the signs of the end, and giving them instruction on vanoos
other topics. Incidentally, the fact becomes plain that thb section
b composed from the standpoint of Asia Minor and Syria, that it
dates from soon after the time of Maximin (335-38) and Decius
(3^9-51). and that it springs from a Christian community of a
strictly puritan type, lb) The Church Order foUows the genersl
lines of the Canons of Hippotytus and similar documents. It
describes the Church and its buildings (L 19): the office of the
bbhop and his functions (i* 19-27): the mystagogic instruction
(i. 38) common to thb and the Arabic Didascalia. where it occurs
in an earlier form, and based in part upon the Gnostic " Acts of
Peter"; the presbyter (i. 39-33): the deacon (L 33-36): con-
fessors G. 39); the "widows who have precedence m sitting"
(i. 40-43). apparently the same persons who are spoken of else-
where as " presbvteresses *' Q. 35, iL 19): the subdcacon (i. 44)
and the reader (L 45), the order of whose offices seems to have
been inverted: vmins of both sexes (L ajS); and those who possess
charismata or spiritual gifts (i. aj). Next come the reguiatioDs
for the laity, indudinjg; the whole course of prepaimtioa for and
admission to baptism (11. 1-8). confirmation (ii. 9). and the eucharbt
(ii. 10) : after which there folbws a series of nusoeHaneous TCgula-
tions for Easter and Pentecost (ii. ix-ia), the agape (iL 13). the
funds of the Church (ii. i7-30), the visitatkm of the sick (u. 31X
the use of psalifiody (ii. 33), the burial of the dead QL 33). and the
hoars of prayer (ii. 34). [c) The Conclusion (iL 35-37T brings us
back to the tnjunctkMis of the Lord aa to the keeping of these pre-
cepts, a special charse to John. Andrew and Peter, and a state-
ment that copies of the Testament were made by John, Peter And
Matthew, and sent to Jerusalem by tiie hands of iDosithaeus. Sillas,
Magnus and Aquila.
In all thb there b mnch that b peculiar to of chaincterislic
Of the Testament. First and foremost b its ascription to the
^rd Himself, which we can hardly be nustaken in regarding
as an attempt to claim yet higher sanction than was daimed
b:^ the various compilations which were styled " apostolic. '*
llib fact alone would lead us to infer tlie pre-exbtence of
certain of the latter. Again, the whole tone of the TeslamciUum
b one of highly strung ascetidam, and the xegulaUona are such
as point by their severity to a small and strictly organized body.
They are " the wbe," " the perfect," " sons of li^t "; but
thb somewhat Gnostic phraseology b not accompanied with
any signs of Gnostic doctrine^ and the work as a whole b orthodox
in tone. They are set in the midst of *' wolves," despised and
dighted by the careless and woridly: there b frequent mention
of " the persecuted," and of the duty of " bearing the cross."
There appears to be no locus poeniUnOae loi serious sins ex-
cepting in the case of catechumens, and Uiere b a notably
" perfectionist " tone in many of the prayers. Charismata, and
above all exorcisms, occupy a very important place: there b
a vivid realixfition of the minbtry of angels, and the angelic
hierarchy b very complete. Great stress is laid upon virginity
(although there b not a sign of monasttdsm), upon fasting
(especially for the bishoi^, upon th^ regular attendance of the
whole clerical body and the " more perfect " of the laity at
the hours of prayer. The church buildings are very elaborate,
and the baptistery b oblong, a form found apparently only here
and in the Arabic DidascaUa. Amongst the fcstivaU mentioned
are the Epiphany, Easter and Pentecost. With regard to the
prayers, they are based upon forms common to thb and other
Chureh orders, but have many lengthy interpolations of an
inflated and rhapsodic kind The bishop appears t6 rank far
above the presbyters (more conspicuously so, for example,
than in the Canons of Hippolytus), and the presbytera are still
divided into two classes, those who are more learned and thotc
TESTAMUR— TETANUS
669
irlio afc of mature age. Tbe deaeoos have functions in the
Ettdiarttt and about the alUr which point to an oariy date;
they have abo rauch admbiiitfative work of an impoitant Und,
and espedal provisiena are nuudefor the caxeof the sick and the
dead, and the bnrial of thote who perish by ihipwreek. One
of thedeaoons is to be chosen aa ** chief deacon " (frotsdiaeotms,
L 19,^. i 34)1 and is charged with the care of pilgrmu. Them
ate no doorkeepeis or Sti^en, who begin- to appear div; ajd. 340.
The honocr giren to eonfenen is wry coaspieuouSf and poinu
back toi aa eady date. But remarkable above all is the iMsition
given to women. We have *' widows haying precedence" or
prcsbyCetetaes, three In bumber, deacofMSBCs, - virgins^ and
widows who are fai receipt of the afana of the Cfaorcli; and the
fint«amed occupy a place of very great dignity; which is almost
ttneqaalied ehewhcfe (e^eptbig m the earDer form of the
apooyphal and Montaaistic Aett and Martyrdom of M^UMovi
Where the rdatian of the apcv^On and deaconess coirespoods'
with that oi- the TtslamttU^j and widch whs foimaJty ooadimned
by the QmncSof Laodicea b Pfarygla.
What condusioni is to be dcawn, then, aa to the age and
chacaaer of the' Testomenif Mgr Rahmani's view, that it ia
a work of the and eentiny» is univeisajly dfacieditad; nor has
Funk's contention found aoceptaace^ that fit and the Canons
of H^ppolytus are alike derived uhlmately from th« <i^th
book of the ApoOoUc ContHhitima, Some scholars think that
the Apocalypse at the begmnlog is pre-Nkene (A.a sfo-3>S>f
and that it originates from Asia Mmor^ probably from Mon*
tanistic circles. Hamack formerly oontendcd that this was an
todepeadent work, upon which the Church Order had been
grafted, and that as a whole it dated from arc, ajx 40a But
the unity of thought and atmoapheve h such as to bhow that the
work B one wlurfe (subject no doubt to a certain amount of
redaction and kiterpolation), and that the apocalyptic part was
unnp osed as an intrQduction to the test. As to the central
portion (L 19-iL 14) it is a Cbuvch Older of the same kind as the
Canons of Hippolytus {t. 330) and the Egyptian (e. 3x0) and
Ethiopic {e. 335) Church Okdeis, sCaading nearer to the two
faktter than to the former, and cspedally to fhe Verona Latin
Fragmenta, part vSL {e. 340), publiah^d in 1900 by Dr Hauler^
The preciae reladon in wlidcfa these documenta stand to one
another atill remains in a measure doubtfid, but it seems pro*
babfe that theyarc baaed upon a ioat Church Order, to whkb
the Canons of Hippoljrtus stands nfiaiest. Illbe Greek original
of the TetUmenlum would seem to date from the middle of
the 4th centuiy, not long after 35a This is the view of T.
Zahn and I>om Morin and also of Profs^ Cooper and Maclean.
It is possible that about 400 a later editor added a few
pangraphs.)
Such redactwn was mdeed inevitable tn the case of a work
which has had a living history as part of a codex of Church law.
It may be discerned ia the interpolations in the prayers; possibly
in the reference to the chief deacon, for elaewbere no single
deacon is distinguished hy nomo untO the ckise of the 4th
centuiy; in the reference to the Epiphany, vdiich b first heard
of dsewhera at the beginning of the 4U1 centuiy. The suggea-
tion has been hazarded that this revitiaa was due to the school
of ApoUinaris of Laodicea (died circ ajd, 390),
AcTBoamBS.— 4fn. Ephr. Rahmaai, Tukmtmtmm DomminoMri
Jesu ChmU (Mocuntiae, 1899); ^ Hauler. DOaualia* Aposto-
tontm FragotaUa Ueronensia Lalina (Lip^iac, 1900)*, A. Harnack
in Si/auntsberickt€ der K. Prems. Akad, der Wtssenukofteu, dix.
(Beriin. 1899): Bishop J. Wordsworth in CJIan:* Quarterly Rmow
Ctoodon« April 1900) : and XeMo inienuimiaU de tUoloou (Bern,
July 1900); R. B. tUckham io Jtidiom Chunk Qmtrterly Bmiew
cCakiitta. January and April 1901); F. X. Funk, Dot TeUamaa
its Herm und die tenoandten &krifteu (Mainx, I90i);-Tames
Cooper and A. J. Maclean, Tke Testament ^ Our LotA, an ERcfiah
translation, with introduction and notes (Edinburgh, 1902). C/. also
A. J. Madean. JCMenl Distaeoriet itluslrutiHC Birfy CkrisHan Life
md Worship (London, 1904)) (W. E. Ca>
TESTAMUB, LaUn for "we testify" or "certify" (tostart).
The name given in English univeisities to a certificate given to a
atmlent slgnifyfog that he has passed an examination, so csBed
ftom the word witb which the certificatebcgbiB.
(Fr. tttUrt, head-covering, fimm ituy, aiQrthing
pfaued horizontally over the head, as the tound-hoard of a pulpit,
the fiat boardsoveranold-fashioiiedbed, ftc.
TBtAJRit (from Or. nUu, I stretch, on aeoount of the
tensbn of the fibres of the affected muscles), or LocxTiiw, a
disease caused by the bacilli Tetaai (see Paxasitsc DisiasKs).
The home of these badlli is the earth, and so it comes about
that if a man is thrown off his bicyde and grates his ungloved
hand upon the load, or .running- without shoes cuts his foot,
there is a considerable chance of the badUi entering the wound
and giving him lock|aw. It is populaiiy thought that wounds
in the r^ion of the thumb anfe most often followed by the
disease, but this is not a fact Wounds about the thumb are of
oonamon occurrence, but they are not, in proportion, more often
thestarting point of tetanus.
Acute tsamnatic tetanus is very deadly, and up to tiie
present time notbmg has been discovered to check or guide
its ahnost certainly fatal couoe* It often picks out. the young
and vigorous as its victima— the athlete, for instance, who meeta
with some mishap in the field or on the road, the gardener who
pricks his hand, the swimmer who cuts his foot, the wounded
soldier on the field <^ battle. The violent muscular contractions
aito disticssingiy painful; and the brain semaining pctiactly
clear throughout, the unhappy individual feeb that the vice'
lOce gripping of his muscles is steadily exhausting him and
briagiog.him dowiu The spasms of tetanus differ from those
caused by the administration of strychnine in that the muscles
are all the time hard from rigid contraction, the acute spasmodic
attacks being superadded, as it were. In poisoning bystrycbniiit
the muscles are quite relaxed between the spasmodic attacks.
Tetanus may follow a mere prick or scratch or a severe
sufgkal operation. It not seldom complicates bums, gunshot
wounds and ik^juries caused by the untimely explosion of fire->
works. It may be met with in the woman in child-bed or in
the newly-bom infant. But wherever it oocun it is due ta
the one cause— to the receptio& into some wounded surface of
the specific germs.
in hot countries tetanus h more common and more aci^
than it b m temperate dimes, and a case has been recorded m
which a man in the West Indies cut his hand on a broken plate
at dhiner and was dead of tetanus before the day was out.
It b easy to see that the germs arc more likely to undergo
virulent culttvatiott m warm earth than in cold. It was
fdrmeriy the custom to speak of idiopathic teunus— that b to
S2(y, of the disease occurring without any wound having been
received. But modem teaching b to the effect that there
must have been some wound, however slight, by which the
germs found entrance. Rheumatic tetanus b as unreal a
disease as that just mentioned. The germs themselves do ftot
wander frbm the wound to multiply in the blood as in infecting
diseases, but remaining at the wound elaborate a terribly
poisonous substance (a toxin) which makes its way along the
nerve-trunks to the spinal cord. Even prompt amputation,
however, b likely to prove ineffectual as regards cure, lor the
germs hi the wound have in thb growth set free so virulent a
poison (toxin) that th? nerves of the voluntary musdes all over
the body are hopelessly under its influence.
^e first symptom of the disease b discomfort in the back
of the neck; the man waking up in the morning, for instance,
complains of " stiff neck ** and of obscure palnS) and wonden
if he has been lying in a draught, lien the musdes of the Jaw
and of the face become affected, there being a difficulty b
opening the mouth, and the comers of the mouth are dnwa
downwards and backwards, and fixed m that position {risu$
sardmicks). The jkw b so firmly set that it b hnpossible to
pass anythhig between the teeth. AH food, therefore, has to
be fluid, and being poured mto the pouch of the cheek, finds its
way into the mouth by the serviceable gap which exists behind
the wisdom-teeth. Soon, however, a difficulty hi swaUowIng
comes on because of the muscles of the throat being involved.
The muscles of the abdomen becoming contracted ate "
fixed, and on byhif the hand upon the front of tk»
<>7<*
TETRADYMITE— TETRAHBDRITE
they fed as " hard as a board." Tte mtisdcs of the Httibs vt
aho aUacked wich fearful cramps, and, last of aU, the muscles
of the chest are involved. Though all these muscles are in a
continuous state of contraction, spasniodic cantractkms^ as
already remarked, come on in addition, and occasionally with
sQch distressittg energy that the patient is doubled up forwards,
backwards^ or sidewa^, and, may be, some of the muscles tear
across. The patient is bathed in penpiraiioa, and sinks worn
out and exhausted, or, perchance, slowly suffocated by the
locking of the muscles of mpiration.
As regards the prospect of recovery in tetanus it m^ be
said that when the symptoms break out acutely within a week
of the reception of an injuiy the prospect of reooveiy is ex>
^remely remote. If they occur within ten days the prospects
are bad. But if there is an interval of three wedcs or a fortnight
before their occtirrence the case may be regarded more hope-
fully.
In the treatment of tetanus the first thins to do h to try to
make the wound by which infection hau taken fAact •uxiKicaUy
dean, for though a wound free from, the germs, of •uppuratioa
nay be the incubating place of the bacilli of tetanus, stdl in most
cases there b also an invasion of septic germs, and the double'
infection makes the action of the tetanic poison the more virulent.
If the local conditions are such that it is impoosible to cleanse the
woi^od, the free use of the knife or of the' cautery or of pure car-
bolic acid may be resorted to, or an amputation may be performed.
But even the early amputation of the mfected part may not avail
for the reason that the germs in the wound have already aet free
a lethal dose of their toxin.
^The wound having been cleansed the further treatment of the
disease demands absolute quiet in a darkened room. There must
be no sbmming of the door, shaking of the bed, or the sudden
bringing in of a light, for anv act such as this m^ht cause the
outbreak of a violent spasm. Morphia maj/ be given by the hypo-
dermic syringe, and if the spasms are causing great distress chloro-
form may be administered; mdeed, in certain severe cases it may
be necessary to keep the patient almost continuously under its
htfluencc. If there is difficulty in swallowing fluid, rectal feeding
must be resorted to. Though at present one is unable to spc&fc
enthusiastically or with oonndenoe about the antitoxin treatment
of lockjaw, still it Is a method which should certainly be given
trial— and that early. The tetano-antitoxin is prepared from the
blood of animals which have been rendered immune to repeated
injections of the poison elaborated by the cottivatioa of the tetanos
bacilli. The bacilli themselves are not injected, the injections being
rendered sterile. By passing the sterile inject bns ioto one of the
tower animals the blood of that animal prepares an antidote to
them known zi an antitoxin.
The antitoxin ma^r be injected into the nerve trunks or into
the sheath of the spinal con! or of the brain. But inasmuch as
the nerves and the nerve-cells are under the influence of the toxin
before the antitoxin is administered — as evidenced by the occur-
rence of the symptomsr— the injectioQ-treatment has but a poor
chanoe of producing a good effect. {K. O.*)
TEHUDTHltB; a mineral consisting of bismuth telluride
and sulphide, BiaTciS, also known as " telluric bismuth."
Sometimes sulphur is absent and .the formula is then BiiTca;
traces of sdeoium are usually present. Crystals are rhom-
bohedral, but ace rarely distinctly developed; they are twinned
together in groups of four; hence the name of the mineral,
from the Greek, rcrpo^u/ios, fourfold. There is a perfect
cleavage parallel to the basal plane, and the mineral usually
occurs in foliated masses of irregular outline. The colour is
Steel-grcy, and the lustre metallic and brilliant. The minesal
is very soft (H-i|) and marks paper; the specific gravity
is 7-a to 7-6. It was first found, in 18x5, at Telcmarken in
Norway; crystals are from Scbubkau near Schemnita in
Hungary. It often occurs in quartz associated wjth native
gold. Other species very similar to tctradymitc, but with
different formulae, are: joseiUf from San Jos£ near Marianna
in Braail; prUnlingiU (Bi^SaTe), from Caldbeck Fells in Cumber-
land; and wkrliU, from Hungary. (L. J. S.)
TBTRAQRAXMATON (rirropa, four; 7pd/x/iA, letter), a Greek
compound, found in Pbilo and Josephus, which designates the
-^ivine name composed of the four Hebrew letters J H V H
^*)« The derivation and pronunciation of the Tetra-
omaton is still doubtful The form "Jehovah" {q.v.)
I in some of the EngUsh Versions is an error which arose
in the i6th coHury. It is now geoeqally assumed that the wotd
is the causative form (Jnpk'iO end should be pronounced Yahv«h
or Yahweh (accent on second syllable). The Jews quite eady
ceased to pronounce the Tetragrammaton, substituting (as
the Books of Chronicles and the LXX translatk>n already
indicate) the word Lord {*Adonai)- The priesu oootinned to
use the name in the Benediction of the People (Numbers vi
as-ty), and on the Day of ALonement the High Pkiest pro-
nounced it (Leviticuft avi. 30) amidat the prsatratiens of the
assembled multitude. It is iccorded in the Talmud thai Rabfaia
communicated the true pronundaiioB to their disciples eooe
in seven ycsn {QidduskiHt 71a). The Jews called the Tetia-
gEammalon by a Hebtew denoiBinatk>n» Skem Hawmtpkmvk
{9imn of), U. the diatinctive enciUeni name, it was con*
sidered an act of Uaspliemy for a layman to pronounce the
Tetragrsmmaton. This avoidance of the original aaBse was
due on the one hand to reverence and on the other to fear lest
the name be desecrated by healhans. Partly in coosequence
of this mystery and partly in nccofd with widespiead super-
stitwns, the Tetragrammaton (igurea in magical formulae from
the time o( the Gnostics, and on amulets. Many a medieval
misade^worker was >sup|iaoed t0 derive his oonpetence from
his knowledge of the secret of the Name.
TBTHikHEDEITBk s mineral consisting typically of copper
auIph-sndmonite» CuaSbSi, but often of complex compos lion.
The copper is usus^y isomotpboualy rcpUKcd by wazlable
amdunU of silver, iron, sine; raeicuiy, lead or cobalt, and the
antimony by arsenic or bismtith. In genenl, the formula is
R'.XA+«R'.X,S^ where R'-Cu, Ag; X«Sb. As, Bi;
R' •■ Fe, Zn, and x is a small fraction, often ^ or i. Numerous
special names have been applied to varieties differing m chemical
oompositmn; the anenic compound, CtuAsSs, is known a^
tcnnantite (after Smiihaon Tennant). The oki German name
FakUn includes both tetrabedrite and tennantite, snd so docs
the term *'grey copper ore" of miners. Tctrahcdrite is an
iniportant ore of 43}ppet, the formula CujSbSs, corresponding jirith
57* S P^ cent, of this metal; it is also largely worked as an ore
of silver, of which ^cment it sometimes contains as mich as
30 per cent. WeU-devebped crystals are of frequent occur*
rence; they belong to the tetrahednd dass of the cubic system,
and their tetrahedral form Ssa. very characteristic feature of the
okiikeral, which lor this reason was named tetrabedrite. Fig. 1
Fig. I.
Fig. e.
Crystals of Tetrabedrite.
shows s combination of a tetrahedron and a triakis-tetrahedron
Isii), knd fig. t a tetrahedron with the rhombic dodecahedron.
Interpenetrating twinned crystals sometimes occur. The
ceiour Is steel-grey to iron-black, and the lustre metallic and
brilliant. The streak is usually black; sometimes, however,
it is dark cherry-red, and very thin splintera of the mineral
then transmit a small amount df blood-red light. The hardness
is 4}, and the specific gravity varies with the composition from
4-4 to 5*2. There is no cleavage, and the fracture is ConcfaoidaL
The material is often very impure owing to intimate bter*
mixture with chalcopyrite.
Tetrahedrite occurs In metalliferous veins associated with chal-
copyHtc, pyrites, blende, galena, Ac. Fine groupa of cnrttals,
coated on their surface with brassy or brilliantly tamishod chal-
copyrite, were formerly found at Herodsfdot mine, near Lidceard
in ComwalL Good cn^scab are also met with at Kapnik>Banya
in Hungary, in the HarZ| Peru, and other places. Tennantite
occurs as small crystals oi cubic or dodecahedral habit in many
TETRAHKDRON—TErreCHEN
671
ComMi cofVerniaM. taptd^ in iJw iwichboufbocKl of Redratk;
' ipd as snull, brilliant ciyscab veiy rich ia (aces fa tBe
lltne dolomite of the Btnnenthal in the Val^U, Switxer-
I UQfder the oane binnite was long contidefed as a distinct
(L.J.&)
^omw c o f f er I
it is also found i
white crystalline
land, and under
TBrBAflSDRON (Cr. rkr/m-f f9tv, 1^ face or bate)* io
geomatry, a aolid. bonndcd by fair UtaiignUr tixcL, It coaae*
qiiefltiy baa four vertices aod six edges. If the faces be all
cqval eqiiilaleral triangles the solid is termed the " regular "
tctxahednm. This is oae of the Platonic aoUdo^ and is treated
in the arlick PoLyjuoKON, as is also the derived AnrhioedcaA
aoiid named the " tntocaied tetnhedron "; in additieup the
tegular tetrahedron has impottani ciyata]logDM>hic icIatioDS,
being the hefliibedral form of the regular octahedvon and conse*
qoentlj a form of the cubic sjoieoK The hisphenoida (the
faemihedral forms of the tetngonal and rhombic b2pyr»mids)i
and the trigonal pyramid of the hexagonal system, 4re examples
of non-cegular tctrahedca (see C&YSrALLociAFBY). Tetm*
hedral OKordinates " are a aystem of qaadripknnr co-ordinates,
the fundamental planes being the iaces of a tetrahedron, and
the a>-ocdinatcs the perpendicular distance^ of the point from
the faees, a positive sign being given if the point be between
the lace and the opposite vertejr, and a negstive sign if noL
II <«, f , k, /) be the coordinates of any point, then the relation
»+*-Hr4-/«"R, where R » 4 constant, invariably holds. This
system is of much service io following out msthcmatical,
physical and chemical problems in which it is neccttaiy to
lepcesent fbor vaciabiea.
Related to the tetrahedron are 'two spheres which have
Kceivcd much attention. • The *' twelve-point spheie," dis-
covered by P. M. E. Proohet (1817-1867) in iS6j, is somewhat
snslogous to the nineiwint circle of a triangle. If the per*
pendiculars from the vertices to the opposite faces of a
ictraheckon be concurrent, then a sphere passes through the
four feet of the perpendiculars, and consequent^ througli
the centre of gravity of each of the four faces, and through the
raid-points of the segments of the perpendiculars between the
vertices and their common point of intenection. This theorem
has been generalixed for ai^ tetrahedron; a sphere can be
drawn through the (our feet of the perpendiculars, and conse-
quently through the mid-points of the lines from the vertices
to the centre of the hyperboloid having these perpendiculars
as generators, and through the orthogonal projections of these
p oints o n the opposite faces.
nTRARCH iT€TfApXTn),'ihe rakr of a tetnuchy, that is,
in the original sense of the word, of one quarter of a region.
Such were the tetiarchies of Thcssaly as reconstructed by
Philip of Macedoo and of Galatia before its conquest by the
Romans (169 b.c.)> In later times the title of tetrarch is familiar
from the New Testament as borne by certain princes of the
petty dynasties which the Romans allowed to excrdse a de-
pendent sovereignty within the province of Syria. In this
application it has lost its original precise sense, and means only
the ruler of part of a divided kingdom, or of a district too un-
important to justify a higher title. After the death of Herod
the Great (4 B.C.) his realm was shared among his three sons:
the chief part, including Judaea, Samaria and Idumaea, fell
to Archelaus (Matt. iL 32), with the title of ethnarch (Josephus,
Amtiq.f xviL 11. 4); PhiCp received the north-east of the realm
and was called tetrarch; and Galilee was given to Herod
Anlipas, who bore the same title (Luke liL x). These three
sovereignties were rconited under Herod Agrippa from a.d. 41
to 44. In the same passage of Luke mention is made of Ly-
sanias, tetrarch of Abilene near Damascus, in the valley of the
B arada.
TBTRASTO0K {Gt. rfrpa-, four, and tfrod, s portico), the
term In srchltecture given to a rectangular court round which
eo alt lour ades is carried a covered portico or coJooaade; the
aa mcas peristyle (9.9.).
tBTRASTYLB (Gr. r^rpa-, four, and ^rvXef, a column), the
term in architecture given to a portico of four columns which
focsM tka main fioat of a temple <«•*.).
id oiipoic cfacniftiy, a gBNp of cooqioiuids
aag system
CN-N . CNN CN-C
C-H'U. N-N-C,* N.NN;
only darivathrcs of the first two types «Q« known. Tbe menb>
bers of the fint aeilcs may be pcepaied by oxidixiog osaaonaa
(t.«. dlliydiuones ol o-diketonea), dihydroietraxuies resulting.
Dlliydio-dcnvatives of tbe second type are formed fromhydnaiae
and imSoo-ethecB (A. Pinner, Bcr^ 1893, a6, p. 4is6; 1894,
^7> P> 984); tiwaa easily oxidlae to the eoRespondtng tetnaine^
which are stable towards adds; their dihydMMlerivalive%
however, arte decomposed, the gioiip^NH*NH'--being eUmi-
nated as hydrazine and replaced by oxygen, with consequent
formation of the five membered ozybiaxole ring. Concentrated
acids convert the dihydro-tetraaioes into isodihydxotetrazines»
thns^—
r<:-nh.nh . rc-nh-n
Sn .•Cr'^ K-nhCr.
the N-alkyI derivatives of which type may be prep^re<] by the
action of alcoholic potash and cUorofbrm on aromatft hydra-
zincs.
Much discuauon has circulated about the decompo^tion of
dtazo-acetic ester, from which A. Hantzsch and O. Silbernid (Birr.,
1900. 33> P; 58) obtiiined what they considiered t9 be a dihydn>
•HC'NH*N
CH-COkR V HOkC-CH-NcN
^
N:N -en-CGbH
ii«NH>e:H.
C BOiow {B«r„ 190& 39« pp. a6i8, 4106), bowtMr, showed this
substance to be an N-anuootriazole, whtch necessitates the first
decomposition product being an acid (I.).theconverMonintotbe
(I.) HQiCCNHNH . .„ . HO^C— NNH, '
NN: CCOiH "* "*•' NN.ecaH
triazole derivative (11.) being due to the ring opening on tbe addition
of the elements of water andthen closing again to the five-membered
ring with elimination of water again. The decompositwos of diaao*
aoetic ester weiw then again eaamlncd by T. Curtios and his studems
(fl«r.. 1907. 40^ pp. 263, 350. M. ftc), who showed that both triazole
and tetiazine derivatives could be obtained from the bisdiazo-acetic
acid which is formed by the action of alkali on diazo-aeetic eater.
TBTSAZOliBS* in organic chenaistiy, a groi4>of Jieterocyclic
oottpouada, capable of existing In two isomeric series (fonmUae
I aad 2)t although tbe methods of prqiantion do not always
permit discrimination between the possible isomers. They are
piepafed by the action of nitious acid on cya«amidcazone
(dicyanophenylhydraaine) and hydrolyas of the . resulting
nitrfle, from which J. A. Bladin by elimination of the phenyl
group <by nitration, leductton, &€.) and of carbon dioxide ob-
tained free tetrasole, CH«Nt; ffom amidiiies by the action of
nitrous add, foUowcd by the reduction of the intermediately
formed dioxjrtetraaotic acids with sodium amalgam; from
amidognanidiae by diaaotisatmn, the diazooium nitrate qa
treatasent with acetates or carbonates yielding aminotetrazolf
(J. Thiele, Ann,, 1893, 270, p. i); from tjie action of nitrous
add on phenylt ii ioa e saica r baaide; and by the action of aryl-
azofmMea on aldehyde hydrazooes (O. Dimroth» iler., ^907, 40,
p. S40>). The tetrasoles behave as strong monobasic acids,
and are exceedingly stable. A series ol tetraaolhmi bases
(formula 3) have been obtained by H. V. Pechmann {Ber.,
t894t >7t P* tO^o) starting from fontoaiyl compounds (formula 4),
whidi are oxidised by means of an^l nitrite and hydrochloric
acid. They are strong bases, which in aqueous solution absorb
carbon dioxide leadily. The free bases have not been isolated»
but their saks are weU-aystalliaed solids.
u„/N:N v/N-NH -,^/NCH run— N:CH
"^\NsCH*"\N:(iH ^\N:!;i RNd4
(I) . (2) (3) . (4).
TBTttBSll» a town of Bohemia, Austria, 83 m. N.N.E. of
Prague by raiL Pop (1900) 9693, exclusively German. It is
situated at the confluence of the Polxen with the Elbe, on tbe
sigkt ba«k of the latter river opposite fiodeabach («,*.), witk
672
TETUAN—TKUFFEL
which it IS connected by a cbthi bridge (1855) snd twd railway
bridges. The handsome ch&tcau of the cotimts of Thvn (built
in 1667-73 and restdred in i788),which occupies a rocky height
above the town, was at one time fortified, and was a place of
lome importance during the Seven Yean* War. It contains
a magnificent library, wftb many valuable MSS. and fine collec-
tions of coma and armour. In addition to being the pdncipai
emporium for the Austrian traffic on the Elbe, Tetschcn has a
considerable industry, its products comprising chemicals, oil,
soap, cotton stuffs, plaster of Paris, glaaed and coloured i>aper,
cellulose, beer, flour and preserved fish.
The town of Tetschen originally lay on the south side of the
castle rock, but after its destruction by a 0ood, it was moved in
io$9 to its present ate. In 130^ it came into the bands of the
knights of Wartenberg, who held it for two hundred >'ears. In
1534 the Saxon lords of BQnau obtained it and introduced the
Protestant relision, which was exterminated when, after the battle
of the White Hill (1620) the BQnau family was driven out. The
brdship was bought from them in 1628 by the Freiherr von Thun,
by whose descendants, the Counts Thun, It b still held.
TBTUAN (TetxAwan), the only open port of Morocco on the
Mediterranean, a few miles S. of the Strait of Gibraltar, and
about 40 m. E.S.E. of Tangier. Pqpulation about 25,000, of
whom a fifth are Jews. It is picturesquely situated on the
northern slope aof a fertile valley down which flows the W.
Martil, with the harbour of Tctuan, Martil, at its mouth. Behind
rise rugged masses of rock, the southern wall of the Anjera
country, practically closed to Europeans, and across the valley
are the hills which form the northern limit of the still more
impenetrable Rif. In point of cleanliness Tetuan compares
favourably with most Moorish towns. The streets are fairly
wide and straight, and several of the houses belonging to
aristocratic Moors, descendants of those expelled from Spain,
have fine courts surrounded by arcades, some with marble
fountains and planted with orange trees. Within the houses
the ceilings are often exquisitely carved and painted in
Mauresque designs, such as are found in the Alhambra, and the
tile-work lor which Tetuan is known may be seen on floors,
pillars and dado& The principal industries are tilework,
inlaying with silver wire, and the manufacture of thick-soled
yellow slippers, much-esteemed flintlocks, and artistic **^ towels *'
used as cape and skirt by Moorish country girls. The Jews live
in a mellah, separated from the rest of the town by gates which
are closed at night. The harbour of Tetuan u obstructed by a
bar, over which only small vessels can pass, and the roadstead,,
sheltered to the N., N.W. and S.) is exposed to the E., and is at
times unsafe in consequence of the strong Levanter.
The present town of Tetuan dates from 1493, when the
Andalttsfan Moors first reared the walls and then filled the
enclosure with houses. It had a reputation for piracy at
various times in its history. It was taken on the 4th of
February 18O0 by the Spaniards under O'DonncU, and almost
transforined by them into a European city before its evacuation
on the^snd of May 1862, but so hateful wer^ the changes to the
Moors that they completely destroyed all vestiges of alteraifos
a nd reduc ed the city to its former state. (K. A. M.*>
TEIZBL, JOHANN (c. 1460-1519), preacher and salesman
of papal' indulgences, the son of Hans Tetad, a gpoldsraith of
Leipxig, was bom there about 1460. He matriculated at the
university in 1482, graduated B.A. in 1487, and in 1489 entered
the Dominican convent at Leipzig. He eariy discovered his
vocatfon as a preacher of indulgences; lie combined the elocu-
tionary gifts of a revivalist orator with the shrewdness of
an auctioneer. He painted in lurid colours the terrors of pur*
gatory, while he dwelt on the chcapnestt of the indulgence Which
would purchase remission and his prices were lowered as each
sale approached its end. He began in 1502 in the service of
the Cardinal-legate Raymond Peraudi; and in the next few
years he visited Freiberg (where he extracted 2000 gulden in
two dftv«^- Dresden, Pima, Lc^g, Zwickau and- G^rUts.
' Nuremberg, Ulm and Innsbruck, where he
'ohtfetnned to imprisonment for adultery,
:eitessioa of the elector of Sazoay* lUt
charge b denied by hift apologists; and thongl) Us method s
were attacked by good Catholics like Johann Hass. he was
elected prior of the Dominicans in Glogau in 1505.
Fresh scope was given to his activity in 1517 by archbiabop
Albrecht of Mainz. Albrecht had been elected at the age of
twentyofour to a. see already impoverished by freqfeent suc-
cessions and payments of ammtes to Rome. He had aficed
witik Pope Leo X. to pay his fixst-fruits in cash, on omditioB
that he were allowed to recoup himself by the sale of indvlgciiceai.
Half the proceeds in his province wcie to go to him, haH to
Leo X. for building the basilica of St Peter's at Rome. Tetad
was selected as the most efiicient salesman; bt was appointed
general sub-oommissioner for indulgences, and was acG6mpBiiicd
by a derk of the Fuggera from whom Albrecht had bmiow ad
the osoney to pay his first-fruits. Teisd's effoets inctnevvbly
damaged the complicated and abstruse CatboUc doctrine on the
subject of indulgoices; as soon as the coin cUnks in the cheat,
he cried, the soul b freed from puigatory. In June he was at
Magdeburg, Halle and Naumburg; the eleotor of Sazony
exduded him from his dominions, btit Albrecht'a brother, the
elector Joachim of Brandenburg, encouraged him «C Berib
in the hope of sharing the spoib, and by the connivance of
Duke George of Saxony he was permitted to pursue his open-
tions within i few miles of the doctoral territory at Wiitenbcig.
Luther was thus roused to pablish his momentous oiBety-fivc
theses on the subject of indulgences on October 31, 1517 (see
Luibek).
Even Albrecht was shamed by Luther's attack, but he cooM
not afford to idinquish his profits already pledged for the re-
payment of his debts; and Tetad w«s encouraged to defend
himself and indulgences. Throng the influence of Conrad
WImpina, rector of Frankfort, Tetad was created D.D. of that
university, and with Wimpina's assistaiite he drew up, in
January 1518, a hundred and tbt theses in answer to Luther's^
But the storm overwhebned him: sober Catholics fdt that his
vulgar extravagances had prejudiced Catholic doctrine, and
Miltitz, who was sent from Rome to deal with the situation,
administered to him a severe castigation. He hid himself in
the Dominican convent at Leipzig in fear of fxipniar violence,
and died there on the 4th of July 1519, just iS Luther was
beginning his famous <&putatiott inih B/dk.
Many lives of Tetzel have been published on the Protestant and
on the Catholic side, the most recent being K6nier*8 (1880), K. W.
Hermann's (2nd ed, 1883). and N. Paulus* (1899). See abo AUtt'
vuine Deutsche Bioffapkki Geas's Akten und Brief e ear XtreAm*
poliUk HenotCeorgs von Sachsettt vol. i. (i90<). Intfod. pp. 76-8, Ac;
*~ Andreas BodensUin von Carhtaat (2 vols. 1 — ^- " *-
sseA's Bist, of the (Jerman People , and An meine
~ ' ' Bin. r ' ' ..... ^ .
m£-}i:
H. Baree 5
ssert's His _
Cfet^oR's Hist, of the Papacy^ vol. vi.; and H. C. Lea's HisL of
Autmiar CbiAssion- and JndtUtf^ees (j vols.. 1896). All the btfe'
tones of the Reformation in Germany and all the lives of Luther
deal at greater or shorter Icnsth with Tetzel; in the index to
vol. n. or the Cambridge tMod. Ui^ory he is confused whh a later
Tetzel of Nunembetg. . (A. F. P.)
TEUFFEU WltHBLM SIEGmmD (1820-1878), German
classical scholar, was bom at Ludwigsburg in the kingdom of
WOrttcmberg on the 37th of September 1820. In 1849 he was
appointed extraordinary, in 1857 ordinary professor in the
university of Tubingen, which post he held till his death 00
the 8tli of March 1878. His most important work was his
Cefckkkic derrdpuschen LiUeraiur (1870; 5th ed. by L. Schwabe,
1890; £ng. tr. by G. C. Warr, 1900). which, although written
in an unattractive style, is indispensable to the student, the
bibliographical information being especially valuable. After
the death of A. Pauly. the editor of the well-known Keal-
Encydopsdie der dassiscken AlUrluMswissenschafti Teulfel. at
fint kssisied by E. C. Wabs, undertook the comfdetion of the
work, to which he also contributed nymerous articles.
. He was also the author, of ** Prolegomena cur Chronokgle dea
horazischen Gedichte " (in Zeitseknjt fur die AiUrtummriuen'
uhaft^ 1842): Charahttrisiik des Horat (Leipzig, 1842); Hows,
eine JitUrar-htstorische Ubcrsicht (TQbingen, 181A), and of editions
of the Cionds of Aristophanei (1856) and the Persae of Aeschylos
(1866). His Studien und Cktrakttns&fmn (1871: Md edi, 1889)
TEUTOBURC^R WALD-^^TBUTONIC LANGUAGES 673
valuable c
the histoo ^ Gieek amd )(9inaa
merature. .Sec' 5. T&iS^,lViikdm TaM^U^iqj; C. Buniaa ii
Bimpkisehes Jahrbuch (1878); F. KoMewex m AUf/mein
TEDTOBURGBB WALD, a mounUSn range of Gemumy,
stretching N.W. to SJE., along the borders of the Prussian
{uovinces of Hanover and Westphalia and through the pdnd-
l»ftUty of Uppe, for a distance of 70 m.,irith a width of a to6 m.
It consists of a well-marked main chaia^ aooompanied in its
ctnOal part by subsidiary ridges. It slopes up grsdually to-
wards the £., where it culminates in the V^Umerstod (1536 ft.).
The greater pact of the range is densely wooded. Tke main
chain is pierced by several deep gapft or ** doon^" thmugh some
of which Important railways have been carried; e.^, the fine
connecting Paderbom and Hanover, and 4hat connecting
Hcrford and HaHioL The chief gpotogfccal formations belong
to the Cretaceous system, backed towuds the north and east by
Jurassic and Ttiassk formations. The Teutoburger Wald was the
scene of a famous battle in which Arminius at the head of the
Cfacnisd destroyed three RJNnan legiois under QuintUios Varus
(A.D. 9). Mommsen has locaited the battle near the source of
the Hunte, aottb of OsnabrOck, and outside tke rangs of hiUs;
but most scholars prefet some site in the eeatial pan of the
mountain-chahL In accordance with these Utter views the
Giotcnburg (r«63 ft.), s| m. S.W. from Detmold, has been
csowned with a gigaatie monmnent to Armiahia Henoana,
erected hi t85S-4i and i87t*-75f iit a oust of it5,$00L The wock,
which was designed by £. von Bandel, consists of a gigantic
statue of the chieftAin, s^i ft«-hlgfa, standing on an arched
pediment 08 ft. high.
See H. Thorbecke, FAur duitk den Temtobmrger Wdd (rsth ed..
Detmold. 1905): Wiltach, Der Kamff um dot ScUaeMeld rni
TeMtobuTier Waide {Nem JahrbOcher ftr das hlauische Atterhm,
M ay 190 9).
TBOTOHI, or Tetttonzs, a tribe of northern Europe, ^bo
became known to the Komami in the year 103 ix^, when, accord-
ing to the Epitome of Livy, together with the AmbroncS they
reinforced the Cimbri (g.v.) after their repulse from Spain by
the CeltiberL In loa the Teuton! and Ambrones were totally
defeated by Marius at Aquae Sextiae (see Mauus, Gaivs).
The racial affinities of the Teutoni have formed a matter of
dispute amongst historians. Their name is Celtic in form, and
Biany writers suppose that the Teutoni were really a Cdtic
tribe, a branch of the Helvetii. But a people of this name seems
to have been mentk>ned by the early traveller Pytheas as ia«
habiting the coasts of the northen ocean In his time. Strabo
mad Velldns, moreover, classify them as Germanl, and tUs is
perhaps the more probable view, although apparently the dis-
tlaction between Cdt and Tmna was not dearly fealised by
some of the earlier historians. If the Teutoni- really cane from
the saaie quarter as the Cimbri» it is posslblo that their name
may have been preserved in that of the district called until
recently Thyland or Thjrthsyssel in the extreme north-west of
Jotlaod.
For authorities tee CiMBtl: also PUay, xsrvii. 35.
. (F.G.M.B.)
TBUTONIO (Ol&llAKIC) L4N0UA0ES,> a comprehensive
term for a number of languages most of which ate still spoken
at the present time,, namely English, Frisian, Dutch, Flemish,
German (both High and Low) and the various Scandinavian
hngoages (Swedbh, Danish, Icelandtc and the Norwegian dia-.
lects). The course of time has tended very largely to obscure
the affinities between these haguages, and in semal cases they
have been mutuaOy unintelligible for many centuries. In their
caxliest known forms, however, they betray the most unmistak-
able traces of a common origin. To the languages ennmeiated
above we have to add the now extinct Gotfai^ which In the
5th and 6th centuries was spoken over a large part of Europe.
Detailed accounts of the various Teutonic languages wiU be
found in articles under the respective headings. Here it is
*Tfie follDwfng abbrevistfons siv nsedr Aj&«* Anglo-Saxon;
O.H.G.-Otd High Orman: O.N. -Old None; f.-Eur.- Indo-
Europ ean. The symbol ** :*' denotes relationship between two
forme or sets of lomiSi
ponlble only to give g bikf summary of the chief chartcteristia
of .these languages as a group, and of the chief divergences
noticeable in early times between the various members of the
group. It should be noted at the outset that the written records
of the vatfMis hmguages date from very different periods.
Gothic is known to us almost entirely from Ulfilas' translation
of the Bible, which dates from the 4th century. Englkh written
literature starts with the beginning of the 7th century, thoi^
eaiileraiattcr nay be ptverved in certain poems, lie earliest
Imown German and Dutch documents date from the 8th and
9th ceotuxiea respectively, while Frisian is practically unknown
before the 13th century. Scandinavian written literature seems
to have begun in the i sth century, but mai^ poems ate probably
from two to three centuries older. In the North there are also
a Ikrge number of inscriptions which are of great value for
linguistic purposes. Most of them cannot he dated with cer-
tainty, but the forms of hmguage which they present show all
stages of development, from the type found in literaiy times
back to one which is somewhat more archaic even than Gothic
It is probable that the earliest of them date from between the
3rd and 5th. centuries. The inscriptions found in Englaad and
Germany are much fewer and less archaic. In the latter case,
however, a good deal of linguistic evidence is available from the
proper names and other Teutonic words which occur in early
Latin and Greek, writinga. Much assistance may also be ob-
tained from the ioan-words borrowed by Teutonic langusges
from latin and by other languages, especially Finnish and
Slavonic, from Teutonic
The Teutonic languages form a distinct and well-defined
group of the Indo-European family. Their nearest affinitiea
are on the one side with the Celtic and Italic (Latin, &c.) lan-
guages, and oa the other with the Slavonic and Baltic bnguagea.
In regard to the fundamental distinction, however, 1^ which
the Indo-European hmguages as a whole fall into two main
divisions^ namely according to the .treatment of cvtain guttursl
and palatal consonants^ the Teutonic group belong d^uiitely,
together with Celtic, Italic and Greek, to the western of these
divisions.
The chief characteristic of the Teutonic languages as a whole
lies in their treatment of the Indo-European explosive sounds.
TUs characteristic, generally known as Griaim's Law, is due to
sound-changes peculiar to Teutonic, though aomewlsit sftttUr
changes may be traced both in Armenian and Celtic The
most noteworthy phenomena are as follows: —
(1) The lodo-Eurepean voiced aspintes, hh,dk, gk (Lat. /. /. A;
Gk. ^ f , x) became voiced spirants, b, d, 3. After nasals tnett
spirants became CKpkMives (6, d, f): and in the lirtt two cases
the same cbaage look place initiaUy, though ha^Uy during the
eariy centuries of our era, «.f. A.S. btnan^ O.N. bira : Lat. len,
Gk. ^^: A.S. sUtfln : Ok. rrclx»: OJ«f. miibr (A.S. mtiu) :
Gk. !»»».
(>) Tbel.-Eur. vel cel e a s exploaives, p. I, k, were preserved only
' " snups pi and U)i «.^ A.S. jM,
after 1 (I also In the l.-Eur.
Goth, stapt: Gk. 0rb0ui
nahisi Lat. n^ckm.
,- , Inad
other cases they became voiceless spirants. /, p, x. (*). These new
sounds remained (i.) initially, c.f . A.S. *ioa«r, O.N. kmt: Lat. gnodi
A.S. faeiir, O.N. fatv : Ut. potfr; (ii.) in combinatfoo with other
voiodsa sounds, eg. Goth, saiks, O.H.G. sHu: Lac ssx; Goth.
M^: Lat. mcSmi; Gii-} immediately after the (original) accent,
ej. Goth.^ brcpar. AJS, bn^w : Lat. fraltr, Gk. ipirv; Goth.
taihim^ O.H.G. uham: Lat. decern. Gk. Mr«. In all other cases
they became voiced spirants (** Vemer's Law")i identkal with
those aristns frsm L-Eur. hk, dk^ fk (see above); e^, A.S. foidtri
Lat. pttf, Gk. wtr^\ A.S. «w«fw, O.H.G. jwigo/ (mother-in-law) 7
Gk.icM4.
(3) The L-Eor. vofeed funaspiiated) explosives, ^, d, g, became
voiceless, p, i, Ih «.(. AA. sSse : Lat. eden; AJS, «e»r. Goth.
akni ULamir,Clu^
Among other *
foUowin?>>-
(4) 3w aridng from L-Eur. gkv or ^^(see above) was reduced
(eSDDept after nasals) before u (perhaps also. before I.-Eur. •)
to 5. and hi all other cases to w; cf. A.& |«e (war), OJI.G.
' Gk. '^•m (cf. 4*^)1 A.& sniioa (sttows): Lat. imift.
: coosooantal chaqgee we may note especially the
foed
Gk.1
(5) The I.-Eur. cons, group ariung from combination of dental
sound. 4f became ss, as m Celtic and Latin, e.g. A.S. ses$ (seat):
Httsa, Lat. jMtov (cL Sanscr. pp. tatms, Lat. pbsiuu/^
.'67+
TKUTX)NIC LANGUAGES
(CO The tnatment ot L-Eur. s was precisdy parallel to that of
the voicdew apirants/. p, xanaiog from I.-Eur. p» /. * (aec above).
It was preserved (i) imtiaUy, (iij in combination with voiceless
■ounds, (iii) immediately after the (original) accent. In all other
tam» it became voiced (s). This voiced apirant aubeequently
became r in all Teutonic languages except Gothic, where however
the distinction betweea voiced and voiceless ^irants is not well
preserved; e.g. k.S, uosan, pp. coren {xiu50'giulno):Q\i. tiinnak
(cf. Lat. gHsi%5)\ A.S. snoru^ O.H.G. snura (daughter-in-law):
SenacMeiiii, Ok. «^.
McMt ^ the other cofleooaatal chaqgee are in the natuce oc
a8umllation«
(7) hn, fin, in before the accent became pp^ U, kk (probaUy
through the intermediate stage bb, dd, u) '• ^i- A.S. licdaHt O.H.G.
Irnko* (ftom itjmt-): Gk. X*xi«6m (cf. Goth. bi4aipm).
(fi) In became ^AS.f. AS^IuU, Goth./W/«: Lith. PUnas,
(o) nio became nn; €.£, AS. pynne, O.S.puimr; Lat. teniae.
(10) dl became U; e.g. A.S. st{e)aU, O.N. sUdlr: Lat. stabtdttm
(from 5liuiMMn)4
(ii) In aome combinations consonants are lost or new oon-
eonanu developed: e.g. Goth, snma (truth): Uit. profewUw
l-ta^d)', OJiX^ hunno (centurion) uom kundn^, cf. Goth, kttnd:
I>t. centumx A.S. stream^ O.N. straumr from sroum^t cf. Gk. ^|m.
Old Irish sntaim. .
The following changes are found in all Tbutonic langvages, but
took place apparently later than these enumerated .above: —
(i) n was lost before x (^)i with compensatory lengthening of the
vowel: §.g. A.S. pOkte, Goth, pihta beside A.S. penc^n, Goth.
potkkiH^
Oi) Final explosives and nasals were lost; e.g. AS. snZs, Goth.
wiUi Lat. ueUl; AS. is, Goth. oMpo: Lat. esaiem; Goth. JhoUi:
Lat. g^st9m.
In its vowel-system the earliest known form 6i Teutonic did
not differ greatly from the other I.-Eur. languages. Ita chief
peculiarities seem to have been as follows:—
(t) It had one vowel (a) corresponding to the two vowda o, o
found- in the other I.-Eur. languages; e.g. Goth. akrSt 0,N. akr:
Lat. ager, Gk. dypis; Goth. oMav, O.H.G. akto: Lat. octo. Ok.
«cr6.
(3) It had also one vowel (jBi) c o rresponding to the two vowds
i, i, found in the other I.-Eur« lanraages. r.g. A.S. brSter, Goth.
^9 ^: Lat. foOkr, Gk. 4p4np', AS, rSw (rest), OJi.Gb
Gk. IpwCfH.
The other I.-Eur. vowels. I, I, tt, wefe preserved in the earliest
Teutonic. .Soon after the beginning of our era, however, c began
to cksoKe to • before a naaal folloired by 'a consonant, «.£. Ftol.
«<r»o4 ^S. Finnas, O.N. Finnar) arainst Tac Fennu The
diphthoi^ ei became 1; e.g. AS., O.H.G. <fi|ai», O.N. J^fga: (Jk.
vrcfxw (tne et of Goth, steigan i» merely graphic).
The rednced naaal sounds generally written ^ m* arising from
«9, lit, sm, far* &a, in unaccented syllablea, became an, mm (laiety
IM, him), #.f . A.Sh Goth., &c Kii- (negative prefix) : Lat. ti*-, Gk.
A>, Av-; A.S.. Goth. A«mf: Lat. centum, Gk. ^ar^. Similarly
the reduce4 liquid sounds f, / became «r, iiJ (rardy ru, /«); e.g. A.S.
fwrki Lat. forca; Goth. ^hAui: Lat. Mir, Gk. rtrXMrw
iUcefi/.'-In the L-Eur. languages the position of the accent
was originally free — i.e., any syllable in tbe word oould bear the
chief accent—variation occurring very frequently, e.g. between
different cases of the same noun. This freedom of position
must have been retained in Teutonic at the time when voiceless
spirants (/, /, x, i) hecame voiced (see above). Eventually,
however, as in Gaelic (Irish) and at one time also in the Italic
languages, the first pliable of every word came to bear the
chieir accent, the only noteworthy exceptions being certain
compound words, more especially verba compounded with
prepositions, whidi were probably long regarded as more or
less independent words. This system of accentuation was inti-
mately connected with the principle of alliteration, the essen-
tial characteristic of early Teutonic poetry and the dominant
factor in family nomenclature. Alliteration in famfly names
certainly dates from the very beginning of the Christian era,
e.g. the S-names in one of the princely families of the Cher-
tttd frequently mentioned by Tadtus, and there is also some
evidence that Teutonic poetry was alliterative l»y this time.
U is probabfe, therefore, that the diange in the system of accen-.
tnstion took, place not later than the ist century B.C.
Ihe description of the phonetic characteristics given above
igiUeB in general to the Teutonic group of languages as a whole:
^^ as one can judge from the proper names, kc, whfch occur
^UtUi wocks, tlie description would probably be true for the
^ • lit* liMiwnmir of the fl'ri^iin era. Dialectical
"adsled, bitt few o£ them weie so
deviy mmrkjcd that they can bow be traced with ahyth&ig TSkit
certainty; The language of the eariiest Runic infrnptjong
does not differ very markedly ,from this type. The prindpal
changes which we can now detect are as f(^ws^—
(i) e became «. 0) in the unaccented syilable of dissyllabic and in
the least accented syllables of polysyllabic words; e.g. Aoktru
(inscr,), O.N. doetr: Gk. ^vyartpts; (ii) in accented syllables
when the following syllable contained i, j, or w; Af. A.S. i0fti(<O,
O.N. mtOf : Lat. medius.
(2) « became e when the following syllable mntainwd «, i, 9:
e.g. A.S., O.H.G. wer. O.N. ven (stem wera-): Lat. str.
(3) u became o when the following syllable contained a, I. &
e.g. (i sing, pret.) wsraAl0 (inscr.). AS. wor{9)kU, aH.G. wor{fl)kla:
AS, wyrvmm, O.H.G. wunken,
(4) i became A always; e.g. •mdrts (ii
(5) final o, e, were lost; e.g^ (i, 3 sio;
XlXoir-a, •«.
(6) final long vowds were (hi generd) shortwwd (^^ 9
hudu (inscr.)w N. sing. fem. <cf. Gk. ix»p40.
(7) final oaaals and e»tosives were kiat;
pret. (cf. Gk. kri9n^).
.):Ck)th.-
pret.) was (macr.); cf. Gk.
M);e.g.
•4, W9nkt9, t ling.
These changes appear to have operated in all the nosthen
and western Teutonic languagea duiing the fint four centuries
of our en, except tht change i^i, wfaicfa in the extreme .west
(Prankish) seems not to have taken place until the latter pait
of the 6th century. Several of them can be traced more or
kaa clearly in Latin writings of the xst century. The Gothic
language, however, seems to have devetoped on qwte different
lino. Ilie more important of its changes are as follows^-
(i) e became i always; e.g. vip (road): A.S. weg. But • later
Y^ / — i^ -• i_ >|ifi|^»' orthography) before r, k; e.g. heorlru
(h i.
itn au) bdore r, k;e.g. bamrgs: AS, bmrg.
(I the letters transcribed 0, are used for long
V(
; bi|t the digraphs were still written.
pt «) in final syllables were lost; e.g. dags,
fa -suits.
q)lo6fves were lost; e.g. mnu (Aoc sing.):
Si
(ittduding those which had become final
were (in gsneral) shortened (f^i, 9:^,
9. pret.): (N. inscr.) worakU; Uuba (N.
su imotu
hen final (also before i) became voiceless;
e.j hidjan).
All these changes appear te have taken i^ace before or during
the 4th centuiy. The effect of them must have been to render
the Gothic language hardly intdiigible to a person who ipoke
a northern or western language, whereas during the same
period there is little evidence fbr differences among the latter
languages thcmsdvcs. At a later date Gothic underwent
further changes which do not appear in Ulfilas* version, or only
to A slight extent.
(«) I became a dose e- sound; e.g. VtmeAu (Joidaaes), for
Wmid..
(a) u became a dose sound: e.g. Fi^o* (Procoptos): Rmfiii
) became a in unaccented syllables; e.g. irax (for -nil.
i became i; e.g. leikeis for lekeis (not umrequently in the MSS.).
iS
9 became i; e.g. nmjut tor smmjos.
The chief sound-changes m the northern and
lai^uagesseem to have taken place in the 6Lh and 7th centuries.
Some of these changes were common to all the languages in
question, some to English and Scandinavian, some to VnjrlUK
and German, while others agjun occurred in only one of these
languages or a portion of iL
I. Among the chief changes oosDmoa to Endtsh. Scandinavian
and German we may reckon (1) the kns of final a (in Scand. also
bdore final consonants); e.g. AS.^ O.N., O.H.G. kom (N. inscr.
ktfma) ; (3) the loss of unaccented t, u after long syllables, e.g. AJ5.
kemd, aN. kdnd, O.H.G. kant: Goth, kamdtui (3) the change sw
bdore voweb or g; s.|. A.S. disr. Oi«. ^. OJLG. lifr: Cock, (plor.)
^'nso.
IL Among the most important of the changes cororooo to Endish
and Scandinavian must oe dassed (i) the affection (nmlisnO d
vowels by the vowels (generally •'. «) of fdk>wing syllables: e.t. AS,
cymi^h 6.N. kym: O.H.G. ktmni; AS. «^«, O.N. fu/: O.H.G.
fcfta. In eariy German the only case of this kind was the affeaioa
of by a following • and even this seems to have taken place muck
later. To the same category we must reckon (2) the eany loss of k
TEUTONIC LA35GUAGES
675-
hMiTOta tqiuimt. «.f. A.S t9on, liaif, QiN* tid: <XH.C. mkau;
' ) the loM of » before u cf- A.S. bs, OJ^^. dsx\ OH.G. ilM-.
111. Amortg the chief changes commoa to Enctich and German
<^i
iu: O.N. dtt^r (N. in«c/. tfe«
t oecame r hi High German,
were^he following: (i) The Jcms of final «; «.r. A.S. AmJj^ O.H.G.
Higl
A.S. iRl, O.-Saz. mi, O.N. inIt. Goth. mu. (2) The change %a^
i_* — ^ #_•.--. ._.«-..__ .__t- _. — .^ Scand.), e^. A.S. A^ri.
In short monoayllfibles, however,
aa in Scandlnavko: e-g. miV (Oat.):
before i (whereas assimilation took plaoe in ovanu./» «^. .n..^ i»vr».
O.H.G. &<»r<] O.N. ibdtf. Goth, laadf. (3) The change i^ in all
poaitkma (m Scand. only initially and after/). e.g. A3, /oerfrr.
CX-Sax» /sdcf (O.H«G. /olcr) : O.N. /af i>. (4) The lengthening of all
consonants (except r) before f (in Scand. only gutturals), cig. A.S.
6mMo»i, O.H.G. wSra: O N. fcSwa.
The sound-changes peculiar to English, Scandinavian and German
ar« treated in the atttcles dealing with thne Unguaecs. It should
be noted that the Frisian dialects agree with English not only in
the phenomena enumerated. above| but also in a number of ehange»
peculiar to these languagea. Sucn are (1) the change A»^ before
oaaali. «.g. A.S. MAmiS, O.Py. "mBnoAx O.M.G. mljiMr: (2) the
chann dai^A (later i) in other positions, e.g. KS. rOdt O.Fr. rid:
O.H.U. rail (3) the labialiaatiop of a before nssals, «.g. A3, hmm.
man, O.Fr, mon, man: O.H.G. mmm; (4) the chan^ a^m* (« In-
Fris.) in close syllables (also in open syllables before front vowels).
e./. A.S. stof, O.Fr. il^: O.H.G. stap; (5) the diphthongization
of vowda before ill. e.f. A.S. cit^oAl, O.Fr. kMuukS: O.H.G. kneht;
(6) the kMs of fi before p, eg. A.S. Ater. O.Fr. AfAcr; O.H.G. oiider;
(7) the palatalization of guttural* before front vowds. «.g< A,S.
*****"• Jf^^.*?* (?"?^- P^^L^P."?'*."'^' OH.G.^ i^lan. The
notewortny differences between the two languages in early tii
seem to have been very few: (1) a, «, i, ate diphthoi\rized befo
followed by a consonant in English, but not in Frisian, e.f. /
lorer
A.S.
eonw: O.Fr. trm (d. Goth, wwu)^ (a) the diphthong oi bectme 4*
in English everywhere, but in Frisian only in open syllables {jk in
dose syllables): «.f. A.S. off: O.Fr. Uk ((>>th. ai». but A.S..
O.Fr. «<«« (C^otK. Off an): f)) the diphthong an became (aeu, then)
2a in English, but jfi m Fnstan, e^. A3. Safe («ee): O.Fr. Ace (Goth.
auilftl\ U) • was labialiaed in Frisian, but not in English, befone
(ongiaai) v in the following syllable: e.g. O.Fr. stunga: A3,
xfiigaii (cf. Goth. ii£{waif). Tnsian texts of the nth and 14th
centuries show many diaracteristic changes which must have
rendered the language almost, if not wboHy, unintdligible to an
English nun of the same period] but it is hardly probable that these
changes were for the most pact of any graat antiquity.
/kdSnufM.— The I.-Eur. Unguages seem originally to \im
had three numbers and eight cases, tbouf^ it is by no means
dear that each of the latter had a distiitct Ibrm in eveiy dasft
of stems, in Teutonic there is acaxcelyany trace of the dual
in noons. Of the cases all the eady Teutonic languages pre-
served four, vis. the Nominative, Accusative, Genitive and
Dative. The Vocative also was kept in Gothic and the rnstni-^
mental, to a coasiderabie extent in eariy Genn4n, «riiile the
cnr&st Anglo-Saxon preserved many traces of the locathre.
The case endings are best preserved ia the efrliest Northern
Inscriptions and in Gothic As an illustration we may take those
of the I.>Eur. ^^leclension : —
Gslk. V. •!«. -« A. - 0. -ii D. -« W. ptar. -Ar A. -^w 0. S D. -m
RiMSB. -u '• ^•M -4 -4
ACSSSk -M -^ ->»t(-«««) -^r
As examples of the forms found hi the inscriptions may be given
N. trUda. A. siaiHa, G. Aim)sui^isalas, D. Woduriit, In the other
daasei of stems also the declension coitfonrfs to the genersl I.-Eur.
types. Whatever changes have taken place have usually tended
towards nmplification; thus there are but few traces of stem-
▼ariatioQ {amuMt) between Afferent cases of the same nooii.
The treatment of adjectives was somewhat more peculiar. In
addition to the old type of dedensioo which conformed to that of
the demonstrative pronoun and not. as in Greek and
Latin* to that of Mibitanthrca, aluost every ad|eetfve
was inflected also attcr the model oi n-stems. This type
of inflection occurs chiefly in conjunction with the demonstrative
pronoun (definite article) and it is thought that its origin is to
be foond in subsomtival ^piMMitional) sage.
The compaiative of adjectives is formed partly by a su^ Wan-
(«.{. Goth. iii<sfa, A.S. Unip'a), which is apparently extended imm
the suflijt -iosr, -is- found in the other J. -Eur. languagu and pro-
faabhr to be compared with Gk. iSUm (from swUisfhi), and partly by
a suffix -AttM- («.f . Goth. nRn^osa) .which is peculiar to TVnitonic.
SiiaiUrly the superlative ia formed partly by a suliU -i5fa> (eg. Goth.
ioukists, A.S. Ungest) corresponding to -isto- in other L-Eur.
languages (e.g. Gk. ^wttlt), and panly by a liew formatkm -ista-
(e.e. Goth. anfi*j6).
Most of the I.-Eur. demoastiative pranouoB aae foond ia Teatohic,
and the peculiarities of their inflection are in general wdl preserved.
^ - -■ - The most impoftant are (^th. sx. OJl.G. er: Lat. ij;
J ISBBMB ^5^ ^. LJ^JJ j^. Q^^ ^ ^^ p^^. Qjj ^ ^^ ^^
The last of thena (aa in Greek) has become a definite artide in all
except the Soandina«iaa toaguays, The
are Goth, iheoi, A.S. ftipd: Sanscr. hu, and O.H.G. Jhsrr: Lat.
qvii. The place of the relative pronoun is supplied by the demon-
strative or by indedinable forms. The inflection of the personal
and refiexive pronouns is for the most part peculiar to Teutonic.
«.g. Goth. I sing. N. ik, A. mik, G. metao, D. mis; i plur. N. iveu,
A.D. ant {unsisf, G. wnara. The majority of these forms are common
to all the Teutonic languages, though there is a variation between
•9 and -4 which is probably dae to accentual causes; e.g. A.& sc,
flMC, ml; O.N. ek, mikt mer; O.H.G. ih, vnA, mir.
Cwefago/iim.— The Teutonic veib-system is simpler thkn that *
of most of the I.-Eur. languages. The old Middle Yoke is
preserved only in Gothic, vheit it is used as a passive. In the
other Teutonic languages only one or two isolated forms remain.
In place of the two old moods, (Conjunctive and Qptative, there
is but one, which Is generally calle<l Conjuncliver thou^ its
forms axe mostly of Optative origin. Again, there are only two
tenses. Present and Preterite, the latter of which is derived^
partly from the l.-Eur. Perfect, partly from Aorist or Imperfect
formations. A few old Perfects^ however, which have no
Presents, retain their original meaning and are generally known
aa Preterhe-presebts, e,g. Ooth. imiY, A.S. wdl, " I know **:
Gk. otSo. In place of the Fatuce the Teutonic languages ase
either pcrfecth^e verbs (generally compounded with a prepo-
sition) or a perlphiusis consnting of the Infinitive with an
auxiliary verb.
The conjugation of the Pres. Indie Act.
to that of most of the I.-Eur. languages, t.g. Got! . „
2 foim, t bairib, t phir. bairam, 2 hairip, 3 bairand, cf. (jK. ^/nj,
Sanscr. Maron*. Maroli. Gk. 4*fott», 4ip*t*, ^(porrt (^powi). Gothic
'1 dual, Krifsr, bairais, which have not
I stng. 6aira,
In the other languages there -^
The conjugation of verbs corre-
had also forms for the .
been satisfactorily explained.
scarcely any trace of the dual. ,_„
sponding to the Greek verbs in -/a is preserved best in Old High
German; e.f. i sing, habi^m f-«), 2 kabfs, 3 AsMl, i plur. JuOemis.
2 AoMl, 3 Mem, 3. Gk. I mog, nAfm, Lat. 2 sing, kabis, 3 kabtU
1 plur. hclihniUt 2 kaUtis, 3 kabeat. A number of archaic foraw
are preserved in the ** verb substantive,*' «.g, Goth. 1 sing< im%
2 ts, 3 tj<, 3 plur. tind,; O.N. l plur. erum; cf. Gk. t sing. «ii<(.
2Utt, cl, 1 ivrf, I phir. irfikp, 3 «td. The forms of the Con-
uinctive (Oputive) correspond m general to thoae of- the other
L-Eur. languages; «.g^ Goth. 2 sing. bairM, 3 sing, bmrtti; Gk.
2 sing. ^^po(v, 3 sing. ^4pot. So also the Iijoperative. e.£..a sing,
tetr: Gk. Aipt', but tire origin of the 3 sing, arid 3 j^r. forms
in Gothic (ftosfodaa, baimndn) Is not qu?tc dear. The Gothie
Bsssive is conjugated as fkrflows in the Pres. Indie.: t. 3 sing,
boarodo, 3 sing, oatrasa, I, 2, 3 plur. bairandai cf. Gk. 3 sing. ^^P^f^i
2 sing, ^in (irom a^tf)«t), 3 plur. Akpanat,
The Preterite formations are of two types, usually termed
" strong ** and " weak." The latter bdong to verbs wnoae past'
partidpie has a stem <da* (L-Eur. -16-1 see below), the former to
the reroainine varbs. The singular of the strong Preterite Is de>
rived from the L-Eur. Perfect, while the pluraL which in most
verbs has a different stem, may come either from the Periect or
from Aorist fonaations. In the plural the endings were originally
accented; hence many vetba diow differences not o^y hi the stem
vowd but also ia the consonants (by Vemer> Law, see above)
between the two numbers; #.f. A3, sing. wmi. wrarQ, nlur. wiStron,
wwdon. Reduplication is preserved In Gothic only in a limited
number of verbs («.g. hMan, pret. kaikali)\ in the other languages
it is rare. The ininction u as follows: (Soth. i siag. -tea^,
2 -homttt 3 -haupt \ dual -hidut a -hadi^i, I plur. -^ndaiff^s 'buinp^.
3 -huduni cf. Gk. I' sing, oils, 7'7oi«. 2 o7«0a. 3 o|At, vi^wt*
t plur. Uiur^ ytya/um. Except in Gothic and Scandinavian the
2 Sing, has generslly a form (originally Aorist) simibr to the plur.,
<.e. A3. Hide. The stem of the Conjunctive also agrees with thar
of the pl«r., e,g. Goth. X. sing, '•budj^n, 3 sing, "budi.
The " weak Preterite seems origuiaUy to have arisen out of a
periphcastSc formation of which the second part consisted of Im-
perfect or Aorist forms of the verb seen in A.S ddn, O.H.G. tuan
(rebted to Gk. r(Ai^). and pinbably idcatioal with the Pret. A3,
sing. d€de (d^), plur. daidomi O.HG. sing. k«a, plur. Uiun. The
short xeduplication-syIlabl& however, is lost in the sing^ while the
long s>-llable of the plur. (and dual) is preserved only in Gothic.
The inflection off the Indie is as foikyws: —
sins. Goth, i aonda. 2 -des, 3 -da; A.Sw aende,. •dri(l), -d»,
O.ILG. nmlo. -Ifis, '4a. O.N. lagSs (eariy laser.. -*), -tr. -i,
plur. 3 Goth. natidaduM^ A.S. neredon; Oii.G. ntriiun: O.N.
tdfiu.
It is to be observed that the stem of the weak Preterite almost
always conforms to that of the past ^rticiple. Such forms as
C«oth. pret. wawkta are probably denved fronK the past part*
vmurktj (stem waurhta-) on the analogy of pret. nasida beside past
part, nasips (stem nasidc-)^ where the resemblance between the
two formations is due to tae r^ular operation <A the sound laws.
676
TEUTONIC ORDBR
The inflection of the 'Conjunctive «CR«s with that of the ttrong
Preterite, e.^ . Goth, nasidtdjau.
The Infinitive is formed from the present item with an ending
-an {e.g. AS, bera*), and probably was originally a case-form of a
verbal noun. In the western langua^ we find also the Dative
of a stem -cujO' used ftfter a preposition; cf. A^ I0 eiosenA^
O.H.G. M.nemanne,
The Present Partici^ has a stem •end' (I.'Eur. "Ont-) identical
with the ending of the 3 (4ur. Indie., as in the other l.-Eur.
languages; but the Partictplcs in actual use were declined as -on-
or -ja- stems. $.g. G. bair^nda, AS. beremde. The unextended sttm
sm^nves only in substantives, c.#. AS, tBigend, " warriors." T
stem of the Past Participle (PasHve) is formed by the suffixes W
and -no- (Teut. '4a', -mo*), as in the other l.-£nr. lan^^oages. The
former occurs as a living formation only in connexion with the
The
lo-
in English and Scandinavian, the latter in Gothic and German;
€,t, AS. boretm, O.N. borinn, Goth, bowtns, O.H.G. (cO^an.
Remains of old Participles in -to-, -iu»- formed otherwise than those
in Tiving use may be found in adjectives; e.t. AS, {ie)ald : tdan
(cf. Lat. aUiu),fuU : Ut. pko (cf. liih. pUmuJ,
The above sketch will suffice ta show thAtin legard to
morphology the Teutonic group of languages has many char-
acteristic features which distinguish it from other languages of
the same stock* On the other hand the morphological differ-
ences which exist among the Teutonic languages themselves
are on the whole comparatively slight and due mainly to the
operatk>n of syncretism and othA simplifying prt)cesses. In
more recent times these processes have been carried still
further, so that €,g, the Danish verb has lost all inflection of
person and number, while distinction of gender has wholly
disappeared in English. In the earlier stages of the Teutonic
languages differences of phonology are. more marked than those
of morph<dogy, and afford surer criteria for determining the
relations of these languages to one another. It is customary
among scholars to classify the whole group in three main
divisions, an eastern or Gothic, a northern or Scandinavian,
and a western which included English, Frisian and German.
We have noticed above that Gothic bqjan at an early date to
show marked divergences from the other languages. The
Scandinavian langiiages also certainly imderwent a considerable
number of peculiar changes before the beginning of their
literatures. But it is to be remembered that from the 6th
century to the 9th the Scandinavian peoples were practically
cut off from communication with other Teutonic nations by
the Slavonic occupation of Mecklenburg and eastern Mobtein.
The earliest of the more strildng sound-changes peculiar to
ScandiiMVian, viz. the loss of initial /-, is not thought to have
taken place before the 7th century, while the most characteristic
features in its morphology, Le. the development of the post-
positive artide and of the new medio-paasive, belong in all
probability to a later period. If we confine our attention to
changes which probably took place before the middle of the
7th century it will be seen that the English and Frisian lan-
guages may fairly be described as lying about midway between
Scandinavian and German, though they had already developed
well-tnarked characteristics of their own. ' They are doubtless
to be regarded as the representatives of the old language of
the maritime districts, and it b probable that languages of thb
type wefe at one time spoken along the whole of the coast
between the present frontiers of Belgium and Denmark. On the
other hand the special charactecbtics of German in all pro-
bability developed in the interior and those of Scandinavian
round the Baltic and the Cattegat. Prom the 8th centuty
onwards thelCgfa German (southern) dialects of German differed
greatly from those spoken further north owing to the operation
of the changes generally known as the " second souod-ahifting."
The northern dialecU, however (Old Saxon and Low Fiankish),
were essentially German, though both were more or less affected
by Frisian influence.
The Gothic and Scandinavian languages have one or two
characteristics in common, the most important of which b
nt of intervocalic / and w in a number of words.
>er case we find Goth. -44^" and OJS, -gx»>»
ikiiereas in German a diphthong developed; e.g. Goth. tmoMJt
(Gen. of hoai, "two"), O.N. t9eigut: O.H.G. norio. In the
btter case both Goth, and Scand. had ggp (OJS. ggjo), while a
diphthong, appears both in English and German, «.g. Goth.
^OPf (" tnie "), O.N. iryggn A.S. getrtem, gOritwe, O.H.G.
gUrivwi. It may also be noted (hat Gothic and Scandinavbn
preserved the ending -/ in the a sing, of the strong Preterite,
while English and German had a different form with the atcm
of the plur. (see above). On the ground of these common
characterbtics some scholars hold that Gothic and Scuidinavian
are more closely related to one another than to the other
Teutonic languages^ But, whatever may have been the case
originally— and the evidence b far from conc]asive->it b dear
that by the 4th o^ 3th centtuy the Scandinavian languages
had far more resemblance to English and Gennan than to
Gothic.
The languages of the Vandab, Gepidae and other eastern
tribes seem to have been practically identical with Gothic
That of the Bui|:undians, so far as we can judge from the slight
evidence at our dbposal, had at least as much in common with
southern German aa with Gothic, which may be due to (be fact
that thb tribe, though originally located In the basin of the
Oder, had moved westwards by the 4lh century. The early
diveigence of the eastern languages in general from those of
the north and west b perhaps to be ascribed in part to the great
extension southwards of the tetritoifes of (he eastern tribes in
the 3rd and 4th centuries. Yet it b not to be overlooked that
all dialectical divergences within the Teulonlc group seem to
be of relatively recent origin, as compared, a.;., with the special
characteristics of some of the Greek dialects. Indeed there h
scarcely one of them of which we can say with certainty that it
dates from before the beginning of our era.
AoTHOUrnn.— J. Grimm, Deulscho CrmmnaHk (Gfittingen, 18T9,
182a, 1837; and ed. Beriin. 1870-78. GOtersloh, 1800) ; W. Thorosen,
Ober dtn Einjluss d, germ. Spracken ouf dU nnniseMappitckem
[txansl. by E. Sievers). Halle, 1870: 0. Schade, Atldoutsdios WirUr-
and ed. 1897): and A Companhm Gnmimor at the Imdu Cweiwc
^'^^ ^ ' ■" ~ Cafisdr Cmatmatik
Crammatik (Halle,
Cfomm^ (Halle,
188a; 3rd ed. 1898); and A^ermanudu Melrik (Halle. 1893);
A. Nonen. AUaardiuki Crammatik (Halle, 1884; 9oA ed. 189a):
Utkast till FdrdAsninjmr i wntrmansk JtMara (Uigaala, 1890);
Abriss d. urggrtn. LatUUkre (Strassburg. 1894) ; " Gtachichte d. oord.
Sprachen " in H. Paul's Cmndrist der iermatiiuhen Pkiletogie,
vol. i. (and ed. Strsssburg. 1898); F. Kiuge, Ji^ominak Sionm-
bildungsUkrt d. altterm. DialikU (Halle. 1886^; " Vorgescbkhte d.
altgerm. Dialekte^ in PauKs Crundriss (see above), vdl. i.; W.
Streitbetg. Urgfirmaniuko Crammaiik (Heidelberg. 1896): Colur As
Crarnmahk (Heidelberg, 1897) : F.. Dieter, R. Bethge. O. Brecer.
F. nartmann and W. SchiOter, Laid- «. FormenuMre d. altgtrm.
DialfhU CUiprig. xooo); Th. Siefos. "Geschichte d. friesischen
Faut's Grundriu (see above), vol. i.; K. D. Bfllbring,
EUmentar-Biidi (Heidelberg, 1902); J. V/right and
Wright, Old Engfiik Crammar (Oxford, 1908); TV. ^Ilmanna.
Sprache " in
AlUni
E.M.
Dovtsthf
it Faik. Wortichatt d\ gem.
&
twrg, 1803.— ); CA. Fick) A. Torp and
Spracketnketl (Gdttingen, 1909).
TSUTONIC ORDBR, THB, or Teutonic Knights of St Mary's
Hospital at Jerusalem (Der deutscke Orden, DeuUcht Kitter) was
one of the three great mHilary and religious ordcxa which sprang
from the Ckusades (q,9,). Later in birth than the Templars
and Koipitalleia, the TeMonic Order traces its fint begiBnings
from the third Crusade. Already, indeed, in 1x43 we hear of a
hospital of Germans at Jerusalem, which Cclestine II. places
under the control of the. Hospitallers, with the stiptdatioB that
the prior and servants alone shall necessarily be of Ccrman
birth.' But it is amidst the privations and . plague which
attended the siege of Acre, during the third Crusade, that the
fiiBt certain beginmngs of the Order appear. In the whiter
of tt9»-9r certain pious merchants from Bremen and Ltibeck
(towns with which the Order was stm to be connected in the
days of its later hbtory) laid the foundations of a hospital in a
& RAhricht, <;cssUdk<c dM KMtrsidhf /awMtoK, pw 24a.
TBUTONIG ORDER
677
^ntad which they h$d daim Bsbove.^ Wilhtn « fevr yoMS the ,
foundaiion tppaxentiy became attached to the Qerrnan Church
of St Mary Iho Virgin at Jenisakm; and Id March xsg8 (then
being present in the Holy Land a number oC Germans, the reiict
of Henry VL's projected crusade) » the great men: of the army
and the kingdom raised the brethsen of the. German Hospital
of St Maxy to the rank of an ordef of knights. The origwat
memben were thus ennobled; and*hesiccfoith it was the tule
that only Germans of noble birth could join the Order. The
Order was from the first, therefore, of a national character,
unlike the cosmopolitan orders of the TemplaisaBd Hoapitaikai
but in other respects it Was m odelled upon the same lines, and
shared in the jame development, like the knigbU of other
ordeis, the Teutonic knights lived a semi-monastic life under the
Angustinian rule; and in the same way they admitted priests
sind haU-brothcrs Uemmlu) into their ranks. Liloe the other
two orders, the Teutoase Order begas as a chariuble society, dO'
veloped into a militvy club, and etided sAsomethingof a chartered
company, exercising rights of sovereignty on the troubled confines
of Christendom. Even ia its k»t phsse, the Order did not itrget
its original purpose: it maintained several great hospiuls in Its
new home on the south-east shore of the Baltic, in addition to an
kttd 4€s inoalides at Maiknburg for its sick or aged brethren.
For a hundred yeaia (nQt-xigt) the headquarters of the
Order were at Acre; nor was it until 1309 that, after a brief
sojourn at* Venice, the. seat of government was traosfened to
Marienburg on the Vistula, fut kmg before that date the
Ordcc had begun to find that its true work ky on the eastern
frontieis of Germany. Perhaps ft was^Hennasn von Salsa,
the first great grand master of the Order (i3io-xs3p), who.
oiiginaUy conceived the idCa of transplanting the Order to the
west. At any rate it was he who accepted the invitatiott of
Andrew, of Hvmgary that the Order should aid him with its
resources against the Comaas by whom he was threatened.
In 1 an the Order received bom the king the district of Burxen-
land In Transylvania. Towns arose and agriculture began to
flourish; but seeking to make itself independent, the Order
lost its hinds, and disappeared from Transylvania. A new
opportunity almost teomedlately arose on the banks of the
^^ula. Here Christian, bishop of Prussia, who had received
from the Polish duke of Masovia a part of Kulmerland as a
fief, had founded the knightly' Order of Debrsin, and was
attempting with its sid to sidtdue tbs heathens of Prussia.
Cnsoccessfttl in his attempt, he Invited the Tcutecdc Order ib
come to the rescue^ and bestowed on the Order Kulm and some
of the homier towns in his territory, with such, lands as it
shook} conquer (raaS). Thub the Order took its place as the
founder of one of the marks on the eastern frontier of Germany,
and began to pby its part in that Dramg nock Otim, which is
pcriiaps the vitally important thinflr in the histQcy of Germany
from the 13th to the 14th century. Since the days of Adolf
of Holstein and Henry the Lion, a movement of Geiinan coloni*^
nation, in which farmers frotta the Low Countries, merchants
bnm Labeck, and monks of the CistcxdanOMer all played
their parts, had been spreading Gciman influence from the
Oder to the Vistula, fkom the Vistula to the Dwina—to Prague,
to Gnesen, and even x6 Novgorod the Great. Of this nwvctteot
the Teatonic Order became, akmg with the Hanse, the chosen
repeesenuthre. It was not, indeed, the first knightly Order to
gird itself lor th!B task. Besides the knightly .^der founded
by Cfariitian, there was already soother still farther east,
which had served as Christian's model, the Khights of the
Swwrd of Livonia. This was an order founded by Albert,
3rd bishop of Riga, in laor, to serve as an instrument, under
his contrDi, for the -conquest of the land. But in 1*37 the
Knights of- the Sword were merged into the Teatonic Order,
and livonla became a province of the Order, with a master
of ks own under the grand master^ oontrol, iust as, two years
before, the Order had also absorbed the Knights of Dobtsfai.
iR&hricht, CesckkhU des KMgrmhs Jerusakm, p. 543. The
relations of this new foundatioa to the German hospital rneotioned
in 1143 cannow b^ traced.
- in t339 (he Oidcrfaegan the oooquest of Prussia, founding
fottiessca at each step to rivet its oonqvesU (for instance, at
Thorn, named after Teron in Palestine), much as the Anglo-
Normans had done in their conquest of Wales. Frederic IL
gave the Order the rights of a prince of the Empire in its terti-
torics: Conrad of Masovia gave it the whole of Kulmerhmd in
1130; while in 1334 the Order estshlishwl its independence of
all authorities except the Papacy, by surxendexing its territories
to the Holy See and receiving them back again as a fief . The
pope gav^ to those who joined in the work of the Order the
privil^es of Crusaders; and the knights, supported by numerous
donations and large accessions to their raziks, rapidly increased
their territoiics. By 1360 they ruled the eastern bank of the
VistuU from Kulm to its mouth, and the northern shore of the
Bakic from the mouth of the Vistnla to Kfinigsberg. livonia
they held after 1337; and during the 14th century they gained
the Lithuanian territory ofSamo^tia, which lay between
livooZa and their Prussian dominions, while they also added,
to the west of the Vistuh^ Pomerellen and the Ncumark (see
under Prussia). Already by the beginning of the X4th century
these conquests had fundamentally changed the charaaer of
the Order. It. lost any coanesaon with the East: after the
fall of Acre in ispx, the grand master (whose seat had been at
Acre, while the German master (DaUsekmdster) had controlled
the Order in Germany) , moved first to Venice, and then, in
t3o6, to Marienburg on the Vistida. Again, with the aoconion
of large territories, the Order became a governing aristocracy;
the original care for the nek, and even the later crusading seal
of the period of conquest, gave way, when conquests were
gained and administtattoi^ was needed, to the problem, half
sailitary, half political, of governing a frontier state. The
statutes of the Order were altered to suit the new conditions,
and a whole system ol administration arose. At Marienburg
the grand master maintdbed a magnificent court; round him
were the five great dignitaries of the Order, the Grand Coin>
mander, the Marshal, the. Hospitaller, the Treasurer {Tresslef)
and the Keeper of the Wardrobe (Trapier) to see to the cbthing
of the Order. There was a Landmeister lor Livonia, and another
(the DaUsehmeistet^) for the German province, with his scat at
Mergcntheim in Swabia. Over each ol the twenty districts of
the Order was set a commander (K«fK/nr), with the brethren of
his house at his side as advisers. The commander was bound
by the advice of his brethren; and in the same way the general
chapter of the Order, consisting of the landmeisters and the
great dignitaries, formed an advisory board to the grand master
in matters such a» treaties and internal legislation. It was
government by an aristocracy almost Venetian in character
The individual was merged In the Order: each brother must
pray four times in the day, and four times «t night, and he must
at an times pay an unquestioning obedience to his superiora.
The Order was at once supreme ecclesiastical- and political
authority. There were no strug^ of Church snd Sute hi iu
dondnions: the sUte was also the church: the bishops and the
canons of the four bishoprics (with the exception of Ermdand)
were prfesU of the Order. The lay subjects of the Order cotv:
slated of two classes; on the one hand there were the conquered
Prussians, in a position of serfdom, bound in time of war to
serve with the brethren in foreign expeditions; on the other
hand there were the German unmlgrants, both urban and
nnal, along with the free Prussians who had vohinurfly sufa^
niitted and remained faithful The towns were large and
flourishing; as many as sixty arose in the period between 1335
iand Wt6, including Thorn and Elbing, Dansig and Kdnig^berg
(named after Ottocar of Bohemia, who took part in the campaign
during which it was founded). The towns possessed the rights
of Magdeburg, or (like Elbfaig) those of Lilbeck; the most
important of them soon came to join the Hanseatic League.
The Order 6idy Imposed customs duties: it levied no toDs
within the land; and though its consent was necessary to any
change in municipal ordinances, it aUowed the towns a large
amount of seif^govemmcnt. The concord of the Order with
the towns and the Hanse was one great cause of its prosperity
678
TEUTONIC ORDBK
votil tW close of the 14th ^oentury ; sad the raptvra of ihat
ooncord in the 15th centoiy was largely responsible for its hJL
This political and naterial strength enabled the Order to
weather the storm by which the Templars were destroyed at
the beginning of the 14th century. For Sr time, indeed, the
Order lay under papal sentence of excommunication; but the
transference of his seat to Marietiburg at this time (1508) gave
the grand master a basia from which he was able to make easy
terms with the pope< Nor was the Order, during the r4tfa
century, at all unfaithful to its original calling. Particularly
under the grand master Winrich of Kniprode (1551-13^3) It
was the school of northern chivalry, engaged in unceasing
struggle ta defend and extend Christianity against the heathen
Lithuanian. To the briilhmt court of Marienburg, not only a
school of chivahy, but under W^nrich's predecessor Luther of
Branswfdc, a literary centre,' men came from all over Europe
to win their spurs. John of Bohemia had fought by the
Vistuk: Henry of Boiingbroke was of the goodly con&pany;
Chaucer's perfect knight had travelled in '* Prace and Lett«we."
The nro-chivaliy of the X4th century, m which a fantastic
love of adventure had displaced tl^e finer and more ideal motivds
of the old chivalry, looked towards the Vistula and Marienburg.
. At the height of its glory sudden and irretrievable ruin fell
upon the Order. The conditions which had made possible its
prosperity now disappeared. Extemalty, a Slavonic reaction
came, and dealt heavy blows to the eastvrard advance of German
civilisation. The Hussite movement, a victorious expressbn of
Cxech nationality, is contemporaneous with the loss of Geiman
dominion in Prussia; the exodus of German students from
Prague takes place a year before the defeat of the Order at
TVuinenburg. The particnhtr danger from the Slavs of the
north-east arose from the conversion of Lithuania, and the
union of converted Lithuania to Poland. The conversion of.
Li^oania deprived the Order of its mission: the unkm of
Lithuania to Poland robbed it of the security idiich it enjoyed
While they were disunited, and gave new strength to Poland,
a constant enemy to the Order whkh had deprived it of any
outlet on the Baltic. Internally, too, the Order suffered. The
Huwte wars, the feuds of Burguodian and Armagnae, the
lenewal of the Hundred Years' War, all prevented it from
drawing new blood ftXMB the west. But above all it kst touch
with its subjects. A religious order, largely composed of immi*
grants from abroad, could not permanently rule a state which
had developed a national feding of its own; and the native
jtfistocracy, both of the towns and the country, revolted against
its dominion. The rebellious elements allied themselvca in*
atinctivdy with the Poles, who thus found the absorption of
the greater part of the lands of the Order an easy task. Com-
mereial jeak>«sy akled the process: the Order had alienated
the towns ky entecing into competition with their trade; it
had cstablishcd 4 monopoly of amber and even, occasionaUy,
of com; and its agents were spread as far aHekl as Bnncs*
Tliis commercial policy had indeed a deeper and more fatal
effect than the alienation of the towns; it iecukrised still
further the brethren of the Order, and made them financiers
instead of soldiers. Their finances were indeed eacelleut; they
kept regular acoMints» and had already developed the modem
pfiadple of separating the civil list from the expeaoes of the
fovcrament; but when they brought the tables of mooey-
diangers into the temple, they were doing as the Templars
had done before them, and were likely to suffer as the Templan
had suffered.
1h€ fint bk>w struck at the Order, if it did not destroy its
power immediately, ruined its prestige for ever. The defeat
which the Polish king Ladislaus infiicted i^mib the knights at
Tsnnenbcrg in 1410 was crushing. It brought Ladfdaus httk
immadlate gain; but it stimulated the dements of unrest in
ftuasi* to fresh activity.. The discontented deigyt espcdaBgr
»Ev»^ ^-— "' *^ Order had two learned tvethren, one learned
in 1* 'ngy. There were abo eleinentary schools,
$m «• in whkh Latin was taught, in the
in LIvoaia; the towns, such as Diansig; the native atistocracy,
organised in a league (the EideckserUmnd, or Leagueof the Uxard),
all sought to use their opportunfty. Tt was in vain that the
heroic grand master, Henry of Plauen (1410-1413) sought to
stem the tide of disaster; he was deposed by the chapter of
the Order for bis pains. The success of the Hussite raids in
Germany gave fresh confidence to the Shvs of Poland. The
Order was at variance within itsiel/; some of- the bouses of the
brethren refused to obey the marshal, and the grand master
quarrelled with the German master. Above all, there arose
in 1440 the Pmasian League (Preusnscher Bund)^, in which the
nobles and towns joined together, nominally lor common pro-
tection of their rights, but really against the Order. The
League naturally sympathized with Poland, not only because
Pohmd was the enemy of the knights; but also because under
Pobnd it hoped to enjoy the practical liberty whkh Polish
anarchy already seemed lo offer. The ultimate result was
that in 1454 an embassy of the League offered Prussia to the
Polish kipg, and 'that, after many years of war, the Peace of
Thorn (1466) gave to Poland West Prussia, with Marienburg,
Thorn, Danzig and other towns, in fuU possession, and, while
leaving East Prussia to the Order, made the Order the vassab
of Poland for the territory which it reUhied. Henceforth the
grand master was to sit in the Polish diet on the left of the king,
and half of the knights of the Ordter were to be Polish.- "
From 1466 to 153d grand masters of the Order ruled in East
Prussia as vassals of Poland. But the master ol the Livonian
province and the German master would dot obey a Polish
vassal, and went their own way; the German master took the
grand master's place as a prince of the Empire. The brethien
of East Prussia, however, still sighed for independence; and
they pursued the policy of choosing German princes to be grand
masters of the Order, in the hope of regaining liberty Jjy their
aid. Frederick of Saxony hdd the office from 1498 to 151 r; and-
he was succeeded by the HohensoUcm Albert of Brandenburg-
Anspach. When Lutheranism aroae, it spread rapidly in
Prussia; Albert himself came into contact with Luther, and
turning Protestant he secularized his territories, and (1526)
made them into an hereditary duchy, stffl held as a fief of the
king of Poland. Few of the brethren resisted; and the Order
quietly ceased from the land where for three hundred years it
had had its being.
Henceforth the Teutonic Order Hved in Gcxmaa^ and in
Livonia. The master of the latter province had- beaten off aa
attack of the Russians ia 1502^ and secured a fifty years' peace
But ia 1561 another master followed the example of Albeit,
and received Coorhiad as ati hereditary fief firom Poland.
Henceforth the Order was confiaed to Gennany ahme. The
Gennan mast er n o w grand master and German master ia one
-*had his lieadquarters at MergenthdminSwabia; therevenoes
of the states scattered throq^ioot the twdve baiUwida of Cier-
many sustained him and liia Order. The Otder, dingmg to its
lights with the oooservatism of an eodcsiastkal corporation,
still maintained its daima to East rrwiria, and p r e se iB d them
tenadously even against the electois of Brande hb ui g them-
adves, when they iidierited the land on the ialfaire of Albert's
de s cend an ts hi tfiiS. The F^cadi RevohttiBB finsHy defnived
the Order of all its estates, and for a irbSk of its rmimtt. In
180X the bailiwicks to the west of the Rhiae irere a(baasbed fay
France; m 1809 the Order was catirdy suppressed, and its
lands went to the secular principalities in which they lay. But
in 1840 the Order was resuaduted in AvsCria, where it now
exists as a aemi-religiotis knighthood, dosdy con n ecte d with
the HahsburBS.
It has remembered iCi earliest olqects^ and has ef lale yean
engaged during war in Che amholasce service. '* At the foot
of sunny vineyards," shys Tseitschk^ *<the hmat of the
Teutooic Order now stands at Botsenj on its door Is stS
embtasQiMd the hbck cross-in the niddls of the durid of
the Habsburg-Lorraincrs." Whatever iu connexioB wUb the
Habsburgs, the Order has its real hdrs in the HohenaoDeras of
Prussia. When Frederk the Great gained West Pnasia by
TEUTONIC PEOPLES
679
the fint partitfcm of Fobnd (trrt), he wu tmhinf together once
more tlie dominions of the Order, sundered since 1466; and It
is the khifs of Pmssia who have inherited the Order's task eC
maintaining German influence on the banks «f the Vistula.
LxTBRATCaB.^The article is chiefly based on H. von Tieitachke**
Dm inMke Ot^Malatid PrtHsatms, in Hisitriidu mad pbliMuke
At^$Hu, vd. iL (Lemsig. 1871). and on j; Lowrtb. Gefckukte dt$
MPatertn MiiklaUerM (Muaich and Berlin, 1903). Losrrth gives a
bibUography of authoritiei deiling with the history of the Order
00 po. 131, 36s and 567*^. The original evidence is to be found
iA E. Strehlhe. TMas Or^nis Teulomei (Berlin, 1869). and in
Scripttns rtnm Pnuncarum (Leipo^. i86l*i87o)» i- Vo^t has
traced the history of the Order previous to IS3<& m ms Ceschickte
Preussens (Kdoigsbcn, 1837-1839). and he has dealt with the
organisstion of the Order, and imh its history in Germany from
IS3S to 1858, in hb Gtsckiektt da dhiuckm wtttowdm «s semtm
smaf BaiUiem in DguUckland (Berlin, i8S7-<i899). More recent
writers are Muncier, GtsckkkU Ost- und Westpmasens (Gotha.
1880). and Pruts, CtsckiekU Prtussms (StuUgart, 1900). For
monographs on the grand masters, the various territories,, and the
different epochs io the history of the Order ase the references in
Loserth'awork. (E. Ba.)
TCCnONIC PBOPUi» A comprehensive term for those popo-
ktloBt of Europe which speak one or other of the various
Teutonic knguages, vis., the English'SpcaUng iahaNtaftts of
the British Isles, the German-speaking inhabitaaU of Gennany,
Attstiln-Rongsry and Switierland, the Flemish-speaking in-
habitants of Belgium, the Scaadinavian-spaakiag inhabitaiits
of Sweden and Norway and practically all the inhabitanU of
Holland and Denmark. To these we have ta add smattCjerman
and Flemish-speaking oommonities in Italy and Franco and
somewhat larier German and Swedish popuUtlons in Russia.
Outside Europe we hAve to faidude also the very numerous
populations in America, Africa, Awtmlasfa, Ac., which have
emigrated from the same oountriesL The sUtement that the
TeutoQic peoples are those which speak Teutonic lanpiages
requlrs a certain amount of qualiflcatloB on one stde^ In
the Britfeh Isles, especially Ireland, there is (ia additfea to
the Celtk-4peakfng eiements) a oMflidemUe popuktkm whkh
claims Ceitk nationality though it uses no language but El«liBh;
and further all Teutonic comnranitJies contain to a greater or
less degree certain immtgrant (crpecia^y Semitic) alcBents
which have adopted the languages of their neighbovrs. On
the other hand there doca not appear to be any «oAsldciabie
population anywhere wfakh chims Teutonic nationality without
wsiiBg a Teutonic language. We know indeed that Frtnce,
Spain, Italy, 9k. ^ contained within historical timca large popoU-
tions- which were Teutonie both by origin and !>/ lasgusge,
but tbese have aoir been completely ahsodied. SlmllsB^,
there is no doubt that the inhabitants of Bni(lan<l ^^ ^ <^
German-speaking reigns of the Continent are descended vcfy
higely from pebples which two thousahd yean ago spoke non-
Teutonic bnguages. Yet on the whole the definitfon given above
may be accepted as generally true for the picsttit thne.
It b to be observed that the term " Teutonic " ii of schobatk
and not of popular origin* tad tins is true also of the other
terms (" Germanic," " Gothic," Ite.) wUch are or have been used
in the same sense. There is no generic term now hi popukr
use either for the knguages or fbr the peoples, for the reason
that their common origin has been folgoHcn. In Tadtus's
thne, however, when the area occupied by the Teutonic peoples
was, off coutse, consideraMy less than now, a dooKiousness of
their relationship to one another was fuHy retained. He dtca
native poems which declared that the Inguaeones, Ifertniones
and Istaeuooea*-the three main branches of the Germani
(sec below)-~wertf sprung from three sons of a certaib Mannus
(peAaps " Man "), who was himself the son of the god TUitto
the son of Earth; and in a Pmnkish document at least four
centuries bter we hear again of three brdfhers named Erminos,
Inguo and Istio, from whom many nations were descended.
In English documents also we find eponymous natfonil ancestors
grouped together hi genealogical trees, and there is reaseti to
believe tint the common origin of the vurioai Teutonic
was remembered to a certam ekteni until
in the middle agci.
Tbh linguistic cbaacteHstics of the various Teuteaic poopka
have l>een desk with under Teutonic Lanooagzs. In regard
to physical features they present at the present time very many
varieties both of suture and of pigmentation, though on the
whole they are probably the tallest and fairest of European
peoples. These characteristicf are noted by a number of ancient
writen in language which seems to show that they must at that
time have been at lesst as pronounced as among any of the pc»i
sent Teutonic peoples. Moreover, the taUoess and dolichocephaly
which now specially mark the move northern peoples cl the group
appear very prominently hi cemeteries of the migratiSB period
in Switaerfamd and other neighbouring countries. On the whole,
however, the skeletons found hi- German and Scandinavian
tombs dating even from the earliest period do not show any
very remarkalkle differences from those of the. present day.
But wh^her we are justified in speaking of a Teutonic race in
the anthropological sense Is* at least doubtful, for the most
Striking characteristics of these peoples occur also to a con-
siderable extent among their eastern and westctn neighbours,
where they can hardly be ascribed altogether to Teutonic
admixture. The only result of anthropolo^icsl hivestigadon
which so far can be regarded as defiaitdy established is that the
old Teutonic lands in northern Germany, Denmark and soutjiem
Sweden have Iseen inhabited by people of the same typeskico
the neoiithk; age, if not earlier.
Hie results of investigatfons in prelnstoric archaeology are
treated in the articles Germany and SCAKOtNAViAN Civiusa-
itcm. As no Teutonic inscriptions are extant from before the
3rd or 4th centuries, it cannot be stated with absolute certainty
what types of objecta are characteristic of Teutonic dvilization
in the bromte and earliest iron ages. Yet throughout the
bronae age fit b possible to trace a fairiy weU-defncd group of
antiquities covering the basin of the Elbe, Mecklenburg, Hol^
stein, Jutland, southern Sweden and the islands of the Bek,
and archaeoh^sts have conjectured with much probability
that these antiquities represent the early civilisation of tb*
Teutonic peoples. The civilisation was, of course, liot wholly
of native growth. StitMig foreign influence, first Aegean and
later Etniscan, osn be distbiguished; but the types faitroduoed
from tlie south have generaUy undergone considerable aodifi*-
catioii and expansion. The somewhat surprising degree of
wealth mid artlMic sUU of which many of even the earliest
antiquities give evidence is probably to be explained by tlM
importance of the amber trade. Both hi eastern and in western
(jermany the obiecta found are of somewhat different ^rpes
and seem to point to a lower standard of civilisation.' What
peoples inhabited these regiona can only be conjectured, but
there is a certain amount of evidence from pUce«amea-<-not
altogether satisfactory^-that the Oltic peoples at one time
extended eastwards thro^thout the basin of the Wcser. With
the beginnfaig of the Iron age (perhaps c. 90»-4oo b.c.> Celtic
influence becomes apparent everywhere. By this tune, however,
the great Celde movement towards the south-east bad paobably
begun, ao that the Teutonic peoples irere now cut off from
direct communication With the centres of southern elvillsation.
X. Hifrisry.~The fint reception that the hihabitants of
Germany, Holland, kc.t were a people distinct from their Celtic
neS^hbouts dates from about the middle of the ist century a.c.,
when Cacsar'sconquest of Gaul rendered a knowledge of noithcr»
Europe mere generally accessible to the Romans. Certain
notices relatmg to faidividual Teutonk tribes come down from
stiQ earlier times. Thus there can be little doubt that the
Cimbri {q.t.) and their allies, who bivaded Illyrictim, Gaul and
Italy in the hot yean of the preceding century, were for the
ijiost part of Teutonic nationality. The Bastamae also, who
in the jrd century B.C. Invaded and settled in the rfgkms be-
tween the Carpathians and the Black Sea, are caM by several
ancient writen to have been Teutonic by origfai, though they
had largely intermairied with the native Inhabitants. Again,
individual travellen from the time of l*ytheas onwards had
visited Teutonic countries in the north. In none of the eariy
recoeds, however, do we get any clear fndicatioa that tbe
68o
TEUTONIC PEQPtE$
Teatooic people^ ivcte disttnguisbed kom the Cciu. Frpm
the time of Caesar onwards the former were known to the
Romans as " Germani/' a name, of uncertain but probably
Gaulish origiA« It is said to have been first applied to certain
Belgic tribes in the basin of the Mease, who may lonsedy
have come from beyond the Rhine.
" At the beginning oi our era the Teut<Huc peoples stretched
from the Rhine to the Vistula. Before Caesar's arrival in
Gaul they had advanced beyond the. former river; but their
further progress in this direction was checked by his campaigns,
and, though both banks of the river were occupied by Teutonic
tribes throughout the greater part 6f its course* most of these
remained in definite subjection to the Romans. The eastern-
most Teutonic tribe was probably that of the Goths, in the basin
of the Vistula, while the farthest to the south were the Mar-
comanni and Quadi, in Bohemia and Moravia. These latter
districts, however, had been conquered from the Boii, a Celtic
people, shortly before the beginning of our era. Towards both the
south and west the Teutonic peoples seem to have been pressing
the Celts for some considerable time, since we are told that, the
Hdvetii had formerly extended as far as the Main, while
another important Cdtic tribe, the Volcae Tectosa^cs, had
occupied a stiU more remote position, which it is impossible
BOW to identify. How far the Teutonic peoples extended north-
wards at thb time cannot be determined with 0Mtainty» but
it is ckar that they occupied at least a considerable part of
the Scandinavian peninsula.
It has already been mentioned, that the Teutonic peoples of
this period seem to have been fuBy conscious of their common
origin. What exactly the grouping into Inguaeonei» Hermiones
and Istaeuones was based upon can only be conjectured, though
probably its origin is to be sought rather in rehgioo than in
political union. The name of the Hermiones, who are defined
as *' central" or "interior" peoples, is probably connected
with tiuit of the Irminsul, the sacred pilUr of the Old SaXoos.
Thit Inguaeonessigain are defined as beiog *' next to the ocean ";
hot the name can be traced only in Denmark and Sweden,
where we find the eponymous hero.Ing and the god Yngyi
(Frey) respectively. It is likely that the name really beknged
only to the peoples of the southern Baltic Very probably
there were many tribes which did pot regard th^selvcs as
beianging to any of these groups* Tacitus himself records a
variant form of the genealogy (sde above),. according to which
Ifaanos had a larger number of soqs, who were regarded as the
ancestors of the Suebi, Vandilii, Mlarsi and others (see Sueu,
Yammils). In two at least of these cases we hear of sanctuaries
whkh were resorted to by a number of tribes. • It is not to be
doobtcd that such religious confederatimis were favourable to
the existence of political umons. * Generally speaking, however,
each tribe formed a political unit in itself, aitd the combinations
brought together from time to time in the hands of poverf ul
kin^ were liable to fall to pieces after the first disaster.
For « few years at the beginning of the Christian era the
part of Germany which lies west of the tibt was under Roman
govcmaaent; but after the defeat of Varus (aju 9) the Rhine
and the Danube formed in general the frontiers of the empire.
Roman influence, however, vude itsdf felt both l)y way of
trade and especially by the enployment of German soMiers
in the auxiliary forces. In the age of national migrations-r-
from the 4th to the 6lh ceatury-Hhe tenitoKies of the Teutonic
peoples were vastly extended, partly by conquest and partly
by amngement with the Romans^ These movements began in
the east, where we find the Goths ravaging Dada, Mocsia and
the coast regions as early as the 3rd century. In the foUowing
oentttiy the Vandals seUled in Pannooia (western Hungar>').
what the Getbs occupied Dada, whidi had now been given vp
hy the Rwnsm. and subsequcnUy took powrssinn also of large
Icrtkorin to theaottth of the lower Danabc.
Hm s^ emtaiy was the tiaae of the giealest. nationnl more-
«Ml«h tm 40^ the Vandah and other tribes invaded Gaol
k Ite «Mt and Stthaeqwent^ took poww i oo of Spain and
AttkB^ Imaaediatc^ afterwards the Visigoths
invaded Italy and captured Rome; then fuming wcstsnrdn
they occupied southern (Uul «nd Spain. The southern Sucbic
peeves, the Alamanni and Bavarians, extended their frontiers
as far ss the Alps probably about the same time. Not much
later a considerable portion of northern (jaul fell into the hands
of the Franks, and before the middle of the century the eastern
part was occupied by the Burgundlans. Several of these anove-
ments were due, without doubt, to pressure from the Huns, an
eastern people .who had conquered many Teutonic tribes and
4stablisbcd the centre of their power hi Hungary. Their cmfMre»
however, speedily twoke up after the death of their king Attiln
in 453, The chief events of the latter part bf the century were
the conquest of the eastern part of Britafai by the An^, the
invasioa of Italy by the Gstfogoths and the complete subjuga-
tion' of northern Gaul by the Franks. By this time, with the
exception of Brittany and the aouthem part of the Balkan
pcoinsub, practically the whole of southern and western Europe
was under Teutonic govemment.
It is customary to attribute this great expansion partly to
the increasing Weakness of the Romans and pni«^ to lataauic
of p<^>ttlation in Germany. Both explanations may eootain n
eertain. aniount of truth but there is no doubt that the
military strength of the Tei*t.onic nations was far more fotviid-
able now than it had been in the time.-of the eariy empire.
Not onliy is it ckar, both from literMy and archaeological
evideiN^, that they were better armed (see below), but also
their power was much more ooooentrated. Thus duriitg the
ist century we hear of about a doeen different tribes in and
aroondthelowerpartof the basin of the Rhine. In fatter timcs«
with one or two possible exceptions, these were all indoded
under the general term Fmmks, and by tbe end of the 5th century
all had boDome subjea to one king. Similar processes can be
traced eleewhese, «.f . among the Alamanni and in the northern
kingdoms Thdr effect, of course, must have been to provide
the kings with greater wealth and with larger permanent bo(£a
of aimed men. The motive force towards extension of territories
was supplied by militaiy ambition; esperially we have to take
accoont of the growth of a warlike si^rit in the Nocth, which
was constantly driving young warriois to seek their fortunes in
the service of continental princes. Where the m ovement wa&
reaQy of a migratory character it may generally be ascribed 10
external pressure^ in particular from the Huns and the Avars.
Tbe fiist half of the 6th century saw the subjugatioa of the
Burgondian and Visigothic portions of Ciaul by the Franks and
the recovery of Africa by the Romans. This latter event was
soon followed hy the overthrow of the Gstxogothic kingdom;
but not many years hicr Italy was again invaded hy the
Langobardi (Lombards), the last of the ^eat Teutonic migra-
tions^ By tlds time the extension of Teutonic dominion towards
the sooth and west had brought about iu natural seqod in the
occupation of the old Teutonic lands in eastern (knnany, in-
cluding even the basin of the Elbe, by Slavonic peepks. Before
the end of the century B<^beaua also and Lower.Austxia, together
with the whole of the bsBM of the Drave and the ^ve, had
become Slavonic countries.
The story of the SMrrecding Centuries' may briefly be de-
scribed as in general a process of return to the ethnqgraphical
conditions wUch prevailed before the migtation period. The
Franks and the Langobardi remained in C^uland Italy, but they
equally became denationalized and absorbed in the native
populations, while in Spain Teutonic nationality came to an cad
with the overthrow of the Visigothic kingdom by the Moors, il
not beforeL Yet throogboot the west and south-west the
Teutonic frontier remained from fifty lo .two. hundred miles in
advance of iU position in Roman times. In senth-eaatem Eorape
also the Teutonic rlemrors were swallovcd up by the native and
Slavonic pnpulirions, though a small remnant lingfrrrt in the
Crimea untfl probably the i;th century. On the other hand
the political consolidation of the varions continental Tcatooic
peoples (apart from the Danes) in the &h centmy led to the
gradual leoo^ety of eastern Germany together with Lower
Austria and the greater part of Stjiia and Csri-Thiy thong|^
.TEUTX5NI0 i PEOPLES
68 1
MMoift, Mooivk tad Uw buiM of tlie VistiilA and tiie Wafthe
bav« always lemained mainly Skvotiic. In the Biitah Uis
the Teutoiuc. dement, in spite of teaporaiy checks, evento&lly
became dpmioaot eveiyiiliere. Lastly, from the vecy bcpnning
of the gtJi centuiy bodies o0 ScaDdinavian wamocs b^an to
lound kingdoms and principalities in all parts of Eiwope. The
settkrs, how'evcar, wete not sufidently nuDenas to piescirve
their nationality, and in almost all csses they were soon ab-
sorbed by the populaticos (Teatonic, Celtic, latin or Slavonic)
which they had conqncRd. Their aettkmeota in Greenland
and Canada likewise camo to ah end, but Iceland, whicb was
loEmerly uninhabited, remained a Scandinaviaa colony. The
permanent ezpaosion of the Teutonic peoples outside Ennipe
did not beiin till the x6th century.
s. Farm of CoHrmmiU.—Ftom the evidence at our disposal
It is difficult to detennine bow iar the Teutonic peoples were
under Idngly gavemment in eady times. T^dtus speaks of
tribes wbick had kings and tcibea which hod not, tbe btter
j-^^^. apparently being under a nuifaber cf priHcifs. On
^ " aeanr examination, however, it appeals that kingship
was itttermittcnt in some tribes, while in cibeis, which bad no
kings, wv find mention of royal families. AU such cases were
pfl^aps peculiar to the western peoples; in the east, north and
centre, we have no evidence far Idn^eas government. Further,
while Tacitus lepresents tbe power of Teutonic kings in general,
witb reference no doubt primarily to the western tribes^ as
being of the slightest, he states that among the Goths, an eastern
people, they had Somewhat more anthority, while for the Swedes
be gives a pktnie of afasohitfsm. It is quite in harmony witb
tbcae statements that miay Nbctbem and probably all the
Anglo^axon kingly families traced their orlgb to the gods.
Tbe Swedes, iadeiBd, and some of the eastern peoples seem to
have mounded their kings tfaeBsselves as at kast semi-divine
(see bekrw,' § Rdigiemi. As tbe west was tbe side most open
to foreign influence during the Roman period, it is likely that
the fenn of government which prevailed here was less primitive
tfann the other, especially as we know that kitagifaip had by this
tieae died ont among tbe Gauls. In later times we very fre-
quently find a number of " kinf^" generally belonging to one
fomily, within the same tribe; anid it is not improbable that the
early frindpes were penons of sbnilar position. Tbe kingless
state may therefore have arisen oat of kiqgBhip through divisions
of the' r«^ power or through fsihire on the part of the leading
men to agree on a head acceptable to aJL On the other hand
tbe conditions of the migration period were doubtless favourable
to monarchical government, and from this time onwards kingship
appears to have been univosal, ezoq>t among the CHd Sakons
and in Iceland.
The condHum or tribal assembly figares largely In Tacitns^s
account of the German!, and he represents it as the final
aatbority on aR matters of fint-nte importance. Further,
fMtar it was here that the prindfes were chosen, serious
^•Mat^r charges brought against membeis of the tribe and
yooths admitted to the limits of warriors. The dwiea of
opening the proceedings and maintaining order belonged not
to the king but to the priests, from whkli we may probably
infer that tbe gathering itself was primarily of a itUgleus
character and that it met, a» among the Swedes in later times,
in tbe immfdinte nei^boorbood of the trittial sanctuary. Sudi
religious gatherings wese no doubt common to iH Teutonic
peoples in early times, but it may be qucationed wfaetber among
tbe esstrm and northera tribes tbey were invested with all the
powem ascribed to them by Tadtua. Alter Ms time tribal
assemblies are seUom mentioned, and thoogb we hear oc-
casionally, botb in Engtand and chewfaeie, of a toncourse of
people being present when a king holds court on high days or
leiigioas festivals, there b no evidence that such concourses
took part hi the diocnlsioa of state affairs. Indeed, consider-^
ing tbe greatly increased sfse of the kingdoms in later thnes,
it is Improbable that tbey were drawn from thy except tbe
Imaswdiateiy adjacent districts. When we bear of deliberations
BBv tbey are those ef the king's oovndl or oowt, i body ct»a-
partly of members of tbe royal fomily and partly of
warriom old and young in tbe personal service of the king.
Such bodies of OMuae had always eiisted (see below) and exer-
cised at aU times a powerful influence upon the kings, frequently
even forcing them bsto war against their own wishes. That
tbey appear more prominently now than in earlier times is
due to the fact that owing to the increased size of tbe kingdoms,
tbey barf bea)me both more numerous and more wealthy. The
principle of representation for the unoffidal dasses, i^. for those
not under the immediate lordship of the king, scaiofy begins
befoce the i3tb century.
Of aB the institutions of tbe Teutonic peoples probably none
exercised a greater influence on their history than the eomitalus.
Fram CSesar we learn that It was customary at tribal assemblies
for one or other of tbe chiefs to propose an ctpedition. He
had generally no difficulty in gathering a following, and those
who embraced his service were held bound to accompany him
to the end, any who drew back being regarded as traitors.
Inddeots illustrative of this custom are of frequent occurrence
in eariy bistory and tradition. Moreover, kings and odier
distinguished persons kept standing bodies of young warriors,
an honour to them in time of peace, as Tacitus says, as well as
a protection in war. Chiefs of known prowess and liberality
attracfed krge retinues, and their influence within the tribe,
and even beyond, increased proportionately. Tbe followers
(called by Tacitus e^mites, bi England ** tbegns," among tbe
Franks antmslianeSf ftc.) were expected to remain faithful to
their lord even to death; indeed so cbse was the xelationship
between the two that it seems to have reckoned as equivalent
to that of father and son. According to Tadtus it was regarded
as a disgrace for a ames to survive his ford, and we know that
in later rimes tbey frequently shared his exile. Perhaps the
most striking instance of sudi devotfon was that disphyed at
the battle of Strassburg in 557, when the Alamannic king
Chonodomarius was taken prisoner by the Romans, and bis
two hundred comUcs gave tbemsdves up voluntarily to share bis
captivity. In return for their services the chief was expected
to reward his followers with treasure, arms and horses. U bs
were a king the reward might take the^orm of a grant of land,
or of jurisdiction over a section of the populatioo subject to
him-Hn early times a village, in later, perhaps, a considerable
district. Further, since the grantees as a rule naturally sent
their sons into the service of tbor own lords, such grants tended
to become hereditary, and in them we have the origin of the
baronage of the' middle ages. Tbe origin of the earls or counts,
on the other band, is to be found in the governors of large dis*
tricts (Tacitus*s prindpts\ who seem at first generally to have
been members of tbe royal family, tbou|^ later tbey were drawa
from the highest barons.
3. Socid OrgamtaHon.—M far bade as tbe time of Tacitus
we bear of three social rhsses, viz. nobles, freemen and freed-
men. Tbe same classes are met with in later times, though
occasionally one of them disappears, e.;.- tbe nobility among
the Franks and tbe freedmen (as a distinct dass) in the Anglo-
Saxon kingdoms, except Kent. Eadi of these classes was, to a
large extent at least, hereditary atid bad separate rights and
privileges of its own. Among the chief of these must be redconed
the wergeld o^ "man-price.** When homidde took place
vengeance was regarded as a sacred duty incumbent on the
rciktives, and sometimes at least tbe lord also, of the slain man;
but, as in the case of any other Injury, compensation could be
made by a fixed payment. From tbe evidence of later custom
it is probable tbi&t tbe normal payment for a freeman was a
hundred bead of cattle. The sums paid for members of tbe
other classes were more variable; for the freedman, however,
they were always lower, and for the noble higher, sometimes
apparently three or four tfanes as high. Similar gradations
occur in the compensations paid for various injuries and insults,
in fines and, among some tribes, in the value attached to a man's
odth. There b a good deal of uncertainty in regard to botb
the exact position and the numbers of the nobles and freedmen
of Tacthui't age. It b probable, however, that the latter, like
^as
.TEUTONIC PEOPLES
the lUi or laU ol later times, oonsisted not only oi manuatttted
slaves but also of whole communities which had forfeited their
liberty through unsuccessful waifare or other causes. In
addition to these classes there was also a considerable pppula-
tion of sUves, who had no legal status or wcrgeld and wera
regarded as the property of their mastcn. In general, however,
their lot seems to have struck the Romana as favoitfable, since
they were not attached to their masters' householda but lived
in homes of their own, aubject to fixed paymenta in com,
live stock and clothing.
Groups of family and kindred occupy a prominent positkn
in the accounts of Teutonic society given by Caesar and Tacitus.
It was regarded as a universal duty to afford protection to one's
kinsmen, to assist them in the redress of wrongs and to eiact
vengeance or compensation in case of death. Hence to have a
numerous kindred was a guarantee of security and influence.
The large amounts fixed for the wergelds of nobles and even of
freemen were paid no doubt, as in later times, not <»ly by the
slayer himself, but by every member of his kindred in propor-
tion to the nearness or remoteness of his relationship; and in
like manner they were distributed among the l^ndxed of the
slain. The importance of the kindred, however, was not
limited to purposes of mutual protection. It appears also in
the tenure of land, and according to. Tadttn the tribal armies
were drawn up by kindreds. As to the naturo of these organiza-
tions the evidence is not altogether consistent. It is clear that
agnatic succession prevailed among the princely families of the
Cherusci, and the general account given in the Germania seems
to imply that this type of organization was normal. On the
other hand thero are distinct traces of cognation not only in
Tacitus's works but also in Northern traditions and more
especially in the Salic law. On the whole it seems not unlikely
that at Uie beginning o{ the Christian era the Teutonic peoples
of the continent were in a state of transition from oognatic to
agnatic organization.
All the usual forma of marriage were known, including
marriage by capture and marriage by purchase. The latter
■■nttni ^PP^*^ °^^^ prominently in Kent and among the
^r"**^ Old Saxons, Langobardi and Bucguadians. In other
nations, e.g. the Franks, we find the payment of a very small
sum, which b often regarded as symboUc and aa a relic of real
purchase. Yet this explanation is open to question, owing to
the very early date at which the. regulation appears, and to the.
fact that in the case of widows the sum specified had to be paid
to relatives of the widow hecsdf on the female side, and by
preference to those of a younger generation. Again, Tadtua
states that the presents of arms and oxen given by the bride-
groom at marriage were made to the bride herself and not to her
guardian, and such appears to have been the case in the North
also from early times. It is not certain, therefore, that marriage
by purchase was a universal and primitive Teutonic custom.
Of the actual ceremonies practised at marriage not vei7 much
is known. It was preceded, however, by a formal betrothal
and accompanied by a feast Moreover, even among those
peoples with whom purchase prevailed it was customaxy for
the bridegroom to present the bride with a " momingngift,"
which in l^e case of queens and princesses often took the form
of considerable estates. There is no doubt that the marriages
of heathen times were olten of a kind which could not be pw-
mittcd after the adoption of Christianity. Among these may
be mentioned marriages with brothers' widows and stepmothers,
the latter especially in England. Polygamy was known, but
limited, both in early and late times, to persons of exceptionally
high position, while of polyandry there is hardly any trace.
Indeed, the sanctity attachol to marriage seems to have st^dt
the Komans as remarkable. On the other hand strife between
persons connected by marriage appears to have been of ex-
tremely frequent occurrence, and no motive plays a more
prominent part in Teutonic traditions.
4. State of Cmlaatian.—lt is a much disputed qaestkm
whether the Teutonic peoples were really settled agriculUnJ
communities at the time. when they fim came into contact
with the Romans, shortly befbie the "bcgifiokig of our en.
That agriculture of some kind was practised is clear enough
from Caesar's account, and Strabo'sstatenent to the contrary
must be attributed Co ignorance or exaggeration. But Caesar
himself seems to have regarded the Germani as esselitiaJly
pastoral peoples and their agricultine as of quite secondaij
importance, wink from Twdtus we gather that even in h&
time it was of a somewhat primitive character. For not only
was the husbandry oo-operative, as ift much later times, but
apparently the ploaghlanda were changed from year to year
without any recognition of a two-couise or three- course system.
Caesar, moreover, says that the dans or kindreds to whom the
lands were allotted changed their abodes also from year to
year— a sutement which gives a certain amount of colour to
Strabo's description of the Germani as quasi-nomadic. Yet
there is good reason for believnig that this representation of
early Jeutonic life was by no aaeaas univcnally true. We hav«
evidence, both archaeological and linguistic, that the cattivatian
of cereals in Tetttonic lands goes hack to a very remote period,
while the antiquity even of the ox-plough is attested by the
rock-canringi at Tegneby in BohvsliUi (Sweden), whkh af«
believed to date from early in the bronze age. Further, that
the tribes were not normally of a migratory character, as Strabo
seems to imply, is ibown by the existence of sanctuaries of
immenx>rial age and by frontier ramparts such as that raised
by the Angrivarii against the Cherusd. It would seem that
Julius Caesar encountcsed the Germani under somewhat ab-
normal conditiooa. Several of the tribes with which he cam«
ioto coUisioa had been expelled from their own territories by
other tribes, and we are expicsily toid that Ariovistus's troops
had not entered a house for Amrteen srears. Further, there b
satisfactory evidence that the basin of the Rhine, perhaps
also a oonsidcnble area beyond, lad been conquered frooi
Celtic peoples not very long before— from whkh it is probable
that western Germany waa stilt in a more or less unsettled con-
dition. Indeed Caesar himself aeems to have regarded the
prevalence of the military spirit as the diief hindrance to the
devdopment of agriculture. From thb rime onwarda it was
from the west mainly that Roman civilization made its way into
Germany; but in earlier ages^ a^ we have already noticed,
there are more abundant traces of civilisation in the basin of
the Elbe than in the districts farther to the west. Hence it is
not so surprising as might at first si^t appear that the remote
AestU, a non-Teutonic people settled about the mouth of the
Vistula, are represented by Taciius as keener agiicoltioriits
than any of the other inhaUtanta of Germany.
AU ancsent writera emphasize the essentially warlike character
of the Germani. Yet Tacitus seems to represent their miHtaiy
equipment as being of a somewhat primitive type. Swords,
helmets and coats of mail, he saya, were seldom to be seen; in
general they were armed only with huge shields, unwieldy spears
and darts. Here again he appear* to be thinking of the western
tribes; for elsewhere he states that some of the eastern peoples
were armed with short swords and round shields^^which pro-
bably were of comparatively small size, like those used fas later
times.. This Utter type of equipment prevailed also in the
North, as may be seen, e.g. from the figures of warriors on the
inscribed g^n horn found at GaUdnis QuHand) in 1734.
The favourite nsetlMid of attack waa by a wedge focmatkm
(known later in the North aa svtHfyUtiHg)^ the point tMeing
formed by a chqsen band of yaong warriors. Geitain tribes,
such aa the Tenctcri, were famoua for their honeasen, but the-
Gcrmani in general preferred to £gfat on loot. Soasetimea siso
we hear of apcdaUy trained forces in which the twn aims were
combined. Naval warfare ia seldom < mentioned The art of
sailing seems to have been unknown, and it is probable that
down to the 3rd century the only peoples Which, oouhl tmly be
described ss seafaring were those of the Baltic and the Cattegat.
Tliere is no doubt that Roman inflnence brought aheiut a
considerable advance in civilization during the early centuries
of our an< The cultivation of vegetables and fruit tieea aeena
to have baea paactically unknown btfore this period, and alioMt
TEUTGNIC PEOPLES
6«3
•B tbelf iMMft tmSfy toitm wtnce fro« ^nUck ttey wen dfr
liTed. We nuiy ootioe alao tbe intniductioD of the mil ia
phce of the qvcni which ^thoto h$d been in univaml uft
la aU such cases the tribes subieci to the Ramans, in the
neighbourhood of the Rhine, weie probably the chief channel
by which Roman influence made its way, though account must
■bo be taken of the fact that considerable numben of waiiion
from remoter districts were attracted to serve in the Roman
armies. Great improvements took place likewise in annour
and weapons; the equipment of the warriors whose relies have
been found ia theSchkswig bo«-depQaiis, dating from the 4th
and sth centuncs, appeao to have been vastly superior to that
which Tadtus represents as normal among iht Gennani of his
day. Yet the types, both in armcnfr and dress, remained
csBcatiaUy Teatome--or rather Celtic^Teutonia Indeed, when
in the course of time uniformity came to prevail over the greater
part of. Europe, it was the Teutonic rather tbaA the Reman
fashions whidi were geaerslixed.
The antiquity of the art of writing among the Teutonic
peoples Is a question which has been much debated. Tacitus
WMtei says that certain marics were insaibed on tbe divining
chips, but it cannot be deteoained with certainty
whether these were re^Uy letters or not. The national tsrpe
oC writing, generally known as Runic, must have been fully
developed by the 4th century, when some of iu letters wem
borrowed by UUUas (Wulfils) for his new alphabet (see GothS:
I C). Indeed, by this time it was probably known to most of the
Tcutoaic peoples, for several of the Inscriptions found ia Jutland
and the islands of the Belt can hardly be of later date. As to
Che source from which it was derived opinions «lill differ, some
thinking that it was borrowed from the Roroana a ceatuiy or
two beforo this time, while others place its origin much farther
back and trace it to one of the ancient Creek alphabets. Many
of the earliest iascriptions nad fjtom right to left, and the
fhmrpo^nUi' type is also met with occasionally. It is dear
both from literary and lingustic evidence that the character
was chiefly used for writing on wood, but the inscriptions
whicfa have survived are naturally foe the most part on metal
objects^in Sweden, Norway and England also on monumental
atones. In Germany very few Runic inscriptions have been
found, and there is nothing to^show that the alphabet was used
after the Sth century. In Enghnd also it seems not to have
lasted much longer, but inscriptions am far more numerous.
Oa the other hand, in Scandinavian countries it continued in
use through the greater pait of the middle ages— in Gotland
tiU the i6th century; indeed, the knowledge of it seems never to
have wholly died out. In the course of time, however, it under-
went many changes, and the eariiest inscriptions must have
been unintelligible for over a thousand yearn until they were
deciphered by scholars within the last half century. Tbe Roman
ajpbabel first came into use among the western and northern
Teutonic peoples after their adoption of Christianity.
5. Pumrai CiatofBr.—Jcclandic writers of the 12th and ijth
centuries distinguished, bet ween an eariier "age of burning"
and a later " age of barrows," and the investigations of modem
archaeologists have tended ia general to confirm the distinction,
though they have revealed also the burial-places of times
antecedent to the age of burning. Throughout the stone age
iabumaiion appears to have been universal, many of the aeo-
Uthic tombs being chambeis of considerable si^ and const nicted
with massive blocks of stone. Cremation makes its appearance
(rst in the earlier part of the bnxue age, and in the latter part
of that age practically displaces the older rite. In the early
iian age there is les uaiformiQf, some districU apparently
favouring cremation and othcss inhumation. The former
practice is the one recognised by Tadtus. In the national
migration period^ however, it fell into disuse amoag most of
the continental Teutonic peoples, even before their conversion,
though it seems to have been still practised by the Henili in
the 5th centioy aad by the Old Saaoas piobably till a much
later period. It came into Britain with the Aaglo-Saaon
invaders aad oootiaued ia use ia certain districts perhapa until
neady the dose of the 6ih tentmy. In Scaadkiavian lands the
change noted by loeUndie writos may be dated about tbe sih
and 6th centuries, though inhumatwa was certainly not alto-
gether unknown before that time. After the 6th centuiy
ciematioil aeems not to have been common, if we may trust the
sagas, but isolated instances occur m laU M the 10th ccntuiy.
It ia to he observed that cremation and the use of the barrow
are not mutually eidusive, for aemated semaias, generally in
urns, am often found in banows. Oa the oilier haad inhuma-
tk)n below the surface of the ground, without perceptible trace
of a baifow, aeema to have been the most usual practice during
the natioaal migration period, both -in P-^UfhI and on the
continent A apodal form of funeral rite peculiar lo-the Noith
was that of csematkm on a ship. Generally the »hip was
drawn up on land; but occasionally we. hear, ia legendaiy sagas.
of the burning ship being sent out to sea. Large ships con-
taiahig human remains have sometimes been found in barrows
of the viking age. Arms and omamenu are frequently m^
with, sometimes also horKs and human remains which may h^
those of shbves, the belief being that the dead would have all
that was buried with him at his service in the life l^yond.
Usage, however, seems to have varied a good deal in this
respect at dlflecent times and in different districts.
6. /{e/igjan>— The conversion of the Teutonic peoples to
Christianity waa a gndual process, covering some seyen cen-
turies. The first to accept the new religion seem to have been
the Goths, beginning about the middle of the 4th century, and
the Vandals must have followed their example veiy quickly.
In the couXK of the 5th century it spread to several other nations,
ioduding the Gepidae, Burgundians, Rugii and Langobardi.
In all these cases the Arian form of Christianity was the one
first adopted. The first conversion to the Catholic foipi was
that of the Franks at the end of the 5th century. The ex-
tension of Frankiah supremacy over the neighbouring Teutonic
peoples brought about the adoption of Christianity- by them
also, partly nndcr compulsion, the last to be converted being
the Old Saxons, in the ktter half of the Sth ceatuiy. The
conversion of England began in 597 and was complete in los
than a century. Ia the north, after several attempu during the
9th century which met with only temporary success, Christianity
was established in Denmark under Harold Bluetooth, about
940-^960^ and in Norway and Sweden before the end of the
centuty, while in Iceland it obtained pubfic recognition in the
year xooo. Many districts in Norway, however, remained
heathen until the reign of St Olaf (XOX4-X028), axid in Sweden
for half a centuxy later.
The subsequent religious histoiy of the yazioua Teutonic
peoples will be fouad elsewhere. Here we .are coacemed only
with the beliefs and forms of worship which prevailed before
the adoption of Christiaixity. For our knowledge of this subject
we are indebted chiefly to Icelandic literaxy men of the X3th and
sjth centuries, who gave accounts of many legends which bad
come down to them by oral tradition, besides commiiting to
writing a number of andent poems. Unfortunaldy Icelandic
history is quite unique in this respect. In the literatures of
other Teutonic countries we have only occssional references to
tbe religious rites of heathen times, and these are generally ia
no way comparable to the detailed accounts given in Icelandic
writings. Hence it is often difficult to decide whether a given
rile or legend which is mentioned only in Icelandic literature
was really peculiar to that country alone or to the North
generally, or whether it was once the common property of all
Teutonic peoples.
A number of gods were certainly known both in England
and among many, if not all, the Teutonic peoples of the con-
tinent, as wdl as in the North . Among these were Odin (Woden),
Thor (Thunor) and T^r (Ti); so also Frigg (Frig), the wife of
Odin (see Faicc, Odin, Wooen, Tuor, Tyu). Some scholars
have thought that Balder, the son o( Odin, was once known in
Germany, but the evidence is at least doubtful. Ilcimdallr,
the watchman of the gods and UUr, the stepson of Thor, as well
as Hoeoir, Bcagi aad most of the other leas prominent gods.
684
TEUTONIC PEOPLES
were also probably peculiar to the North, though XJUr at least
was known in Denmark. Some of these deities may originally
have been quite local. Indeed, such may very well have been
the case with Frey, the chief god of the North after Thorand
Odin. Tradition at all events uniformly points to Upsala as
the original home of his cult. But it is probable that both he
and his sister Frcyia were really specialized forms of a divinity
which had once been more widely known. Their father, NifirBr,
the god of wealth, who is a somewhat less important figure,
corresponds in name to the goddess Ncrthus (Hcrtha), who in
ancient times was worshipped by a number of tribes, including
the AngU, round the coasu of the southern Baltic. Tadtus de-
scribes her as " Mother Earth," and the account which he gives
of her cult bears a somewhat remarkable resemblance to the
ceremonies associated in later times with Frey. This family
of deities were collectively known as Vanir, and are said to have
once been hostile to the Aesir, to whom Odin belonged. Their
worship was generally connected with peace and plenty, just
as that of Odin was chiefly bound up with war. Gefion was
another goddess who may represent a later form of Nerthus.
In her case tradition points distinctly to a connexion with
Denmark (Sjaelland). On the other hand, the portraiture of
SkaCi, the wife of Ni5r»r, seems to point to a Finnish or Lappish
origin. The rest of the northern goddesses arc comparatively
unimportant, and only one of them, FuUa, the handmaid of
Frigg, seems to have been known on the continent.
Some of the deities known to us from German and Engh'sh
sources seem also to have been of a local or tribal character.
Such doubtless was. Fosite, to whom Heligoland -was sacredv
Saxnot (Seaxneat), from whom the Ungs of Essex claimed
descent, was probably a god of the Saxons. HoMa, who is
known only from the folklore of later times, appears to have been
a German counterpart of Nerthus. Ing, who is connected with
Denmark in Anglo-Saxon traditk>n, was m all probability the
eponymous ancestor of the Inguaeones (see above). His name
connects him, too, with the god Frey, who was also called Yngvi-
freyr and Ingunarfreyr, and he must at one time have been
closely associated with Nerthus. The relationship of Ing to
the Inguaeones is paralleled by that of Irmin to the Hermiones
(see above). He may be the deity whom Tacitus called ** Her-
cules."
Some of these eponymous ancestors may be regarded as heroes
rather than gdds, and classed with such persons, as Skioldr, the
eponymous ancestor of the Danish royal family, who is not
generally included in the Northern pantheon. But the line of
division between the human and the divihe is not very definite.
The ro>'al family of Norway claimed descent from Frey, and many
royal families, both English and Northern, from Woden (Odin).
Indeed, several legendary kings are described as sons of th6
latter. Sometimes, again, the relationship is of a conjugal
character. Skidldr, though hardly a god himself, is the husband
of the goddess Gefion. So we find Freyia's priest described as
her husband and Frey's priestess as Iiis wife, and there is no
reason for regarding such cases as exceptional.
If it is not always easy to distii^ish between gods and
heroes, there is still greater difficulty in drawing a line between
the former and other dasseS of supernatural beings, such as
connexion betweea the giants and the seml-dviUaed (Flmiirii
or Lappish) communities of the mountainous districts. This
connexion is more clear in the case of ThdrgerOr HMgabrfiOr,
who is known chiefly from the extreme vieneration paid to her
by Haakon, earl of Lade (+99$). According to one story she
was the daughter of Hdlgi, the eponymous king of Halo^land
(northern Norway); according to another she was the infe of
Hdlgi and daughter of Gusi, king of the Fins. She ought
perhaps to be regarded rather as a goddess than as a giantess,
but she is never associated with the other deities.
Another class of supernatural beings was that of the dwarfs.
They were distinguished chiefly for their cunning and for skiU
in Working metals. More important than thele from a religious
point of view were the elves (O.N. a^ar, A:S. y^e), who certainly
received worship, at all events in the North. They are ahnoct
always spoken of collectively and generally represented as
beneficent. In some respects, e-g. in the fact that they are
often said to inhabit barrows, they seem to be connected with
the souls of the dead. In other cases, however, they are
hardly to be distinguished from spirits (the Icel. landwoiUir, &c.)»
which may be regarded as gfinU tocorum*
In addition to the above there were yet other daases of super-
natural beings (see NokMS and Valkymes). Mention, however,
must be made here of the fyigiur and kamingiur of Northern
belief. These are of two kinds, though the names seem not
always to be dearly distinguished. Sometimes the fyigia is
represented as a kind of attendant spirit, belonging to each
individual person. It may be seen, generally in animal form,
in visions or by persons of second si^t, bat to see one's own
fyigia is a sign of impending death. In other cases the fylgimr
(or perhaps more correctly the hamingmr) apparently bekmg
to the whole family. These generally appear in the form of
maidens.
Human beings, especially kings and other distinguished
persons, were not infrequently honoured with worship after
death. In Sweden during the 9th century we have trustworthy
record of the formal deification of a dead king and of the erection
of a temple in his honour. In general the dead were beb'eved
to retain their faculties to a certain extent in ^ near the place
where they were buried, and stories are told of the resistance
offered by them to tomb-robbers. It would seem, nM>reovcr,
that they were credited with the power of helping their friends
(and likewise of injuring other people) very mud^ in the sane
way as they had done in life. Hence the possession of the
remains of a chief who had been both popukr and prosperous
was regarded as highly deshable.
tlie blessings wMch kings were expected to bestow upon
their subjects, in life as well as after death, were partly of a
supernatural character. Chief among them was that of securing
the fertility of the crops. The province of famine among the
Swedes was attributed to the king's remissness in performing
sacrifidal functions; and on more than one occasion kings are
Said to have been put to death for tins reason. Under dmilar
circumstances Burgundian kings were deposed. In connexion
with this attribution of superhuman powers, we may mention
also the widespread belief that certain persons had the faculty
of '* changing shape," and espedaOy of assuming the forms of
animals.
Besides the various classes of behigs to the woiSship of which
We have already referred, we hear occasionally also of sacted
animals. Tadtus tells of horses consecrated to the service of
the gods, and of omens drawn from them, and we meet again
with such horsed in Norway neaity a thousand ye4r» later. In
the same country life find the legend of a king who woiahipped
a cow. Besides the anthropomorphic "giants," meotloiicd
above, Nonhern mythology speaks also of theriomorphic
demons^ the thief of which were MidgarOsormr, the '* world-
serpent," and Fenrisulfr, a monster wolf, the Enemies of Ther
and Odin respectively. These beings are dovhtiess due in
pan to poetic imagination, biit underlying this thero may be a
substratum of prinntive religious belief. In contrast with later
6dmdliiaviaii usage Tadtus states that the andeM Gcramas
TEOTiDNIC PEOPLES
685
Bad no tituiges of t!ie gods, ^ut be does speak of eertain ftcred
Qrmbols wUch be defines elsewbetv as figures of wild beasts.
One of the chief objects of veneratioo among the Cimbri is said
to have been a brazen bull.
Figures of animab, bowever, were not the only inaiumate
things regarded in this way. The Quadi are said to hmve
considered their swords divine. More important than this was
the worship paid, especially in the North, to rocks and stone
cairns, while springs and pools ahto were frequently regarded
as sacred in all Teutonic lands. But, on the whole, there is
perhaps no characteristic of Teutonic religion, both in early and
bter times, more prominent than the sanctity attached to
certain trees and groves, though it is true that In such cases
there is often a doubt as to whether the tree itself was wor-
shipped or whether it was regarded as the abode of a god or
spirit. The sanctuaries mentioned by TadttH seem always to
have been groves, and in later times we have references to such
places in all Teutonic lands. One of the most famous was
that in or beside which stood the great temple of Upsala. Here
also must be mentioned the Swedish Viidtrftd or " guardian
tree," which down to our own time is supposed to grant pro-
tection and prosperity to the household to which it betongs.
One d the most striking conceptions of Northern mythology
it that of the " worid-tree," Yggdrasil's Ash, which sheltered
all Uving beings (see Yccdkasil)." The description given of it
recaOs in many respects that of a particularly holy tree which
stood beside the temple at Upsak. For the idea we may com-
pare the Irminsul, a great wooden pillar which appears to have
been the chief object of worship among the Old Saxons, and
which is described as "universalis columna quasi sustinens
omnia."
Hie Northern sanctuaries of later times were generally build-
ings constructed of wood or other materials. A Space apparently
partitioned off contained figures of Thor or Frey and perhaps
other gods, together with an altar on which burned a perpetual
fire. In the main body of the temple were held the sacrifidal
feasts. The presiding priest seems always to have been the
dnef to whom the temple belonged, for there is no evidence for
the esistence of a sptdal priestly class in the North. In England,
however, the case was otherwise; we are toM that the priests
were never allowed to bear arms. There is record also of
priests among the Burgundians and Goths, while In Tadtiis's
time they appear to have held a very prominent positioh in
German society. Among all Teutonic peoples from the time
of the Cimbri onwards wo frequently hear also of holy women
whose duties were concerned chieily with cfivination. Some-
times, indeed, as in the case of Veleda, a prophetess of the
Bructeri, during Vespasian's reign, they were regarded piacti-
cally as deities. After the adoption of Christianity, and possibly
to a certain extent even before, such persons came to be re-
garded with disfavour— whence the persecutions for witchcraft
— ^but it is clear from Tadtus^s works and other sources that their
{nfinence in early times must have been very great. In the
North the sanctuaries called hdrgar seem to have been usually
under the charge of the wives and daughters of the household.
But there h some evidence also for the existence of spedal
priestesses at certain sanctuaries.
Of rcfigious ceremonies the most important was sacrifice.
The victims were of various kinds. Those offered to Odin
(Woden) were generally. If not always, men, from the time of
Tadtus onwards. Human sacrifices to Thor and the other gods
are not often mentioned. Of anitnals, which were oonsumed
at the sacrifidal banquets, we hear chiefly of horses, b«t also
of oxen and boars. At human sacrifices, however, dogs and
hawks were often offered with the men. At all sacrifices it
seems to have been customary to practise divination; In am-
nexion urith human sacrifice we have record of this rite from the
time of the Gmbri. One barbarous custom which was regarded
as a sacrifice was the de<fication of an enemy's army to thft
gods, especially Odin. This custom, which is likewise known
to have prevailed from the eariiest times, involved the loUl
destruction of the defeated army, together with everything
XXVJ 12
betongfogtothem. In general the chlK sactxfldal festStali leem
to have taken place at fixed times in the year, one in tariy or
Bid-autuma, aaotbsf at mid-winter and a third during the
spring. Sacrifices on an exceptionally large scale were held at
UpsaU and Lefae every nine years, at the fOrfner pUce about
the time of the spring equinox, at the latter In the early part of
January. Besides these fixed festivals sacrifices could of course
be offered in all time of public or private need. In the lauer
case resort was very frequently had also to sorcery and necro-
mancy.
Mention has been made above of the belief that the dead re-
tained a coBsdous existenoe in or near the place where th^ were
buried, and that they were able to confer blessings upon thdr
friends. Beside this belief, however, we find another which
seems hardly to be compatible with it, via., that the souls of
the dead paued to the realm of Hd, who in Nocthem mythology
is represented as the daughter of Loki. Again, those wbo had
fallen in battle were supposed to go to Valhalla, where they
became warriors in Odin's service. This last bdief seems to
have been connected at one time with the practice of cremation.
In conclusion it must be mentioned that even the life of the gods
was not to be lor ever. A day was to oome whoi Odin and Thor
would fail inconfllawith the wolf and the worid-aerpent, when
the abode of the gods would be destroyed by fixe and the earth
sink into the sea. But the destruction was not to be final; in
the future the goda of a younger generation would govern a
beUer world. How tu these beliefs were common to the
Teutonic peoples as a whole cannot be determined with cer-
tainty. Some scholars bold that they were peculiar to tLe
mythok>gy of Norway and Iceland and that th^ arose at a
late period, largely through Christian influence. But a serious
objection to this view is presented by the fact that very similar
ideaa in some respects were current among the andent Gauls.
AuTRoatTrvs.— t. Ancient. The most important of the eariy
authoritiet (down to the and century) are Caesar (esp. J9. Ceil,
*• ii-~5A* iv. I'lO. vi. 31-24), Strabo (esp. p. 290 ff.), Pliny, Hist.
Nat. (ttp. Iv. 96 it., xvi. I ff., xxxvii. 41 ff.), Tadtus (esp. Germanic),
Pluurch, Marius, and Ptolemy. Geofr. ii. 11. Among later writers
much valuable information is liveo by Ammianus Mamllinust
lordanes, Procopius, Gregory of Tours, Bede, Paulas Oiaconus,
Wtdukind, Thietmar, Adam of Bseinea and Saxo Grammaticus, aS
weQ as by the eariy laws and charters. To these must be aSded
a hm number of Old None wriria^ induding the older Edda
and tnc prose Edda (the chief authorities for Northern mythology),
Islands Laoda4ffiab6k and many sagas dealing with the history
of families in Icefamd (such as Eyri>ynia Saga) or with the' lives
of Norwegian and other kings, both historical and kseodary (in
Hdmskringia, Fofnmanna S^^r and Rafn's Fomaldar Sdgur Norr-
landa). F^ further references see Britain (Anglo-Saxon), Gbr-
MANY (ethnography and Eariy Histoc>')* and Scandinavian
QVILIZATIOH.
n. Uodtrn Authorities, (a) Arduuaiop, L. Lindenscbmit, Dm
AllertOmer unserer heidnischen Vorzeit (Matnz, 1864- );HaHd'
buck d. deutzchen Altertmmskunde (Brunswick. 1880); S. Mailer
Vef 0UH4 (Copenhagen, 1997); Nordiscke AlteHtmukmde (Stiaas-
burg. 1897-08)] Urg<tsckKki« Emropas (StrSMburg. 1905). See also
Britain (Anglo-Saxon), GaaMAMY (Ardiae6logy) and Scandi-
navian CiVaiZATION.
(6) History and EAnofraphy. fC Zeuss. Die Deutschen tmd die
Nttckbantdmme (Munich, 1837); K. MOllenhoff. Deutscke Alter-
AMutendf (Berlin, 1870-1900): H. d'Arbois de Tubainvitte. Let
Premiers Habitants de V Europe (PariiL 1880-94} '. O. Bremer.
" Ethnoeraphie d. germ. St&niroe ' in H. Paul s Crundriss d. germ.
PkiMogJe, ini ed., vol. iii. (Strassbuig. 1900); H. M. Chadwkrk,
The Oripn ^ the Bnjdtsk Natiou (Cambridge, 1907); G. ScbQtte.
OUsapi om Codtjod (Copenbagen, 1907); Germanische Etkuot^pkie,
See also Alaicanni, Ancu. Britain (Anglo-Saxon), (jhatti.
Cherusci, Cimbri, Denmark, Frakics, Frisians, Germany
(Ethnography and Eariy Hbtory), Gotbs, Hbroli, Lombards.
Nrtrbrlands, Norway. Saxons, Subbi, Swbobn, Teutoni*
Vandaia
VerfosnMesitKkiekle (IGd. i860; yd ed. 1880); M. Brunner.
Demiseke Jteekt$t^tuekte (Lriprig. 1887): K. Wetnhold, Deulsihe
^r^!*** iVicnna, 1841; 2nd ed^ 1882); AltuordisciaUben (Beriio.
686
TEVIOT^TEWFIK PA8HA
SaxffH Lav (London, looa);.?. GuUhiermoc, Bssai xur VoHfineie
h mtktM tn FHmc$ (Ms, 1903): M. HtyM. DmUck$ HuualUr"
. • •^. WqUbAum»_u. KuUurpfloMtiH im
(Chrlttitnift, 1904} t
§trm. AUtrtum (Stm
4th td. Bcrlia. ll7ft)( rmlMk MyAdoty (tmaa. by J. S Sul ,
bftM, Loadon. iMjh K. Maurer, DU B«k$krung dts norwensrkeu
Stammts ntm ChrUtftUum (Munich, iB5;(>s6): W. Mannhardt, Der
BatimkiUtus itf Gfmamn «. ihnr NMkbarstdmm$ (Berlin. l875>;
H. Pvterwn. Om Nordbotnm Cnitd/rMst og Gudtir* i Htimcld
(CopenhagMi, 1876): H. PfaanenKhmid, GtmautMekt EimkSeaU
(Hanover. 1878): V. Jahn, Bit d^sckm O^trf^Amdu (BresUu,
1884): E. Hf. Meyer, (krmanuckt UyOuAop* (Berlin, itei);
NVTColther, Handbfuk i. mtrm. Mytkchtu (Leipog. 1895): P. Herr-
mann. DtuUekt MyOuUcHs (Leipale. 1808): Ncrdisclu MythetopM
(Ulpilg, 1903): H. M. ChadwicVrTA« tmU a/ Oikm (Carobridee.
I899)7e. M^k. " Mvtholocie " in Paul'* Cnminu d, ttrm, PfU,
(vol. Ui., Me above): P. D.Xhantepje de U Sau«ayej_GeKitWais
van dtn
burs. 1903) t L. F. A. WImmer, Runeskrifltns
n. 1874) jTNf Runtnsckrifl (Berlin, 1887),
_ _ Godsdienst der Ctrmanen (Haarlem. 1900): The RdigioH
0f tkt Ttutoitt (Boeton. i9oa)^ P. Kauffmami. Balder: 3iylku$ u.
S»t$ (Scrauburf, I90»>: £. H. Meyer, if/ttafafif der Germmum
(Simbois. 1903V ^^ (H. M. CO
TBVIOT. AKDRBW ROTBDIIOU), Eail ov <d. 1664). was
the ion of WilUam Rutherford of (^landholes, Rozburghshiie.
HIa education was received In Edinburgh, and he took up the
career of soldier of fortunei His services were given to the
Preneh govemment, which maintained regimenU of Scottish
mercenaries. On the restoration of Charles II., Rutherford
wu taken Into employment by his own king on the recommenda-
tion of Louis XIV. of France. He had held a commission as
Heutenant-general in France and had a hi^ repuUtion for
Eisonal courage. Charies n. gave him the Scottish title of
rd Rutherford and the govemonhip of Dunkirk, which
had been acquired by the Protector Oliver Ciomwett. When
Charles II. sold the town to FHnce In 1669 Rutherford was
eonsoled by the command of the »nd or Tangier regiment, was
made earl of Teviot in the peerage of Scotland, and was sent in
i66j as governor to Tangier. His tenure of office was veiy
short, for on the 4tb of May 1664 he allowed himsdf to be en-
trapped into an ambush by the Moors, who carried on incessant
irregular warfare against tbe English ganison, and was killed,
te«ether witb ninelecn oflken and nearty five hundred men of
his garrison.
See \\\ F. Lord, rkf ImI PtoessMM ^ EnfEsntf (Loodoo. 1896).
TBVHyniU; the vaUey of the Teviot, RoxburgMure.
Scotland. In a Kmitcd sense the word describes tbe stretch
above Hawick (9 m.) and, in 4 wider tease, the wbole vale,
extending in a north<e«steriy dxrecUon from Tcviothead aeariy
to the confbes of the parish of Rosbuigh, a distance of tj m.
It b sometimes inconvctty used as an altcfBati>'e name for the
sKire. much of the arc* of whkh, in poinl of fact, lies outside
the Teviot drainage basin. Tbere are num ero us points of
interest in the dale. Henry Scott RkMdl (itd^-iSjo^ the poet,
was buried at Tex-iotheod. Almost side by side in the church-
yard are the obelisk near his grave and the memorial stooe
erected k the cemeteey wall to John Aimstio«g of Gilnockie,
the cdebnted freebooter, who^ along with several fofloweis,
was treacherously seucd in 15^0 and hanged at Caerianrigg.
in the ifluscdiate vicimt>\ by oidcr of James V. RkkkU b
fl^irthcr com m e m otated by a i n o winwn t on Ikydc« hit
Btanihotei tower, the peel of G<4dieUQds. and Haiden castle
(on Haiden bum. a tributary of North* kk water) are spots
lamttar through the writings of Sir Walter Scott and many
Border balMs. Five m. to the east of Hawick stands the hil
of Rubrfsbw vttgs ft/^. .\mong the crags on its smrnit is
the nxk. siSI called * IVdca^ chak.* iroca which .Ainarier
IVden preached to cenveotkks of C^vcaaatccs. Bcaow ILim>ck
hiteeeia p«tec^al|y centres aroaad Miatow HasBesc<an->th«
Rairhkan el Sk Visiter Scott'% see^ " Joch o* Baxcii^an **—
and \acfwa
VmUC V4SBA (t8s^iS^\ khcdiv« ti Eg>Tt. sdo of ihe
^4lvtlMna,wnshan«ith»tsthof NeieeariMr iSst> Hm
mother was a f^lUh wemn. AlthoiujE the eldest son, be waa
not lent to Europe to be educated, uke his younger biothexa,
but was left to grow up in his native country. In i86d Itnudl
succeeded in his endeavour to alter the order of succession to
the khediviate. The title, instead of passing to the eldest
living male descendant of Mehemet Ali, was now to descend
from father to son^ Isnuul sought this alteration mainly be-
cause he disliked hb uncle, Houm Pasha, who waa his heir-
presumptive, and he is supposed to have imagined that he would
be able to select whichever of his sons he pleased for his suc-
cessor, fiut he found, after the duuige bad been made, that
the powers inteipreted the new arrangement as applying
strictly to the eldest son. Tewfik therefore became heir-
appaient. He was given a palace near Cairo to live in, and for
twelve years he passed an uneventful life, farming, and estab-
lishing a reputation for good sense and fair dealing with his
fellah tenants. In 1878 he was appointed president of the
council after the dismissal of Nubar Pasha. He hdd this office
only for a few months; but this was long enough to show that,
if he was unambitious and not particulaxly intcIUgent or ener-
getic, he had the wisdom to refrain from taking a part in tbe
intrigues which then formed the chief part of political life in
Egypt. He went back to his esute, and settled down once more
to a quiet country life. He was not left undisturbed for long.
On the 26th of June 1879 Ismail, at the instance of Great Britain
and France, was deposed by the sultan, who sent ordcis at the
same time that Tewfik should be proclaimed khedsve. The new
viceroy was ao little pleased by the news of his accession that
he soundly bosed the ears of the servant who first brought the
tidings to him. Egypt at that time was involved in financial
and political troubles brought about by the policy of Ismail
(9.9.), and the situation waa made worse by the inaction of
England and France for some months following Tewfik 's ac-
cession. Tewfik'is people wete dissatisfied, his army disaffected;
his advisexs were neariy all of the adventurer daas, with their
own ends to gain; and he himself had neither the chamcter of a
strong ruler nor the experience that would have enahkd him
to secure an orderiy administration of affairs^ Diaofder pre^
vailed until November 1879, when the dual control was re-
established by the governments of Great Britain and France.
For over two >'cars Major Baring (afterwards Lord Ctomer).
Mr (afterwards Sir) Auckland Colvin, and M. de BUgnieres
practically governed the country, endeavouring to institute
reforms while possessing no means of cocrcioB. During all
this time the disaffectim in the Egyptian araqy was increasing-
Tewfik has been blamed for his faihue to take a firm ine wkh
the rebels, but his attitude was governed by his idations virh
Great Britain and France, and he was unable to ooaml cvata.
The dissatisfaction culrainatfd in the anti-foreign aovemcat
headed by Aiabi Pasha (f .t.), who had gained oompleu menmanrl
oC the aimy. In July i8Sa the atutode ol Aiahi, who was
caii>-iof out deffeasire works on a large scale, made It neoessaxy
for the British admiral (Sir Beaachamp Seymour, afterwards
Loid Akcster) to dedaic that he would bombard the forts of
Afcandria unless ihey were handed over to hiaa. Bcioee the
bombardmmit begsn it was suggested to Tewfik that he dbouM
leave the city and embark either upon a BBaa<oC<^«ar befogging
to ane of tbe neutral poweiv or in his own yacht, or sn a mafl
steamer which was then m the pott. His answer was. * I am
stiil khcdi>Y, and I remain with my pcopk in the hour d their
dajvcr.** At his palace of Ramieh. j m. frasa the town, he
was bcyord reach el the shciK bet his Hfe was nerothcksa
impcnUcd. \\b<ii the rtbci aoldiess attacked Ak palnoe he
Bsaoagcd to moke his escape and to reach another palboe after
passii^ through the bur-'^g streets 01 Akxaadria. Bere ha
waa oU^rcd 10 agree that a gaazd of ErLssh h^neyadkcts T*n^;ii
pMUct him tnwa further risk. He showed his eii rags eqaaSy
during the chcMta cpvicvK at AJexaadria m. XSI5. He had
gswe back to Cairo after the ba:*Je oi Id-d-Kebc^ had con-
sented to the icfora» iosisud cpco hw Geest Ikima* aad had
aasHMd the pasatxm of a €«£s:.:^tiacal rakr uadtar the yud-
aaeea<Lmdnuiistin>theBrtf«hi ^
TEWKESBURY— TEXARKANA
687
Che diolert broke out, he insisted upon going to Menndria.
Hb wife accompanied him, and he went round the hospitals,
setting an excellent example to the authorities of the dty, and
cnoottngiog the patients by kind and hopeful words. In i88a
Sir Evelyn Baring went back to Egypt as diplomatic agent ana
consul-general of Great Britain. His first task was to demand
that Tewfik should abandon the Sudan. Tewfik gave his con-
sent with natural reluctance, but, having consented, he did
cvcrsrthing he could to ensure the success of the policy which
Baring had been sent to carry out. He behaved with equal
propriety during the negotiations between Sir H. Drummond
Woll! and the Turkish envoy, Mukhtar Pasha, in 1886. His
position was not a dignififd one-Hhat of a titubr ruler com-
pelled to stand by while others discussed and managed the
affairs of his country. Tlie sultan was his suzerain; in Great
Britain he recognized hb protector: to the representative of
each he endeavoured to show frieodlincsa and esteem. As
tuBW went on his confidence in Baring increased, until at last
he deferred to the British agent in almost everything. Oa
<iccask>n, however, he acted on his own initiative, as when in
June 18S8 he dismiswd Nubar Pasha and summoned Rias
Pasha to form a ministTy-»an action influenced, nevertheleaa,
by Tewfik*s knowledge of the divergence of views between
Nubar and the Britidi agent. Baring encouraged Tewfik to
ahow his activity in matters of administration, and he took a
great interest in all matters coimected with irrigation, educa*
tlon and justice. He was not a particularly strong man cither
an mind or in character, but he showed a genuine desire to
fovem his country for its own benefit. He understood the
importance to Egypt ti British assistance and support; his
natural shrewdness made him accept the British conditions;
his natural good feeling kept Urn from any inclination to in-
trigue. In private life he was courteous and amiable. He
had no desire to keep up the unapproachable state of an oriental
niler. Indeed, in many ways his maiuien and habits wens leas
oriental than European. He married in 1873 his kinswoman,
Amina Hanem, with whom he lived very happily. She was his
only wife and Tewfik was a strong advocate of monogamy.
He died on the 7th to January 1893, at the Hehian palace near
Cairo, and was succeeded by his eldest son. Abbas II. {q.v.).
A warm tribute to Tewfik's many admirable qualities was paid
by Baring (Lord Cromer) in his report on the administrataon of
Egypc for 1891 (aee Egypt, No. 3, 1893. pp. i and a).
TBWKBSBVRY, a market town and municipal borough in
the Tewkesbury parliamentary division of Gloucestershire,
England, rsi m. N.E. of Gloucester by the Midland railway.
Pop. (t90t) 5419. It lies in a flat pastoral district, with low
hills to the south, on the Warwickshire Avon, close to its junc-
tion with the Severn. The Severn is crossed by an iron bridge
with a flattened arch of 170 ft. span, erected by Telford in 1834.
Of the great Benedictine abbey, one of the richest foundations
in England, refounded and enlarged by Sir Robert Fitz-Hamon
in the tsth century on the site of an ancient hermitage and
Saxon monastery, there only remain the gate and a few other
fragments. The abbey church, however, consecrated in 1195,
is a magnificent specimen of early Norman. This elaborate
cruciform building consists of nave and side aisles, with transepts
united by a grand central tower richly arcaded. The choir
terminates in an apse and is surrounded by an ambulatory.
One of the most remarkable features of the building is the
unique western front, the central part of which is occupied by
one vast arch extending from the ground to the roof. Originally
it was filled in with Norman windows, bat a Perpendicular
window now occupies the space. The whole building under-
went restoration in the Decorated period, and of this style it
is one of the finest existing examples. The Norman windows
in the nave were replaced, and stone groining was substituted
for the carved wooden ceiling, a like transformation taking
place in the transepts. The Norman columns in the choir still
exist; but above them rises a grand superstructure of Decorated
woik. The elegant clerestory windows are of the 14th century,
with stained glass of the same date. The ambulatory wu re*
built some disUnoe farther out, and from it projected a beautiful
series of chapels. The elaboraU tombs inchide those of Sir
Robert Fit»-Haman, the De Spensers, Alan prior of Canterbury,
Sir Guy de Brien, and the vault of George duke of Clarence
(murdered in the Tower) and his wife Isabella. Edward, prince
of Waks, shun alter the battle of Tewkesbury (1471) by the
Yorkists, is also buried in the church. Of the two organs, one,
dating from the early X7th century, is of singularly beautiful
tone. In the High Street there are several andent timbered
and gabled houses. Remains of an ancient wall have been
discovered adjoining the town. There are a free grammar
school (1635) and a number of charities and almshouses.
Tewkesbury is chfefly dependent on iu agricultural trade.
Below the junction of the rivers there Is a great lock and weir
on the Severn, up to which the stream is sometimes revcrMd
by the tidal bore. The borough is under a mayor, 4 akiennen
and ra counciltors. Area, 9539 acres.
Remains of Roman encampments and roads prove that the
earliest settlement near Tewkesbury {Tkeotesburg, Tketcket-
huria, Tkookshwi) of which we have evidence was a ndlitaty
encampment against tha British. It was the site of a Saxon
castle and monastery, and iU position near navigable rivera
led to the growth of a town, which was a borough with a market
in ro87 when it was part of the royal domain. It was subse-
quently granted to Earl Robert of Gloucester, who granted a
charter before 1x07, which exempted the borough from certain
tolls and from suit at the hundred court. Edward III. con-
firmed this charter in 1337, and made Tewkesbury free from
tdls throughout England. The borough was incorporated by
Elizabeth by a charter of 1574, which was confirmed in 1604,
1605, X609 (when the manor and borough were sold to the
corporation) and 1685, while the town was governed under the
charter granted by William HI. in 2698 until the corporation
was reinodelled b 1835, the modem govenunent consisting of
a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 coundBon. Tewkesbury returned
two members from 2609 to 1867, when it lost one member,
and in 1885 the representation was merged in that of the
county. A fair on July so was granted in 1393, and fairs 00
September sx and August 94 in 1440, and on April 95 in 2574.
For the last May 3 was substituted in X605, and two more fairs
on June xx and September 39 were granted in 1609. All these
grants were ooniirined by the charter of X685. Chie fair only
Is now held, on October 10. It is a pleasure lair and a fair for
hiring servants, and has lost the commercial importance of the
early wool fairs. The long-existing provision trade along the
four rivers declined through railway competition. Qoth-making
Usted from the xxth centuiy until the beginning of the x8th;
gloving in the X 7th century was followed by worsted-combing
in the x8th. Cotton-thread lace-making, introduced in X895,
collapsed about x863. Tewkesbury was once celebrated for the
manufacture of mustard, which ceased to be important at the
end of the x8th century. Stocking-frame knitting was the chief
trade in 1830, but has been replaced by the boot and shoe trade.
Tewkesbury was strategically important in the Wars of the
Roses, and was the site of a battle in 1471, axMl in the Civfl War
was four times besieged.
See Victoria County History, Chuetslerthin; James Bennet,
History of Tewkesbury (1850); William Wyde, History of Tewkes-
bury (1798).
TBZARKANA. two adjoining cities forming one community,
ntuated on either side of the boxmdary line between Arkansas
and Texas, U.SA., about 165 m. £. by N. of Dallas, Texas;
Texarkana, oounty-seat of Miller county, Arkansas, pop. (1900)
49x4, of whom X20 were foreign-bom and 9078 were negroes;
(1910) 5655; Texarkana, Bowie cotmty, Texas, pop. (1900) 5356,
of whom 193 were foreign-bom and 1964 were negroes; (1910)
9790. Texarkana is served by the Kansas Qty Southern (Port
Arthur Route), the Texas & Pacific (of which It is the easte
terminus), the St Louis, Iron Mountain k Southern (Iron Mc
tain Route, the southern terminus), and the St Louis S01
Western (Cotton Belt Route) railways. The public bmldingi
two dty halls, a weQ-des^wd Post Office, which sUndboB
686
TEVIOT^TEWT
s
(StnMbnrs, 1903)-
TBVIOT, ANDREW R^JTHntfOBD. E^ or
thllm o! William Ruth«ford of Quar^«^«
His education was received in gdinbu^h, ar
career of soldier of fortune. His services
?^h government, which «n«ntatoed re,
mercenaries. On the ^^^^"^ ±^^^
was taken into employment by »»«J^^^^"
tion of Louis XIV. of France. He had
Heutenant-general in France and had
personal courage, Chartes H. gave 1^
Lord Rutherford and the governor?
had been acquired by the Protector
Charles II. sold the town to Franc
consoled by the command of the ir
made earl of Teviot in the peerage
1663 as governor to Tangier. F
short, for on the 4th of May 166
trapped into an ambush by the ^
irregular warfare against the F
together with nineteen officer?
.^tal
.re the
"0 fh \2^ elevation
.P|^Jf? Mexico by*
tbeO»»v» ^_ which
o» *^w!r.^ from th«
»!.« Prairie Plains; and nuwcrous «?»?. fS^JJ^
^Tum Texas nvers have deppgtcfl P«^^ cun^nt
^nd oSdoTakc on the Uuisuia bcjdw. On
Grande on the CoattalPUm. . - ..
iceott. U nottWy rich in the fojri i^|« ^^
.^ in the vicinity «<W«o 0^«^,SSS
"■-n.. varied faunn and Hon of Texas naV ^'"tSSfS
^^,\'£^';?,"ctirrndtJa"s^-^3^^
A^ ""•.."•^^"ttesiw M iSd IdSSdTpUtea-j
•he Pecos VaBey, and in «»« =" AuMnd tone, cowrini moet of
grip, which it .gni-tropical. OOPJ^^bSS and wolve. «•«
JSS'ed over Ae T«"^'»^ ^ ^taJ oC U« tor,",»il
nomeiw* e«?»»"y ^ TeMSJna Ufcll «ri*d. (or it mcluto
ad there are a Jew •I'i)^^,!^^ inhabit the
t. Louisiana ^"^j^/^'tS owSonally one is
iere u a^fc«l,«^b;*PC°»-"i,^ „bbit. j«. eon_"K»
^ garraon. /A% lit^^ «. *3»''.«a
Scotknd. In. limited s, -^'^^ ^J'^Tit:? 1 S^E- W
extending in a north-«a- . ^^TitV tV«« W*^ "Si^.h^
to the confines of the r ' f^t» » ««""', "'^diwttan ol
It is sometimes incorr. ' ^ STr,. '* K ':ir«d. i4t«rd past
shire, much of the ar. ;;;^ ^. **^»^, '^'.'^'.T-^ >• jl*
the Teviot drainogr ^^^^J^T*^ .V Ur^h". a»«, '"^ '!
interest in the dale. 7<W*rrro<>«.^« •« d»« «■>,«!»"*? *!2
was buried at Tevi -^H" ^'VT.X."* ~'lt " ' '""^
y«d are the obeJ ■ -^^r*»V? ^.j2>».'Ji.
• ..«?i.^are.evera,l^-^ ^ „jj^^^.^^^^
on the prairies and in tha^^'^hxXy vf<^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^6
k^nawl th* Tex
kite. mourmnK-dove, '^'JTi^uVl^
^Innff the Gutt there are •o^^^'r^bje (jZwoi""*^) -.^"*
|fe,^ieTT^^I7E''5r^^""i
STa tCT' '«ie'>'»C*t^f ™ll3rf Md «U<r«e.«- S^SS
^»tward into the Mis«HwpP»-
^ « W into the GuU ol Mcnco.
-^^^ry, th« Pecos, drain narrow
^'^^i* ana JK C^dian river rwe
-^•^^^ and ^f^* i4*^?o. but all the
irain«w4 ^r, "^Sl- w* holders.
h Che aMt cooun^ of Teas Uards, txccpt in thtimitunm^^
viMre the Ten* rock liaidt {Sethpvrus Urquahu; S. 4crhw^7 •^ ■
tpimomt; S. c^msokrinusi S. disfnr) ere numerotte. The tret w^Z *^"''
or tcely luArd. i* abo en lohebiuat ol westcni and wetlMiciicrB ^" -
Texea. The green luerd. the fence Heard and whip-tailed \am^ \LjT '
^^*emii»fk»nu gtUaris: C. padiMtaius; C tessdaUu, &c.) are teii« \ 1^ ^
nfiateUnm), end piairie bull snake {Vikupku)
mood water •nake {Natris faaciata) is found
N
dutributcd. The GiU Monster {ffdodtrma smpeamSTl uJl*^ '
« liiard. whoae bite u injurioue^but rarely, if ever, fatal to 1 umT* "^ -
rcurs in the doiert reeiooe. The btow snake* or a
*on ptatyrrkinus), jblack snake {Bascanion consindffj.
.r'wievl^'v.
5»»nafay«,«^.
The 1
» injurious but rarely, if ever, fatal to I i^a^/ "^
__'„_ ^. u. u^ ^ spieadin, ISILiXj:
tfflUtMi), and pFsirie bull snake (Pitmopkia) ite^.
id water snake (Nairis faaciata) is found only
" snake {Jjampr9pdHt itiula), in central and
i<^ - pilot snake (CaUofdHs ^btcUius), mostly
T* ^ -I county. Among venomous snakes the
'^ (£to^ fninus) IS common along the
^gkiUridon tanlorlrig) akmf the wooded
iivers; the cottonmouth {A^ktstndcn fisci-
i the sute except the more and districts*^ the
assasauga (Sisirurus c a kn ahi s amstrs, sometimes
rus Urgemimu) and the ground rattlesnake (5f>>
^>. in all aectiona. The green lattlesnake {Cnkdus
.abiu the valley of the Rio Grande; the pUins rattle-
itkUus confimtntms), the north-wtstem counties: the
. rattlesnake (C. adamamins), the wooded river bottoms;
cjcas rattlesnake, western Tncas and the southern coast
lies; the banded rattlesnake, a few widely sepaxatcd woodland
.tricts. There are several varieties of the skink (Eumeces).
rreshwater fish, consisting mostly of catfish. buffak> fish, bass,
suafish and drum, are common in the jower courses of the rivers.
Oystcts, clams, and shrimp abound ahwe the coast, and there are
more than 500 species of mollusks in toe state. The boU-weevili
peeving on the cotton, is the most noxious of the insects.
Apto.— The arboreal flora of Louisiana and Arkansas extends
into north-eastern Texas, conformable with the Coastal Plain,
where, immediately south of the Colocado river, the great pine
belt of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts terminates. The floca 01 the
Gceat Plains resion, consisting principally of nutritious guesses,
enters the norto-westem portion of the statetand extend* south
to the Edwards Plateau and east into the Prairie Plains region.
The oeculiar plants ol the Rocky Mountain plateaus penetrate
buo the Trans-Pecoe renoo, which the north Mexk:an flona, includ-
ing the Arofg <0db#f«iQa, a valuable commercial fibre, is found
•long the Kio Grande. The central region is a transition ground
where these floras find representation generally in deteriorated
and dwarfed spedcs. The long-leaf pine is the dominant forest
tree 00 the uplattds '<{ the Coastal Plain, north of the Coksrado
ffiwcr, for 100 m. or mote from the coast; (arther inland and
eqwdally in the north-eastern comer of the state, it is succeeded
by the short-leaf pine. Between the rising swells of lonjs-leaf pine
fauads are impenetrable thickets of hawthorn, holly, trnvet, plane
trees and magnolias. Loblolly pine, cypress, oalo, hkkory, ash,
pecan, maple, beech and a few other dieciduous trees are inter-
•persed among both the long'leaf and the short-leaf pines, and the
proportion of^dcciduous trees increases to the westward. In the
broad river valleys of the eastern part of the Prairie Plains region
are forests and isolated groves consisting principalKr of pecan,
cypress, cottonwood and several species of oak. Farther west
two narrow belu of timber, consisting mostly of stunted post oak
and black jack, and known as the Eastern and Western Cross
Timbers, cross the prairies southward from the Red river, and a
low growth of mesqutte, other shrubs and vines are common in
the enetcm half of the Pkairie Plains. The western half of these
plains has only a few trees ak>ng the watercourses and some scraggy
bushes of oak. juniper and cedar in the more hilly sections. In the
canyons of the Edwards Plateau grow the pecan, live oak, syca-
more, dm, walnut and cypress: on the hilly dissected borders
of the same plateau are cedars, dwarf and scrubby oak, and higher
up are occaswnal patches of stunted oak, calkd "shinnenes."
Toe upper sboes of some of the mounuins in the Trans-Pecos
'-*^ed with forests of large nines, cedars and other
farther down the same
yUle, at thTsS
in the Paohandl
Beeville,BSlS
much farther n
to 76'. The
westward and a
at El Paso. Al
and the spring
the rainfall an
April. In the miooie. ta»t«a i^^-' -
the spring months are the wf*t--T* **< --
driest; for example, at Wa^S !?;- .,.
May and only 19 in. in DtcnSb^^ ^-
western parU the summer mooibTL. ,u ^ - .
months^'are the dnest: thus, at ElP *^' .
a -2 in. in July and only o-a in. in 2!^-.*** *♦*
snowfall (oi tSe sUte hTabout^ £ *'2'}^'. '»- -
northern portion of the Panhandle
region are
aioaotnio slopes, but other mouni
Smaller trees and shrubs ^prow
. "^ " itaina and the valleys are 1
ofjreea. The entire, valley of the Rio Grande, from
! wholly
El Paso to^ Brownsville, grows many species of cactus, and other
prickly coriaceous shrubs. The low country along the coast is
cuv ere d chiefly with grasses and rushes, but scattered over it are
dumps of live oak, called " mottes." Grasses representing several
•pedes also cover nwet of the Great Plains, the upUnds in the
•outhem portion of the Coastal Plain, and the treeless portions
of the Prairie Plains and the Trans-Pccos region.
QimaU. — In the region of Galveston, along the northern section
of the coast, where southcriy or south-easteriy winds from the
Gulf prevail throughout the year, the dimate is warm, mobt and
equaUe, but the mobture decreases westward and south-westward,
and the equability, partly because of northerly winds during the
winter momhs. decreases m all directions inland. The mean annual
temperature decreases to the north-westward with an increase of
both altitude and latitude, and ranges from 7^* F. in the tower
and in the tower Rto Grande Valley -RE* ***» •'^"^
southerly or south-easterly throughout molt «?!J[!*'^ w-l^ *
and summer. Along the coast they conUnus uVS.***** •% .^'-
througbout the vear, but inUnd they uSSvT Ifc/'<^ i-I^"^
or north-west either m autumn or winter ^^ **» th« til"'
5m/«.— The Consul Plain has for the most n.^ ., *
soU, but there b a fertile aUuvium in theiS^C?. * **>^ m^L.
clay soils on some of the uplands. The eastern SJ*2^c»«»T3
Phins is a belt kqown as tieBlads PraiS^ PS^.^fcu^'^
SOU derived from Upper Cretaceous uSeltoSe: iiSL!^^ ^
of thb b' another bdt with
Cretaceous rocks; > southern part of the same plains La .*^
denved from cramte; m a large area m the north-west t^,^ •
have a reddish clay soil derived from Permian rocks and a vJSi?*
of soils— good black soib and inferior sandy and clay nolh dZ/S
from Carboniferous rocks. A very thin soil covers thcSStX?
Plateau, but on the Llano EsUcado are brownish and reSS
loams derived Yrom the sediments of a Neocene lake. ^uuiw
i4|ncW/«r«.— The total farm acreage was 135.807,017 acres m
1900. the total number of farms ^ being 351.085, their averasc
acreage 358-3 acres. 84-9 per cent, being operated by whKe farmera.
There were ii.aao farms of 1000 acres and more; 10.183 between
Y)0 and 1000 acres; Ii5>393 between 100 and 500 acres; and
882537 between 50 and 100 acres.
The pcoductioo of Indian com was 132,350,000 bd. in 1909
(valued at fQ3Aio,ooo): the wheat crop, 5.0S0.000 bu. (valued
*t $5,959,000); the oat crop, 11.500,000 bu. (valued at $7,130,000);
the rice crop, 9,894.000 bo. (valued at $7,717,000); the acreage
under hay was 6iSfiO0, the crop being 587,000 tons and its value
$6,985,000. Texas ranked first in 1899 among the states in the
productton and value bf cotton, the acreage of which increased
from 3,178435 acres in 1879 to 6A(>o^6fj acres in 1899, and the
number of commercial bales from 805.384 in 1879 to 3,506,313 in
1899. when the total crop was valued at $96,720,304. The esti-
mates for 1909 were 9.334,000 acres and 3.570,000 bales.
In the value of live stock on farms and ranges, Texas ranked
seventh among the states in 1880 and second in 1900, M-ith a value
of $340,576,955. The value of all domestic animals on farms and
ranges in 1900 was $336,337,934, Texas ranking second in thb
remect among the states. The censuses from 1S60 to 1900 showed
a far greater numb«r of neat caule on farms and ranges in Texas
than m any other state or Territory: in 19^00 the number was
7.279,935 (ei^luding spring calves); and in 1910 there were
8.308.000 neat catue induding 1.137.000 milch cows. In the
number of horses the sUte ranked third in 1900, with 1,174,003
head— excluding colts— and in 1910 with 1,36^.000 head. In the
number of mules the state ranked first by a wide margin in 1900,
with 474,737 head, and in 15)10 with 703.000 head. In the number
of swme the state ranked eighth in 1900 with 3.665,61^ head, and
third in X910 with 3.305.000 head. In the number of sheep the
state rose from fourth rank in 1880 to first in 1890, but dropped
to tenth rank in 1900. when there were 1439,940 head; in 1910
* Not including farms of less thkn three acres and of small pro-
ductive capadty.
690
TEXAS
cba« wen tjgoqfioo thtap in the lUte. TIm wool product of the
■MM in 1900 was ^y^.003 lb, and in 1910 was ^m$,79> ^
waahed and unwaahad aod 3.040,875 lb acourad. In the nuaOMr
of chickeos (13,563,303 ia 1900} the state naked fifth, aod la the
number of duclo, geeM and turkeys (1,399,044 in 1900). naked
fim.
The cereals grow KeneraUy thfou^MMit the state, eneptioff in
the arid western lands. The crop of Indian com is especially
lafve in a belt of counties begoming near the north-eaatem comer
of the state and exiendina in a south-westerly direction. Most of
the rice is raised along tne seaboard, in the ■outh'castere comer
of the state. The laigest crops of cotton are grown in the oereal-
growing counties.
Fonsis and rtmter.— About 64,000 sq. m., or 24 per cent, of
the area of Teas, b estimated to be wooded. The area of yeHovr
pine forests (the stand is estimated at 67,568-5 million ft.), and the
lesser one of hardwood, together with considerable softwood, repre-
sent lumber>producing possibilities of much economic importaaoa.
The pine and hardwood areas occur chiefly in the nortb-eastera
part of the state, and are bordered on the west by scattering growths
of hardwood, extending as far westward as Austin. Sparse scrub
timber, of little value except for posts, poles and tough beams
and for fuel, occupies the region westward to approximately the
longitude of the Pease river. Outside of these general areas, forest
producu are of relatively little value, the exceptions being the
dense growths, in certain restricted areaa, of liv^-oak, which is in
demand for ship timbers; and scattering patches of hickoiy, which
is requisite for ceruin manufactures. The pine and hardwood
forests are of great economic value ficcauae of the density of their
growth, and there are at hand the means of profitable development
of this industry in the numerous watereourses which make logging
cheap and expeditious. The maple, walnut, oak, ash, beech, elm.
gum, sycamore, hkkory and poplar, found oa the southern slope
of thtf Osage highlands, on the uplands about the source of the
highlands and in the central portions of the Red river valley, are
valuable for cabinet woods. The cut, consisting almost entirely
of yellow pine, was valued in 1900 at $16,396,473.
Piskmes.—Th» value of the fisheries product of Texas Inoeaaed
from >386.6io (7.I74>550 lb) in 18^ to >M3,8i4 (8,044404 ^>
in 1903; and the amount of capital mvested in the industry from
f>37496 in 1897 to l373.7>4 m 1903, but the number oTwage-
eamen emptoyed decrnised siightly--from 1199 in 1897 to 1144 in
1903. The values of the principal catches in 1903 were: red
impper, $103,398; oTSters, 1190,359; sqoeteagne, $49i577i aad
channel baas, $39>535-
' J/tiwra/r.— The total value of the miners! products of Texas In
1890 was $1,986,679; in 1903, $6,981,533; in 1907, $19,806458*
and in 1908, $15,313.939— the valuations for the two years last
nsmed being those of the United States Cieologlcal Survey. By
far the largMt item in these totals after I5K>3 represented the value
of petroleum. Little attention was paid to this resource until
1883; in 1890 the product was valued at only $337; and five
ars later it had increased to only $350. A good quality of oil—
tter in fact than the Ohio product, but not as good as that
of Pennsylvania-^was accidentally found at Coreicana, Navarro
county, about 1894, and in 1808 It was discovered at a depth of
1040 ft. In. 1901 an extraordinary "auaher** well waa drilled
near Beaymont. Jefferson county; in tht nine days before this
well was capped, ft threw a stream of oil 160 ft. hi^, and poured
out about 500,000 barrels. The development of the Hardin county
years la
better i
field also liegan in 1903. As the result of these
value of the oil product increased from $377,135 (•
lU, the
,070 bbls.)
in 1898. to $871,996 (836.039 bbls.) in 1900; to $4.i74.73t
<i8,063,658 bbls.) in 1903; and to $10410.865 (l3.u3.696 bbls.)
in 1907; it decreased to $6,700,708 (11,30646^ bSls.) in 1908.
The value of the bituminous coal output was $465,900 (184440
short tons) in 1890; $1,581,914 (968,373 short tons) in 1900;
$3,778,811 (t,^Bjoig than tons) m 1907; and $3410.481 (1,805,377
abort tone) in 1908. The value of the product of hmestones and
dolomites in 1900 was $134,738; in 1903, $338,663; of aand-
stonea and quartsites in 1900. $37,038; tn 1903. $165,56^; while
the value of all stone* produced in 1907 was 1*97.963. and in 1908,
$659,574. Natural gas was discovered in Washia^on county in
1879. but waa not commercially used in that vidmty until 1888.
In IQ03 gaa waa diacovered in Jefferson county. Other minerela
found in amall quantjtiea are copper, lead, tine, iron orea, man-
ganese orea and tin.
Afaatf/iKinrej.— The value of the manufactured products of
Texas in 1005 was $150,538,380. the capital invested in manu-
facturing being $115,664,871, and the number of factories, 3158.
In the value ($14,005,334 in 1900* and $18,698,815 in 1905)
'Publications of the U.S. G>mmi8aion of Fish and Fiaherics.
Part xxix., Rtpart of the Cammissicntr for the Year endini Jum 30,
,t903CWashlngton, 1905).
'The statiatica given in the text for 1900 from thb point are
for Cartnry producta and are thua comparable with those ^ven
'he apedal ccnaue of the tatter year .was limited to the
« under the factory system.
of its tutoi i i s ia J oil and cake produce Teas siirpasaid all other
states. Floor and grist mill producu advanced in value fraa
$11,948,556 fai 1900 to $33,083,136 in 1005. The values of other
producto m 1005 were as follows: slaughtering and meat packint
(wholeaale), $15,630,931; lumber and timber producu (whiA
employed the htivest average number of wage-eamera— 13433, or
»7'3 percent.), $16,378.3^^ " " ' "
care- and general ahop constructioa
:i -Lii^ -' * -s x^y companies, $10473.743; printing
and pubhsfaing, $7,7S>»347; foundry and machine ahop producta.
and repaira fay steam radway comp
190S. i^sa^rr; malt liquore, $4,153^3$; eaddlery and harness.
191^ $3>3Si.SaS* The hwhrst average quantaty of lOugfa milled
noe per establishment in the United States in 1905 was for Teaas,
where s eventeen esublishmentt produced an average of 18.598.359 lb,
valued, together with that of other rice producta, at $4,638,867.
rfOwpoftalisM.— Until the ndddle of the 19th century transpor-
alities remained practically undevdoped
Btury t
t86o the steam railway mileage was 307 m.;' in 1B70, 711 _..
in t88o, 3344 m.; in 1890, 6709 m.; in 1905, 11.949 m-: m 1907,
13^77 m.; and In 1908, 1^.066 m. Moat 01 this mileage is in the
eastern part of the sute, the western and southern portions having
slight railway facilities. Thepiiocipal railway nrstems are the
Southern Pacific, the Santa R. 4be Tcxaa k Pacific and the
Colorado ft Southern. The inbnd waterwayt include the 35 ft.
ship canal from the Gulf to Port Arthur (the Port Arthur Canal),
opened in 1890, and transferred to the United Sutes govemnent
in 1906; the Galveston and Brans River canal, 39*5 m. long and
of a nilina depth of 3 ft., also acquired by the government in 1903,
and a privately owned canal, 9 m. long and from 6-5 ft. to 10 ft
deep, extending from (Corpus Chrisu to Aransas Bay. Other
important waterways which have been authorised by tne United
States ffovemment and on which work was proceeding in 1910 are
canab from the Rio (^nde river to the Miaaiaaippi river at Dooald-
aonviUe, Louiaiana; and ** a navigable channel depth of 5 ft. in a
canal along the ooaat of Texaa, undertying the lagoona lying between
the ialanda and the mainland " to develop Ught navigMioo to
poinu not rqsched by the railways. Anotner important uader^
uking ia the deepening of the Trinity river to Dauaa, a distance
of 5XE m., thereby affording a navigable waterway almost to the
northern boundary of the aute. Cdngresakraal ap propriationa for
the aurvey, improvement and maintenance of waterweyt I
1853; amounted to $15,055,688 bet^Men 1891 and 1896 '
and $1,6x3339 between 1897 and 1907: the total i
being $33.349419. The porta of eotry of Texas an
Corpus Chnsti, Eagle Pass, El Phao and Brownsville.
Popukiionr-Tht papulation in x88o wu x>S9x,749;
in X890, 3,335,533; in 1900, 3.048JIQ; and ia X910, 3^,543.* Of
the population in 1900, 94* x per cent, was native bocn, 79-6 per
cent, was white 'and 30-4 per cent, (or 630,733) was negio, or of
negro descent. There were in 1900, 3,349^ native whites,
X 79,357 penons of foreign birth, 836 Chinese, 470 Indians and 13
Japanese. Of the inhabitanU bom in the United States 130489
were natives of Tennessee, 139,945 of Alabama, 90,584 of
Mississippi, 77»95o o< Georgia and 75,633 of Arkansas; and of
the foreign-bom 71,063 were Mexicans, 43,395 Gennans, 9204
Bohemians, 82x3 English, 6870 Austrians and 6^3 natives of
Ireland. Of the total population 471,573 were of foreign parent-
age — >.e. either one or both parents were foreign-bom, and of
those both of whose parents were foreign-bom 70,736 were of
(jeraian, 10,967 of Bohemian, 7759 of Irish and 6526 of Anstxian
parentage. In 1906 1,236,906 inhabitants of the state wen
members of religious sodetSes. Of these 401,730 were Baptists;
3x7495 Methodists; 308,356 Roman Catholics; 63,090 Presby-
terians; 39.550 Disc^es of Christ; 34,006 memben of the
Churches of Christ; 37437 Lutherans; 14,446 Protestant
Episcopalians; 7745 members of the German Evangdical Synod
of North America, and 1856 Congregationalists. The principal
dtiesareSan Antonioi, Houston, DaUas, Galveston, Fort Worth,
Austin, the capital, Waco, £1 Paso, Laredo, Denison and Sheimaa.
AdministraticH.^Texia as a part of Medoo was Bovemed
under the constitution (1837) of the " Free State of CoebuH^
and Texas **; a separate constitution adopted in 1835 waa
never recognised by the Mexican government and never went
into effect. The Texan Declaration of Independence, adopted
in November X83S, was accompanied by a provisional conatitu*
Uon; and with the Declaration of Ind^ndonce of March 1836
there were adopted an executive ordinance and a oooathution.
As a state of the United Sutes Texas adopted a oonstftutlott
in X845, another in x866, and a third in z863, and is no«
* In other census years the populatioos were: 1850 (the fint
under the United Sutes), 3x3,593* i860 604.115; X870 $t8479>
TEXAS
691
power i
bUla. J
jwru^ ttnder th# Mofttitatloii of iSt^, iritb uq^odmeoti
of tS79, tUs, 18^, 189X, i897» 1904 Ud 1906. All nwk
dtiMM om tmtAf<Mt yeut of Age and mid/tot in the lUte
lor one yMr •»! In th* ttwiuy or dcction prednct fbr tix
OMUitlit imoMdiately |>raoedliig deetton (except paupcit, idiou,
tuMtictf leloai, United Slates eoldSen, maiinM and eeamen,
aad penou wlio have taken part,, either as prindpaior second,
in fi^ithig a duel or in sending a challenge) have the right of
sufbafe. Tlie consthution or^naOy forbade the reglstiation
of ^Mleis, but an amendment of 1891 permiU it in dties having
a papidatJon of ten thousand or more, and the Aostralian
balot syfetcbiwas adopted in such cflies hy an act of the
twinty-scoond legislaiure in XS92. An amendment to % the
constitution may be proposed by a tivo-thiids vote of an membeis
ctacted to each house of the l^islature, and is adopted if it is
appiovcd hr « Bsjority of the popular vote on the amendment.
The eaectttsve departnent consists of a governor, lieutenant-
govcraer. ttcritary of lUte, oomBtroHer of public accounts, trta-
surer. commiaioMr of the geaeial bad office, &ad attomey-gcncnL
Cootrary to the usual custom in other sutes, the secretary of stite
b appointed by the governor. The other olidals are ekaed by
popuUr vote for t«o yean* terms. The governor and lieutenant-
governor muM be. at the time of election, at least thirty years
of age, dtiaens of the United States, and residents of the sute for
the pceccding 5ve years. The governor receives an annual salary
of l40<)0 and the use of the governor's mansion. Hb functions
are rather more extensive than those of the average American
In addition to the usual privilege of granting pardons
vea, he oootrols coosiderabk patronage, and possesses a
; of veto which extenda to scoacate items in appropriatioa
A two-thirds majority in each house b necessary to over-
ride a veto. . . ^ « ...
Thehgblatme of the state is co m posed of a Senate and a House
of R a ps eae ntativcs. The' Senate coosisce cf thirty-one memben;
pular vosfe for four years, one-half retiring every two
esenutives are elected bienmally. Their number,
ongiuiiy ninety-three, b determined by apportionment bilb passed
after the publication of each Federal census, trat under ,the con-
stitution it can never exoesd one hundred and fifty. Senator* and
representatives must be at least twenty-six yean old, dtizens of
the United States, qualified decton of the sUte, and residenu of
the state for two yean, and of the district for one year, preceding
the dectioo. The unusual provisbn that two-thirds of each house
skan oeostitte a quorum would probably prove inconvenient, if
the potttical partiea were approxiroatdy equal m Mrcngth. BUU
for raisiag revenue
tives, but may be
of the legisl ature
The judicial system, revbed by a constitutional amendment of
1891. consisto oia supreme court of three memben. elected for a
terra of six yean, with civil jurisdiction only, largdy appellate;
a court of criminal appeals, of three members, elected for su yean,
whh appellate jurisdiction in criminal cases: courts of dvil appeals
(aomber determined by the legislature) 01 three memben each,
elected for six yean; district courts, each with one jud|[e, elected
for four yean, with original jurisdiction in the more important
dvil and criminal (fdony) cases and a limited appdlate jurisdic-
tion: ooonty and justice of the peace courts with original jnris-
dictiott in ntsdcmeanows and petty dvil cases. The commisiionen'
court of five memben. iaduding the presiding judee, attends to
county business matten, the county being the umt 01 local govem-
ifftrsBsnasuf £««r.*-The long domination of Spain and Mexico
imiiisiil an nlhieooe on the institutions of the state, but it can
easily be exaigented. It must be remembered that during the
colonial pvioJUie Spanish and Mexican population was never very
large, that the first permanent Anglo-American settlement was
not established until 1821. that there was ill-fcdtng between the
two peopka ahnost fnm the very beginning, and that in fifteen
yean the Americans carried through a successful rebellion. The
framework of the governments established in 1836-37 and 1845
was not essentially different from those with which the fraroen
were familiar in the United States. But while thb was true of
the outward stnctura it was impossible to disreprd entirHy private
rithts based upon Spanish and Mexican legislatioa. In other words.
in Loubiana a few yean bdore (see LoinsiAn*); but the result
was diflPerent. Owing to the peaceful character of its acqubition
and the relative strength 01 the Romance (French) dement,
Loutsbna continued the use of the Gvil Law. The Texas tnvaden,
on the other hand, adopted the Common Ut^, but iMth the addition
of many Qvfi Law prtadptos. For ensmple. the state fa
made any dlMncaon betwssn lsi# and ssuty, and ft hss always
followed the Ova Law mooedttre by petition and answer.^ The
independent enistenos or Texas as s republic (1856-as) was also^
not without infiuenoe. By etrengthcning the fedhig of local pride
it added force to the states* rights sentunent, and it enabled the
state on coming bito the Union to retain possrasion of all its publie
lands. Thb vast domain has been utiBxed to provide homes for
settlers, to encourage education, to subsidixe railways, and to
build the state capitd. There b n general land office at Austin
under the charge of a commissioner. Among other features of
interest the constitution forbids the suspension of the writ of kabtas
caranr, makes dndling a disqualification for holding office or exer^
dmag the right to vote, and authorises the exdudon of athdsts
from office. There b also a clause which exempts from sdsure
for ddit the homestead, not morethan two hundred acres of Und
in the country, or a house of any value in a city or town on a lot
or kMS not exceeding free thousand dollan in value at the time
of in d es i gn a tion as the homestead. The object b the protection
of widows and orphans, but the right has hem very much abused,
and its abuse b m part responsitle for the high rete of interest
which prevaib. S u te-wide prohibition of the sale of intoxicating
liquon was voted down in 1887 and a local option bw went into
effect; ui 1907, when there was no licence m 145 (out of S43)
counties and hoence only in pam of 51 other counties, a Uw was
passed giving local option to parts of dties and towns. In 1908-09
there was an unsuccessful attempt to pass in the legisfaiture a con-
stitutional amendment providing for sute-wide prohibition; the
ameadnsent was favoured by the Democntk sUte platform, but
the hostility of the legislature to Governor Campbell, who favoured
the amendment, secured its defeat.
• Both husband and wife retsiin their separate titie to the pro-
perty whfch each owned before marriage and to that acquired
after marriage by gift, devise or descent, and to the increase of
an lands thus acqmred, but the husbsnd has the sole management
both of hb own and of his wife's sepamte property. However,
should the husband neglect to sue for the recovery of any separate
property of hb wife she may. with the permission of the court,
sue for it in her own name; or should the husband refuse to sup-
port hb wife and educate her children as her fortune would war-
rant, the county court may in answer to her compbint require a
find portion of^the proceeds from her property to be pdd to her.
AH property whkh dthcr husband or wife acquires during the
marriage, other than by gift, devise or descent, b their common
property, and during coverture may be disposed of by the husband
only; on the death of the husband the widow has one-half of the
proper t y, which they held in common. The causes for a divorce
are crudty. adultery, desertion for three yean, or conviction after
marriage of a fdony and iraprbooment in the state prison without
bdng pardoned within one year after conviction; the plaintiir
must reside in the county six months bdore beginning suit.
EiiKsliM.— Educational matten are supervised by a state
board, composed of the governor, comptrofler and secretary of
state, by a superintendent of public instruction, who b «x oJIUic
secretary of the board, by county superintendenu (in counties
having a school population of 3000 or more), by superintendents
and boards of trustees in corporate towns and cities, and by school
commissionen in the rural districts. The permanent public schod
fund b the largest of any state in the Union; in 1908 it included
f3Mo*»»" in land notes, r * ' ' '
mated) in leased lands, and
The invested fund b brgely in Federal, state and county 1
The revenue for achoob ra 1907-08 was $8,020,230. of which
$».76i.6si was from the sute tax, $2,080,159 from the local tax.
$1,640,969 from the one dollar poll tax on males between the ages
of twenty*one and sixty. $481,890 from a state occupation tax,
$439,365 from county funds, and $105,806 from tuition fees. The
SUte apportionment to the districts was $5 per capiu of school
population in 1906-071 and was $6 in 1907-08. In the btter
year the total enrolment in public schools was 777.54S. of whom
14S.748 were negroes. Separate schools are maintained for white
and negro children and Impartial provision is made for both races.
In 1839 the Congress of the Repuolk set apart fifty square lea^rues
(931420 acres) of bnd for the establuhment of two univenities.
The SUte legisbture approved this grant in 1858. added to the
endowment one section (640 acres) out of every ten appropriated
eo encourage the building of railways, and provided that there
shouM be one univenity instead of two. The Civil War and
Reconstruction delayed the execution of the' plan, and the
univenity of Texas was not opened until September 1 883.
The mam univenity b at Austin, and the medical department
(esublished 1891) at Galveston. The sute also supports, whdiy
or in part: the Agricultural and Mechanical College at Collete
Sution (opened in 1876; a bnd grant cdiege under the MotriU
Act of 1863), near Bryan, which has a course m textib engineering
besides the courses usually given in state agricultural and mechanical
tea. $15,136,808 m bonds. $7.9«^^57 (««-
, and $67,956 in cash awdting investment,
irgely in Federal, sute and county bonds.
For a fun discussion of thb question see E. W. Townes, QuarUHy
cf the Texas StaU Historical Association, ii. 39-53. t34'i5^ (July
and October 1898). *» ^ ^ w 7
692
TEXAS
coUeges: the Sam Houston Normal Inttitvte (1S79) at Hunt^viltet
the North Texas State Normal (1901) at Dentoo, the South-west
Texas Normal (1903) at Saa Marcoc. the School oC Industrial Arts
Car girb at Deuton, and the Prairie View Industrial and Normal
School (1876) for negroes near Hempstead. The system is not
unified or organized: _the university s department of education,
ue
ite
he
■e:
le.
oy
y-
[or
an
at
al.
iie
io;
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colony at Abilene, and a state reformatory (1889) foe hoys under
seventeen years at Gatesville. A statute of 1899, authorised by a
constitutional amendment of 1897, instituted a system of pensions
for Confederate veterans. For this purpose $200,000 was ajjpro-
priated during the fiscal year 1903-1903. The majumum permitted
oy the constitution is $250,000 per annum. The penitentiaries are
at Huntsville and Rusk, and there is a reform scnool for juvenile
■offenders at Gainesville. The convict lease system in its most
objectionable form was abolished in 1883, and convicts are now
employed on state account or by private contract. There are
several state farms in successful operation. Each of these institu-
tions, penal and charitable, has its own superintendent and board
of managers, appointed by the governor.
Finanu. — ^Tne heayv aebt incurred in the struggte with Mexico
was paid out of the $10,000,000 received from the United States
government under the Compromise of 1850. New loans were
made during the Civil War, but they were repudiated by the con>
stitution of 1866, and were made void by the Fourteenth Amend-
ment to the Federal constitution. The extravagance of the
Reconstruction governments resulted in the accumulation by 1876
of a debt of $4,793,394. The constitution of 1876 forbids the
borrowing of money except to supply casual deficiencies of revenue
(amount limited to $200,000 'at a time), repel invasion, suppress
insurrection, defend the state in war, or pay existing debts. The
nominal amount of the public debt on the ist of September 1908
was $3,989,400, but the figures are misleading, because, with the
exception of $22,000 (held partly by counties), all of these obliga-
tions were in the permanent school fund or in funds for the Univer-
sity, the A|^cultural and Mechanical College, and the various
charitable mstitutions. Owing to a clause in the constitution
forbidding the issue of bank charters, the financial business of
the state was controlled by national and private banks until 1904,
when the constitution was amended and provision was made for
the incorporation of state banks under a s>rstem of state supo--
vision, regulation and control, deposits being guaranteed as in
the Oklahoma banking system.
Hiifory.— The history of Texas may be regarded as a step m
the great struggle between England, France and Spain for
the possession of America. The earliest explorations were
made by the Spaniards, Cabeza de Vaca, 1538-36, and Francisco
%t J- ''oronado, 1540-42, but the first colony was that
gorda Bay in 1685 by the French under the
SietirdelaSoIIie. This was, hovarcr, looii abandoned, and tke
field left to the Spanish. Beginning in x6qo they established
seveial frclNastical, military and dvil sftflanoftfa known
respectively as missions (Frandaean), presidios, and pudtlos.
In or near the city of San Antonio are the rains of five missions
built of stone; and missions were mote numerous in east
Teias, but they were built of wood and nothing remains to mark
their location. In 1737 the tenitory, with vaguely defined
limits, was formed into a province and named Tejas» or Texas,
after the tribe or the confederacy of Tejas Indians. For more
than a century the oonditioos were favourable for rolonigation
The French in Louisiana proved to be peaceable oeighbouia,
and that province, both under French (to 1763) and under
Spanish nile (1763-1803) served as a protection against the
English. Spain failed to take advantage of the opportunity,
however, and it was lost when the United States purdiased
Louisiana in 1803. Three abortive Angb-Amencan invasions
during the &rst few years of the century indicated the future
trend of events. The first, under Philip Nolan, in 179^x801,
was poorly supported, and was crushed without difficulty;
the second, under Bernardo Gutierrez and Augustus Magee,
18x2-13, captured San Antonio and defeated several Mexican
armies, but was finally overpowered; the third, under James
Long, an ex-officer of the United Sutes army, 1819-21, was less
formidable. The year 1821 marks a significant turning-point
in the history. By the Florida treaty, finally ratified at that
time, the claims of the United States to Texas, based on the
Louisiana purchase, were given up, and the eastern and northern
boundaries of the province were determined. They were to be,
in general terms, the Sabine river, the 94tb meridian (approxi-
mately), the Red river, the looth meridian, the Arkansas river,
and the 42nd parallel. So far as Spain was concerned this was
only a form, inasmuch as Mexico, of which Texas formed a
part, was just completing its long struggle for independence
(i8xo-ax). In that year also (December i8ax) Stephen F.
Austin established the first permanent Anglo-American settle-
ment at San Felipe de Austin on the Brazos river. This was
followed by an extensive immigration from the United Sutes
during the period of Mexican rule (X82X-36). It is estimated
that the population, exclusive of Indians, increased from four
thousand in 1821 to ten thousand in 1827, and nearly twenty
thousand in 1830. Most of the settlers came from the southern
seaion of the Union and of course brought their slaves with
them, but there is no evidence to show that their object was the
territorial extension of slavery, or that the revolt against
Mexico was the result of dissatisfaction with that country's
anti-slavery policy. Texas was joined to Coahuila in 1824 to
form a state of the Mexican federation. Although the attempt
to force the Roman Catholic religion upon the people, the
federal decree of 1830 forbidding fiu-ther immigration from the
states, and the reckless grants of land to Mexican favourites
aroused some ill-feeling, the government on the whole was
fairly b*beral. The peace party, led by Stephen F. Austin,
was able to restrain the more warlike followers of William
H. Wharton and Henry Smith (X794-X85X) until X855, when
Santa Aima overthrew the fedoal constitution of 18134 and
established a dictatorship. A consultation of representatives
from the various settlements met at San Felipe de Austin,
October to November X835. Under Austin's influence the
ddegates rejected an independence resolution and recommended
a union with the Mexican Liberals for the restoration of the
constitution of X824. A provisional government was organized
with Henry Smith as governor and James W Robinson (d. 1853)
as lieutenant-governor, Sam Houston as major-general of the
armies of Texas; and Austin, Wharton and Branch T. Archer
(1790-1858) were elected commissioners to seek aid in the
United States. Hostilities had already begun. The Texans
routed the Mexicans near Ck>nzales on the 2nd of Oaober.
About a hundred men under Colonel James Bowie and Optain
J. W. Fannin defeated a Mexican force near Mission Conception
on the 28th of October; and after a campaign of nearly two
months B6jar was surrendered to them on the zxth of Decaaber.
TEXAS
693
III Ike MatanMat nptMthn tkr Tdkia f emt were tenvely
crippled on account of a quarrel between Goyemor Smith, vfio
dcrind indcpeadnoa, aad the majority of hia oouaeQ, who
fanoOKd onioB with the Meiicaa Uberak The oommand
was dmded between Houston, who was supported by the.
(DTcnwr, and two leaden, Fiaak W. Johnson and J. W. Fannin,
wibe weia appointed by the oonnctl. The Mexicans under
Saau Anna captuved tka Alano on the 6tii of March 1S36 and
thmghtered its garrison of 183 nen; on «he soth of the same
BMintfa they captured Fannin and his lorce of 371 in«A> And a
weelciater sUniilitexed all except twenty who cs^>ed. Houston
now assnsMd active command and, surprising Sanu Anna near
the Saa Jadntio» on' tiie aist of Apriii he dealt the enemy
a ciushiiig bbw aad brought the wai: to an end; neariy ail of
Santa Anna's army mt lulled, wounded or taken prisoneis,
and even Santa Anna himself was captured the next day,
while tbe Texans lost only two killed and twenty-three wounded.
The weakness of the Mrxtcan Liberals and the necessity of
securing aid in the Sutes Ird the Austin party to abandon
their apposition to independence. A convention, assembled
in the town of Washington on the 1st of March, adopted a
dedaradon of independenoe on the tnd and a MpubUcan. con-
stituUos. on the ijth. Houston was elected president in
September '18(36, and the independence of the lepabUc was
nooipiisea iar 1S37 by the United States, Great Britain, Prance
and Bdghinu After a long coofllcC over the slavery question,
the state waf admitted into tlie Union under a joint resohition
of Cofigreia adopted en the ist of March iS4$,> on condition
that the United States should settle all questions of bocmdary
with foreign governments, that Texas should retain all of its
vacant and unappropriated public km'ds, and that new states,
apt exoeediag four in number,' might be formed witldn' its
limits, llie western boundary claimed by tbe icpnbEc was
the Rio Grande to iu source and the meridian of longitude
from that point to the fottyecoond parallel, although sa a
political division of Mexico ita Hmiu never extended farther
west than the Nueoea and the Medma. The United States
government asaetted the Rio Grande daim and prepared to
enforce it at the Mst oC war; at the saane time the Mexicaa
government oonstdeeed anaexation, regardless of the boundary
question, a declaration of war by the United States. An army
oif 300O men under Zachary Taylor (^.v.) arrived on the north
bank of the Ri^ Grande^ opposite Matamans,>on the s8tb of
Masch ift46. The Mexican commander, Pedro de Ampudia,
deasanded Taylor's withdrawal beyond the Nueoca within
twenty?lour houis^ Ha did not obey, and Mariana Arista,
Ampudia's successor, opened hostilities. The Americans, ont-
aufflbaced three to one, defeated the Mexicans in the battles
of Paki Alto (May 8ih) and Resaca de la Palma (May pth).
The wMx terminated in the treaty of Guadalupe Hi«lalgo
(February a, 1848) by which Mexico accepted the Rio Grande
boundary. By the Compromise of 1850 Texas received
$10,000^000 for iu territory lying north and west of a bae
drawn from the xooth meridian to the Rk> Grande, following
36* 30' N., 103" W. and 32** N. The final step in the determina-
tioa of tbe present boundaries of the state was taken in 1896,
when the Supreme Court of the United Sutes decided the Greer
county case. Under the Florida treaty of 1819-ai a portion
of the Red river was to be the northern boundary of Texas
east of the xooth meridian, but as there are two branches of the
river aiceting east of the meridian the endoaod territory (Greer
QSttoty) was in dispute. The decision of 1896 selected the
southern branch and thus deprived Texas of a large tract of
fertile laad over which it had previously exerdsed jurisdiction.
lA the crisis of 1860^1 Texas sided with the other Southern
Sutes in spite of the strong Unionist influence exerted by tfat
German settlers and by Governor Sam Houston. An ordinance
of secession was adopted February x, x86z, and Governor
Houston wsa deposed from office on March x6ih. The state
wss never the scene of active military operati on s during the
• TMi acqnlrftkm of foreign territory by joint reoolntion instead
of by tiesty was followed in tbe case of Hawaii in 1896.
Civil War (x86r-65), althongh ft is foterestiog to note that
the last battle of the conflict was fought on its soil, at Paimito,
near Palo Alto, on the 13th of May 1865, more than a
month after the surrender at Appomattox. In conformity
with President Johnson's plan of reconstruction, a const itulkm
recognising the abolition of slavery, renoimdng the right of
secession, and repudiating tbe war debt was adopted in 1866,
and J. W. Throckmorton, Unionist Democrat, was elected
goveraor. When, in 1867, the Congressional plan of recon-
struction was substituted, Texas was joined to Louisiana to
constitute the fifth military district, and the first commander,
General P. H. Sheridan, removed Throckmorton flom office as
** an Impediment to reconstruction " and appointed ^. M. Pease
in his place. Ddegates to a new constitutional c6nv«ntion
were dected in 1868, the constitution framed by this body was
ratified in November 1869, state officers and congressmen were
dected the same day, the new legislature ratified the Thirteenth
and Fourttenth Amendments, and on the 30th of March 1870
Texas was readmitted to the Union. But the state remained
under the rule of negroes and carpet-baggers, supported by
United States troops until the inauguration of Governor Richard
Coke in 1874. It has since been consistently Democratic.
The supremacy of the party was threatened for a time by tbe
growth of Populism, but the danger was avoided by the accept-
ance of free silver, and the partial adoption of the Pepu^t
local programme. This surrender aroused strong opposition
among the conservative or Cleveland Democxats, which cul-
minated in the Hogg-Clark gubernatorial campaign -of 1894.
The victory of the Radicals resulted in the estabHsbment of a
railway rate commission, based upon a constitutional amendment
of 1890 and a statute of 1891, tbe passage of an alien land law
in X891, which was declared uitconstitutional and amended in
1893, the adoption of the Australian ballot system for dtics
and towns of more than 10,000 inhabitants (1893), the retire-
ment of Roger Q. Mills from the Um'ted Sutes Senate (1899)
and the sending of free silver delegations to the national con-
veatk>ns of X896 aiui 1900^
GovBSMoas
Spanish Period (1690-1821)*
Domingo Terin d« los lUos.
Don Gaspardo de Anaya.
Don Martin de Alaro6n.
Marquis San Migtid de Aguayo.
Fernando de Alniazan.
Mekhior deMediavilla y Arcona.
Juan Aotonb Bustillos y Ceval-
los.
Manuel de Sandoval.
Cario« de Franauis.
Prudendo de Onbu> de Bastem.
Iufto Boneo.
adnto dc Barrios y JaurequL
Mexican Period (1821-36)*
TrespalacioK
Don Luciana Garcia. proviaionaL
Rafael Gonzales, provuionaL
Victor Blanco.
ioU Maria Viesca.
ot£ Maria Letona.
'rancisco Vtdauri y Villaaedor, pravirional.
Augustan Victca.
Urary Smith, provisioaal • • . •
Period of tke RepuUic (1836-46)*
David G. Burnet, pnivitioaal
Sam Houston
Mirabeau B. Lamar
Sam Houston
Anson Jones
i«3Sr36
1836
1836-38
1838-41
1841-44
1844-46
• Coahulla and Texas. 1690-1713. Texas abae 1735-1824.
• Coahuila and Texas, 1824-35.
« The state was annexed to the Union in 184^, but Jthc govern-
seat of tbe Republic contioocd in existence until early m 1846.
69+
TEXT— TEXTILE-PRINTING
I used by ttudeats a* the suacUrd book oa tl» wbjtet lAdcb
hey may be studying.
TEXTliB-PRINTINO. *' TexUte " (Me WsAVmc) b a, gieatnl
kame Cor all woven fabrics (LaL teatre, to weave), and tbe
trt of omamenLing such fabrics by printing 6a designs or
Mit terns in colour is very andent, probably originating in tbe
Saat. It has been practised in some form, with coosiderable
(ucceas, in China and India fcom time immemorial, and the
Chinese, at least, are known to have made use of engraved
vood-blocks many centuries before any kind ol printing was
cnown in Europe. That the early Egyptians, toe, were ac-
quainted with the art is proved not merely by the writings of
Pliny but by the discovery, in the Pyramids and other Egyptian
:ombs, of fragments of cloth which were undoubtedly decorated
t>y some method of printing.
The Incas of P^ni, Chile and Mexico also practised textitfr-
l>rinting previous to the Spanish Invasion in 15x9; but, owing
to the imperfect character of their records before that date,
it is impossible to say whether they discovered the art for tbem-
ielves. or, in some way, teamt its principles from the Asiatics.
There is no doubt that India was the source from whidi, by
Lwo different channels, Europeans deriwd their knowledge of
block-printing. By land its- practice spread slowly westwards
through Persia, Asia Minor and the Levant, until it was taken
up in Europe — during the Utter half of the x 7th century. Almost
ftt the same time the French brought directly by sea, fieom their
colonies on the east coast of India, samples of Indian blue and
nrhlte " resist " prinU, and along with them, partfcolais of tbe
processes by which they had been produced.
I. TeCENOXjOGY
Textile-printing was introduced into England in 167^ by a
French refugee who opened workSf in that year, on the banks
of the Thames nqar Richmond. Curiously enough this is the
first print-works on record; but the nationality and political
status of its founder are suffident ta prove that printing was
previously carried on in France. In Germany, too, textile
printing was in all probability well established before it spread
to England, for, towards the end of the 17th ceiltary, the <fi5-
trict t»f Au^urg was celebrated for iu printed linens'-a reputa-
tion not likely to have been buflt up had the industry been
introduced later than 1676.
On the continent of Europe the commerdal {raportance of
calico-printing seems to have been almost immediately teco^
nised, and in consequence it spread ind devek>ped there mudi
more rapidly than in Enghind, where it was neglected and
practically at a standstill for neariy ninety years after iU intro-
duction. During the last two decades of the 17th centti^ and
the earlier ones of the x8th new works were started in France,
Germany, Switzerland and Austria; but it was only in X738
that calico-printing was first practised in Scotland, aitd not
xmtil twenty-six yean later that Messl^ Chytoh of Bamber
Bridge, near Preston, established in 1764 the first print-#orks
in Lancashire,, and thus laid the foundation of what has siaoe
become one of the most important Industries of the county
and indeed of the country. At the present time calico-printing
is carried on extensively in every quarter of the globe, and it b
pretty safe to say that there is scarcely a dvilized coonlry in
dther hemisphere where a print-works does not exist.
From an artistic point of view most of the pioiBeer work in
calico-pfinting was done by the French; arid s6 rapid was
thdr advance in this brandi of the business that they soon
came to be acknowledged as its leading exponents. Tlieir
styles of design and sdiemes of colour were closely followed —
even deliberately copied— by all ether European printers; and,
from the eariy days of the industry down to the Utter half of
the X9th oentuiy, the productions of tbe Fkench printers in
Jooy, Beauvais, Jlouen, Altfoe-Lorraine, &c., were looked upon
as representing f all that was best '* in attistic calieo-prikitlBg.
This reputation was esUblished by the superiority of their
earlier work, which, whatever else it may have lacked, posMfsed
in a high degree the two main qnalities eMsntisI to aU fDod
TBCHHaUOGyi
TEXTILE-PRINTING
695
dnontive worlc^ vii., qipropffiAttiwaft oT ptttern and endleiicy
of wo rtnuwhip . If, ormrioinlly, the earlier dedgnert per-
mitted themaelvcs to indulge in nmewluit bucane fancies,
they at leait caicfully lefiained from aay attempt to produce
tfaote pseudo-realistic effects the undue straining after which
in later times ultimately led to the degradation of not only
French cah'co-printing design, but of that of all other European
natiooa who foQowed their lead The practice of the older
c r a ft sm e n , at their best, was to treat their ornament in a way
at once broad, simple and direct, thoroughly artistic and per-
fectly adapted to the meaiM by which it had to be reproduced.
The result was that their desi^ were characterised, on the one
hand, by those qualities of breadth, flatnem of field, simplicity
of treatment and pureness of tint so rightly prized by the artist;
and, on the other, by their entire freedom from those meretri-
cious effects of naturalistic projection and recession so dear
to the modem mind and so utterly opposed to the principles
of appOed art.
Uelkcds pf Frinting.
Broadly speaking; textile^printing means the local application,
to textile fabrics, of any colour in definite patterns or designs,
but in properly printed goods the colour becomes part and
parcel of the fibre, or, in other words, the latter is dyed so as
to resist washing and friction. Textile-printing, then, may be
looked upon as a form of dyeing; but, whereas in dyeing proper
the whole fabric is uniformly covered with one colour, in printing
one or more coknin are applied to it in certain parts only, and
in sharply defined patterns. In prindple these two branches of
tastile ookwring are closely allied, for the colouring nutters
used in each case are practically identical, but in practice the
means whereby their respective objecU are attained bear little
or no resemblance to each other. In dyeing, for instance, it is
sufficient, for the most part, to immerse the fabric in an aqueous
iohition of the dye4tuff, sturing it about constantly or other-
wise manipulating it to prevent unevtnness. In printing,
however, the colour must be applied by spedal means--either
by a wooden block, a stendl or engraved pUtes, or rollers^
and thickened to prevent it from spreading, by capillary attrac-
tion, beyond the limits of the pattern or design. Many ooloun
also contain, besides the colouring matter and thickening, all
the substances necessary for their proper fixation on the cloth
when the latter is simply passed through a subsequent process of
steaming; and others again require to be subjected to many
after treatments before they are thoroughly developed and
rendered fast to h'gbt and washing.
There are five distmct methods at present in use for produdng
eolouicd patterns on doth: —
(i) Hand block-printing.
<i} Peirotine or block-printing by machine.
(3) Engraved plate-printing.
(4) En^ved roller-printing.
(5) Stencilling, which although not really a printing process
nay be dassed here as one.
(1) Hand Block-Printing,— Thlt procew. though considered by
•ome to be the most artistic u the earliest, simplest and slowest of
•11 methods ei printing.
The btocfcs may be made of box. lime, holly, sycamore, pbne or
pear wood, the latter three bdng most genenilly employed. They
vary in sire considerably, but must always be between two and
three inches thick, otherwise they are liable to warp— a defect which
b additMoally guarded against by backing the wood chosen with
two or more pieces of cheaper wood, such as deal or pine. The
several l^boes or bkxka are tongued and grooved to fit each other,
and are then securely ducd together, under presmre. into one solid
block with the grain oi each alternate piece running in a different
dnectiott.
- The block, bdng pbned quite smooth and perfectly flat, next
has the design drawn upon, or transferred to h. This latter is
effected by rubbing off, upon its flat surface, a trsctng in lamp-
Mack and oil. of the outlines of the masses of the design. The
portions to be left in relief are then tinted, between thdr outlines,
m ammoniacad carmine or magenta, for the purpose of distinguishing
them from those portions which have to be cut away. As a separate
block IS required for each distinct colour in the design, a separate
traang must be made of each and transferred (or " put on '^ as it
is termed) to its own spedal bkxk.
Kavisff thus reedvad a trachig of <k ,
thoroughly damped and kept in this condition by bdng. co
' *^ ' cbths during the whole process of " cutting.** The block-
nttmenoes by carving out the wood around the heavier
firrt, havug the finer and more delicate work until the
last so as to avoid any risk of injuring it during the cutting of the
coarser parts. When large masses of cokiur occur in a pattern, the
corresponduix parts on the hkxk are usually cut in outline, the
object being IDcd in bet w sui the outlmes with fck, whkh rut oidy
absorbs the colour better, but dves a much more even impression
than it b possible to obtain with a targe eurface of wood. When
finbfaed, the bbek presenu the appcasance of fiat relld carving, the
desip standing out like letterpress type.
Fine detaib are very difiicult to cut m wood.and, even when
the bkxrk. Thb method b known as '* coppering," and by
means many ddkrate littb forms, such as stars, roaettes ana fine
spots can be printed, which woukl otherwise be quite impossibb
to produce by hand or marhlnp block-printings
Freauently, too, the process of '* coppering^' b used for the pur-
pose of maldng a mould, from whkh an entire block can be nade
and dupKcatcd as often as dcsared, by casting. In thb caaa the
metal strips are driven to a p re d e t e rm ined depth mto the face of a
piece of lime-wood cut across the grain, nnd, when the whob dcnsn
IS completed in thb way, the block b placed, meul face downwards,
in a tiay of mdten type^netal or solder, which traasmitt suflkbnt
heat to the msetted portions of the strips of copper to enabb them
to carbonise the wood immediately in contact with them and, at
the same time, firmly attaches itself to the outstanding portfoos.
When cold a slight tap with a hammer on the back of the Ihne-
wood block easily detaches the cake of the type*metal or alby and
along with it, of course, the strips of copper to whkh it b firmly
soldoed, leaving a matrix, or mould, in wood of the original design.
The casting b made in an alky 01 low mehing^pdnt, and, after
cooling, b nled or ground until all Its projections are of the same
height and perfectly smooth, after wfikh it b screwed 00 to a
wooden support and b ready for printing. Similar moulds are
t^ burning out the fines of the pattern with a red-hot
sted punch, capable
raised or kwered at win, and
^ -_, of being 1
under whkh the bkck b moved about by hand akng the lines of
the pattenu
In sdditkn to the engraved block, a printmg tabb and cokur
sbve are required. The tobb consisu of a stout framework of wood
or iron supporting a thkk slab of stone varying in sise according
1 the width of doth to be printed. Over the stone table top a
b tightly stretched to
block- every chance of
thkk piece of woollen printer's bbnket
supply the dastidty necessary to eive the
making a good impresakm on the cloth. At one end, the ufaie b
pro^cMd with a couple of iron brackeu to carry the roll of ck>th
to be printed and, at the other, a series of guide roUers, extending
to the ceiling, are arranged for the purpose of suspending and
«faying the newly nrinted gooda. The '* colour neve consists of
a tub (known as the swimming tub) half filled with starch paste,
on the surface of which floats a frame covered at the bottom with
a tightly-stretched piece of mackintosh or oiled calico. On thb the
** colour sieve *' proper, a frame dmilar to the last but covsred
with fine woollen doth, b placed, and forms when in positioo a sort
of dastk colour trough over the bottom of which the colour b
spread evenly with a brudi.
The modus operandi of printing b as follows}— The printer
commences by drawing a length of doth, from the roll, over the
Ubk. and marks it with a piece of coloured chalk and a robr to
indicate where the first impression of the block b to be sppKed.
He then applies his block m two different directkns to the colour
on the sieve and finally preisci it firmly and steadily on the cktb,
ensuring a good impression by striking it smartly on the back with
a wooden mallet. The second impression b made in the same way,
the printer taking care to see that K fiu exactly to the first, a point
wfaidi he can make sure of by means of the pins with whkh the
blocks sre provided at each corner and whkh are arranged in such
a way that when those at the right side or at the top of the bkck
fall upon those at the bft skle or the bottom of the prrvious im-
pres si on the two printmgs join up exactly and cominue the pattern
without a break. Each succeeding impression b made in preciMly
the same manner until the length of cloth on the tabb b fully
printed. When thb b done it b wound over the dn'hig roHsn,
thus bringing forward a fresh length to be treated dimbrly.
If the pattern conuhis severs] colours the doth b usually firrt
printed throughout with one, then dried, re-wound and primed
with the second, the same operations bdng repeated untO all the
coloun are printed. ... . ...
Many modificatkns of Uock-pnnting have been trbd from time
to time, but of these only two—" tob>'ing *' and " rainbowing —
are of any practkal value. The object ol ** tobcy-printing b to
print the several cokurs of a multicokur pattern at one operation,
and for thb puraose a bkck with the whok of the pattern cut upon
k. and a specbliy constructed " cokur sieve " are cmpkved. The
sieve oonsbts of a thkk bkck of wood, 00 one side of whfch a series
6^6
TEXTILE-PRINTING
of eompartmento are honoved out, cofr w pooding rougMy in shape,
aiae and podtion to the various objects cut on the block. The tops
of the dividing walls of these compartments are then coated with
melted pitch, and a piece of fine woollen doth is stretched over the
whole and pressed well down on the pitch so as to adhere firmly
to the top of each wall; finally a piece of string soaked in pitch ts
cemented over the woollen cloth along the lines of the dividing
walls, and after boring a hole through the bottom of each compart-
ment the «eve is reaidy for use. In operation each compartment
is filled with its special colour through a pipe comecting it with a
cobur box situated at the side of the sieve and a little above it, so
as to cnrt just sufficient pressure on the cdonr to force it gently
through the woollen cloth, but not enough to cause it to overflow
its proper limits, formed by the pitch-soaked string boundaiy lines.
The block is then carefully pressed on the neve, and, as the different
parts of its pattern fall on different parts of the sieve, each takes
up a certain colour which it tranafers to tbs doth in the usual way.
By this method of " tobying " from two to six colours may be
printed at one operation, but it is obvious that it is only applic*
able to patterns where the different coloured dijects are i^aoed at
some little distance apart, ftnd that, therefore, it is of but limited
application.
Block-printins by hand is a slow process: it is, however, capable
of yidding highly artistic results, some of which are unobtainable by
any other means, and it is, therefore, still laigcly practised for the
highest class of work in certain styles.
(a) i'«rroliii«./»r»iii««£.— The '^pcrrotine" is a block-printing
machine invented by rerrot of Rouen in 183^ and practically
speaking is the only successful mechanical device ever introduced
lor this purpose. For some reason or other it has rarely been
used in England, but its value was almost ilnmediatdy recognized
on the Continent, and although block-printing of all sorts has been
replaced to such an enormous extent bv roller-printing, the " pcrro-
tine " is still largely employed in French. German and Italian works.
The construction of this ingenious machine is too complex to
describe here without the aid of several detailed drawii^, but its
mode of action is roughly as follows: — Three laige blocks (3 ft.
long by 3 to 5 ii). wide), with the [tattem cut or cast on them in
rdid, are brought to bear successively on the three faces of a
specially constructed printing table over which the cloth passes
(together with its backing of printer's blanket) after each impresswn.
The faces of the table are arraneed at right angles to each other,
and the blocks work in slides idmiJarly placed^ so that their engraved
faces are perfectly parallel to the taUes. Each block is moreover
provided with its own particular colour trough, distributing brush,
and wodlen colour pad or sieve, and u supi^ied automatically
with colour by these appliances during the whole time that the
machine is in motion. The first effect of starting the machine
is to cause the colour sieves, which have a reciprocating motion,
to pass overj and receive a charge of colour front the rollers, fixed
to revolve, in the colour troughs. They then return to their
original position between the tables and the printing blocks, coming
in contact on the way with the distributing brushes, whkn spread
the colour evenly over thdr entire surfaces. At this point the
blocks advance and are gently pressed twice against the colour
pads (or sieves) which then retreat once more towards the colour
troughs. During this last movement the cloth to be printed is
drawn forward over the first table, and. immediately the colour
pads are sufficiently out of the way, the block advances and, with
some force, stamps the first impression on it. The second block
is now put into gear and the foregoing operations are repeated
for both blocks, the cloth advanang, after each impression, a
distance exactly equal to the width of the blocks. After the
second block has made its impression the third comes into play
in precisely the same way. so tnat as the cloth leaves the machines
it IS fully printed in three separate coloure, each fitting into its
proper place and completing the pattern. If necessary the forward
movement of the cloth can be arrested without in any wav inter-
fering with the motion of the blocks-*-«n arrangement which allows
any insufficiently printed impression to be repeated in exactly the
same place with a precision practically impossible in hand-printing.
For certain classes of work the ^' perrotine " possesses great
advantages over the hand-block; for not only b the rate of pro-
duction greatly increased, but the joining up of the various impres-
sions to each other is much more exact-Hn fact, as a rule, no
ngn of a break in continuity of line can be noticed in well-executed
Work. On the other hand, however, the " perrotine " can only be
applied to the production of patterns containing not more than
three cotoun nor exceeding five jnches in vertKaJ repeat, whereas
hand block-printing can cope with patterns of almost any scale
and containing any number of colours. All things considered,
therefore, the two processes cannot be compared on the same
basis: the " perrotine " is best for work of a utilitarian character
and the hand-block for decorative work in which the design only
repeats every 15 to ao in. and contains coloun varying in number
from one to a doaen.
(3) Engraved C^pperplate'Prinling.'^'Vhib printing of textiles
from engraved copperplates was first practised bylBdl in 1770.
■V entirely obsolete, as an industry, in Englsind. and is only
tmCHNOlJOGV
mentfened here bocanse it as» to a sKcht OBtent. atiO oaed in Sspitaen-
land for printing finely engraved bordere on a special atyle oC
handkerchid the centre of whkh is afterwards filled in by clock-
printing.
The presses firat used were of the ordinary le tteipi t aa type, tlse
engraved plate bdng fixed in the place 01 the type, la later
improvements the well-known C3riinaer press was empbyed; the
off by Daasins und
I the
W«* CCHMWyVU , K^H
plate was inked mechanically and cleaned off by passing under i
sharp blade of steel ; and the cloth, instead of being laid on tb
plate, was passed round the pressure cylinder. The jdate waa
raised into frictwnal contact with the cyHnder and m pa
under it transferred its ink to the cloth.
The great difficulty in plate-printing was to make the varioua
impressions join up exactly; and. as this could never be done wtth
any certainty, the process was eventually confined to pattcma
complete in one repeat, such as handkerchiefs, or those made ap
of widely separated objects in whkh no repeat is visibly liksi for
instance, patterns composed of little sprays, spots, &c.
i^) RoUer-PrintiHg, CyHnder- Printing, or Machine- Pritaimg. —
This degant and efficient process was patented and worked by
Bell in 1785 only fifteen years after his application of the engraved
plate to textiles. It will probably remain a moot oucstioii as tn
whether he was the originator of the idea, but it u oeyood doubt
that he was the first man to put into practice the continuous printii^
of cloth from engraved copper roUcra. Bell's first patent was for a
machine to print six colours at once, but, owing probably to ita
incomplete development, this was not immediatdy aoooesd'ttL
although the principk of the method waa shown to be piactsau
by the printing of one colour with perfectly satisfactory resulta*
The difficulty was to keep the six rollers, each carrying a portioa
of the pattern, in perfect register with each other. This ddect
was soon overcome by Adam Rurldnson of Manchester, and in
1785. the year of its inventkm, Bdl's machine with Parldonoa'a
improvement was successfully employed by Messn Livcaey, Har-
greaves. Hall & Co., of Bambcr Bridge, nncston, for the printing
of calico in from two to sue colours at a single ooeration.
What Parkinson's contribution to the development of the nwdeni
rdler-printing machine really was ia not known with cectaincy,
but it was possibly the invention of the dcUcate adjustment known
as " the box wheel," whereby the rollers can be turned, whilst the
machine is In motion, cither in or against the direction olF their
roution.
In its simplest form the roUcr-printi^g madnne coodsta of a
strong cast iron cylinder mounted in adjustable bearings capable
of sliding up and down slots in the sides of the rig^d iron framework.
Beneath this c;ylinder the engraved copper roller rests In stationary
bearings and is supplied with cdour from a wooden roller whicn
revdves in a cdour-box bebw it. The copper rdler b mounted
on a stout sted axle, at one end of which a cog-wheel .b fixed to
gear with the driving wheel of the machine, and at the other end
a smaller cog-wheel to drive the colour-fumbhing roller, "rhc
cast iron pressure cylinder is wrapped with several thkknesses of
a specid materid made of wod and cotton— 4appin|p-Hhe d>ject
of whkh is to provide the elasticity necessary to enable it topioperly
force the dotn to be printed into the lines of engraving. A further
and most important appliance is the "doctor" — a thin sharp
blade of steel which rests on the engraved rdler and serves to
scrape off every vestige of superfluous cdour from tu aorface,
leaving only that which rests in the engraving. On the perfect
action of tnb " doctor " depends the entire success of pnnting.
and as its sharpness and angle of inclination to the copper rollor
It requires an expert to
varies with the styles of t
" get it up " (sharpen it) properly and
considerable practicd experience to
know exactly what qudities it should
posess in any given case. In order to
prevent it (tne " doctor ") from wear-
ing irregularly it is given a to-and-fro
motion so that it is constantly changing
its position and is never in contact with
one part of the engraving for more than
a moment at a time. A second ''• doctor **
of brass or a similar alloy is frequently
added on the opposite side of the roller
to that occupied by the steel or " clean-
ing " doctor; it is Icnown tcchnkally as
the " lint doctor " from its purpose of
cleaning off loose filaments or lint "
which the roller picks off the cloth
during the printing operation. The
steel or " cleaniiu; doctor " ia pressed
against the roller by means of weighted
levers, but the " lint doctor *' is usually
just allowed to rest upon it by its own weight as Its function is
merely to intercept the nap whkh becomes detached from the doth
and would, if not cleaned from the roller, mix with the colour and
give rise to defective work.
The working d the machine will be best understood by rdcrrine
to the accompanying diagrammatk sketch d a single cdour (fig. tj.
Flo. I.
TBCHlCaLOGTI
traJpriLE-PRINTING
697
A » the cart bom yntmm cyliadtr; B the I ^^
it b toually wrapped; C the engraved copper
I> the ated "ckBiung doctor": E the beats ' »« _
F the colouf'ftiniidiiiig roUer; G the colour- traagh or ** bos "
in which the latter (F) works partly immereed in coloor; X an
endlna wooUea blanket continoally diculatiaff between the cloth
ID be printed (K) and the cylinder A; and K the cloth in question.
in opeiatioa, the cyiinder A is sciewed down with an even pres-
sure Into fictional contact with die roller C; the machine is then
set in motion, turning in the directioo indicated by the anows;
the cloth is now introduoed bet w een A and C and as it leaves the
machine f uUy printed it is carried over a series of drying cylinders
situated above and heated by steam. The printing roller C is
the only part of the machine dicectly connected with the motor
or main drive of the works thfough the cog-wheel on its axle—
the " mandril "—all the other parts deriving their motion from
it, either by friction as in the case of the cylinder or by a spur
in that of the colour-fumuhifif roller. The mode of
printing is almost self •evident; the roller C icvolvine in the direc*
tion of the arrow takes cotour from the " furnisher " F, the excess
h scraped off by the " doctor " G and, in oonrinuing its course,
it comes in contact with the doth K, which being pressed by the
cylinder A into the engraving abstruta the colour therefrom and
01 course receives an exact impiessaon of the engraved pattern.
Laigct machines printing from two to sixteen colonra are pre-
cisely simitar in pnnciple to tho above, but differ somewhat in
dctad and are naturally toon complex and difl&cult to operate.
In a twelve-colour machine, for example, twdve copper rollers,
each carrying one portion of the design, are amuigod round a
centnd pressure cylinder, or ixiwl. common to all, and each roller
is driven by a common driving wheel, called the ^ crown " wheel,
actuated, in roost cases, by its own steam-engine or motor. Another
difference b that the adjustment of pressure b transfened from
the cylinder to the rollers which work in specially constructed
bearings capable of the followinc movements: (1) Of being screwed
up bodily until the rollers are lichtly pressed against the central
bowl; <2) of being moved to and fro sideways so that the rollers
nay be laterally adtusfced; and M of being moved up or down
for the purpose of adjusting the rmlers in vertical direction. Not-
withstanding the great latitude of movement thus provided each
rdller b furnished with a " box-wheel/' whkh serves the double
purpose of connecting or gearing it to the driving whed, and of
affording a fine adjustment. Eadi roller b further furnished with
its own colour-box and doctors.
With all these delkate eauipmenti at hb command a machine-
printer is enabled to fit all the various parts of the most com-
plicated patterns with an ease, despatch and precision which are
remaricable considering the complexity and size of the machine.
In recent years many improvements have been made in printing
machines and many additions made to their already wonderiul
capadtiea. Chief amongst these are those embodied in the " Inter-
nutteat " aiid the " Duplex " machines. In the former any or all
of the rollers may be moved out of contact with the cylinder at will.
and at certain intervals. Such machines are used in the printing of
shawls and " sarries " for the Indian market. Such goods require a
wide border ri^t across their width at varying distances^— aometimea
every three yards, sometimes evoy nine yard»--«nd it b to effect
this, with rollers of ordinary dimensions, that "intermittent"
machines are used. The body of the " sarrie " will be printed,
•ay' for six yards with eight rollers; these then drop away from
the doth and others, which have up to then been out of action,
immedbtdy fall into conuct and print a border or ** crossbar.'*
nay one yard wide, across the piece; they then recede from the
doth and the first eight again return and print another six yards,
and so 00 continually.
The " Duptex " or/* Reversible ** machine derives its name from
the fact that it prints both sides of the cloth. It consists really
of two ordinary machines so combined that when the ck>th passes,
fully printed on one side from ^the first, its plain side b exposed
to the rollen of the sooond, whKh print an eicact duplicate of the
first impression upon it in such a way that both priaungs coioddc.
A pin pushed through the face of the ckith ought to protrude
through the corresponding part of the design printed on the back
if the two patterns are in good " fit."
The advantages possessed by roller-printtng over all other pro-
ocaaes are mainly three: firstly^ its high productivity — 10,000 to
ia/xx> yds. being commonly pnnted in one day of ten hours by
a aingl^colour machine: secondly, by its capacity of being applied
ducUon of every style of design, ranging from the fine
to the I
ddicate lines of copperplate engraving and the small " repeats
aiMl limited colours of the " perrotine " to the broadest effects of
block-printing and to patterns vaiying in " repeat " from i to
80 in.; and thirdly, the wonderful exactitude with which each
portion of an elaborate multicokxir pattern can be fitted into its
proper place, and the entire absence of faulty joints at its points
of repeat " or repetition — a consideration of the utmost import-
Imce in fine delicau work, where such a blur wouhl utteriy de&troy
the effect.
(5) SteneOUiti.^The art of atendlling b veiy old. It has been
.urope
goods for furnishing purposes.
Hie pattern is cut out of a sheet of stout paper or thin metal
with a sharp-pointed knife, the uncut portions representing the
part that b to be ** reserved " or left uncoloured. The sheet is
now laid on the material to be decomted and colour b brushed
through its interstices.
It b obvious that with suitable (rfarfning an *' all over *' pattern
nuiy be just as easily produced by this process as by hand or machine
printing, and that moreover, if several plates are used, as many
colours as plates may be introduced into it. The peculiarity of
stendlted patterns b that they have to be held togettier by "tics,"
that b to say, certain parts of them have to be left uncut, so as
to connect tnem with each other, and prevent them from falling
apart in separate pieces. For instance, a complete drdc cannot
be cut without ita centre dropping out. and, consequently, its
outline has to be interrupted at convenient points by " ties " or
uncut portions. Similarly with other obiecta. The necessity for
" ties '' exerdscs great inifuence on the design, and in the hands of a
designer of indifferent ability they may be very unsightly. On
the other hand, a capable man utilizes tnem to supply the drawing,
and when thus treated they form an integral part of the pattern
and enhance its artbtie value whilst complying with the condi-
tions and the process.
For, single-colour work a stencilling machine was patented in
Ite4 by S. H. Sharp. It consists of an endless stendl phte of
thm sheet sted which passes continuously over a revolving cast
iron cylinder. Betw-een the two the cloth to be ornamented passes
and tne colour b forced on to It, through the holes in the stencil,
by mechanical means.
(6) Olko' Methods of Plr«ii/»»f.— Although most ^-ork is executed
throughout by one or other of the five distinct processes mentioned
above, combinations of them are not infrequently employed. Some-
times a pattern b printed partly by machine and partly by block:
and sometimes a cylindrical block b used aloni Vith eneraved
copper-rollers in the ordinary printing machine. The block in this
latter case b in all respects, except that of shape, identical with
a flat wood or " coppered " block, but, instead of bdng dipped in
colour, it rccdves its supply from an endless blanket, one part of
which works in contact with colour-fumbhing rollers and the
other part with the cylindrical block. Thb block b known as a
'* surface •• or " peg " roller. Many attempts have been made to
print multicolour patterns with " surface " rollers alone, . but
hitherto with little success, owing to thdr irregularity in action
and to the difficulty of preventing them from 'warping. These
defects are not present in the printing of linoleum in which opaque
oil colours are used— colours which ndther sink into the body of
the hard linolettm nor tend to warp the roller.
The printing pf yarns and warps is extensively practised. It is
usually carrica on By a simple sort of '* surface printing machine
and calls for no special mention.
Lithographic printing, too, has been applied to textile fabrics
with somewhat qualified success. Its irregularity and the diffi-
culty of printing all over " patterns to " repeat ' properly, have
restricted its use to the production of decorative panels, equal in
size to that of the pbte or stone, and complete in themselves.
ENCEAvmc OF Copper Rollbxs
The engraving of copper rollers b one of the most important
branches of textile-printing and on its perfection of execution
depends, in great measure, the ultimate success of the designs.
Roughly speaking, the operation of engraving is performed by
three diffcrrat methods, viz. (i) By hand with a graver which cuts
the metal away; (2) by etching, in which the pattern b dissolved
out in nitric add; and (3) by machine, in which the pattern b
simply indented.
(i) Engraving by hand is the oldest and most obvious method of
engraving, but is the least used at the present time on account of
iu slowness. The design b transferred to^ the roller from an oil-
colour tradng and then merely cut out with a steel graver, pris-
matic in section, and sharpened to a bevelled point. It requires
great steadiness of hand and eye. and although capable of yielding
the finest results it b only now employed for very spedal work and
for those patterns which are too large in scale to oe engraved by
mochanical means.
(2) In the etching process an enlarged image of the design
is cast upon a zinc plate by means of an enlarging camera and
prisms or reflectors. On this plate it is then painted in colours
roughly approximating to those in the original, and the outlines of
each colour are carefully engraved in duplicate by hand. The
necessity for thb is that in subsequent operations the design has to
be again reduced to its original size and, if the outlines on the zinc
plate were too small at first, they would be impracticable dther to
etch or print. The reduction of the design and its transfer to a
varnished copper roller are both effected at one and the same
operation in the pantograph machine. Thb machine b capable of
ledudng a pattern on the xinc plate from one-half to ooa-teoth
698
TEXTILE-PRINTING
of its siMk and b to tfranffed that.whcn its poioto' or " •tylus '* »
moved along the enenved lines of the plate a series of diamond
points cut a reduoeafacsimile of them through the varnish with
which the roller is covered.. These diamond points vary in number
according to the number of times the pattern is reouired to repeat
along the length of the roller. Each colour of a design b trans*
ferred in thb way to a separate roller. The roller is then placed in
a shallow trough containing nitric acid, which acts oaly 00 those
parts of it from which the varnish has been scraped. To ensure
evenness the roller b revolved during the whole time of its immersion
in the acid. When, the etchixig b sufficiently deep the roller b
washed, the varnish dissdved off, any parts not qiute perfea being
retouched by hand.
(3) In machine engraving the pattern b impressed in the roller
by a small cylindrical " mill " on which the pattern b in relbf. It
b an indirect process and requires the utmost care at every stage.
The pattern or design b first altered in size to repeat evenly round
the roller. One repeat of thb pattern is then engraved by band on
a small highly polished soft steel roller, usually about 3 in. long
and } in. to 3 in. in diameter; the sixe varies according to the sixc
of the " repeat" with which it must be identical. It b then re*
polished, painted with a chalky mixture to prevent its surface
oxidizing and exposed to a red-heat in a box filled with chalk and
charcoal; then it b plunged in cold water to harden it and finally
tempered to the proper degree of toughness. In this state it forms
J proper ^
the '' die " from which the " mill " b made. To produce the actual
" mill " with the^lcsign in relief a softened steel cylinder is screwed
tightly against the hardened die and the two arc rotated under
constantly increasing pressure until the softened cylinder or " mill "
has received an exact replica in rdief of the engraved pattern.
The " mill " in turn b then hardened ancf tempered, when it is ready
for use. In size it may be either exactly like the " die '* or its
circumferential measurement may be any multiple of that of the
latter according to circumstances.
The copper roller must in like manner lu[vc a circumference equal
to an exact multiple of that of the " mill." so that the pattern will
join up perfectly without the slightest break in line.
The modus operandi of engraving b as follows: — ^The " mill "
b placed in contact with one end of the copper roller, and being
mounted on a lever support as much pressure as required can be
put upon it by adding weights. Roller and " mill " are now
revolved together, during which operation the projection parts of
the latter are forced into the softer substance of the roller, thus
engraving it, in intaglio, with several replicas of what was cut on
the original " die." When the full circumference of the roller is
engraved, the " mill " b moved sideways along the length of the
roUer to its next position, and the process b repeated until the
whole rcrfler b fully engraved.
PRBPAKATION OP CLOTB FOR PUNTIKG
Goods intended for calico-printing ought to be exceptionally
weU bleached, otherwise mysterious stains, and other serious de>
fects, are certain to arise during subsequent operations. Parti-
culars of bleaching will be found in the arucle Bleaching iq.v.).
The chemical preparations used for special styles will be men-
tioned in their proper places; but a general " prepare," employed
for most colours tnat are developed and fixed by steaming only,
comusts in passing the bleached calico through a weak solution of
" sulphated " or turkey red oil containing from 2^ per cent, to
S per cent, of fatty add. Some colours are printed on pure
bleached cloth, but all patterns containing alizax>ne red, rose and
salmon shades, are considerably brightened by the presence of
oil. and indeed very few, if any, colours are detrimentally affected
by it. .
Apart from wet preparations the cloth has always to be brushed,
to free it from loose nap, flocks and dust which it picks up whilst
stored. Frequently, too, it has to be ** sheared " by being passed
over rapidly revolving knives arranged spirally round an axle,
which rapidly and effectually cuts off all filaments and knots, leaving
the cloth perfectly smooth and dean and in a condition fit to re-
ceive impressions of the most delicate engraving. Some figured
fabrics, especially those woven in checks, stnpes and " cross-overs,"
require very careful stretching and straightening on a special
machine, known as a " stentcr/' before they can dc printed with
certain formal styles of pattern which are intended in one way or
another to correspond with the cbth pattern. Finely, all de-
scriptions of cloth are wound round hollow wooden or iron centres
into roUs of convenieot size for mounting on the printing machinea.
PftSPAKATlON OF COLOUK8
The art of maldng colours for.te3cti)e*i>rinting demands both
chemical knowledge and extensive technical experience, for their
ingredients must not only be property proportioned to each other,
but they must be specially chosen and compounded for the par-
ticular style of work in hand. For a pattern containing only one
colour any mixture whatever may be used so long as it fuHus all
conditions as to shade, quality and fastness; but where two or
nora ootoun are aatodated in toe same design eadi muat be capable
(TBCHNOLOGY
of undeTBoing witfcdut hiffay the variooa ept w tioito jncg ia ar y (or
the development and fixation of the others.
/Ul printing pastes whether containiM; colouring matter «r nor
are known tecfaiiacally aa " colours." amfare referred to to soch in
the sequence.
Colours vary considerably in composition. Thej^reater Busdwr
of them contain all the dements necessary for the direct productioA
and fixation of the colour-lake. Some lew contain the colouring
matter akme and require various after-treatments for its fixation;
and others again are simply " mordants " thickened. A mordant
b the metallic salt or other subsunce which combines with the
colouring prindple to form an insoluble colour-lake, dther directly
by steaming, or mdirectiy by dyeing.
All printif^ cokHirs require to be thickened, for the twofold
object of enabling them to be transferred from colour-box to doth
without loss and to prevent them from " running " cr qjccadiog
beyond the limits of tnc_pattem.
*nL..-u-_.„ M — .. 0*1-- .u:-i — :_^ agents in most general use
as ur, gum arabic, gum teo^sl
an extnne and albumen.
hese are made into pastes, or
dii jacketed " pans, between the
in! her steam or water may be
m lolinjs purposes. Mechanical
ag :o mix the various ingredients
to on of lumps bjr keeping the
CO ig the whole time they are
be
ixii^ IS H) of wh^t stardi
wi reamy paste; a little olive oil
is ing the whole up to 10 galkma.
Tl ng boiled for about an hour
ar
1 of all the thickenings. It is
at ne or strongly add colours.
W stiff unworkable jelly, while
m uo dextrine, thus diminishijy
iti mc adds have no action on it
ev
Flour paste is made in a similar way to starch paste. At the
present time it b rarely used for anything but the tbickentiig of
aluminium and iron mordantt, for which it is eminently adapted.
Cum arabic and gum Senegal are both very old thickenings, but
their expense prevents them from bdng used for any but pale
delicate tints. They are esjpedally useful thickenings for the light
ground colours of soft muslins and sateens on account of the pro-
perty they possess of dissolving completely out of the fibres of the
doth in the washing process siter printing. Starch and artificial
gums always leave the cloth somewhat harsh in " feel " unless they
are treated specblly, and are moreover incapable of yielding thie
beautifully dear and perfectiy even tints resulting from the use of
natural gums. Very dark colours cannot well be obtained with
gum Senegal or gum arabic thickenings; they come away too
much in washins, the gum apparenUy prcventuw them from com-
bining fully with the fibres. Stock solutions oT these two guma
are usually made by dissolving 6 or 8 tt> of either in one gallon of
water, eitner by boiling or in the cdd by standing.
British rum or dextrine is prepared by heating starch. It varies
considerably in composition — sometimes bdng only slightiy roasted
and consequently only partly converted into dextrine, and at other
times bdng highly torrefied, and almost completely soluble in cold
water and very dark in colour. Its thickening power decreases and
its " gummy nature increases as the temperature at n^ich it is
roastra is raised. The lighter coloured gums or dextrines will make
a good thickening with from 2 to ^ lb of gum to one nlk>n of
water, but the darkest and most highly calaned require from 6 to
10 lb per gallon to give a substantial paste. Between these limits
all qualities are obtainable. The darkest qualities are very oseful
for strongly add colours, and with the exception of gum Senegal,
are the best for strongly alkaline colours and discharges.
Like the natural gums, ndther light nor dark British
Cetrate into the fibre of the doth so deeply as pure stai .
r. and are therefore unsuiuble for very dark strong cdfeurs.
Cum tragacantk, or " Dragon," is one of the most tndbpenaable
thickening agents possessed by the textile printer. It may be
mixed in any proportion with starch or flour and is equaOy useful
for pigment colours and mordant colours. When added to stsrch
paste It increases its penetrative power, adds to its softness without
diminishing tu thickness, makes it easier to wash out of the fabric
and produces much more level colours than starch paste alone.
Used by itself it b suitable for printing all kinds of dark grounds
on goods which are required to retain their soft dotby leeL A
txagacanth mucilage may be made either by allowing it to staffed
a day or two in contact with cold water or by soakinglt for twenty-
four hours in warm water and then boiling it up until it is perfectly
smooth and homogeneous. If boiled under pressure it gives a very
fine smooth mucilage (not a solution proper), much thinner than if
made in the cold.
ififrMMMs.— Albunen b both a thkrkcning and a fixing agent for
TCCHMOLOCSl
TEXTILB-PRn^rriNG
699
and ulCFafnarine. Albuncn i» always diMoived in the cold, a mo-
cetc which take* gevcni days when bm quantities are required.
The usual strength of the solution is 4 lb per gallon of water for
blood albumen, and 6 lb per gallon for egg albumen. The latter
i% expensivie and only used for the lightest shades. For most
purposes one part of albumen scrfution » mixed with one part of
tragacanth mucilage, this proportion of albumen bong found amply
sumdent for the nxation of all ordinary pigment ooloura. In
special instance the blood albumen solution u made as strong as
50 per cent., but this, is only in cases where very dark colours are
reqwiied to be absolutely fast to washing. After printing! albumen-
thickened ooburs are exposed to hot steam, which r*^p*t»*»» the
albumen and effectually fixes the colours.
Formerly coloura were always prepared for printing by boiling
the thickoiinflT a^nt, the colouring matter And solvents, Ac., to-
gether, then coohng and adding the various fixing agents. At the
present time, however, concentrated solutions of the colouring
matters and other adjuncts are often simply added to the cold
thickenings, of which large qvantities are kept in stock.
Gdoors are reduced in shade by simply adding mote starch or
other paste. For exa mple. a dark uoe containing 4 ox. of methylene
blue per gallon may readily be made Into a pale shade by adding
to it thirty times its bulk of starch paste or gum» as the case may
be. ^milarly with other coburs.
Before printing It is very essential to strain or neve alt coloun
in order to free them from lumps, fine sand, &c., which would in-
evitably damage the highly polished surface of the engraved rollers
and result in bad printing. Every scratch on the surface of a roller
prints a fine line in the cloth, and too much care, therefore, cannot
be taken to remove, as far m posrible, all grit and other hard par-
ticles from every cokwr.
The straining is usually done by squeedng the colour through
fine cotton or silk cloths. Mechanical means are also employed
for colours that are used hot or are very strongly alkaline or acid.
STTLts or PuMTmc
The widely differing^ properties of
matters now on the market give ri
warded
^ - the hundreds of colouring
: give rise to many different «tyles of
lextHe-printing. Generally speaking, these fall into the foQowing
four great divisions : —
f 1) Direct printing.
^ The pnntinf of a aordast upon which the colour is after-
sdyod.
The dischaise style.
The resist or reserve style.
The fact that each of these divisions is further anb-divided into
oMoy smaller divisiona readers it out of the qtiestion to give more
than a few typical examples of the various styks they include.
(1) Direti Pfra/iag.->This style is capable of appiicatmn to almost
every dase of colour known. Its essential feature u that the
cdourii^ matter and Its fixiny i^ent are both applied to the fabric
•iiiUiltaiieously. In^some instances the fabric requires to be pre-
viously prepared for certain of the cdours used along with those
^'- *— :— 1 -*- »^{ tiij, {, on^ of many cases where
i must be classed with the one which
characteristic of the process: but this is one of many cases where
two styles are combinied, and km'
(a) A^plieation cf Mordant Dye-^vffs.—Moriznt colours Include
both artificial and natural dye-stuffs (see also under Dyeing), the
most important of all being o/issrtM, an artificial preparation of
the cokMiring-prindf^ of the madder root. With different metallic
omice alicanae fenns different colour-lakes all exceedingly fast to
light and soap. Aluminium itaordant gives red and pink lakes;
iran mordant, purpks aial lavenders; chromium yields maroons:
mnd uraniam fives grey shades. Mixture of iron and alumiaium
produce various tones of chocolate and brown.
' in addition to aliaariae the folbwina are a few of the more
imporunc mnrrUnt dyc-etalle emfiloyed m textile-printing ^—
Alizarine orange with ainminiuro and chrome mordants for
ocaage and warm brown shades respectiveljr; alizarine bordeaux,
with alumina, for violets; alizarine blue with chrome and sine
for quiet blue shades: coenildne and alizarine viridine for sreens
and olives with chramiura mordanu; galloc^nine, cnrome
violet blue, alizarine canines, Ac., with diroimum for various
shades of blue and violet; alizarine yelknrs and anthracene
brown for yellows and fawn shades respectively with either alu-
mittium or chrome mordants. The natural dye-stuffs betoaging to
thb series are chiefly: logwood, with chromium and iron mor-
dants, for blacks; Perrian hcrriee and quercitron berk, with
aluminium, tin and chromium mordants. fo( colours ranging from
brilliant ydlow to quiet old golds and browns: catechu, with
chromium, for very fast dark browns; and, occasionally, in mix-
tures, sapan-wood. peach-wood. Brazil-wood, and divi-divi extracts
with any of the above-mentioned mordaius.
The mordants are mostly in the form of aoeutes which are
stable in the cold but decompose during the steaming process, and
corobiM as hydroxides with the colours, forming and being on the
fabric the insoluble take.
Alnanae reds and pinks are Iba most cottpUealfld of thfe mor-
dant colours, requiring for their proper production the addition
of brightening egents, such as oxalate 01 tin, oils, tartaric acid,
and also acetate of Ume. This also applies to ahzarine orange,
but all the other cokiurs ara veiv simple to compound and are
stable for a long time after maaing. Reds, pinlu and oranges
are best prepared freshly each day; their constituents are liable
to combine it the colour stands twenty-four houn before printing.
The folk>wing types of redpes will give some idea of the way in
which colours are mixed :—
JUd, 61 gallons thick starch and tragacanth pastes
it M alizarine C20 per cenL commodal paste).
I M nitrate of alumina, ) 8* Tw.
I,, aceute of lime, 28* Tw.
„ oxalate of tin. 10* Tw.
,. 10 per cent, solution of tartaric add.
JPMk. 6| gaUons starch-tragacanth paste.
I „ blue shade alizarine (20 per cent, paste).
tf „ sulphocyanide of alumina, 18* Tw.
acetate of lime, 28* Tw.
oxalate of tin.
citrate of alumina, 40* Tw.
For reds and pinks the nitrate, sulphocyanide and dtrate of
alumina are generally preferred in practice to the acetate though
the latter is also largely used. Oraogea from alizarine orange are
made similariy.
PwpU. 9| gallons starch paste.
blue shade alizarint, ao per cent,
acetic add.
acetate of lime, 28* Tw.
aceute of iron, 24* Tw.
MarooM. $\ gallons paste.
I „ alizarine, 20 per cent.
f „ acetate of chrome. jj2* Tw.
I. ,. acetate of lime. 28*^Tw.
Blues and the other coloure are made by leaving out the lima
in the last redpe and replacing the alizarine with another cobur.
Alaarin* Bltu. \ lb alizarine blue shade (powd.).
{JLighi Shad*.) i gallon water.
3I n thick paste.
If „ acetate of chrome. 40* Tw.
Logwood and other natural coloun are specially boiled.
Lagwonf Blaek. ri5 lb starch.
10 ,. British gum.
4I gaUons water.
acetic add.
kcwood extract. 48* Tw.
querntron extract. 48* Tw»
Boil, cool and add>-
) lb red prussiate of potash.
\ gallon water.
2 » aceute of chrome, 40* TW.
2 oz. chtorate of potash.
QtutcUfom YdUm. i4 gallons querdtron extract, 48* Tw.
6t „ water.
11 lb starch.
Boil, cool and add."-
i gallon aceute of chrome. 50* Tw.
The proportions here gi\«n are liable to variations according to
drcumsunces. Indeed, no two works employ quite the same
recipes, although the proportion of mordant to dye-stuff is pretty
generally known and obs^ved.
After printing, the goods are dried, steamed for one hour, and
then washed and finished.
{b) Applieatwm &f Bask Anilina DyeStuffs.—Thcat coloun all
form insoluble hkea with tannic add; hence tannic acid is the
common fixing agent of the group. Arsenic in combimtion with
alumina abo gives basic<olour lakes, but thdr poisonous char-
acter and their inferior fastness to most reagents considerably
limit thdr application.
The more Important bane dye-stuffs are: methylene blue,
methyl violet, rnodamine. aufismine yellow, safranine emerald
green and indoine blue. Most of them are fairiy fast to soaping,
but towards the action of light they vary a good deal, methylene
blue bdne perhaps as good as any, and the malachite greens the
least sUbie.
Thdr application h simple. A solution of the cotooring matter
u added to the requisite quantity of surch paste or gum, and,
when well mixed in. the tannin is added in the form of a solution
also. If desired they may be boiled up like the extract dye-stuffs
(logwood, Ste.). but this is not necessary unless large Quantities
are required, when it m^ould be more convenient to boil the whole
at once than to mix small batches by hand.
iil
698
w
f
. w •U.^H I The tenamiug fandnfai 9I duk
^ »i» ^''^^ •'^ I typt o( all other pigmeiit pnnting coloun>-
*' Aiirf »4 IhartifcaittltnBnBriae.
^^^^"^ Place in grinding macbiae and beat up gradually with
4I galloos 40 per ccnL blood albumen soluuoo.
2% „ traffKanth mudlage. 8 oz. per gaUoa.
i% M ammonia.
A .« glycerin.
A ft turpentine.
fy „ olive or cotton-seed oiL
flBCmCKOGV
*c#'^-
vNs »«^<
♦ •teamed." and
^ !17a \'i'tiilll7tart of antimony.
' . jj AHitmony and colouring
:^\^\:Uf3SU«r than the
^ ^i^li - mordaot "aodalbuwcii
V . .S»*»»< C4«^'.-'Tb«« coloofm have a
l.vJ S3t ami ihenrfore require op mor-
however, and, though used
^^* ' ,4 'Xia shade*, they find but Uttle
* ^^i 7x»>eptTor the tinting of pnnled good*.
* '\.; V>tcT wheie the cobura must be able to
^' ' :'C;i»"U^''^Sf?he addition rf a dightly alfa-
. ,. ii Mxia) and snlphate of foda. Amongst the
; ,;;„Vra>louri equally auitable for pnjiting nation
kt^ erica for pinks; dianune sky-blue lor blues;
K,* ond diamine, chryomine, chloramiae and dianil
In Vut roost of the benaidme. diamine, dunil and
Ituli. can he used for printing, but with the exception
»||owt none of them wM resist the action of light and
;\ Sm*ii 10 anything like the extent that " mondant and basic
.» M,i« will. The general formula for pnnting these coloan is as
iox. colouring matter,
gallon water. . ^. ^ .
-„ starch or tragacanththicfcemng.
4 oz. phoephate of soda.
2 oz. sulphate of soda.
. ,<\v
After printing, with direct ookMitv. the goods are first steamed, then
•liffhtly washed In a weak tepid soap solution and finally finished.
Id) AppluaiioH of Pigment CoUmrs.—Beioirt the introduction of
coal-tar colours, pigments and lakes played a much more important
part in textile-printing than they do at present, though they arc
sUII largely used for certain styles of work. They form a series
of colours more difficult to worit than those already nacntioned.
but very fast to soap and Ught. ^, . ,
Pigment colours, bewg insoluble mmenU pceopiUtes or lakes,
can ooty be fixed on the fibre mechankally; consequently they
require to be applied in oonjunction with vehicles which cauise
them to adhere to the fabric in much the nme way that paint
adheres to wood.
Of thcsq N-ehicIes, albumen is the most important and the best.
It forms a smooth viscous solution with cold water, mixes readily
with all the cotours used in pigment printing, and possesses the
property of coagulatii^ when hwted to the temperature of boiling
water. When cloth printed with cokxirs containing albumen is
passed throush hot steam or hot acid solutions, as in the indigo
discharge style, the albumen coa^lates, forming a tough insoluble
colloidal deposit, which firmly fixes 00 the fibre any odour with
which it is nnxed.
The cokMirs chiefly cmpkiyed in pignent printing arevchnne
ydbw and ocange, Guignets gzcea or chrome green; arttqcial
ultramarine; lamp black for greys; the various ochrea for gokla
arid browns: zinc oxide; vermilion and iu substitutes, and occa-
aiooally lakes of the natural and artificial cokMiring matters All
these bodies are applied in exactly the same way and may be
mixed together in any proportion to form oompound shades. The
aax>unt of albumen necessary to fix them vanes according to the
deipth of shade required (betMi-ecn 10 and 2^ per cent, of the total
weight of the made-op printing cok>ur). and although it is usually
cooindered in text-books as a thkJcening agent it is rardy used as
such in practice on account of its expense. As a rule the colouring
matter is beaten up into a smooth paste with the necessary quantity
of a strong solutbn of albumen and then reduced to lU proper
strength by the addition of tragacanth mucilage or starch paste.
The mam factor in the successful working of pigment colours
is their fineness of divirioo; the finer they are the better they
print and the more beautiful b their qualitv of colour. If they
are too coarse they g>va rise to innumerable defects, either by
ttieking in the engraving or by scratching the roller, or. if they
pmt a^ alt by yielding uneven masses of colour, granular and
IfWkMO ra appearance and quite unsalcabkr. Even vhen finally
— *— • •>-7 *re liable to clog the engraving of the rolWsrs— a
I W morv or less successfuQy overcome by ref^cing the
•*"^ roller in the printing machine by a revolvii« bnu^
Make to 8 galloas with tragacanth or water, and grind the wrfaok
until peifectly homogeoeoos.
The small quantities of ammonia, turpentine, glycerin and o3
are added to prevent the colour from frothing dunng the printing
process.
Chrome yellows and oranges are frequently mixed with a little
cadmium nitrate to counteract the action of sulphuretted hydrogen
on the lead salts.
The great disadvantage of pigment colours is that although
extremely fast to light and soaii they are liable to rub off. if the
fabric is subjected to much friction in washing. They also impart
considerable stiffness to the goods, and for these two reasons tbcy
are therefore restricted to the printing of small patterns* or are
used for such styles as window-blinds where the stiffness is not
objectionable. In very pale shades they are* used for printing the
grounds or " blotches of multicolour patterns, the small quantity
of albumen they then contain being insufficient to appreciably
affect the softness of the doth. In several discharge styles too
— notably indigo^they find extensive use. and on the whole they
constitute a roost useful class of colours.
Lr) Application of /Wigo.— Indigo is printed on cloth by several
different methods, the chief of which are: (i) Schlieper and Baum's
glucose process; (2) the hydrosulphite process; and (3) the pro-
uction fA indigo 00 the fibre Itself by means of Kalle's indigio
salt and several other artificial preparations. The first and second
processes depend upon the facu ttet indi^ in presence of caostic
alkalis may be converted into indigo-white by teduciag agents,
and that tne indigo-white, being soluble in the alkaH. penetrates
into the fibres of the cloth, where it is subsequently re-ooddiard
to its original insoluble state.
In Schlieper and Baum's process (also known as the glaooae
process) the ckMh is first prepared in glucose, and then printed
with a colour contaihtng nnety ptMtnd indigo, caustic soda and
dextrine thickening (also made with caustic soda). After pnnting.
the doth is "aged.** that is. passed through <ump steam for a
few minutes to effect the reduction and solution of the iadiso.
J op in a cod chamber for a day or two. in oraer
the Indi^white to indigo by the action of the c
and is then hung «
to rennddiae the in ^ _ . . _
in the air. A wash in cold water finally completes the fixation of
the indigo, and the doth may then be soaped and fiaidicd as iisoaL
The doth is pre{»red by running through a box
30 (Mr cent, solution of ghnoae in water; the excea ^
out in a mangle, and the cloth dried. It is then printed wtth the
foUowing ookwrs acoanling to shade required:-
])tifc
Alkaline dextrine paste . . ...
Caustic soda. 38* Tw. .... i .,
Indigo 20 per cent, paste ...
j^ogb.
The printed goods should be dried qoickly. and " i^ed '* as s
as possible to prevent the absorption of carbonic add gas ffroon
the air, after vmich the operations ah«ady awationwi may be pr»>
ccedcd with at leisure.
The wcD-known blue and red pattern is pradueed by th is yo-
"" - -• - ,#...-.. ^ turkey
cess, the only difference being that. instKnd of white doth, \
red dyed doth is used, the strong alkali dissolving out, or *- oaa-
chaigiar." cmnpletdy the colour from those parts of the dock
upon which it falls. «id leaving the indigo as a blue pattern on n
red ground.
In the hfdrostdfkUi process, which is much nnicker thaa d»
preceding, the reducing agent, the indwo and the alkali are all
primed together on unprepared white doth. * The goods are then
aged." and allowed to be a short time, afrer which they arc
wadicd-ofi in cold water first, until the indigo is thofovchty r«>.
oxidlxed. and then in hot mater or soap.
The hydrosulphite printing colour is as follows:—
r300 parts hydrosulphite N.F. (or 100 of the concentrated pciK
(.450 .. atlaline dextrine paste,
c 150 M indigo 20 per cent, paste (groond up m gun^.
c 200 ., alkaline doitrine paste.
Tlndcening 1 150 parts dextrine or British gum,
\ 850 ,. caustic soda, 70* Tw.
Print, dry. ''age" and wash off In a copious supply of cold vatcr
TEXTILE PRINTING
Plate I.
Fig. t. — Linen, dyed blue, the "reserved" parts represent the An-
nunciation; above the reclining figure of the Virgin Mary is the
word MAPIA. Coptic, probably 5th or 6th century. 18 in.
X 2 ft. s in.
Fig. 2. — Child's Tunic of linen dyed blue, the pattern
being "reserved." Coptic, 4th century (?). 18K in. X
2syi in.
Fig. A. — Piece of red silk, printed in black from wood blocks,
with a trellis pattern enclosing pairs of birds and anthemions.
Rhenish, xjth or X4th century. Syiin. X ijKin.
Fig. 3.— Piece of red silk, printed in red, green, and black from
wood blocks, with a repeating pattern of black circles or
roundels containing pairs of animab and dragons; floriated
crosses in the interspaces. Rhenish, 12th or 13th century.
isKin. X laKin-
Fig. 5.— Piece of linen, printed in black from a wood block, with a pattern
composed of repetitions of a lady on a turret, leafy sprays, a hound, and
a bird on the wmg. Rhenish, 14th century, gfi in. X 19H in.
Fig. 6. — Strip of linen printed in deep purple from
a wood block, with a repeating pattern of
eagles and conventional leaf and ^
Rhenbh, Z4th or early isth centui
X6Kin.
Plate II.
TEXTILE-PRINTING
Fig. 8. — Cotton print in colours. Dutch,
z 7th century. About 14 in. Xg in.
Fig 7- — Portion of reddish linen lining for a chasuble
printed in black from wood blocks, with a repeat-
ing pattern composed of five-lobed shapes enclosing
conventional fruit device surrounded by smallblos-
som and leaf forms. Rhenish, 15th centuiv;
from the neighbourhood of DQsseldorf. 3 ft.
8in.X24>^ in.
Fig. 9. — Part of a coverlet of
cotton, printed at Genoa, in
colours, from metal plates en-
graved with trees, flowers, birds,
and animals in the style of
Indian palampores or printed
calicoes, xgth century. About
6ft.X3ft.
Fig. IX.— Part of a cotton chair back, printed in red from a metal plate co-
graved with a Chinese pagoda in a landscape; in front is a woman kneel-
ing on the ground, while a priest stands to the left holding up an image.
Marked " Collins Woolmers.'*^ English, dated 1 766. 24 in. X 24 >^ in.
Fi«. 10.— Por* ' "^
from IT
Boa
seco
M cotton, printed in red
i with repetitions of
im is printed " D 5 T.
iran pres Bordeaux,
jmm. 19." French
4 ft. 6in.X3ft. 4iA.
Fif. 13. — Linen panel, with a stipple engraving printed
in colours, for use as a small fire-screen. English,
Ute i8th century, a ft 4>^ in.Xa ft. syi in.
tBOBMOUOGYl
nnmhif of imligob bat oC a wpttrnk prepoatioa cBpufe 6t utta
■Ddigo whea tseated whli caoadc alkaln. The aah « nwMly db-
■olwd and thickened wkh gum or ataidi, printed, and then paved
direet Lluia^^h a solution of cauadeaoda, when the ind%o is Hnaiedi<
atdy devdbpad. Instead of bdng paMed through the alluU. which
IS a^t to cause the coloar to nn before it as peeperly devtkipcd,
the dodr n more oomnonly printed with thickened caustic soda,
whereby thfl iadigo is cqaeiiy well produced wittevt any icar of
Bewka' indigo, otlsr vat d j w u ti iff s, such an indanthranes, the
alfol, heiindone and dba eoloun, thioiadisD scarlet. Ac, are also
pnated brndy at the present time, yielding ooloun of hitherto
unatfcained lasCnesB to washing and to bght.
(/) hudubU AMO-Celttm.-^Them oumtn do not eaist aa soch,
but reqaire to be produced on the fibre itidf f torn their components.
They lonn a rang* of eitaeedinglf fast ootouts, including orMige,
red» pink, maroon, brown, diecolate, blue and btack, and are
prodttoed by the combiaatton of various diaao4Mdies with oheaol*,
the most important of whkh latter is/-naphthol {bettMiaphthoiy.
la prutsoe their applicatiaR is brieHy as follows >— The bleached
doth is p re par ed in a sohitioo of /inaphthol in caustk soda
(aaphthobte of eoda), thea t^atly dried and orintcd with the
tMclDened dtexotaaod amine laqoired to produce tne desired shades
The priatiog ookwr most be oooted with ioe to prevent its decom-
position: hence such ooioon areaometimes known as ** ice colours.'*
The two colmna most extensively used are par»-iiifiaiiUine rad
•ml Miaphthylamiae naaroon, both of wMch are bright fast
ookMirs, only equalled by turkey red and madder chocoUte Cor
■tncrsi usefulness.
On ^-naphthol pnepare the foUow&sg ooloura osay be obtaih•d^—
Red with naranitraniUne.
Maroon with o-naphthylanune.
Orange with orthonitrotolutdine.
Pink with aso pink 2 B.
Chocolate with benaidinc.
Brown with benzidine and orthonitR>toliiidin«
Bloe with dianisidine.
Black with dianisidine and benxidiae.
Other naphthdls and other bases give a ttlU greater vartsty of
The naphtbol prepare reaulres to be freshlv made, and Uie cloth
prepared with it carefully dried . if good results are to be obtained.
Paranitranitine is made up for printing by dissolving in hydro-
chloric add. Nitrite of soda is then added, and. after standing a
short time to complete the reaction, the resulting diozo-solution is
taxxcd with thickening, and acetate of soda is then added to
pcotralUe any free mineral acid still remaining, the presence of
which would prevent the formation of the colour.
In practice the following formulae have given good results :->
(l) PAftAKlTRANILINS RED
Ptepare the bkached ck>th in.^~
47 pans ^naphthol.
3 „ naphtha! R.
107 „ caustic soda. 50* Tw
400 „ hot water.
10 „ tartar emetic
O „ tarUrie acid.
Make up to 1000 parta with hot water
The doth is passed through a trough contahting this aolotion,
tlie excess is saueeacd out between two wooden rollers, and the
doth is gently <med and then printed with :—
r 36 parts paranitraonine C
J 100 M ice.
1 100 n hydrochloric add, 30* Tw
I 70 „ water.
Mix and add qukUy-
i 24 parts nitrite of soda. 93 per cent
J 70 „ water (cold).
And just before printing add fuither*
too parts acetate of soda.
too ,. ice in laige pieces.
Mth
TEXTiLE-PRINTDrG
70 f
400
tragacanth mucilage, i> percent.
Print, dry and 1
A dmOar prepare without the naphthol R. may be used for
c-oaphthyhimine maroons, the printing cotoor for which is made
tq> aa follows:—
36 parts »>naphthylamine.
93 t* hydrochloric add. 30* Tw.
171 „ tragacanth muclla^
Giiad ttt^pvMctly wiwfltli tei a ntt Md thflu add^
too parts ioe.
ao „ aitiitaof sodaof 93perttal. itiMgtli.
400 „ surch and tragBcanth thideeaing.
45 ,. beniuie.
75 M aceute of soda.
1000
Print, dry and wash.
Immediately these diaao-colour pastes come In contact with the
naphthot-prepared doth the colour itself is formed and fixed and
requires no further treatment except that of washing to remove
the naphthol from the unprinied pacta of the doth.
The other bases are diaaotiaed in prechwly the sama way, the
quantities of add and nitrite of soda being varied according to the
molecular weights of each base.
Several processes of printing aao<o1out« directly, without any
previous preparation oTthe cloth, have been proposed, but they
are not in general use aa yet; those which have passed the expcn-
mental stage are not ver/ successful 00 the large scale, and have,
for the most part, been abandoned.
(Z) Application 0/ Sulphur Dyts.—Ol late years the dass of cobure
known as " sulphur coioura " have assumed a prominent place in
textile-printing. They are really (Srect dyeing colours, but their
special properties entitle them to be daased apart from those usually
known under thb name.
There are now an enormous number of sulphar-colours on the
market under many different names, but, as they are all similar in
general properties, it ia needless to mention more than one series.
The *' thiogea eoloun ** of Master, Lucius and Bruning will serve
as weH a» any to exemplify the a pp li c ati oti of these dve-stulf s in
printing. They comprise yelk>ws, golds, browns, violets, blues, grey*
and blacks, all fairiy. ana some veiv, fast to light and soap, and.
under proper conditions, easy of appTication to a variety of styles.
The general redpe for printing Is m» under:—
. 30 parts by weight of cokniiing matter.
»» *, •• glycerin.
It M •• W**"" , ,
„ „ M duna day beaten up With
„ M „ concentrated hydrosulphite N.F., 50 per
cent, solution.
„ „ all^ine British gum tbickeiung.
This paste Is printed on unprepared bleached cloth, gently dried
and then passed through a rapid steam ager, in from 4 to 7 minutes
in dry (team at 212* F. to 220* F. (or twice for 3 nunutes), after
which the doth is passed in the open width throuzh the washing
and soapinff machines, and finally dried up and finished.
The sulphur eoloun may be used in combination with the azo-
eoloun. on naphthol-prepared doth, for the production of multi-
colour effects, and are eminently adapted also to the productbn of
coloured dischaiges on paranitraniline red and the diroa*dydng
colours.
(A) AnitiM€ BtccL^AxuXxat black waa discovered and first used
by Ughtfoot in 186^ It is one of the fastest blacks known, and Is
equally useful for direct printing by itself, and for working along
with printed mordants and discharge pastea Aniline mack is
focmeo by the oxidation of aniline.
As a rule the osudatlon of the aniline is brought about by means
of sodium chlorate in presence of suitable ox)^n carrien such as
copper sulphide, vanadium chloride or potassium ferrocyanide.
Copper and vanadium blacks are usually devefeped after printing
by bdng aged in a moderately warm room for a day or two, when
they become converted into "cmeraldine," at which stage they
are taken down, and passed through a hot solution of bicluomate
of potash to complete the oxidation of the aniline. Great care is
required In printioE these two blacks, as if overdried they take fire
and have occasionally caused considerable damage to buildings in
consequence. The blacks made with ferrocyanide, on the contrary,
may be printed in conjunction with '* steam " ooloun, and. after a
preliminary passage through a rapid steam ager. and an amnsonia
"gassing* box, will withstand the kmg steaming nacesaary for
alixarine colours.
A copper aniline black nay be made aa folk>ws.*—
i
15 |b starch.
tb British gom or dextrine
4 Ibdi
f
chlorate of soda.
cUveoiL
Boil, cod and edd:
lb aniline salt.
3 Ih aniline oil.
5 lb sulphide of copper (pcedpttaie pressed to a 30 per cent.
paste).
I gal. water.
joi
TE2CTILE-PRINTING
CTBOHllOliOGT
This btack mHy ht cither tef to dmeidp^ tiluch b the afer
eoorac or, if printed in fine diirtiag patterns, it nay be *' aged "
thfou^ steam far t t» 3 lainates. Whichever method is adopted
the printed doth must afterwards be passed through hot bichromate
— " diroming " — and then «dl washed.
The fblknnttg fecrocyanide Uack works well in pnctice>-
10 Ibstaidi.
2 tt» British gum.
6 lb ydlow prassiate (ferrocyanide) of potash.
7 gals, water.
Boil, turn off the steam, and add :
2I lb chlorate of soda in powder.
Cool and addt
8} Ibanilmeialt.
Print, age 4 minutes through the rapid agcr, dvome, wash and
soap. If pnnted with aliarine steam colours it must be passed
through ammonia vapour after *' ageing," and then be steamed for
one hour before chroMning and wasung. Sometimes the chroming
is omitted, but the colour a then apt to become green after a short
time owing to the action of sulphur dioxide jircscnt in the air.
Aniline olack is now used almost exdusively for
with mordants for the madder style, and for Uack _
that were formerly dyed with logwood on an iron mordant,
in^ and all sin^k-colour black drcas goods are also execnted in
aniline black, which b faster to lieht, washing, and peispiration
than any other black except some otthc sulphur blacks.
(3) Priming of Mwdants.—Tlus, the second of the mat styles
of tntHe printiiu;, was, at one time, the most extensiv^ practised
of aH. and b stiu the most important for all classes of work where
leaviiw the hydcated padde on the fibre) Koes oa stowly and cvcahr.
After hanging, the last traces of add are mn ow mi and the hydroxide
thoroqghly food by/* dungiiv,'' a procos ■■ which the goods an
passed through a mixture of cow-duiw and chalk atat_
of about so^^C In tfab *' iha^sg '^ Jiath thry are worlacd ako-
gether about 1 1 houia. at the end of which the moidaau an
" fioaed. and all the
hottiab at the
thoroughly (aat£ and all the thk_
thus leaving the doth in the best ^
The dyeing tt carried out by working the gORids at 60* C in a
of ahiafine, a little chalk, aad glue siae ior 1 to i| honrk They
are then wcii washed, soaped, and the whites cleaned by a passage
through weak bleaching powder aohitkm. foQowcd by a passage
through steam. Further soaping and washing b then Raorted to
until the goods are quite dear and farbfat.
In the case of doth dyed ia red anlpiak aione the
dydn|( are well washed, passed thioagfa a hath of
oootaining oxalate of ammonia, and thai steamed for
15 lb pressure. Thb brightens the oohmiB by l e mo iri ng the brown
app e a ra n ce they possess after dyeing. When reds are asaodatcd
irith chocola t es aiad purplcSk however, the oiling process aaust he
carefully conducted, otherwise the two htter s^er; frequently it
b omitted altogether, the brightening being effected by vigocaaa
By printing the following mordants a six-coloor design may be
produced with a single dyi^ftuC and mopedyrif a—
s perfectly t ,
I to abaoib the dye«tufil
after
oa
B«L
PU.
Choohtr.
DukPiMo.
Vfakl.
Bbdk.
Black liquor, 34* Tw . . .
Water. . ,, ....
British gum
Acetkadd .,..:.
Tincrystab
Cotton-seed oil
Starch .......
lagab.
• •
• »
3gab.
If
.IS--
" r
••
••
* •
••
••
8^
4 n
-..
It-
the fastest colours are required. It may be conveniently divided
into two branches: (a) the madder style, and (5) the printing of
other mordaftts such as chrome, tannic acid, /^napbthd, &c
(a) Tk£ Madder Style.— In thb style the only mordants used are
those of aluminium and iron.
Aluminium alone yields various shades of red and pink when dyed
up in madder, or its artificial competitor alizarine. Iron alone
ywlds with the same dye-stuf!s shades varying from black to the
palest bvendcr. Iron and aluminium nundants in combination
yidd coloura ranging in shade from claret through all gradations
of bordeaux and maroon to the deepest cbocobtes, according to
which of the two mordants predominates in the mixture. Browns
and allied colours may be dyed on the same mordants with either
nitroalizarine alone, or with alizarine itself mixed with dycwood
extracts— logwood. Peraan berry or quercitron bark, &c
Both alumfaiium and iron mordants consist of the acetates of
their respective metals. The iron moidant which gives the best
results b known as ** bbck liquor.'* It b a crude acetate contain-
ing a good deal of organic matter which appears to regulate the
speed of its oxidation and so jvodoce much more levd coloon than
have ever been obtained from any other iron mordant.
Aluminium acetate in the pure state is also rardy employed, the
crude commercial " red liquor " bdng found in practice to yidd
the best results, both aa^regaids ooknir and ease of working. The
" red liquors '* vary considetably in composition, some bdng normal
acetates, others basic acetates, tome normal sulphate-acetates,
others basic sulphate-acetates, but thdr mode of application b
always the same, that b, they are thickened, printed, aged and
dyed in alixarine. If they are too basic they decom p ose on boiling.
or on dilution, and become utteriv useless; out this cardy happois
nowadays and need not be further gone into. Many difficulties
occur in the printing of mordants and thdr subsequent dyeing, but
if the following points are observed most of them may be sur-
mounted; (i) after printing the cloth must be gently dried, other-
wise the mordants become ddiydrated or ** burnt.** and instead of
dyeing op evenly they appear patchy and very light in the over-
dried parts; (a) the dye-stuff must not be used in excess; and
M the t emperature of ue dye-bath must be kept as low as b con-
JMent with the fixation of the colour, if these liA two pmnts
are neglected the imprinted parts of the doth, which should remain
a pure white when it b finished, wHl be soiled beyond repair unless
indeed the *' whites '* are cleared at the expenseof weakening the
odour. Iron mordants especially are Ibble to unevennesa due to
the oxidation being too rapid; and as this ddect b most notkeable
lud lavendcn. Oe pyrbligntte of iron or <* bbck-liquor "
' r bdled for half an hour or more with i per oent.of
,*.^s ^
The above mordants are printed on white bleached doth, dried
bunjE a to 3 days. " dunged,'* dyed, washed, wdl soaped and washed
aj^n; then " dionicked *' thraagh weak bleaching powder sola*
tion. and finished.
The " dunging ** b peiformed in irats through which the cfeth
circulates continually during the operation. As a rule dunging b
done twice, the second bath bdng weaker than the first. The vats
or " becks " contain a mixture of >—
100
50 lb
at 60*^
gab. water )
% chalk f
oow-duiig)
Ist duQgiitf.
100 nb. water )
5 lb chalk V 3nd dunging.
35 lb cow-dung )
Wash wdl after ** dunging '* and dye in alisarine, ftc.
The dyeing b carried out in large bocks over which a roller or
bowl revdvcs. equal in length to the beck. Over thb roller the
doth b wound spirally in large loose loops so that one end of the
loop b on the roDer and the other dips into the dye liquor. Wliea
about 700 yds. of doth have been entered in thb way the xwo
ends of it are knotted together, thus forming an endless rope which
drcubtes continuously in and out of the dye-liquor. The vat or
beck b then charged with alizarine, chalk and glue, the propor-
tions varying aocording to the amount of space covered by the
mordants on the cfeth. If, for instance, half the surface b printed
then the dye-liquor might be made up as follows, the quantities
bdng calculated on the weight of the cloth : —
4I per cent, alizarine (faloe ^ade), ao per cent. '
I) „ aceute of lime, aS* Tw.
10 M glue solution, or dze, 15 per cent.
The goods are entered into thb solution cold. The temperattrre
b gradually raised to 60* C, and the dyeing continued at thb for
one hour or more. The goods are then washed ia a sinilarmachiae,
soaped wdl and finished off by drying.
Aniline black may be printed along with " red liouor '* and iron
liquor, and many other modifications also employed, but the pain-
dple of dydng b alu-ays the same.
(^ nbi>f?WcsfolAcrirardaa(«.-Ofthe8ethei
are tannic acid, chrome mordants and />-naphthol.
For printing tannic add the following b usad>—
is lb tannic add dissolved in
I gal. acetic acid and added to
9 f, starch and tragacanth pasta.
ri
taasuffidcncy
of water.
TECmnM/XSYl
The gd04i siv ilffl|)fy dilB<| ifftcr prtmtaK md tlw tunic Kid
Ifflmcdatdy fixed by puting throvgh a wlutiftn of—
rS ox. tartar emet . .
^t os-cbalk.
ll giL water at 60 C.
After waahbg they may be dytd up in any of the batic
TEXTILE-PRINTING
Varioiit chrone niordanu are employed in printing amongst
which nay be mentioned chromium diromate, and chromium
acetate. The former is thickened with March or gum, printed,
and fijted by be(n| pamed through boKog todium carbonate. The
latter ia applied m the aune way but. after printing, ia eteamed
before the carbonate treatment. Both thete mordamt are suitable
for dyeing with any of the dyes mentioned under the direct printing
of mordant ootours. such as alizarine, alizarine bordeaux, coeruieioe
and the natural dye-wood eactracts. They are dyed similarty to
the madder colour*, with an addition of glue size to preserve the
white of the unprinted parts of the cloth.
(3) The Dixhargt 5l><e.— This style is now one of the* most
important produced. Its cm^ is so extensive, and Its modifica-
tions so numerous, that It is impossible to mention more than a
few of its chief applications. It may be used for locally destroying
either the colours dyed on cloth, or the u ior djuts with which they
have been previously prepared. In both cases the resulting pattern
ap^rs in white, or colours, on a full rich ground the beauty of
which cannot be equalled by direct printing
The dischafging jments consist 01 ofg^ic adds, caustic alkalis,
oxidizing agents ana reducing agents, each used according to the
kind of colmir or mordant to be discharged.
(a) Disckarie oj Iron ami Almmutuun Mondamis.'—Tl»t cloth is
padaed with a solution of these mordants, dried in hot air, and
then printed with thickened dtric acid or add dtrate of soda
mixed with china day to prevent the pattern running. It is then
passed through the rapid ager once or twke, '* dun«sd/' washed,
and dyed in the usual way for madder colours, wbeiever the
discharge has been primed the mordant is disadvcd out. leaving
• white pattern on a dyed ground.
(P) Tannate of antimony mordant b similariy discharged by print-
ing on caustk: soda. The goods are passed in lim nunncr through the
ager. well washed in watec, and dyed-up in any basic aniline dye.
(c) The chrome diachaige is |>roduoed by padding the gooos in
chromium bisulphite; then drying them, and printing-on dtric
acid, or chkirate of soda and vcllow pnissiate of potash They are
then steamed, passed through chalk and water, wall washed and
dyed up in any mordant dye.
(d) Turkey red may be dischnged in both white and coloured
patterns by either oxidizing agents or caustic alkalis, (i) The
dvcd ckMh M printed with strong citric acid, or arsenic acid, at
ISO* Tw , and then run through bleaching powder solution, whereby
the printed parts are completely decolorized If cokturs are re-
quired, the atric add is mixed with lead salts and Prussian blue,
and the fabric after passing tbrouj^h the bleaching powder solution.
is further treated in a batn of bichromate 01 potash which forms
with the lead sahs the insoluble chrome yellow. Green is obtained
by the combination of Prussian blue with the chrome yeDow
Examples ;~
WkHe 6 lb dtric add or tartaric add.
I gal water
4 lb British gum or dextrine.
BoU together.
TiOom M lb British gnin.
It gals, dark British gum paste, JO per cent.
3} ,. water
30 lb Urtaric arid.
12 lb nitrate of lead
IVint. dry. dlscharre through bleaching powder sobtioo.
18'^Tw.. and chrome,
(r) The dyed doth is printed with strongly alkaline discharge
pBBtcB, passed through the " aocr " two or three times, and then
washed off in silicate of soda. If blue, yelbw and green dischai^cs
«re deaiied the dyed doth mutt fint be passed throurh glucose
aolutwn. well dried, printed with the colours, **ajBea." passed
through silicate of soda, chromed in bichromate, well washed and
dried Examples: —
White 10 lb stannous chloride dissolved cold \n
8 gals, alkaline thickening.
3 .. siUcate of soda. 70* Tw.
Wms. 15 lb indigo pore foper
cent, paste.
I gal turpentine,
ri^erin.
BrHisb gum paKe.
7 ,. alkaHne thieken-
Crem^ t pansoftMyenow
willMut silicate.
f paftof bltta
S'
Y4lh» 30 lb lead hydrated 50
percent
3 gals, waier.
4 ,. siHeatesoda.
$\ „ alk. thideenittg.
Mkaline Tkkkeuini.
IS lb Tellow dextrine,
i gala, caustk soda.
if) ftiraiitfrawgMM rf^ it 4i y h f tftd hy mmr* V t» ^ ntir I ^
sulphite-fonnaldehyde compounds. The dyed cloth Is priotod'widi
hydro-
the following ^—
2% h hydrosulphitc N.P. cooc, or hydiBldite oooo.
i| gala. British gnm paste.
Heat till diMolvtd and add--
jb gal- glycerin.
4) „ starch-tragacanth thickening.
After printing, age twice for 4 minutes through dry steam
at 230* F.. then wash well and soap.
CokMired discharges are obtained by mixing hydnosulphite. unnic
add, aniline or phmol, and basic coburing matters together. Mor-
dant dyes iixed with chromium acetate may also be used.
On a-naphthykmlne maroon tlie above disdiatge white requires
the addition of indulinc scariet, patent blue or anthiaqninonc.
before it beoomcs effective, otherwise the procedure is the same as
for pamnitraniline red.
(g) Indigo is usually discharged by ooddatkm. For this purpose
the dyed doth is printed in two dtfforent waya. Firstly, with
dUorate of soda, and red or yellow prussiace ei potash together
with a little dtric add or dtrate of aoda: secondly, irith chromate
of potash. In the first instance, the cloth is " aged " through the
rapid ager after printing, and, in the second, is passed through a
vat comaining hot sulphuric acid and oxalic add. Cdoured dis-
charges may be obuined in both methods by adding albumen and
pigment cabiirs to the diacharginf agents.
(0 Discharge by steaming: —
ri2 lb cknc add, dissolve in:
-{ 7 lb caustic soda. 70* Tw.. and add :
^X2 lb sodium chlorate.
5 gala. British gum paste.
Heat till dissolved, cool and add :—
1 1| nk. British gum paate.
yellow pnissiate of potash.
Print, steam and wash.
Chlorate of ahimfntum is also used for this process, but it acts
very energetically and is apt to tender the ck)th.
(2) Chromate discharge:—
WkiU. 8| eals. British gum paste.
13 lb bkhromate of soda.
I gat tuipentine.
YtUam, 32 lb chrome ydbw pinieBt.
.albumen
{'i
gals. y» per cent, s
t, thick tragacaath mucilage.
M oil (vegeuble).
13 lb bichromate of soda neutralized with
gal. caustk soda, 70* Tw
water.
Print,' dry, pass through a " beck ** (i#. a bath) containing ^—
100 gals, water.
90 lb oolphorie add (168* Tw.).
90 Iboxalkadd.
Then wdl wash and dry.
With these oxidation discharges it is impossible to prevent the
fibre bring attacked in the discharged portions, with the result
that it is partially converted into oxycellukMe. Recemly a method
has been brouffht out for the producrion of a white discharge
on indigo whkn b said to do away with the formation of oxy-
cellulose and whkh consists in printing on a thkkened solution
of sodium nitrate and, after diying. running through sulphurk
add of 50* Tw.
Another method of prouudng white discharges on indigo' connsts
in printing the dyed doth with hydraeulphite N.P.^ then steaming
and running through a boiling solution of caustic sod^. Good
whites are thus obtained without the formation of oxyocUubse, but
the process is expensive.
(A) Direct dyting or svbstantwt eoUmrs can be^easily discharged
with the hydrosulphitc discharge used for paranitranliine red (see
ibove). It must be reduced in streogth to about one4ioDrth for
dark shades, and much weaker for lighter oohiurs. Direct cotours
were formerly diichafged by stannous chkiride or acetate, but the
hydrosulpbitt has almost entirely displaced these salts for white
-'icharges.
(•) Discharges on manganese bronae are of little importance at
the present time. They are effected by means of stannous chloride,
cok>urs being obtained by the addition of bask dyes and dyewood
extracts.
(/) Sulphttf-coloufs. dyed bask ookmrs, and some alitarine
colours, are discharged with chlorate and prussiate like indigo
(4) Tkt Resist or Resent 51^^.— Reserves are subsunoes which,
when printed, prevent the fixation or development of mosdants
and coloun subsequently applied, and are used to produce effects
similar to those obtained by oischarge printing
The pnndpal reserves are those used for madder dyed ^oodt,
..eam alizarine reds and pinks, steam bask coloun. vat indigo
blue, inaolubit aao eolours. solphur-coloun and anttlM btaek:
704
TEXTILE-PRINTING
prEomoLOGV
(a) Risetvet under Atuminium and iron MordeHis.-^For
the production of this important daas of goods, use is
made of the fact that alkaline citrates prevent the
fixation of the mordants. The cloth is first printed
with citrate of soda (or sometimes citric and tartaric
acids for iron mordants), then dried, and again printed
over the previous impression, with either a fine "all
over" pattern or flat uniform ground, in iron or
A^^^. •^'^-'-•— 'cistnenag
aluminium mordants. The fabric is
aged,
ith the
' dunged,'
washed and dyed as already described, with the result that
wherever the " reserve *' of dtrate or acid was printed
a white pattern is left on a figured or plain ground.
The fine patterns printed over "reserves" are called
" covers " and the plain grounds " pads." hence the name
" cover and pod style in cases where, as frequently
happens, a dark " cover " and a light " pad " are both
pnnted over a white "reserve." The "cover and
pad " style is, for the most part, restricted to dyed
aliiarine purples under which red. black, dark purple and white
can all be reserved at the same time, thus giving rise to very pleasing
effects. For example: white cloth is first printed with four
" coloun," vis., citrate of soda and citric ack! lor the white; log*
wood and iron for the black; strong iron mordant for the purple;
and aluminium acetate at 6* Tw. with 8 ox. per gallon of sunnous
chloride for the red. (The stannous chloride acts as a resist for
iron nnordants.) The whole is then " covered " in a fine pattern
printed in a fairiy strong iron mordant, dried, and again printed,
in a very weak iron moraant, with a pad roller, that is. a roller
which pnnts a uniform ground over the whole surface of the ctoth.
After this last printing, the cloth is " aged " for a day or two,
by being hung as previously described, then "dunged, washed
and dyed in a blue shade of alizarine. When finally washed,
soaped and " cleared " in bleaching powder solution the first
printed pattern in white, red. black and purple is seen to stand
out, deariy and sharply, from a figured background in two lighter
shades of purple. This " cover and pad " style of reserve printing
constitutes one of the staple processes of ncariy all print-works,
and is produced in enormous quantities for both home and foreign
markets. Red b not often introduced a.^ in the above example,
the usual colours being white, black and two purples. The ^ame
method of working can be adopted with alumtm'um mordantx for
red and pink covers and pads, out they are better pixxiuced with
the steam alisarine colours as below.
(6) R€Str9$s umdtr Skam AltMarine Red and Hnk. — In this case
a reserve composed of dtrate of chromium alone, or in conjunction
with citrate of soda, gives the best results. The p»ds are first
prepared in alisarine ou and then printed with the following .'—
lo lb china cby.
I gal. citrate of soda, ^* Tw.
„ dtrate of chromium, 4a* Tw.
.. water.
„ British gum paste.
After printing the above, the goods ore dried and again printed
dther with " cover " or " pad " or both, in alisarine pink, dried,
steamed for li bra., well woahed and soaped. On leaving the
steanscr the parts printed with the resbt are ydk>w. but become
quite white on soaping. Like the purples, the alixarine pinks can
be reserved in colours. For blue, green, yellow and violet the
ordinary steam bosk ookNUs ore used with additioas of dtric or
tartaric add.
Example:— ~
(7 lb china cby.
( I gal. water.
6| ., Brituh gum ptrtc
a lb methylene Uue.
I fb dtric add.
I got. acetic add.
Boil. cool, and add >-
l| gab. $0 per cent, tannic acid adution in acctk add.
Red with steam alisarine red: yellow with thioflavine in place
•t iaeth>*lcitt blue in abo^^e; grsea a aaixiure of blue and yellow.
Ttiese coloun with the white reacrve osay all be printed at oncc^
Then steam as usual, pass throiigib a solution of taitar emetic
and chalk, wash well and soap.
(c) Rntntx imitr inssfuMs Xaa'Csfiiirt.~Tbese ore based a|Km
the octioa of atannnws chloride, which prevents the combiaation
ol aadihe
Bb*.
Ydkw.
Gbw.
PUL
New methylene blue N. . .
Auramine G. (BvA.S.F.) . .
Brilliant green ....
TheoflavineT. .....
Rhodamine 6 G. (extra) . .
Acetic acid
Citric add
Starch
Water
Tragacanth mudlage . . .
Tannic acid sol.. 50 per cent. .
Tincrysub
Make up to . . .
ailb
10 „
a gab.
'*^
ao lb
alb'
a „
aolb
a'ft
I M
a ..
aolb
10 gals.
10 gals.
10 gals.
10 gals.
bifmi the /^oaphtlnl
(tias> bodies bv ledudng the
fgr momoas ostho mtrwolmitiiw for orange, Ac.. &c
b ibM «Mtd aad ooapad iMdl the ** whites " are deaa.
The doth
fom senegnl solntioa
wbhi
Potassium sulphite is also used as a white reserve under insoluble
azo-colours with good results.
((f) Reserves under Steam Basic Cohurs.—ThK white doth b
printed with. —
ao lb china cby.
ai nls. water.
15 R> Britiah gum.
20 lb sodium tartar emetic
ao lb xinc sulphate.
All boiled well together,
and then cox'ered, or overprinted, with any steam ba»c coloor—
steamed one hour, passed through tartar emetic, thca washed and
soaped, when the reserve white above comes away, bringic^ along
with it the colour printed upon it and leaving a white pattern on a
printed ground.
(<) Reserves under Vat Indigo Bfitf.— This was formerly a very
important style, hut at present is onfy used in spedal cases. Resist
or reserve effects are obtained by printing tl» white cloth with
oxidising agents, &c., and subsequently dyeing it in the rodieo vat.
In addition to oxidizing agents the reserve pastes contain bad
sulphate, barium sulphate, resins, fats and thickenings in ^ — '
proportions. The following is a good white reserve ^~
IS lb flour.
6 gab water.
Boa, cool a little, and add—
18 B) copper sulphate powdered,
ai lb copper nitrate. 90" Tw.
1 pint alizarine oil.
Ydhw. a} gals. British gum paste.
33 lb lead sulphate, " —
18 lb xinc sulphate.
» lead sulphate, 66 per cent, ptsle.
aa lb lead nitrate.
•^Wy
Print the white and yellow, dry. dye in the indigo 1 _ _
in sulphuric add. wash, arid pass into a hot aoTiitioft of bichvaamte
of soda, which develops the lead yellow. Reserve whites alsc^
contain lead salts when used lor white ohme. but obviously tbe
white given b best suited to white and yellow reserves, as its
solubb copper saltt wash out befose the "chroming" staia m
reached.
(/) Rtserms under Sulpknr CeUmrs.— These are obtained with
xinc chbride. They are not much usec^ but are capobfe of yiddiaf
fine effects.
(X) Reserms under Aniline Blacks — ^Reserves under anXne Uadc
are produced with caustic allEalis, alkaline carbonates, siHcatcn
and sulphites, sulphocyanides, oxide of xinc and the acetates of
mignfiis, xinc and soda. The while and coborcd resists nay be
primed upon dther the undeveloped black or upon the ctoth '
the blaf If is applied.
in the lomer case the cbth b sfep-padded thnmgh a ai
boa with thefoOowing bbck>-
7 1 lb aniline hvdrochloride.
3i Bi sodium oilorate.
4 l> potassium f erroc>-aoide.
10 gab. 1
It b Chen very caref nBy dried in hot ^ an that ft I
darker than a pab ycOow; if it b gicen kcfoie ptiating. tJke 1
b sure to be bad.
The dried padded doth b then printed with the * .
dried and st eamed ^ to 4 minutes in a rapid agtr. chioaied thmsi^h
vara bichromate 01 potash, and finally waahcdaad soaped. Daring
the ateamiag the bbck b dnvloped all o%-<r the ckxh czorpt 1 '
the cobaia are primed. Here its d ew kipm e at b prevcaied I
alkali or the rrduday agent, whichever may be pmaia «iaihe c
aad iaatead ai a pbm Uacfc d>-cd piece a c '
g^oud ii pRMOOiiL TheffoBowHlK
TEXTILE-PRINTING
70s
mfty be cfB|iloy«d for
WkiU.
8 IbtUrch.
8 lb British gum.
30 lb potawium sulphite. 90* Tw.
isoM. water.
15 m soda acetate.
10 Ih bisulphite of soda. 66* Tw.
i lb ultramarioe blud
Bodtotether.
Rfld.
Pbk.
Bhic
Tdhw.
Cncn.
VUcL
Rhodaoiine 6 G.(ioo per ceat.) .
ir
1 lb
..
AuramineO
, .
AcridiaeyelLG
, .
3 lb
2j lb
Thiooine blue
, .
3 lb
New solid Ereen 3 B. ...
Methyl violet. B. x. . . . .
••
1 lb
3 lb
Water
Ufftli.
ilgal^
l)g^
ligalt.
H «*!•.
1 1 gals.
Trafacantb mucilage • . .
I ..
I ..
K ••
'1 "
1 *.
I It
Aibumea. 40 per cent solution
I i;al.
1 gal.
I ..
1 If
I If
Resist paste
6 ..
6 ..
6 „
6 .,
6 ..
6 „
Print on the padded doth, age, cbrone and wash. The lesiat
paste is as under: —
RisistPasti. 10 lb zinc oxide.
1 4 gals, magnesium acetate, io* Tw.
3| u tragacanth mudlage (dragon).
I „ starch |>aste.'
For ndudag the coburs take 6 parts resist paste.
4 M starch paste.
4 M white resist.
Very good results ean be obt^ned by the akemative method,
4.e. printing the resists on whfte doth and applying the black
sitenrards. The basic cohnuv are chiefly used, though chrome
ydlow and ultramarine are also emj^oyed for some styles. The
following formulae iHU serve as types of the composition of white
andeotours>—
White. 30 lb predpitated chalk.
5 lb poussium sulplnte, 90* Tw.
« lb acetate of soda.
I lb ultraniarioe blue for sightenuig.
I gal. water.
6 H starch paste.
The whole grauad together m a milL
CpImt. ra lb battc dye^uff.
It coMista of an liwi baa A A A thrangh whleh the fooda QM-
cated by the dotted line) pass ia the direction of the arrows. They
eocer at B» and travenv the whole chamber over a series of top
aad bottom rollers C C C, finally emerain^ at the same poiat B.
whence they are drawa forward, oy oiecbanical meaaa, and plaited
do«ra oa a vanpn plaoed conveniently near. Steam caters the
chamber A A Aoy the steam pipe D at the bottom, and cscapca
through the same sk>t (B) that the cloth enters and leaves by.
Aaeai;iae or electric motor drives the gearing, and the whole procesa
This agcr affords quite a sufficient steaming for aniline blacks,
printed indigo, chlorate discharges,
and for some mordants, but aliaanne
reds aad nnks, mordant dyes gcncf^
ally, aad dbsic oohwrs require much
more thaa the a to 3 miautes' exposura
to steam which is all that caa be
given in the ordinary Mather'Platt
ager. although they are -frsqneBtly
passed through it to eliminate the
greater part of the volatile acids
they contain. ParanitraniUae rod
discharged with hydrDsulphtte also
requires a nodificatioa 01 the agcr
for iu s u cce ss lor the steam must
be very hot and very dry if any of
the axo<ooloun are to be effectively
discharged by the hydrosulphite method.
A loi^Eer exposure to the action of steam is obtained by means
of the cpUapt Ummer and the caalMiaMis altamer^ in both of which
goods may be steamed for any length of time. The cottage steamer
consists (i) of a cylindrical iron box or chamber fitted with a false
bottom on which rails are laid, and under which lie the pipes for
the admission of steam, aad for the drawing off of the condensed
water: and (2) of a carriase or iron framework mouated oa wheels
and furnished with a series of removable rods capable of being
levolved by means of spur-wheel gearing. Conveaient lengths <n
the cloth to be steamed, together with a ** back.grey " <a piece of
unbleached calico) are then woand in the open width, into a sort
of broad hank on a folding frame. Aa each hank, so to speak, is
completed it is r e mov e d trom the winding frame and hung over
one of the rods, .which » then placed in position oa the carriage.
r. r2 lb baste dye^uB.
A I gal. water,
lai M starch paste.
17 ft rinc oxide.
I gal water,
glycerin,
turpentine.
Msulphitc of soda.
3 „ stardi paste.
I'
Print oa while cloth, allow to lie a day or two. the» slopiiad
•a the Pmd'homme black already given, dry, age, chreoM aad
^npacnt ooloura may be applied oa black padded doth aa
fottows^—
rcOow. 40 lb chrome yellow, ftc. ftc
3 1 gals. 40 per cent, albumen.
3) ., tragacanth water. 6 oz. par gaL
6 lb soda ash.
t gal. citrate of soda, 40* Tw.
Other methods, varying in detail, have beea used from time to
time, but the above two are at the present time generally employed
especially the former, by which many (out palterna t«vc been
proQlieed in aD soru of defieateaad artistic dndea.
ns Tyeatecal «[f Clalfi o^ ?rm<Mf.
After printing the various cfatsses of goods undergo many different
tr ea h u e n is accordine to the character of the colours orinted.
These treatments indnde steaming, hanging in the ageing cnaraber,
passing through tartar emetic, the chalk bath, washing, soaping,
** cheiftiddng ** or clearing and finishing.
(t> The CK)eration of steaming is necessary for all snrles except
those whh the insoluble aro-colours, vat dyes discharged, and some
ooloura that are predoitated on the fibre. The short steaming
fieoessary far most di^narges, fndigo blue prints, and aniline black
Is effected iti the Mather and Piatt ager. of which a sketch Is here
given (fig. 9) showing its prindpte.
-Jl £ A ..r^
-T'^ Y^ © p' p q Q^
oe
w//^/////yA
^A
V^TTT'
When the latter b fully baded In this way it b run into the
"Cottage," the doors are dosed, and steam turned in. The
steaming is continued for various periods of rime — from f hour
to 3 hours— according to the style of work in hand, and dthcr
with or without pressure, as may be reciuired. The carriage is then
withdrawn and the goods unwound in readiness for subsequent
operations.
The object of enveloping the printed foods fai a " bade grey **
is to prevent the colour from marking off from the face of one fold
on to the back of the next, and also to minimise the risk of damage
from drops of condensed water. Thb latter defect b further guarded
against by heating up for an hour or ro every morning before any
goods are introduced.
In works where the modem oontimious steaming apparatus
is installed the cotUge steamer b reserved for the treatment ef
dyed alizarine reds and for goods, such as heavy printed vdvets.
which are difficult to manipulate in the continuous steamer.
Tkt continuous xtiamer ^$na originally invented by CordiOot, but
Its present efficient form is due to Messrs Mather and Piatt, who
have continually improved it. so that now it bears but Tittle resem-
blance to Cordillot s opgina\ machine. Its construction b too
complex to be adequately described without the aid of detailed
*^ ' Generally speaking, it may be said to consist of a fong.
7o6
TEXTILE-PRINTING
high. iMrroir chamber of brick« through vhich the cloth paaws
oontinuoualy in the fonn <A long k>op6 sutpended from rods mttng
upon, and carried forward by uavelling chains, situated at the
top, and cloae to the sidea, of the chamber. Steam is admitted
to thb chamber through a series of pipes at the bottom, and the
doth enters and emerges throujrh slots at the top of its opposite
ends. On entering, the cloth falls over one of the slowly travelling
rods and continues to run downwards until a suflkient length to
form the loop has run in. By this time the first rod has moved
forward and a second taken its place, with the result that the cbth
now falls over the second rod and commences to form the second
loop. At this point — the commencement of a second loop — the
second rod comes in contact with a brass bar carried by arms
pivottcd above. The object of this bar, which clips the continuously
entering cloth firmly between itself and the rod until the second
loop is complete, is twofold, namely (i) to prevent too much cloth
being fed into the first loop, and (2) to prevent the weight of the
first loop from pulling the cloth over trie second rod during the
formation of the woond loop. By the time this latter is complete
the second rod has moved sufficiently far forward to escape contact
with the pivottcd brass bar, which thereupon swin^ back and
Ukes up a similar po«tkm on the third rod. In this way each
rod is supplied with cloth, whkrh it carries forward continuously
until the other end df the steamer is reached, where both cloth
and rods emerge — the former through the top of the chamber and
the latter through a slotted opening at the top of the end wall.
Through a similar slot, at the beginning end of the steamer, the
rods are fed in automatically as long as any cloth remains to be
steamed.
The usual time occufNed in passing the goods through a " steamer "
of this description is one hour, but it may be shortened or prolonged
at will, and, if desirable, tbb goods may be altowed to remain in*
it for any length of time.
The room used for aeeiug is lofty and is furnished near the top
with suspending rods of wood, and at the bottom with a series of
steam inlet pipes through whkh thin streams of free steam may
be introduced into the chamber, as reouired. Its temperature is
generally kept 'about 36* C. on the dry>bulb thcnnometer and
32*-33* on the wet-bulb thermometer.
" thmpng " is carried out in a series of becks provided with rollers
at the top and bottom, and heated bv steam pipes. It may also
be performed in becks through which the cloth passes in rope form.
Many attempts have been made from time to time to replace
cow-dung by sodium silicate, phosphate, arsenite and carbonate of
ammonia, but none of them yield results quite so good as cow-
dung.
Tint tartar emetic treatment is only used for the fixation of tannin
mordants, and of basic aniline colours printed with tannic acid.
It is performed by passing the cloth in the open width over and
under a series of wooden rollers arranged in a water-tight box —
a beck— containing the following solution: —
3 lb tartar emetic.
i lb chalk.
16 gals, water at 6o*-70* C.
The chalk is added rimply to neutralize the add salt produced
in the bath — a salt which exerts a solvent action on the basic
colour tannin lakes and utteriy spoils any ultramarine blues that
may have been printed in combination with them.
Chroming is only applied to a few styles, such as aiuline black,
catechu broWn, and colours containing salts of lead which have
to be converted into chrome wllow. '* Chroming " is carried out
in a beck similar to that used for tartar emetic The ^loth runs
continuously through a 3 to 4 per cent, solution of bichromate of
potash at 60* C; the excess is squeezed out in a mangle, and
the cloth then passes directly into a washing machine to clear it
completely of the chrome. When alizarine reds, and other colours
ausceptible to chrome, are present, the chroming must be dther
omitted altogether or the operation conducted cold with a very
weak solution.
ler-
rk.
the
nk,
ind
ith
tCT
est
of
of
>rk
the
the
rrECHNCSJOGy
colours and generdly trnpamt tiR whole eppeafance of the doth
The strength and temperature of the soap aokitioii, the duntioa
of the soaping and the type of machine used are all varied acooiding
to the fastness of the colours to be soaped. As in washing, the
alizarine dyed cok)urs, alizarine " steam reds and pinks, aniline
black and the ice-colours, will not only withstand a long, hot and
strong soaping, but are greatly brightened and enhanced in beauty
thereby. On the other hand, dinKt dyeing coburg, task colours,
pigments and a few others tequire oiuy a moderate soaping and
that in the open width. Colours which will stand a drastic soaping
are usually soaped« in sfMral becks, in the rope state, and pass irom
one to another of these becks, going through as many as haH a
dozen times before being washed off in water. Gooas requiring
to be soaped in the open width are treated in a qiedal soaping
machine known as the " open soaper.*' In principle this is simply
a range of watertight boxes each fitted with rollers at the top and
bottom. The first two or three boxes contain hot soap solution
and the rest hot or cold water or a series of " spirt pipes *' to better
wash out the soap. Very frequently open soapers are supplied
with " tartar emetic " and ** chroming " boxes, so that the goods
can go through two or more processes direaly and without any
intermediate handling.
" Chemicking." — In this process all traces of ceilour still remainins
after soaping are removed from the white parts of the printed
cloth, by a weak solution of bleaching powder. Two methods are
used in applying the "chemick," or bleaching powder solution,
to the clotn. In the first the doth is passed between a pair of
squeezing bowb the k>wer of which is of wood, and revolves partly
immersed in a solution of bleaching powder or " chemick *' vary-
ing in strength from i* Tw. to \* TW. This k>wer bowl carries
the chemick to the cloth, the excess is then squeezed by passing
between the two, and the cbth goes forward over a set of steam-
heated drying cylinders, during its parage over which the bleaching
properties of the chemick effectually remove t|ie last traces of
colour on the white parts of the doth and leave it perfectly i
and bright.
The second method of "chemicking'* is emfJoyed when the
doth is too deeply stained to be successfully " cleared " hy the
first. NX madder-dyed goods, and goods pnnted in strong heavy
dark-coloured patterns, are liai>le to attract, to their white parts,
a considerable amount of colour during the dydng. washing and
soaping operations. They therefore require a stronger " chemick-
ing " to clear them, and this the second method supplies. The
goods are passed successively through (1) a trough . contatamg
^'chemick at about \* Tw.; (2) a pair of squeenng roHers;
(3) a small steam chest fitted with half a dozen guide roUers top
and bottom, and a steam admission pipe; U) a series of " spirt
pipes " to wash out the bulk of the lime salts; and (^) through
a washing-box and squeezing rollers, whence they go Meetly to a
drying machine.
In both methods the strength of the " chemick " depends uposi
the power of the resistance to its action of the colours prioted.
and great care must therefore be taken to keep it weak enough.
Ooasionally a little ultramarine blue is added to the chemick
for the purpose of correcting the yellowish tinge usually pnssfiiinil
by bleacheo cotton.
From the fact that two or more styles can be combined in otte
pattern it is obviously imposmble to formulate any general rule
lor the practical application of any of the foregoing after treatments.
For example, in aniline black resists the black ground *will stand
any amount of soaping, but the basic colours which constitute the
mooerau'
pattern 9f* only
th-'-
•ately fart^to soapinjg.^and, consequently,
ij -.|j^ best poasibei
re jid pinks printed
in of paranitraaifirte
re turs.
!s various opera-
ti< Ing or smoothing,
ac The following
su KMes: —
fin, stearine, wax
ac
gum tragacanth.
vf I preparations of
so ipplied on special
fir /^thedotlJ
e, glycerin and
gi rpose of softening
th dy."
be fabric are all
pc ing and poUshiM
ca h may be heated
b) ngraved steel or
bt Mper, or one in
w] ispond with -the
pr en these various
Id _ -. — In the finishing
process all creases are smoothed oik oi the cbth. and it is stretchM
to iu proper width (and its weft straightened if awry) on special
AKT AMD AftCHAEOIjOCy)
TBXTnLE:J»RINTING
707
^^ ______ __. On tliBt^ mkUms tlw _^
atrried forward, over iteain-beated drying pbtea, l^y two traveUing
ttuSku chains, each link of which it constructed to cfip the selvedge
of the doth. The distance apait of these chains can be regubtcd
to auk v&riam widths of cloth and la travetting forward they
divc^gSk to that •• the cloth advances it giadualiy becoiaas stretched
out to the required width and is dried at the same time to prevent
It contracting when it is released from the pull of the chains, as
i{ leaves the machine.
Finally the goods am eat into ceitaia Itagtha, w m td iwiad flat
bovdi^ tied up, ticketed and packed.
Woot-PrinUni.
Tha-prfaitiBg of wool differs little from the ormtiag of cotton in
gmcia). Most of the colours empkiyed in the one industry are
used in the other, and the operations of steaming, washing and
aoaping are almost identicaL
Unlike cotton, however, wool requiiea to be specially prepared.
after bleaching, if the full tioctorial value of the colours is to be
TwD quite different methods of preparation are resorted to.
namely (i) the chlorination of the wool; and (3) the precipiutton
of Btantic ackl on the fibr*. la the firtt ntcthod the wooliea fabric
ia first passed through a solutioii of bleaching powder, then well
aquts e d and pasten, without washing, into dilute sulphuric or
bydrochfcnric acid, aaueead agaia and well washed la water, after
vfaich it is dried. Great care and experience are demanded in this
operattoo to prevent the wool from becoming hard and ydlow.
In the second method the cloih is padded in stannate of aodt,
wdi sqaecaed. passed into dilute sulphuric acki. well washed and
dried. For certain styles of work it is aeocstaiy to combine both
preparations.
Althoogh aliasrine, mordant ookiurs «nd dyewood cxtnets can
be used on wool, the vast majority of patterns printed on wool
mn caaeuted by means of ackl dye-stuffs and basic coknirt, for both
of which this fibre p o sses s es a natural affinity. In most cases
therefore these cokMirs are simply dissolved in a little acetic and
citric acids, thickened with gum and orinled without any further
additioa. The addition of tannic acicl, however, can be made to.
•ad considerably increases the fastnessof , the basic dyes. Mordant
coloun Eke logwood black are applied in the usual way.
The printing of wool is carried out exactly as for cotton, but
if the best results are to be obtained, the engraving of the roUere
must be deep, the blanket on the machine as soft M pomible, and
the drying of the printed cloth very gentle. After printing, the
«ods are steamed in moist steam or wrapped between moistened
"greys'* and steamed in a "cottage" steamer. If too tittle
oiotstnre b given, the coIouts lack both strength and Mlliancy;
if too much they run. The correct degree of dampness can only
be determined by experience of the work, combined with a special
knowledge of the partkrubr aoparatus emploved.
After steaming, the printea goods are washed in plenty of water,
then dried up and finished with a little glycerin or some waxy
premration.
Discharges may be very easily obtained on wool dyed in acid
dye-stuffs, by means of stannous chloride and basic colours for the
cokwred effect, and hydrosulphite for the white.
SUk-Prinlini.
Snk-printinff calls for no special mention. The cokwn and
OKthods employed are the same as for wmI. except that in the
case of Mik no preparation of the material is required before print-
ing and the Ofdtnaiy dry ''steaming" b pieferabb to damp
Both acid and basic dyea play an important xtlt in silk-printing,
which for the most part b confined to the productkNi of articlei
for wearing apparel--Klress goods, handkerehiefs, scarves, &c. Ac.
--articles for which bright colours are fai demand. Aliarine and
other mecdaat coloun are mainly used, or ought to be, for any
tends that have to resist repeated washings and protonged exposure
he silk frequently requires to be prepared
t case the silk frequently requi
>li|ht. In thb . ^ .
ia ahxariae oil, after which it b treated in all respects fifee cotton
'-^teamed, washed and soaped— the coloun used oeinc the same.
Silk b especially adapted to discharge and reserve effects. Most
of the add dyea can be discharged in the same way as when they
are dyed on wool ; and reserved effects are produced by printing
mechanical retfsts, such as waxes and fats, on the cloth and then
dyeing it op in cold dye>liquor. The great affinity of the tilk fibre
for basic and ackl dye-ituns enables it to extract colouring
from cold solutiona. and permanently combine with It to f<
Inselubb bke. After dyeing, the reserve prints are washed, fint
in coM water to get rid of any colour not fixed on the fibre, and
then in hot water or benacne. Sec., to dissolve out the resisting
Aa a tub, after
Witcr, but, of courae.
stand soaping, and '
■often the materiaL
tods are only washed in hot
enrirely in mordant dyea will
require it to biighxco the colours and
(E.K.)
n. Air AMD-AaanuHnDov
Printing patterns on textiles whether of flax, coUon or dOt,
by means of indsed wooden blocks, U ao doaely related in its
ornamental effects to other different methods of similar intco-
tion, such as by painting and by processes of ^iydag and
weaving, that it is almost impossible to determine from the pic-
turesque indications afforded by andent records and writings
of pre-Christian, dassical or even medieval times, how far, if at
all, allusion b being made in them to thb particular process.
Hence its original invention miiat probably remain & matter of
inference only. As a process, the employment of which has
been immensely developed and modified in Europe during the
last hundred years by machinery and the adoption of stereotypes
and engraved metal plates, it b doubtless traceable to a
primeval use of bkxks of stone, wood, &c., so cut or carved as
to make impressions on surfaces of any material; and where the
exutence of these can be traced in andent dviUzations, e.g. of
the Chinese, Egyptians and Assyrians, there b a probability
that printing otnament upon textiles may have been practised
at a very early period.' Nevertheless, highly skilled as the
Chinese are, and for ages have been, in ornamental weaving and
other branches of textile art, there seem to be no direct evidences
of thdr having resorted so extensively to printing for the
decoration of textiles as peopka in the East Indies, those, for
inMance, of the Pui^ab and Bombay, from whose posterity 16th-
century European and especially Dutch m e r cha n ts bought
goods for Ocddental trade in "Indiennes" or printed and
painted calicoes.
Whilst the earlier history of stsmping patterns by hand on
to textiles in the East has still to be written, a serious attempt
has recently been made to account for the existence of thb
decorative process in Europe during several oenttuies prior to
the introduction of the " Jndiennes " above mentioned. As in
the case of weaving and embroideries, spedmena of piintcd
stuffs have of recent 3rean been obtained from dbused cemeteries
in Upper Egypt (Akhmtm and elsewhere) and tell us of Egypto*
Roouui use of such things. Some few of them are now lodged
in European museums. For indications that earlier Egyptians*
Greeks and Homans were likely to have been acquainted with
the process, one has to rely upon less certain evidence. Of
textilei'^nted by Egyptians there are many actual exampbiL
Apart from these there are wall painfings, e.g., those of Beid
Hassaft—about sioo BX.--in which are represented certain
Asiatic people wearing costumes irregularly pattetoed with
spots, stripes and sig-zags, which may have been more readi^
stamped than embroidered or woven. A rather more oora-
plicated aiMl orderly pattern wcU suited to stamping occurs in
a painting about xjao BX., of Hatbor and King Mencptha L
Herodotus, referring to the garments of inhabitanU of the
Caucasus, says that repreaenUtwns of various anamab were
dyed into them so as to be itremovabfe by waafaiBg. Pliny
desc ri bes ** a very remarkable process emptoyed in Egypt for
the colouring of tissues. After pressing the material, which b
white at first, they saturate it, not with colours, but witb
mordants that are calculated to absorb colour." He does not
explain how thb saturation b done. But as it b deariy for
the purpose of obtaining a decorative effect, stsmping or bnah-
ing the mordants into the material may be inferred. When thb
was finished the cloth was "plunged into a canldron of boiliag
dye" and "removed the next moment fully coloured." *'It
b a singular fact, too, that although the dye in the pan b of one
uniform oaloar, the material when taken out of it b of varioos
oolonis according to the nature of the mordants that have been
reapectivdy applied to iL" Egypto-Romaa biU of printed
stoffs from Akhmlm exhibit the use, some three hundred yean
later than the time of Pliny, of boldly cut blocks for stamping
fiigure-sabjecta and patterns on to textiles. Almost concurrent
■ When Cortes conquered Mexko be sent to Chaifcs V. cotton
■amettts with black, red, ydlow. green and blue figures. The
North Anerican Indians have a mode of applying patterns ia
different cokMin to cloth (see Pamdl's Dytmg and Calko Fnuttn/^
pi»)-
7o9
TEXTUAL GRinCISM
with their discovery was tktt of m fragmenl of printed cotton
tt Aries in the grave of St Caesarius, who was bishop there about
A.O. 542. Equal in archaeological value are similar fragmenis
found in an andent tomb at Quedlinburg. These, however,
are of comparatively simple patterns. Other later specimens
establish the fact that more important pattern-printing on
textiles had become a developed industry in parts of Europe
towards the end of the 12th and the beginning of the xjth
century. ,
According to Forrer {Dk Kunst dts Zeugirucks, 1898)
medieval Rhenish mpnasterids were the cradles of the artistic
craft of ornamental stamp or block cutting. In rare monastic
MSS. earlier in date than the 13th century, initial letters
(especially those that recurred frequently) were sometimes
stamped from hand-cut blocks; and German deeds Of the 14th
century bear names of block cutters and textile stampers i^
those of witnesses. Between the nth and X4th centuries there
was apparently in Germany no such weaving of rich orna-
mental stuffs as that carried on in Spain and Italy, but her
competitive and commercial instincts led her to adapt her art
of stamping to the decoration of coarse textiles, and thus to
produce rather rough imitations of patterns woven in the
Saracenic, Byzantine and Italian silks and brocades. Amongst
the more andent relics of Rhenish printed textiles are some of
thin silken stuff, impressed with rude and simplified versions
of such patterns in gold and silver foil. Of these, and oi a
considerable number of later variously dyed stout linens with
patterns printed in dark tones or in black, spedmens have been
collected from reliquaries, tombs and old churches. From these
several bits of evidence Dr Forrer propounds an opinion that
the printing of patterns on textiles as carried on in several
Rhenish towns preceded that of printing on paper. He pro-
ceeds to show that from after the 14th centuiy increasing
luxury and prosperity promoted a freer use of woven and em*
broidered staffs, in consequence of which textile-printing fell
into neglect, and it was hot until three centuries later that
it revived, very largely under the influence of trade import-
ing into Eun^' quantities of Indian printed and painted
calicoes.
Augsburig, faimous in the 17th century for its printing on
linens, ftc., supplied Alsace and Switzerland with many crafts-
men in this process. After the revocation of the edict of Nantes,
French refugees took part in starting manufactories of both
painted and printed doths in Holland, England and Switzer-
land; some few of the refugees were allowed back into France
to do the same in Normandy: manufactories were also set up
in Paris, Marseilles, Nantes and Angera; but there was still
greater activity at Geneva, Neuch&tel, Zurich, St Gall and BoseL
The first textile-printing works in Great Britain are said to
have been begun towards the end of the 17th century by a
Frenchman on the banks of* the Thames near Richmond, and
soon afterwards a more considerable factory was established
at Biomley HoU in Essex; many others were opened in Surrey
eariy in the tSth century. At Mulhouse the enterprise of
Koechlin, Schmatzer and DoUfus in 1746, as well as that of
Oberkompf at Jouy, led to a still wider spread of the industry
In Alsace. In almost every place in Europe where it was
taken up and followed, it was met by lool and national
prohibitions or trade protective regulations and acts, which,
however, were gradually overcome.
Towards the end of the iSlh century a revolution in the
British manufacture of printed textiles was brought about
through the invention of cylinder or roller printing from metal
pbtesc TUa is nsuaUy credited to Oberkompf of Jouy, but it
seems to-^ajn^hMSoanMl to A Scotsman named Bell, and was
r aboot 178s at Monaey near
(works at Mandiestcr
lailllll^^^^^^^^^BHW^'^Cfi*'^^^ ^"8^ proportions
p grown.
L merely indicate
I countries up
[ specunens of
East Indian painted and primed calico^ for coverlets and ether
draperies are shown in the Indian division of the Victoria and
Albert Museum. These are tui generis^ and therefore diffes
from the bulk of Western prints on chintz, cretonne, Idc, which
together with a less quantity of printing on satin, silk, velvet,
o^pe and the like are prindpolly from adaptations of weaving
patterns. An interesting series of over 2500 patterns, diiefly
of this character, was made by M. Corimand between 1846 and
x86o, and is preserved in the Natiooal Art Library at Sooth
Kensington. For many years of the latter part of the 19th
century, William Morris designed and produced attractively
ingenious floral and bird patterns, admirable in contrasts of
br^t colours, frequently basing his arrangement of crisply^
defined forms in them upon that of Persian surface ornament.
His style, which on its appearance struck a distinctive riote,
has very considerably affected numbers of British and loreiga
designers of printed patterns whether for textiles or wall
papers.
The portion of linen hanging or valance given in fig. 1 (Phute I.)
in up
comes from an ancient cemetery at Akhmla in Upper Egypt
The linen dyed blue bears ornamentation with fibres nodycd or
*' reserved," through the pcevious application to it. by means of
an.eiisraved block, of some auch saturating fluid as that r
by PCny. The design and cutting of toe block were __
the work of Coptic artificers, the style of the composition bans
Egypto-Roman of the ^th century A.lk On the child's tunic dyea
blue (fig^ 2) the simple trellis and bloMom pattern is amilorly
produced by the " reserve " process, and the s p ec i men is of the
satoe pr99eminc€ as that of ng. i. It is perhaps rather carfier
in date, ix, 4th century A.o. Fig. 3 is from a fragment of red silk
printed in red, neen and black from wood-blocks^ thus illustratanK
another metboa of applying coloun to textiles. It is probably ol
Rhemsh work in the lath or 13th century, and came from the
Eifel district, llie ornament, however, is a survrval of a echrme
of pattern which was in use in Perso^Romon weavings as early oa
the 7th century A.D. Fig. 4 shows a piece of red silk printed with
a Rhenish adaptation 01 a i3th<century North Italian wvavins
pattern possessing earlier Byzantine features. The design in fig. ^
u another Rhenish version of a richer style of i4tlKeatury North
Italian weaving. An advance in refinement of block-cutting ia
seen in' fig. 6, a Rhenish adaptation of a i^tl^entury North Itaiiaa
pattern often employed in brocade weaving of that period. The
pattern in fig. 7 (Plate II.) is typkal of a style introduced during
the 15th century in sumptuous damask satins, and velveu woven
at Florence, Genoa and Venice. Very different is the style exen-
pUfied in fig. 8, taken from a Dutch ijth-oentury " Indienne.'*
the trade name for such prints. The repeated wide and narrow
stripes recall a scheme of design which the Siculo-Soncens of the
jj.L 'oved for brocades; the intertwining floral omo*
m< nbles such as occurs in 16th-century Indian
pa £d cottons. Fig. 9 is a I9th<entury Italian
re] e Pfersiaaesque spreading tree device often used
in res from the i6th century onwards to the present
da ;ver. were either painted or printed from wood-
bl< \t this Italian copy ennaved metal plates were
us nner of the process which was started, as already
m terkampf and Bell in the 18th century The
rei 10. ii and la are from stuffs metal-printed
wi pictorial character which had a vogue for some
til -a French print— ore family groups: shepherds
ar ^ with their flocks; children at play: buildings,
rocks, trees, &c.; the decorative effect of which, for the purpoaes
of curtains and furniture covers, resulted mainly from the orde r e d
repetition of these somewhat unrelated details. A landscape with
a Chinese pagoda was repeated in lengths of the English cotton
print, a piece of which was cut to fit the back of a chair as ia
fig. II. Fig. 13 is from a linen pand printed in colours with a
stipple engraving to be used as a small fire screen. The sryle
lefiocts the pseudo-classkral taste of the end of the i8th century
in England. Beneath the group of figures in the origiaal is an
inscription. " London, engraved and published, August I, 1799. by
M— Boat Na 207 Piccadilly." This sort of printing has practically
disappeared it was unsuiuble for manufacture on a large scale.
Authorities.— J. Persos, L'Jmpr«ssum des Ttsstu (Paris, 1846^
see vol. i. Preface); E. A. Pamell, I>ynii{ and Colic* Pnntimi
(London, 1849); W. Crookes, F.R.S.. Dyeinj and Cahco Pnmttmg
(London, 1864, see Introduction); Dr K. Forrer, Die Kunst dn
Itugdrucks (Strassburg, 1894)- (A S. C^
TEXTUAL CRITICISM, a general term given to the skilled
and methodical appb'cation of human judgment to the settle-
BMnt of Ifxis, By a " text " is to be understood a document
written in a language known, more or less, to the bqtiirer, and
assumed to have a meaning which has been or con be ascertained.
TEXTUAL CRITBCiaM
709
Ab rftt of dw **tatail ctltfe" nyqr thca \m deflned m the
mlontiDA of the text, ja far as pOHibk, to itt origioal fornix
if by " Ofiginal lorm " we tindcnteiid the fonn intended by
itBMthor.
TsxU oMy be ckher nOopafhs w they mny be IromswulUd
tcsle; tbe letter, a«ua, being immtii a li s9pUs of aotognphft
or e9pkf 9f copies m any degree,
AutDgrqilie (which may be taken to Jndode whatever,
thoegh not actuiUy in the writing of iu aethor. has been Tcvtaed
and attested by him) aie not exempt from the operations of
textual criticism. Editors of journals remove the slips of the
pena of their oontribotors; editors of books, nowadays nsnally
in footnotes, the similar lapses of their authors. With thb
branch of teituat criticism, however, modem scholanbip is not
largely ooncemed. Not so with immntiaU copUs. Textual
critidsm is called upon to repair the mischief done to imcripHans
(texts inscribed upon stones) by weathering, maltreatment or
the emne of the stone-cutter. Any great collection, such as the
Cer^Mf of Latin inscriptions or the similar Cftfus of Greek, will
sliow at once ita activity and ability in this direction.
The chief> teld of textual critidsm is elsewhere. The texts
of the oUer antbocs which halve come down to us were written
ft>r the moat part not on stone but on papyrus, parchment or
other pertahable materiaL Of these several copiies had to be
made, both by way of prevention against the wear and tear of
use and as a means of satisfying the desire of other persons
ttea the original possessor to be acquainted with thdr contents.
Had the copies made of ancient writings been mechanical
reproductions of the originals, such as the photographic fac-
simiies of modem times, tliere would have been little here for
feextosl critidsm to do. The ancient texts have not come to
ws in thb way, but through copies made by the human hand
directed mete or loa by the human intelligence. Now a copy
made thus can in no circumstances be a quite exact rendering
of that from which it is copied or Its exemplar. A copy, qita
copy, can never be the equal of the exemplar, and it may be
nmch its inferior. This deterioration increases with the number
of socoMsiw ospyingi. Let us inppoae that from a text whicfa
we will osU A a copy has been made which we wHl call B, and
fram this again a copy which we will call C. If the copyist of
B goes wrong onoe and the copyitt of C twice in a hundred
ttmesythen, sssuming that there b no ooinddenoe or cancelling
of errors, the relative oertectneas of the three texts A, B, C wfQ
be xoo (abaolote correotness), 99 and 97^02. If C had made
his copy direct from A, hb percentage would have been 98.
The importance of thb mvst be home hi mind when we are
dealing with I r anMmitted texts, which have passed through many
^^■y 0! copying.
In the Bpidicus of Plautns, x. 1. 10, the right reading kabUior,
" more porUy," has been preserved to us by Donatus, an ancient
commenutor on Terence {BunnekuSt 2. «. xx). It was corrupted
to akSUor by ondssioo of the A and confusion of / and /, and thb
corruption, which b attested by the oldest extant copy, the
AmbiDshui palimpsest, was still further corrupted in the other
copies to cgUier,
The fint step towaids the restoration <^ a text b the examina^
tSoB of the evidence upon which it b or b to be based. Thb
begins with the investigation of its traditional or ttansmitted
forvL For thb we have tisually to rdy upon manuscripts
(MSS.). By manuscripts (q.v.) we midentand copies of the
text made hefore the art of printhig came into general use.
These may be either extant or nan-esHani, The evidence of
extant manuscripts mtist be ascertained by coOatian, To
ooIUte a manuscript b to ohserve and record everything hi it
which may be of use towards determfadng what stood m the
source or the sources from which it b derived. A manuscript
b not usually a dean or single piece of writing; it b commonly
found to contain alterations by erasure, addition or substitu-
tion. Snch aherattons may be due to the writer or writers of
the MS., called the scribe or scribes, or to some other person
or penons (for there may be several) called correctors. The
nUtive importance of these corrections; it b obvious, may
be very different. It b therefore necessary to dbtmgubh the
different hands which have been at work on the manuscript.
Account must also be taken of the number of Unes in each
page, the number of pages in each quae, of gaps or bcunae m
the manuscript, and so fortlu The work cannot be considered
complete till all the extent manuscripts have been collated
or at least examined.
When thb b done we abaU have the materiab for proneundng
a judgment upon the text as directly transmitted. Perhaps
there b only one extant MS. of the text) as in the case of the
Mimes of Hcrodas and the Afmah and Histories of Tadtus.
Then thb part of our work b done.
But often we have to take account of a number, and it may
be a large number, of manuscripts, y/rhose respective cbims to
attentbn we must detemdne. In tiie first {daoe we shall
discard. all manuscripts which are derived by copying from
other extant mamueripts. If a MS. b hnmediatdy or ultimately
derived by copying from another MS., it cannot, 9«a copy,
teU us anything that we do not know already if the latter MS.
b known to us. B«t how can we tell that a MS. b so derived?
It must be later than the other MS., and the shnDarity between
them must be such as to permit of no other explanation. In
the absence of explicit dates the relative age of MSS. b often
hard to determine, and hence the criterion of unmistakable
resemblance is one of special Importance. If the MSS. agree
in singular though trivial mbtakcs, if they omit, apporentiy
without motive, words and pasaages which other MSS. {deserve,
we shall be safe in pronouncing that there exists a close bond of
ooimexion between them, and if one of them shows errors
which, though strange in themsdves, are quite intelligible
when we see what stands in the other, then we shall be justified
in concluding that the second b that from which the first b
derived. For the proper consideration of such points a personal
examination, autopsy^ of the MSS. or of facsimiles of them, b
very often indispensable. It was thought at one time that a
MS. of the Latin poet Piopertius at Naples {Neap. 268) might
have independent value as an authority for the text But lu
dairos. were disposed of when (amongst other facts) it was ob-
served that at book Iv. 8, 3, the MS. with which It most dosdy
agreed (F, No. '36, 49 In the Laurentian library) had a gap at
the beginning of the line and only the end words " uelus est
tutela draconis,'* with the marginal note " nan potuit Ugi tn
exemplari hoc quod deficit," and that Neap. 268 gives the line
as follows, ** non potutt legi uetus est tutela draconis."
Accident apart, identity of reading implies identity of sources.
The source of a transmitted reading may undoubtedly be the
author's autograph: but if not, then it b some MS. in the line
of transmission.
The peculiar resemblances of two MSS., though not sufficient
to warrant the derivation of cUhcr from the other, may be
sufficient to establish some connexion between them. From
the axiom wUch has just been dted it follows that thb con-
nexion can be due only to community of source, and we thus
arrive at the Idea of families ej USS. Suppose that a text b
preserved in seven MSS., A, B, C, D, E, F, G. If we find that
of these A stands apart, showing no great similarity to any of
the other six, while B, C, D on the one side, and E, F, G on the
o*her, much resemble esch other though differing considerably
from the rest, we may express thb by saying that B, C, D form
a " family " descended from a hypothetical common " ancestor "
which wie may call X, and E, F, G another " famQy " descended
from a hypothetical '* ancestor " which we may call Y. The
readings of X which can be deduced from considering the agree-
menu in B, C, D will be of higher antiqui^ and of greater
external authority than any of the readings in B, C, I> taken
sin^y. And similarly for the readings of Y and those of E, F, G.
Nor shall we stop here: but we shall further compare the
readings of X and Y with each other and with those of A, and
thus deduce the readings of a still more remote ancestor which
we may call Z. Z will be the archetype of all our exbting MSS.,
and we may embody our results in a pedigree of manuscripts or
7IO
TEXTUAL CRITICISM
"Z" (Mthetype).
BCD
■ H y »
E F O
If we have done our work properly, the texts that we arrive at
for X and for Y will be freer from error than the texts of the
separate members of the families B, C and D, and £, F, G
respectively, and that of Z freer from error than that authenti-
cated by any existing MS.
The procedure, however, b by no means always so simple.
That a text may be improved by the comparison of different
MSS. is not a modem discovery. It has long been known, and
the knowledge has led to the production of what are known as
eonfiaUd manuscripts or MisetKodices. These are MSS. pro-
duced by "crossing" or "intermixture." In the following
stemma M and N are " mixed " or " conflated " MSS., being
formed by the blending of readings from the " pure " or " un-
mixed " codices A, B and D, E respectively.
"X" —
BCD
E F C
M
N
Intermixture may take place to any extent, and the more of it
there has been the more difficult does it become to trace the
transmission of a text.
Whether crossing improves a given text or not depends
ultimately on the knowledge and the judgment of the crosser,
and these will vary indefinitely. On the whole it is probable
that it does, provided it is not accompanied by other attempts
at improvement. If it be, as may very wcU be the case, the
text win probably suffer. For but a small proportion of scholars'
corrections are really amendments, and a far smaller proportion
of scribes'.
The " genealogical " method, as we may call, it, cannot in
strictness be applied to conflated MSS., as their mutual relations
can rarely be with certainty disentangled. But it is often
possible to detect in such MSS. a common strain, shown by
their agreement in peculiar corruptions or in probable readings
when these latter would have been hard to discover by con-
jecture. This is practically an application of the method to
a portion of such manuscripts.
A special value attaches to a conflated codex when one of the
MSS. from which it has been compounded has perished and its
readings are thus otheiwise irrecoverable. This is exemplified
in the Ifeapdlitanus of Propertius, a manuscript now at Wolfen-
bttttel.
It not unfrequently happens that good or instructive readings
are found in manuscripts which are in general of small trust-
worthiness (see below^, and whose relatloDS to the general
tradition it is not woi
iniy be dted by the n
is required as the rea
is f re<piently done, by i
Non-estatU Manusc
ancient MSS. have dis
times. When this ha
copies, many times o!
which old scholars b
latter case what we I
coUatioa was not und(
or " excerpts " of reidingi wUch we liave leaaoli to ter aas
often imperfect and erroneous. Farther, it must not be — *^— it
that all readings which are dted as being " t» uetusHs coiicibta '*
are necessarily from older or better MSS. than we now poaaeas
or indeed from MSS. at aU. Scholars sinoe the Rffiisintance
have not always been above inventing codices to obtain currency
for their own conjectures. The codices of Boatus (iS3S-xs8o)
are just As imaginary as the *' old plays " which appear as the
source of. so many c^ the quotations that head the chapters of
the Waverley novels^ and suapidon rests on Baith, Lsmbiaiis
and others.
Some texts and portio&s of testa of andent writers aio bow
only known from printed books. The anetrical tzeatiae at
Terentianus is now preserved in the oftfso princeps (1497) siooe.
AU known MSS. of Silius Italicus have a considersble gap in
the 8th book, first filled up on the authority of Jac C69-
stantius (1505), and not printed with the rest of the poem tiH
the edition of Aldus (1523). The early printed books are
often called by oki scholars codices impressi itypis), ** pdnted
manuscripts," a phrase which at first seems curious to us but
becomes perfectly intelligible when we erainhte that codices
impressi and observe how closely they follow the codkes scrip'L
By Abe methodical employment of these means we shall
arrive at a text different from any existing one. It will not
be the best one, possible or existing, nor neceaaarily even &
good one. But it will be the most ancieni one according to the
direct line of transmission, and the purest in the senae of betng
the freest from traceable ervors of copyhng and unautkoriaed
improvements.
The textual critic has occasionally to deal with the effects
of oral transmission. A text so transmitted must in the lapse
of time be profoundly though insensibly SBodified, its forms
and expressions modernized, and, if widely disseminated, local
variations introduced into it. This is the case with the Homeric
poems, the ascertainment of the original form of which is a task
beyond the powers of criticism. Even wlKre, as in the Vedaa»
the sacred books of India, there is proof that Uie work has been
transmitted without change through many centuries, the exist-
ence of unintelligiUe passages and unmetrical verses diows that
here too there is work for textual criticism to perform, thoi^
in the opinion of most scholars it should be confined to the res-
toration of such forms as would be nnconsdoiuly and inevitably
corrupted through changes of pronunciation and the like.
The invention of printing has naturally limited the province
of textual criticism, and modified its operations. The writer's
autograph, if it is preserved after it has been through the hands
of the printer, has seldom more than an antiquarian value. As
a source for the text it is superseded by the printed edition,
and if there is more than one, then by the latest printed edition,
which has been revised in proof by the author, or, in certain
cases, by his representative^ and the task of the textual critic
is restricted to the detection of " mbprints," in other words»
of .errors which the compositor (the modem analogue to the
scribe) has made in " setting up " the manuscript, and whkk
have escaped the notice of the proof-reader and the autlioc
or his representative. If, however, this revision has been
neglected or incompetently performed, the number of sock
mistakes may be. considerable.
Another question with which the textual critic of modem
authors must be prepared to deal is the relative importance of
different editions, each of which may have a prima fade claim
areaa • critidam
t folio and the
consider wfaM
he poaUmmous
tranecfiptt of
:ated divergence
B*a Ifamtms^ the
relied iipon to
or ia ireil«iiich
nttlaaidaefA
TEXTUAL CRITICISM
7"
ptttW or nibridUury character which we knowii in general as
itstimoma. Such are Antkchgies or collections of extracts.
The oldest authority for an cpithalamium of Catullus (63) is an
anthology at Paris written In the 9th century.
Tramtatiottt from one language into another may help to
fix the reading of the original, or this again that of the ttans-
la Shelky't Promtlktus Unbomd, H $, 54.*^ Child of Ughtl
thy limbs are burning | Tfaiough the vest which feenis to hide
them " — " limbs " is supfwrted against " lips " (ed. i) by " mtmbn "
in the Italian prose version made by Shelley lumaeli : and nmilaily
in L 52 " looks " (not " locks ") by the rendering " sguatdi.** In
his traoslations of Earipides' Cickips, 381, " a bowl | Three cubits
wide and fdor in depth, as flBoch f As would contain four ampbone"
the Creek original clearijr points to"t€n ampbocae " and jour may
have come from the previous line.
In dirtct fuolaiions, either of piassages or single words, and
either with or without the author's name,, we must be sure
that the writer is quoting exactly.
A couplet of Propertius is written upon the walls of Pompeii
in the loUowinff form: " Quisquis amator erit, Scytkiae hcct
ambulet oris, ( Nemo adeo «i ferial, bari>anis esse uolet." Here
the manuscripts have " SeyUucis "— *' des vt iMceoi," of which deo
is leiected by every one in favour of the Pompeian reading, but
Scylkkis and noceat are retained on the ground that they are in
themselves better than the Pompeian readings, which may be
simply due to lapse of memory. In bhelley's Julian and MaddaU, 40,
—"(talk) such as once, so poets tell, { The devils hekl within the
doilsf of Hell 1 Con^ming God, freewill and destiny,"--ta^« has
gested to make it harmooiae yith the poss^ of Milton
reference \m made: but the argument is not Conclusive.
Parodies may prove of service in restoring the form of what
is parodied or this in restoriilg the parody. So also okvious
imitaHont, especially in » highly imitative literature such as
Latin poetry. The connexion of the passages must in all
these cases be unmistakable.
In Homer, lUad, I 4 seq.. Aristarchus had the common readii^
dha^a tKApuL rtix* 'li'tvat ) «LmHal re vivi^ but another Homeric
critic of note, Zenodotus, read dmtra for rivi. and thb is supported
by the obvious imitation in Aeschylus, SuppHees, 800. who has
The support which a reading gains from the evidence of the
directly transmitted text and from the auxiliary testimonia may
be called its docwnental probabilUy. To restore a text from the
documental evidence available we must know and weigh the
causes which tend to vitiau this evidence in iu various kinds.
We shall speak first of those which affect the dina transmission
of texts. These are either external or internal.
ExUrnal. — A text may become illegible through damp or
constant thumbing; portions of it may be torn away; if it is
IB took form, leaves or whole quires may be detached and
either lest or misplaced. When this has taken place on a con-
siderable scale, the critic b helpless; but minor injuries may
sometimes be traced and reme(Ued. The weakest parts of a
MS. book were the outer margins; and hence the beginnings
and the ends of lines, whether of 'verse or prose, were specially
liable to injury. It obviously makes a difference upon which
fide of a leaf, whether on the verso or the recto, a line was
written. Henc^ the determination of the paging of the arche-
type (as was done for the archetype of Lucretius by Lachroann)
has more than a merely antiquarian value. In ancient classical
MSS. the first letters of poems in verse and of paragraphs in
prase usually, and the initial letters of lines in verse occasionally,
were written separate and by another person than the scribe
(who was caOed the rubricator), and hence were apt to be
omitted. Other external circumstances may prejudicially
affect a text. The copy from which Shelley's Julian and
M^diah was printed was written on very narrow paper, and
the punctuation marks at the ends of the Unes were frequently
ondttcd.
/Mlcrna/w— These errors arise from the default of the scribe
or eopytot, and, in the case of printed books, the compositor.'
They ara very numerous. They may be roughly arranged
> Per thfr c o uwntcnL C of the general reader these errors have
t as far as possible from English authors amd csped-
I df Shelley (ed. Hutchinson).
aocordmg to the d^grae in which the volition of the copyist
is absent or present, as involuntary or mechanical, semi-
voluntary and voluntary; or again as they affect single ngns
(letters^ figuits or symbols), words» lines or even laiser units
such as sentences o^ paragraphs.
SijitpU Errors of iht Eyor-{a) Confusions of lettera. These ate
very numerous, and different in different scripts or styles of
writing (see Pauueogkapby). Thus the Roman letters E and
P are liable to be confused in capital script, but not in cursive
(<»/)» C, Gf in.capitals, ^, s in the cursive writing called (Caroline
minuscule, c, /, in the angular curnve of the rath century and
Uter. Texts which have had a long history will often show by
the letter<x>nfuaions which they exhibit that they have pasxd
through several distinct stages of copying. It is to be observed
that two different styles of writing are often found in the same
manuscript, the difference being utilized for the purposes of
distinction. Thus in Greek cursive MSS. notes were often
written in unciab; the use of majuscules or capitals for headings
and for the initial lettera of lines is well known. (6) Oralsrions
of letters, {e) Shiftinsi of lettera, sometimes by syllables.
This is very oonunon m half mtellisent or half mechanical
copying. In printing we get the disarrangement of type which is
known as " pie." (d) Confusions of symbols and abbreviations.
(a) Examples of confunon of capital letters from Shelley's poems
are: Promethems, i. 553. " i^ark that outcry of- despair^' for
" Hark "; HtUas^ 473. /fold each to the other in loud mockery "
for " Toki." Of cursno Utters: Marentki, ijo, " the dim ocean '*
for "the dun ocean"; Letter io Maria Gishorne 126, sqq.,
" above | One chasm of Heaven smiles like the ofe of Love | On
the unquiet world " for " eyt." lb) Translations from GoeOe's
Faust, sc L 46, "To live more beasfily than any beast," for
•• beaslfily " ; ii. 165, " eye " for *' eyne " (in spite of the rhyme
with 163). (c) Prometk., iv. 575. *' Neither to change, nor liatter.
" lor " falter/' In Latin MSS. we often find a i
vary 1
easily
jumble of letters, (d) Confusion of words through abbreviations*
IS very common in ancient MSS., where they were much employed.
At a famous place in the doxology of l Timothy iii. 16, the MSS.
between fc (or <) and oekt. In uncial writing QC (fc) might
be miswritten or altered to 8C (M») or vice vena.
I^ss ofLeUerSt SyUables, Words or LineSr through SimUarity of
Writing: Homoeographon.'^Vfbiak similar lettera or groups of
lettera stand next to each other, one of these is liable to be
omitted. This is the simplest case and is called haplography.
Similarity operates differently if the similar groups stand in
different lines of the exemplar. Then the copyist's eye is apt
to slip from the firat of two similarly written groups to the
second; and he wH thus omit all that is between. The term
homoeoUleuton (^ similarity of ending ") is often used of these
omissions, bui it is not adequate, as similarity anywhere may
produce the same resulu
Examples of homoootraphon and hafiografky, Shelley's Cenei, v.
4, 136, '* whose k>ve was \as\ a bond to all our loves ': a similar
omiiskm in Witch of Alias, 599. In Stansas vritten in D^ulion
near .Naples the two lines 4, 5. " The purple noon's transparent
might. The breath of the moist earth is Ught," weft printed in
the 1st edition, " The purple noon's transparent fi^Al* owing to
the homoeographon '* might " light."
Omissions through Simpie Negfiftna. — Gxoups of letUrif
wwds, syllables and lines ara .often omitted without any con-
tributory cause. Short words or such as are not necessary to
the sense are especially prone thus to disappear.
Examples of omission. Shelley's Prometheus, iii. t. 70, "No
refugel No appeal! Sink with me [then]:" Cenci, 1. i. 26,
•* Respited Imej from Hell! So may the Devil \ Respite their
MUls flora Heaven!": HeOas, tn, "Bask in the (deep! blue
noon divine": Julian and Uaddalo, 3 18, where " Moans, shrieks,
and curses, and blaspheming prayers" is absent in the earlier
editions thou^ required for the rhyme: so lines 299-'3<» ef the
Letter to Marta Gisbome,
Repetitions: Difto/^o^.— Lettera, .groups of letters, words
and lines may be written twice (or even oftener) instead of once.
Other repetitions of words already written and anticipations
of words yet to be written are also found, through the scribe's
eye wandering into the preceding or the following context.
Wherever the word or group of words repeated is not the one
that he has just copied lots is liable to occur.
712
Dittography is connoon enough in nuuuMcripU but i« UBually
detected in reading proofs. In the unique MS. of Cicero's treatise
De Kepublka, 2, 33, 57, seeutus appears as " secuttUtis secutus."
Oth^ kinds of repetition are Sbclley'sWitch of Atlas, 61 1 scq., " Likfr
one asleep in a green hermitage, | With gentle steep about its eye*
lids playinff " {sleep for smiles has come from the previous line) ;
Retxlt of Islam, 47^9, " Where " for " When " appears to have
come from " Where ' in 4750 or 4751. Often the wora thus extruded
is irrecoverable; Gineara, 125 sqq., " The matin winds from the
expanded flowers I Scatter their hoarded incense and awaken I The
earth, until the dewy sleep is shaken | From every living heart
whkh it possesses | Through seas and winds, cities and wilder-
nesses " ; the second " winds " is a repetition of the first, but what
should stand in its place, — " lands or " strands " or " waves "
or something el se n o one can say.
Confusions of Words. — ^Words are not only changed through
confusion of single letters or abbreviations, but also throtigh
general resembhuice or (a semi-voluntary change) through
similarity of meaning.
^ellcy, Prometheus, ii. 3, 5^: " There streams a plume-uptiftine
wind " for " steams." In SheUiey's lines. When the lamp is skaUerM,
w. jS-6, '' When the lute is broken, | Sweet tones are remembeied
not the printed edition had "notes" for "tones." In Mrs
Oaskcll's Cranford, ch- xiv. (near the end), " The lunch— a hot
savoury mutton-chop, and a little of the cold tain diced and fried
— was now brought in" is the reading of most if not ail the
editions: but " Unn " should be " lion," the reference being to the
puddinff, " a Hon with currant eyes," described earlier in the chapter.
In Shelley's "Evening: Ponte al Mare, Pisa," 20. "By darkest
barriers of enormous cloud " for " cinereous " ; " H vron to Mer-
cury " (trans.), 57, " And through the tortoise's hara strong skin "
for " stony." Shelley's " The Boat on the Serchk>," 117, " woods of
stunted fir " for " pine " which the rhyme requires; Prince Athanau,
250, " And sea buds burst beneath the waves serene " for " under."
The same character frequently attaches to transpositions of
words and parts of words. The copyist does not as a general
rule consciously intend a change, but he falls into one through
the influence of dominant associations. He substitutes an order
of words which, in respect of syntax, metre or rhythm is more
familiar to him.
Transpositions of words, if not purely accidental, as in Chaucer,
" Parson's Tale." p. 689 (ed. Skeat), " God yaf (gave) his benison
to Laban by the service of Jacob and to Pharao by the service of
Joseph," where the MSS. transpose Laban and Pharao, are gene-
rally to a more usual order, as in Shelley's Witch of Atlas, 65, " She
first was changed " to " she was first changed." An instance of
transposition of wordsw part is in Shelley^s " Invocation to Misery,"
I. 27, " Arid mine arm shall be thy pillow," where the 1st ed. had
** thine arm " and " my pillow."
Faulty Divisions of Words. — ^Thesc will generally imply an
exemplar in which the words were without any division or
without a sufficient one. Under this head we may class errors
which arise from the omission or the insertion of such marks
as the apostrophe and the hyphen.
Examples of wrong division of ^rds. Chaucer's House of Fame,
iSl, 1975. " Of gooo or mi^novernement " which should bie " mis
(«.e., bad) govemement "; Shelley's Prometheus, iii. 3, 22, " Round
many peopled continents" for " many-peopled," ib. 26, " the light
laden moon" for "light-laden"; Kevolt of Islam, 4805, "Our
bark hung there, at one line suqwnded | Between two heavens,"
for " on « line."
With this we may dass faulty division of sentences. Wrong
punctuation is a common error and usually easy to correct.
As an example of mispunctuation we may take Shelley's Triumph
of Life, 188 sqq., " ' If thou oan'st, forbear | To join the dance,
whicn I had weU forborne ' | Said the grim Feature of my thought
' Aware | I will unfold.' " &c.. for " said the grim Feature (of my
thought aware) ' 1 will unfold. "
Grammatical Assimilations. — ^These are often purely mechani-
cal errors: but they may be semi-voluntary or even voluntary,
the copyist desiring to set the syntax right.
Examples: She1Iey*s Rosalind and Helen, 63, "A sound from
thee, Rosalind dear instead of there; Mask of A
" the daily strife \ With common wants and comro
tow the human heart with tares," for " soua."
Insertions {or Omissions) of Seemingly Unimf
These, inasmuch as they must often import soi
the sense of the passage copied, will be frequently
if not voluntary.
Examples: Shdlcy, Prometheus, iii. i, 5, " The
[onl unextinguished fire." So in Triumph «^ X4I
TEXTUAL CRITICISM
f rom^ the flock of cooquerare I Fame siimM m< for her thaiMkr-
bearing minion," out seems to be due to thie compositor.
False RuoUections.—IYit passage which a copyist is repro-
ducing may suggest to him something else and he will write
down what is thus in his mind instead of what is before his eyes.
There is a noteworthy instance in Horace, Odes, iiL 18, 11 seq-
"festus in pratis uacat otioso I cum boue pagus " where some MS!
give pardus, a reminiscence ot Isaiah xL 6, " The leopard {{mrdus)
shall lie down with the kid." In iv. L 20, for " trube citroar* many
MSS. have " trabe Cypria,*' whfch occuib in L i, 13.
Incorporation of Marginalia.— The copyist may enoneoasly
suppo^ that something written in the margin, between the
lines or at the top or the foot of the page which he is copying,
is intended to be placed in the text. The words so inoorpoiated
may appear side by side with the genuine reading or they may
expel it.
In Horace, Odes, iiL 27, 47, " amat! I comua monsH " (of the
bull which carried off Europa), more than one MS. has " comua
tauri," an expl' nation of monstri. The celebrated passage aboat
the three heavenly witnesses ^inserted in the Epistleof St John
(v. 3) seems to have been originally a comment explanatory oi the
Transpositions of Lines and Passages.— i:\a% kind of trans-
position is really arrested loss. An accidental omission is dis-
covered, and the person responsible, or another, places what is
omitted in the margin at the foot of the page or in some other
part of the text, usually adding a mark to show where it ought
to have been. The next copyist may easily overlook this sign
and thus the passage may be permanently displaced.
In Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, most MSS. place the couplet.
• And cek of many another maner cryme | Which nedeth nat
rehercen at this tyme," which should sUnd after v. 8 of the " Friar'a
Tale," in the Prologue to the Tale before the fourth line from the
end. In the " Monk's Tale " a block of 88 lines (3565-3652) is
transposed in most MSS. to follow 3956.
Interpolation.— This is the deliberate alteration of an exemplar
by way of substitution, addition or omission, but when it takes
the particxilar form of omission it is naturally very hard to detect.
Interpolation then always has a motive. The most frequent
motive is the removal of some difficulty in the sense, expression
or metre of the text, and especially obvious gaps or corruptions
which the interpolator endeavours to fill or to heaL Fraudulent
interpolation, whether the fraud be pious or otherwise, does
occur, but is comparatively rare. The removal or the mitiga-
tion of objectionable matter is also occasionally found. Inter-
poUtion is then a volimtary alteration, but in ptactice it is
often hard to distinguish from other changes in which its motive
is absent.
The usual character of scribes' alterations is wdl illostrxted by
a passa^ in Bacon's Advancement of Laming, II. xix., " For
these cntics have often presumed that that which they understand
not is false set down: as the Priest that where be found it writtea
of St Paul Demissus est per sportam " lActs ix. 25J " mended hia
book, and made it Demissus est per portam, because sporta was an
hard word, and out of his reading.'^ Shelley in Triumph of Life.
201 seq., wrote, " And if the spark with whkh Heaven lit my spirit ^
Had been with proper nutriment supplied," but the printed editions
made it " sentiment.'* The transcript used for the printed edition
of Marenghi apparently often corrupted what was rare and strange
to what was commonplace; e.g., 1. X19, "dewglobes'* to "dew-
drops." Interpolation is sometimes due to an mopportune use of
knowledge, as when a quotation or a narrative is made to agree
with what the interpolator has read elsewhere. The text of the
Septuagint, a transhition of the Old TesUroent made from MSS.
older than those accessible to Origen, was much altered by him
in order to make it conform more closely to the Hebrew text with
whkh he was familiar, and in the Synoptic Gospels changes are-
found, the aim of whkh is to " harmonue " the accounts givra
by the different evangelists. Ddiberate alteration is occasonsdly
due to disapproval of what irtands in the tact or even to less credit*
tradition
Iliad. iL
canity or
K similar
«rda to a
4* ne\-er
ture win
b6raand
^halarit,
ia «
be.
SSi
TEXTUAL CRITICISM
713
SptM CMMom eondming to ComtpUdH.-^'the dud oC these
is stimngaiess or diflkulty in the matter to be copied. Proper
Btmcs^ technical expressions, quotations from foreign languages,
and lieqaent change of subject, are ail likely to cause difficulty
to a scfibe aod error in his work.
Careful and cootlnuoos regard to the various kinds of errors
and defaults that are found in traDScription will enable us to
judge whether a reading which it is suggested stood in the
archetype of our text is likely to have been corrupted to the
leading, or readings, which stand in the extant manuscripts
or editions. If it is, we say of this reading that it is ira»-^
tcnptiMuUy prebaUc
Some precautions must be observed. First we must lule
out any proposal which assumes confusions of letters and
abbreviatioDS which are not attested for the particubr tradi-
tion. Secondly, since <Hfferent scribes are prone to dlHercnt
kinds of error, we must ever bear in mind the particular failings
of the scribes responsible for the transmission of our text as
tiiesc failings are leveakd in the apparalut triticus.
Maxims of criticism to which we may here refer are that
** harder readings are better than easier " and that " the shorter
reading is genersUy the truer." The first maxim is hidisput-
•ble, provided we understand by " harder " harder to Ike ttribe,
and by ** easier " taster la Ike scribe. The characteristic of scribes'
emendations or interpolations is that they are superficial.
Their mark is that at the time of their making they " combine
the appearance of improvement with the absence of its reality "
(WeatooU and Hbrt, New TettametU, I p. 17). The second
maxim refers to the well-known fact that accretions from
narginalia, &c., lengthen and at the same time weaken a text.
The virtues of a scribe are honesty and fare (or in a single
word fiddUy) and tnteUigence, But it is rare to find these
combined in a very high degree, and out of them we can least
easOy dispense with fidelity. Paradoxical as it may seem, the
mechanical corruptions of a stupid but faithful copyist may
teU us more than the intelligent copyings of a IcssTaiihful one.
A nice question is how far any alteration of the text of the
exemplar is compatible with fidelity, b a scribe, who recognizes
under a corruption the word certainly intended, to perpetuate
the error of the exemplar? Considering the liability of corrup-
tion to breed corruption we can hardly blame him if be does not,
and we may say that it is no derogation to his jSdcs if he makes
self-evident corrections. But with these he must stop.
At certain epochs in the transmission of literature systematic
efforts have been made to improve the transmitted texts, and
these efforts have naturally been accompanied by a good deal
of emendation both successful and unsuccessful. Such an
epoch was the revival of Latin and Greek learning in the 15th
century, and a modem scholar would for that reason naturally
prefer to have a manuscript to wock on, which was written
immediately before this epoch to one which was written imme-
diately after it.
The fidelity of a scribe has to be judged chiefly by internal
tests, and these are best applied to his work in passages where
there is no reasonable doubt of the correctness of the trans-
mitted text But there are two tests of a more objective
charaftCT tliat may be used— orthography, and indication of
lacunae or other faults in his exemplar. A scribe who preserves
in his spelling the traces of a bygone age is probably trust-
worthy. If faithful in small things, he is likely to be faithful
IB great A scribe agam who scrupulously records the presence
of a lacuna or illegibility m what he is copying, inspires us with
confidence in the rest of his work.
As regards the use of Itstmunia, it may be observed to begin
with tJbat their value must depend on the trustworthiness of
the texts of the writers from whom they are taken, and further
imott that of the text used by the translator, the excerptor or
^.^I^p4«r, about which we can know nothing for certain,
'^ ' ' sometimes make probable inferences. In the
u we must allow for failures of memory.
»^ the course of his investigations the critic will
~ with piobkms_jrhich cannot be_reaolved by
conaideratkma of transcriptional or documental probability. To
take an instance already referred to, it is not clear at firrt
sight whether in the couplet from Propertius Scytkiaa is more
likely to be a misrecollection of some text of the ist century AJk.,
or ScyUucis some scribe's assimilation which made its way into
the transmitted text in the course of the next thousand years.
This leads us to consider Intrinsic Probability, By this is
meant the likelihood that the writer of our text would at the
time of writing have written, or not have written, a particukr
thing. Two questions which may be separated, though they
are not entirely distinct, are here involved. What was the
meaning of the writer? And how did he express it? The
sense may be clear though the words may no longer be deter-
A reading may be impugned on a number of grounds: that it
gives no sense or an inappropriate sense, that it involves a
usage or an idtom not current at the assumed time of writing,
or foreign to the reputed author, or to the style in which he
then was writing, that it involves some metrical or rhythmical
anomaly, or that the connexion of thought which it produces
is incoherent or disorderly. These charges cannot be played
off against each other. It is no answer to the objection (hat a
reading in some Roman poet makes nonsense to say that its
Latinity is perfect or its metre excellent But they may
reinforce eadi other, and to audi corroboration great weight
must be assigned.
To set the meaning of a passage in a foreign language before
us we must frequently have recourse to translation. But this
method of reprcsenution is a very imperfect one; we may
easily impose on ourselves and others by strained and ambiguous
renderings. A more subtle danger to wbkh we are especially
liable in the case of a dead language is that of our acquiescing
in a sense which satisfies us but which would not have satisfied
the ancient writer* Above all we must avoid applying our own
standards of taste, style and morality to the judgment of the
text before us. The textual critic las no concern with what
the writer ought to have thought or said; his business is solely
with what he did say or think or might have said or thought
Amongst the legitimate reasons for suspecting the correctness
of a text are patent oontradiaions in a passage or its immediate
neighbourhocKl, proved and inexplicable deviations from the
standards for forms, constructions and usages (mere rarity or
singularity is not enough), weak and purp<Meless repetitions of
a word (if there is no reason for attributing these to the writer),
violations of the laws of metre and rhythm as observed by the
author, obvious breaks In the thou^^t (incoherence) or dis-
orderly sequence in the same (doitbic or multiple incoherence).
Where the critic has ascertained the earliest form of a reading
in his text, he will apply to it the tests of intrinsic probability.
No part of a text can be considered exempt from this scrutiny,
though for a very large part of it it may be dispensed with. It
should, however, be here observed, that whoever takes a
reading without investigation, on the authority either of a
manuscript or of a great scholar, or of a number of scholars,
ceases for the time being to be a textual critic.
After every such critical examination four conclusions are
possible— acoq;>tance, doubt, rejection and alteration. In
other words, a critic may deliberately pronounce that what
stands in the text represents what the author wrote or might
well have written, that it is doubtful whether it does, that it
certainly does not or, in the last event that it may be re-
placed with certainty by something that does. In the three
first cases his judgment will be governed by considerations
of intrinsic probability ak>ne: but in the hist it must regard
transcriptional probability as welL No alteration of a text, or
emendation, is entitled to approval, unless in addition to pro-
viding the sense and diction required, it also presents a reading
which the evidence furnished by the tradition shows might
not improbably have been corrupted to what stands in the text
These tests, and these alone, are emendations bound to satisfy;
but others are often tacitly imposed upon them. Of this the
tians position of lines is the most notable example. This kind
of change u tioubkiome to cstinate ud inconvenient to adopt,
as it involves placing passages where we aie not accustomed
to look for them; but to the question, did the author write
the passage here .or there? the matter of our trouble or incon>
venience is wbalOy irrelevant. There is, however, one class
of cases in which no conclusion may be drawn, documental
and intrinsic probability both failing us. This is where two
alternative readings, neither of which can have come from the
other, have equal external support and equal intrinsic merit.
Isolated discrepancies of this kind may be due to some accident
to our text at a period now beyond our power to trace.
Numerous and striking discrepancies may be due to the fact
that there was more than one edition or recension of it in eariy
times, or to the author leaving his work in such a condition
that such discrepancies must inevitably gain currency. In the
ease of dramas, different acting editions wiU give rise to them.
Up to this point all schools of textual criticism are theo-
retically at least in accord. But here begins a divergence which
has done more than anything else to discredit the study with the
outside world. It emerges because in all judgmenU on textual
matten it is presupposed that they will be acted on, that a
reading accepted will remain in the text, a rejected one obelised,
enclosed between brackets or removed, and, in this last case,
sometMng else substituted in iu place.
The " conservative " critic's chief oonceni is for the safety
of the traditional and by preference the transmitted text.
He urges very rightly that if alteration is carried beyond a
certain point it cuts away its own foundation, and so all cer-
tainty is destroyed. His objective is the minimum of change.
And as the need of making a text compels some sort of de-
cision in every case, the " doubtful " readings of the tradition,
some of which on the evidence would be doubtfully accepted
and othen doubtfuUy rejected, will all appear with the ac-
cepteds in the text. As to alterations (emendations) that are
less than certain, his attitude is clearly if somewhat crudely
expressed in the dictum that it is better to leave in the text
" what if not the original reading is at least the remains of it."
The corresponding thesis of the opposite school would be that
it b better to present to the reader something which the author
might have written, than something which he could not: or,
in other words, that ** stopgaps " should be preferred to d6bris.
An editor of a corrupt and disputed text may reasonably
adopt either of two methods of procedure. He may present
the text in the purest form which the external evidence warrants,
and place all plausible suggestions for iU improvement in notes
or appendices. The text will be faithful but unreadable, and
his work will be that of an honest man but of a textual anti-
quarian, not a textual critic, since he declines the duty of " the
restoration of the text, as far as possible, to its original forft."
On the other method the editor will provide all necessary
information about the evidence for the text in the notes of h^
critical apparatus; but in the tctkt itself he will give whatever
in each case is supported by the balance of the probabilities.
Each and every case he will decide on its own merits and without
reference to decisions upon the other cases not now before
him. Special consideration wiO be paid to ** doubtful " readings,
which win be distinguished in' his work as ** doubtfully ac-
cepted" or "doubtfully rejected." Legitimate doubt arises
when the evidence fro a contra of doctmientsl and intrinsic
probability is equal, or nearly equal, or when documental
probability pobts stron^y to one side siid intrinsic probability
to another. Illegitimate doubt is. the* uncertainty of the
doubter as to whether he has examined the whr* "*^ '^^
Such doubt is much more frequently felt tl
and its effect upon critical work, is hi^y inju
hand, it is apt to take refuge in an uncritical
traditional readings, and, on the other hand,
of hesitant and mutually destructive conjectti
naturally resents ss a needless waste of his ti
The so-called " conservative text " is ndthi
text nor a critic's text, but a compromiss
When it is conscientiously obtained i
capping, mare>ar less heavily, intrinsic probability as eompared
with doomiental probability, or by raising the mimmum of
probability which shall qualify a reading for admission Into tbe
text until- it is in agreement with the notions of the editor.
Both of these procedures are arbitrary in their principle, and
liable to be erratic in their application. Hie text wUi suffer
whichever course is adopted, and it will suffer the more the more
conservative is the editor, as may esaly be shown. Thus, to
take the Utter one, if we suppose that of two editors of equal
competience A requires a probability of four-fifths to admit a
reacUng into his text and B a probability of three-fifths only,
then in all the cases in which the probability lies be t we e n
these two fractions B will be right seven times to A's three,-
while outside these limits there will be no difference between them.
Many persons appear to suppose that decisions upon doubtful
points can be avoided by the expedient of leaving the tradi-
tional reading in possession of the text. The rule is m simple
one and easy to apply. But owing to the constitution of the
human mind it has consequences which possibly they have not
contemplated. The great works of classical literature are not
studied as pathok>gical specimens, and they will be* studied
the less the more they contain to repd and disquiet the leader.
If a corruption is left in a text wha something might be sub-
stituted which would at least, as a " stopgap," give the aott
of sense required, then one of two things must happen.
Either the sense of the passage is blotted out for the reader and
the conservation of the corruption is tantamount to the ex-
punging of the rest of the sentence, or else he wiU obtain the
reqtiired sense by wresting the meaning of the other constituents
of the context until they furnish it. So far so good: the re-
quisite sense has been obtained, but the price has now to be
paid. And the price is that the reader's perception of the
signification of .the word or words so wrested is dimmed and
impaired, and his power of discriminatuig and understanding
them when he meets them again is shot with doubt and error.
In dealing with wriUngs in dead languages this Is particularly
mischievous.
There are two reasons in particular why the part wliich
emendation pkys in the shaping of Greek and Latm texts is
apt to be overlooked. Most people take their notions of a
classical book not from its Uaditional form but from a *' re-
ceived " or vulgate itst. This in the case of most writings is
fairly readable, because it has been purged by the continuous
emendation of scholars during several centuries. But the
received conjectures which make this itxt acceptable have ao
more authority in themselves than equally good conjectures
which have not yet won their way into the text, and it b denxly
illogicai to treat a text largely buOt upon conjectures as if it
were now beyond the reach of conjecture. Again, it has often
happened that readings which have been discovaed by con-
jecture, and as such received into a text, have afterwards been
found to have the support of MSS. Thus in one q>ecch of
Cicero, pro Cadto^ some thirty conjectures of ditics were foond
to be attested by a single recently discovered MS. Such read-
ings it is bow commonly the practice to transfer to the credit
of the MS. and to suppress the fact that they were originally
dbcovered by emendation. These confirmations t as they are caOed,
should be carefully recorded in all critical texts, inasmuch as they
consUtute the most strikmg justification of the criticsl method.
Some examples from Shelley's poems are Pronufhem*, S. 3. so*
" Se^st tkon shapes within the mist " (Zupiiaa for ** / jw iSm
shapes "); ib, W. ^ 243, " Pbrple and asure, whice and \
and Kolden " (and inserted by iMtttil: f/dnu Atkanast, 19
TEXTUAL CRITKHSM
7»$
I M bdag in ]B<tet inMaaeet tfa» nibre
difficult achievoDKBt. Tbc fmill o£ Um opposite school, on the
<»tiwr haadf it to dvpuase interpietAtkm and to regaid conec-
tion as the pnpcf field o£ a scholar and gentleroan. This bias
is reflected in the maxiBi that "oonectioii should precede
iBteipreUtioB»" which is no more than & half-truth. For
cinirndafion aust inevitably fail unless it expiess the meaning
wUch the pnper inierpcetatian of the passage has shown to be
icquiied. Farther, a oosrector may propose the right word
wntk the witng meamng. Yet the custom is to give the credit
ot the emendatbtt to him, and not to a suoocasor who has seen
what the right sense was and that this was the only word to
express it, whereas the first scholar blundered once If not twice,
first assigning the wrong sense to the passage and then selecting
what (in most esses) would be the wrong word to espiess it.
The proper course would be not to mention the £rst oonjecturer
or to mentioB him Qidy for his error.
One of the nest vexed qjMstions of textud eritkism, and one
wUdk divides sch<riais moro perhaps than any other, is the
question to what extent admitted rniperfecUona and incon-
ei a t en cies may propedy be left in a text sx due to tike default
of an author rather than of a scribe or aompositar. No uni*
yeiaat tola is here attainable. £ach case must ha oensidefcd on
its merits; aad the critic's procedure muat of necessity be
" cdectic "—an epithet often used with a tmge of reproach,
the giQoad for which it is not easy to disoover. Two general
conwiifnirtons may be indicated. If the autograph of a work
IB not aceesdble, there is no means «( dislingwtshing between
tha involimtary errois of a scribe Mind, the invdnntary errors—
** alipa of pea "— <of aa author. For the latter are in fact only
toribeS mistakes, the author being his own amanuensis. To take
the«csafflpk given under Confmrioms of Words above, Ibia for
Ism in Omnfcrd ia piobably a. printer'a error, but it is con-
oelvable thai it is due to a deflexion of the authoresses mind or
pen through the accidental proximity of tha " mutton chop."
PtHlBgover this dass wo come to one about which there may
faeqocnfly be serious doubL What is dearly ervoaeous or
iaalty may as deariy be intended, and therefoie a«l to be re-
moved by the critic InChaacer'a^Miller'aTale"(347x.3457>
•slTMRris is used for cttrmumUf aad Noi and NaU (Christmas)
canfufd, " NowQis flood " (MSh- 3457)* because the speaker
b an iUiteratie carpenter. In the ftologue to tha " Parson's
Tale " <io) thete Is, oa the other hand, a misuke of Cliaucer's
own, which no judicSons critk would tUnk of BeaMving, the
constrllsthw libra being said to be " Oa moam*t exaltation "
when it should be Saturn's, But tha error in an astrological
detail wooU not Warrant ua in aswgning to the poet the bhindcr
about Jacob and Laban in the same tak (see above). Much
depends on tha pr ec isi o n wkh which an error can be corrected
adwMVcr there sie more p l a o sibie ways than one of doing this,
the faulty reading must be allowed to renudo. CoUatetal as
wdl as direct evidence must be obtained. If there ale a number
ol instances where there is faidtinesa which is Imid to remove,
kia pcobablo.that the evil lies too deep for emendation. The
aothor^ own caitiettaew may be-to blame, or, as in the case of
Vifvil and Lacan, he may not have been allowed to pot the
fnUung toochea to hit wodu
Certain lapses from grammatica] correctness and metrical regu-
larity that we find id the poems of Shelley are undoubtedly doe
to toe author, thoooh the number of these has been reduced (as
Mr BttXtOB FonaaoVts pointed out) with our impfoved knowledge
of the sources 9f the text. Amongit such lapses we may instance
PriiueAlhamut iaBjJ,- Theshadow of thy moving winn tmhte | Its
deserts and its mountains "; ** To a Skylark " (80), " Thou lovest—
but ns'Or iatem love's sad satiety." The solecism in the Preface
S9 the Admits, '* My known lepugnaooe to the nanow principles
ef taste on which seversl of his earlier compOHtions were modeitod
^rMv at least that I am an impartial judge, would probably have
been eervected by the poet if his attemton had been callecf to it;
bof the two first ones, with ethers, cannot be thus regarded. We
assy detect^ occaaional lainty alto m his handling o7 his verae.
K* ^' "fh^ned: f-g.. Jwiian and Uaddatc (sil); JUsaiind
fekn (SOfi). Or the same word is used in place of another
metnosl rsading fbroifa thtt mahm the vsns a syBablCIM ^orc.
It IS in Una draartmeot of critKism that the penonal equatioa
hM the freest play, and hence, the natural adhereau of nther
school of cntics should be specially od their guard aralost their
school's peculiar him.
The part which eonjectural emendation should play must
obvioutly be very different in different texts. In the New
TesUment, for example, this part is very small indeed^, thou|^
it cannot be altogether excluded. Colos^ns u. 1$ H corrupt
as it appears; but the adoption of a correction recommended
by Bishop Lightfoot and Dr C. Taylor will restore it to sense. '
It has been maintained that emendation (being guessing)
is no part of textual criticism at dl, though judgment upon
emendation is. The position approaches to paiidox and is
sot likely to be generally accepted. But it does contain an
element of truth and hidicates a wdl-founded reproach against
the majority of those who practise conjecture. ' NotMog has
discreiUted emendation as a means of impro\'{ng texts more
than the want of method, common care and research, which
those addicted to it show. Some of the most distinguished
scholars have offended worst The MiUon of Bentley, England'^
greatest critic, is a by-word. To examine all the causes which
may vitiate emendations would mean writing a treatise upon
human frailty. But the reason why the vast nfajority of them
fail is that the vast majority of them should never have been
made at all. Their proposers 60 nbt take even elementary
precautions to be r^t. As inquirer who examines the stars
with a shilling telescope is not likely to make observations of
value, and even a trained astronomer has to allow for his
" personal equation "—a point to which even a finidied critic
rarely attends. Successful emendation requites a rare union
of qualifications-'-insight, prudence, patience and familiarity
with the author emended and the conditions of his text. If any
of these is absent, the work Is apt to be wasted.
Authority, as slready hinted, has properiy no place in texttial
criticism. For his facts a textual critic may, and often must,
be behold^ to others: but never for his opinions. It adds
nothing to the evidence for a reading that it has been approved
by a Lachmann or a Madvig or rejected by a Stoeber or a
Carutti: and an appeal to names on any such question confuses
issues and deters inquiry. But inasmuch as there are many
persons, induding most makers of school editions, who prudently
and modestly desire a better road to truth than their own
faivestfgations can discover snd think thus to find it, it will not
be am^ to observe on the one hand that the concurrence of a
succession of editon hi a reading b no proof and often no
presumption either that their agreement is independent or that
their reading is right; and on the other that, though, inde-
pendence may generally be granted to coinciding emendations
of different scholars, yet from the general constitution of the
human mind it is likely that not a few of these wiD be coin-
ddences in error rather than in truth.
One of the marks of a great textual critic is his attention
to details. He will not consider his work upon the text com-
plete until he has made it, as far as he can, such as the author
would approve in every particular Accordingly he will restore
the spelling of the author if that can be ascertained: he will
not accept the corruptions which have been introduced into it
by copyists or printers, even though these may not affect its
sense, nor will he modernize it so as to bring it into harmony
with that of a later and to hhn a more familiar age. Thus, to
take an example, he will not print a critical text qf Plautus
with two letters (Y and Z) which were no part of the Latin
alphabet in the age of that comedian ; stiU less will he inttxxluce
into Latin texts distinctions, such as T; j and a, v, which were not
used tin long after the middle ages.
As time goes on, textual criticism will have less and less to
do. In the old texts its work will have been performed so far
as it is periotmable. What is left will be an obstinate remainder
of dif^culties, for which there is no solution or only too many.
In the newer texts, on the other hand, as experience has sireacfy
7i6
TEZPUR— THACKERAY
TBZPUR, or Ti|FUS, a town of British India, the adminis^
trative headquarters of Darrang district, Eastern Bengal and
Assam, on the right bank of the Brahmaputra. Pop. (xqoi)
5047. It is the centre of a flourishing tea industry, and contains
many houses of English residents. Communications are main-
tained by river steamer, while a light railway runs northward
through the tea-growing tract.
THA'AUBl (Abu Man$Qr *Abd ul-Malik ibn Mahommed ibn
Isma*Il uth-Tha*ftlibI] (961-1038), Arabian.philologist, was bom
in Nlsh&pdr, and is said to have been at one time a furrier.
Although he wrote prose and verse of his own, he was most
famous for his anthologies and collections of epigrams.^ Like
many other Arabian writers, he does not always distinguish
between his own and other people's work. Of the twenty-nine
works known to have been written by him, the most famous
is his Kitab Yaiimat ud-Dahrt on the poets of his own and earlier
times, arranged according to the countries of the poets, and
containing valuable extracU (published at Damascus, 4 vols.,
1887). Another of his works, the Kitdb Fiqk ul^Lugka, is
lexicographical, the words being arranged in classes. It has
been published at Paris (x86x), Cairo (1867), and BeirOt (1885,
incomplete).
For his other works see C Brockehnann's GexhichU der Ardbischtn
LiUeratur, vol. L (Weimar, 1898), pp. 284-86. (G. W. T.)
THACKSRAT. WILUAH MAKEPBACB (x8ix>z863), English'
novelist, only son of Richmond and Anne Thackeray (whose
maiden name was Becher), was bom at Calcutta on the 18U1 of
July x8xi. Both his father and his grandfather (W. R. Thack-
eray) had been Indian civil servants. His mother was only
nineteen at the date of his birth, was left a widow in x8i6, and
afterwards married Major Henry Cazmichael Smyth. Young
Thackeray was brought home to Eivgland from India as a child,
and was sent to private schools, first in Hampshire and then at
Chiswick. In 1822 he was transferred to Charterhouse, at that
time still on its ancient site near Smithficld. Anthony Trollope,
in his book on Thackeray in the " English Men of Letters "
series, quotes a letter written to him about Thackeray's school-
days by George Stovin Veiubles. " He came to school young,"
Venables wrote, "a pretty, gentle, and rather timid boy."
This accords with the faa that all through Thackeray's writings
the student may find traces of the sensitiveness which often
belongs to the creative mind, and which, in the boy who does
not understand its meaning and its possible power, is apt to
assume the guise of a shrinking disposition. To this very
matter Venables tersely referred in a later passage of the letter
quoted by TroUope: " When I knew him better, in later years, I
thought I could recognise the sensitive nature which he had as
a boy." Another illustration of this idiosyncrasy is found in
the statement, which will be recognixed as exaa by all readers
of Thackeray, that " his change of retrospective feeling about
his schooldays was very characteristic In his earlier books he
always spoke of the Charterhouse as Slaughter House and
Smithfield. As he became famous and prosperous his memory
softened, and Slaughter House was changed into Grey Friars,
where Colonel Newcome ended his life." Even in the earlier
references the bitterness whiph has often been so fal$ely read into
Thackeray is not to be found. In " Mr and Mrs Frank Berry "
(J/m'j Wives) there is a description of a fight at Slaughter
House following on an incident almost identical with that used
in Vaniiy Pair lor the fight between Dobbin and Cufif. In both
cases the brutali^ of school life, as it then was, is very fully
recognized and described, but not to the exclusion of the
chivalry which may go alongside with it. In the first chapter
of " Mr and Mrs Frank Berry," Berry himself and okl Hawkins
both have a touch of the heroic, and in this story the bully whom
Berry gallant^ challenges is completely defeatnl, and one hears
00 more of him. In Vamly Fcir Cuff the swaggerer b defeated
as completely as b Berry's opponent, but regains hb popularity
by one well-timed stroke of magnanimity, and 1
the truest kindness to hb conqueror. Thackei
house in 1828 to join hb mother and her hnsba
in Devonshire, near (Xtery St Maiy. Ottery
" Clavering St Mary," as Eztter tad Sidmwith arc f Mpsc ti^y
the " Chatteris " and " Baymooth " ol Ptuiaum.
In February 1829 Thackeray went to Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, and in that year contributed some engaging lines on
"Timbuctoo," the subject for the Prise Poem (the prise for
which was won in that year by Tennyson), to a little paper called
The Snohf a title which Tliackeray afterwards utilised in the
famous Book of Snobs. The first stansa has beoome tolenbly
well known, but b worth quoting ss an early instance of the
direct comic force afterwards employed by the antbor in vcne
and prose burlesques: —
" In Africa— a quarter of the world —
Men's skins are black; their hair b crisp and curled;
And somewhere there, unknown to public view,
A mighty city lies, ealled Timbuctoo."
One other passage at least in The Snob, in the fonn of a dd:
on a paragraph of fashionable intelligence, seeau to bear traces
of Thackeray's handiwork. At Cambridge, James Spedding,
MondLton Mihus (Lord Houghton), Edward FitxGetald, W. H.
Thompson (afterwards Master of Trinity), and others who
made their mark in later life, were among fab friends. In 1830
he left Cambridge without taldng a degree, «nd went to Wdonr
and to Parb. Hb visit to Weimar bore fndt in the keen
sketches of life at a small German court which appear in Fio-
Boodles Confessions and in Vcnity Fair, In G. H. Lewes's
Life of Goethe b a letter containing Thackeray's impcessioos
of the German poet. On hb return to Engkmd in 1831 he
entered the Middle Temple. He did not care to pursue the
study of the law, but he found in hb experience of the Temple
the material for some capital scenes in Pendenmis, In 1832 be
came of age, and inherited a stim which, according to TroUope,
" seems to have amounted to about five hundred a year." The
money was soon lost — some in an Indian bank, some at play
and some in two newspapers. The National Stamdard (with a
long sub-ritle) and The Constitutional, In Level the Widower
these two papers are indicated under one name as The Musemm,
in coimexion with whidi our fiiends Honeyman and Shcrckk
of The Newcomes are briefly brou^ in. Thackeray'a adventures
and losses at play were utilised in hb literary work on three
occasions, m " A Caution to Travellers " (The Paris Sheidk-
Book), m the first of the Deuceace narrations {The Memoirs of
Mr C. J. YeUowptnsh), and in Pendennis, voL xi. chap, v., in a
story (wherein Deuceace reappears) told to Captain Strang
by " Colonel Altamont." As to Deuceace, Sir Theodore Martin
has rdated how once in the playrooms at Spa Thackeray cnUed
hb attention to a certain man and said presently, " That was the
oiiginal of my Deuceace."
In X834 or at the end of 1833 Thackeray estabUshed himseU
in Parb in order to study art seriously. He had, like dive la
The Newcomes, shown talent as a caricaturist from Ins taxfy
boyhood. Hb gift proved of great value to him in iHnstratins
much of fab owfa literary work in a fasfaion which, despite all
incorrectness of draughtsmanship, conveyed vivid suggestions
that could not have been so well given by anyone but hinwirtf.
Perhaps hb pencil was at its best technically in such fantastic
work as b found constantly in the initial letten which he fre-
quently used for chapters in hb various kinds of work, and in
those drawings made for the amusement of some child friends
which were the origin of The Rue and the Simg.
In 1836 Thackeray married Isabella, dau^ter of Colonel
Matthew Shawe. TTiere were three daughters bora of the
marriage, oi\e dying in infancy. The eldest daughter, Anne
Isabella (h. 1837), married in 1877 Mr Richmond Ritchie, of
the India Office, who in r907 was cicated a K.C.B. She
inherited literary talent from her father and wrote several
charming wods of fiction, notably Miss Angel (1875)* ^^ subse-
quently edi^^ Thad^enyVinins and published some voluxncs
hfecr, Harriet
and diea
foir
wn and died
Sttkcfor
Piirwinrt
THACKERAY
717
I* Her," In t M/ «i< I« " bMuw as ft «it» ft widmier to
Cbe cad of Ids (Uy» '*; Mn ThMieeray did not die tOI 1899.
In 1837 Thackeray came to London, wtktd at various kinds
o( joumaUsm, and became a tegular contributor to Frattr*s
M*g<aine, In this in tS^t appealed TMe Hillary ^ Mr Smmd
Tiimarik ani the Grt^ BvggtHy iHamond, n work filled with
instances ol the wit, homour, satire, pathos, which foimd a
moit oideml if not a fresher espresaion in his later and tonger
works. For freshness^ indeed, and for a fine p^raeption which
enabtea the author 10 perform among other feats that of keeping
ap tltmughout the story the curious simplicity of its supposed
narrator's character, fAe Great Baggflrty Diammi can scarcely
be surpaased. The characters, from Lady Drum, Lady Fanny
Rakes, Lady Jane and Edmund Prsatoh, to Biotigh, Mrs and
Miss Brough, Mrs Roundhand, Gus Hoskins, and, by no means
least, Samuel Tiimarsh's aunt, Mrs Hoggaity, with her store
of ** Rosolio/' are full of hfe; the book is crammed with honest
fun; and for pure pathos, the death of the child, and the
meeting of the husband and wife over the empty cracUe, stands,
if not alone in its own line, at least in the company of very few
such scenes in English fiction. The Great Heggariy Diamendt
oddly enough, met with the fate that afterwards b«^ll one of
Lever's best stories which appeared in a periodical week by
weck-rit had to be cut short at the bidding of the editor. In
1840 came out The Paris SkeUk-Book, much of which had been
written and published at an earlier date. The book contains
Among other things some curious divagations in critidam, atong
with some really fine critical work, and a very powerful sketch
called " A Gambler's Death." In 1838 Thackeray had begun,
in Fraser, The Yeilewplush Papers, with their Strange touches of
humour, satire, tragedy (in one scene, the closing, one of the
history of Mr Deuceace), and their sublimation of fantastic
bad spelUng (M*Arony for macaroni is one of the typical touches
of this); and thb was followed by Catherine, a strong story,
and too disagreeable perhaps for its purpose, founded closely
on the actual career of a criminal named Catherine Hayes, and
intended to counteract the then growing practice of making
ruffians and harlots prominent dharacters in fictran. Now,
when Pettdermis was coming out in serial form (1850), Miss
Catherine Hayes, a singer of Irish birth and a famous prima
donna (Sims Reeves described her as " the sweetest Lucia (di
Lammermoor] he had ever sung wKh ") was much before the
public. A reflective passage in a number of Pendennis refened
indignantly and scornfully to Catherine Hayes, the criminal
of old time, coupling her name with that of a then recently
rtotorious murderer. It would appear that Thackeray had for
the moment, oddly enough, omitted to think of Miss Catherine
Hayes, the justly famed soprano, while certain Irish folk were
obviously ignorant or oblivious of the history of Catherine Hayes
the murderess. Anyhow, there was a great outcry in the Irish
press, and Thackeray was beset by private letters of indignation
from enthusiastic compatriots of the prima donna. In deference
to susceptibilities innocently outraged Thackeray afterwards
suppressed the passage which had given offence. The thing
Is worth mention if only because It explains the im'thil letter
drawn by Thackeray for chap, xv., vol. ii., of Pendennis. The
drawing is in itself highly comic, but must seem quite meanings
less without the key.
There soon followed Fifx- Boodle's Confessions and Professions,
including the scries Men's Wives, already mentioned; and
slightly before these, the Shabby Genied Story, a work inter-
rupted by Thackeray's domestic affliction and afterwards re-
published as an Introduction to The Adventures of PkUip, which
took up the course of the original story many years after the
supposed date of its catastrophe. In 1843 also came out the
frisk Sketch-Book, and in 1844 appeared the account of the
journey Prom Comhill to Grand Cairo, in which was induded
the excellenl poem of "The White Squall." In r844 there
began In Fraser the Memoirs of Barry Lyndon, called in the
ma^^iie *' The Luck of Barry Lyndon, a Romance of the Last
QHKbn^.*' " Barry Lyndon " has, with a very great difference
flrttftdneiit, some resemblance to Smollett's "Ferdinand,
5ttvi la*
6mnt Fatiiom "WBetoo^ ftat Is to tay, Is or Iwcomes a most
intolerable scoundrel, who Is magnificently unconscious of his
o(WB iniquity. The fonn and piesaure of the time depkted are
caught with striking verisfmiUtude^ and in the boyish career
of Barry Lyndon there, are fine touches of a wild chivalry,
simplicity, generosity, whkh mingle natural^ with those worse
qualities that, under the influence of abominable traii^Bg,
afterwards coirupt his whole mind and career. The man is so
ielatuated with and so -blind to hit own roguery, he.hu so
mack daah and daidng, tad Is on oonaaions so infamously
treated, thai it fa not eaay to kdi upon him as an entirely
deteataUe viUaiA MBtil» towasda the end o| hit coune, be bo-
conca wholly lost ia brutiA dabaucheiy and cruelty. Hki
latter career it fottnded on that ol Andrew Robinson Stoney
Bowct, who manied the nridow of John, gth carl of Strathmoie.
•Thoo it also no doubt a touch of Casanova in Barry Leon's
chaacter. Thackeray became a contributor to Ptmek within
the first yeai of iu exbtenoe. John Leech, who was one of
the earliest cootribttton, had bcea • at Charierhouae with
Thackeray and the two men were friends through life. Thack-
eray's first series contributed Xo Pwutt did jM>t attain or indeed
deserve signal suoceas. He made .his fint hat with Jetmes's
Diary, begun ift November 1845, and may be said to have estab-
lished his reputatieo by the Snob Papers (1846), now better
known as The Book of Snobs. Thcae» besides greatly impioviag
Thackeray's poaitioB, provoked much discussion of various
kinds. Thackeray himself was naturally accused of being a
tnob. To this diarge he had partly given an anticipatory
anawer (ia tlw third chafitery in the statemeat that " it is im-
possible, in oar conditioe of aodety, nM to be someUmet a
Snob,'* and in. giving the name of ** Mr Snob " to the tuppMed
Ustocian of saofas throughout the seriiet. Thackeia(y'« con-
negdoa with Punch cafaie practically to an end in 1851. The
severance was due partly to differeacea ia political opinion.
Hia personal relatjoas with the staff of Punch always remained
cordial. Spedal mention may be made of one other contribu-
tion of his to the paper, " Punches PHu NooelisU," containing
some brilliant parodies of Edward LyttCb Blower, Lever,
Benjamin Disradi (in " Codllngsby," perhaps the most perfect
of the series}, aad others. Among minor but admirable works
of the sane peiiod are found A Legnd of the RA«m (a burlesque
of the great Dumaa's Othon t' Archer), brought out in Oeor«e
CruikshankV FoAfe Booh, edited by Gilbert Abbott A Beckett,
Cox's Diary (on which has<been founded a weU-kaown Dutch
comedy^ yoaau Tntp}, and Tka Fatal Boots. This is the m<»t
fitting moment for namfng also SUbeeea and Roweua, which
towers, not only over Tliackemsr'B other burlesques,, cxoeileat
as they are^ bat over every other bnriesque of the kind ever
wriiuen. Iu taate^ its wit, its pathos, fu humour, are uamatcb-
able; and it cotatains some of the beat tongs of a pafUcular
klnd ever wxittcn-^-4oags rivalled only by Peacock's beat of the
same tort. In 1846 waa published^ by Mesas Bradbury aad
Evans, the first of twenty-four numbem of Vanity Fair, the
work which fifst 'placed Thaderay in his proper position befflffs
the public at a ao^list aad writer of the first rank. It was
completed hi 1848, when Thackeray waa thirty-aevin yeais
old; and in the same year Abraham Hayward paid a tribute
to the author's powers in the Edinhurgh Renew. It is pcobabk
that on Vanity Fair haa been largely based the fboiith ory, now
heard lest and lesa frequently, about Thackeray's cynidsflSii a
cry which he himself, with his keen knowledse of men, foresaw
and provided against, amply enou^ as one might have thought,
at the end of the eighth chapter, in a passage wMcfa it perhaps
the best commentary ever written on the author's ttethod.
He has explained how he wishes to describe men aad women
as they aaually are, good, bad aad indiflfeimt, and to dahn a
privilege.
"Occarionally to step down fnom the pUitform, and ulk about
them: if they are good aad kindlv, to love and shake them by
the hand; if they are- silly, to laugh at 'b"^ -~.fi^««.;;^i|y j^ t|^
reader's sleeve; if they are wicked ar e them
tn the strongest terms politeness adc ^ight
fancy it was I who was soeering at ti ^Mth
7i8
THACKERAY
Mitt Sharp finds ao ndkvlpus: that It wu I win laughed
humouredly at the railing old Stenua of a baronet — ^wherea
bu^hter comes from one who has no reverence except for proa*
penty, and no eye for anything beyond auocess. Such people
there are living and flowishiag id the vorld— Faithless, Hopckss.
Charityless: let us have at them, dear friends, with might and
main. Some there are, and very successful too, mere qjucks and
fools; and it was to combat and expose such as those, no doubt,
that laughter was nade;"
As to another aocnsation which was braught a^ut tbe
book when it first came out, that the colcurs were laid on too
thick, m the tense that the villains irere too viUainottS, the good
people too goody-goody, the best and oompktest answer to
that can be found by anyone who chooses to read the work
with care. Osborne is, and is meant to be, a poor enough
creature, but ho b an eminently human being, and one whose
poorness of character b devdoped as he allows bad influences to
tell upon hb vanity and folly. The good in him b fidlyreoog*
nized, and comes out in the beautiful passage describing hb
farewell to Amefia on the eve of Waterloo, in which passage
may be abo found a suflldent enough answer to tbe suument
that Amelia b absolutely insipid and uninteicsttng. So with
the companion picture of Rawdon Crawley's fareweU to Becky
Sharp: who that reads it can resist sympathy, in spite of
Rawdon's vices and shady shifu for a living, with hb simpb
bravery and' devotion to hb wife? As for Becky, a character
that has since been imitated a host of times, there b certainly
not much to be said in ber defence. We know of her, to faie
sure, that she thought she would have fouiijd it easy to be good
if she had been rich, and we know also what happened when
Rawdon, released without ber knowledge from a spunging-
house, surprised her atone with and singing to Lord Steyne
in the bouse in Mayfair. After a gross insult from Steyne,
" Rawdon Crawley, springing out, aeixed him by the neckdoth,
until Steyne, almost strangled, writhed and bent onder hb arm.
* You lie, you dog,' said Rawdon ; ' you lie, you coward and
villain r And he struck the peer twice over the face with
hb open hand, and flung him bleeding to the ground. It was
all done before Rebecca could interpose. She stood there
trembling before him. She admired her husband, strong,
brave, and victorious." This admiration is, as Thackeray
himself thought it, the capital touch in a scene which b as
powerful as any Thackeray ever wrote^as powerful, indeed,
as any in English fiction. Its full merit, it may be noted in
passing, has been curiously accented by an imitation of it In
Alphonse Daudet's Fremont Jeune el Ruler Atni, As to tbe
extent of the miserable Becky's guilt in the Steyne matter,
Thackeray leaves it practically open to the reader to form what
conclusion he will. There b, it shookl be added, a distinct
touch of good in Becky's conduct to Amelia at Ostend in the
test chapter of the book, and those who think that too little
punbhment b meted out to the brilliant adventuress in the end
may remember thb to her credit. It b supreme art in the treat-
ment of her character that makes the reader und^tand and
feel her attractiveness, though he knows her eatnordinarily
evil qualities; and in thb no writer subsequent to Thackeray
who has tried to depict one of the genus Becky Sharp has even
faintly succeeded. Among the minor charactera there b not
one—and thb is not always the case even with Thackeray's
chief ligures—who b incompletely or incon^tently depicted;
and no one who wbhes fully to understand and appreciate
the book can afford to miss a word of iL
Vanity Pair was followed by Pendennis, Esnmti and Tht
Newcomes, which appeared respectively in iftsoi 1852 and 1854.
It might be more easy to pick holes critically in PemUnmit than
in Vanity Pair^ Pendennb himself, after Ina boyish passion
and ttnlvenity escapades, has disagreeable touches of flabbiness
and worldliness; and the important episode of hb rebtions
with Fanny Bolton, which Thackoay could never have treated
otherwise than delicately, b so Kghtly and tersely handled that
it b a little vague even to those who read between the lines.
It can hardly be said that there b adequate preparation for the
final aanouacement that those relations have been innocent,
and one can hanOy Me why it •ImldhA.ve beM«oloiic4el8yed«
Thb does not. of Gourse, affect the value of the book as a picture
of middle- and upper-class life of the time, the time whea Vanx-
hall stUl existed, and the haunt for supers and songs which
Thackeray in this book called the Back Kitchen, and it » a
picture filled with striking figures. In some ol theie, noubly
in that of Foker, Thackeray went, it b suppoaed. vety dose
to actual life for hb material, and in that panioular ose with
a most agreeable result. As for the two '^ umbrae " of Loitl
Steyne, it b difficult to believe that they wctv Intended as
caricatures of two weU4jiown pcisons. If they woe, for
once Thacketay'a hand forgot ia cunning. Heie^ as in the
case of AmcKa Sedley < Viutity Pav)^ the heroine has been thought
a little insipid; and there may be good ground for finding
Laura Pendennb duU, though she haa a spirit of her owa. in
later books she beoomes, what Thackeray's people very seldom
are, a tiresome as well as an uninviting person, f^nntigftft b
unique, and so b Major Pendennb, a type which, aUowing lor
differences of periods and manners, will esbt as long as society
exbts, and which has been seised and depicted by Thackeray
as by no other noveUa* The Major's two enoountecs, fiom
both of which he comes out victorious, one with Costigaa in
tbe first, the other with Morgat^ in tbe second volume, are true
touches of genius. In opposition to the worldliness of the Major,
with which Pendennb does not escape being tainted, we havQ
Warrington, whose nobility of nature has come unscathed
through a severe trial, and who, a thorough gentleman if a
rough one. b really the guardian of Pcndennis's career. There
b, it should be noted, a characteristic and acknowledged confu-
sion in the plot of Ptndennit, which will not ^»il any intelligent
reader's pleasure.
Probably most readers of The Newomes (1854) to whom th«
book b mentioned think first of the fine, chivalrous and siinple
figure of Cok»nel Newcome, who stands out in the relief of alniost
ideal beauty of character against the crowd «f more or less
imperfect and more or less base personages who move through
the novel. At the same time, to say, as has been said, that thb
book " b full of satire from the first to the laat pace " b to
convey an impression which is by no means just. There b
plenty of kindliness in the treatment of the young men who,
like Clive Newcome himself and Lord Kew, pooscM no very shin*
ing virtue beyond that of being honourable gentlemen; ia the
character of J. J Ridley there is much tenderness and pathos,
and no one can help liking the Bohemian " F B.," and looking
tolerantly on hb failings. It may be that there b too close an
insistence on the fiendish temper of Mrs Mackenzie and on the
sufferings she inflicu on the colonel; but it must be remembered
that this heigbuns the singular pathos of tbe closing scenes
of the colonel's Ufe. It has seemed convenient to take TM
Newcomes after PcudennU^ because Pendennb and hb vife
reappear in thb book as in Tke Adventures of Philip; but
Esmond (1852) was written and pubUsbcd before The Ncwcomct.
To some studenu Esmond seems and will seem Thackeray's
capiul work. It has not been rivalled as. a romance repro-
ducing with tmfailiag interest and accuracy the ^gures, manners
and phrases of a past time, and it b full of beautiful touches
of character. But Beatrix, upon whom so much hinges, b an
unpleasing character, although one understands fully why men
were captivated by her insolent beauty and brilliancy; and
there b some truth in Thackeray's own sayipg, that " Esmond
was a prig." Apart from this, the story is, lUie the illusion of
a past time in the narrative, so complete in all its details, so
harmonioiisly worked out, that there is little room for criticism.
As to Esmond's marriage with the lady whom he has served and
loved as a boy, that is a matter for Individual judgment.
Beatrix, it has been indicated above, b wonderfully drawn: and
not the least wonderful thing about her is her reappearance as
the jaded, battered, worldly, not altogether unkindly, Baroness
in The Virginians. It wss just what Beatrix must have come
to, and her decline b handled with the lightest and finest touch.
. In 1851 Thackeray had written The English Humourists of
the Eif/tUtnih Century, delivered as a series of lectures at WiUis'a
THAfe— THALE
719
JtoOfiS In tht Sfttfne year, tod r»<lelivered in tbe Unftfed States
In 1 8s } and 1853, as was afterwards the series called The F^r
dorga. Both sets were written for the purpose of lecturing.
In i8s4 was published a most delightful burlesque. The Rom
ami the Ring, whereof the origin has already been mentioned.
In 1857 Thackeray stood unsuccessfully as a parliamenUry
candidate for Oxford against Mr Cardwell, and In the si^me
year appeared the first number of The VirgManSf a sequel to
Esmond. This is a most unequal worit— biferior, as sequefs
are apt to be, to Esmond as an historical romance, less compact
and coherent, prone to divagation and desultoriness, yet charm-
ing enough in its lifelikeness, in the wit and wisdom of its re-
flexions, and, as has been said, in its portrait of Beatrix grown
old. The last number of The Virginians came out in 1859,
and in the same year Thackeray imdertook the editorship of
the ComhiU Magazine. This was a task which, as readers of
his Roundabout Paper ** Thorns in the Cushion " will remember,
the kindliness and sensitiveness of his disposition made irksome
to him, and he resigned the editorship in April i86s, though he
continued to write for the magazine until he died. In the
CornkiU appeared from his pen LopH the Widower^ previously
written, with different names for some of the pecsonages, in
dramatic form; The Adventures of Philip (1861-63); the
Roundabout Papers; and (1660-63) the story, unhappily
never finished, called Denis Duval. Levd the Widower^ changed
from the dramatic to the narrative form, remains a piece of
high comedy in which the characters are indicated rather than
fully worked out, with a bold and practised touch. The Round-
about Papers, a small storehouse of some of Thackeray's best
qualities as an essayist, came out m the Cornhill Magamne
simultaneously with Level the Widower and with The Adventures
of Philip. Among these papers is one differing in form from the
rest, called " The Notch on the Axe— a Story k la Mode." It is
an almost perfect specimen of the author's genius for burlesque
story-telling; but it contains an odd instance, which a careful
reader will not fail to discover, of that odd habit of inaccuracy
of which Thackeray himself was conscious. The Adtentures
&f Philip is, as has been before said, in the nature of a sequel to
or a completion of A Shabby Genteel Story. As with the other
direct sequel, it is a work of great inequality. It contains
scenes of humour, pathos, satire, which rank with Thackeray's
best work; some old friends from others of the novels make
brief but pleasant reappearances in its pages; there are fine
sketches of journalistic, artistic and diplomatic life, and the
scene from the last-named in Paris is inimitable. The Little
Sister is altogether delightful; the Twysden family are terribly
true and vastly diverting; the minor chamcterB, among whom
old Ridley. *' J. J.'s " father, should be mentioned, are wonder-
fully hit off; nor did Thackeray ever write a better scene than
that of the quarrel between Bunch, Bayncs and M'Whirter in
the Paris pension. Philip himself is impossible; one cannot say
that tbe character is iU-drawn— it is not drawn at all. It is an
entirely different personage in different chapters; and it has
here and there a very unpleasant touch which may perhaps
have come of rapid writing. Yet so admirable are many parts
of the book that Philip cannot be left out 0? the list of Thack-
eray's most oooaideiable works. Denis Duoal, which reached
only three numbers, promised to be a first-rate work, more or
kss in the Esmond manner. The author died while it was
in progress, on the day before Christmas day 1863. He was
buried in Kensal Green, and a bust by Marocbetti was put up
to hb memory in Westminster Abbey.
Uttle has yet been said of Thackeray's performances in poetry.
They iormed a small but not the least significant part of his
life's work. The grace and the apparent spontaneity of his
versification are b^ond question. Some of the more serious
efforts, such as " The Chrom'cle of the Drum " (1841), sre full
of power, and instinct with true poetic feeling. Both the half-
humorous, half-pathetic ballads and the wholly extravagant
ones must be classed with the best work in that kind; and the
translations from Biranger are as good as verse translations
€10 be. Thackeray had the true poetic instinct, and proved
It by wiHi^ poetry wbkft equalled hb prase in grace and
feeling.
There can be little doubt Ihat Thackeray will always be
ranked among the foremost English writers of fiction, or that
his miore infrequent work as essayist and poet will go hand in
hand with his wider achievements as a novelist. Many attempts
have been made at many times to institute a comparison be-
tween Thackeray and Dickens as novelists. In truth it would
be as much to the purpose, to borrow, a homely metaphor,
to compare chalk with cheese. The two authors were so
radically different hi their purviews, in their modes of thought,
in their methods of expression, that critical comparison between
them is of its nature absolutely unprofitable. It is better to
recognize simply that the two novelists stood, each in his own
way, distinctly above even their most distinguished con-
temporaries. As to preference, that is a matter with which
criticism has nothing, and individual indinalion has every-
thing, to do.
The books of reference that can be best commended to the student
of Thocloeray's life and worka are Mcrivale and Marzials' Lih of
Tkae^av (1801); R. H., Shepherd. Biblwgrapky of Thackeray
(1880); C. P. Johnson, The Early Writings of Thackeray (i888)1
Chariei AVhtbtey'a Thacheray (1905), a critical commentary; the
edition of Thacken/s Works with bmgraphKal introductions
(1897-1^), by his daughter. Lady Ritchie: the Life ^ Thacheroy
(" English Men of Letters Scries," 1899) by Anthony TroUope.
It u curious that Trollope showed in his own Autobiography Tar
more appreciation of Thackeray's great qualities than is apparent
in the formal Ufe. (W. H^TP.)
THAIS, a Greek courtesan, who lived during the time of
Alexander the Great. She accompanied him on his Asiatic
campaign, and is chiefly known from the story which represents
her as having persuaded the conqueror to set fire to the city of
Persepolis. This anecdote forms the subject of Dryden's Oda
to Saint Cecilia's Day. But its authenticity is doubtful, since
it is based upon the authority of Cldurchus, one of the Jost
trustworthy of the historians of Alexander. Thab subse-
quently became the wife of Ptolemy Lagus, king of EgypL
Numerous anecdotes and witticisms attributed to her will be
found in Athenaeus.
See Diod. Sic. xvii. ya; Plutarch, Alexander, 58; Atheaseus
xiii. 576, 585; Quintus Curtius v. 7.
THALBBRO, SIOISlfOND (181S-1871), German pianist and
composer, was bom at Geneva in 1812 (May the 5th or January
the 7th). In sSas he was Uken to Vienna, where, under the
watdiful care of Count Dietrichstein, his education was com-
pleted. He made his first appearance as a pianist at Prince
Mettemich's hi 1826, and published his first compositioih— a
Fantasia on Airs from " Euryanthe "—in 1828, but it was not
until 1830 that he was first fairiy introduced to the public, with
such brilliant success that jrom that time forward his only
rival was LIsat {q.v.). In 1834 he was appointed " kammer-
virtuos" to the emperor of Austria. He first appeared in
Paris in 1837; and in 1838 he went to England, astonishing
his hearers with the novel effects produced in his Variations on
Cod Save the Queen, while he charmed them with his delicate
touch and tbe purity of his expression. Thenceforward his
career was a succession of triumphs. In order to disprove the
popular idea that he could execute no music but his own, he
played Beethoven's Concerto in C minor (Op. 37) at the London
Wednesday Concerts, held in 1846-47 at Exeter Hall, with m
keen intelligence which proved his power of interpreting the
works of the great masters to be at least on a level with his
wonderful technique. Besides his pianoforte compositions,
which are almost innumerable, Tbalberg produced two opera»—
Cristina, which proved a complete failure, and Florinda, which
fared but little better at Her Majesty's Theatre in 1851. He
played in London for the last time in 1863, and afterwards
retired to his estate near Naples. He died at Naples on the
37th of April 1871.
THALB. a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Saxony, charmingly situated under the northern declivity of
the Hars Mountains, 8 m. by rail.S.W. of Quedlinburg, at
the entrance to the romantic gorge of the Bode, and in the
720
THALES OF MILETUS
immediate vkiaity of the RoMtnppe, the HcxcntanxpiaU and
other notable points in the Han. Pop. (1905) 13,194. It is
largely frequented as a summer rewrt and for iu sahne
springs. It is aiso a brisk manufacturing centre, its chief pro*
ducts being enamell ed g oods, iron-ware and machineiy.
THALES OF MILETUS (640-546 B.C.), Greek physical philo-
sopher, son of Examyitt and Qeobuline, is universally recog-
nized as the founder of Creek geometry, astronomy and philo-
sophy. He is said by Herodotus and others to have been of
Phoenician extraction*, but the more common account (see
Diogenes LAfisnus) is thu he was a native Milesian of noble
birth. Zelkr thinks that his ancestors belonged to the Cadmrin
tribe in Boeotia, who were in terming^ with the lonians of Aaa
Minor, and thus reconciles the conflicting statements. TIm
nationality of Thalcs is certainly Greek and not PhoenidaiL
The high estimation in which he was held by his contemporaries
b shown by the place he occupied as chief of the seven " wise
men " of Gre^e, and in later tiroes amongst the ancients his
fame was quite remarkable. It is well known that this name
(90^) was given on acooant of practical ability; and in accord*
aoce with this we find that Thales had been occupied with civil
affairs, and indeed several tnOanrrs of his political sagacity
have been handed down. Of these the most remarkable is the
advice, praised by Herodotus, which he gave to his fcOow-
countrymen " before Ionia was mined " — ** that the lonians
should constitute one general cotmdl in Teos, as the most
central of the twelve cities, and that the remaining dtiea should
nevertheless be governed as independent states " (Herod. L 170).
It is probable, however, that in the case of Thalcs the appdlar
tion " wise man,'* which was given to him and to the other six
in the arcbooship of Damaaias (s86 BX.),* was confemd on him
not only on account of his political sagacity, but also for his
scientific eminence (PluL Sdom, c. 3). To about the same time
must be referred his celebrated prediction of the edipse of the
sun, which took place on the 28th of May 585 B.C. This event,
which was of the highest importance, has given rise to much
discussion. The account of it as given by Herodotus (i 74)
contains two statements: — (i) the fact that the edipse did
actually take place during a battle between the Medes and the
Lydians, that it was a total eclipse (Herodotus calls Ha'* night
battle ")» that it caused a cessation of hostilities and led to a
lasting peace between the contending nations; (2) that Thalcs
had foretold the edipse to the lonians, and fixed the year in
which it actually did take place. Various dates — ranging from
635 B.C. to 583 B.c — have been assigned by different chrooo-
logists to this eclipse; but, since the inveatigatioBS of Airy,*
Hind,* and Zech,* the date determined by them (May 38, 5$$ B.C.)
has been generally accepted (for later authorities see Eclipse
and Astronomy). This date agrees nearly with that given by
Pliny (H. ff. n. 12). The second part of the sutcmenl of
Herodotus— the reality of the prediction by Thalcs— has been
frequently called in question, chiefly on the ground that, in
order to predict a solar eclipse with any chance of socces,
one should have the command of certain astronomical facts
which were not known until the 3rd century B.c, and then
raerdy approximately, and only emplojred with that object
in the following century by Hspparduts. The qucstwn, how-
ever, is not whether Thalcs could predict the eclipse of the sun
with any chance of success— much less whether he could state
beforehand at what places the eclipse would be visible, as some
have cnoneoosly supposed, and which of course wouU have
been quite impossible for him to do, but simply whether he
' Brvtschneider (Die (kom. wr EuUides, p. 40). without statins
» authority, gives " between s8« and 583 B.C." •» the date ot
the arcfaonsbip of Daraasiua. In tnis be is followed by some other
recent writen, who infer thence that the name ** wise ** was con-
ferred on Thales on account of the success of his prediction. Tlie
date 586 B.C., given above, which is taken from Ointon. is adopted
byZdIer.
*"On the Edipsea of Agathodes, Thales, and Xerxes." ?ka.
Tmu. vol cxlUi. p. 179 fcq.. 1853.
• Athenaeum, p. 019. 185?
* AitromemiKhe Vt
' S7« >SS3>
ntersiukmnzem rfer wkkHfinm FimtlemisM, Ac.
foretold that there woold be a aolar odipfe in that yew, at
stated by Herodotus. Nowastothisthcreisqoitcarenailcablc
unanimity in the testimony of tha andeats* and the evidence
is of the strongest kind, aarmding to Herodotus, and, accocding
to the account of Diogenes LaCrtius, even to Xenophancs, who
was an Ionian, and not much later than Thales. Further,
we know that in the 8th century B.C, there were observatories
in most of the laige cities in the valley of the KoiJwates, and
that professional astxonomcB regularly took observations of
the heavens, copies of which were sent to the king of Assyria;
and from a cundform inscription found in the palace of Senna-
cherib at Nineveh, the text of which is given by George Smith,*
we learn thatat that time the epochs of cdipscs of both sun and
moon vera piediaed as possible— probably by means of the
cycle of 223 lunations or Chaldaean Sarosr— aiid that obscrva-
tiona were made accordingly.
The wonderful fame of Thales amongst the andents must have
been in great part due to this achievement, which seems, more-
over, to have been one of the chief causes that exdted amongst
the Hellenes the love of science which ever afterwards char-
acterized them. Thales seems not to have kft any writings
behind him, thou^ as to this there appears to be some doubt
(see Diog. LaCr. i 23). Many anecdotes, amusing rather
than iiBtructive, aue related of him, which have been handed
down by Diogenes La£rtius and other writers. From some of
them it would appear that he was engaged in trade, whkh is
indeed expressly stated by Plutarch (SWmi.c 2). It is probable
that in the pursuit of commerce he was ltd to visit Egypt. Of
the fact that Thales visited Egypt, and there became acquainted
with geometry, there is abundant evidence. Hieronyasis of
Rhodes (ap. Diog. LaSr. t 27) says, " he never had any teacher
except during the time when he went to Egypt and associated
with the priests."*
But the characteristic feature of the work of Thales was that to
the knowledge thus acquired he added the capital creation of the
geometry of lines, whidi was essentially abstract in its character.
The only geometry known to the Egyptian priests was that of
surfaces, together with a sketch of that of solids, a geometry
consisting of some simple quadratures and elementary cubatures,
which they had obtained empirically. Thalcs, on the other
hand, introduced abstract geometry, the object of which is to
establish precise relalions between the different parts of a.
figure, so that some of them could be found by means of others
in a manner strictly rigorous. This was a phenomenon quite
new in the worid,and due, in fact, to the abstract spirit of the
Greeks.
The foDowin^ discoveries in geometry are attributed to Thalcs: —
(i) the circle is bisected by us diameter (fVocI. op. eil p. 157):
(2) the angles at the base of an isosceles triangle are equal (Id.
p- 250) : (3) when two straieht lines cut each other the vcrticaBy
opposite angles are equal (Id. p. 299); (4) the angle in a aem*-
cucle is a nght angle;' (5) the theorem JEuclid L 26 is r e f ei ic d
to Thalcs by Eudcmus (Prod. op. cit. p. 352). Two applications
of geometry to the solution of practical proHems are aJso attri-
buted to him: — (1) the detenmnatioo of the distance of a ship
at teZj for which he made ose of the last theorem : (2) the deter-
mination of the height of a pyramid by means of the length of its
shadow according to Hicronvmus of Rhodes (Diog. Laer. i. 27)
and Pliny {N. Is xxxvL 12J, the shadow was measured at the
hour of the day when a nuar% shadow is the same length aa him-
self Phitaich. however, sutes the method in a form requiring the
knowledge of Euclid vL 4, but without the resukrtion as to the
hour of the day {SepL Sap. Ccmnp. 2) Fun her. m-e Icam from
Diogenes LaCrtius (i. 2^) that he perfected the things relating to
the scalene triangle and the theory of lines. Prachn. too. in bis
summary of the history of geometry before Euclid, which he prob>
" ■ ' "' ' s that Thaks. ha\ing
geometry into Greece,
ably derived from Eudemus of Rhodes, savs that Thaks. ha\ ing
visited Egypt, first brought the knowkdge of ge • '-
■ Assynan Dtscoeenes, p. 400.
• Cf . Pamphila and the sMinoos letter from Thales to Pherccydes.
ap. Diog LaCr.; Produs, in pnmtam Euchdu EJemenlorum Librwm
Cemmenlani, ed. Friedlein, p. 65; niny. If. A* xxxvi. 12: lam-
blichus. In Vtl, Pythci. 12; PluUrch, Sept. Sap. Cmnir. 2, De
Istde. 10. and PUe i 3. 1.
' This is unquestionably the meaning of the statement ol I
(temi>. Nere). apw Diog. La^. i. 24, that he was the first :
a right-angled triaiigle in a circle.
THALES OF MILETUS
72»
thftC be diBOovwed inai^ tliiag* kfanitlf, and commiiaKated tbt
bcgiiimiiss of many to his Miccesaors, some of whkh he attempted
in a more abstract manner (ra0oXur6r«pov) and some in a more
tntstitional or sensible manner itda&wruuntpam) {op. cit. p. 65).
Fnwn these indicatiocui it it no doabt (tifficolt to dctermioe what
Tbaica brought from ^ypc and what waa due to his own inven-
tion. This dil&culty has, however, been lessened nnoe the trans-
lation and publication of the papyrus Rhind by Elsenlohr;* and
it is now generally admitted that, in the distinctbn made in the
last passage quoted aboive from Piodus* reference is made to the
two forms of his work — nla0^u^tp» pointing to what he
derived from Egypt or arrived at ia an Effyptian manner, while
maAPiuurtpoif Indicates the discoveries whicn he made in accord-
ance with the Creek spirit. To the former belong the the<M«ms
(1). (a>, and (3), and to the latter especially the theorem (4), and
also, probably, hia solutwn of the two nnctical problems. We
infer, then, [i] that Tbales must have known the theorem that
the sum of the three angles of a triangle are equal to two right
angles. This inference n made from (4) taken along with (2). No
doubt we are informed by Produs, on the authority of Eudemus,
that the theorem Eudid L 32 was first proved in a genera] way
by the Pythagoreans: but, on the other hand, we learn from
Geminus that the ancient geometers observed the equality to two
right angles in each kind of triangle — in the eauilateral first, then
in the isosceles, and lastly in the scalene (Apoll. Cornea, ed.
Halleius, p. 9). and it is plain that the eeometers <rfder than the
Pythagoreans can be no other than iWles and his school. The
theorem, then, seems to have been arrived at by induction, and
may have bean sugsested by the contemplation of floors or walls
cowred with tiles 01 the form of eauilateral triarwles, or squares,
or hexagons. \7\ We see also in the theorem (4) the first trace
of the important conception of geometrical loci, which we, there-
fore, attribute to Thales. It b worth noticing that it was in this
manner that this remarkable property of the circle, with whkh,
in fact, abstract geometry was inaugurated, presented itadf to the
iinagination of Dante: —
** O sc dd meuo oerchio far &i puote
Triaogol sir cfa'ttn retto noa avcsse."<^i'ar. c xSi. loi.
[3I Thales discovered the theorem that the sides of equiangular
tnangles are proportional. The knowledge of this theorem is dis-
tinctly attributed to Thales by, Ptutaich, and it was probably
made use of also in his dcterminarioo of the distanrc of a ship
at sea.
Let us now consider the imi
I. In a scientific point of view: 1, , ^_ ^
by his two theorems be founded the geometry of lines, which has
ever Mnce remained the prindpal part of geometry; (6) he may,
in the second place, be rairly considered to have laid the founda-
tioa of algebra, for his first theorem establishes an equation in the
true sense of the word, while the second institutes a proponion.'
II. In a philosophic point of view: we see that in these two theorems
of Tbales the brst type of a natural law, tjt, the expression of a
fixed dependence between different quantities, or, in another form,
the disoitangluncttt of constancy m the midst of variety — has
decisively anaen.* .Ill, Lastfy. in a practical point of view:
Thales furnished the first example of an application of theoretical
■eometry to pnctice,* and laid the foundation of an important
branch of the same — the measurement of heights and distances.
For the further progress of geometry see Pythagoras.
As to the astronomical Imoaiedge of Thales we have the follow-
ing notices: — (1) besides the prediction of the solar eclipse, Eudemus
attributes to him the discovery that the circuit of the sun between
the solstices is not always umform;' (2} he caUcd the last day of
the month the thirtieth {Diog. LaCr. 1. 24); (^) he divided the
year into 365 days ijd. 1. 27); (4) he determined the diameter
of the sun to be the 720th part of the aodiac;* (5) he appeare
to have pointed out toe consteUation of the Lesser Bear to his
oouatrymea, and instructed them to steer by it h» nearer the
pok] instead uL the Great Bear (Callimachus ap. Diog. Lair, i
33; cf. Arattts, Phaemmena, v. 36 seq.). Othtr discoveries in
aatrooomy are attributed to .Thales, but on authorities which are
not trustworthy. He did not know, for example, that " the earth
is spherical," as is errooeouslv stated by Plutareh {Placila, iiL 10):
on the contrary, he cooceiyed it to be a flat disk, and in this sup-
position he was followed by most of his successors in the Ionian
schools, indudiog Aoaxagoraa. The doctrine of the sphericity of
nportanoe of the work of Tbales.
: (a) we see, in the first place, that
' Em malkematisckes JTandJmch ier alten Aeipfpfer (Leipzig, 1877).
* Auguste Comte, SyUkme d€ PolUiaue PosUtve^ iiL pp. 297, 300.
* P. Laffitu, Us Grands Types dt CUvmaniU, vol. u. p. 292.
* Ihid., p. 294.
*Theonn ^xiyrnaei Platonid Liber de AUronamia, ed. Th. H.
Martin, ^ 324 (Paris, 18^9). Cf. Diog. La^. i. 24.
' This is tlw received interpretation of the passage in Diogenes
LaCrtius, L 24 (see Wolf. Ceufi. der Aslron., p. 169), where ^tXnrtJou
is probably a scribe's error for fttttuxaS. Cf. Apuleius, Florida,
hr. 18, who attributes to Thales, then old, the discoverv : " quotiens
*ol magnitiidiiie sua cireulum quem pcrmeat metiatur.'^
the «Hth. for vUoh the raseatches of Anaxlmander had nepaied
the way,' was ia fact one of the great discoveries of PytJu^otas*
was taught by Parmenides, who was conneaed with the Pytha-
goreans, and remained for a bog time the exdusive property of
the Italian schools.* {&. J . A.)
Philosophy.— Vn^t in virtue of his political sagadty and
intellectual eminence Thales bdd a place in the traditional list
of the wise men^ on the strength of the disinterested k>ve of
knowledge which appeared in bis physical speculations he was
accounted a " philosopher " (^tXAro^). His ** philosophy " is
usually summed up in the dogma " water is the principle, or
the dement, of things "; but, as the technical terms" prindplc "
i&ftxil) »nd " element " (^nxxcuy) h*d not yet come into use,
it may be conjectured that the phrase " all things are water"
(irdyra tS<ap torf) more exactly represents his teaching. Writings
which bore his name were extant in antiquity, but as Aristolle,
when he speaks of Thales's doctrine, always depends upon
tradition, there can be little doubt that they were forgeries.
From Aristotle we kam (i) that Thales found in water the
origin of things; (2) that he concdved the eartli to float upon a
sea of the demental fluid; (3) that he supposed aO things to be
full of gods; (4) that m virtue of the attraction exerdsed by the
magnet he attributed to it a souL Here our information ends.
Aristotle's suggestion that Thales was led to his fimdamental
dogma by observation of the part which moisture plays in the
productbn and the maintenance of life, and SImplicius*s, that
the impressibility and the binding power of water were perhaps
also in his thoughts, are by achnission purely conjectural.
Simplicius's further suggestion that Thales conceived the ele-
ment to be modified by thinning and thickening is plainly
inconsistent with the statement of Thcophrastus that the hypo-
thesis in question was peculiar to Anajdmenes. Tbe assertion
preserved by Stobaeus that Thales recognized, together with
the material dement " water," " mind," which penetrates it
and sets it in motion, is rduted by the precise testimony of
Aristotle, who dedares that the early physicists did not distin-
guish the moving cause from the material cause, and that before
Hermotimua and Anazagoras no one postulated a creative
intelligence.
It would seem, then, that Thales sought amid the variety of
things a single material cause; that he foimd such a cause in
one of the forms of matter most familiar to him, namely, water,
and accordingly regarded the wodd and all that it contains as
water varioiisly metamorphosed; and that he asked himself
no questions about the manner of its transformation.
The doctrine of Thales was interpreted and developed in the
course of three succeeding ^nerationa. First, Anaxlmander chose
for what he called his " pitndple" (Apx4), not water, but a cor-
poreal element intermediate between fire and air 00 the one hand
and water and earth on the other. Next, Anaximenes^ prefcrrif«
air. resolved its tzansformations into oroeessea of thinning and
thickening. Lastly, Heraditus asserted the claims of fire, which
he conceived to modify itself, not occasionally, but perpetually.
Thus Thales recognixecl change, but was not careful to cjqplain it;
Anasdmander attributed to change two directions; Anaximenea
conceived the two sorts of change aa rarefaction and condensation;
Heraditus, perceiving that, if; as his predecessors had tadtly
assumed, change was occasbnal, the interference of a moving cause
was necessary, made change perpetual. But all four agreed ia
tradng the variety of things to a single material cause, corporeal,
endowed with qualities, and capable 01 self-transformaticMi. A new
departure was taken by the Eleatic Parmenides (9.V.O, who, cxpreftly
noting that, when Thales and his successors attributed to the sup-
posed dement changing (lualitaes, they became pluralists, required
that the snperfidaT variety of nature diould oe strictly distin-
guished from its fundamental uni^. Hence, whereas Thales and
mi successors had confounded the One, the element, and the Many,
its modifications, the One and Uie Not-One or Many became wIUi
Parmenides matters for separate investigation. In this way two
lines of inquiry originated. On the one hand Empedodcs and
Anaxagoras, abandoning the pursuit of the One, gave themselves
to the scientific study of the Many; on the other Zeno. abandoning
the pursuit of the Many, gave himself to the dialectical study of
the One. Both successions were doomed to failure; and the result
* In likening the earth to a cylinder Anaxlmander recognized its
dreular figure in one direction.
• See G. V. Schiaparelli, / Procmsori dt Copemico fusB* AmUehUd,
p. 2 (Milan. i873)7
_i
722
THALLIUM
was a aoeptkism fixMn which the thought of Greece did not eaiene
until Plato, retarnlng to Pbrmenides, declared the etudy of the
One and the Many, jointly regarded, to be the true office of phik»-
flDphy. Thus, meagre and futile as the doctrine of Thales was.
all the Greek schools, with the solitary exception of that of Pytha-
goras, took their origin from it. Not in name only, but also in
fact, Thales, the first of the Ionian physicists, was the founder
of the philosophy of Greece.
BiBLiocRAPRT. — (a) Ctomelricol and Astronomical. C. A. Bret-
Schneider, Di* Geometrie «. die Geometer ver EtMides (Leipsig.
1870): H. Hankel, Zur CesckkkU der Malkemaiik (Leipzig, 1874):
G. J. Allman, " Greek Geometry from Thales to Eudid," Her-
matiena. No. v. (Dublin. 1877); M. Cantor, VorUsungen Hber
GesckickU der Matkematik (Lapzig, 1880); P. Tannery, ^'Thalia
de Milet ce qu'il a empnint6 h. I'Egy))te." Rente Philosopkiqiie,
March 1880; ^* La Tradition touchant Pythagore, Oenopide, et
Thales." Bui. des Sc. Math., May 1886; R. Wolf. CexhtfkU der
Astronomie (Munich, 1877). See also under Eclipse and Astro-
The histories of Grrek philosophy men-
tioned s.v. Pakmbnidbs. A. B. Krische, Forsckungen, pp. 34-^
NOUY. (b) Philosophkt
tkmed i.v. Pakmt
(Gdttingen, 1840).
TRALUUM [symbol Tl, atomic weight 204*0 (0-i6)l, a
meta^c chemical element. It was discovered in i86x by Sir
William Crookes, who, during a spectroscopic examination of
the flue-dust produced in the roasting of seleniferous pjrrites
occurring at Tilkcrodc in the Harz, observed a green line foreign
to all then known spectra. He concluded that the mineral
contained a new element, to which he gave the name of thallium,
from BaXSin, a green twig. Crookes presumed that his thallium
was something of the order of sulphur, selenium or tellurium ;
but Lamy, who anticipated him in isolating the new element,
found it to be a metal. Our knowledge of the chemistry of
thallium is based chiefly upon the labours of Crookes.
The chemical character of thallium presents striking peca-
liarities. Dumas once called it the " omithorhynchus paradoxus
of metals." As an elementary subsUnce, it is very similar in
its physical properties to lead; it resembles lead chemically
inasmuch is it forms an almost insoluble chloride and an
insoluble iodide. But the hydroxide of thallium, in most
of its properties, comes very dose to the alkali metals; it is
strongly basic, forms an insoluble chloxoplatinate, and an alum
stiikingly similar to the corresponding potassium compounds.
Yet, unlike potassium or lead, it forms a feebly basic sesquioxide
similar to manganic oxide, MntOs.
Traces of thallium exist in many kinds of pyrites, as used
for vitriol-making. The only known mineral of which it forms
an essential component is the rare mineral crookesite of Skri-
kerum, Smiland, Sweden, which, according to Nordenslu6ld,
Contains 33-3 per cent, of selenium, 458 P«r cent, of copper,
3-7 per cent of silver, and 17-2 per cent, of thallium. The best
raw materials for the preparation of thallium are the floe-dusts
produced industrially In the roasting of thalliferous pyrites
and the "chamber muds" accumulating in vitriol-chamber^
wrought with such pyrites; in both it is frequently associated
with selenium. The flue-dust from the pyrites of Tbeux, near
Spa (Belgium), according to BOttcher, contains 0-5 to 0*75 per
cent, of thallium; that of the pyrites of Meggen, according to
Carstanjcn, as much as 35 per cent.; while that of the pyrites
of Ruhrort yielded i per cent, of the pure cliloride to Gunning.
For the extraction of the metal from chamber mud, die latter is
boiled with water, which extracts the thallium as the sulphate.
From the filtered solution the thallium is prcdpiuted as the
chloride by addition of hydrochloric acid, along, in general, with
more or less of lead chloride. The mixed cQorides are bdled
down to dryness with sulphuric add to convert them into sulphates,
which are then separated by bdling water, which dissolves only
the thallium salt. From the filterra solution the thallium is re-
covered, as such, by means of pure metallic zinc, or by dectrolyas.
The (approximately pure) metallic sponge obtained is washed,
made compact by compression, fused m a porcelain crucible, in an
atmosphere of hydrogen, and cast into sticks.
Metallic thallium b bluish white; it Is extremdy sof t and
almost devoid of tenacity and elastidty. It3 q>edfic gravity
is 11-86. It fuses at 290* C; at a white heat it boils and can
be distilled in hydrogen gas. Its vapour density at 17 28"
corresponds to the molecule Tit. Its salts colour the Bnnsen
A ^ bright green. When heated in air it is readily oxidLEed,
with the fdrmatkm of a reddfedi or violet vspoor. When o-
posed to the air it becomes quickly covered with a filni of oxide;
the tarnished metal when plunged into water reaasuines its
metallic lustre, the oxide film being quickly diiMhred. When
kept in contact with water and air it is gradually oonvertcd into
hydroxide, TIOH. It decomposes water at a red heat, liberat-
ing hydrogen and being itself converted into the hydrate. It Is
readily soluble in nitric and sulphuric adds, but less so in hydro-
chloric.
Thallium forms two series of talU: thallous, in whicb the
metal is monovalent; and thallic, in which it is trivaknt In
the thaUous series many analogies with lead oompoonds are
observed; in the thallic some resemblance to aluminiam and
gold.
ThaUous hydroxide, TIOH, is most conveniently prepared by de-
composing the solution of the sulphate with baryta water. It
ciystalUzes from its solution in long ydlow needles, TIOH or
TiOH+H^, which dissolve readily in water, forming an intensdy
alkaline solution, which acts as a caustk, and like it greedily
absorbs carbonic acid from the atmosphere. Unlike the alkaKa,
it readily loses its water at 100** C. and even at the ordinary tempcnr
ture, to form the oxide TliO, which is black or black-violet.
ThaUic oxide. TIO or TIA, was obtained by O. Rabe (4hsL
J.C.S., 1907, it. 760} by actii% with hydrogen peroxide on an
alkaline solution 01 thalloua sulphate at low temoefaturea, an
initial red precipitate rapidly changing into a Uuish-black com-
pound. It mdts at 720* and decomposes rapklly above Soa\
giving oxygen and thallous oxide. ThaUous chloride. TIQ, i»
readijy obtained from the solution of any thallous salt, by the
addition of hydrochloric add, as a white pceci|>itate Mmiiar in
appearance to silver chloride, like which it turns violet in the light
and fuses below redness into a (yellow) liquid which freezes into a
horn-like flexible mass. It is also formed when the metal is burnt
in chlorine. The specific gmvity of this " horn " thallium is 7<a.
One part of the pceiripitatra chloride dissolves at o* C. in ^00 parts
of water, and in 70 Jparts at 100* C. It is less soluble m dilute
hydrochloric acid, (jsrbonate of soda solution dissolves it protty
freely. Thallous iodide^ Til, is obtained as a yelk>w Drecipiute,
which requires 16.000 parts of coM water for its solution, by the
addition of potassium iodide to a solution of a thallous ealt. or
by the direct union of its components. The yellow aystals ndc
at IQO*, and when cooted down assume a red colour, which change*
to tne original yeOow on standii^. ThaUous bromide, TIBr, b a
light ydlow crystalline powder; it is formed analogously to the
chloride. Thallous fiuortde, TIF, forms white glistening octahcdm;
it is obtained by crystallizing a solution of the caiixmate in hydro-
fluoric add. It resembiea potassntm fluoride in forming an acid
salt, TlHFs. ThaUous eUoroplaUnete, TltPtOa, readily obtainable
from thallous salt solutions by addition of platinum chloride, is a
yellow prediHtate soluble in no less than 15,000 parts of cold water.
Thallous perehlorate, TiaO«, and periedate, TI1O4, are inteseednc
inasmuch as they are isomorphoua with the co rr esponding potassiiini
salts. Other instances of the isomorphism of thallous witfi potassittai
salts are the nitrates, phoqihates, hydraaoates, sulphates, chnMoatea,
sdenates, and die analogously constituted double aBlt8|aBd also the
oxalates, racemates and pkrates. ThaUous tarhonale, TltCOj, more
neariy resembles the lithium compound dian afty other ordiaary
carbonate. It is produced by the exposure of thallous hydrate to
carbon dioxide, and therefore is obtained when the moist mctsl ao
exposed to the air. It forma resplendent monocUnie pcisaaa»
soluble In water. ThaUous sulphate, T1>S04, forms rhombic prisaw,
soluble in water, which melt at a ted heat with decompositioa,
sulphur dioxide bdng evolved. It unites with sulphuric add grriaa
an add salt, TlHSOr3H/>, and with aluminium, chromium and
iron sulphates to form an " alum." It also forms double salts of
the type TlsSO«(MxJ'e,ZnSO«)-6HA ThaUous sulphide, TliS, ia
obtained as a black pvedpiute by passing sulphuretted hydiogea
into a thallous solution. It is hisoluble in water and in the
alkalis, but readily dissolves in the mineral adds. On thalliom snl-
thallous phosphates are known. The normal salt, TltPO* is soluble
in 200 parts of water, and may be obtained by predpitation. On
thaUous salts see w. Stortenbeker, AbsL J.C.S., 1007, fi. 770.
ThaUic oxide, TlgOi. is obtained as a dark reddiin powfer,
insoluble in water and alkalis, by lounging molten thallium into
oxygen, or by dectrolydng water, using a tnallinm anode. rfcaJIsc
hydroxide. Tl(OH)t, is obtained as a brown predpitate by addmc a
hot solution of thallous chloride in sodium carbonate to a sdutioa
of sodium hypochlorite. On drying it has the compositloa T10(0H1.
Hydrochloric acid gives thallous chloride and chlorine: suI^utk
acid gives off oxyeen; and on headng it first gives the trundde
and afterwards the monoxide. The hydroxide is obtained as
brown hexagonal plates by fusing thalhc oxide with potash to
which a little water has been added. ThaUic chloride, TlQa, in
THALWEG— THAMES
72$
by tsntfoc tte mooocUoHik with cJdkMiae andtr wattrc
«• a yeUowith brown moas. The chloride wlwn anbydiout U «
crystuUne naM which nwttt at 24*. It forma MfvcfaJ double nlu,
«^. with hydroehlarie acid and the alkaline chloridea» and abo
with jnltTMyl cUoddeu The chlorine is not completely precipitated
by alver utnle in iiitric acid aohitioa, the iooiflttion apparently
not proceediag to all the chlorine atoma. TkaUic itdide. TIU w
itttcTQitiac on account of it* iaoroorphiam with rubiduim «nd
caeaiaa tri^kididw, a reaemblanoe which supetts the foanuia
Tll(la) for the Mlt, in which the metal ie ofmoudy monovalent.
tioo ef a eolution of the oxide in the corropoading acid. The
•ulphate deoompoeee into lulphuric add auxl the trioadde on warming
with water, ana diffen fvom aluminium eulphate in not forming
alumai
Amaiysis,—Ali thalOttm compounds vobtile or Eable to dissocia-
tion at the tcmp(!fatuce of the flame oS a Bunsen lamp impart to
such flame an intense green colour. The spectrum tontains a
bnght green of wave-length 5^1. From serfutions containing it
as thallous salt the metal is casuy precipitated as chloride, iodide.
or chloropUtinate by the corresponding reagents. Sulphuretted
hydrogen, in the presence of free mineral acid, gives no i^ipitate;
sulphide of ammonium, from neutral solutions, precipitates TUS
as a dark brown or black precipitate, insoluble in excess of reagent,
llianic salu are easily reduced to thallous by means of solution
of wlphurous acid, and thus rendered amenable to the above
reactions. The chloroplatinate serves for the quantitative estima<
tlon. L. F. Hawley employs sodium thiosiannate which prccipi.
tates thaUium as tiiSnSi, uiwluble in water, and which may oe
dried on a Cboch filter at IQS*. It may be noted that all thallium
compounds are poisonous.
The atonric weight of thalllam was determined very eaiefully
by Crookes, who found T1»204-2 (0«i6): this figure was con>
firmed by Lepierre in 1693.
TBALWBO (a German word cdmpounded from TAo/, valley,
and Weg, way) la physical geography, a term adopted into
English usage signifying the line of greatest slope along the
bottom of a valley, i.e. a line drawn through the lowest points
of a valley in its downward slope. It thus marks the natural
direction of a watercourse.
THAim» the chief river of En^and, rising in several small
streams among the Cotteswold Hills in Gloucestershire. Its
source is generally held to be at a place known as Thames Head,
in the parish of Coates, 3 m. W. by S. of Cirencester; but claims
hare also been advanced on behalf of the Seven Springs, the
head waters of the river Churn, 5 m. S. of Cheltenham. The
length of the river from Thames Head Bridge to London Bridge
is i6ii m. and from London Bridge to the Nore, 47 1 m., a total
of 209 m. The width at Oxford is about 150 ft., at Teddington
950 ft., at London Bri<lge 750 ft., at Gravesend sioo ft., and
between Sheerness and Shoeburyncss,' immediately above the
Nore, 5} m. The height of Thames Head above sca-Ievel is
396 ft., but that of Seven Springs, the adoption of which as
the source would extend the length of the river by several miles,
is 700 ft. The height of the river at Lccfalade is J37 ft., the
average fall between Lechlade and London, 143} m., being
rather leas than so in. per mile. The drainage area of the Thames
is 5924 sq. m., including that of the Mcdway, which, as it joins
the estuaiy immediately above Sheerness, may be considered
a tributary of the Thames. The Thames forms part of the
Gloucestershire-Wiltshire boundary to a point below Lechladei
thence for a short distance it separates Gloucestershire from
Berkshire: after which it separates successively Oxfordshire
and Berkshire, Buckingliamshire and Berkshire, Middlesex and
Surrey, and finally, at iu estuary, Essex and Rent. In the
succeeding paragraph the bracketed figures indicate the dis-
tance m miles above London Bridge.
The upper course lies through a broad valley, between the
foot-hills of the Cottcswolds on the north, and the slight eleva-
tions dividing it from the Vale of White Horse 00 the south.
The scenery is rural and pleasant; the course of the river
winding. Before reaching Oxford the stream swin|;i north,
cast and south to encircle the wooded faiUs of Wytham and
COHMT, which onKdook the dtylmmihewciU TheWiadnoh
jobs from the nsrth Oeft) at New Bridge (t96f), jibe Evenk>de
near Eynsham (119), aiid the Cberwett at Oxford (<ia). B»
tween Lechlade and Oirford the main channel sends off many
narrow branches; the waters of the Windrush are simiUrly
distributed, and the branches in the neighbourhood of Oxford
form the pictaresqae " backwaters *' which only light pleasui?
boats can penetrate. The river then follows a valley Gonfined
between the hills on either side of Oxford, passes the pleasant
woods of Nuneham, and at Abingdon (1031) receives the Ock
from the Vale of White Horse. At Dorchester (95I) the Thame
enteia on the left, and the river then passes WalUngford (90!)
and Goring (85). Hitherto from Oxford its course, though
greatTy winding, has bin generally in a southerly direction,
but it now bends eastward, and breaches the chalk hills in a
narrow gap, dividing the Chiltems from the downs of Berkshire
or White Horse Hills. From this point as far as Taplow the
southern slopes of the Chiltems descend more m less doseiiy
upon the river; they are finely wooded, and the scenery is
pcculiady beautiful, especially in early summer. The charm
of the Thames is indeed maintained throughout its course; the
view of the rich valley from Richmond Hill, of the outskirts of
London, is celebrated; the river is pfactically the only physical
attribute to the beauty of the metropolis Itsdf, and the estuary,
with its burden of shipping and its industrial activity, is no
less admirable. At Pangboome (Sof) the Thames receives the
Pang on the right, and at Reading (74!) the Kennet on the same
side. After passing Reading it bends northward to Henley
(65), eastward past Great Mariow (57) to Bourne End (54), and
southward to Taplow and Maidenhead (49!), receiving the
Loddon on the right near Shiplake above Henley. Windfaig ih
a south-easterly direction, it passes Eton and Windsor (43}),
Datchet <4ii)» Staines (36), ChertsQr (32), Shepperton (30)
and Sunbuiy (96|), receiving the Coin from the left at Staines,
and the Wey from the right near Shepperton. Flowing past
Hamptqp Court, opposite to which it receives the Mole .on the
right, and past Kingston (20)), it reaches Teddington (i8i);
Passing Richmond (16) and Kew the river flows through Loadoa
and its suburbs for a distance of about 25 m., tlU it has passed
Woolwich. Gravesend, the principal town below Woolwich,
k a6k m. from London Bridge. The estuary may be taken to
extend to the North Foreland of Kent. In the tideway the
prrndpal aflSuents of the Thames are the Brent at Brentford,
the Wandle at Wandsworth, the Ravensboume at Deptford,
the Lea at BUckwall, the Darent just below Erith, and the
Ingrebonme at Rainham, besides the Medway.
The basin of the Thatnes b of curiously, composite character.
Thus, the upper portion of the system, above the gap at Goriiigi
is a basin in itself, defined on the west and south by the CotteswoU
and White Horw Hilb and on the east and north by the Chiltems
and the uplands of Northamptonshire. But there are aevcnu
points at which its divisfioa fiora other river basins is only marked
by a very low parting. Thus a well-maricod dep r es si on in the
Cotteswolds brings the head of the (Gloucestershire) Coin, one of
the head-streams of the Thames, very ckMe to that of the labornc.
a tributary of the upper Avon; the parting between the head^
streams of the Thames and the Bristol Avmt sinks at one point,
near Maloiesbury. bek>w 300 ft.; and head-stroanw of the Great
Ouse rise little more than two miles frbm, and only some joo ft.
above, the middle valley of the Cherwell. The White Home HiHs
and the Chiltems strike right across the Thames basto, but afaneat
their entire drainage from cither flank lies within it. and aimilariy
a great part of the low-lying Weakl, thou|h marked off from tw
rest of the basin by the North Downs, drains into it through these
hills, it may be noted further that the Keoaet coatinvcs upwaid
the line of the main valky bdow the Goring np* and tbeCherwell
that of the main valley above it The basin thus presents interest-
irtg problems. The existence of wide valleys where the small
upper waters of the Cherwell. Evenkxie and Coin now flow, the
occuffroBce of waterbome deposits in their beds from the north*
west of EngUnd and from Wales, and the fact that the Thames
like its fewer southern tributaries which pierce the North Itowns^
has been able to raaiittain a deep valley through the chalk eleva-
tkm at Goring, are considered to point to the former existence of
a much larger river, in the system of which wese inelodcd the
upper waters of the pceseat Severn. Dee and other rivers of the
west. The question, in fact, involves that of the deve l opment of
a huge pactof the faydnagnphy of EnaUttd.
724
THAMES
The Thames about Oxford is often called the Jsis. Camdea
gave CTlrrency to the derivation of the frord from the combina-
tion of the names Thame and Isls. But it can be shown con-
clusively that the river has borne its present designation from
the earliest times. Caesar {De Bdl, GaU. ▼. ti) says that at the
time of his invasion of Britain it was caBed Tamesis. Dion
Cassius (xL 3) and Tadtus {Ann. xiv. 33) both call it Tkmesa,
and in no early authority is the name Isis used. In early Saxon
times the river was called Thamis, as may be seen in a grant
before A.D. 675 to Chertscy Abbey by the sub-king Frithwald.
In the first statute passed for improving the navigation of the
river near Oxford (zt Jac. I.) it is called the river of Thames,
and it was only in a statute of George II. (rjsi) that the word
Tsis appears. The name Isis has indeed the authority of Spenser
as applied to the Thames in its course above Dorchester {Faerie
Queen, Bk. iv. canto xi. stanza 34), but there is ample evidence
to show that long before his time the name of the river through-
out its course was not Isis but Thames. The word Isis is prob-
ably an academic rendering of Ouse or Isca, a common British
river name, but there is na«reason to suppose that it ever had
much vogue except in poetry or in the immediate neighbour-
hood of Oxford.
The flow of the Thames varies greatly, accordine to the season
of the year. The average gaugings at Teddtngton for the summer
onntbs of the yean 1883 to 1900 were in July 413.000,000 gallons
a day, in August 395,000,000 gallons, and in September 375,000,000
gaJloas. The normal natural flow in ordinary summer weather is
about 350,000,000 gallons a day, and of this, after the companies
have taicen 130,000,000, only 330,000,000 gallons are left to pass
fi(¥tr Teddineton Wdr. After a long ixriod of dry weather the
natural flow has been known to fall considerably below 200,000,000
ealtons, whilst, on the other hand, in the rainy winter season, the
now in 1894 rose for a short time to as high a figure as :^,ooo,ooo,ooo
gallons, and the ordinary flow in winter months may be put down
as 3/)00,ooo.ooo gallons. The importance of storage reservoirs Is
manifest under such conditions of flow, especially bearing; in mind
the erowth of population in the London district and of Its mcreasing
needs. The water-supply of London is considered under that
heading; it may be noted here that the Thames forms the chief
source of supply for the metropolis, but apart from this the corpora-
tion of Oxlora and two companies in the Staines district have
powers to draw water from the river, though not in any large
quantities.
Tlirouebout the whole of the Thames watershed, and especially
in the 38O0 sq. m. above the intakes of the water companies (at
Hampton or in the vicinity), the Thames Conservancy has enforced
the requirements of parliament that no sewa^ or other pollution
shall be allowed to pass into the Thames, into its tributaiy streams,
or even into any water communicating with them. There is a
large staff of insi>ectors constantly visitii^ the various parts of the
watershed, and in spite of many difliculties arising from vested
interests, the work m purification is attainii^ completion, with a
correspondingly great improvement In the quality of the river
water. So recently as 1890 the state of the river below London
was such as to be dangerous to the public health. The metro*
politaii sewage was discharged untreated into the river, and the
heavier solids deposited over the river-bed, while the lighter parts
flowed backwards and forwards on the tide. The London County
Council, directly after its establishment, took means to remedy
this evil (see London).
The Thames b navigable for rowing-boats as far upwards as
Cricklade. except in dry seasons, and for banes at all times as far
as Lechhide, 18 m. below Thames Head. At Inglesham, three*
quarters of a mile above Lechlade, the Thames and Severn canal
has its juncrion with the Thames. This canal is the link between
the two great rivers from whfch it takes its name, or, In other
wovdst between the east and west of England. It surmounts the
watershed by means of Sapperton tunnel, 3 m. long, opened in
I78<^, and iouis the Stroudwater canal, which competes the. con-
■exion. at Wallbridge near Strood. it was long abandoned, but
ttwing to the' exertions of a joint committee of the counties and
other interests concerned in 1895, powcn were obtained from
parliament for its restoration, and the works needful for its re-
opening were carried out. Concurrently with the repair of the
ctnal, the navigation works on the Thames were remodelkMJ at a
large cost, and barges drawing 3 ft. 6 in. can now, even in the
summer season* navigate from London to Inglesham. Although
Che Thames, as one of the " great riven of En^nd,'* was always
m navigabfe river, that is to say, one over which the public had the
right of navigation, it was not until the last quarter of the tSth
titntury that any systematic regulation of its flow in the upper
teaches was attempted. Complaints of the obstruaions in it are
and ^ohn Taylor, the Water Poet (1580-1653), in
-^ting a voyage from Oaford t» Londo«» bewails
the dffliciilties be found Oto the passage. No lufaecaAtlal aieMuwi
to remedy this state of things were adopted till 1771, when aa
act of parllaroeot was passed authorising the conatnicuon of pound
kKks on the Thames above Maindenhe«l Bridge. In pursuauioe of
the powers thus granted, the Thames Commissioners of that day
caused locks to tie built at various points above Maidenhead, aad
between 1810 and 1815 the Corporation of London carried out
river works on the same lines as far down the river as Ted<HagUMi.
The works as subsequently maintained by the Thames Conservancy
ensure an efiicient head of water during the drier seasons «f the
year, and facilitate the escape of winter floods. The aumlxr of
locks is 47, including four navigation weirs above (htford. The
uppermost lock is St John's, below Leehlade; the lowest is Rkb-
mond, but this is a half-tide k)ck. kcepifig the water above at a
level corresDondin^ to half that of flood tide. Under otdinaiy
conditions the sluices are rused to admit boats to pass from tlie
half flood to half ebb| so that the river remains tidal up to Ted-
dington. the next lock.
The canals in use communicating with the Thames, in addtttoo
to the Thames and Severn canal, are the Oxford canal, giving cxnn-
munication from that city with the north, the Kennet andAvoo
canal from Reading to the Bristol Avon, the Grand Junction at
Brentford, the Regent's canal at Limehousc, and the Grand. Surrey
canal at Rotherhithe. A short canal connects Gravesend with
Hi^am. Navigation is also carried oft by the Medway to Ton-
bndge. on the lower parts of the Dareat and Cray, from DarHord
and Crayford, and on the Wey up to Guildford and Godalmins.
The Woking, Aldershot and Basingstoke canal joins the ^ey, but
is little used. The Wilts and Berks canal, joining the Thames at
Abingdon, is disused. By means of the Grand Junction and
Oxford canals especially, constant communication u maintained
between the Thames and the great industrial centres of England.
The trade on the upper. Thames is steady, though not extensive.
The vast trade on the estuary, which ties withm the bounds of
the port of ix>ndon. is consnletod under Lokdok.
The utility of the river, is great in the opportunities for exercise
and recreation which it affords to the public, especially to Londoaerk
The scene on any part of the river from Oxford qown on public
holidays, and on Saturdays and Sundays during the summer, would
be sufnctent to show how it contributes to the public enioynwot.
It is only since about 1870 that this popularity has grown up.
Ten years earlier even rowmg-boats were few excepting at Oxford,
at Henley in regatta time, and at Putney on the tideway. Steam
launches dkl not exist on the river before. 1866 or 1867, amd house*
boau only in the form of college barges at Oxford. But by 1900
there were 541 launches. 162 house-boats, and 1 1 ,284 towine-boats.
Each boat b registered, a small tax being charged; whi& there
are fixed prices for the passage of locks. During t he season regattas
take place at rhany of the towns and larger vill^cs. Of these
Hcnksy Royal Regatta b {ire'Cminent by the numbo^ and import-
ance of the' entries, and by its comparative antiquity. The regattas
at Molesey, Kingston, Reading, MaHow and (Oxford, as well as
many othcn, attract numerous competitoa and specutors. The
Oxford and Cambridge boat-<race from Putney to Monlakc on the
tideway, the summer eights and the " torpids '* at CXxford Univer-
sity, and the school races at Eton and Radley should also be
mentioned.
A statute of 1393 vss granted to the dtisens of London to
remove weirs on the Thames, and empowered the Lord Mayor to
enforce its provisions. For the next four centuries he acted through
watcr-bailiHs, till in 1 77 1 a committee of the Corporation of London
took over the work. In 1857 the Thames Conservancy Boaid was
established. Its powers were increased and its oonstitution varied
in 1864. 1866 (till which year the jurisdiction of the river above
Staines was under a large body of commissioners), and 1804. but
the creation of the Port of London Authority (see Lokuon) limited
its jurisdiction.
Fish are abundant, especially coarse fiih such as pike, path,
roach, dace and barbel. Of trout there are many fine sperunens;
especially at the weirs. Salmon are known to have existed
at Maidenhead so recently as 1812, but they disappeared sbba
after that date. An association was fprmed under the prcsi>
dency of Mr W. H. Grenfell. M.P., with the object of reintro-
ducinj; this fish into the river, and in April 1901 and on subsequent
occasions a number of young salmon were olaced at TcddIn8;toii
by wav of experiment. T1)c right of the public to take fiiJi has
been frequently in dispute, but a committee of the House of
Commons, which- took much evidence on the quesik>n in the year
1884, came to the condusbn that .*' it is impossible to recognise
anythins like a eeneral public right to take fish as now existinK. '*
They aoded " that the public at large have only to know that
their rights are Imaginary to Induce them also to be content with
the extant system under which permission is very freely granccd
by owners ea fisheries to the public for angling on the more ff«>
C)uented parts of the Thames. ' These conclu&ions are intcresttag
In face 01 the fact that the question has arisen from time to tiose
since 1884.
The fisheries are under the reeulation of by-laws made by the
Thames Conservancy^ which apply to the cipuian enraera «a vtU
THAMES*-THAP8ACUS
7as
M t« tliB puXHc gaoBttlV* Tbeie by-ltcw m ettrkd into dftet
by officer* oC the ooo9ervattirs»a8sisted by the river-keepers of the
various fishing associations. The principal associations are those
at Oxford, Reading, Henley, Maidenhead and Windsor, and the
Thames Ansling Preservation Society, whose district is from Staines
to Bxiefitf onL
THA1B8* 8 seaport and gold-mining centre in North Island,
New Zealand, in the county and at the mouth of the river of
its name, on the Firth of Thames, a deep inlet of the Haurakl
Gulf of the east coast. Pop. (1906) 3750. It comprises under
one municipality the settlement formerly called Grahamstown,
with its suburbs Shortland and Tarani. It lies 49 m. S.E. of
Auckland by the steamer-route, a pleasant journey among the
islands of the Gulf. There is also railway communication with
Auckland (but by a drcuitous route of lao m.), and with the
neighbouring districts by branch lines. The harbour is good;
the industries include foundries, shipbuilding yards and saw-
mills. The sea fisheries are valuable; a large part of the yield
being exported to Auckland. The inland district watered by
the Thames river is auriferous; Waitekuri (40 m.) and Kannga-
hake (36 m. S. of Thames) are centres of operations. The small
town of Te Aroha (32 m. by rail), on the river, besides being the
centre of mining and agricultural industries, is a favourite
health resort on account of its hot medidnal springs. The
liver Is navigable for steamers of light draught. The scenery
along its course is pleasant, and at Ohinemuri. (20 m. from
Thames) it flows through a fine gorge.
THANA, or Takna («a fort, or police-sUtioo), a town and
district of British India, in the Northern division of Bombay.
The town is on the west of the Salsette creek or Thana river.
Just where the Great Indian Peninsula railway crosses to the
mainland, 3t m. from Bombay city. Pop. (1901) 16,01 x.
The District or Tbana has an area of 3573 sq. m. It
extends along the coast for 105 m., with a breadth of $0 m.,
and is confined between the Western Ghats on the E. and the
sea on the W., whiie on the N. it is bounded by the Pbrtuguese
territory of Damaun and by Surat district, and on the S. by
Kolaba district. The district is well watered and wooded, and,
except in the nort-east, is a low-lying rice tract broken by
hills. Most of the hills were once fortified, but the forts built
on them are now dilapidated and useless. Matheran (q.v.) is
a favourite summer resort for the dtiicns of Bombay. The
oiily rivers of any importance are the Vaitama and the Ulhas,
the former being navigable for a distance of about ao m. from
its mouth; the latter is also navigable in parts for small craft.
There are no lakes; but the Vehar and the Tulsi, formed
artificially, supply Bombay city with water. In 1901 the
population was 8x1,433, showing a decrease of i per cent, in
the decade. The staple crop is rice. Fishing supports many
of the people, and the forests yield timber and other produce.
Salt is largely manufactured by evaporation along the coast.
At Kurla, in Salsctlc island, there are cotton mills and rice
milb. The district is traversed throughout its length by the
Bombay and Baroda railway, and also crossed by the two
branches of the Great Indian Peninsula line.
The territory comprised in the district of Thana (apart from
Salsette island, which was acquired in 1782) formed part of the
dominions of the pcshwa, and «*as annexed by the British in
x8i8 on the overthrow of Baji Rao. Since then the operations
to put down the Koli robbers, which extended over several
years, have been the only cause of serious trouble.
TRANBSAR (-"place of the god"), an andent town 'of
British India, in Karnal district of the Punjab, on the river
Saraswati, 100 m. by rail N. of Delhi: pop. (1901) S066. As
the centre of the tract called Rurukshetra in the Mahabharata,
it has always been a holy place, and was in the seventh century
the capital of King Harshavardhana, who ruled over all northern
India. The bathing-fair held here on the occasion of a solar
eclipse is said to be attended by half a million pilgrims.
THANET, ISLE OP. the extreme north-easicm comer of
Kent, England, insulated by the two branches of the river
Stour, and forming one of the eight parliamentary divisiofis
of the county. Its name is said to be derived from Saion ImUt
a boBOon or fire (prdbably from (he anoiber of watch-fires
existing on this eaidly ravaged cdast), and numerous remains
of Saxon occupation have been found, as at Oaengal near Rams*
gate. Thanet is rouglUy oblong in form, its extreme measure*
ments being about 8 m. from £. to W., and 5 m. from N. to S.
The branches of the Stour dividing near Sam take the place
of the former Wantsume, a sea-paaaage which had diminished
in breadth to half a mile in the time of Augustine. The Want*
sume was guarded by the Roman strongholds of Regidbium
(Reculver) in the north and RtUupiae (Richborough) in the south,
and was crossed by ferries at Sam and Wade. With the drying
up of this channel and the closing of Sandwich, harbour in the
x6th century, the present marsUands or level to the south and
west of the isle were left. The sea-face of Thanet consiau
mainly of bold slopes or sheer diffs, and the eastern extremity
is the fine headhmd of the North Foreland. Containiog the
popular seaside resorU of Ramsgate, Broadstaiis, MasgaU
and Westgate, Thanet is served by the South-Eastcm ft
Chatham railway, and Minster is a junction station of the lines
to Ramsgate and Sandwich respectively.
THANKMIVINO DAY, in the United States, the fourth
Thnisday in November, annually set apart for thanksgiving
by proclamation of the president and of the governors of tii*
various states. The day is observed with religious services iit
the churches, and, especially in New England, as an occasion
for family reunion. The Pilgrims set apart a day for thanks-
giving at Plymouth immediately after their first harvest, in
x63i; the Massachusetts Bay Colony for the first tjme in 1630^
and frequently thereafter until about x68o, when it became an
annual festival in that colony; and Connecticut as early as
1639 and aimually after 1647, except in 1675. The Dutdi in
New Netherland appointed a day for giving thanks in 1644
and occasionally thereafter. , During the War of Independence
the Continental Congress appointed oxie or more thanksgiving
days each year, except in 1777, each time rccommenfiing to
the executives of the various states the observance qf these
days in their states. President Washington appointed a day of
thanksgiving (Thursday, the 26th of November) in 1789, and
appointed another in 1795. President Madison, in xesponse
to resolutions of Congress, set apart a day for thanksgiving at
the ck>se of the War of 18x2. One was annually appointed
by the governor of New York from 18x7. In some of the
Southern States there was opposition to the observance of
such a day on the ground that it was a relic of Puritanic bigotry,
bnt by x8s8 proclamations appointing a day of thankagiviog
irere issued by the governors of twenty-five states and two
Territories. President Lincoln appointed the fourth Thursday
of November 1864, and since that time each president has
annually followed his example.
See F. B. Hough, ProdamaiwHS for Thanksjming (Albany, 18^8) r
W. D. Low, The Fast and Tkanksgmn^ Days of New England
(Boston. 1805): May Lowe, " ThanksgiviiuE Day'* in New Eni*
land Magaztne (Nov. 1904) : C. L. Norton, " Thanksgiving Day, Past
and Present," in the Mogatin* of Amorkan Histiry (Dec 1885);
R. M. SchaufBer (ed.). Tkankspmng (New York, 1907).
THANN. a town of Germany, hi Upper Alsace, x6 m. by rail
N W. of MUlhausen. Pop. (1905) 790x. It is the seat of cotton,
cah'co, silk, nwcfainery and other industries, and excellent wine
is grown there. The (Roman Catholic) church of St Theobald
(X351) is sn elegant specimen of Gothic, apd has a remark-
ably fine tower (x4S(>-i5x6), 266 ft. high. Above the town
are the ruins of the castle of Engelbuxg, destroyed by Turenne
in 1675.
THAPSACUS, the " hirge and prosperous city " On the Arabian
side of the Euphrates where Cyrus the Younger revealed to the
Greeks the object of his expedition (Xen. Anab. i. 4> n)- No
such place has yet* been found mentioned in cuneiform texts.
We may have a Semitic form of the name in the Hebrew
Tiphsah; but it is impossible to determine whether the one
phrase » " from Tiphsah to Gaaa" (x Kmgs v. 4— Iv. 14 in the
English veiaion), where the name seems to occur, is as early
>2 Kings XV. 16 cannot poaaibly refer to any ptooe on the
Euphrates.
726
THAPSUS— THARGEUA
•s the Bersiftn period: tbe Gitek test. is quite disotpsnt.
TbApsBciawasthecrQsing-pUceQf Darius Codomuinus, belore
»pd after his defeat (Airian ii 13), and of Aleaander (iii. 7),
and in Strabo's time it was the (isual crossing-place (zvi. x» si);
but Tiglath-pikser I. and Assur-nasir-pal crossed oonsidezably
farther north, and we have no reason to suppose that they were
bot simply f<^wing the practice of those early times; and we
do not know when the custom of crossing at Thapsacus which
the Hebrew text of the passage in i Kings may presuppose
sprang up. Xenophon's army had to be content with fording
the stream. Alexander, however, effected his crossing (Arrian,
iii. 7) by two connected bridges (of boats?), and it was from this
place that later he had the material for hjs fleet sent down
(Arrian vii^ 19; Strabo xvi. 741) to Babylonia. His successors
must also have valued tbe place, for according to Pliny (v. 87)
it bore later the name of AmpbipoU%. perhaps bestowed on it
(Steph. Byz., Appian Syr» 57) by Seleucus L, although the name,
like so many others, probably failed to idn acceptance; and
in the time of Eratosthenes the position of Thapsacus had be^
come so central that he chose it as the point from which to
make his measurements for all Asia (Strabo ii, 79, 80), and in
the time pf Stiabo himself it was there that goods wise em-
bariced for transport down the Euphrates (Q. Curt. x. x), and
bnded after having come by stream from lower districts
(Strabo xvi. 1, 23). After Pliny the dty is not agsin men*
tkmed.^
it
May _ „ ^.
1889). The name may survive in K<U*at Dibse, "a small rum
8 m. below Meskenc. and 6 m. below the andeat Barbaliaaas."
See J. P. Peten. Nippur,^ 196 ff. (H. W. H.)
' THAP8US. a low peninsula, now known as Magnisi, joined
by a narrow isthmus to the mainland of Sidly, about 7 m.
N.N.W. of Syracuse. The founders of Megara Hyblaea settled
here temporarily, according to Thucydides, in the winter of
729-728 B.C., but it seems to have remained almost if not
entirely uninhabited untU the Athenians used it as a naval
station in their attack on Syracuse early in 414 B.a A number
of tombs were excavated in 1894, containing objects bebnging
to a transitional stage between the second and third Sicel
period, attributable roughly to 1006^^00 B.C., and with a certain
proportion of Mycenean importations.
See Oni in HomumenH iii Lincei (1897), vL 89-150.
IHAR ANQ PARKAIU or Thuk and Parkeb, a district of
British India in the $ind province of Bombay. Area, 13,941
sq m. The district is divided into two portwns. Tlie western
part, called the " Pat;* is watered by the Eastern Nan and the
Mithrau canals, which constitute the sole water-system of the
district, and. the presence of water has created a quantity of
jungle and mardi; the other part, called the '*Tliar," is a
desert tract of rolling sand-bills, nmning* north-east and
3outh-«est» composed of a fine but slightly coherent sand. To
the south-east of Thar is Parkar, where there are laogcs of
rocky hills, rising to 350 ft. above the sUrroonding kvd, and
open plains of stiff day. This portion contains the ruins of
several old temples. The climate is* subject to considerable
cjctremes in temperature, being excessivdy bot in the summer
and very cold in winter, the cold increasing as the sand-hills
are approached. In 1901 the pqpulaUon was 389,7x4, showing
an increase of as per cent, in the decade. The pxindpal crops
are millets, rice, wheat, oil-seeds and cotton. Cultivation
laxgdy depends upon the control of the water which comes
down the canals and occasionally causes flood. Salt is found
in two or three places. The western border of the district is
entered by the narrow-gauge railway from Hyderabad to Shadi-
palH. connected wilJi the North-Wcstem main line by a bridge
acfoss the Indus at Kotri, and with the Rajputana system at
Jodhpur. Umazkot. the administrative headquarters of the
>8t«phanu* of Byamkiai ^ves k in a Est of cities as a "* Syrian
tenm oa the Euptwatas." quoitog from Theopoopus. without uguag
*ttitd)' referred to it under the r * — "^^ **
district,, is OB the edge oC the deKtt. flip. <iqoi) 4914. It ii
historically interestiog as the birthplace of the emperor Akbar
iniS4S.
Very little is ktiown of the early history of the district. Tb«
Soda Rajputs, said to be descendants of Parmar Soda, are sap-
posed to have come into this part of Sind about 1226. when they
quickly displaced the rulers of the country, though, according
to other authorities, they did not conquer the countiy from the
Sumras, the dominant race, before the beginning of the x6th
centuxy. Tbe local dynasty of the Sodas succumbed to the
Kalhoras about X750, since which period the district has bcei»
subject more or less to SixkI. The Ta^ur mirs succeeded the
Kalhoras, and built a number of forts to overawe the people,
who were lawless and addicted to robbery. On the British
conquest of Sind in 1843 the greater part of the distria was made
over to Cutch, but in X856 it was incorporated in the province
of Sind. In 1859 a rebellion broke out, which was quickly
suppressed.
TH ARANDT, a town of (ktmany ,. in the kingdom of Saxony,
romantically situated on the Wilde Weisserita, 9 m. S.W. ol
Dresden, on the Dresden-Rdchcnbach railway. Pop. (x905>
2967. It has a Protestant church, a hydropathic establish-
ment, and the oldest academy of forestry in Germany (founded
by Heinrich Cotta in x8ix) with about sixty students. Tharandt
is a favourite summer resort of the people of Dresden, one of
its pxindpal charxns being .the magxiificent beedi vooda which
surround it.
See Donner. Thanndt (Tharaadtr 1890).
THARGEUA, one of the chief Athenian festivals in bonmir
of the Delian ApoUo and Artemis, held on thdr birthdays,
the 6th and 7th of the month Thargclion (about the a4th siad
asth of May). The name, which was derived by the ancients
from Bkpav ri^w t^v (" to reap the land ")» is more probably con-
nected with T^pa-^fBi (d. Lat. toneo, taUus), signifying the
produce of the earth " baked " by the suxu Essentially an
agricultural festival, the Tbargelia induded a purifying and
expiatoiy ceremony. While the people offered the fiist-fruits
of the earth to the god in token of thankfulness, it was at the
same time necessary to propitiate him, lest he might ruin the
harvest by excessive heat, possibly accompanied by pestilence.
The purificatory preceded the thanksgiving service. On the
6th a sheep was sacrificed to Demeter Chlo£ on the Acropolis,
and perhaps a swine to the Fates, but the most important
ritual was the following. Two men, who were called ^vpiejtoi or
«i^a«x<Xi the ugliest that couki be found, were chosen to die,
one for the men, the other (according to some, a woman) for
the women. On the day of the sacrifice they were led round
with strings of figs on their necks, and whipped on the genitals
with rods of figwood and squiDs. When they readied the place
of sacrifice on the shore, they were stoned to death, their bodies
burnt, and. the ashes thrown into the sea (or over the laxxl, to
act as a fertilizing infiuence). The whipping with squills and
figwood was intended to stimulate the reproductive enerpes
of the ^apitag6s, who represented the god of vegetation, annually
slain to be bom again. It is agreed that an actual human
sacrifice took place on this occasion, replaced in later times by a
milder form of erpiation Thxis at Leucas a criminal vas
aimually thrown from a rock into the sea as a scapegoat: but
his fall was checked by live birds and feathers attached to his
person, and men watched below in small boats, who cau^t him
and escorted him beyond the boundary of the dty. Siaularl>\
at Massilta, on the occasion of some heavy calamity (plague or
famine), one of the poorest inhabitants volunteered as a 9cape>
goat. For a year he was fed up at the public expense, tlien
clothed in sacred garments, led through the dty amidst execra-
tions, and cast out beyond the houndaxiesw Tht cercmooy 00
the 7th was of a cheerful chaxaaer. All kinds of fiist-frults
were carried in procession and offered to the god, and, as at the
Pyaoepsia (or Pyaxiopsia), e^Miwrot (branches of oGve boand
with wool), borne by children, were aifixed by them to the doois
of the houses. These branches, originally mtended as a diarm to
avert faihiie of the craps, were afterwards recardcd as t
THARRAWADDY—THASOS
727
ptft «l a MppKcatOiy lervioe. On tlw aeoond day choruses
of men end boys took part in musical contests^ the prize for
which was a tripod. Further, on this day adopted persons
were solemnly received into the fenos and fkratria of their
adoptive parenu (see ArATUiu).
See PreUer-Robert. Crieehische MytkaUgie, 1. (1894); G. F.
Schdmann, Cntchuche AlUrlMmer (4th ed. by J. H. Lipnua, 1897*
1902} : P. StenceU Du puckiuken KnUusaUerlkAmer (1890):
article in Smith's Didumary of Creek and Roman AiUiauilies, revised
by L. C. Purser (3rd cd., 1891); A. Mommscn, Feste der Siadt Athen
(1898); L. R- Farndl. Cults of the Creek StaUs, W. (1906). pp. 268-
283; J. G. Frazer, CoUen Bouek (2nd cd.. 1900), ii. appendix C.
" Offcrinn of First-Fruiu," and iii. p. 93, { 15, " On Scapegoats ";
W. Mannteidt, Aniike WaU- und PetSktdte (snd cd. by W. Heuacfakel.
»904-5)-
THARRAWADDT, a town and district in the Pegu division
of Lower Burma. The town has a station on the railway,
68 m. N.W. from Rangoon. Pbp. (1901) 1643. The district
has an area of 2851 sq. m. The Pegu Yoma range separates it
from Toungoo district, and forms the water-parting between
the rivers Irrawaddy and Sittang; there are also many small
elevations. The Irrawaddy is the principal navigable river.
Another important river is the Hiaing, which runs through the
district from north to south, receiving from the east, through
numerous channels, the drainage of the Pegu Yoma Mountains,
which fertilizes the plain on its eastern bank. There are teak
forests and fuel reserves, covering an area of 73s sq. m. Among
the wild animals found in the mountains are elephant, rhinoceros,
bison and various kinds of feathered game. The rainfall in
1905 was 91 6s in. Pop <i9oi) 395.570, showing an increase of
17 per cent, in the decade. The rsilway runs through the
centre of the district, with ten sutions. The chief towns are
Gyobingauk (6030) and Thonsi (6578). The staple crop is
rice, but orchisrds and gardens are also common. The history
of the district is identical with that of Henzada (^.tf.). Tharra-
waddy was formed in 1878 out of that portion of Henaula lying
east of the Imwaddy.
TRARR08, an ancient town of SardinU^ situated on the west
coast, on the narrow sandy isthmus of a peninsub at the north
extremity of the Gulf of Oristano, now marked by the tower of
S. Giovanni di Sinis. It was 12 m. W. of Othoca (OcisUno) by
the coast road, which went on northward to Conius (a milestone
of it is given in Corp. Inscr. Lai. x. 8009), and thence to Turris
Libisonis. It was of Phoenician origin, but continued to exist
in Roman times, as the inscriptions ^w, thou^ they give but
little informatiott (Mommsen in Ccrp. Jmer. Lai, z. 822). It
was destroyed by the Saracens in the itth century. Scanty
traces of Roman buildings may be seen, and an ancient road
paved with huge blocks of stone. A part of the site of the town
is now invaded by the sea. The church of S. Giovanni di Sinis
is a heavy bnflding of the 8th (?) century Aj). originally cruci-
form, with a dome over the crossing; the transepts- and dome
are still preserved, but the nave with ks two aisles is Uter. It
IS naturally built of materials from the oM town. Close to it is
a watch-tower and a spring of fresh water.. The importance of
Tharros may be inferred from the extent of it« necropolis, which
Hes on the basaltic peninsula of S. Marco to the S.; on the
summit of it are the remains of a fnirofAe. Casual excavations
are mentioned under the Spanish viceroys, but regular explora-
tion only began in 1838, when the Roman tonibs were examined.
In 1850 Spano excavated many Phoenician tombs; they are
rectanguhu* or square chambers cut in the rock, measuring from
6 to 9 ft. each way, In which inhumatioa was the iuIa. The
objects found~pottery, scarabs, jewelry, aasukts, kc — were of
considerable interest. Xn. xSsx Lord Vernon opened fourteen
tombs, and after that the whole countryside ransacked the
aecropolis, without any proper records or notes being takcn^ and
wicb great damage to the objecu found. Some of these ob-
jccu are in the museum at Cag^iari, others in private collections,
mad many scarabs are in the British Museum, all of which by
the coins found with them are dated later than the Soman
occupation {Caialogne vf Ctms, LondoA, 1888, pp.. 13 sqq.). In
fS8s-^ regular excavations wcre-made» the lasuUa of whkh
may be seen in the museum at Cagliari. One tomb contained
some fine gold ornaments, with Roman coins of the ist to 3rd
century a.o. (F. Vivanet in Notme d^li Scavi, 1886, 27; 1887,
46, 124). The objects, like those found at Sulds, show con-
aidenble traces of Egyptian influence, biit are probably all of
Phoenician importation— the theory of the existence of Egyptian
colonies in Sardinia being quite inadmiMihle. Some 3 m. to
the N. is the church of S. Salvatore, with underground rock-cut
chamben below it, used as a baptistery (?) by th( early Christians,
though the waUs are decorated with paintings of a decidedly
pagan nature. (T. As.)
THASOS, an ishmd in the borth of the Aegean Sm, off the
coast of Thnce and the plain of the river Nestus (now the Kara-
Su). The island was colonised at an early date by Phoenicians,
attracted probably by iU gold minea; they founded a temple
of Heracles, which still existed in the time of Herodotus, l^asus,
son of Phoenix, is said to have been the leader of the Phbenicians^
and to have given his name to the island. In 720 or 708 B.C.
Thasos received a Greek colony from Paros. In a war which
the Parian cobnists waged with the Saians, a Thradan tribe^
the poet Archilochus threw away his shield. The Greeks ex-
tended their power to the mainland, where they owned gold
mines which were even more valuable than those on the island.
From these sources the Thasians drew great wealth, their annual
revenues amounting to 200 or even 300 talents. Herodotus^
who vbited Thasos, says that the best mines on the island were
those which had been opened by the Phoenicians on the east
side of the island facing Samothrace. The jrface was important
during the Ionian revolt against Perua. After the capture of
Miletus (494 B.C.) Histiaeus, the Ionian leader, laid siege to Thasos.
The atUck failed, but, warned by the danger, the Thasians
employed their revenues to build war ships and strengthen their
fortifications. This excited the suspicions of the Persians, and
Darius compelled them to surrender their ships and puU down
their walls. After the defeat of Xerxes the Thasians joined
the Delian confederacy; but afterwards, on account of a
difference about the mines and marts on the inainland, they
revolted. The Atheiuans defeated them by- sea, and, after a
siege that lasted more than two years, took the capital, Thasos,
probably b 4/^Sf and compelled the Thasians to destroy their
walls, surrender their ships, pay an indemnity and an annual
contribution (in 449 this was 2| talents, from 445 about 30
talents), and resign their possesions on the mainland. la
411 n.c., At the time of the oligarchial revolution at Athens,
Thasos again revolted from Athens and received a Lacedae-
monian governor; but in 407 the partisans of Lacedaemon
were expelled, and the Athenians under Thrasybulus were ad-
mitted. After the battle of Aegospotami (405 b.c.), Thasos
a0un fell into the hands of the Lacedaemonians under Lysander
who formed a decarchy there; but the Athenians must have
leooverad it, for it formed one of the subjects of dispute between
them and Philip II. of . Macedonia. In the embroilment be-
tween Philip IU. of Macedonia and the Romans, Thasos sub-
mitted to PhiUp, but received its freedom at the hands of the
Romans after the battle of Cynoscephalae (197 B.C.), and it was
still a " free " state in the time of PBny. After a period of
Latin occupation, it was captured by the Turks m r462; it
was given by the SuIUn Mahmud II. to Mehemet AU of Egypt,
and still remains the property of the khedivp. Thasos, the
capital, stood on the north skie of the island, and had two
harbours, one of which was dosed. Archilochus described
Thasos as " an ass's backbone crowned with wild wood," and
the description stiU suits the mountaiiibus island with its
foKSto of fir. The highest mountain, Ipsario, is 3428 ft. high.
Besidea its goki mines^ the wine, nuu and marble of Thasos
were well known in antiquity. The mines and marble quarries.
are no longer worked; and the chief exports are now fir timber
for shipbuilding, oKve oil, honey and wax. The imports
consist of manufactured goods, beasu of burden and com»
for the island is too mountainous to grow enough com for itm
inhabitants.
7b» pai>ul4aoQ» distributed In tea viHafiBi* m Mimated at.
728
THATCH— THAYETMYO
8000. Tlie people are Greek CliilstSaiiB, and do not differ in
appearance from the inhabitants of the other Greek islands.
The villages are mostly situated at some distance from the sea;
for the island suffered from pirates. Even in the early part of
the 19th century sentinels stood on duty night and day, and at
ft signal of alarm the whole population, including the Turkic
aga himself, used to hide in the woods.
For a description of the island and its remains of antiquity, see
A. Conxe, Reise auf den Inseln des Ihraktxken Meeres (Hanover,
i860); for inscriptions see Inscr. Gr xii. 8; the island is fully
described by J. ff. Baker-Penoyre in Journal HtU. Stud, xxix, (1909}.
THATCH (O.E. Aaee; the word is common to many Teutonic
languages ta the sense of " roof," " cover '^; of. Du. dak^ Ger.
Dock; from Du. dekken comes "deck"; the Indo-European
root is stag, whence Gr. cnryos, roof, Lat. tigpre, to cover; the
^xench equivalent is ckaume), the material employed sometimes
jfor roofs in the place of tiles or slates; it consists of wheat straw,
of which several layers are required, to the depth of from i» to
14 in., or even extending to 18 in. Unthreshed straw is said
to last from twenty-five to thirty 3rears, and is easily repaired.
In Norfolk the reeds of marshland are employed, and they con-
stitute a durable thatch lasting from thirty to forty yeara or
more. Hiatched roofs arei not now allowed in London or other
towns and their vicinity, but if saturated with a solution of
lime, the thatch is said to be incombustible. It forms an ex-
tremely good roof, warm in winter and cool in summer.
THATON* a town and district in the Tenasserim- division of
Eower Burma. The town is situated below a hill range, to A.
from the sea. It was formerly the capital of the Tdaing
kingdom and a sea-port. Pop. (1901) 14,342. The district has
an area of 5079 sq. m.; i>op. (1901) 343'>5io, showing an in-
rrease of 39 per cent, in the decade. It was formerly a sub^
division of Amherst district, but was formed in 1895 out of
part of that and of Shwegyin district, which has now ceased to
exist. The staple cipp is rice, but a good deal Of tobaceo also
is grown. The railway from Pegu to Martaban, recently opened,
passes through this district and is calculated to increase its
prosperity and population.
THAZTEB, CEUA (1836^1894), American poet, was bom at
Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on the 29th of June 1836. Her
lather, Thomas B. Laighton, became offended with some of his
associates in state politics^ and retired about 1841 to the borren
and isolated Isles of Shoals, ten miles off Portsmouth, where for
about ten years he was keeper of the White Island lighthouse;
and his daughter's girlhood was therefore spent in marine
surroundings, which coloured the best of the verse she after-
wards wrote. Her poems, mainly in lyrical form, deal with
the beacon-light, the sea-storm, the glint of sails, the sand-
piper, the flower among the rocks, &c., in characteristic and sym-
pathetic fidelity. She also wrote prose sketches of life and
scenery, Among Ike IsUs of Skoals (1873); stories and poems
for children, and letters; besides a book about floriculture,
An Island Garden (1^4). In 1896 appeared a complete edition
of her poems, edited by Sarah Ome Jewett. She married In*
185X Levi L. Thaxter (d. 1884), a devoted student of Robert
Browning's poetry, and spent most of her life on Applcdore,
one of the Isles of Shoals, where she died on the afith of August
1894. Her son Rohind Thaxter (b. 1858), a well-known crypto-
gamic botanist, ^Became professor of botany at Harvard in 1891.
THATfeR, ABBOIT HAND|»tSOH (1849- )» American
artist, was bom at Boston, Massachusetts, on the xsth of
August 1849. He was a pupil of J. L. G£r6me at the £cole des
Beaux Arts^ Paris, and became a member of the Society of
American Artists (1879), of the National Academy of Design
(1901), and of the Royal Academy of San Luca, Rome. As a
painter of portraits, landscapes, animala and the id;;al figure,
he won high rank among.American artists. Among his best-
known pictures are, "Virgin Enthroned," "Caritas," "In
Memoriam, Robert Louis Stcvensi^," and *' Portrait of a Young
Woman*'; and he did some decorative work for the Walker
'^'Ung, Bowdoin College, Maine. Thayer is also well
> natuimliit, He developed • theory of " pr»tMtive
cotoration " in animals (see CoLonss or AraMAU), whkh hai
attracted considerable attention among naturalists. According
to this theory, ** animals are painted by nature darkest on those
parts which tend to be most lighted by the sky's light, and
vice versa "; and the earth-brown of the upper parts, bathed
in sky-light, equals the skylight colour of the belly, bathed in
earth-yellow and shadow.
See his article, " The Law whkh underlies Protective Colorafion,'*
in the Annual Retort dl the Smithsonian Institution for 1897
(Washington, 18^); and Concealing Coloration in tke Animal
Kingdom (New \ork, 1910), a summary of his discoveries, by hii
son, Gerald H. Thayer.
THAYER, JAMES BRADLEY (r83i-i903), American legal
writer and educationist, was bom at Haverhill, Massachusetts,
on the X 5th of January 1831. He graduated at Harvard College
in 1852, and at the Harvard Law School u 1856, in which year
he was admitted to the bar of Suffolk county and began to
practise in Boston. In 1873-83 he was RoyaU professor of
law at Harvard, in 1883 he- was transferred to the professor-
ship which after 1893 was known as the Weld prof»s(»ship
and which he held until his death on the 14th of February 190a.
He took an especial interest in the historical evolution of law.
He wrote. The Ortgin and Scope of the American Doctrine ^
Constitutional Lav (1893); Cases on Emdenu (tSoa); Cases en
Constitutional Law (1895); The Development (^ Trial by Jury
(1896}; A Preliminary Treatise on Endence at the Comnum Lam
<i8q8), and a short life of John MatBhall (tool): and edited the
twelfth edition of Kent's Commentaries and the Letters oj Ckauncey
Wright (1877), and A Westward Journey with Ur Emerson (1884).
THAYER, JOSEPH HENRY (1828*1901), Aitter~.an biblical
schofair, was bora at Boston on the 7th of November 1828. He
studied at the Boston Latin School, and graduated at Harvard
in 1850. Subsequently he studied theology at the Harvard
Divinity School, and graduated at Andoyer Theological Serainaiy
in 1857. He preached in (^uincy, and in 1859-64 in Salem,
Massadkusetts, and in. 1862-63 was chapdaUi of the 4oUk
Massachusetts Volunteers. He was professor of sacred literature
in Andover Seminary in 1864-82, and in 1884 succeeded £sra
Abbot as Bussey professor of New Testament critieism in the
Harvard Divinity School He died on the 26th' of Novonber
1901, soon after his resignation from the Bussey professorship.
He was a member of the American Bible Revision Committee
and recording secretary of the New Testament company. His
chief works were his transIaUon of Grimm's CUms Novi Tfirto-
menli (1887; revised 1889} as A Creek-Bnglisk Lexicon of tkt
New Testament, and his New Testament bibliography (1890).
THAYETMYO, a town and distria in the Minbu division of
Upper Burma. The town is situated on the right bank of
the Irrawaddy, opposite AUanmyo. Pop. (1901) 15,824. The
cantonment contains the wing of a British battalion and a
native regiment. It enjoys a high reputation for healthiness.
There is a spedal industry of silver work.
The distria has an area of 4750 s<|. m.; pop. (1901) 239,706,
showing a decrease of 4 per cent, in the decade. The toUl
rainfall in 1905 was 4X'3o in. On the west is the Arakaa
Yoma range, and on the east the Pegn Yomas; and the fiace of
the country, where it docs not rise into monntains, is every-
where broken by low ranges of hiUa, many of whkh are barren
and destitute of all vegetation. The greater paxt ti the district
is wooded, and the Yomas east and west are covered with f oresU,
now mostly preserved. The chief river is the Irrawaddy, whicli
traverses Thayetmyo from north to south. The drainage finds
its way to the Irrawaddy by three main streams (the Pwon,
Ma-htfin and Ma-de) on the west, and by two (the Kye-ni and
Hput) on the east. Several salt and hot springs occur in many
localities; petroleum is also found, and extensive lime quairies
esdst a few miles south of Thayetmyo. The principal wild
animals are' elephants, rhinoceros^ tigM, leopards, black bean
and wild hog. Silver pheasants and partridges are found in
hirge numbers, especially in tJie mountains. The chief pcoducta
are rice, cotton, oil-seeds and tobacco; cutch is ahw vciy
abundant, and the manufacturfe of the dye-stuff is carried od
cctcgBBively. Coal has been- found in the difitdttt and eajtb
THEATRE
729
«ll-wdb «ilit, b«t Ddtlier ooal nor ofl bit yet been cxtrtcted
in any ^vaatity. TImr are 403 tq. m. of reserved forest. Three
ott*welb irefe sunk in 1883 at Pedaukpin, but thty were found
ttopiofiublft and abandoned.
On the anneutk>tt of Pegu by the British in iSst-sj, Tha-
yetmyo was formed into a subdivision of Prome district; and
in 1870 it was erected into a separate Jurisdiction and pUced
under a deputy-commissioner. It was formerly in tlie Irra-
waddy division of Lawtt Buma, but waa transferred to Upper
Burma for administrative purposes in 1896.
THBAIRB (^rpor, '* a place for seeing," from M«tfcu), a
building spedaDy devised for dramatic representations. The
drama arose from the choric dances in honour of Dionysus,
wliich were heki in a circular dandng-place (^rxV^pa, Lat.
•fdkesl^a) in iiis precinct at the foot of the AdopoUs at Athens.
When the leader of the chorus heM a dialogue with the remaining
tkonmtde he mounted the Uble which stood beside the allar of
Dionysus in the centre of the trckeslrai but as the number of
actors and the importance of the dialogue increased, it became
necessary to erect a platform at the side of the dancing-place
anil a booth in which the performers could change their dresses
and masks. At the same time temporary wooden atands
dbipia) were set up for the spectators, who no longer ranged
themselves around the whole ring, but only on the slope of the
Acropolis, facing southward. We are told that the collapse of
the Upta, in 4^ bxl led to the erection of a permanent theatre;
this was not, however, a stone building. Embankments were
made for the support of the spectators' benches: the stage
buildings were of wood, and, although some traces of a stone
theatre belonging to the end of the 5th century have been
pointed out, the " theatre of Dionysus," whose remains may still
be seen (PI. I. and II.), is in the main a work of the 4th century.
It was completed soon after 340 b.c. under the administration
of the statesman and financier Lycurgus. Alterations were
made in the stage-buUdings in the Hellenistic period, under
Nero, and again in the 3rd century aj>. Although the proto-
t3rpe of Greek theatres, it is not the most perfectly preserved.
Amonpt those of purely Greek design the most typical is that
of Epidaurus (PI. 1.), which was built in the latter part of
the 4th century b.c. by Polyditus the Younger. The largest
known to Pausanias was that of Megalopolis, eicavated by the
British School at Athens in 1889-01 > in which the stage buildings
were repbced by the Theisilion, a large council - chambo*.
Others of importance for the study of the ancient theatre have
l>een excavated at Dek)s, Eretria, Sicyon and Oropus. None
of these, of course, is contemporary with the classical period of
the Greek drama, and their stone stage-fronts belong to the
Hellenistic period.
In Asia Minor we find a type of theatre (belonging to a some-
what later daU) with a broader, lower and deeper stage; and
GMCtK
Fig t.-^Diagram showing the principle on which the Gceek
theatre was planned aca)rding to Vitnivitts.
the Roman theatre (see below) carries these chan^n stlU further.
Before discussing tbdr significance it will be best to describe
the parts of the ancient theatre, the fullest account of which is
to be found in the filth book of Yiliuvius (written in. the Augustan
period).
Its three main divisions were the auditorium (Lat. cavea; it had
no technical name in Greek), the orchestra, and the stage buildings
(#K^, literally " tent " or ** booth " Lat. sctna). As the orchestra
was the germ of the theatre, so it determined its shape, and in the
Greek theatre preserved its drcniar lorn la many insrsncrs <aa at
In the acheme of proportions given by Vitnivius.
I fig. I, which carriea its own explaiiatkNi), a segment
Epidaurus).
however (sei . .
UMtf) was cut off by the stage front {wpiniimt^, proscemnmh
1 he audttonum was divided by Bights of seats into wedge-shaped
blocks (aapctttf, aam) and abo longitudinally by a cancway
(JtAfMiM pntcinelw). In Greece the slope of a hiU was always
chosen for the auditorium and furnished with stone seau in tiers
like Mepa. The slooe of the Acropolis faces south, which (as
Vitru\ius points out) was the worst aspect for the specutors:
but this was unavoidable for religious reasons, since the perform-
ances had to be heki in the precinct of Dionysus. At Athens the
inner boundary was a acmkircle with the ends prolonged in parallel
straight lines, whkh gave the spectators in the wings a better view
of the stage than that obtainable in those theatres where (according
to the Vitruvian rule) the boundary was segmenul. At Epidauma
'i^. ■-' • -' H^ of Xiyc Acfxjpoh^
■aejMfit.
FlC. a.
From Ddrpfdd and Reisch, Dot tjrUekiseht Theattr.
ab, double western walL
be, single walL
ea, Ut walls terminating wings of auditorium.
ft,/, entrances.
r, the " lutatome " (where the rock of the Acropolis was met
by the walls).
^, r, diaaQHia.
/r, eastern boundary walL
M, front wall of Neroniaa stage.
I, fragment 5th-oentury orchestra.
klm, ancicnc raasomy (? of supporting walls),
na, oldest stage buildings.
M, stone proscenium (1st or and century B.C.).
p, foundations of Neronian side wings.
qr, fragments sth-ccntury orchestra.
s, 4tb-century portico.
I, old Dionysus temple.
a compcomiae was effected by prolonging the ends <^ the sessa-
ctrde as segments of a curve with a longer radius. The best seats
were in the lowest row; at Athens this was formed by a series
of marble thrones asugned to various priests or officials whose
titles may be read on those (te out of 67) which are now preserved.
The priest of Dionysus occupied the central throne. In some
theatres benches with backs tool, the place of separate thrones.
The right of sitting in reserved places was called spoaiplm.
The orchestra,- which was separated from the auditorium by a
gutter and kerb and generally paved with slabs, contained an
altar of Dionysus called the 0viti\^, whence the choral or musical
contests which took place in it were called Avmpw MimXuoL
At Athens this altar stood in the middle of a lozengv-shaped marble
pavement. In a few theatres subtcrrsnean passages have been
found, leading from the stage-buihliogB to Che middle of tim
73©
THEATRE
orcbeatra. which may be Mppoaed to hftre beat u«ed for the
appearance o( acton (e.g. as ghosu) in the orchestra : they do not
exist, however, at Athens or Epidaurus, so that no general argu-
ment can be founded on their remains.
The stage buildings of the earliest Greek theatres have been
destroyed save for the foundations and architectural fragments,
and the interpretation of their remains presents a difficult problem.
Whether built on level grc' — ' '*' '— •• c:~«- und elsewhere)
excavated in rock or earth tl ngular structure
two stories high, usually wil (S (wapmtK^na).
Between these wings was tl rhick at Athens
and iiyleed in all early thea , but was after-
wards reconstructed in stoi d by a row of
columns from lo to 13 ft. h om 8 to loi ft.
It has been arvued by Dd nom was not a
stage, but a background, wY zed as a palace,
temple, &c., by means of p 1 the intervals
between the columns, and tli _ try of the Greek
dranu actors as well as chorus performed in the orchestra. This
theory has been supported by arguments drawn from passages of
the classical dramatists, which seem to imply that actors and
choru5 were on the same level, and by a priori considerations
regarding the unfitness of so high and narrow a platform, uncon-
nected with the orchestra by stairs (except such temporary wooden
steps as may have left no trace in extant remains), for a stage.
But these arguments are outweighed by the positive testimony of
ancient writers and inscriptions that the actors in the Greek drama
mounted on a platform (Upifiat) which was also called the Xo7«ior
(" speaking-place "), and the description of the Greek theatre by
yitruvius, who telb us that the Xo><tor (Lat. pulpitum) was narrower
than that of the Roman theatre, and was from 10 to 12 ft. high.
Moreover the back^und afforded by the Hellenistic rpcvt^pia would
have been diminutive in its proportkins — it must be remembered
that Greek actors stood some 6 ft. 6 in. high when wearing the
eothumus and tragic mask — and quite unlike a palace or temple.
They never have more than one doorway in the centre, though
Vitruvius prescribes three, and in some theatres (where the stage-
buildings were partly excavated) there arc no rooms at the back
of them, but either virgin rock or earth. We may therefore dis-
miss D<>rpfekl's theory: but it is more than probable that the
wooden stage of the 5th century B.C. was much lower than that
of Hellenistic times, when the chorus had either disappeared from
dramatic performances or performed musical interludes uncon-
nected with the action of the play. Horace, in fact, says of
Aeschylus: " Aeschylus . . . modicis instravit pulpita tignis." aad
doubtless preserves a fragment of genuine tradition. When chorus
and actors came into contact, wooden steps could be used, and
that such were employed even in the later drama is proved by
the evidence of South Italian vase-paintings which represent toe
Phylakes or burlesques popular at Tarcntura.
The facade of the tfcirr4 furnished an architectural background,
and this was supplemented by painted scenery, which, according
to Aristotle, was introduced by bophoclcs: Vitruvius. however, tells
us that the first scene-painter, Agatharchus, worked for Aeschylus.
In their days the vxiir^ was, of course, a mere booth. Changes
of scene were very rare — there are only two in the extant cbssical
tragedies — and were brought about by the use of revolving prisms
{rtploKToi). Other appliances used in the Greek drama were the
ittUXiiita, a low platform on rollers which was pushed forward in
order to show an action supposed to take place in the interior of
the oKiit4 (the scene in a Greek play was always laid in the open
air), and the inixcu^. a crane by which an actor representing a
eod could be suspended in mid-air (hence the phrase deus ex machina).
In the upper part of the vni*^ was a balcony called the Utrririti
(" second story "). and at the top a narrow platform called the
99okoylo0, upon which gods supposed to be stationary in heaven
could appear. Ghosts ascendmj; from the underworld mounted
the xApuM'UH t\ttuuin, whose position is uncertain. The fiptm-uow
was a machine for imitating thunder by means of stones rolled
in metal jars. It is far from certain whether a drop-scene was
used in the classical period of the Greek drama; in later times
and in the Roman theatre a curtain (aiXo/a. Lat. aulaea, sitarium)
was let down into a narrow slit in front of the stage before the
play began and drawn up at the end.
It has been mentioned above that in the later Hellenistic theatres
the stage Was made broader, lower and deeper, and in the Roman
'theatre, the principle of whose construction, as explained by Vitru-
vius, is illustrated by fie. 3, the orchestra is reduced to a semi-
circle (orrf). The line </ is that of the background {scenae froru)
and its limits are those of the cavea or auditortora.
The Romans, by their use of the arch in constniction and also
of concrete for vaulting, were enabled to erect theatres on level
ground, rich as the Campus Msrtius at Rome, wherein elaborate
structure, usually in three stories of arcades,' took the place of
» Vitruvius prescribes for the Roman theatre a portico running
rauiid the interior of the auditorium on the level of the topmost
worn of seats; remains of such a portico (or, as at Aspendus, of a
•cades) ean somotinies bt traced.
the oatural hfll-ikipe of Gieck thcaiies. The Roman theatre
thus became an oiianic wbolet the auditorium and atace-
buildings were structuraUy coanected, and the orchestra waa
entered from the wings, not by open passages' (ra^^fai) aa in
Greece, but by va\ilted corridors. The orchestra was no
longer used for the performances (whether dramatic, muaical
or merely spectacular), but was reserved for senators and
other persons of distinction. Hence (as Vitruvius points out)
arose the necessity for k>wering and enlarging the stage. It is
hard to say when this change was made or at what date it waa
first introduced into Italy (if it did not originate in the west).
The larger of the two theatres at Pompeii dates from the HeUen-
istic period, but was thrice reoonslructed, and it is not clear to
what date we are to assign the Ww stage of Roman pattern;
possibly it bebngs to the earliest period of the RoBum colony
at Pompeii founded by Sulla (b.c 80). The theatre of Pompey
(see below) is said by Plutarch to have been copied from that
of Mytilene, which suggests that the Roman theatre was de-
rived from a late Greek model; and this is made probable by
the existence of transitional forms.
During the Republican period the erection of permaoeBt
theatres with seats for the spectators was thought to savour
of Greek luxury and to he unworthy of the stem simplicity
of the Roman citisetos. Thus in 154 bjc. Sdpio Nasica induced
the senate to demolish the first stone theatre which had been
begun by C Cassius Longinus (" tanquam inutile et nodturum
ROMAN
Fto. 3. — Diagram showing the principle on which the Roman
theatre was planned according to Vitruvius.
publicis moribus," Li v. £pU. 48). Even in 55 E.C., when
Pompey began the theatre of which ncmains still exist in Rome,
he thought it wise to place a shrine to Venus Victrix at the top
of the cavea, as^a sort of excuse for having stone seats below it —
the scats theoretically serving as steps to reach the temple.
This theatre* which was completed in 52 B.C., is spcfken of by
Vitruvius as " the stone theatre " par ewceUtnce: it is said by
Pliny to have held 40.000 people.' It was also used as an amphi-
theatre for the bloody shows in which the Romans took greater
pleasure than in the purer intellectual enjoyment o£ the drama.
At its inauguration 500 lions and 20 elephants were killed by
gladiaton. Near it two other theatres were erected, one begun
by Julius Caesar and finished by Augustus in 13 B.C., under the
name of his nephew Marccllus,' and another built about the*
same date by Cornelius Balbus (Suet. Aug. 29; Ph'ny, H. N.
xxxvi. 59). Scanty remains exist of this last theatre, but the
ruins of the theatre of Marcellus are among the most imposing
of the buildings of andent Rome.
A long account is given by Pliny (H. N. xxxvi. 5 and 1x4)
of a most magnificent temporary theatre built by the aedile
M. Aemilius Scaurus in 58 B.C. It is said to have held the in-
credible number of 80,000 people, and was a work of the most
costly splendour. Still Jess credible is the account which Pliny
gives (H. N. xxxvi. 116) of two wooden theatres built by
C. Curio in 50 B.C., which were made to revolve on pivots, so
that the two together could form an amphitheatre in the after-
noon, after having been used as two separate theatres in the
morning.
An^ Roman provincial towns of any Importance possessed at
least one theatre: many of these are partly preserved. Oa
'Huelsen has shown that this statement ts exaggerated, and
estimates the number of spectators at 9000 to IOjOOO.
* Aocordina to Uvy (xl. 51), the theatre of JVIarcellus was buQt
on the site of an earlier one creaed by Aemilius Lepidua.
THEATRE
731
PL IL «piB be-fiouBd ftproducUoiia ^ tw9 of the moti important
-"Hhat of Aspendus in Pamphylia, which iUtMintet the EMiem
type showing HeUenutic influence* and tbatof Arauaio (Onnge)
IB South Gaid. Covered theatres were sometimes built, whether
00 aooount of dimatic conditions (as at Aosta) or more commonly
for musical performances. These latter were generally called
Odea (Gr. 4^iw, a place for singing). The best preserved is
die Odeum of Herodes Atticus, at the south-west angle of the
Athenian Acropolis, which has a semicircular orchestra. It
was built in the reign of Hadrian by Herodes Atticus/ a very
wealthy Greek, who spent enormous sums in beautifying the
city of Athens, in honour of his wife Regilla. Its cavea, which
is excavated in the rock, held about 6000 people; it was con*
qecled with the great Dionyslac theatre by a long and lofty
porticus or stoa, of which considerable remains still exist,
probably a late restoration of the stoa built by Eumenes II.
of Pergamum. It was also a common praaice to build a small
covered theatre in the neighbourhood of an open one, where per-
formarces might take place in bad weather. We have an example
of this at Pompeii. The Romans used scenery and stage effects
of more elaboration than was the custom in Greece. Vitruvius
(iii. 7) mentions three sorts of movable scenery: — (i) for the
tragic drama, facades with oolumns representing public build-
ings; (2) for comic plays, private houses with practicable
windows and balconies;' and (3) for the satyric drama, rustic
scenes, with mountains, caverns and trees.
BiauooKAFilT.— By far the fullest account of the Greek theatre
is given in D&rpfeld and Reiach. Dos irkchische ThioUr (Athens,
1896).. Its main tbe«s is, however, rejected by many archaeo-
Ipnstff on the grounds stated above. Pudistdn, DU grieckistke
Bukne, endeavours to prove that a stone theatre was built at
Athens in the sth century B.C., and that the poscenium usually
■ipposed to be Hellenistic dates from the time 01 Lycurgus (above).
For English readen the best aooount of the Greek theatre is to
be found in A. E. Haigh's Attic Tkeaire (3rd ed., revised by A. W.
Plckard-Cambridfee. I5)07)> where a tMbUography of the voluminous
titemtuce of recent timos is given. Albert Mailer's Lekrhndt der
griechiicktH BAhmenoUertimer (Freiburg, 1886) is indiMiensable to
the student. For the Roman theatre reference may be made to
Dunn, BaukuMsS der Rdmer, ed. 2, pp. 645 ff.
a. HM; H.&J,)
The Mooein Thbatis
During the middle ages miracle plays with sacred scenes were
the favourite kind of drama; no special buildings were erected
for these, as they were represented either in churches or in
temporary booths. In the i6th centnry the revival of the
secular drama, which, in the reign of Elizabeth, formed so im-
portant a part of the literature of England, was carried on in
tents, wooden sheds, or courtyards of inns, mostly by strolling
actors of a very low class. It was not till towards the close of
the century that a permanent building was constructed and
licensed for dramatic representations, under the management
of Shakespeare and Burbage.
The first building specially erected In London for dramatic
purposes was built in 1576-77 by the actor James Burbage.
It was constructed of timber, and stood fai Holywell Lane,
Shoreditch, till 1598, when it was pulled down; it was known
as " The Theatre " par exceUence, Of almost equally early date
was the " Curtain ** theatre, also in Shoreditch; so called from
the plot of ground, known as " The Curten," on which it stood.
It probably continued in use till the general closing of theatres
by order of the parliament in 164a. The " Globe " theatre,
famous for its association with Shakespeare, wu built by James
Burbage, who used the materials of *' The Theatre," in the year
1509. Its site was in Southwark, in the Bankside, near the
" Bear Gardens." It was an octagonal structure of wood, with
lath and plaster between the main framework. It was burnt
in 1613, rebuilt, and finally pulled down and its site built over
> This theatre was not htgon when Fausanias wrote his book
Attica, and was complete when he wrote the Aekaica (aee Paus.
vii. 30). It is illustrated in Mom. Inst, vi., plate 16.
* These are shown 00 Goeco-Roman vases of the btcst type,
with paintinp of burlesque parodies of mythological alories*
In 1644. Itf nane wts derived from its dgn of Atlas snppoiting
the globe. Near it wtn .two lem important theatres, " The
Rose," opened in xs9a. by HessTowe, and " The Swan " (see
below), opened in i^ and partly owned also by Henalowe;
like the Globe, the latter wo an octagonal wood-and-plaster
building. The " Blackfriars " theatre, another of the Burbages'
venture, was buHt In 1596, near the old Dominican friary. The
" Fortune " theatre was built by Edward Alleyn, the actor, in
1599, at a cost, including the site, of £1320. It stood between
Whitccfbas Street and Golding Lane. It stck>d as'hite as 1819,
when a drawing of it was given by Wilkinson (Londinc iUMstratOf
1819). The '* Red BuO " theatre was probably originally the
galleried court of an inn, which was adapted for dramatic pur-
poses towards the ckiae of Elisabeth's reign. Other early
theatres were the " Hope " or " Paris Garden " theatre, the
"Whitefriars" and "Salisbury Court" theatres, and the
" Newington " theatrer A curious panoramic view of London,
engraved by Visscher in x6x6, shows the Globe, the Hope and
the Swan theatres.
The plan of the first En|^ theatres appears to have had no
connexion with those of classical times, as was the case in Italy:
it was evidently produced in an almost accidental way by the
early custom of erecting a temporary platform or stage in the
middle of the open courtyard of an inn, in which the gaUerics
all round the court formed boxes for the chief spectators,
while the poorer part of the audience stood in the court on all
sides of the central stage. Something similar to this arrange-
ment, unsuitable thon^ it now seems, was reproduced even
in buildings, such as the Gbbe, the Fortune and the Swan,
which were specially designed for the drama. In these and
other early theatres there was a central platform for the stage,
surrounded by seatH except on one side, where there was a
"green-room" or " tireynge-howse." The upper galleries or
boxes completely surrounded the stage, even the space over the
green-room being occupied by boxes. This being the arrange-
ment, it is easy to see why the ocugonal plan was selected in
most cases, though not in allr— the Fortune theatre, for example;
was square. An hiteresting specification and contract for the
building of the Fortune theaue (see below) is printed 'by
Halliwell-Phillipps {op. eii. injra, p. 164). In all its details the
Fortune is spedfied to be like the Globe, except that it is to be
square In pUm,and with timbers of heavier scantUng. The
walls are to be of .wood and plaster, the roof tOed, with lead
gutters, ih€ stage of oak, with a " shadow " or cover over it, and
the " tirejmge-howse " to have glazed windows. Two sorts of
boxes are mentioned, via., " gentlemen's roomes " and " twoo-
pennie roomes." A woodcut showing this arrangement of the
interior is given in a collection of plays edited by Kirkman in
1672. The vexed question of the construction of these theatres '
has been much discussed in recent years. In x888 a drawing
of the Swan theatre (fig. 4)* apparently copied hom a rough
drawing in a London letter from the traveller Joharmes de Witt,
was discovered by Dr Karl Gaederta in a manuscript volume
in the Utrecht Univeruty library, consbting of the common-
place book of Arend van Bucbell (1565-1641). While un-
doubtedly authentic, and probably broadly accurate, this
copied sketch caxmot be accepted, however, as giving the regular
or typical plan of the contemporary theatre, as in some respects
it does not fulfil the known conditwns of the stage. What
that typical plan was, if (as is probable) one actually existed,
has led to much learned conjecture and great difference of
opinion as regards the details required by the interpreUlion
of contemporary stage directions on the necessities of the action
in contemporary drama. The ingenious reconstruction (fig. 5),
drawn by W. H. Godfrey hi 1907, of the Fortune theatre,
following the builder's specification, appears to approach very
nearly to satisfying all the requirements. (See " The Elizabethan
Stage," in the ^JHTi^/y Review (London), April 1908.)
In the i6th and X7th centuries a favourite kind of theatrical
representation was hi the form of " masques," with processions of
grotesquely attired actors and temporary scenic effecU of great
splendour nnd mcchaniol higenity. In the reigns ol Junes L
73^
THEATRE
Ukd Cbules I., Hen Jonson and the architect loigp Janes worked
together in the pioduction of these " mtsques/' Jonson writing
the words and Inigo Jones devising the scenic effects, the latter
being very costly and complicated, with gorgeous buildings,
landscapes, and clouds or mountains, which opened to (fisplay
mimic deiti^, thrown into relief by coloured lights. These
masques were a form of opera, in which Ben Jonson's words
were set to music. Ben Jonson received no more for his libreuo
than Inigo Jones did for his scenic devices, and was not un*
natural^ annoyed at the secondary place which he was made
to occupy: he therefore revenged himself by writing severe
satires on Inigo Jones and the system which placed the literary
and mechanical parts of the opera on the same footing. In an
autograph MS. which «tili exists this satirical line occurs —
" Painting and carpentry are the soul of masque " (see Cunning*
ham. Life of Inigo Johcs, London, 1848).
In Italy, during tlic i6th century, the drama occupied a
more important position, and several theatres were erected,
professedly on the model of the classic theatre of Vitruvius.
One of these, the Teatro Olimpico at Vicenza, still exists; it
was designed by Palladio, but was not completed till 1584,
four years after his death. It has an architectural scena, with
various orders of columns, rows of statues in niches, and the
three doors of the classic theatre; but the whole is painted with
strong perspective effects which are very undassical in spirit.
Scamoui, PaUadio's pupil, who completed the Teatro Olimpico,
Fig. 4.— Swan Theatre; from Sidney Lee's Life of Wtttutm
SkakespearCt by permission.
built another pseudo^classical theatre in 1588 at Sabbionetta for
the duke Vespasiano Gonzaga, but this does not now exist.
In France the miracle play developed into the secular drama
rather earlier than in England. In the reign of Louis XL,
about 1467. the "Brothers of the Passion" had a theatre
which was partly religious and partly satirical. In the 16th
century Catherine de' Medici is said to have spent incredible
sftms cm the dresses and scenery for the repfcsentAtioo of the
Italian ballet; and In the middle of tHe nth canary the legoltf
opera tp^as introduced at Paris.
At the end of the i8th century the tbeatict of Sao OhJo
at Naples, La Scala at Milan, and La Feoioe at Venice wen the
finest in Europe; all these were rebuilt in the xgth century,
Fic. 5.— The Fortune Theatre; restoration of Walter H. Godfrey.
but have been eclipsed by the later theatres of London, Paris^
St Petersburg and other great cities of Europe and America,
both in size and architectural splendour.
Authorities. — Much valuable information about the early
th " *''.-. by Wilkinson, Londina iUustrala (1819),
in of some of them. See also Collier. HisL
of r, HaiViw^l-PhUtipgB, Lift of Skakupean
(I tf T. BetUftoM; Malone, History of Ike
St by Boswell in 182 1; the publicatioi» of
ih »ty; the Ninth Report of the Historical
M teries of arttclct on early London theatres*
by ntktuttry, vols, xi., xii. and xiv. (188^^).
xted with the construction of the bliaa*
be Cecil Brodmeier^ Die Shakespeare-Bukm
no nweisungen (Weimar, 1904): ^ Paul
M^..,^...^j^., M rv^s^,..v.ut tiner DariMlunt dor EnpiMhen VolkS'
biikne tur Elizabeth und StuaH Zeit (Leipzig, 190S); Dr Richaid
Wegener, Die BuhHOHdnncfUung des Skaktspearoukeu TTtootors mack
dem zcitgenossiscken drama (Halle. 1907I; George F. Reynolds*
Some Principles of Elitabethan Stagint (Chic ' *
E. K. Chambers. '* The Stage of the Cl
ford Shakespeare (1904): Victor E.
s^eriaii Stagfi (New York, 1908).
Some Principles of Elitabethan SUigini ((Ttiicago l/niver$ity,'ioo5);
E. K. Chambers. ** The Stage of the Globe." in vol. x. of tne Strat-
ford Shakespeare (1904): Victor E. Albright, A Typical Skake^
^. r^., ,. . ^. a.H.M.; H.CB.)
Modern Stage Mechanism
A movement known as *' Stage Reform " originated in
Austria about i88o, with the primary object of encouraging
the greatest possible imitation of nature in the presentation of
opera and drama. The rudiments of art as understood by
painters, sculptors, architects and the eultured public of the
day were to be applied to the stage, and a true scenic art was
to take the place of the nondescript mounting previously given.
To facilitate the efforts of the scenic artist, the fullest applica-
tion of modem science, notably of mechanics and hydraulics,
and the introduction of up-to-date methods of lighting were
considered essential. The numerous fatal conflagrations
which had originated on the stage caused the question of pro-
tection from fin to be closely asaociated wHh this movemest,
THEATRE Plate I.
PkiAo, W. Leaf.
Epidaums, the Theatre from the West.
PkoU), R. Eluy SmiUL
Athens, the Theatre of Dionysus from the Acropolis.
Plate IV. THEATRE
I
>
O
U
3
O
I-
I
.§
•a
c
o
c
(5
4
I
I
I
I
TnCT^lIRE
733
omI tto aiterpflR. mtde great liesdwfty, more paxflcultily on
account of the protective measure! against fire proposed aoon
alter Uie burpiog o( the old Ring Theatre at VieuMu The
BMnreoHBt gitduaUy developed thxoagheut Austria and Ger*
many -and ^read beyond the frontiers of these countrica. Con-
currtnlly, independent movements originated elsewhere, and
from 18S5 to 1S95 a transitional period may be said to have
esitted ler the 8tacD» both in Europe and in the Unitad Statea,
but by the close of tiie 19th century the necessity lor reform
was recognized in every country. During the transitional
time various unsatis&ctory eipmmrnra were made, some of
Che boldeir rrpfttnifftts proving costly failures, yet serving,
becauae of snctt features as were valuable, as a baimt for fxuthcr
developments. Great Britain and France were almost the last
countries touched by this movement, although in England
throughout the 'niaeties there was considerable improvement
in actual scenic art and stage-mounting, as far as this could be
brought about without the aid.of improvedataga mecfaaaiam.
Among those primarily responsible for this new epoch in
scenic art ip Great Britain were Sic Henry ' Irving and Mr
Basfbohm 'Vrao, both actoiHiianagars, Mr Hubert von Herkomer,
R.A^ Sir L. Alma-Tadenfti, R.A., and Mr Edwin 0. Sac)is,
architect. Although almost last in the application of stage
reform in its best sense, England really completed the experi-
mental period with the mo<)fcrnizatJoa ol the Rtfytf Opera
House, Govest Caidtta, wbeci, by the opening of the aeaaon
of IQOI, the directorate were piovided with the latest improve-
ments of iaechanical skill £or the almost complete re-equipment
of sta0e scenery. , TUs work, of remodelling was oeirried out by
the Gmnd Opera Sy^cate,.vdth Mr Edwin O. Sachs as tech-
nical adviser and architect. Modem mediainsm has also been
applied at the ApoUo Theatre, London, where, however, the
stage equipment vas bodily imported from the Continent and
does not include any mechanically or dectrieafly driven parts.
manual labour alone bdng used. The stage mechanism which
was employed, in the cqudpment of the Royal Qpera House,
Covent Garden, embodies the Sachs system of dividing the stage-
ioor into a few large sections and working them with the aid
of electrical power, the Brandt sjrstem of counter-weighting
for the suspension of all scenery from above, the application
of light in four colours by ekctridty, and the designing of aU
scenery to accord as mw^ a» possible with nature, the whole
oiountlng being built up on the basis of a flat stage as distina
from the slopl&k ^^^ oi old.
The classification of stages generallyy both home and foreign,
whether for the production of opera or plays, should be made
fttgr as follows : wood stages, wood and iron stages, and iron
m^thaa* Stages, with subdivisions according to the power chiefly
*■*• employed in working the sppliances. These subsections
are: mannal labour, hydraulics and electricity. Owing to the
almost entife absence of steam for motor power in connexion with.
stage nuchinery, a separsie subdivision for appliances wheit
steam is employed is not required. With the wood stage and the
wood and iron stage manual labour alone is utilised. But in
the iron stage manual labour, hydraulic power and ekctxic
power are either used individually, or a combination of any
two or three of these classes is applied. The first series of stages
built in accordance with the principles of Stage Reform was
erected on what was termed the " asphaleia " system, in which
direct hydraulic power was utilized throughout. The stage-
floor is divided into innumerahle small sections supported on
rams (soma working Qelescopically), whilst everything suspended
from above it also worked mecfaanicsUy by hydraulic power.
Notable examples are the Budapest Opera House and the
Municipal Theatre at Halle.
Tlie next type is that of the stage of the Court Theatre,
Vienna, which, although based to a considerable extent on the
" asphaleia " system, showed somewhat larger sections. These
ate suspended by cables and worked indirectly by small
hydraulic rams placed at the side, whilst the whole of the top
iraodc is manipulated by manual labour with the partial asnst-
aftce of eounter^weights. The next type is the Brandt type.
#heie the nuAber of divisiQDS of iht stage is further reduced
to * few medium-4lzed sections, worked by means of a coni-
btnatiott of a centrd hydraulic ram and suspended cables duly
counter-weighted. The top work in this case is entirely counter-
weighted, and leqnires the least possible manual hbour for
manipulation. An example will be found at the Wiesbaden
Court Theatre; We ntilt have the Skchs system, where eloeuip
power is aubadtuted for hydraulic power, the number of stage
divisions limited to several large sections, suspended on cables
partly counter-weighted and partly worked by electric motors,
whilo the irhole of the top work is balanced on a system similar
to that of the Brandt, with interraecjiate dectric motors for
the manipidatioB of particulariy heavy loads. It is this last
systctti that has been adopted at the Covent Garden Opera
Houie, with the modification tliat the top wot^ is entirely
operated on the latest devebpraent of the Brandt system of
manual labcmr and oountef'^weights. Anodier example of the
Sachs system, aa f ar as individual stage sections up concerned,
will be found in a portion of the Theatre Royal, Dmiy Lane. •
.Regarding the question of expense and practicability, the
hydraidic ftyttem has gehersfly been found to be expensive ao9
impriictlcable. The system of the Court Theatre. Vienna,
though practicable, is cOstiy both in Capital and annual outlay.
The Brandt method of equipping the upper stage mec&anism has
been found partieulatly suitable for medium-sikd. theatres,
and not expendve. . The Sachs system has been found practic-
able, of moderate initial tost and minimum annual outlay.
The advantages of dectrfdty over hydrauUc power have been
most marked both in capital and in aimual expense. There Is
of course a. far greater iaitiai outlay lequired toniay than with
the wooden stage of old, but the saving in staff and wear and
tear of the scenery, and the absence of fexpenave temporary
makeshifts, repaira and reinstatements, oompensate for this 1^
a material reduction of annual chazgca. It ia known as a fact
that upon an overhaul of the Covent Garden equipment being
ordered after five years' running, the contractors could not find
anything to do in the wsy of repairs or leinsUtements. The
stage carpenter has kmg feigned supreme in England and France^
althoufl^ in England there are already one or two notable
exceptions of men who are advancing to the position of cn^eerft
rather than carpenters. In Germany and Austria the stage
carpenter is ah^tdy being replaced in most theatres by men of
engineering or teckoical traimng, as the more complex arrange-
ments of a modem stage demand intelligent and careful control.
It is merdy a question of tim^ for the engineer to obtain general
control in theaomattecs.
Regarding the actual designing and painting of the sceniry,
the English scene-painter may now be considered in advance
of his Continental and American colleagues, although fiow*-
the productions of some notable ateKers at Vienna MiaHv-
and Munich run the English scene-painter*8 work very
dosdy.. In 1890 Vienna was in advance of England in scene-
painting, but the Enj^isb scene-painters have since then rapidly
oome to the front, and it is to be antidpated that it will never
again be necessary to import sceneiy from Austria, as ban been
the case, both at .the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, and at the
Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, As a matter of fact,
scenery from Covent Garden and Drary Lane is already exported
to the Unltod States. Tho position of the 8cene>painter is
particularly difficult, inasmuch as whilst artistit temperament
and thorough knowledge of art are essential for the practice of
his vocation^ it ia equally essential that he should be thoroughly
practical and to a eonsiderable exttat a mechanic. He lacks
recognition among artists and there is unfortunatdy a tendency
to depreciate hia work. ,
During the period of mterregnum in stage rdorm there ap-
peared a nnmber of faddist inventions .which, while creating
public Interest, cannot be considered of lasting jforft/a
practical utility. Thus in the United States an at- ^•*"
tempt was made to have a large platform constructed '*"*
like a lift, bodily rising and falling, with- three different tiers or
ftages on which scenery could be mounted at different levds
73+
THEATRB
and then raised or lowered into position. Afain, at Munid^
'a schemp of turn-tables baaed on the lapanese revolving slag*
was put forward, but this can only be looked upon aa an in-
teresting experiment of little practical value.
. Numerous methods of illuminating the stage have similarly
been attempted, with the aid of search-lights, and pvoscenium-
f^f lights, or by the absence of foot-Ughts, and the like,
but the general method of lighting the stage from
the top with battens, from the side with wing-ladders,
and from bek>w with foot-lights, if carefully regulated
and skilfully handled, produces excellent results. The
lighting arrangements as practised at the Royal Opera
t^use,Covent Garden, in which building the lighting
engineer ts Mr Crawshaw and the consulting engineer
for the lighting installation was Mr Bowles, leave
nothing to be desired from an artist's point of view.
The great difficulty of the light coming too strongly
from below, i.e. from the foot-lights, can be overcome
by the regulation and colouring of the lights.
A& examples of modem mechanism, two i^to-
jgraphs have been reproduced showing views of the
electrical stage " bridges " pf the Royal Opera Hous^
Covent Garden, and of the Theatre Royal, Pruiy .
Laoe^respectively, both on the Sachs system (see
PL III.). A small general plan and section of the
Covent Garden atage are also shown (see fig. 6),
and another illustration (see PL IV.) presents the
"gridiron" at Covent Garden on the Brandt
system.
, The following is a detailed description of the Covent
Garden installation.
The stage may be described as coosistiiy of a aeries of
MX horizontal sections running parallel with the curtain
Une from front to back, each section being 8 ft wide^
and the whole being followed by a lurffi back or rear
atage. The first section contains nothing but a plain
" carpet cut," and openings to take the old-fashioned
•• grave '* trap, " star " trap, or other similar contriv-
ances. The second and thud sections comprise large
bridgcBL which can be raised 6 ft. above the stage or
lowered 8 ft. below the stage^ constructed in two levels,
on the lower level of which appliances can be installed
Tor the purpose of raising minor platforms above stage
level or sinking traps and die like. The fourth, fifth
and sixth sections comprise large bridges running right
across the stage front, which can be raised o ft. above
the stage or lowered 8 ft. below it. The back stage has
no openings or mechanism beyond certain trap-doors to
a scenery store, and the necessary electricaf mechanbm
for raising and lowering scenery for storage purposes.
Between the various sections of the stage. Iom loogi-
tuainal flaps, 2 ft. wide, have been formed, wmch can
be easily opened to allow scenery to be passed through
below for transformatiott scenes and tne like. Each
section, is eottipped with what is termed a pair of
chariots, to nold " wing " lif^hts placed on so<aUed
wing ladders. All the electrical bridges are worked
from the " menanine " level and from ordinary switch-
boards, and can be raised and loweied at various
speeds, and take loads up to 3 tons. They can be
moved without vibration or noise at a cost ot about
Id. (or power on a full rise when loaded.
Above the stage level each section has its series of lines
to take cloths, borders, &c. Each section has a batten,
from which the electric battens ate mxapexidtd, and has
alse a large wooden lattice girder, from which heavy
pieces of scenery can be hung. TlM:re are, on the
average, about ten tines for ordinary battens, a girder
batten, and a Gght batten to each section; besides these lines,
thers are the equipments of flying apparatus and the like, whilst
in front there are, ca course, thenecessary lines for tableaux curtains,
act-drops and draperies. Everything that u suspended from
above can be worked at stage level or at either of the gallery levels,
every scene being counter-weiehted to a nicety, so that one man
can easily handle it. No mechanical contrivance is required, and
in practice quite a number of scenes can be rapidly changed in a
very short time. Throughout the structure and mechanism steel
has been used, with iron pulleys and wire cable; and the inflam-
mable materials have been absolutely reduced to the flooring of
the gridiron and naileries and the hardwood flooring of the stage
and messanine. In other words, an absolute minimum of inflam-
mable material replaces what was almost a maximum; and seeing
that the electric light has been iastalled, tl^ rkk of aa outbmk
of fire or its spread has been matertally reduced.
Ko mentk>n of stage mechanism would be complete unless mention
srete made of the necessity of providing a carefuOy made and
easily worked fire-resistij^ curtain of substantial bat \it^ cam-
structwn. On the Continent metal curtains are favoured. la
England the double asbestos curtain is more common. The London
County Council prefer i steel framing with asbestos wire-wove
cloth on both faces, the intervening space being filled with dag
wooL well rammed and packed. Such curtains are aoosewlut
CMS* UCTIOM 7M»0 A $.
Fig. 6. — Plan and Section of Covent Garden Stage.
heavy and require counter-weighting to a nicety, but if well made
and fitted may be deemed satisfMtory. It is advisable to fit
drenchers above fire-resisting curtains and to so arrange the woriov
of the curtain that it can be lowered from four points, ix. from both
sides ci the stage, from the prompt side flies and from the stage
door. According to the Lord Chamberlain's rules, fire reasting
curtains must be towered once during a performance. This is a
wise measure for testing the effideocy of the apdiannfs.
Authorities.— ifodiBm Ofera Houses and Theatrts^ $ vols, gimnd
folio, by Edwin O. Sachs (189^-99): Stage Canstmciian, I voL
£iri
grand folio, by Edwin O. Sachs (18^; " &$fimerimi **: ArtkUs
w .Stefc i£»chamsm, by Edwin O. Sachs (1895-97); Fiete mud
PnUie BnterUMmetOs, 1 voL quarto, by Edwin O. Sachs (1897);
U TMdtre, i voL oct., by Charies
luarto. by Ed
sries Ganiier
(1871): L»
'^iSSii
THEATRE
qaiaito. V JoadKym (tS94).
(I909h DU Thmltr, Wln« s irda.
735
**SwcrAct»"
The appctl to the eye hat been the eMentid featute of
dramatic production in iu many stages o{ development from
the earliest times of the mixade pUys and "morafities,"
mvmmeis and monisKiancen, down throng the oenfucies, in
the form of masques and baUets, to the lumiianoe of scenic and
costume display that is lavished on the latest forms of theatrical
entertainment. Considering the cnormoua advance that has
been made in mcch a B ical appKanrwi, more especially in the
increased powers of illumination supplied by gas and etoctridty'
as compared with oil and candles, we must admowledge that the
artistic achievement of spectacle has hardly k^t pace with the
times. If we may credit the veradty of contemporary chroniclers,
the most elaborate effecta and fUorions were socoessfuDy at-
tempted in the various courtly entertainmenu that are leoorded
under the Va&ot and Stnart dynaaties, and found pcriiapa their
Bost sumptuous expression fai the oonrU ef Louia XIV. and
Louis XV. It would be a difieult task f or the most cnperienced
of modem stage managers to rival the splendoum of apparel
and the ingenious devices that were exploited in increasing
magnificence during successive periods, as described by Froissart,
HoUnshed, Cavendish, Stow, Pepys and other writem. The
sums expended on these entertainments were prodigioua, and
a perusal of the cstraordhkarily detailed desoiptiona of such
lavishly appointed masques as those draigned by Inigo Jones
in particular renders credible the statement that a certain
masque presented before Chariea I. at the Inns of Court in 1633
cost £>i,ooo. Spectacle in Ita earlier phaaea appears to have
existed chiefly in connexion with court and dvic ceremonial: as
evidenced hi the wonderful pageantry of the Field of the Qoth
of GoM; hi such princely entertainment as the Revels at
Kenilwortb, when the Eari of Leicester welcomed Queen
Elizabeth in a series of splendid fCtes; and fai the more accom-
pSahed imaginings of Ben Jonson, deooiated by Inigo Jones,
such as the Inns of Court masque, already dted. The scenic
effects and illusions which had evidently been brought to great
perfection in these masques were not devoted to the service
of the drama in the public theatres until Davenant Introduced
them at the period of the Restoration, although rimple scenery,
probably mere badiground "doths," had been seen on the
suge as early as 1605. The built-up stage pictures, familiar
to us as " set-scenes," are said to owe thdr origin to Philip James
de Loutherbourg, R.A., and to have been first iised in 1777;
but it is difficult to believe that some such elaborate construe-
tloos had not already enjoyed a term of popularity in view
of the contemporary paintings and engravings of the epodi of
Louis XIV., who was himself not avene from appearing (in
1653) as " Le Roi Soleil " in the midst of an mUomafe com-
bining much that was artistic and f andf ul with the most pompous
and most absurd incongruitiea of charuter and costume. . A
greater measure of elegance and refinement distingmshed the
spectacles of the reign of Louis XV., inspired by the delicate
>Tbe Savoy Hiestre, London, was fint entirely lighted by
efectrictty in 1882. The various methods of lishdng used have
been an important Item in the pioduction of striking effects. The
old system cf a row of " foot>ligats, " with their unpleasant upward
shadow, is now almost obsolete. Dip candles were used till 1730,
when moulded candles were introduced into French theatres. Th^
next improvement was the lamp of M. Af^nd. with its circular
wick. In x8m gas was first used in a Parisian theatre, next came
the oxyhydrogen lime-Ught, used for special effects, and then
electric Ifghtiog.
The old way of prododng fightning was to blow lycopo diu m or
iwdered rerin with bcOows through a ^»xat^ and thb is still used
in"fc^sti
realistic effects of conflagrations. More effective lightning is
now made by flashing the electric light behind a scene painted
with clouds, in which a rigsag aperture has been cut out and filled
with a transparent substance. Thunder is made by shaking large
stmts of iron. Wind is imitated by a machine with a coned
cylinder, which revolves against coarse doth rightly stretched.
The sound of rain b produced by shaking parched peas in a metal
art of WafCctu, Boodier and Laneiet, and prese t v e d for our
ddecution in their delightful canvases. Under the French
Revolution the spectacular ballet lost much of its prestige;
and its decorative f eaturea were for a time principally assonatfd
with the fMes inaugurated by the Republic, and presented in
the classic costume, which the severity of the new regime
adopted as a reaction, or as a protest against the frivolities and
furbelows of the obliterated nmnarchy. The Fesdval of the
Supreme Being, decreed by the National Convention, designed
by David and conducted by Robespierre, was perhaps the most
impressive spectacle of the dose of the x8th century.
The 19th century saw spectacle devoted almoat exdusively
to theatrical entertainment. In London, mdodrama, both of
the romantic and domestic description, claimed its illustrative
aid. At Drury Lane Theatre (which, with Covent Gaxdoi, the
Adelphi and Astky's, waa first illuminated by gas in xSit-xS)
the C^taroa o/lA* Gonger, with its cascade of real water and its
prancing steeds, made a great sensation in 1823, and the same
atage in 1848, under Macready's management, displayed the
" moving wave " effea in the Sicilian viewst painted by William
Oarhsott Stanfidd for Am and Calalea. l^e Lyceum Theatre
from 1847 to 1855 introduced a long series bf degant extrava*
ganzas from the pen of J. R. Planch^, elaborately illustrated
by the scenery of William Beverly. The GMen Brcnek, the
King of the Peacocks and the Ishud 0/ JewOs (Christmas 1849)
were the most remarkable of these productions, and were
noteworthy as originating the fantastic fairy pictures that
became known aa *' transformation scenes," and were copied
and popularised in all directiona. Beverly's skilful brush
was at a later date employed at Drury Lane to enhance the
attractions of a succesrion of spectacular versions of Sir Walter
Scott's novels. Amy Rfobsort (1870), Rob Roy (with a beautiful
panorama of the Troasachs scenery), Rebecca, En^nd in the
Days ef CkarUs //., and others. Later stUl. under the i€gime
of Sir Augustus Harris and his successors, spectade at Drury
lane assumed even non costly proportions, and modem
melodramas, representing well-known localitiea with extra-
ordinary fidelity and all Unds of disasters from earthquakes
to avalanches, have been alternated with sumptuously mounted
pantomimes (so-caUed), in which the nominal fairy-tales were
almost smothered by the paraphernalia of scenery and costume.
It is remarkable that, for a " run " "of ten weeks only, such a
sum as £x6,ooo each can have been profitably expended on
more than one of these productiona.
Undon playgoers will recall the processional glories of A Dream
ef Fern Women, designed by Alfred Thomp«>n;71k« Land of Fairy
teUs.hy Percy Anderson; and The Siker Wedding (Puss in Boou).
The ParadueeJ the Birds (Babes in the Wood), and The Cods and
Goddessee of Olymjbus (Jack and the Beanstalk), for which Mr Wil
beha waa responsible. rk« ifrmodo. a historical drama (1888). also
deserves to be remembered for the oomptetcnese and *'»^«>"^ of
iu spectacular features. In addition to the names of Oarkson
Stanfidd and Beveriy, already dted as masters of scenic art, it
ranet not be foifotten that the skill of David Roberu was also
devoted to the cmbelUsbment of the stage: and the names of
Grieve, the Tdbins (father and soo), Hawes Craven, and J. Harker
hm insuccessive years earned on the best traditions of the art.
Alfred Thompeon was one of the first to revise the coovenrionaUties
of fanciful stage costume, and to impart a French Ikhtneas of
touch and delioBcyof colour. A ballet. Yolaiide, which be dressed
for the Alhambra in the 'sixties, was the first Japanese spectade
to grace the Engbsh stage; and be was also mainly responttble
for the attractions of BabU and Biiou, whadi cost opwaMs of
ui^ooo at Covent Garden Theatre u 1873. and was at the time
considered to have eurpaseed all former spectacular aocompltsh-
^ It achieved, however, merely a emeeie d^esHme, and has
-i to a later generation only the recollections of its
.w^ -I ^"^ ^ ^^^'y** and of the brilliant danseiise, Henxiette
d Or, who revived memories of the great days of the ballet, when
Tagliom, Cerita Elssler. Duveraay and other '* IMesaes de la
Uanae," appeared under Lumley's management at the old Her
Majesty's Theatre in the Haymarket. Since the memorable
tenancy of Sadler's Wdls Theatre by Phdps (1844-^), Shake-
speare and spectacle have been honourably associated. Charles
Kean's revivals at the Princess's Theatre (1850-59) deservedly
attrscted consderable attention for the splendour and accuracy
Byron's SardanapalnM was ako a triumph
of their archaeology,
for the
in 1853; and the \
736
THEATRE
decadei later witnoaed thb p rod u ction (Deeembtr 1H3) Iv WDaoa
Barrett of QaudUut, a. romantic poetic drama of claanc da^
mounted so exquisitely as to gain Rusldn's enthusiastic praise
But undoubtedly the eailiest noteworthy alliance of spectacle with
Shakespeaie was made by Sir Henry Irving at the Lyceum. The
art of Royal Academicians was happily enfisted to add lustxe and
distinction to his productions. Ravetuwoad and the sumptuously
presented Henry VIII. (1892) owed much to the coK>peration of
Mr Seymour Lucas. Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema supeiVised Cym-
bding and Cbrtolantu (1901), whibt Sir Edward Bume-Jones inspired
the decoration of King Artkw (1895). In Tennyson's Cup (pro-
duced in Januaiv x88x) and in the beautiful revival of Romeo and
Juliet it was felt that perfection of stage Illusion could scarcely
go farther, but the next production. Muek Ado about Notkini,
with its superb church scene by Telbin, was admittedly Irving s
crowning success, alike from the artistic, the dramatic, the spec-
tacular and the financial standpoints. Great praise was equally
won by the version of Faust^ which was frankly spectacular, and
by the more recent Robespierre by Sardou. Shakespeare and the
poetic drama were also finely illustrated by Mr Beerbcrfim Tree,
who secured Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema's interest for HypaUa at
the Haymarket, and Julius Caesar at the new His Majesty's:
whilst for his later * * -•-.>•
Dream, Herod .
was assisted by the designs of Percy Anderson, an artist wHo'made
hb mark in tne costumes for a series of the operas at the Savoy
Theatre, noUbly the 15th-century dresses for the Beauty Stone.
Spectacular features ^ exceptional refinement distinguished the
pantomime of Cinderdla, presented by Mr Oscar Barrett at the
Lyceum Theatre in Christmas 1895, and designed bjr Mr Wilhelm.
Tnis i»roduction also enjoyed a prosperous season in New York.
The system of international exchange seems to hold good in stage
nectacle as in other cases, and in return for Engfish successes
tnat have been welcomed in America, Augustin Daly's Shakespearean
pnxluctions were greatly admired in London. Other enteruin-
ments of a more absolutely spectacular order found accepunce
in London. In connexion with Bamum and Bailey's Hippodrome,
Imri Kiralfy's show, Nero, constituted a " mammotn combination,"
and attracted crowds to " Olvmpia " in 1890. The success of this
latter spectacle of colour and movement, which was also designed
by Mr Wilhelm. induced Mr Kiralfy to produce a still more am-
bitious entertainment the following season, Veniu, designed by the
same artist. A spectacle on these lines may be regarded as the
outcome of such ballets as have feng been popular on the continent
of Europe e sp e cially in Italy, where gnoe of movement and
spontaneity of gesture are natural to the people, and greatly facili-
tate such an enterprise as the famous Excelswr ballet of Manxotti,
which lasted a whole evening, in several acts, and required the
services of hundreds of figurantes. EsBcdsior was originally pro-
duced at La Scala. Milan, in January 1881, and was subsequently
gTven with great success at the Eden Theatre, Paris^ in i88a The
revived popularity of the modem ballet, as at the Empire Theatre,
London, has also been associated with some memorable triumphs
of spectacle with which the name of Mr Wilhelm was closely
klentified as designer. (C. Wi.)
Law Rsxatdic to TteATSES.
It was not untn comparatively late in Roman history that
acting^ became a distinct calling. The troops of public acton
(minist€ria pnUica) were generally slaves, and their earnings
enriched their masters more than themselves.
The regulation of the theatre by legislation (except as to striKS
ture) belongs chiefly to the time of the lower empire, in whk:h it
depended almost wholly upon constitutions of Theodosius and
Valentlnian, incorporated in the Theodosian Code (Tit. xv. 5, 6, 7),
and a century later to a large extent adopted by Justinian. In
the whole of this law there is an evident attempt at a compromise
between the doctrines of Christianity and the oU Roman love of
public spectacles of all kinds. It deals less with theatrical repre-
sentations proper than with eladlatorial contests and chariot races.'
The Theodfosian Code provided that the sacraments were not to be
administered to actors save where death was immiaent, and only
on condition that the calling should be renounced in case of recovery.
Daughters of acton were not to l)e forced to go on the stage, pro-
vided that they lived an honest life. An actress was to be allowed
to quit the stage in order to become a auiL There were also
. ... ,., ^ « — . — None
Jus*
I incorporated in Cod. xi. 40 (De Spec-
taeulis et Seemcis), which consists entirely of extracts from the
Theodosian Code of a very misceUaneous nature. Provision was
made for the exhibition of public games and theatrical spectacles
numerous sumptuary regulations as to the dress of actoiB. Noi
of the law which has been mentioned so far was adopted by Ju
tinian, but what follows was incorporated in Cod. xi. 40 (De Spe
< The word ludi seems sometimes to include, sometimes to exclude,
dramatk performances. lu meaning in a pa r ti c ul ar instance
depends 00 the context.
to - ■ «■ *-• — «^ ~«- »
e'lmianay ui imok
Statues of actors were not to be placed ia the pobGc
streets, but only in the proscenium of a theatre. A go v erno r of a
province was entitled to take the mon^ raised for putilic games
lor the purpose of repairing the dty walb, providad that he gave
security for afterwards oelebratin|E the games as usuaL Mimici-
Silities were encouraged to build theatres {Dig. t, zo, 3}. By
ooel czvii., it was ground for divdrce if a wife went to the theatre
without her husband's knowledge. In Gad. iiL is, 11 (Dc Feriis)
is a con sti t utiop of Leo and Anthemius f ovfaidding draniatic vepro>
seatations oa Sunday. The^ Digfst (iiL 3) classed all who acted
for hire (omnes propter peeuniam in seenam frodeuntes) as infamous
persons, and as such debarred them from filling public offices. A
mere contract to perform not fulfilled did not, however, carry
infamy with it. By Naod IL actreaaes could retire from tlie stage
without incurrias a penalty even if they had given sureties or
taken an oath. "Inere was probably a censorship at certain periods,'
as well as provisions for safety of the building and the audience
(Tacitus, Ann., iv. 63; Leonine Constitutions, ociii.). The seats
were allocated by the state, and the care of the building committed
to certain magistrates {Nood cxlix. 2).
£n^«d.— In England, as in other ooontriet of wotem
Europe, theatrical legisUtaon was of comparatively recent
introduction. Such legislation was tmneoessary as k»s as
the theatre was under the control of the Church and actoa
under its protection, the Church having turned to iu own uses
what it was poweileas to prevent. The earliest regulntiotts
were therefore, as might be expected, made by the Church
rather than by the state The ecdesiastical ordinances were
directed chiefly against the desecration of chtuchcs, thoui^ they
sometimes extended to forbidding attendance of the faithful as
spectators at plays even of a harmless kind.* Sacraments and
Christian burial were denied by the canon law .to actors, whose
gains, said St Thomas, were acquired ex tmrpi cama^ and who, ii
they exceeded what was proper, might be in mortal sin. It was a
doubtful point as to whether spectators might not be in similar
case. The same law forbade i^ys to be acted by the clergy,
even under the plea of custom, as in Christinas week, and
followed the code of Justinian in enjoining the clergy not to
consort with actors or be present at plays (see DecntalSt iii.
X, la and 15, De Vita d Hone$Mt CUricanm), As late as 1603,
canon Ixxxviil of the canons of the Church of England enaaed
that churchwardens were not to suffer plays in churches,
chapeb or churchyards. The latest oocunence of such a play
seems to have been at Oxford in 1592.
The Reformation marks the period of transition from the
ecclesiastical to the non-ecdesiaatical authority over the drama.
Precautions began to be taken by the crown and the lepslature
against the acting of unauthorised plays, by unauthoriied
persons, and in unauthorised places, and the acting of plays
objectionable to the government on political or other grounds.
The protection of the Church being withdrawn, persons not
enrolled in a fixed company or in possession of a licence from
the crown or justices were liable to severe penalties as vagrants.
The history of the legislation on this subject is very curious.
An act of the year r57a enacted that " all fencers, bearwartis,
common players of interludes, and minstrels (not belonging to
any baron of this realm, or to any other honourable person of
greater degree)," wandering abroad without the licence of t«'o
justices at the least, were subject " to be grievously whipped and
burned through the gristle of the right ear with a hot iron of
the compass of an inch about.'* This statute was superseded
by 30 £liz. c. 4, under which the punishment of the strolling
player is less seyere, and there is no mention of justices. The
jurisdiction of justices over the theatre disappears from legislation
*If one may judge from Horace's line {SaL, L 10, 38): Qttao
nemte in otde sonent cerlantia judice Tar pa,
'A large number of such ordinances will be found cited io
Prynne. nistriomastix: Bossuet, Maximet et rffUxions sur la
comSdie; Mariana. De Speclaculis. They followed the almost unam*
mous condemnation by the Christian fathers. See, for example,
Chrysostom, Contra Ludos et Tkeatra; TertuUian, De SpoOocuUs:
Augustine, De Civ. Dei^ L 31, Conjessions, iiL 2; DiU, Roman
Society, pp. 47, 117.
* For this reason it appears to have been the custom in France
for actors to be married under the name of musidanB. See HtsL
parlimentaire de la Revolution franfoiu, vi. 381. The difficulties
attending the funeral of Moliire are well known.
TlffiATRE
737
Horn Ihat time uiitfl 17M. In 39 EBs. c. 4 there it a mmifc-
abk exception in favour of persons licensed by Dutton of
DttttOB in Cheshire, in accordance wiih his claim to liberty
and jurisdiction in Cheshire and Chester, established in favour
of his ancestor by proceedings in qmo warranto in 1499-' The
stricter wording of this act as to the licence seems to show that
the licence had been abused, perhaps that in some cases privi-
leges had been assumed without authority. In 14 Eliz. c. 5
the privileges of a player attached by service of a noble or
licence from justices, in the later act only by service of a noble,
and this was to be attested under his hand and arms. T^e
spirit of the acts of Elizabeth frequently appears in later legis-
lation, and the unauthorised player was a vagabond as late as
the Vagrancy Act of 1744, which was law till tSu- He is not
named in the Vagrancy Act of 1824- The Theatre Act of 1737
narrowed the definition of a player of interludes, for the pur-
poses of punishment as a vagabond, to mean a person acting
interiudes,* &c., in a place where he had no legal settlement.
Before the Restoration there were privileged places as well as
privileged persons, e-g. the court, the universities, and the inns
of court. With the Restoration privilege became practically
confined to the theatres in the possession of those companies
(or their representatives) established by the letters patent of
Charles II. in 1662. In spite of the patents other and un-
priviJ^ed theatres gzmdually arose.* In 1735 Sir John Barnard
introduced a bill *' to restrain the number of playhouses for
playing of interludes, and for the better regulation of common
players." On Walpole's wishing to add a clause giving parlia-
menury sanction to the jurisdiction of the lord chambinlain,
the mover withdrew the bill. In 1737 Walpole introduced a
bill of his own for the same purpose, there being then six
theatres in London. The immediate cause of the bUl is said
to have been the production of a political cxtiavagana of
Fielding's, The CoUtn Rump, The bill passed, and the act of
10 Geo. II. c. «8 regulated the theatre for more than a centuiy.
Its effect was to make it impossible to establish any theatre
except in the city of Westminsur and in places where the
king should in person reside, and during such residence only.
The act did not confine the prerogative within the dty of
Westminster, but as a matter of policy it was not exercised in
favour of the non-privileged theatres, except those where the
" legitimate drama " was not performed. The legitimate
drama was thus confined to Covent Garden, Drury Lane and
the Haymarket from 1737 to 1843- In the provinces patent
theatres were esUbiished at Bath by 8 Ceo. III. c. lo, at
Liverpool by ix Geo. III. c 16, and at Bristol by z8 Geo. IIL
c. 8, the act of 1737 being in each case repealed pro tanto. The
acting of plays at the universities was forbidden by 10 Geo. IL
c. 19. It is not a little remarkable that the universities, once
possessing unusual dramatic privileges, should not only have
lost those privileges, but have In addition become subject to
special disabilities. The restrictions upon the drama were
found very inconvenient in the large towns, especially in those
which did not possess patent theatres. In one direction the
difficulty was met by the bid chamberiain granting annual
licences for performances of operas, pantomimes and other
spectacles not regarded as legitimate drama. In another
direction relief was given by the act of 1788 <s8 Geo. III. c. 30),
under which licences for occasional performances might be
granted in general or quarter sessions for a period of not more
than sixty days. The rights of patent theatres were preserved
by the prohibitbn to grant such a licence to any theatre within
eight miles of a patent theatre. During this period (x737'<643)
there were several decisions of the courts which confirmed the
» The •• advown'/' at It was catted, over the Che^lie mmstrctt
lasted until 1756. when the latest minstrel court was held at Cheater.
• Interiudes were acted in the open air at Berrlew in Moot-
gomeryihife as latdy as 1819. when the players were indicted
before the Great Sessions of Wales. They had been prohibited
in the Declaration of Sports (1^) and in the Propoaitioas of
Oxbridge (1641).
> See W. NkhoUoo. T** SUnuh fof o /« Staff in Lmidvm
O907)
operation el the act of 1737 as citeting a monopoly. The ex-
clusive righu of the patent theatres were also recognized in
the Dtsorderiy Houses Act, 1751, and in private acts dealing
with Covent Garden and Drury Lane, and reguhting the rights
of parties, the application of charitable funds, &c. (see 16
Geo. IIL ec 13, 31; 50 Geo. IIL c. ccxiv.; 52 Geo. IIL c. xix.;
X Geo. IV. c be). The resulu of theatrical monopoly were
beneficial neither to the public nor to the monopolists them-
selves. In X832 a select committee of the House of Commons
recommended the legal recognition of " stage-right " and the
abolition of theatrical monopoly. The recommendations of
the report as to stage-right were cattied out immediately by
Bulwer Lytton's Act, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 15 <see Copykicbt).
But it was not till eleven years later that the Theatres Act, 1843,
was passed, a previous bill on the same lines having been re-
jected by the House of Lords. The act of 1843 inaugurated a
more liberal policy, and there is now complete "free trade"
in theatiea, subject to the conditions imposed by the act. The
growth of theatres since that time has been enormous. Nor
docs the extension seem to have been attended with the social
dangers anticipated by some of th^ witnesses before the com-
mittee of 1833.
The suppression of objectionable plays was the ground of many
eariy sutntea and proclamatiotts. While the religious drama
was dsfittg out, the theatre was used as a vehicle for enforcing
religious and political views not always, as orthodox as those
of a miracle play. Thus the act of 34 ft 33 Hen. VIII. c. x
made it cximinal to play In an interiude contrary to the orthodox
faith declared, or to be dedaxed, by that monarch. Profanity
in theatres seems to have been a crying evil of the time Stephen
GosBon attacked it as early as X579 in his Stkocl of Abuse. The
first business of the government of Edward VL was to pass an
act reciting, that the most holy and Messed saciaxnent was
named in pUys by such vile and unseemly words as Christian
caxs did shbor to hear rehearsed, and inflicting fine and im-
piisonment upon any person advisedly contemning, despising
or xcviling the said most blessed sacrament (i Edw. VI. c. x).
A proclamation of the same king in 1549 forbade the acting of
interiudes in English on account of their dealing with sacred
subjects. In XS56 the council called attention to certain lewd
penona in the lively of Sir F. Leke representing plays and
interludes reflecting upon the queen and her consort and the
formalities of the mass. Tlie same queen forbade the re-
currence of such a representation as the mask given by Sir
Thomas Pope in honour of the Princess Elizabeth at Hatfield,
for she " misUked these follies." By the Act of Vidfonnity,
X Elia. c. 2, it was made an offence punishable by a fine of a
hundred marks to speak anything in the derogation, depraving
or despisixig of the Book of Common Prayer in any interiudes
or plays. In 1605 " An Act to restrain the Abuses of Players "
made it an offence punishable by a fine of £to to jestingly or
profanely speak or use certain sacred names in any stage pUy,
interlude, show, may-game or pageant (3 Jac I. c. sx). In
consequence of the appearance of playext in the characteis
of the king of Spain and Gondomar, an ordinance of James 1.
forbade the vepresenUtson on the stage of any living Christian
kmg. The fiiit act of the reign of Chaxlca L forbade acting on
Sunday. Puritan opposition to the theatre culminated in the
ordinance of 1648, making it a crime even to be present as a
spccutor at a play.^ After the Restoration there are few
royal proclamations or ordinances, the necessary jurisdiction
being exercised almost entirely by parliament and the lord
chamberlain. Among the few post-Restoration royal pio-
clamations is that of the 25th of February 1664-65, restraining
any but the company of the Duke of York's theatre from enter*
ing at the attiring house of the theatre, and that of the a7th
of February 1698-99 against immorality in plays.
Preventive censorship of the drama by an officer of sUte dates
from the reign of Elizabeth. The master of the revek (see
Revels) appears to have been the dramatic censor fiom 1545 to
« For the anti-thearrical Puritan literatuie see Couithope, Uitmy
of Eniliik Pc€try, vl 381.
73«
THEATRE
i624t vrhra be wm mpeiwded by hk officU Mperbr, the lord
chamberUio.* In tomt cases the supervision was piu into
commission. Thus with Tilncy, the msstcr of the revels in
1581, were associated by order of the privy council a divine
and a statesman. In other cases it was delegated, as 10 Daniel
the poet by warrant in 1603. The proposal to give statutory
authority to the jurisdiction of the lord chamberlain led, as has
been already stated, to the withdrawal of Sir John Barnard's
bill in 1735, and to considerable debau before the bill of 1737
became Uw. Lord Chesterfield's objection to the bill in the
House of Lords was not unreasonable. "If the players,"
said he, " are to be punished, let it be by the laws of their
country, and not by the will of an irresponsible despot" A
stage phty must now be duly licensed before performance.
S 13 of the act of 1843 prescribes that a copy of every new play
and of every addition to an old play, and of eyery new prologue
or epilogue or addition thereto (such copy to be signed by the
master or manager), shall be sent to the lord chamberlain, and,
if the lord chamberlain does not forbid it within seven days, it
may be represented. § 13 empowers the lord chamberlain to
fix a scale of fees for examination; the fee is now two guineas
for a play of three or more acts, one guinea for a play of ks9 than
three acts. All plays represented previously to the act are held
to be licensed. A play once licensed is licensed once for all
unless the licence be revoked under § 14. The examination is
the duty of a spedal officer of the lord chamberlain's department,
the examiner of stage plays. In spite of occasional lapses of
judgment, a belief in the wisdom generally shown in the
exercise of the censorship has been confirmed by the report of
the select conunittee of the House of Commons in 1866, and also
by the report of the joint committee of both Houses in 1909.
llie censorship has been consistently supported in recent
years by theatrical managers, but violently oppgsed by an
advanced section of dramatic authors. There have been
instances, no doubt, where perhaps both the lord chamberlain
and his subordinate officer, the examiner of stage plays, have
been somewhat nice in their objectioxks. Thus, during the
illness of George III., King Lear was inhibited. George Cohnan,
when examiner, showed an extraordinary antipathy to such
words as "heaven" or "angel." The lord cfaamberkin's
powers are still occasionally exerted against scriptural dramas,
less frequently for political reasons. Later instances are Oscar
Wilde's SaUmi (1^3), Joseph of Canaan (1896), Maeterlinck's
Manna Vanna (1903), Housman's BeMekem (190a), Gilbert
and Sullivan's Mikado (temporarily in 1907)1 *nd >- play by
Laurence Housman dealing with George IV. (1910). Before
1866 the lord chamberlain appears to have taken into considera-
tion the wants of the neighbourhood before grantUig a licence,
but since that year such a course has been abandoned. The
Joint committee in 1909 recommended that it should be optional
for an author to submit a play lor licence, and legal to perform
an MffliffPf^ play whether submitted or not, the risk of pdice
faitervention being taken. They also recommended that the
reasons for which a licence should be refused should be: in-
decency, o£fensive personalities, the representation in an in-
vidious manner of a living person or a person recently dead,
violation of the sentiments of reUgioxts reverence, the presence
of anything likely to conduce to crime or vice, or to cause a
breach with a frioidly power, or a breach of the peace.
A theatre may be defined with nifficietit accuracy for the present
purpose as a building in which a stage play is performed for hire.
It will be seen from the following sketch of the law that there are a
considerable number of different persons, corporate and unincor-
porate, with jurisdiction over theatres. A consolidation of the law
and the placmg of Jurisdiction in the hands of a central authority
for the united Kingdom would probably be convenient. The
ODBunittee of 1866 reoommended the transfer to the brd chamber-
lain of the regulation of all places of amusement, and an appeal
from him to the home secretary in certain cases, as also the exten-
sion of hU authority to preventive censorship in all public enter*
tainments; but no legislation resulted. The committee of 1909
* It was probably through his influence that the expletives in
Shakespeare were edited. The quarto of 1622 contains more than
die fobo of 1633.
the aholrtioo of any distinction between tbcatrBs and
music-halls. Several bills for the amendment of the law have beea
introduced, but without success hi the face of more bumuig political
questions.'
BartMiRf.— A theatre (at any rate to make it soch a bvilding
as can be licensed) must be a permanent building, not a merv tent
or booth, unless when licensed by justices at a lawful fair by | 23
of the act of 1843. It must, if ui the metropolis, conform to the
rcgubtions as to structure contained in the Metropolis Management
Act 1878, and the Local Government Act 1888. These aas make
a cenincate of structural fitness from the county council necessary
as a conditKMi precedent for licence in the case of all theatres of a
superficial area of not less than 500 sq. ft. licensed after the passing
of the act, give power to the council in certain cases to call upon
proprietors of existing theatres to remedy structural defeas. and
enable it to make regulations for proteafcm from fire. The exisiing
rcgulatioas were issued on the 30tn of July 1901 and asth ai March
1902. As to theatres in provincial towns, the Town* Improve-
ment Act 1847, and the Public Health Act 1875, confer certain
limited powers over the building on muiUctpal corporations and
urban sanitary authorities. In many towns, however, the struc-
tural qualifications of buildings used as theatres depend upon local
acts and the by-laws made under the ^wers of such acts.
Performance. — To constitute a building where a perfor m ance
takes place a theatre, the performance must be (a) of a stage-play,
and (A) for hire, (a) By § 33 of the act of 184A the word ** stage-
play " includes tragedy, ooniedy, farce, opera, tnirletta, interlude,
melodrama, pantomime or other enteruuunent of the st^c, or
any pan thereof. The two tests of a stage-play appear to be the
excitement of emotion and the representation of action. The
question whether a performance is a stage-play or not seems to be
one of degree, and one rather of fact .than of law. A balUt d'mciion
would usually be a stage-play, but it would be otherwise whh a
ballet dwertissemenL | 14 empowers the lord chamberlain to forbid
the acting of any stage-play in Great Britain whenever be may
be of opinion that it is fitting for the preservatkm of good manners,
decorum, or the pubKc peace to do so. | 15 hnposes a penalty
of £50 on any one acting or presenting a play or part of a play after
such inhibition, and avoids the licence 01 the theatre where it
appears. Regulations of police respecting the performance are
contained in 3 A 3 Vict. c. a?, and in many local acts. A per-
formance may also be proceeded against as a nuisance at common
law, if. for instance, it be contra oonos tnares or draw together a
great concourse of vehicles, or if so much noise be heard in the
neighbouihood as to interfere with the ordinary occupations of
life. Very curious instances of proceedings at common tew are
recorded. In Sir Anthony Ashley's case (a RoUe's Rep. 100).
1615, players were indicted for not and unlawful asscmNv. la
1700 the grand jury of Middlesex presented the two play-bouses
and also the bear-garden on Banluide (the ' Paris garden *' of
Henry Vlll. act v. sc. ;^) as riotous and disorderly nuissnces. Per-
formances on Sunday, Good Friday, and Christmas day are illegal.
Regulations as to the sale of intoxicating liquors during the per-
formance are made by the licensing acts and other pubCc general
aas, as well as by local acts and rules msde by county coundls.
It is frequently a condition of the licence granted to provincial
theatres that no excisable Uquon shall be solo or oonsumed on the
The excise duty where sudi liquors are sold
accordtngto the annual value of the theatre up to a maximum
of (30. The Dangerous Performances Acts, 1879 *nd 1897. forbid
undier a penalty of £10 any public exhibition or p eno r u i a nce
whereby the life or limbs of a child under the age of sixteen if a
boy. eighteen if a girl, shall be endangered. It also makes the
employer of any such child indictable for assauk where an aoddeot
causing actual bodily harm has happened to the child, and enables
the court on conviction of the employer to order him to pay the
chiM compensstton not exceeding ho. The Prevention of Cruelty
to Children Aa 1904 forbids a cnikl to appear in any public enters
tainment without a licence from a petty sessional court, (ft) The
performance must be for hire, f 16 (M the act of 1843 makes a
building one in which actinjt for hire takes place, not only where
money is uken directly or mdirectly, but also where the purchase
of any article is a condition of admisskm, and where a play is per-
formed in a place in which excisable liquor is sold. In the case of
Shelley v. Betkell, 1883 (Law Reports, la Q.B.D. 11), it was held
that the proprietor 01 a private theatre was liable to penahies
under the aa, though he lent the theatre gratuitously, because
tickcu of admission were sold in aid of a chanty.
tAeensing of BuUdint.—By | a of the aa of 1843 all theatres
(other than patent theatres) must be Hcensed. By | 7 no licence
* Diyden's words in the " Essay on Satire " (addressed to the
earl ol Dorset, brd chamberiain) still describe the duties of the
office. " As lord ckambcarlain 1 know you are absolute by your
office in all that belongs to the decency and good manncra of the
stage. You can baiush from thence scurrility and fMofaneness, aiul
restrain the licentious insolence of poets and their aaore in aU
things that ^ock the public quiet or the reputation of prKate
persons under the notion of humour."
^HEBUS
739
8 to be%SSM ^BjriiSf tod two wrett^raTStic dbaervancc of
Mtai AiMl for KCiviRc fMymem of any penakie* incurml. The
Mtropolitttn theatres otJMr tlMA' the patent theatree (as far at
least as they are JQdw4ed in tha boroiiK hs aaioed ta the act of
184)) are licensed by the lord chambeffaia. By f 4 his fee on
gf^itt of a licence is not to exceed los. Tor each month for which
the theatre Is licensed. The lord chamberlain appears to have no
powtr to aalce suitable rales for enforcing order and decency. He
caiv however, by I A> suspend or revoke a ficeoce or dosa a patent
theatre where any riot or misbehaviour has taken place, lie has
issued a code of regulations.
Provincial theatres fall uiulci' tnrMf dilfeieiit licensing authorities.
The lord chamberlain licenses theatres in Windsor rad Bttthtoa,
and thcAtres situated in the plaoea where the king occasionally
resides, but only during the time of auch occa«onal residence <f 5).
Theatres at OxTard and Cambridge, or within 14 m. thereof, are
licensed by the justices having jurisdiction therein, bnt before any
sach UceMc can come into force the concnt of the chanoeBor or
vke-chanodlor must be gtven. The niles made by the jostiocs
lor the management of the theatre are subject to the approval
of the chancellor or vice-chancenor, who may also impoae such
conditions upon the licence as he thinks fit. In case of any breach
of the rules or conditions, he may annul the Itcenoe ({ 10). All
•ther provincial theatres are licensed by the county councHs or
county borough councils > under s. 7 cf^the act of 1888, except
in case of a special and temporary performance, where justices
still grint the ncence as they did in all cases bcffore that act ome
into opention. The regulations Of the London County Council are
dated the a7th of July 1897. Penalties are imposed by the act
for keeping or acting la an unlioenied theatre, and for producing
or acting in an unlicensed play. A contract to petfom in aii
unlicensed theatre is unenforceable.
Muiu Hol/i.— Music was at no time the oUect of resHictlons
as aevoc as these imposed upon the dfama. Tic picscstt EnglMi
•ct governing music nails, the IKiacderly Houses Act 1751, was
passed probably in consequenoe of the publication in 1750 of
Fielding's fnMtry into the Causes of Ou laU Increase of Robbers.
It is remarkable that two works of the same writer should from
Oftpnmte oausea hove led to both thcatte and music-hall legislation
•I lasting impotante. The act was originaily passed for * tfsrm
of three years, but waa made popctual oy 28 Cca II. c. 19. It
ai^plies only to.munc halls within ao m. of London and West-
minster, bvcry such mUMC hall must be licensed at the Michaelmas
iinaitar wssions. the Kccnce to be signified under the hands and
•eala of four or moie justicet. The licence may be granted for
music or dancing or both. Public notice of the licence is to be
given by affixing over the door the inscription " Licensed in pur-
suance of act of parfiament for," wHh the addition of words showinjr
Che purpose. The penalty far keepimr an unlicensed music hau
is lloo. Thb act is amended aa to Middlesex by the Music and
Dancing Licences (Middlesex) Act 1894, putting the licensing into
the hands of the county council. Regulations were made by the
coonctl under this act on the }ist of July looo and the 37th of
Jiiwe tqou Mwsic halls beyond the radios of ao m. from London
and Westminster are mainly gov e rned by the Public Heakh Apt
1890, the licfn'uag authority being the licensing justices. There
is no ceosonhif} of music-hall ptrtormance. the only remedy for
anything objectionable is for the licensing authority to withdraw
the K rfiiflp of fs f wse to rtn t i w it*
See generaUy W. N. M. Geary, Uw ti Tkeaiees mi Mnme HaUs
(1885): C. Ifamlyo, ifoaiial ^ TkmUuol Um (1801); A. A.
Strong. Dramalk and Muskal Low (1898); J. B. Wtlliamaon,
Law of Lieonsiniit^oT).
Sra(i;s«d.^ln Scotland the theatie haa always e s ereis e d a smaller
anomt of influence than in England, and thcte haa been Ktlle
exclusively Scottish kgialation on the subjectk isss* c. 40, die-
countenanced certain amusements of a semi-theatncal kind ly
■ * - ^ tie
enacting that no one was to be chosen l^ofaert Hudc (sic),
John, aiMDOt of
Llttl
caaon, or queen of May. A proclamation of
in 1574, and IS79« c. la, followed the fines of
by naViog persona iisinff unlawful plays, such as
) fines of English
» VL in 1574, and IS79< <
„_ition by naViog persona iH_ „ ^ . ^ _
or fast and loos^ punishable as vagabonds. In 1574 the General
Assembly claimed to Gcense plays, and forbade representations on
Sunday. As hi England, the Kcemdng power seems then to have
passed from theehurch to thecfown, for in 1599 James Vi. licensed
a theatre at Ediabut^. 167a. c. ai, enempted comediaQs while.
upon the stage from the pimptuary provisions of the act rsspccttag
apparel. The chamberiain of Scotland, white such an office existeo.
to have cxevciMd a certain police inrisdktion over theatres.
> Seottend. aa4lid also the pievioas
^ jasare made by the Buifh Pobce
Act 1892.
/refond-^Theatrical legutation, as far as h went, was based upon
CnglMh models. Thus ridicule of the liturgy was forbidden by
iMcrhideB
appears to have cxercned
The ThoaCfes Act 184^ as
•ct of I717« 9ad further
« Elis. c. t dr.): (
players of Intei
* The councils may delegate their authority to iustices. a district
oouncil, or a committee of their own body, eucn as the Theatre
■od MassB Hall Committee of the London Connty CbuaciL
muntitb were deemed va ga b o mis , xo & 11 Ctr. I. e. 4 (Ir.). In
1786 an act was passed to enable the crown to grant letters patent
fdtr one or moie theatres in Dublin chy and county. 36 Ceo. f II.
c. $7 dr.). The preamble alleges that the esubKshing of a wdl-
negulated theatre at )tfie aedt of g s w cn u n tn t wiU be piedoctKe
oT publk advantage and tftu^ to improve the raoaJsof tha oeople.
Exceptions from the rcsthctions of the act were made in favour
of entertainments ibr tbe benefit of the Dublin lying-in hospital
and exhibUioos of horsMianahtp or pnppet-dwws. The existing
theatit imd musioball acts do not apply to Ireland, eaasipt the
Puhlic^Health Act itao, s. }i.
British Colonies, — ^There is a large amount of legislation. An
example is the Victoria Act, No 14^0 (1897). giving the chief
secretary power to cancel or suspend the Iksence of any theatre
if used 00 Sunday without spedei peiulit..
United Staie$^Fub&c entertaimiMata, dramatic or -Olhsr^, ve
usually under the control of tbe muipcipal authorititt, aad toere
is no act of Congress on the subject, except one of 1898 Imposing
a tenrporary war tax on the theatres, inmost states there u
state legislation, leqniriag piaoes of public eateitaituneat to be
licensed oy the proper authoiity, la many statea it Is a ooiMiitiDo
of the licence that intoxicating liquors shall not be soU in such
places. Other conditions, more or less usual, are that there shall
be no Sunday or dangerous oerformances, that acrobats shall be
properly protected, and that female waiters shall not be employed.
Structural qualificatioos aie in soma cases asade necessary. Thus
in 1885 the New York legislature passed an act conuining many
minute provisions for eiuuring the safety of theatres against fire.
A characteristic piece Of legisbition is the New York Act of 1873.
c 186^ enacthig that no dtiaen is to be excluded from a theatre
by raaaon of racct colour ^^r previous condltioa of servitude. This
act of course merely carries out the important principle affirmed
In art. xiv. of the amendments to the constitution 01 the United
States. There are two curious and conflicting decisions of other
states on the matter. Missouri held that a manager oould «lls-
criminate against a perMm of colaur, Michigan that he could not
(see Green's Dipest, voL L 643).
Continental Europe.— The principal ooints in which the continental
theatre differs from the English are that Supday is the qiost impor-
tant day. aad that the theatre Is often owned or subsidised \
stale or a muiiici|iality. In France '
since the days of the Revolution, _
1864. A feature b the tax known as Je deott des pauores, which
has been the subject of much discussioiL The censure prialaUe
was abolished in 1906. The object is attained by poliee penalties.
Most of the authorities wiU be found in Dalloc. Supplement, vol.
xviL, and, for the older law, Lacaii. La Unstatiam et la jurispntdence
desAMtres (1853). ^nd Maugras, Les CowMiens horsdela /ot (1887),
may be consulted. Italy has produced at least two modem woilcs
on the subject. Rivaka. Storia e Sislema del Dirilto dei Teohi (1886),
aad Tabanelli, Codiot del Teatro (1901). What strikes one is bdw
little special legislation there is on the subject. The penal code
meets most cases. Spain retained the amies saeramenSaks much
longer than other countries retained the religious drama. Legisla-
tion begins very early. The SieU PaHidas enacts that the oergy
are not to take part aa actors or spectatara ia sL uu il u a a p^rs
(juetos per escamie). Cervantes in the first part of Dan QuixaU
makes tne canon of Toledo regret that the government had. not
appointed a censor to prevent the acting of plays not only injurious
often owned or subsidised by the
a theie has been ranch Icgisbtian
I, the peincipal faiw being one of
to morals bat also offerwfing agaiast thedaasical rules of the
There is a considerable amount of Uw in the Ottoman empiec:
<leuils will be found ia G. Yooi«. Corp$ de droit oUemam, vol. H.
3*0(1904). (J.W.)
THBBES (Qnfiai), the Gteek name of the andent capital
of Upper Egypt, presumably an Egyptian name (e.g. ZCni, wen
in -««a«, -Tfrat) aMimiiated lo that of the Greek dty. It oocvts
in Homer (//. ix. 38x^4) iHtfia It has the epithet laar^^tavXei,
*' bundfcd-gated/' probably deiivad in the fttst place from the
gateways of its endless tehplcSi thoagh perhaps misunderstood
as if it tefemed to a dty with a hundred gates in the drcait of
its waHs. Thebes eras never a willed dty in this sense, tboagb
its vast temple enctosures in different qnarten would form as
many fbrtrtsses in ciM of siege or tumult. Its Egyptian name
waa Wed <or Wis?), later Ne, "the dty" (sometimes Kc-
AnuD, iKnce No-Araon in Kahna ill. 8), aad different quarters
wtn katmn by ipedal names. In noiv4iterary Greek Tfcebts
was Rgttlarly called DkMpolis the Grtat. AmnoiH A»en-Rf,
or Amennsonther (*' Ammon-RC king of the gods ") was its
ddty, with fab consort Mat and their child Khons. Mont siso
was a local ddty and Hathor presided over tbe western diffs
of Tbcbes. In very andent times the city by on the cist
bank, the necfopolis on the west. As it grew» however, al-
though tbe neaopolis was still confined to the west bank» a
¥Bit dty of templsB, piiesU and necropolis peogk^ to wWdi
740
TH£BBS
were added royal palaces sad tl^etr acoompaniments, covered
the western shore as far back as tlie desert hills. The chief
nucleus of the ancieot Wtai was a town about the temple of
Karaak: it probably readies back to the prehistoric period.
At Drah abu'l nagga, opposite to it, are tombs of its princes
under the Vlth Dynasty. The temple of Kamak is no doubt
of immenorial antiquity. Perhaps no sculpture earlier than
the Xllth Dynasty has survived there, but Senwosri L dedi-
cated statues to his predecessors of the Vth Dynasty who had
probably showed their devotion to Ammon in a substantial
iQanner, and Cheops of the IVth Dynasty is named in it. After
the end of the Old Kingdom Thebes grew from an obxure pro-
^ndat^town to be the seat of a strong line of ptinces who con-
tended for supremacy with Heracleopolis and eventually
triumphed in the Xlth Dynasty of Manetho. The roost im-
portant monument of the Middle Kingdom now extant at
Thebes is the funerary temple of Menthotp III. of this dynasty,
which has been revealed by the excavations of the Egypt
Exploration Fund at Deir el Bahri (see Architectvre, section
Egypiiant fig. 4);^ and the period is well represented by an
abundance of statues of the Xllth and Xllltb dynasties from
the temple of Karnak. The name Amenemhe, so common in
the Xllth Dynasty, shows the importance of the Theban god
at this time. It was not, however, till the XVII Ith Dynasty,
the beginning of the New Empire, that the whole site began to
be occupied by monuments which have survived to the present
day. The early rulers of this dynasty down to Tethmosis III.
developed Karnak, and on the west bank built the great funerary
temple of Deir el Bahri and smaller temples as far south as
. Medinet Habu, and began the long series of royal tombs in the
famous Valley of the Tombs of the Kings far back in the desert
behind Deir el Bahri. Amenophis III. continuing, trans-
formed western Thebes monumentally: built three great
temples in addition, that of Mont on the north of Karnak, the
temple of Mut on the south and the temple of Ammon at
Luxor, and connected the last two with the state temple of
Karnak by avenues of sphinxes. On the west bank of the huge
colossi of Memnon marked the entrance of hb funerary temple,
a magnificent building which was afterwards destroyed, and the
great lake of Btrket Habu was dug and embanked in front of
his brick palace at the extreme south. The chief^ eneigiesof
this king in fact were expended on developing the south ex-
tremity of Thebes on both banks. The city and its monuments
now covered an area about three miles square. After this
Thebes experienced a serious set-back with the heresy of
Akhenaton, the son of Amenophis III. He moved his capital
northward to Akhetaton (£1 Amama) and strove to suppress
the worship of Ammon, doing infinite damage to the monu-
ments of Thebes by defacing his name and figure. After about
twenty years, hoifc'ever, the reaction came, Thebes was again the
capital, and a little later under Seti (Sethos) I. and Rameses II.
Of the XXth Dynasty it was raised to greater ardutectOral*
magnificence than ever. These two kings built the great
columnar haH of Karnak, added a large court with pylons to
Lnior, and on the west bank built the funerary temple of Seti
at Kurna, and the Ramesseum with its gigantic colossus, be-
sides Other edifices of which only traces remain. XJnder the
XVIlIth and XlXth Dynasties Thebes was at the height of
•its greatness. Conquering Pharaohs brought borne trains of
prisoners and spoil, embassies came thither of strange people
in every ^variety of costume and of every .hue of skin, from
Ethiopia, Puoni (Punt), Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Libya,And
the islands of Lhe.Mediteixaoean, bringing, imxious stones, rate
aoinals, beautiful sUvea, costly garments and Vess^ of gold
and IJIyeri wWb the ground shook with the movement of
, statues and obelisks. The tombs of the
r €0 the west bank and the sculptures in the
tAdUitJBcy of these days, but even the reign
~ htiie beginning of the decline of Thebes.
Hmctive energy of the proud Pharaoh, in-
l on> the capiul, was expended with
1. on other piirts of the counuy. In
every dty he left lil3 mait. A great tetnple at Tanb boasted*
larger colossus than existed in 'Hiebes: Heliopolis and MeoBplu»
must have been lavishly adorned, and the temples of Aba
Simbel (9.V.) alone would have been sufficient to ittiafy tJie
ambition of many of the great Pharaohs. After Rameses IL
the efforts of all his successors combined could add little to
the wonders of Thebes. The temple and tower of Rameses UL
(XXth Dynasty) at Medinet Habu, his tomb in the Biban d
Moluk, the temple of Khons (Rameises III. and later) and the
court of Sheshook I. (XXIInd Dynasty) at Karnak are tlie only
great achievements.
For the rest there are the tombs of many kings in tbeBibaa
d Mohik and a good deal of comparativdy petty construction
and tinkering, with the help of stone robbed from older
structures. Earlier and greater kings had remorselessly de-
stroyed buildings which interfered with Adr own plans. The
"Memnon" temple of Amenophis HI.- had dready gone,
sacrificed perhaps to Akhenaton's god. Rameses II. had
plundered his predecessors' monuments f<H' materials. Hitherto
Thebes had been gbrified by the process, but hencdorth it was
rather to perish. The tide of prosperity was flowing northward
and such monumental energy as remained was expended nioze
widely. For several centuries .after the fall of the New Empire
Thebes was but one of severd dternating or contemporaneous
capitals. Memphis, Tanis, Bubastis, Sais, Heracleopolis bad at
one time or another at least equal claims. The Ethiopian con-
querors of Egypt made Thebes their Egyptian capital* but in
66S Assur-bani-pd sacked the dty. Psammelichus did not
neglect It, and during the XXVlth Dynasty Petemenopt, a
wedthy priest and official, excavated for himself the greatest
private tomb that ever was made. Probably every king that
included Thebes in his realm, eaofept the Aasyriana anid the
Persians, left his memorial there in chapels erected w. sculptures
added. Of the Persians, however, not even Darius is traceable
at Thebes; on the other hand, there is no support for the tradi-
tion that Cambyses destroyed its monuments. Ptolemy Lgave
a new capitd to the upper country in the Greek foundation <A
Ptolemais, and thus struck a fresh blow at the prosperity of
Thebes. For a short period in the reign of ^piphanes, when
Upper Egypt was in rebellion against the Ptolemaic rule,
Thebes was the capitd of independent native dynasts.' • In a
Uter rebeltioh, Thebes was captured after a three years' dege
and severdy punished by l^thyrus (Ptolemy X., Soter II.).
In the rdgn of Augustus, having joined fn the insurrection
agdost the tax-gatherers, it was destroyed by Cornelius Gallos
and became a collection of villages. Though fts vast buildings
have since served as quarries for mill-stojDes and for the lime-
burner, Thebes still offers the greatest assemblage of mono-
mentd ruins in the world.
We will now briefly enumerate the prindpal groups of monu-
ments. On the east bank at Karnak stand the great state
temple of Ameo-R$ with its obelisks of Hatshcpsut and Teth-
mosis 1. and the vast columnar hall ol Rameses II.; the temple
of Mat and the wdl-preserved temple of Khons; the temple of
Luxor and avenues of rams and sphinxes connecting all these.
These temples are described in the artides Karnak, Luxoa and
Architecture: Efyptian. On the west bank, in front of the
necropolis, on the edge of the desert or projecting into the
cultivation, was a low row of temples: the northernmost,
placed far in front of the others, is the well-preserved temple of
Seti I. at Kurna; then follow the Ramesseum and Medinet
Habu; and the foundations of many others can be traced.
The temple of Amenophis III., to which the colossi of
" Memnon " were attached, was again far forward of the line.
The Ramesseum contains the remains of a stupeodoits seated
cokMsus, in black granite, of iu builder Rameses JJ., thrown
on its face. When perfect it was probably 57 ft. high and
weighed about 1000 tons, surpassing the ** Memnon ** statues
of Amenophis III. in siae and weight. The temple of Rameses
III. at Medinet Habu, sculptured with very interesting scenes
from his Syrian, Libyan and other , wars and from religious
festivals, is remarkable also for the unique eatraaoe-tower
THEBES
74«
wUeh probably foriAed ptit of the loyil pthce. Nortbuwd
•lid far bAck in the foot-hiOs is the Ptolemaic temple of Deir d
Medina, and beyond under the cliffs of Deir el Bahri thp terrace
temple of Queen Hatshepsut, the woUs of which are adorned
with acenes ftom her expedition to Pnoni (Somaliland) ia aeaicb
of faioense trees, and many other lubjects. The necropoGs
extends from Kuma in the north through Drah abul nagga,
the Assasif, and Shekh abd el Kuma to Kumet Murrai of
Medinet Habn. The finest tomba are of the XVIIIth Dynasty.
Fkr behind Mctfioet Habu are the Tombs of the Queens, -where
royal relatives of the XXth Dynasty are buried; and imme-
dlatety behind the lofty cliffs of Deir el Bahii, but accessible
only by a very ciicuitoua route from Kama, are the tombs of
the kings (from Tethmons I. onward to the end of the XXth
Dynasty) in the Biban el Moluk and the Western Valley. They
are decorated with religious scenes aild texts» especially those
which describe the passage of the sun through the underworld.
Those of Seti I. and Rameses lU. are the most remarkable.
These royal sepulchres are long galleries excavated in the rock
with chamberi at iniervaJs: in one of the innermoa chambers
was laid the body in its sarcophagus. In the XXlst Dynatty,
when tomb robberies were rife and most of their valuables had
been stolen, the royal mummies were removed from place to
place and at last deposited for safety in the tomb of Amen-
ophis II. and in the burial-place of the priest-kings at Deir el
Bahri. The finding of the two tacheUet nearly intact has been
among the greatest marvels of arcbaeobgical discovery, and
the systematic exploration of the Valley ^ the Tombs of the
Kuip by Theodore M. Davis hag been annually rewarded with
fcmlu of the highest interest.
See Baedeker's Bgypi: E. Naville. (Temple oQ t>eir a JMari,
introduction and parts l-v. (London. 1894-1906): W. M. F.
Pecrie, Six Temples ct Ticbes (ruined temples on west bank).
(London, 1897); G. Daressy, N«/tee txphcatue des niineM de
Mtdina Halm (Cakt), 1897); G. Masperp. " Lcs Momies loyalcs
de Ddr el Bahari " in Mim9ire$ dt la mtuum anhioUtnue franMiu
au Cairtt tome L ; and many other works. (F. Ll. G.J
THEBES (andeotly Oqj^oi, Tkebw, or in poetiy iometimei
On0^ in modem Greek Pkha, or, aocoidlog to the corrected
proovnciation, Tkhae), an aodent Greek city in Boeotia, is
situated 00 low hilly ground of gentle sk>pe a little north of the
range of Citliaeren, which divides Boeotia from Attica, and on
the edge of the Boeotian plain, about 44 m. from Athens, whence
it ii reached by two carriage-roads and by railway since 1904.
It has about 4800 inhabitants, and is the seat of a bishop.
The present town occupies the site of the ancient citadel, the
Cadmea; two fragmenu of ancient wall are visible on the north,
and another, bctoaging either to the citadel or the outer wall,
on the south. Two streams, rising a little south of the town,
and separated by an average distance of about half a mile,
flow on the two sides, and are lost in the pkiin. These are the
aodent Ismenus on the east and DIroe (A(p(q)) on the west,
whkh gave to the town its name dtv^rofiot. The Dirce, now
Piaki6tte, has several springs. From the west side of the
Cadmea another copious fountain (ParaportI) falls to the Dirce.
In a suburb to the east is another (Fountain of St Theodore),
and nocth-west are two moee. The CkKhnea itsdf is soppUed
wkh water bsooght fom an unknown aeurce to the south by
worka supposed of prehistoric antiquity. It now eaters the
town by an aqueduct of twenty aidies of Fiankish construction.
The " waters " of Thebes ace cnlfhnifed both by Pfadar and by
the Athenian poets, and the site is still, as desoibed by Dicaa*
aichus (3rd century B.a), *' all spiings," cdMpoi vfieo. One,
from which a pasha of NegioponU (Euboea) is said to have
inpphed Us table, is still caDed" the spring of the cadi." Some
of the mafhle basins, seats, te., lenudn, and, with the fragments
of wan above mcntiOQcd, axe the only rdics of the cbssic tini&
The meat carious of later buildings is the church of St Luke,
aouth-oast of the Cadmea, believed to omUin the tomb of the
cvanteKst. Fsom the abundance of water the place is favour
nhle to gardens, and the neighbooring pfaun is extremely fertile.
Bat the popplation is scanty, and the town at present of no
ir»if0ry.— The record of the ctrBest dftys of Thebes iras pre-
served among the Greeks in an abttn<fant mass of legends
which rival the myths of Troy in their wide ramiiicatlOD and
the influence which they exerted upon the literature of the
dassical ag& Five main cycles of story may be dbtingnisbed;
(i) the foundation of the dtadel Cadmea by Cadmus, and the
growth of the Spaiti or <* Sown Men " (probably an aetM>logical
myth designed to explain the origm of the Theban nobtlity;
which bore that name in historical times); (a) the buikling of
a *'iwvc»fated " waB by Amphion, and the cognate stociet
of Zethus, Antiope and Dirce; (3) the tale d the ** house U
Laiua* "ctthnlnating in the adventures of Oedipus and the wao
of the "Seven" and the EpigoBi;(4) the advent of Dionysus;
and (5) the expkaU of Heracles. It is difficult to extract any
historkal fact out of this mase of nytha; the various gnups
Gsnnot be fully co-ordinated, and a further p«^it^w>g featuie
is the neglect of Thebes in the Homeric poems. At most it
seems safe to infer that it was one of the lint Greek com-
munities to be drawn together within a fortified dty, that it
owed its importance hi prdnstoric as in later days to its military
strength, and that its original " Cadmea n " population was
distinct from other mhabitanU of Boeotia such as the Mhiyae
of Orchomenus.
In the period of great faivasiotts from the north Thdies re*
ceived settlers of that stock which In historical times was homo*
geneously spread over Boeotia. The central position and
military security of the dty naturally tended to raise it to a
comnnending poaitwn among the Boeotians, and fromeariy
days its inhabitants endeavoured to establish a complete
supremacy over their kinsmen in the outlying towns. This
centraliefng policy is as much the cardinal fact of Theban
history as the counteracting effort of the smaller towns to
resist absorption forms the main chapter of the story of Boeotia.'
No deUUs of the earlier history of Thebes have been preserved,
except that it was governed by a knd-holding aristocracy friio
safeguarded their int^'ty by rigid statutes about the owners
ship of property and its transmission. In the late 6th century
the Thebans were brought for the first time into hostile con-
tact with the Athenians, who helped the small fortress of
Plataea to maintain its independence against them, and in 506
repelled an inroad into Attica. The aversion to Athens best
serves to explain the unpatriotic attitude which Thebes dis-
played during the great Persian invasion. Though a con-
tingent of 700 was sent to Themopybw and remained there
with Lconidas to the end, the governing aristocmcy soon after
joined the enemy with great readiness and fought aealously on
his behalf at the battle of PhUaea (479). The victorious Greeks
subsequently punished Tbebcs by depriving it of the presidency
of the Boeotian League, and an attempt by the Spartans to
expel it from the Delphic amphictyony was only fnntrated by
the intcrcesiton of Athens. In 457 Spaeta, ncediag a counter*
poise against Athens in central Greece, reversed her policy and
reinstated Thebes as the dominant power hi Boeotia. The
gnat fortress served this purpose well by hoUiag out as a
base of resistance when the Athenians overran and occupied the
rest of the countiy (45r-447)« In the Pefopennesian War the
Thebans, embittered by the support which Athens gave to the
smaller Boeotian towns, and especially to Plataea, which they
vainly attempted to reduce in 431, were firm allies of Sparta,
which la turn helped them to besiege Plataea and allowed them
to destroy the town after capture (437). In 424 At the head of
the Boeotian levy they inflicted a severe defeat upon an invading
force of Athenians at Delium, and for the first time displayed
the effecU of that firm military organisation which eventually
raised them to predominant power In Greece. After the
downfall of Athens at the end of the Pebponnesian War the
Thebans, finding that Sparta intended to protect the states
which they desbed to annex, broke off the allianoe. In 404
they had urged the oomplete destruction of Athens, in 403
th^ secretly supported the restoration of its democracy hi order
to find ha k a counterpoise against Sparta. A few years later,
influrocrd pcrhapa in part by Persian goU, they forced on the
7+«
THEBES, ROMANCE OF— THECLA
i»<Elled CotiathiaB War tad fonmd'the nucleus of the league
•gtiatt S^mfUu At the battles of Haliartus (595) and Corooeia
(394) they again proifcd their rising military capacity by staod-
jig their gcoaad against the Spartans. The zcsuh of the war
was e4|)ecbl]y disastrous to Hiebcs, as the general settlement
oi 387 stipulated the Gomptetc autonomy of all Greek towns
and so withdrew the other Boeotians from its political control*
Its power was further curtailed in j8a, when a Spartan force
occupied the citadel by a treacherous eoup-dt-main. Three
yean later the Spartan garrison was expeDed, and a democratic
ooostittttion definitely set up in place of the traditional oli*
garchy. &i the consequent wars with Sparta the Theban amy,
trained and led by Epaminondas and Pelopidas (f.v.), proved
itself the best in Greece. Some years of desultory fighting, in
whkh Thebes established its control over aU Boeotia, culminated
in 371 ina remarkable victory over the pick of the Spartans at
Leuctra (9.V.). The winners were hailed throughout Greece as
champions of the oppressed. They carried their arms into
Pfcbponnesus and at the head of a large coalition pcnnaaently
crippled the power of Sparta. Similar expeditioos were sent
to Tbesaaly and Macedonia to regulate the affairs of those
countries. But the predominanoe of Thebes was ahort-lived«
The. states which she protected were indi^xjsed to commit
themselves permanently to her tutelage, and the renewed
rivalry of Athens, which had been linked with Thebes since 395
in a common fear of Sparta, but since 371 had endeavoured to
maintain the balance of power against her ally, prevented the
fiormation of a Theban empire. With the death of Fpamtnnndas
in 36s the dty sank again to the position of a secondary power.
In a war with the ndg^ibouring sute of Fhods (356-346) it
could not even maintain its predominance in central Greece,
and by inviting Philip IL of Maoedoo to crash the Phodans it
extended that monardi's power within dangerous proximity U>
its frontiers. A revulsion of feeling was completed in 33S by
the orator Demosthenes, who persuaded Thebes to join Athena
in a final attempt to bar Philip's advance upon Attica. Tbe
Tlwban contingent fought biavdy on behalf of Grecian liberty
in the decisive battle of Chaeroneia, and bore the brant of the
aiaughitcr. Philip was content to deprive Thebes of her domi-
nion over Bocotia; bat an nnanoccssful revolt in 335 against
his son Alexander was punisbcd by the complete destrnction
of the dty, except, according to tradition, the house of the poet
Pindar. Though restored in 315 by Cassander, Tlubes never
again played a prominent part in history. It snfiered frxun thie
establishment of Chakis as the chief fortress of central Greece,
and was severely handled by the Roman conquerors Mummius
and Sulla. Strabo describes It as a mere viOage, and in
Panaaaias^s time (ajil tto) its dtadd alone was inhabited.
During the Byxantine period it served as a place of vefnge
against foreign invaders, and from the roth oentmy became
a centre of the new silk trade. Thon^^ sevcfdy pfamdered
by the Normans in ri46 it recovered its prosperi t y and was
selected by the Frankah dynasty de h Rodm as iu capitaL
In i3ri it was destroy«d by the Cafaltnt and passed oat
of histoiy.
The mort ffaawwn aMMiQment of ancitiit Tndbes wss uk outer
wall with iti «evea sates, vbich eveo as hte as tbe 6th ceatwy
a.c. was probably tht Urecst of artiiidal Creek (ovtrcsKs. Tbe
names of the gates \-ajy, but four are consunt — tbe Proetides,
Electiae. Ncisiae or Nritae. and Hooioloides; Plansanias fi\^es the
others as Ogjtiiae, Hypcbtac. Cwnvw! Theie is evi<knce that tbe
nc* Ekctme vas oo the south, aad mar it was tbe tomb of the
Thebans vho fcfl at the capture b\- AhrxatRder. The gates shova
to f^Bsanias as Ncistae and Plroc:»c3cs W respecti\-e!y north-west
and o u ith -eaat. Two of the gwinj:* hxTe been idenritied with
aoaw peofaataihty-Hhat of St Tbcodofre vkh the Oedipodca. ia
which CMipos n said to faav« pureed hioisdC fraoi the pcJIutkm
of homicide, and the Panporti «-r^ tbe dtajroo-cvacded tountaui
df Ares_ («e Cxmnrs). Dkaranrhos. referpnp to the tom-n of
, cives two mea^oretnmts for tbe csrr-Jt, equal to ^boot
9 a^ and 5! m. ; the smaller (aiHv carT»pcknds to the 4I m. over
a hi ch the estant rtm»ax» haw been ttaced; it ooMsisced of sun-
dried bride on a ciaoe fouadatioa. Be\-ood this tbe topofiaphy
is wke^y uaaenaia. From the tntrre^ of the she in tl>u»r>- and
otB mart in Htcratare, as the seme of $0 many draruus tbe tetnpna-
«tan «» fa dnaas has bean ^ecMlly - •
dcacnpctonSi differing widely, are aiven by 1 . „__
Ulricbs, Buraiaa. Faoricius and othera (rcfereooea belowX. There
are two main difficulties to contend with. Tbe description of
I^usanias was written at a time when the lower city was deaertcd.
and only tbe temples and the gates left; and the leferenocs n»
Thebes u the Attic dramatista are. like those to Mycenae and
Aigoa. of little or no topographical value. Tbe Uteiary glory of
Thebea is centred in the poet Pmdar. It had a flourishmg achool
of painting in the ath century, of which the most famous repre-
sentation was Aristiacs, who excelled in pathetic subjects.
AuTBORtTiEa.'Heredocus, bto. v.Hx.; Thucydides and Xeno-
phon (HdiMtca), paum\ Diodorus xvii., aix.; Pausanias ix.
5-17; M. Muller, tkukuJiU Tkebens (Leipzig. 1879); E. v. Stem,
CksckickUt der spartantsdun und ihe^aniscken Hcgiemonie CDwp^t*
1884), pp. 44*446; E. Fabrictus, TJUben (Freiburg im BreSsgau.
1890): £. Funk. D0 Thebttiurum Mtih 378-169 (Berlin. 1890);
B. V. Head. Historia. Numarmm (Oxford, 1887), pp. 299-39^ See
also BoEOTiA throi.ghout. (E. Ca.)
THBBBS, BOBAHCB itP, The French Romam de Tkkbes is a
poem of some xo,ooo lines which appears to be based, ix>t on
the Tkehaid of Sutius, but on an abridgment of that work.
This view b supported by the omission of incidents and details
which, tn spite of the altered conditions under which tbe poem
was composed, would naturally have been preserved in any
imitation of the Thehaidt while again certain modilicatiotts of
the Statian version can hardly be due to the author's invention
but point to an ancient origiiu As in other poems of ih^ same
kmd, the marveUous disappears; the Greeks adopt the FrexK^
methods of warfare and the French code of diivalric love.
The Raman dates from the i3th century (c. 1x50-55), and is
written, not in the lirada of the dunsona de geste, but in octo-
syllabic rhymed couplets. It was once attributed to Bcnolt de
Sainte-More; but all that can be said is that the TIMes is
prior to tbe Rowtan de TroUy of which Benolt was undoubtedly
the author. The TIU&m is preserved also in several French prose
redactions, the first of which, printed in the 16th century unda
the name of Edtpus, bekmp to the early years of the i3tb
century, and orighially formed part of a compilation of ancient
history, Histoire amcieume jusqu^d Cisar. The first volome of
Les kisloins ie Paid Crosr tradmiUs em froM^ais contains a free
and amplified version of tbe ThUes. Tht Romsmu ef Thehes,
written about 1420 by John Lydgate as a soppkBamary
Canterbury 1^, was printed by Wynkyn de Woide about
isoou From the Raman de' Tkiies abo were possibly derived
the Ipomeiem and its sequel FreUtesSiamx, twofmnaar^Miinfnru
written about the end of the 1 sth century by Hne de Rotdande,
an An^o-Korman trvmire who fived in CredenhiD, near Here-
ford. The author asserts that he transhted from a Latin honk
lettt him by Gilbert Fita-Badeton. 4th knd of Monmoutb, bat
in reaBty he has written romances of cftdvalry on tke nsaal
lines, the names of the characters alone bemg derived bom
antiquity.
See L. Coostans. La Uftade dTOtdipe itadite dams ramtitmili em
moyem igt el dams its lempis madermes (ftris, x88i). and in the
sectson ** VEpopie ammm" ia Oe JuBevflle's JKst. da la lamame
Hdelaha, framtoisei U Ramma de TVbbes, ed. L. CoBmana {Sac
da ametems lesSa framfais (Paris, 1890) ; G. EUis, Spadmiems ef
Euij Emtfisk Mdrical Raaumces, m. (180s).
nnCLA, RV one of tbe aaast crMwatrd smats in the Greek
Cburch (where she is lu i iwwnatal on the sfth mi September)
and in the Latin Church (wlieTe her iestivai is the a3*d of
September). She is houonred with the tide of ** pvotaaaartyr.**
The centre of her colt was Sdenda, in T
sooth of Sdeoda, on tbe nwmnfain, was bag a voy I
place of pil gi image r and is mentioned in tiae two banks of St
Baafl of Scieucxa. The great pnpohrity of tbe aami is (
more particulariy to her Adm^ which in al their i
from the apocryphal work known as the Acta FmmM at Tkedme.
Acoonfing to her Aeta^ Theda was bom of illiiiliiwni |iiii.niafci.
at Icexunn, and came under the pnnoml If aching of the
apostle ftaL In her eightsenih year, having brnkio bet
engagement with Thaaayns, to whom she had been bctiothod.
she was acamed by her relatiens of being a fhriiritt Anncd
with tbe sign of the ooBs, she thre* benell Qo the pgrsc b«l tbe
byai -
THEFT— THEINNI
743
Ankkdii'tvlietedtt waiapoaod to wild beasts, then fastened to
buBi in Older that ihe misht be torn ssunder, and finally thrown
into a pit fnll of serpents; bat she was delivered from aU these
perils* She converted many heathen. Returning to looninm,
ihe withdrew into a mountain aotitode, and became distin-
guished by many virtues and mirarirs. In spite of their highly
fah^iVffl^ character, which caused them to be mate than once
condemned by the Church, the Ada of Paul and Theda, which
date back to the and century, are among the most intexcsting
noaaments of aadent Christian literature.
See it«to Samlonm, September, vL 54&-S68; J. A. lipaus,
A€tA a^stehnm apocrypha (Leipzig. 1891), L 2zy^; C. Schmidt.
Acta Pavli (Leipsig, 1905), where an attempt is made to prove
that the if c/a of Paul and Thecia formed an integral part of the
Acta Paaii; aee also APOcavpRAL Lztbeatusb. W. M. Ramsay,
The Church ta Iht Roman Empire More A.D. 170 (London. 1893).
pp. 375 nq.; C Holzey, Dia TheUa-Akttn, skra Vcrhretiunt tmd
Sairtkulunt ia der Kirthe (Munich, 1905). (H. Ub.)
THBFT, the act of thievnig or stealing. In English legal
iBage the practice is to call this act by its Norman^French
name of " larceoy," but properly theft is a wider term including
6ther forms of wrongful deprivation pf the property of another
(lee Lakcbity).
The O.E. word pepfSc or piefBe a formed from pecf, thief or
peafioit to thieire. cf . Ger. Dteb, Du. diif, Goth, thiubs. The origin
M not known. It may be related to Lithuanian lupiti, to crooch or
squat down; thus " thief " would mean " one who hides himself/'
Ine O.E. sldaHt to steal, appcara also in other Tcut. languages.
ef. Do. tiden, Swed. stjdla, Goth. sHOan, &c It has been doubt-
folly coanectcd with Gr. wnpCF, to deprive.
. THlSlf, or Thanb, an Anglo-Saxon word meaning an at-
tafidant, servant, retainer or official, and cognate with Gr.
rkamf, a child. From the first, however, it had a military
i^iniikattce, and Its usnsl Latin translation was miles, although
wtimisler was often used. J. Boaworth {AngtoSaxon Dictionary^
new ed. by T. N. Toller) describes a thegn as '*one engaged in a
king's or a queen's service, whether in the household or in the
country.'' and adds, " the word in this case seems gradually
to acquite a technical meaning, and to become a term denoting
a daas, containing, however, several degrees." The precursor
of the thegn was the gesVk, the companion of the king or great
kwd. the member of his comUatus^ and the word thegn began
to be used to describe a military gcslth. It is only used once
in the laws before the time of Aethclstan (c. 895-940), but more
frequently in the chatters. H. M. Chadwick (Studies on Anglo-
Saxon Institutions^ 190$) says that " the sense of subordination
must have been inherent in the word from the earliest time,"
bat it has no connexion with the German dienen^ to serve. In
file course of time it extended its meaning and was more
generally used. The thegn became a member of a territorial
ttobnity, and the dignity of thegnhood was attainable by those
wlio fulfilled certain conditions. Thus from a document of
uncertsdn date, possibly about the time of Alfred the Great,
and translated by Stubbs {Sdeet Charters) as "Of people's
ranks and laws," we kam: — " And if a ceoil throve, so that he
bad fully five hides of his own land, church and kitchen, bell-
house and burh-gate<«eat, and special duty in the king's hall,
then was he thenceforth of thcgn-right worthy." And again—
•* And if a merdiant throve, so that he fared thrice over the wide
sea by his own means, then was he thenceforth of thegn-right
worthy." In like manner a successful thegn might hope to
become an earl. In addition to the thegns there were otheis
who were thegns on account of their birth, and thus thegnhood
was partly inherited and partly acquired. The thegn was
inferior to the aethel. the member of a kingly family, but he was
siqterior to the ceorl, and, says Chadwick," from the time of
Aethebtan the distinction between thegn and ceorl was the
brood line of demarcation between the classes of society." His
aUtui b shown by his werg9d. Over a large part of England
this was fixed at xsoo shillings, or sit times that of the ceorl.
He was the twelfhynde man of the laws, sharply divided from
the twyhynde man or ceori.
The increase in the number of thegns produced in time a
•obdtvision of the order. There aroae a daas of king's thegns,
corresponding to the earlier thegns, and a larger class of interior
thegns, some of them the thegns of bishops or of other thegns.
A king's thegn was a person of great importance, the con*
temporary idea being shown by the Latin translation of the
words as comes. He had certain special privileges. No one
save the king had the right of jurisdiction over him, whDe by a
law of Canute we learn that he paid a larger hctiot than an
ordinary thegn.
But, like all other words of the kmd, the word thegn was
slowly changing iu meaning, and, as Stubbs says {Const, Bisl.,
vol L), " the very name, like that of the gesith, has difierent
senses m different ages and kingdoms, but the original idea of
mih'tary service runs through all the meanings of thegn, as that
of personal association is traceable in all the applications of
gesith." After the Norman Conquest the thegns appear to
have been merged in the class of knights.
The twelve senior thegns of the hundred play a part, the
nature of which is rather doubtful, in the development of the
English system of justice. By a Uw of Aethelred they " seem
to have acted as the judicial committee of the court for the
purposes of accusation " (W. S. Holdsworth, Bistory of English
Law, voL i. 1903), and thus they have some connexion with
the grand jury of modem times.
The wonl thane was used in Scotland until the x 5th century,
to describe an hereditary non-military tenant of the crown.
^^ (A. W. H.*)
TUBiinn, or HsENWi, one of the Northern Shan Sutes of
Burma. It is called by the Shans Hsenwi, and also officially
so designated, but is better known by the Burmanized name of
Theinni. It was by far the largest of the d»-Salwcen Shan
states, and at one time induded not only all the territory of the
present states of North and South Hsenwi, but also Kehsi
Mansam, M6ng Hsu, Mdng Sang, and M5ng Nawng, besides
having a sort of protectorate over Mang LOn and other Wa
states east of the Salween. These had, however, fallen away in
Burmese times, and at the period before the British annexation
Theicni was divided into five parts by name; but there was no
central authority, and the whole state was in hopeless disorder.
This continued until the appearance of British troops in March
1888, when it was divided into two states—North Theinni,
which was assigned to a successful adventurer, Hkun Sang, of
T6n H6ng, and South Theinni, which went to Nawmong, of
the old Shan ruling house. North Theinni has an area of 6330
sq. m., and a population (1901) of X18.3S5 persons; estimated
revenue, £6000. South Tlidnni has an area of 2400 sq. m.,
with a population (in 1901) of 67,836; estimated revenue,
£4800.
The northern part of North Theinni is a mass of hills affected
by the geological fault which has produced the rift that forms the
Nam Tu or Myit^ng6 valley, and has thrown up a aeries of parallel
ranees which extend northwards to the Shwdi (Lune Kiang),
without altogether destroying the north and south tread which w
the characteristic of the Shan hills as a whole. In the valleys
between these hills are numerous tracts under rice cultivation,
some drcular or oval, some mere ribands akmg the river banks.
The southerc portion has much more flat land, ^long the hoe of
the Nam Tu, its tributaries the Nam Yao and the Nam Nim. and
the Nam Yck flowing into the Salween. This was formerly thickly
populated, and still remains the most valuable portion of the state.
A range running westwards from the Sali^-cen, and marking the
soathem border of the rift in the hills, divides North from South
Theinni. Both north and south of the Nam To there are many
pcaka which rise to 6000 ft., and several over 7000 ft. The northern
portion is almost consistent enough In its altitude of about 4000 ft.
to be caned a plateau. It has large, grassy, upland downa Thb
Ert of the state has failed almost entirely into the hands of the
ichins. The Shans are fouad la the Nam Mao (Shweli or Lwig
Kiang) valley, and hi the Nam Tu and other valleys in the southern
part of the sute. The line of the Nam Mao is the lowest portion
of North Thdnni. being little over 2000 ft. above sea-level. The
southern valleys are about xoo or more ft. higher. South Theinni
is practically bisected by the huge mass of Ld' Ling, nearly 9000 f^
above sca-lcvd, and by the spurs which ihat peak sends north and
■outh. Apart from this it consists of broken hilUcountry of no
great heignt. or open rolUng downs, the latter chiefly in the eastern
half of the state. It b watered by numerous streams, of which
the chid IS the Nam Pang, an affluent of the Salween. The chid
river m the northern sute. apart from the Salween, is the Nam
74+
Tu or Mytt-flf^ which rises on the
not far from the latter river, and flo'
into Taungbaing or Thibaw. and ev
The r*
THEISM
Amarapura. The Nam Mao or Sh
it receives a conwdcrable tributaryi
entire course in Theinni territory, a;
fordable in the dry weather, and (
rains. The deforcstadon caused fa
has dried up many of the springs, mi
is very well watered. Considerable of
lignite, exist in both North and Sbi ar
to be of high quality. Gold is wi ^ _ _ _ ns
in a fitful way. Limestone exists in large quantities. No valuable
timber exists to any considerable extent. There is some teak in
the Nam Yao valley, and scattered wood-oil trees exist, Pine
forests cover some of the ranges, but, as elsewhere in the Shan
states, varieties of the oak and chestnut are the commonest forest
trees. The climate <rf the state as a whole is temperate. In the
plains of the uplands there are yeaHy frosts in January, February
and March, but in the great* ' • .he tbcrrooroeter
rarely falls to freezing-point eather does not
exceed ninety degrees lor any average rainfall
seems to be about 60 in. yean >n of the ancient
Shan empire at Tali by KubL ms to have been
the centre of the independent various cajutals
in the Shwcli and Nam Tu ' m of Kawsampi
was ended by the Burmese ab ntry was divided
Into various states, with appo \va. Numerous
rebellions and civil wars have n its position as
the roost powerful and populo idition of fearful
desolation. It has regained ince the British
occupation in i883, but is sti„ — .. — .. ^.osperity. Much
1 .^j r ^jjg j^jy^ roads that have bcsen made, and
I long Railw^ay.
of North Tludnni, stands near the north
The ruins of the old capital lie at a short
have been a large and well-built town,
s variously estimated at from three to ten
the capital of South Theinni, with a popu-
Laahio, the headquarters of the super-
^m Shan State, is in North TheinnL The
omprise Shans, Kachins, Chinese. Burmese,
nd Vanglam. The Shans and Kachins vastly
arly equal in numbers. 0* ^- ^•)
THEISM (Gr. 9t^, god), literally, and in its widest sense,
the belief in a god or gods. The term has had several changes
of meaning, (i) It appears for the first time in 18th-century
English as an occasional synonym for "deism" (q.v.)^ and
therefore as applying to those who believed in God but not in
Christianity. Later criticism, orthodox and heterodox, upon
the English deists inclines to charge them with the conception
of a divine absentee, who woimd up the machine of nature and
left it to run untended. That was the general 18th-century
way of thinking. God was apt to be thought of as purely
transcendent, not immanent in the world. (2) In the 19th
century theism is generally used of positive belief in God,
either with or without belief in the claim of Christianity to be
a revelation, but unassodated with any peculiarities of x8th-
century deists. If the word " deism " emphasizes a negative
element— rejection of church Christianity—" theism *' generally
emphasizes the positive clement— belief in God. (3) There is
also a third usage. "Theism" was reclaimed by Theodore
Parker, F. VV. ^ewman, Frances Power Cobbe, and others,
for their more modem speculative belief in God, which, while
non-Christian or at least non-orthodox, held to an immanent
God, continually revealing himself — in the moral consciousness.
The ambiguity cannot be cured. .We use the word in this
article in the second sense.*
I. From this point ot view theism is a synonym for Natural
.Theology, or almost so. But the expression Natural Theology
Aktomi itself has a history, (i) The " three theologies "—
ThM§ogy, recognized by the early Roman Stoics— probably on
the suggestion of a passage in Aristotle's Metaphysics, xi. 8 —
are named by St Augustine (Latinizing the Greek terms)
*Tmra. Kant's distinction of "deist" and " theist !* may be
found in the CriWjii* ef pMre Reason, '* Transcendental Dialectic."
Book II. chaps, iii. and viL It is curious, but, unless for the study
of Kant, unimportant.
• Cf. Theology. Natorp's article quoted there gives the reference
to the passage in Aristotle, but does not recognize its connexion
with the later Stoical distinction.
mythical, malural, and chril or political <Cdy ef Cod, iv. 97).
There is probably a malicious edio in a wdi-known passage of
Gibbon {Decline and Fail, chap, ii.): " The variota modes o£
worship which prevailed in the Roman world were all oon»
sidered by the people as equally true, by the philoaopher as
equally false, and by the magistrate as equally naefuL"
Augustine rejects all thxce " theologies " as pagan fii^nents, and
not a few church writers follow him in this— borrowing his
learning without naming him (rg. the Protestant Giotiiis in
his notes on Rom. i. so). Yet the natural or physical theology
of the philosophen— in contrast to mere myths or mere sute-
craft — seems a straightforward effort to reach faith in God on
grounds of scientific reason. It deserves the name, in the
modem sense, of Natural Theology. (2) Raymond of Sabunde's
Liber naturae sive creaiurarum (1454-36) bears also the title
Tkedogia Naturalis — but not kom the author's own hand,*
though his introduction to. the book in question, the Prologue,
put upon the Index at Rome for its daring, describes the " book
of nature " as " connatural to us," in contrast with the " super*
natural " book, the Bible, which belongs to the clerics. Laymen
may read the book of nature, and Man himself is the noost
important " leaf " in it. Raymond attempts to demonstrate
the whole of church theology upon principles of reason. That
is a task quite beyond what is generally recognized as Natural
Theology. (3) With Francis Bacon (Advancement of Learning,
1605) the expression Natural Theology emerges in what hM%
become the modem sense — as standing for a part of Christian
theology, attainable by reason, and contrasted by most theo-
logians with the " mysteries " of faith (Bacon uses that term
too) on the principles of Albert the Great and Thomas Aquinas
(sec Apologetics).
[It is not clear that Bacon is the first to use the term in the
now accepted sense; but he and Theophilus Rajmaudus, S. J.,
in his Theologia Naturalis (1622), of which there is a copy in the
Bodleian, must at least be among the first in their respective
commimions to do so. Raynaudus's authorities, in favour of
the recognition of a natural theology and against it, do not, so
far as the present writer has been able to consult them, use the
expression. So too H. Alsted, an early Protestant writer on
Natural Theology (in his Mclltodus Tkedvgiae, 16x1, and in
later works), defines it as modems do — some of the contents of
his Natural Theology are fantastic enough — and his authorities,
again so far as consiUted, differ upon the place to be assigned to
Natural Theology within a system of study, but do not employ
the term.]
In later times the expression is common; it is used e.g. by
Locke, LcibniU and Wolff. Wolff's influence made the usage
habitual,* though Schleiermacher and Ritschl, like the Socinians
earlier, deny tbe existence of a natural theology. Following
the text and ordinary interpretation' of Aristotle's
Metaphysics, it is believed that Aristotle already
identified metaphysics with a theology: accordingly
modem Roman Catholic learning, which owes a great debt to
Aristotle through the schoolmen, includes Natural Theology
in phikMophy, not in theology properly so called. With
Natorp's artide W. Wallace's Cijord Lecture,* chap, i., may
also be consulted; but Wallace does not distinguish the un-
usual sense which the term bears as applied to Raymond's
book. R. Flint has remarked that Natural Theology ought
not merely to prove the being of God, but to give a full sys-
tematic view of what (it is contended) can be learned of theo-
logical tmth from the " light of nature " (St Augustine, and
' See art. " Raimundus Sabiende " by Schaarschmidt in Hcrzog-
Hauck, RealencylelopAdie (ed. 1905). At this point we must also
call to mind the wide currency given to the term theok)gy by
Abelard. and his editors or copyista.
* A. Hamack and some other^use the expression in a wider sense.
Any supposed principles (even if not uorkeij out into a system of
inferences) used as ready-made dues for the study and interprctatiott
of Chrisrianity are described by this school as natural thcok)cf
(cf. Theology).
* Challenged by Natorp; see Thbolocy.
* Published in XzUurcs and Essays.
tTHEISM
745
thf«loii«Bt ifOCftUy after him)* Tb« Dame " thdHi " lukes
that requirement less emphatic (see below).
Another kindred terns is " Natural Religion." We meet
with this in the titles oC two Latin works' by Gennan authors
Hatmni in reply to Lord Herbert of Cherbury. They use it
«!%<•» ^ix\i strong condemnation, from the standpoint ol
rigorous Christian orthodoxy ^ but it comes into Knglanri
withm very few years upon the Chriuian side — religion againsi
irreligion— in Bishop John Wilkins's Principla cmA Duties of
Natural Religwn (1678). The author died 167s, and left the
book unfinished; but the Uuiguage of the titJe occurs in the
first sentence; so it is undoubtedly WiUuns's, as wdl as sanc-
tioned by his editor and connexion through marriage, TiUotson.
afterwards the archbishop We meet with " Natural Religioii *'
again in Samuel Clarke's works, and noubly in Bishop Joseph
Butler's Analogy (1736). Thus, as eroi^yed by most writers.
" Natural Religion " connotes neutrality or even friendliness
towards Christianityi just as is the case with theism in sense
(2). or with Natural Theology. *' Deist,*' or sometimes " theist "
in sense (i), or Naturalist, is a term of reprobation with English
i8th<entury apologists, but not '* Natural Religion." U
there is any difference between " theism *' or ** Natural Theo-
logy ** on the one hand, and Natural Religion on the other, it is
to be found in the more practical cfaancter attaching to natural
'* religion." While Romans i. 19 and jo (yet cf« Acts xiv
17, xvil 24, &c) is the main New Testament passage which
seems to recognize a Natural Theology, Rom. iL 14, 15 may be
said to assert Natural Religion. When the expression Natural
Theology comes to the front once more with Archdeacon W.
Paley (1802). this is a sort of after-birth or anachronism '
Natural Law ^We do not pretend that Law of Nature —
the jurist's term, not of course that of inductive science—is
Nmiani Strictly a synonym for theism. But it is a cognate
^^' conception, of great importance htftoiically, bearing
the marks of the Stoic doctnne of " nature." and helping to
turn men's minds towards a " natural " theok«y. A paiuheist
may believe in Law of Nature and go no further; a theist who
accepU Law of Nature has a large instalment of natural theology
ready made to his hand, including an idealist, or else an
intuitionalist, Kheme of ethics. Both jus nalnr«U and Ux
naiuralis are as early as Cicero, and the jus gentium of the
Roman lawyers is earlier still. Ambrose of Milan {Epistles ix. 7 1 )
quotes Romans U. 14, i5--the passage already referred to,
under " Natural Religion " — as asserting '* Natural Law ";
St Paul's words suggest that form of thought and may con-
ceivably have been suggested by it J. G. Ritchie's Natural
RightSf from the point of view of a very hostile (evolutionary)
idealism, sketches the early history of the phrase Natural Law.*
The philosopher in Abelard's Dialogus inter Judaeum Phile-
sophum ei Ckristianum expecU to be saved ex sola lege natural*,
here " law of nature " is fully equivalent to Natural Religion,
and the word sola sets it in contrast with Christianity. Not to
speak of the canonists, Thomas Aquinas gives natural law an
important places while Melaacthon, drawing from Aquinas,
gives it an entrance into Protestant thought. Zwingli and
Calvin on the other hand prefer the positive view of Uw as in-
stituted by God far back .in history in the days of the Old
Covenant; but, when exegesis or controversy puts pressure
upon them, they fall into line and reiterate the appeal to a
Natural Law. Richard Hooker, again with ti^ces of Aquinas,
uses the conception as a weapon a^inst Puritanism, with iu
aggressive positivism of scriptural precept. Natural Law, he
claims, leaves room for discretionary arrangements like cplt*
oopacy; Scripture does not mean to supersede the light of
reason. It is intelfigible that Locke (Treatises of Civil Cawtn-
wunt) should have a relish in quoting Hooker against the divine-
right royalism of Sir John Filmer; but in Locke there is already
> Recorded 10 J. G. Walch's Bibliotkeca Theotogica SeUda (i7S0.
« Sec Wallace's Ctford Utture.
■For the influence of that conception in theology, especially
throogh the medium of Isidore of Seville, see successive cnapters
in A. J. Carlyle s Hisi, of Utd^mot Potitical Thought w tk* Wtit,
vol k
* fevivtl of bdief hi the (beaxfideai) "state " of aature and a
growing emphaiis upon natural ngfUs\ ideas, which, heralded
by Rousseau, echoed round the world in the French Revolution.
Locke had spent some years in Holland, the country of Grutins,
who, with help from other great lawyers, and under a mia»
apprehension as to the meaning of the Romaa jus gjsuUum,
shaped modem concepts of international law by an appeal to
kw of nature.* This moral ideal rendeied considerable services
to dviliaation; we must not forget these, in the offence which
the myth of a primitive golden age may offer to our historic
sense. The kernel is soB&d enough though the husk is a poor
thing. Finally, it is of some interest to note that Chr. Wolff,
in the intervals of his chequered theobgicBl csicer, lectmed
and wrote as a jurist upon the Lawof Natmc.
" Philosophy of rel^pon " is the modem term. It agun b
not exactly a synonym, though more nevly so than the last*
The ne«r phrase indicates that we are to approach pmobo'
the thought of God through a study of refagkras beliefs Mk*'
and practices; " theism " tended to make God « n M gM m
purely scientific inference from the facts of nature. But
" philosophy of religmi " can be constraed in many different
ways. An investigatori pledging himself to no beii ds even
perhaps one who definitdy disbelieves and rejects tbeism--may
yet interest hhnaelf in tracking out the psydiology of xeligkm.
Or a philosopher like Hegel, armed with a meUpl^cal theory,
may descend upon the facts of religion and interpret then in
its light, till tfa^ almost kiae their original significance, which
we might provisionally define as consisting in this, that the be*
liever in any religion finds himself helped or (as he claims)
saved by it. Again, we must not be misled by verbal idiosyn-
crasies. What James Martinea« calls A Study of BoHgton fs
really m the main a rC'Statement oCold theistic argomenta.*
(Wallace's Oijford Lecture may be consulted upon this phrase
also. He observes with truth that Natural Theology, if yon
remove from it the idea of subordination to Christianity as
(claiming to be) a special revelation, tends to pass into a
philosophy of reUgkn. But it does not foUow that the new
standpoint Involves what Wallace seems to hint, though he
cqbcmIs his meaning behind oompUmentary rhetorie-'rejection
of church Christknity. A. M. Fairbaim's Phil, of the Christiam
Religion shows by its very titk that an effort is being made to
combine great coniidenoe in metaphysics with strong belief in
the uniqueness of Christianity; and the effort will be found to
characterise all Fairbaim's work. Possibly, fuller study of
religions may help theologians to formulate the imperial daims
of Christianity more happily than in the dry contrast between
what is " revealed " and what is " natural" But that contrast
is traditional; and it is implied in the ordinary theological
usage of such phrases as "natural theology" at "natuiml
religbn " and almost of " theism."]
Comparative religion, or, as some can it, history of religion,
is yet another modem study, closely akin to the last discussed,
although more strictly conimed to registering the comporm'
sequence of religious phenomena and less disposed ovMo*
towards criticizing religions or towards ranking them itiha.
in an order of merit. We cannot, therefore, call it precisely
synonymous with theism. And yet theism— or monotheism —
constitutes a spcdal locus in the history of religion. The
historian observes and records, in different lands and ages, the
rise or explicit utterance of belief in one God.
Some uncertainty may be felt whether pantheism should
rank as a theism. Is unhy the main point? Or is not per«
sonality rather of prime importance, though doubtless pre-
supposing unity? (Usa^e doea not aUow us to rank polytheism
as a form of theism.) £. Ttodtsch, Kultur der Geg^nwori,
Teil I. Abt. 4, p. 470, finds that the wisdom of the priests, in
one land after another, rises to the thought of divine unity.
That suggests pantheism, the usual forai of such esoteric
wisdom. Professor T. W. Rhys Davids {American Lectures,
p. 37) sums up that, when the name of an earlier deity is
«Sco (with writera aheady mentwned) Sir H. Maine's Anciemt
Law. •See his JutroduOiau.
746
THEISM
attached to'the object of supreme vofship, monotheism proper is
approached; while, when a new thought'Construction is put In
the supreme place, there is a tendency rather towards pan*
theism. So far as this is true, theism (proper) would seem to
be an accident of language.
There is a further problem; whether monotheism is of very
early occurrence. Belief in a primitive historical revelation,
once uni venal among Christians, has almost disappeared; but
belief in a very early and highly moral theism is stoutly defended,
chiefly on Australian evidence, by Andrew Lang (Tkc Making of
iUiisiom and later works). If lAng is right, "primitive"
peoples drew typical theistic inferences, and argued to God
from nature and from conscience, though without displacing
other types of religious belief and practice. In many regions^
£gypt, Babylonia, &c.~individual investigators of the great
religions have thought they found traces of an early-H>ne
hesiutes to write, of a "primitive" — monotheism. Perhapa
J. Ixn^t who fin^ true theism at the dawn of Chinese histoiy,
is the most authoriutive representative of such views.
Passing to later times, we can watch a theory of monotheism
rising, and dying down again, during what our scholars distin-
■wiw— guish as the Brahmanical period of Indian religion.
lA^^Mk The supreme god, Isvara, has the personal name
Prajapati, Visvakiurroan or some other. But this theism is
lifdess— a "pale and shallow deism, whid India has often
confessed with the lips, but which has never won the homage of
her heart.*'* The thought of India is upon the side of pan-
Again, the heretical Egyptian Idng Amcnophis IV.
or Akhenaton, one of the sovereigns to whose govern-
ment the celebrated Tell d-Amama letters from
Palestine i^-eie addressed, was a sealous champion of the ex-
clusive cUims of the sun-disk God, Ra; but his policy died
with him. In Babylonia a mutilated inscription printed by
— » >■ T. Pinches {Tfomsmtticns of Vidoria iiuiiitUc, vol. »8),
*^ identifying (so far as preserved) thirteen other Gods
with Maiduk, has been haOed by Friedricb Delitasch (BaM mmd
BiM) as the great fountai»4iead of monotheism, and has in*
flucnced the bold if highly precarious conjectures of H. Windcler.*
Of more assured importance was the Zorosstrian faith — ^''pare
9fm^ ttoial dualism if not theism " (L. R MiBs)— 'which
'^'^ proved its acni by penecntions. But later times
nearly strangled Zorosstriaa piety, not only by laws of ritnal
purity but also by newly c\-<otvcd secondary dcitie»->pcfsonilied
attributes and the like. So that here again theism, if theism
k was. did not conthnie in strength. Ifwe wndeistand bytheins
not simple bdief in a divine unity, but soch faith in one divine
person as will constitute the basis for a popular religion, then —
unless we allow a doobtful eaccption in Zowastrisniqw— we most
agree with these historians of religion who affirm that tke worid
lu$ known only a single tiding monotheism, via. that of the Old
Testament, akagwiih what are hittoikalty the dnghtcr faiths,
Chriuunity and Islsm.
rhe ihctst believes that he can farther tnee many inoomplete
w^wkii^ of the mo n o t he sitk oBtiBa in the hstoty of reKgiMi.
j^xm Not only is it tma. as A. Meniies obseivcs, that
S<ia> **RcoMB knows OB^ God, not Gods**; if we take
* *f* rriipoo as aemf kti^ no w<otship|ier puaa e ww i^
"^ ' ligioD in f uU security until he has gone smlght t« the
Isuntnii^head, and isuned the frioMhhip of the God d Gods.
Indian Vcdk hcnotheism (othitwiw oalcd fcathinoihiiHn);*
S emit i c SBOBolaliy, so impartant as the probable staitis^ paL.t
el fc^KMS dR^dopBent m Isnd: the Greek nae of ' 2«»s "
almMt as w«ssy '* Gsd ''—even the »tta«< tosnisgi deities
la a mwnsuh s i s l panthean^ aB show the tt adascy ^ thnsgh it
t» asMiaa attHBS 4 ical vktnty.
»A.
Miites ^ ^idfet. Ear tiaas^ ppLM.wi.Ca.We-
tsMnd l& hortrie iw^lHM taW itaM of ife
■HMse^ty are— »> V«\^ «im> i .t«i tc> o ^ a nK^L^m .
II. We have already suggested that thersm covers more ground
than the name at first may suggest. It can never quite confine
attention to the problem of the being of God. Where ^^. -
God is bdieved in at all, it is believed that upon God mau d^
evcfything else depends. With the thought of God, ■»»«<■• #
accordingly, there Is correlated a modification in ***»
thoughts upon all other subjects; and a full system of theism
must discourse " Of God, of the worid, of the Soul, " like &f atibew
Arnold's Moses. In other words there must be doctrines re-
garding matter and mind, the world and the self, as well as
regarding that Absolute Being who is believed to enst behind
both, revealing Himself through them. This way of approach-
ing theism is illustrated in A. C. Eraser's Giffotd Lectures, or
in earlier times in the writings of Christian Wolff, whose sciences^
according to the slightly different nomenclature which Kant
imposed on them, were "rational psychology," "rational
cosmology/' and " rational theology." Kant swept away, so
far as his influence extended, such " dogmatic metaph>'sics "
and the old-fashioned theism which it constituted or mdudcd;
but Kant himself introduced, in his own more sceptical yet also
more moral type of thcbtic doctrine, a new trichotomy — Cod,
Freedom, Immortality, the three '* postulates " of the Kamrm
" prsctical reason." It is tempting to txy to correlate ''jim ti
the members of this triad with the individual membexs **^'*
of the older, triad. But that would only mislead us; free wiD
and immortality are reaHy predicates ascribed— <n whatever
grounds— to the soul; and it is natural that in theism the soul
of man should be a t<^c second in importance only to God
Himself. Eveiy theistic system, or almost evoy one, makes
provision m some way for Kant's three postulates. Accord-
ingly, even m a hurried survey of the history of theism, we
must try to question the systems we are re%'iewnig upon their
attitude towards human freedom and immortality, as well as
upon their doctrine of God. Sometimes it will be found that
free wiD is asserted as an assured fact, as a iatum^ a«*
and so as a ground of inference to God. But some- *^
times free will is rather a prohanimm. In Christian tbeoilogy,
much labour has been spent upon vindicating manH freedom
against God's intrusion, or upon blotting o^it fanman powder m
order to leave room for the divine. Tbetsm suggests at the
very outset that we should rather expect to find a oorrdatioo
between the two. If there is a God at all, he must be tboui^t
of as the guarantee of freedom in man and as the pledge of his
imniortallty.
The mention of OuKtian theology may remind ns that, for
the majority of theisu in medieval and raodcre times, theism
proper hss ranked only as a seooodaiy wisdom. It s^as^
B possible for Chrfstttns to work out natnial Ihedogy o^a •#
in separate detail; but we cannot wonder if they •ta*^
lardy attempt the tsdt, beKcvi ug as th^ do that they hare
a fuller rewdation of re li gio u s truth dsfhcic la point
of fact, as we look to histoiy, we find that theism has been
much simplified and cot down. Fiist of aB, attortiee has been
concentrated upon God. One does not suggest that tl&s con-
centration was an emr. On the coctxaiv, even drtsslaa theo-
logy makes at least the effort to show that the thought of God
regulates the whole system of beiicl Yet wh^ an adequate
dottii n c of God anay settle cveiTthing m p r i m dp k , we oi;^
to remember thst there are cp pli t mii om of tbe perac^pie» apart
ffom which we do not see our way dearly. As a second step si
cencentraXMn. atteniion is alzMst cmAj ed to the qpoestieo
** Doc^ God exist? " and to t h e istic peoofe as answctiag * Yes.'*
IW farther nthtisn ^ ^"kat is God?" is afancd. as IT tkere
coohl he no two apmSons legwdirg that; whimas in txrah
there are two handl e d cpiajcss. A. B. Brwoe feeb ties so
stiocgiy tint tke nrtaral theology sertSBQ of hB ApoUgeHa
casireiy omils tW goenien * Does God C9B1>* is €avo«r «f
< tbeqoestion -^mint is Cod.>** Firings tint is <
I sided. When we da ted ihesa deaSac witk tbe
. *" ^I'hat is God?" & tfAds to borrow iioai w^ntavic J
ai Ckwtfis^ theok«r the achcase of Boic ■md Artribntes
I isee ««. Wosa). But anch i
THEIBM
747
mmmtA pi^iBfaiiry d«ex^ifoii ti tht «b)itt lo ivhidi H
i*applSed.«
So «ur wedth of material barows down te the ofdhuty
hiadUng to a tingle questiofi. God, tlie woiid, thcf lOiU, iff
will, nomorulity, optimiam; What Uien is God? All these
questions, and perhaps others, tend to conceal themselves
behind a lingie discussion: Does God e«fst?* But further
siilL Either the fuller or the narrower way of dealing with
thdsm will diifer according to the philosoQhical stand-
point of the particular theist who speaks to the ques-
tion. As long as the battle of the pilulosophies
endures, theism can hardly be unified. Its hislovy is
not so much that of a single evolving doctrine, but
rather the history of many ami diverse theistic schemes:
in. It may help us if we rapidly review at this point the
leading types of philosophy in their application to the theistic
problem. Grouping and naming are fixed here for one special
purpose. From other points of view they may perhaps appear
open tb blame; but it is hoped they wiH throw light upon our
present study.
The simplest basb for philosophy* fs empirfdsm. Such a
philosophy makes Ifttle serious attempt at constructive work in
OvMr^ antiquity: but, upon the first great victories of
«*■•• physical science in modem times, a desire arose lo
extend the new and wonderfully fruitful method to the ultimate
problems of speculation. Let us take experience as our teacher!
Let us stand upon realitie»-^pon facts! Difficulty may be
found in carrying out this empiricist programme; but at the
outset no one dreams of failure. Beginning with the certainties
of everyday experience, it reaches theism at last by mean^ of
an analogical argument. Many objects in nature, organisms
especially, seem to resemble the works of human design; there-
fore with high probability we infer a designing mind
behind nature, adequate to the production of these
special results.* Having got such a mind, we may
next inquire whether, on the principle of parsimony, it win not
account for more; perhaps for everything in nature I But
the starting-point of the argument in question is the purely
empirical evidence of a single fact or set of facts; it proceeds
by way of analogy, not of strict demonstration; and it claims
for its results nothing more than probability. From Socrates,
in Xenophon's Metnorabiita, downwards, the argument is toler-
ably common; it is notable in Cicero; in the modem discussion
it dominates the 18th-century mode of thoixght, is confidently
appealed to though not worked out by Butler, and is fully
staled by Paley. The argument does not necessarily imply
empiricism in philosophy; still, it is peculiarly characteristic
of empiricism. In ethics empiricism begins by recognizing that
man possesses sensations, and so is liable to pleasures and
pains. Hence, early empiricism makes ethics simply a calculus
ahka; ^^ pleasures (*• hedonism •*). We may doubt, with
tie^w W. E. H. Lecky,< whether such a philosophy affords
''** a basis for natural theology at all; but the attempt
is made. As J S Mill tried to reconcile criminal law and its
punishments with his very hard type of determinism by saying
that law was needed in order to weight the scale, and in order
to hold out a prospect of penalties which might deter from
crime and impel towards good citizenship, so Paley held that
virtue was not merely obedience to God but obedience " for
' Criticism of the scheme, from the point of view of an idealist
theism, will be found in John Caird's Jntrodtu to the PkiL 0/ Rtltgum,
chap, viii Yet the formula is lerviceabW Perhape A is even
tnditpenMble as a pr«limui<vy statement. We find U subsunti*
ally revived in the opening sentence and general scheme of a useful
book. A. Caldecott's study of Tki Fkil. i^ Heltg, in Enffand •mi
America.
* An outline of the history of theism is reserved for Section IV.;
but it has not proved possible to sketch the types of philosophy
without introducing references to the history oil pliilosophy and
sometimes even to the history of theism as well.
*Of course the Design Argument is well known in antiquity.
but not the type of philosophy which sunds or falls by that line
• CuSisi. 9^ Suroptan Uoralt, pp. 58. 59.
the nke of cMfiitt hnppimm.^ A i660Dd^ype <
less Ignoble, but peihaps alio less logical^-calla men to seek
the happCness of ^iktts. Paley indudes that too; vntae is
** doing good to mmkind," in obtdienoe to God, lor the sake
of heaven.
The second type of phUoaophy, for our purpose, is intrntion-
aBsm. It finds its chance in the misadvcotuies of empiricism.
The Scottish philosophy of Thomas Reid and his latanitm'
successors believed that David Hume's scepticism was «<<»•
no more than the genuine outcome of Locke's sensationalist
appeal to experience when ripened «r foived on by the iio-
materialism of Bishop Berketey^God and the sonl aknie; mA
God, world and sonl. And so the Scotsmen fell back upon the
witness of consciousness. They did not make much use of thfe
word ** faituitkNi," which may indeed be taken in different
tenses, e.g. of visionaiy experiences as Well as of the principles
of "common sense" {i.e. universal beliefs). They spoke of
** natural realism " and a " natural dualism " of mind and
matter (reinstating here the element which Berkeley had struck
out). Still, they do not repudiate the word ** intuition," and
kindred writers make it prominent. The term is borrowed fnii
Sight, of all the physical senses the one which most rapidly
instructs the mind. You see, at a glance, that things are sot.
Indeed, there is a ftnther Implication, when the term intuition
is borrowed for mental vision; yon see at a glance that things
mtsi he so. Here then characteristically intuitionalism occupies
a half-way house between empitkism, with its appeal to real
given fact, and idealism, with its appeal to necessity. The
senses, hi perception as contrasted with sensation, are held to
give immediate knowledge. We perceive, beyond all possi-
bility of doubt, that things are so and so. This Is Reid's first
reply to Hume. Define meee carefully than Locke did, with
his blunder about "ideas," the process of perception, and you
cut up scepticism by the roots! So far, this philosophy has
little bearing upon theism. But Intuitionalism has further
argtmwnts for the doubter. Besides testimony from outer
sense, we have tesrimony and teachings from consciousness
within—" first principles," as Reid generally calls them. There
are some principles which, as soon as they are presented to the
mind and correctly grasped, must be assented to; we set the
tmih! Two regions become prominent in the working out of
intuitionalism, if still more prominent in the widely differing
philosophy of Kant— the regions of mathematics and of morals.
Though ]. S. Mill boldly affirmed that there might be remote
realms in space where 2+2 did not make 4 but* some different
total, even empiricists may hestitate to concur; and yet Mill's
assertion is at least the most obvious empiricist reading of the
situation. If all knowledge b drawn from experierKe, state-
ments universal in form are but generalizations, holding within
the limits of actual experience, or advanced beyond them at
our peril. Geometry again is regarded by thoroughgoing
empiricists as hypothetical. It deab. according to Mill, with
arbitrary and imagiftary constructions. If there were such a
thing as a triangle contained by absolutely straight lines, its
three angles would rro doubt measure what Euclid says; but
straight lines and true triangles nowhere exist in rtrum nature.
Kant*s point is ignored, that deductions from these " imaginary "
figures ap^y to the " real " world of experience. Every time
we survey a field, we go upon the principles, not of special
experience, but of priori necessity. Given certain linear and
angular measurements, the area mnsi be so and so. Great as
is the difference when we pass from mathematics to morality,
yet there are striking similarities, and here again intuitionalism
claims to find much support. If we accept moral ideals at all,
we are no longer in the world of mere phenomenal sequences,
but in a new world. It is a problem for empiricism; given a
world where nothing but phenomenal sequences exist, to account
for moral ideab. Vulgar materialism sneers at the problem;
duty U a fraud or hobgoblin, a mere superstition. Even
Jeremy Bentham, restive under appeals to vague and in-
tangible standards, breaks out in despairing indignation ag^nst
the word " ought " as " the talisman of arrogance,
7+9
THEISM
and ipKUBoee," aifll «s '' an aut]ioiitativft. impottvre."^ Later
ethical empiridsm » more refined. J. & Mill recogniKs an
ultimate difference in <)uality between higher and lower plea*
gttxes. A. Bain finds that benevolence is one given element in
man's original constitution. H. Sidgwick holds that intuition
must justify the dainis of the general happiness upon the
individual, though everything subsequent is hedonistic cal-
culus. Herbert Spencer finds that the modern individual has
intuitions of duty which represent the inherited experience of
what has been good for the race in the past. Sir Leslie Stephen
finds that moral laws are the coikditioos needful for the good of
the social organism, and are imposed as such by society upon
its individual members. The problem has altered its form.
What the modem empiricist needs is a rational bond uniting
the individual with the community or with the aggregate of
individuals~a rational principle distinguishing high pleasures
from low, sanctioning benevolence, and giving authority to
moral generalizations drawn from conditions that are past and
done with. The non-empirical moralist will not of course
admit that duty to the community or to mankind is a final
definition of the ethical ideal. He will accept it as a stage, of
no small importance, in progressive definition, but he will seek
to go further.
We have already remarked that the difficulties of empiricism
constitute the strength of intuitionalism. A critic of intuition-
i^fdifrm alis°^ might add that they are its whole strength;
9tioua- intuitionalism is sound upon the intelleaual and
ti^'^o*^ moral inUresls of humanity, but it does little to
justify them. It reasserts them, with resolute loyalty; but
if philosophy ought to vindicate, to explain, perhaps inciden-
tally to modify, even, it may be, to purify our primary beliefs,
intuitionalism is hardly a philosophy at alL For good or for
evil, so far as there is an accepted line of theistic doctrine, that
doctrine is intuitionalist. Other schools of philosophy pay
flying visits to theism; intuitionalism is at home there. Its
leading argument is the cosmological, concluding to *' God as
cause " (Martineau). When David Hume {Dialogues concern-
ing Natural Religion) protests that the universe is a " singular
effect " and that we have no right to affirm a cause for it, unless
we have experience of the origin of many universes, and can
generalize the conclusion, They all have causes— he may be
unassailable upon empiricist grounds. But intuitionalism
claims to allege a higher certainty; everything (or every change)
must have a cause — this is not merely actual fact but necessary
truth. The universe exists^-or, as other^'ise stated, the uni-
verse is " contingent " — therefore, even without detailed know-
ledge of different universes, we can affirm that it must be
caused, and in its " Great First Cause " we recognize God.»
It is generally stated that this argument was for the first time
definitely formulated in Aristotle's philosophy. Of course the
cosmological argument is rarely or never left to stand quite
alone. The design argument is available for the slightly bolder
philosophy of intuitionalism as well as for empiricist theism.
But there is yet another argument which is even more important.
Moral elements must enter into theism at some point: and, as
against empiricism, intuitionalism is morally strong. Hence it
naturally has a moral argument in reserve. Moral law implies
a law-giver; " we are conscious of moral dependence " (Robert
Flint). Still the main weight of intuitionalist theism resu upon
the conception of God as First Cause.
As a philosophy, intuitionalism leaves the mind in all the
embarrassment of an indefinite number of separate starting-
points. Every percept is such a surting-point; it is an
immediate certainty, remaining with us unmodified as the basis
> Deontology, p. 42. F. H. Bradley ^Ethical Studies, p. j) quotes
an even plainer attack on the conceptions as well as the terminology
of ethics in a Westminster Review article (Oct. 1873. p. 3n) which
describes" responsibility " or {sic) " moral desert in the vu^ar sense
as '* horrid figments of the imagination."
• Any attempt to treat " cause " as pointine to a truth here,
but inadequately, would lead us bcyona intuitionalism into some
pha«» nf irfMlia'm. To revise one's first principles is to be an
of i!dUyible inference. Eveiy Fint Bnadple «f the mimd k
a starting-point too. Reid — certainly a very uns^tematic
thinkes— fitraishes long and random lists of " first principles ";
a later writer, J. M'Cosb, in his Inliulions oj Uu Mind, attenpu
a more systematic study. (For ethics we may also compare
Miss F. P. Cobbe. Contemporary with Reid and even more
popular in treatment was James Beattie; Dugald Stewart
with trivial modifications followed Reid; but in Sir W.
Hamilton ^d H. L. Mansel there were sweeping changes in
the direaioa of agnosticism — changes due partly or primarily
to the influence of Kant.) Memory is included among First
Principles. Testimony is also a First Principle (this is aimed
against Hume's Euay on Miracles), Ineviubly the question
forces itself upon the mind, is not some fuller synthesis possible?
All these isokted startiqg-poinU of thought are said to be, one
by one, necessary. Is there no higher or broader necessity?
Can we not attain to some farther-reaching philosophy?
If we answer " Yes " to that question, we pass on from
intuitionalism to idealism — ^an idealism not on the liiKS ol
Berkeley (matter does not exist) but -of Plato (things
obey an ascertainable rational necessity). This third
possibility iu philosophy docs not enter at all into
Lecky's grouping referred to above; in fact, it is
very generally strange to older British thinking,*
which, if it conceives any tertium quid besides empiricism arid
intuitionalism, is apt to think of scepticism. The fixed given
points of intuitionalism furnish Hamilton with one of his
arguments in his imexpccted development towards a sceptical
or " faith philosophy." You cannot prove any first principle.
You accept it by "faith." So— for this among other reasons
— we infer that knowledge has narrow limits, beyond which
doubt, or faith, presently begins. But is it really a matter of
faith that two and two make four? Do we " believe where we
cannot prove " that the whole is greater than its part? A less
sophisticated intuitionalism would rejoin with great force,
" These are matters of sigfU; it could not be otherwise, and you
su that it could notl" Hamilton's line of thought may,
however, impress on us the conviction that it is extremely
natural for philosophy to pass beyond the limitations of a
purely intuitionalist programme. It does so noubly in Kant«
He is a most difficult writer; different readers under- Kmmtmm
sund him differently; and he uses in the earlier parts
of his Critique oJ Pure Reason much of the language
of intuitionalism. But nothing is more cerUin than
that his thought is a strong solvent of the intuitionalist way of
thinking; and he has had an immense influence in many direc-
tions. We may state his chief results in our own words. First
he breaks up the percept. It is no ultimate given point of
departure; it is due to the reaction of thought upon sensation.
Sense alone will never create orderly experience, as empiricism
supposed; but a group of sensations reacted on by thought
does so, it becomes, it is, a percept. Secondly, the " forms '*
of time and space, not referable to any sensation, and pre-
supposed in every experience, come from the mind (" Trans-
cendental Aesthetic"). Thirdly: we cannot explain how
these three elements— sensation; tirne and space, thought-
work together. True, Kant refers often to the ideal of a '* per-
ceptive " or " intuitive understanding," whose thought would
produce the whole of knowledge out of its native contents
But our understanding, he is convinced, is of a different and
inferior type. Incomprehensibly, we are dependent upon
sensation; and incomprehensibly, we place our sensations in
time and space. Fourthly: if we try to think of objects noi
buUt up out of sensations and fief in time and space, we ate
* Austin's Jurisprudence explicitly assumes that the dilemma of
•' intuitive " and " utilitarian " is exhaustive. Hence F. H.
Bradley's characteristic protest (Ethical Studies, pp. 8». 83): "If
we wished to cross an unknown bog, and two men came to us of
whom the one said ' Some one must know the way o>-er this boc ,
for there must be a way, and you see there is no one here besioe
us two, and therefore one of us two must be able to guide you. And
the other man does not know the way, as you ean soon aee: tbei«>
fore I must '—should we answer^ 'Lead on, I follow'?"
THEISM
749
teffled by cbalndictlons or •bsurdUies. Ktnt adnSU that we
necctaarily upire to think of such objcctt— *' God, the Workl,
the Soul "—possibly this sUeged tendoicy of our thought is
already implied in the dream of a " perceptive undentandlng."
But speculative knowledge breaks down or breaks off at an
earlier point If we try to knowthe soul, we grasp at a phantom.
The self is always subject in consciousness and never can be-
come an object of knowledge C* Paralogism of Pure Resaon ").
If we try to know the real world, we find oundves distnctod
by opposite arguments (" Antithetic of Pure Reason "), plausible
and resisUem in attack, helpless in defence. The only thing
which the " Ideas " of ** Reason " can do for theoretic know-
ledge is to exert a " regulative " function. They teach the in-
ferior but working part of our inteUect, the" Undeiatanding,"
that iu picture Of sensuous reality envisaged in time and space
must be as fully articulated as is possible—aa much differentiated
into detail, and as perfectly integrated again into unity and
system. Cod, for Pure Reason, is an illegitimate pemnifica-
tion of the idea of perfected experience (" Ideal of Pure Reason ")•
Fifthly there are fixed limiu to the posstbiUty of improving the
qnality of cxpericoccu Sense-knowfedge is an endleia prKCss,
inconsistent with the rtquirements of thought. We can by no
means regard the physical world as the veal world. But we
poaaeaa knowledge of the physical world and ol it alonc^
'* Things in therosdvca "-^whether defined by Kant, illogically
enough, as causes of sensations or again defined by him aa the
ultimate realities towaida which thought vaguely points— m
either case, " thin^i m themselves" aro unattainable by any
definite kxwwledge. Our " reach " exeeeda our " stmsp " with
a vengeance;
So far as a remedy for a eepti ci s m Is found at all, Kant places
it, not wiihm theoretic knowledge, but in moral or " practical '*
^ ^ experience. Pure knowledge, for roan, moves ainong a
^'■^* world of shadows; duty is certain. Mansel charged Kant
with inconsistency in thu preferential ttvatment of the
moral consdoumcm; all our knowlcdac, even in moral
things, was ** reUtiv» " and was " regulative."' But, whether con-
Mstent dr inconsistent. Kant was deliberate in diflerentiating
between the ethical and the theoretic knowledge of man. " Ana-
l>-tic '* or tautological thoueht does not become *' synthetic " or
capable of embracing a nu cooicnt cxoept under the sdag of
■ensatkm; why sensation, shauU thus help it is obacure, yet the
fact is plain. But analytic thinking is victorious in moraUi where
the test of format sdS-amxistency distinguishes virtue from vice.
The good man b the perfectly rational or perfect self-connstent
man; and that is a lull account of virtue, though Kant pro*
fesaes to re^interpiet it still further in a much more positive sense
as implying the service of humanity. True, at a later stage,
the opposition of sense and thought reasserts itself stronsly with
Kant even in ethics. We are allowed moral certainty, but are
forbidden the hope of genuine moral victory. Just as our knowledge
never can finish its usk of reducing world-cxperieMe to aa iatcffi-
gible system, so our will is never ooce able berfectly to obey the
Uw of reason. There is always a taint of feeling in roan's^oodness.
This portion of the ethical theory does curious service m Kant's
doctrine of religion. That doctrine runs, briefly, as follows. Duty
must be accepted aa a given oertaiaty, or it is vindicated— unsatis-
factorily enough, perhaps— in the way just ei q plai n e d . Next, from
the certainty of duty we infer as our first moral postulate free
will—" I can because I ought "; whkh, primarily at least, means
" I know I can because I know I ought.*' But this strong asser-
tion is greatly qualified when Kant recurs to wImS ha conside m
Che least discredited portkm of our theoretical knowledge. In the
world of phenomena, not freedom rules but deteminism. CauaaSty
b one 01 the " caterories " which our mind uses in building up
ordcriy experience. So we are kit with a aee<«aw. WiUbnouneo-
ally free; but phenomenally, in all real wgrrisrs of will, w« are
detervuned by the past. Secondly: from the discrepancy between
the pure abstTKt law of self<»nsistent reason and the pleaaore^
tinged nature of man. we iafcr or postulate Immortality. As w«
never can kit the buB's eye, we moat have literally endless oppor-
tunities of aiming at it, so as to get indefinitely aeeier the cemral
spot. If we did hit the eiact mark, appaaentiy we need ao hmger
be immortal. Lastly. God. We roost not, we dare aot, aim at
happincsB. It b an eternal weakness in our moral being which
nahes as constantly squint aside from the thought of dirty towards
in* or hungering after joy
* Mansers term for Kant's " prscticaL** It must be carefully
distingui^ied from Kant's " regulative," which refers to know-
fedgc;-«egulative in oontrsst to €9mt»iMm of kaow i e d g r no t to
XXVI 13
•rjhi^^
Yet. If the motive is forbidden us. It Is plain from mother point
of view that good persons ought to be happy. And. as nature
reveals no great care for this postulate, we must appeal away
beyond nature to a power ^o shall make good men at the last
aa hapfv as they deserve to be. And thb power b God. Such
is the train of thought as suced for us in the Cfil»^f» «! Fr«€tual
In the Critique of Judgment, Kant restates his new type of thelstic
argument In a way whidi has had great subsequent influence. We
must conceive nature as overruled by God not so much
for the sake of man's happiness aa lor the sake of hb
moral development. Or, to state this as a thetstic argu-
ment: we are bound to postulate a God who overrules
nature for moral ends. This new statement has at least
the nwrit of bringing Cod into touch with man's good-
ness as well as with hb happiness. But the train of thought b
deeply embedded among characteristic sceptical hesitations. In
spite of the various details of the /«dfm«ff/ Critique (as to beauty;
and as to the " internal " or as Hegel subsequently phrased it
*' immanent " adaptatkms seen in living ornmisms) Kant regards
as extremely pncarious all these hints of anigher view of nature.
Nature as a machine, governed by changeless causal Uw. is ncceo"
sary to thought. Were no such machine recognized, the thread
of consciousness would be cut and orderly experience impossible;
we Buast aU go mad.* But nature breathing of life, or of beauty,
or, however faintly, of a God immanent in^ the whole process, and
shaping it towaros moral purposes — that b or may be no better
than a subjective dream. It is doubly uncertain. It has inferior
guarantees, as compared with our knowledge of the mechanism of
nature. And, after all, not even our knowledge of the mechaniua
of nature b a knowledge of reality. Things as they truly are lie
wholly beyond our poor human vision.
Kant then has broken away fram inttdtionalism by sub*
Stttuting one system of necasity for the many necessary truths
or given experiences from which intuitionalism takes Kmmr»
ita start. But there are gaps \n Kant's system— a kaporiod
gap betwcien sensation and the sense-fonns ol time mmbs*
and space; a gap between sense-forms and thought; ^''^
a gap between the lower but practicable processes of the Under-
atanding and the higher but tmreallzabLe ideas of Reason.
And thus Kant's idealism b incomplete. On one side, th«
world we know by valid processes of thinking cannot, we are
told, be the real world. Or, beginning from the other side;
neither the reality which ideal thought reaches after, nor yet
the reality which our conscience poetulates, is the valid world
of orderly thinking. The great critic of scepticism has diverged
from idealism toward scepticbm again, or has given hb idealism
a sceptical colour, mitigated — but only mitigated— by faith in
the moral oonsdoosness. If there arises a system of philosophy
in which all truths are grasped in unity, and it b seen that the
principles of tWgs must be what they ore, such a philosophy
will give us in perfection the idealistic conception of reality
and the idcaUstic guarantees of truth which Kant gave brokenly.
The Absolute Idealism of G. W. F. Hegel was such a system.
It ranks, up to our own day, as the Ust of the great
philosophies, and the boldest of all. Kant had fewer
tsobtod poinu of departure than fntuitionalists; yet gaps and
isolation tecurred in Kant, and helped to make him the father
of modem agnostidSm. In the later intuitionalism of Hamilton,
reeolling from Hegel, the many subjective necess i ties ol the
intttitlonalist scheme were made to breathe the new agnostic
snggestfons. We naussmity think as we do— but only because
of our entangling faculties. It is a mental " Impotence '* that
makes os believe in such a bw as Cause and Effect. Kant had
siriistltuted one great necessity, sprung from an kleal source.
Reaaon--imder conditions of sensati on c rea ted the world of
(valid) knowledge; Reason created the practical world of duty.
But, having said this, Kant weal on to repeat the sceptical
soggestion. The whole coherent neoeaury world of hb philo-
sophy became " our worid," os v« luunarily Ikinlt it, but not
by any means of necessity the world as it is. Hegel brushes aside
all these hesitations. Hb Phihtopky «j Natut^-wie of the
least admired parts of hb system*^ the answer from hb point
of view to Kant's amertion that a " perceptive undersUnding **
is for us impossible. Hegel offers a supposed proof that Time
•ad Space, Matter, Nature, are ascertaioable and definable
* Thb b Kant's powtive refuutioo of Home*a soepcidsm.
xa
THEISM
. * j:.... Uiwwn higher and lower ple*-
\ . . , . % %» i»#iie\-oknce Is one given dement in
• ' ^ "^ ,^^, H. Sidgwick holds that tntiution
. V ..r^MU.. of the general bapfiinos upon the
I- . ^ rvciyibing subsequent is hedonistic cal-
■ "^ »' jJ^V^uer linds that the modern individual has
^" ' ...VVu .buy which reprtsenl the inherited expertence o«
s K?.\^«fi»K>d for the race in the past. Sir Uabe Stephen
:• :; IK I roisnTws ar^ the conditions needful Cor the good of
Ou Jh,I organism, and are imposed as such by sa«tiy upon
mdiv du3 mcmbcis. The problem has •Hfwd lU form,
u h 4t the modem empiricist needs is a rational bond uniting
ih« individual with the community or with the aggregate of
ndividuais-fl rational principle distinguishing high pleasures
from low, sanctioning benevolence, and giving autbonty to
moral tcncraliiations drawn from conditions that are past an<<
done with. The non-empirical moralist wiU not of coun
admit that duty to the community or to mankind is a fir
definition of the ethical ideal. He wiU accept it as a stagr
no smaU importance, in progressive definition, but he will
to go further. . ..^ , .
We have already remarked that the difficulues of emr
constitute the strength of intuitionalism. A critic of ir
CHmtam *1»*™ °**8**^ ***** ^*' ^^y "* '" ^^^^
^/atMk- intuitionalism is sound upon the intelle
thaaUtau ^oral inUrtsU of humanity, but it do^
justify them. It reasserts them, with resolute '
if philosophy ought to vindicate, to explain, per'
tally to modify, even, it may be, to purify our p
intuitionalism is hardly a phik)sophy at alL I
evil, so far as there is an accepted line of thei*
doctrine is intuitionalist. Other schools of \ * .
flying visits to theism; intuitionalism is at « *\
leading argument is the cosmological, cone \
cause " (Martineau). When David Hum* ^ . ^
ing Natural Rdigion) protests that the u
effect " and that we have no right to affi»
we have experience of the origin of n* ' \ ,,''•* ,*
generalize the conclusion, They all f ; ./*'•'
unassailable upon empiricist grou' - * »
claims to allege a higher certainty ; tr
iHHsl have a cause — this is not merr
truth. The universe exists— or, «
verse is " contingent " — thereforr ^ o
ledge of different universes, w \ V", '
caused, and in its "Great F/"\v^^> \
\V-'
'S''
\
of ffliiiUe.Jnfe
a starting-poir
thinkei— f«irr.'
a later writer
a more sy^^
Miss F. r
popular
with tr
Hamilt
the di
to th
Prir
ag:
fc
««i 'Worked out in full detafl, it essays or
f ^ Che following poinu: (i) God or the
<4^ (2> He necessarily b what He is;
'manifests itself in the finite, (4) and
'n Just this finite which we know
V is able to fill up that pro-
vall belief to necessary truth;
^ or pantheistic, panthcisa
-ms, must henceforth rank
^mw light upon the
It and subsequent
^o In- -^^^
To
\
against empiricism;
naturally has a
a law-giver; " we
Flint). StiUlhe
the conception
As a philosop(r\ ^
embarrassment; iV \?^
points. Eveiy V VV
immediate c^*^ " ^ '
4\V
^eal
/ with
4 facts —
>e8 purely
..4obability—
incline to the
Jt^caX argument
js) and proof by
nis last and boldest
iwphy in a nutshclL
t create a triangle whose
i^t angles? To abstractian
torn notes of a class lecture
jiidian DiaUdk ) contends that
the ekmeatsry portions of Hcvel's
ji existence there, though his inter-
•oftens the paradox.
/ of the Ufiiltations of reason, dialectic
.ctive; and scepticism itself becomes a
To him, it
in being
.ppaient facu, un-
a this ground James
be so; he reports it.
Jl many univeises mehen"
oot ineinandar. Dualism,
insistency may belong to the
olligence demand unity? That
.Acy. Even polytheism,' or some-
m it, is suggested to this doggedly
/arieti€S of Religious Experience; they
to whom they appeal; and what right
. objective standards?" Ordinary ** induc>
shows that it has travelled far from this
udulity when it asserts its hard determinism —
never broken, never capable of being broken.
.:> mechanical necessity, if we admit that in aome
exists? It is a rdative necessity. The present and
ore have to be what the past and the disent make them,
events, *' happening " to be what they were, have fixed
jsequent processes to their channels. But you can never, at
^ny one point, say, from the scientific or mechanical or matciial-
Uttc standpoint, this "had to be."* The relative necessity
never passes into an absolute one. A different primitive
"collocatbn," as T. Chalmers* put it, would have yielded, by
the same process of natural law as ours, quite a different uni-
verse from ours.u T. H. Huxley admitted that this contention
could not be ruled out as impossible. Again, in the scheme of
mrrhanifim, everything is determined by everything else — in
■(1) Aristotle and the schoolmen meant by a proof • priori
reasoning from cause to effect, (a) Kant is often supposed to
mean by a friori'-'wot Hamilton's Reid^ p. 76a-~** innate '* as
opposed to ''acnuired from e xp erie n ce." (3) If «e accept the
sugfestioB offeroa abowe--tliat a priori in Kant and later dianken
* necessary— 'we place oursdves on the track which leads from
intuitionalism to some form of idealism.
* Why only in such general tenns? But this fimitatiea b always
taken for granted.
' It does not seem as if James's " Pr^imattsm " codid lend
itself to anything so concrete as a theistic xanclusioa.
•A very different thinker, Dr J.'E. MacTaggart. works rooad
from idealism to an eternal quasi polytheistic socwty of equal soak.
* H. Spencer's " insubthty of the hoongeneoas *' n perhaps an
attempt to perform the impossible (First PrtncipUs, chap. xix.J.
"•Quoted in J. S. Mill'* Logic, and with fuDcr sympathy in W. S.
Jevons's Prinetples of Science.
" God has ordefed the original " collocation "—a new atatemem
of the aigumeat which traces Design in nature.
THEISM
75»
^Mce as wdl as In time; nMUBff docs aaytUng for Itself. Yet
sgain, nature is broken up into co-operating pans; the whole
'"^ the sum of these parts; or, if you prefer to say so, there is
^hoie. But, if we should take the view that nature is
<r extended— part of the '^ Antithesis " in Kant's fint
^" — relative necessity breaks down on the last
"Z boundless nature may overwhelm that sequence
^^ht most securely established. Who can say
-^Q from an infinite background? We reach
«hen we recognize that the laws of nature
^lical; not in Mill's sense (" If you had
M three perfectly straight lines imited
'«e noted in F. H. Bradley's Logic:
' the cause working unimpeded,
^tific theory cannot tell you
whether you ever get it at
*f a promise that it shall
'<^ upon the totality of
'^'. - mechanical order
'lanical monism.*
N s— "of necessity
V .' and mind; con-
.lism. Idealism in
^ ^ ore real than matter.
uccordanee wUkreasott^
.Tamme All is reason, in
ois but mind (e.g, Hegel, as
^N , ') or (b) nothing exists but
"^ -d by Dr MacTaggart). Any-
r interpretation is to be, idealism,
.'ialism, is pledged to monism and to
. The valid or scientific but meta-
ny knowledge, to which Kant shut us
of a mechanical nnivene. His reply to
vos this — Mechanical causation is as real as
..iiy of consciousness. It is false to suggest that
jence is a fact and causal connexion a figment;
causal connexion, there could be no consciousness
cs. Over against this " valid " mechanism, in some
^t vaguer region, Kant placed free will; and so left
. The English thinkers influenced by Hegd are inclined
ssert mechanism unconditionally, as the very expression of
ason— the only thinkable form of order. Thus libertarian
Iree will has to disappear from their belief. In this interpreta-
tion of the universe, the difference between mechanical or
lelative necessity and absolute or ideal necessity is sbrred, or
dogmatically affirmed to be non-existent. It might be sug-
gested in reply that free will, whether or not it be ultimate truth,
is true to the same degree of analysts as mechanical necessity
ttsdf. Mechanism is that which obeys impulses from outside.
It is profoundly unsatisfactory to regard mechanism as the whole
ultimate truth. For such a r61e it is in no sense fitted. If it
ultimate truth in its own region, that region cannot be accepted
as more than half the entire universe of reality (common sense
intuitionalism; dualism). If mechanical determination applies
to the whole universe, it cannot be ultimate truth aC all (cf. H.
Lotze; more drastic in Ward's Naturalism and Agnosticism).
Quite a different view of necessity is the moral necessity
pointed to by Kant's " Practical Reason." And, as the sym-
pathizers with Hegel try to force mechanical necessity
into the garb of absolute or ideal necessity, so they
seek to show that moral necessity is only an inferior
form of absolute or ideal or, we might say, mathematical
necessity. Thctsts, on the other hand, will contend that the
dbtinctivencss of moral necessity b vital to religion. Thus we
Might restate our grouping of phUoaophiea in terns of the
views they take regarding necessity. Theism is directly inte*
rested in thb, since it affirms the neeessUy of God's existence.
* Ernst Hacckel will not allow us to call fill system " Materialism,"
because he affirms that the rudiments of matter are also rudimentary
** mind stuff " (to use W. K. Clifford's term). But in spite of tbu
ft» materialistic aAoities are unmisukable.
At least, H would be hairi to name any school of theists which
was content to affirm that there " happened " to be a God.*
On the other hand, theism does not desire to see necoaity—
or Fste^ranked as superior to the living God.
One great change and only one since Kant's day has affected
the outkMk tipon theistic problems—the increasing belief in
evolutfon. It is a manifest weakness in intuitionalism siwto-
that it finds such difficulty in leaving room forevohi- <*■*•
tionaiy change. All men may perhaps be aiming everywheie
at the same moral ideal,' but it is absurd to say that all men
actually foranlate the same moral juc^ments. On the other
hand, many evolutionisU ignore the certainty that there must
be a conanunm in any real evolutionary process. In the light
of that truth, a reformed intuitionaliam might justify itself.
But fuller ooncoptions of evolution raise further difficulties
for intuitionalism in its wonted forms. Knowledge cannot
be divided into the two components— immediate certainties,
precarious inferences. The starting-point is reconsidered,
modified, transformed, in the light of subsequent acquisitions.
Knowledige grows, not by mechanical addition, but by organic
transformation. This may help us to appreciate the meaning
of Hegel's Dialectic His thought then is not wholly paradox,
whatever the expression may be. Hegel's ^rstem is, in its own
way, a great evolutionary philosophy of an ideal type.* Evolu-
tion, repelled by the older intuitionalism, was thus incorporated
in the greatest of all idealisms. It has also been largely applied
to empiricism. Sometimes one questions whether empiricism
» really still empiricist; so much of the a priori has come in
under the name of evolution {e.g. in Herbert Spencer). But
the change, if it has taken place, is imrecognizcd.
IV. Grttk philosophy for our purpose begins with Socxatcs,
who formulated the Design Argument. His ethics have some-
times been regarded as pure utilitarianism (so e.g, f^gg„
H. Schulle); but it is surely significant that the great fthmj
idealism of Plato was devcfoped from his suggestions. •itiM$m,
The new method of definitwn which Socrates ap- S*****
plied to problems of human conduct was extended by Plato
to the whole universe of the knowable. In the light of this,
it may be possible (with J. R. Seeley in Ecu Homo) to call
Socrates tlie "creator of science." The man who inspired
Plato deserves that name. Those Ideas according
to which all reality is objectively shaped — and there*
fore too, as a modem would add, subjectively construed — iO'
dude the idea of the Good, which Pikto identifies with God.
We might mislead ourselves if we interpreted this expresskm
as referring to moral goodness; on the other hand, Plato more
than most of the Greeks thinks of moral virtue as an imitation
of God. With all its idealism, Greek thought had difficulty
in regarding rational necessity as absolute master of the physical
world. Matter w^as a potentiaUy recalcitrant element. Hence
there are tendencies even in Plato to build up the ideal world
in sharp contrast to the actual world — to the half interpene*
trated or half tamed worid of matter. Hb suggestions as to
immortality are affected by this. The body is the soul's prison.
He teaches (whether suggestive^r* metaphorically or de^
libentely), pre-existence* as well as survival; perhaps he is
moved to this by nonoGreek influences. Thus at several points
Plato reveals germs of dualism and asceticism. Free will had
not yet been formulated as a problem. Aristotle has impressed
the ofdinsiy mind chieffy by his criticism of Plato's 1,1,1,^^
ideal theory; and therefore he Is often ranked as the
father of empiricists. But those who treat him as the great
*Scill, Lotahs criticism of the cosmokigical argument reveals
his raaltst side. On the other hand, in diacusAing the ontoloncal
aivumcnt. Lotae commits himself to a moral a priori (below.od nn.).
■ " We are all embarked upon a troublesome world, the children
of one Father, striving in many tssentioi points to do and to become
ffke same " (R. L. Stevenson).
* The idea of evolution in time (physical cvohition) was laughed
at by HeseL
" * A belief hinted again at the close of Lessins's Education of tlu
Human /eocr; also— more definitely— by J. E. MacT^art Studies
in Hegjdian Cosmology^ p. 48; and elsewhere).
752
TH£ISM
ReaKst make him ftlmost if not <|iiite iMkuHmtdist; wbile
there is also an idealist reading possible. The threatened
dualism of ideal and material become^ for Aristotle mainly a
contrast of matter and form; the. lower stage in development
desires or aims at the higher, matter more and more tending
to pass into form, till God is form without any matter. But
this God of Aristotle's is a cold consciousness, imitated only by
the contemplative virtue of the philosopher, not by the morally
active citizen. And the chief contribution of Aristotle to theism
is a theory, found in his Physics as well as his Metaphysics, of
God as first mover of the universe, himself umnoved. This
' theory is generally ranked as the earliest appearance in European
thought of the cosmological argument. Free will is shaping
itself towards discussion in Aristotle's Ethia^ but is hardly
yet a formulated problem. For -anything like personal immor-
tality the medieval Schoolmen searched him anxiously but
in vain.
Epicureanism need not detain u*. It it a system of empiricism
and materialism, remarkable only for teaching free will. Atoms
swerved as they fell endlessly downwards, and thus introduced an
indeterminate or irrational clement into the processes of the world.
Theism can take but little interest in this peculiar type of free will
doctrine, or again in Epicurus's professed admission oi the existence
of gods---madc of atoms: inhabiting the spaces between the workls;
ftf^taif. carelessoimen. Stoicism isa much more important system.
^^^ but harder to dasufy. Perha|M in the department of
thought where it is most in earnest — in ethics — it is an idealism. It
tells men to " obey reason " and crush passion, or to live " according
to nature." In physics— but in that region of speculation iu positions
are more perfunctory — it teaches pantheism on a OHOxt-materialistic
basis. God is the soul of the world, although tbegodsof popular belief
are (at least by the later Stoics) respectfully if exoterically acknow-
ledged. Human survival is taught, but not ultimate immortality;
and, as against Epicureanism, Stoicism on the whole tends to deny
free will. There is perhaps a ceruin religious enthusiasm in the
thought of being passivelyr determined by Fate, the Universe, Zeus.
Finally, the Stoic analysis of the process of knowledge is sensa-
tionalist and empiricist.
• So far as a coherent body of thetstic doctrine existSi it did not
grow oat of the great systems, but out of the lesser men who stood
nearer to the apprehension of practical citizens. Perhaps the most
important of tnese popular thinkers was Marcus Tullius Cicero —
no great philosopher, but a graceful and effective man of letters.
Q^ It has been truly observed* that the lineaments of
intuitionalism are very dear in him. He also gives us
" natural law "« — a Stoic inheritance, preserving the form of an
idealist appeal to systematic requirements of reason, while prac-
ticaUy limiting its assumptions to those of intuitionalism. Formally,
Cicero adhered to the Academic* philosophy during its " middle "
Or almost sceptical period. (The senses are so far from truth that
we roust be content with reaching probability.) In Cicero's De
Natura Deorum the burden of theism rests mainly on the Stoic
interiocutor. The conclusion, "academically" recognizing the
contendings of one disputant as more " probable," is imitated in
D. Hume s Dialogius Omcemini Natural ReligioH. In the ereat
Roman Stoics— Seneca. Epictetus; less material for theism pertiaps
» ^- in Marcus Aurclius — we see the partial softening and
religious deepening of the system, and a doctrine of the
wise man's power over passion and circumstance which has all the
essentials ol Libertarianism. Philo of Alexandria should also be
ofca, mentioned. He blends the tradition of the Old Testa •
ment with Greek philosophy, and, within the latter,
exhibits that union of Platonism with Stoicism, especially in the
doctrine of the Logos, which became dominant in the Christian
apologists and the great theologians of the ancient church. Philo
is Gieek enough to believe in the eternity of matter: otherwise
he preserves the main outlines of Old Testament theism. He
teaches free will and immonality; and the design and cosmological
arguments are both traceable in him. Augustine of Hippo trans-
mits a type of Platonism as part of his Icajacy to the
J^****' Western church. Against Manichaean duatan he had
"■* vindicated free will; but as against Pclagianisro he
taught the bondage of sinful man — a position accepted m the East
but never welcome there, and not more than half welcome even
in the West. From this thcobgical entanglement the problem of
free will did not escape for long centuries. In spite of some waver-
ings towards what has lately been called " conditional immortality "
(see Apologetics) the doctrine of " natural immortality " cham-
pioned by Augustine became dominant in the church; an instal-
ment of what was afterwards to be called Natural Theology: and
a postulate or presuppositioa to-day — like (roe will — in Roman
Catholic apologetics.
' «D. G. Ritchie. Natural Rights, p. 36.
* See above (ad tni/.}.
' Platonic
The mMdla aces* in the person of Anasim of Canterbuiy, con-
tribute the first cleair f orm o7 the Ontological argument for t'
If our grouping of philosophies, as given above, is sounds
. idealist schone contains potentially an ontok>gi-
cal argument. In other words; whenever philosophy
every 1
teaches a doctrine of the Absolute, and reg^s such doctrine aa
valid and certain, we have the essence of an ontokigical or a f^iori
argument. Of course it remains debatable whetner this philo-
sophical Absolute is necessarily imerpreted as a personal God. or
perhaps even whether k>gically it can be. But the Christian bias
js sure to make theologians, who borrow a doctrine of the Absolute,
interpret it in a Christian sense; hence we may consider it some-
thing of an accident that even an Augustine fails exactly to put
the argument in form. Anselm tells us that a most perfect beii^
must exist, since the perfection which includes existence is mani-
festly greater than a perfection confined to an object of thoueht.
Some m the impression of paradox here is due to Anselm's treatti^
the Absolute simpl;^ as one among many other beings, and to his
treating existence simply as one element in the Quantitative sum
of perTectwns. At least, idealist philosophy will hold that the
substance if not the form of the argument is sound* though the
rsstnn of its interpretation remains. In Anselm's case we have
further sanguine hope of justiWing not theism merely but all
Christian doctnne to the saentiftc reason. Thomas Aquinas,
following Albertus Magnus, but with greater power and greater
influence, occupies substantially intuitionalist ground. He wUl not
have the Ontological argument; but he asserts Natural Law. and
relies upon the cosmological and design arguments — ^with various
refinements and distinctions, differently stated in his two Summag.
In declaring the supreme doctrines of Christianity to be mysteries
above reason, he marks oflF a lower region where reason is to re^ ;
the study of that lower reeion may well be called, as later oenturia
have caUed it. Natural Theology; and as such it presents strong
intuitionalist affinities. The critics of Aquinas — Duns Scotus and
the later Nominalists — show some tendency towards rational scepti-
cism. They exercise their acumen in multiplying difficulties; out
all such questionable doctrines are presently re-established from
a different point of view as truths of faith or findings of church
authority. The Church of Rome has discouraged these daring
tactics in favour of the more cautious and probably more defensible
poMtkms of Aquinas. In Raymond of asbundea form of moral
argument — there nuist be a Ciod to reward and punish, if human
life is not to be " vain "^we see the kinship of that argument to
the aigument from design.
Ren6 Descartes, a faithful though not an unsuspected
Roman Catholic, founded modem philosophy by his starting*
point of universal doubt and by his arguments in
reply. One may regard him as an idealist, though
Scottish intuitionalism — especially in the writings of Profesaor
John Veitch — has claimed him for its own; and indeed Dcscartes's
two substances of active mind and passive extended matter are
very much akin to " Natural Dualism." Still, Descartes has
marked idealist traits, as when he refurbishes the ontological
argument with clearer emphasis on the perfect being as
"necessarily" existent^— reasoning a shade less quantitative or
a shade more subtle than Anselm's. Descartes's prelimi-
nary statement of the argument in somewhat p<^ular fonn
brings it very near the lines of the cosmological proof.* There
must be a cause for naturcy but particularly for the idea of
perfection in us — that cause must be God. The radical side
of Descartes appears again in his offering his own type of theism
as a substitute for the old proofs— not a supplement. Design
especially was under suspicion with him. He was even more
definitely opposed to " final causes " than Francis Bacon, who
excluded them from science but admitted them lo theology.
All this was connected with zeal for physical and mathematical
science. Descartes was an expert; Bacon was the prophet
of a great, if half comprehended, future; and the science they
loved was struggling for its infant life against a mass of Uadi-
tional prejudices, which sought to foreclose every question by
confident assertions about the purposes of Cod and Nature. A
difficult question arose for Descartes's philosophy, when it had
to explain the union in man of the absolutely opposite substances,
* Cf. J. E* MacTaggart In regard to Hegel. Studies m BenrUem
CpsmolMy, chapu iit.
'So Meditaliou 5, at least in the French veruon. ^ Again;
" Existence cannot be separated from the essence of God "; com-
pare Spinosa's ethics, definition 1 ; "By causa sua I understand
that the essence of which involves existence, or that which by itt
own nature can only be conceived as existii^."
• UedUatwn 3.
THEISM
753
mind And ngiitt. Malebnnelic gave all caasaUon to God;
and the aco«mist--as Hegel called him, in repudiation of Bayle'i
* atheist " — Spiooaa, from the premises of Carte-
siaaism, and from other suggestions of |he past,
developed that great system of determinist pantheism
which was a scandal and a terror to his generation. Really,
he urged, there could be only one substance—Descartes himself
bad dropped a passing hint to that effect— and the bold de-
ductive reasoning of Spinoza's BtkkSt in process if not in result,
betrays its kinship to the ontological argument, with its affirma-
tion of what mnsl be. Thought and extension are peaceable
attributes in this one substance; there are infinitely many
other attributes, but these only are known to us.
In a different r^ion, the tradition of Descartes passes on to
G. W. Leibnitz. He accepts the ontological argument with a
quaUfication-^almost like his disciple Wolff, who
tries to use it for defining the divine attributes, Leib-
nitz's Monadology— which has little influence on his theism-
may be viewed as a strong recoil from Spinoza's all-swallowing
substance. The more Spinozistic side of Leibnitz's thought —
God as Monad of Monaids— Is a theistic postulate if hardly a
theistic proof. The free will which LeibniU teaches Is not
libertarian but determinist. Each monad works out necessary
icsolts, but these flow from its own nature; and so In a sense
it b free. Reciprocal action is explained away into a "pre-
established harmony" between every monad and all others.
In his Theodicy Leibnitz acgues, like not a few predecessors,
that this universe roust be regarded as the best of all passihie
universes. Pain and sin must have been reduced to a minimum
by God; though they are so ingrained in the finite that we
have to make up our minds even to the endless sin and endless
panisbments of hell. It has been truly saki that such optimism
is a profound relative pessimism. The best? Yes, perhaps the.
best possible; in familiar speech, the best of a very bad business.
But wby must universes be so bad? Leibnitz's philosophy
bas 00 answer for us. In another direction, Leibnitz— and
Wolff— give emphasis to the contrast between the necessary and
tke contingent ; with important resulu for popular philosophy,
j^„ and indirectly for theism. The diKiple, Christian
Wolff, is one of the most typical figures in the history
of theistic thought. He is a pure scholastic. The great
thoughts of his master— or perhaps indeed rather Leibnitz's
secondary thoughts— are dried add pressed by him, labelled
and catakigued. Monadology drops out of Wolff's teaching.
Pre-established harmony drops out except that it is used
to explain the union of soul and body. Wolff tells us
that six Latin works contain his systtm:-~Ontology, General
Cosmology, Empirical Psychology, Rational Psychologyt Satnral
Theology f i; Natural Theology , n. In the volume on
Empirical Psychology, Wolff disnis^s free wilL He decides
that human actwns are caused or determined by the nature
of the agent, but that, as man is not a necessary being,
his actions are contingent. This view seems to preserve
all that is questionable in Libertarianism, while omitting its
moral meaning. The Rational Psychology formulates immor-
tality on the ground that the immaterial soul has no parts to
suffier decay— the argument which Rant's Critipu of Pure
Reason ** refutes " with special reference to the statement of it
by Moses Mendelssohn. The earlier of the two volumes on
Natural ThsoUgy relics on the cosmol^cal argument; the
ktcr— obviously an afterthought— tries to vindicate the onto-
logical aifumeot as an alUmative basis for theism, but
Awkwardly and with manifest uneasiness. In the end, this
vohime diverges into the AUributa, eonstruing God in the
likeness of man tfo omdnoniiat.^ No writer can be less intrinsi-
cally worthy of study than Wolff. But he is immortal as the
man against whom Kant directed his tremendous battery ;*
I Human attributes magiufied. or their wesk poiaU thought
away. The Schoolmen sought to ertsbliah other divine attributes
br uegpHon of husMut weaknesses and by finding tn God the cause
0* the vssncd phenomena of craatton.
one Side: another battery of
•On
Huae.
Kant's was aimed against
and he is also toleiably diarsctcrJBtfc in outkiok. He is no
intuitionalist; but he is a drily common-sense mind, piling up
in heaps the ruinous fragmenu of an idealist system.
In England, empiricist thought found a prophet m Bacon.
He draws no inferences to theology or religion, whether friendly
or hostile, from his new positions. He takes the line ^^
of separating the things ol God from those of Caesar, '"""^
and defends the traditional Protestant theok>gy with obWous
sincerity. Thomas Hobbes, a rough and anomatous but vigor-
ous thinker, is the fountainhead of a more formidable ^_^^._
empiricism. He is almost a materialist. In ethics,
be IS a hard determinist and hedonist, though not without
qualifications (man's boundless desire for '* gain and glory ")
and peculiarities. He saves himself theologically by aflinning
that the good dtisen will be of the same faith as the government
—which had best be a monarchy. In that sense, living under
a professedly Christian ruler, Hobbes himself Is a Christian.
John Locke, the real father of English philosophy, ^^^
took the field against what he regarded as Descartes's ^^
impossible programme of ** Innate Ideas:"* But Locke is a
double-minded or half-hearted philosopher. He admits two
sources of knowledge— sensatkin and refiexion; and God is to
him the Great First Cause, especially of our own existence (or
of the existence of finite minds). This is a form of the cosmo-
logical aigoment, and ought to go with an intuitionalist not
an empiricist doctrine of causality. On ethics, Locke says very
little, although that little is hedonist and detenninist. But
once again in his political writii^ be breaks away from ttn^
piricism in appealing to nahsral faw— an intuitionalist or coo-
oeivably an idealist tradition. Locke is thus a sensationalist
and empiricist, but incompletely, and without perfect coherence.
His suggestions led to different developments. In Prance,
through Condillac, the inconsistencies were purged (-,,^^,,1
out, and materialism was ready for the next comer am4mo» I
to affirm— though it may be said with R. Flint •»'*ib^
that while materialism requires sensatkmalist psychology, yet
the psychology fai question aUows no valid inference to
matter, and therefore destroys materialism. Bishop George
Berkeley, afraki of materialistic devebpments from a „ . .
philosophy he was not prepared fully to recast, took **'**^V
refuge in immateriallsm. Locke had treated ideas as testifying
to the existence of matter. But can they? The inference
seemed unwarrantable. Why should not God, a spirit like onr
own, though greater, speak to us in this bmguage? In
Akiphron or the Minute Philosopher Berkeley gives the fuIksC
statement of this argument, while adding more commonplace
attacks on the pettiness of religious KCptidsm. David Hume,
following up Berkeky's leading suggestion, pointed j|^^^
out that the inference, to God i us precarioua as the
inference to matter, and that the assertbn of a continuous or
immaterial mind in man also goes beyond the immediate facts.
The truth is, that all truth is uncertain I Scepticism, with
which P. Bayle had played as n historian:— he amusMl himicif ,
too, with praising the Manichaean solution of the riddle of the
universe— became a serious power in the history of philosophy
with the advent of David Hume. StiU, it may be doubted how
far Home was in earnest. Nay, it may be questioned bow far
it is either psychologically or k^callypossible to turn general
scepticism into a coherent doctrine. The Dialogues Concerning
Natural Religion oonstitute Hume's formal profesaon of re-
ligious faitb. The existence of Cod was no doubt probabte;
but what a nnmber of difficulties there were I Stiff, one would
«pt dispute whether God existed; but what he was— that was
the hard questioiL this, treatise must not be confused with
the Natural History of Religion, in which Hume acts as a pioneer
for comparative reli^on, with its study of facts. Even in that
book Hume is able to play with sceptical sohitions. Region
began in fear— as if it were no more than a lying soperstitioD.
Of course once more Hume saves hinaself by strong professions
of admjratioo for rational or natural religion. It was not yet
socially safe to be a confessed religious sceptic.
* And against nmllar views In Lord Herfwit of Cbeibay.
75*
THEIBM
Sunud Qarkc, wVo defended Newtoft^ iriev «f tlie nodd
acaiost I«eibiuU*s stricturci, b perlupe cUefly intwesting to
^^^ us as one oC the autlMntics oi fiisb<H> Joseph Biiilcr.
' It is Oarke's defence of free «iU, Claikc's idealist
theoiy of eternal ** fitness " as the basis of ethical distinctions,
perhaps Oarke's teaching on immortality, that Butler regards
as " the common known arguments " and authoritative enuncia-
tions of truth in the legiottS of philosophy or Natural Iliealogy^
Butler himself occupies a peculiar position in more respects
than one. He has profoundly influenced British thinking,
but b little known abroad. He b difficult to classify. We
may be he^wd in assigning him hb proper place if we observe
that, almost invariably, he accepts certain beliefs which he
forbears to press. Thus in hb most important contribution
to ethics, the Three SemiMU on HmmoM Natwe—i.^ ii., iii. of tiie
SeraiPM— he grants the validity of an appeal to "nature"
upon the lines of a sort of Stoical ideaUsm, but for hb own part
he prefers the humbler appeal to kumtM nature. He makes the
issue, as far as possible, a question of fact. We, from the altered
modern point of view, may doubt whether Butler's curious
account oC the mechanism of moral psychology is «• simple
report of facts. There are (a) given inatinaive " prapensions ";
(^) a part of higher principles, " benevolence " and '* rational
self-love," equally vaUd with each other, though at times they
may seem to omflict; {c) there b the master principle of coo-
science, which judges between motives, but does not itself
constitute a motive to action. Butler b opposing the psycko-
iogual kedotuiM* of Hobbes. He does not find it true to
ciperience that man necessarily acts at the dicutlon of selfish
motives. But Butler— for reasons satisfactory to himself, and
eminently diancteristic of the man; he hoped to conciliate
fab agel— dwelk so mnch upon the rewards of goodness, as
bribes (we must almost say) to rational self-love, that some
have called Butler himself an eihic^ hedonist; though hb
aemon on the "*Love of God " ooght surely to free him from
that diaige. In all this, Butler was convinced that he was
giving a simple statement of facts. Any one introspectively
apprehending the facts must grant, be thought, that bene-
volence was an integral part of human nature and that oon>
science was rightfully supreme. Thb revcab the empiricist
temper, and points to an attempted empiricist solution of great
pioUema. Butler holds that more ambitious philosc^hies
are valid, but he shrinks from their use. The same thing b
aeen again in the AnaUgy, Butler divests himself in this book
of the principles of ** liberty '* and " moral fitness " in which
penonally be believes.*
Part L of tUs book shows the " Analogy " of " Natural Religion "
to the " Constitution and Course of Natuie." Probably " Nature "
b here employed in a BMive f anuKsr or humbler sense than in the
p a s si ni ii f rr nr r 'i\ 1*rr ^— — ^' The iliMlffp mesas by " nature,"
mdbputable human experience. Deists believed in a God of un-
mixed benevolence; Butler's contention b that justice, punish-
anent, lidl-fire itself atv credible in tbdr similarity to the known
< i iifi i rM»B of man'is life upon earth. What the Thne Senmams
aoscha to find written amaU within— a lav of inflexible josuce or
lighteo usne sB part L of the Anaiogy seeks to cfiacover written in
laiger characters without us. Butler b charged by Sr Leslie
St e p h en with aiguing illegitimately j prof es a i og to make no appeal
to *' eaeral fitneis,'* and yet contending that the facts of hmnan
ife show (the begtanings «0 «Mral retribution for good and eviL
Assuredly Butler did not mean to give hmi hb right of spealdna
about mool^ evil and good when he waived the *' high priori "
BaetboQ or vindicating their real exsstenoe. Yet ft is a ^^try prave
qnestioa w h e tb et the idea of God's asnnl govenuneaft admits of
being aig^ as pore asattcr of fact. Butler tries to do this. You
call It un|ust. he mys in effect, that you should be punished. You
argue, for eqmple, that you have no free wiU. Well, what of
'.^ ■af s tf. pan i. chap. L f" the natnrri and moral proofs of a
isture fife oommoBiy irabtea mon **); last amtcnu. of pact i.,
Canrhirian ('* the proper proofs of (natural] religion from our moral
natnre.** Ac) ; part u. diap. viii. smb fim., * the proof " of reiision.
" nrisl^ out of the two . . . principles of liberty and moral
W. R. Sortey's Elfcks ff NdmrmHsmu
* ilaaisgy, iii. chap, viii.; foOoiring S. Oarke?
that? Dom it not look wiy miich as though ifm .
punished? Does not nature seem to treat you ox if you had free
will?* One thing more should be noted about Butler. He
now h ei e formally argues for the truth of theism. He wiU not smate
time upon triflcrs irao deny what he thinks, in the fight of the
(empiricitt!) Design argument, an absolutely dear truth.* On the
whole then Butler in personal conviction b an intuxtionalist. waver-
ing towards the idealism of hb age; but in arpiment be b an
empiricist, trying to reason every question as one of given facta.
None the less, in the issue, it b the very elemem wUch goes beyond
an appeal to facta— it b the drath and purity of Butkar'a moral
nature— wluch fascinates the reader, and wins praise from Matthew
Arnold or Goldwin Smith or even Leslie Stephen. Precisely becauie
he goa beyond phenom en al aequencea, it b hnposBiUe to fling
him aside imheara. On the other hand, no Cfaristun. and perhapa
no theist, b interested in maintaining that Butler gra^ the »iM^
truth. At the most we might say thb: If theisn is a growing
doctrine, Butler in England like .iCant in Germany sian^ for a
fresh ethical emphasis.
S t eph en accuses Butler of reasoning in a ctrde. The things
which make for our ultimate wdfare are the things we call morally
good. No wonder if they prove to involve happiness; that b
their definition! But b it? Does not Stephen himsdf rather
my that morally good tlungs are conditions oi sarta/, not personal
wdfare? Butkfra amument b that the individual suffers (and
feeb that he suffen deservedly) from neglecting these. If Gcofge
Eliot b guihy of a platitude when she says that " consequences
a.rt unpitying," then Butler's argument b empty: but not other-
wise.
Butler on the aovd may be studied in chapk i. of the ilnalsgv— where
we observe the old assumption of an isnanaterial and ao immortal
prindi^e — and in hb appendix on Person^ Identity. Wherever
moral postulates make their p r es ence fdt, Butler's doctrine of man,
as of God, leaps imo new vigour.
It b a moot point whether Sw datfce's Dememslntum ef Ae Brxwg
amd Attributes of Cod b really a, priori.^ Clarke ap^b to the
immensity of time and space as involving infiiuly m God. A
modification of his views b the starting-point Of W H Gifle«»es
able ArgmmenI a prion for the Being amd AttriklUts af Ae Godhead,
publiafaed part by part iSj^-iSys. We find somcthmg cnrkniaiv
similar in James Martincairs Stady of RtUgfon (** Im^idt Artr»>
butes of God as Cause." sab fin.). One might afao compare
J. R. Seeley's Nataral Keltttra—ihougfa he b no decided champion
of a personal God— and F.Max Mtilicr'sGtMlMfma '^' *
ing nb earlier intuitionalism, in order, like Butler, ti
an empiricist age, M« MQIIcr tried to show that even a ,
ence throws us on the infinite — which for him was the kernel of
the idea of God. He therefcie appealed to die lodan goddc m
Adiri or Immensity, a deity connected with a set of personal
gods called Adityas. Looking into the immenasty of space, man
also looks into die depths of godhead. Whatever one may think
of the cogency of such arguments, it seems safe to coocluoe that
thinkers, who dislike constructive idealism, but accept time and
space as boundless fpvcn quanta, reach in that way the thmf ht
ot infinity, and if they are thetsta. oecesaarily connect their theism
with reflaions on the nature of Time and Space.
We have already spoken of Kant^ peculiar pihiloaDplrical
positions. One result of these b a very damaging attack upon
traditional theism. Kant puts together, as brhmging gMot am
to " Rational Theology," three arguments-^he a «*» • /
fond of triads, though they have not the signlficaaoe *>*^>
for him whidi they came to have for HcgeL Tbco lie
attacks the arguments, one after another. Is there anything
fresh in the attach? Or b it simply a reiteration of hb sceptical
contrast between phenomena and noumena, and of hs confine-
ment of (vaBd) knowledge to the former? Perhaps the aiuck
on coMsa as used in the cosenological argument b independent
of Kant's plnlosophica] peculbrities. The aigument alRms a
first cause, or uncaused cause. Does it not then deny rather than
assert universal causation? But that sptdal critidsiB b a
question of detail. A moiv entirely nonrd and more general
principle of Kant's attack upon theism b the chaDenge of oar
right to bittid up the idea of God bit by bit out of different
aiguments. The argnments had been r e g a rded at aheraaiive
or else as cnmidative proofs, all pointing to one coaduaion—
God easts. Kant insisu that th^ are incompatible with each
* Part n. of the Analogy toes similariy to establish ChriAbnity
as credible matter of fact, sufficiently analogous to known facts
of experience (AroLOccncs) apart from any moral " value jodg-
ments " (as Ritachlians might my).
*See (e.g.) iL chap. iz. The Tlrer Sermems abo point to a
moral argument for theism, but fofbear to prew H (Setsnon &.;
when liie ffUrd seve of the word ** Nature " b hemg csphrincd>.
THEISM
755
They ofler alCentttWe tad nutuaUy eidudve concep-
Cioiis of God. If the God of the oosmological aiKument b the
" Greet Fine Caoae," we have no right to idenUfy him with the
** Most leal heing " of the OntologSokl argument If the God of
Che Deiign argument seems a limited being, working as aa
■ftlit Upon given materials,* he is hardly God at afl. Kant
takes for granted that we cakmot sum up these imperfect con«
ceptions in a wider recoodUng truth. It is a shrewd ctftidam^
but needs arguing out. A great deal of popular theism is un-
doubtedly hard hit by it; for popular theism is apt to throw
its arguments together In very random fashion.
It is BO more than characteristic of Kant's whole speculative
philosophy that he should think the Ontological aigument
the one which comes nearest to success (yet the Ontological
argument Is held to prove--«r rather to point out—not that
Cod murt eiist, hot that we think of him aa necessary if we
think of him as existing at all). As a result of this, Kant is
aeuphystcally a sort of pantheist. The God whom all our
thlnUng feels after is the all-inclusiv<e system of reality. On the
other hand, Kant's religion is of a type which requires a sort of
deistic God, standhig outside the worid and constrahung it into
moral paths, or standing outside our moral struggles and rfr^
warding our goodness. Butler feara profoundly that there must
be a just God who will punish us. Kant hopes, with tolerable
strength of conviction, that there may be a just God who will
itwaid us.
The main line in pure philosophy runs on from Kant^ wavcr«
fug and sceptical ideaUsm to the all*including gnoels of Hegel.*
tttmiom '^^ hiherfts from Kant the three arguments, and
m»Mit takes them as stages in one devdoping process of
mi^ thought. The oosmologfcal argument points to
"**^ nature>pantheism, with the religions-~C4)edally those
of IndhH-which embody that attitude of mind. This involves
n ro'iBterpretatiott of the Cosmological argument, or a critlcbm
ol the ^ew ordinarily taken of it. Ttace out the due of causae
tion to the end, says Hegd hi effect, and it introduces you, not
to a single first cause beyond nature, but to the totality of
MUuial proc es s a substance, as it were, in which all causes
inhere. This is a suggestion which deserves to be well weighed
The Design argument is held to give a contrasted view. It
suggests in every deed a personal but limited God, or a number
of Gods^' Religions of spiritual Individuality," induding,
along with ** Judaism,'* the anthtopomoiphic religions of Greece
and Rome. Finally the Ontological argument sums up the
truth in the two preWous aiguments, and gives it worthier
ttterance in its visk>n of the philosophical Absolnte. This is the
Inst word of religious truth, though pure philosophy stands still
higher. And, m some sense not cleariy expl^ned, Hegel
identifies thb final religion with Chrislianity.
The theism of Hegel is ambiguous.* Later theists may be
gr ou ped according as their thought has been remoiJded or not
T»g*a by the influences of Kant. The distinguished
^■m* writeis, whom we have to legaid as repeating in
'^'^ essence pre«Kantiaa theories, generally know Kant,
and frequently show traces of him in detail But it is a plain
finding of history that he has brought no " Copemican revoiu-
liow "* to their minds; ^
Empiricism is restated by Paley, who is Kant's younger con*
temporary as a man and also on the whole as a writer. Doubt-
less the archdeacon knew nothing of the German
^^''' p ro fe s so r, and would have cared nothing for him how-
ever weO he had known him. A much more significant figure
is that of j. S. Mill in the tentative approach to theism found
in his posthumous vohime {Tkfu Estays on Rtiifion; 1874).
* The Design argument has mainly to do wirii Uvm« bodies.
Might one suggest that organisms setm at least to be a working
up of inorganic matter for new ends. viz. those of life?
^Tbe idealisms of Fichte and Schelling made contribotions to
gel's tboosfct; Krause and the Roman Catholic Bander repre-
sent psnlW if minor phaeeaof idealism.
* Equally so the Hegelian attitude towards personal immoTUlity.
«Sach aa Kant daisaed to efeot: Criiiiiu of Fmt Jtcssva.
preface to and ed«
jLjuum
Mm dbects Us attenttni to the Desi^ aigumat. TIm lafet^
ence that organised bodies are due to an iateUigent came Is only
reached by the *< Method of Agreement "-« fuD
Inductive proof requiring, according to Bflll^ l-^gth
the " Method of Diffetenoe." Still, the Dcsigft aigument is 4
good sample of a proof by means of the infeilor methods
Although notUng more than probability is csUbUibed, it is »
high probability.* 0nfortunately, however, the method of
agreement Ss liable to be baffled by ** phirality of cansss." In
this instance it may happen that the work of intdllgsnoe has
only been mhnicked in nature by blind forces whkh hav«
acddentaUy produced otgatuc life; and MOl is dispossd to
hold that if the evolution of spedes should be cleariy cstab*
Kshed as due to natural Iaw^-4f there has been no creatieo by
spedal interposition— ihe argument falls to the giouDd and
theism (apparently) is lost.* A further point Is of soma bte*
rest. If MiU's theism holds, what is it? The belief hi a God
of limited power. That is what Kant contended that the
Design argument pointed to, and 1011, proceeding on ths
Design argtmient, daims nothing more for hb condusioD. Of
course that was not Mill's spedal or con^dous motive for deny*
ing divine oomipotence. His extreme sendtivencas and hatred
of pain constrained Mill to hold that, if a good God adsts, ha
cannot possess infinite power. Yet the cortespondencs between
Mill's conctanion and what Kant had alleged to be Implied in
the undeflyhig metaphyskal podtion ia very striking inde ed .
In^iitfonalism also has its rsstatements of thdstlc reasoning
little modified by Kant R. FHnfk theism csKfuSy 1 '
the early random talk {e.g. Cioero) of aa faituitive or
fainate knowledge of Gsd. What Is self-evident, FUnt
Justly remarks, ndther needs nor admits of aigumc&t.
We have intuitions of csMre, of tn/ncly, of fsad ond '^"^
ttU. The Cosmological argument proves, with the h^ of th«
first-named intuition, that there is one great Fiiat Gauss; sad
the Dedgn argument shows the First Cause to be iateUifent or
personaL The Ontological argument, though not wholly re*
jected as a proof, is taken rather as pointing to God's atti&uta
of infinity; thought nther than cigwrience making aifimation
that the intuition hi question most be attached to God. Ths
mord argument, rdying upon the third intuition named, cectifiss
us of a good God. In this way< the attributes sre suggestively
allotted among the four traditfcmal proofs;* but we miss an
esplidt rebutUng of Kant's hostOe assumption, that It is in-
competent for us to take the thought of God piecemaaL
Martineau'B Study tj Raiium is also essentially hitiiirireiaMst
It has two parts: ** God as cause " and " God ss mt^
perfection." The Dedgn argument comes m as s t^mam
specid illustration or latendficathm of the fbrmer of these,
%.t. of the cosmologlcd proof; but Martineau foUows a sids
modification of intultionafism (Maine de Binn, ftc.) in identi*
fsring cafuse' with wOL This involves a very high doctrine sf
Libettarlanism. The only ultimate cause is God. Nature
esists over against Him; but Its forees or processes are His
own power Sn immediate eaerdse, eaoept in so far as God has
delegated freedom to human wills; and there follows a theodicy,
repeating Ldbnlts In more modem form. Martinesu's two
mdn proofs yield two sets of attributes; those known ss
« natural " and " moral," R. Browning's ** power " and " hyvai"
In " God as perfection " Martineau handles the bads of ethics
without rderence to his own modification of the intuitionalist
position {Jypa 9§ Bikieal Tkt9ty), according to which "good"
is the better or the best. We may infer that, whatever the
mcriu of that modUication, it does not afiea the theisijc
problem. Martioeau*s Study also includes a section upon
Immortality. The Ontological aigvmeat is omitted; but we
have already observed that there is a discnssion of divine
* Paul Janet's Finai Cauus aeeras to fdlow Mill hi tUs C* the
fact of Finality **), but without naming him.
' Janet naturally is in opposition here. Ultimately, he argues,
if not immediately, there must be a rational caoae to aeoouat for
80 rational aa effect. But a^n of courae Mill is not named.
'The three which Kant crtticU iad. with the additioa of ths
mord aigument, which he favoured.
75^
THEISM
ialiBity in icklMQ to tune od tptce ^AaA from one point of
view » ptnlkl to the Ontologial aisument.
Definit^tlidim, bearii^ tht mask of Kant's tlimtght thzoogh-
oat, h foond in Honann Lota. From the point of view of
oar grouping, he is an idealist of anomaloos type.
He begins as an empixidst or realist, with given
matter-of4ut; bat from Ume to time (cf. in his
Mkr$cMmm) he makes readjnstmenU without per*
hapa very deaxtyinfonning the reader what is being done,and
bk the end be is unmistakabiy idealist. While a pronounced
theist— though not a dwrch ChriitHan— be ia hardly less an
^f n*«» of ttaditiooal theism than Kant (e^. his Outline
(Lecture headings] on Pkihsopkj «f Sdigum). He dissents aa
a realist from the Coamological argument in the form' in which
it condndes from ** wwtingmt " to " nccesBafy " being. We
do not wish to fuid oar way to a being who ** must be." That
is an idle dream. We must keep to real and asnred facts.
Lotze was a man of oonsidetable attainments in special science;
peihaps he reveals here the biaa of the scientifi c mind, and
possibly even its limit afiona, He regards the Ontological aigo-
ment strictly so called as having been ezpkMled by Kant. Still
it has a value lor him if taken not as an argument, but rather aa
the eipressioa of an tmmfdiaff conviction; via. The highest
mast exist. This is an intaitkmalist touch, or & parallel to
tntnitioBalism, and has called forth n gibe from that very
confident ratiodnator, J. E. Ma^aggart; Lotze's immediate
convictions are nuUcr of interest to a biographer but to no
one die: The Design argument didts from LoCae the critidsm
that some things look poiposdul, but others decidedly poipose-
less. The only solid nudeos he finds in it is the fact that there
is a great deal of beauty in this world. Obviously this writer
IS harder to focus than Kant or HegeL He is not all of one
piece. He hokb-^n grounds of fact and science— to the
mecbuiical oideriineas of nature, but daims that the IFettmH
af/fcawwf thus suggested may be reinterpreted in view of thooe
ondying human aspirations whidi. MacTaggart dismissca to
instant execution (unless they can dress themsdvcs in syllogism).
Ttas, fior Lotae, freewill is possible; the consequences of action
piDcced regubily a p9rt€ paa, and there is no such chaos as
the Clitics of Libertarianism have pretended it would involve.
beginnings— are possible on
momalies but act
God's side, if tbey are not mere anomalies but acts promotive
af the general meaning or tendency of things, and of the divine
plan of the nniverse.* But this appeal to " values " is only
half of Lotze's oonstxuctive work. For the other half he falls
back on ratiocination. All rri^encrs must be individuals,
with an inner life (cL LeSbniU). Since they inteiact, they
mart be elemmfs in the li£e of onesupreme being (d. Spinoia:
the Spinodstic afRnififH of Ldbniu are not so marked at
Lotae's). God can be peivonal and doubtless is (though be has
BO Non-ego to define himself against) through oontrsst of passing
oonsdoos autes with the ainding Ego. It is reasonable to hold
that the supreme personality is the only fully personal being,
while ours ia a broken and imperfect pctao naK ty, hindered by
tke Non-ego which inother wayshelps it. Lotae resolves space
into " ideal space "; and finally, in the philosophy of religion.
Off in view of the thought of God (in his Metaphysics), he denies
the objective edsimff of time. God sees all history ndiher as
future nor aa present but as actuaL
Besides the Stream of tendency whidi flowed from Kant in
dmdirectkMi of idealism, two other streams emerged from him,
often but not always blending. There was a new
aceptadsm—at the very least a doctrine of limitation
, in human knowledge; bat in ita cstremer forms an
JH**' abaolnu agnosticism. And there was the positive
^T' ethical dement in Kant's theism.
i tcepeidsm was frankly opposed to religious bdid.
■f the emergence of a great body of doctrine attributed to
by Kaat.
is aot to be undentood as fmiantcdog the actuality
Such thii«i are p h floa nph i raH y p o w ihle t hat
divine revdation and of n great mstitation like the Christian
church suggested the possibility of enlisting sceptidm in the
service of dogmatic faith. In a sense (see Afouketics) this was
done in the middle ages^ and possibly repeated by Paacal after
the Rdocmation. We now find Kant's intellectual sccpticMB
borrowed by W. Hamilton and H. L. Mansd,> both of thcwt,
as J. S. Mill complained,^ " bringing back under the name of
bdid what they banished as knowledge." The Ibeoiy loond a
melodious echo in Tennyson's In Memariam, a great hymtt
of God, Freedom and ImaHctality on a basis of apecniattvc
agnosticism. " We have but faith we cannot know. For know-
ledge is of tlunffi we see; " but the moral element which klasisd
despised is dominant in Tennyson. " The heart Stood up and
answered, I have felt." If there is a reading ef the new theories
of evolution in nature which revives rather than darkens hope
in iflunortality and faith in God, Tennyson 0ive an eai|y sketch
of that tentative modem theism.
R. Browning has been chaiged by H. Jones with partial
Bat at least we may say that agnosticism is
less dear in Browning than in Tennyson. Browning
reasons as far as he can; if reasoning fails him, he gives a leap
of faith. Jones, abnost aa m e it i lem as MacTaggart, calls this
procedure by the hard names of agnosticism and dualisia.
Another who " 9>t the seed " and " grew the flower " was
Herbert Spencer. He quotes psges from Maaad's Bampcon
Lectures in favour of his own type of agnosticism, wiudi is to
make peace between religion and science by pcnsaaently
silencing the former. Rc^gion may ** fed,** like Tennyson*s
** man in wnth, " and nu^ eapatiate in aa undefined aw^
science alone is to possem the *' knowable." This yidds a
characteristic type of pantheism, in the theory of the Unkfiow>.
able which--father paradoxically— is offered us^ Alongside of
this there are other demenU in Spencer's composite system of
" Naturalism and AgnostioBm *' (J. Ward's eapresaion, aec his
Gijand Leclmt). The dement of naturalism stands lor sdence
with a lesning towards materialiim (" eaplanatioo ia terms of
matter and motion"). The element of agnosticism tends
rather towards panthdsm, just as Indian paathrrHn long ago
tended towards agnosticism. John Flskc, however, an able
interineter of Spencer, reached what he called " Cosmic ThdsBB. "
He rejected aU that is anthropomorphic In theism, bat gave a
positive not negative interpretation to Spencer^ adentific
generallsatioos, and broke away from panthoim— perhaps also
from naturalism— when, like Tennyson, he pleaded for i
iwuaertolitf as the climax of evolationary progrcas.
[The name agnostidsm (fA) is T. H. Huxley'a.
doubt does not say these is no God; it says. We don't know.
Popular scepticism— perhaps even Charies DarwinV, Hozky
himsdf was a student of Home — understands by agnosticism
> certain whUe philosophy and theology are
Leslie Stephen gave this popolaff agnosticism iu
finest litenuy eqmssion. Sk>encer goes much farther in ra-
tion of human knowledge: " The man of sdence more than any
other truly knows that la its gltimate essence nothing can be
known."]*
An interesting manifesto of agnosticism, with a reiigioas
condusion, is A. J. Balfour's F^tmdclwms 9§ Bt^, wdcoaaed
ia Gemany by Jolius Kaftan (see bdow). In " Soesc Conse-
<|uenoes of (naturalistic) Bdid," Balfour argues that the results
of ** naturalism " are unbeaiable. la "Some Reasons for
Bdid, " the author institutea a rapid destructive ditidsm of all
possible phifeaophies. In "Some Canscs of Bdid." he tries,
landing outside the psydMdogicd process, to diow how bdiela
grow up under every kind of influence except that of genuine
evidence. His constructive theory comes at the end, and seems
to argue thus: Smoe (i) there is no disoovcnble reason why we
'Manad's thdsoi (or .
believea in, areoi both of tl
part, without evidence, or c
conceives it.
• Enmimmtinm «f Sm Wwt.
* Fim Pnmdpia, p. 67.
I theology), and the levdati
pore natters of ancrtioa c
w the iccdi of thecvidcnoe
•Ami's P k Hu m fky , chap. v.
aahs
THEISM
757
abwid tmidk tntb, bctuty or goodaen, 'bat'(a) wi*, tkeicfoic
(j) there nuit be « Cod outside tbc preoev, ovtrntling and
cottoterBctiag tbe natural tendencies of the human mind. It
teems as il one foot rested on dogmatism and one on scepticism.
The fact— assumed without any attempt at justification by
'aigument—tbat, in spite of the multitude of logical reasons for
■ceptidsm, we do know truth and beauty, makes Balfour a
tbeist. And tbe God he postulates Is brought in sx moikma
like ihe Cod of the old Des^ argument in its roughest popular
form. There must be a God, who couki compel irrational
matter to serve rational eodt— «o ran the old argument. There
must be a God who can miracukNuly endow the irrational
Bund of man with truth^^«> runs the new.
Emphasis on moni motives is plain in Kant's theism as In
Butler's. If this tendency is to take effect, a certain part of
Kant's rational scepticism must be accepted. There Is no
chance for the moral consciousness to claim a decisive vote if a
meuphysical system like Hegel's demonstrates all reah'tics In
every region, and If Its janissaries crush out every movement
of rebellion against the tyrsnny of abstract thought Is it
really impossible to claim for man something between om-
nitdeoce and universal nescience? May we not cherish what
A. C. Fraser calls "reasonable faith**? Granted that, ideally,
scientific knowledge ought to be able to demonstrate all truth,
is it safe, or humane, for a being who is imperfectly started in
the process of knowledge to fling away with scorn those un-
analysed promptings and misgivings *' Which, be they what
they may. Are yet the fountain light of all our day, Are yet a
master U^t of all our seeing . . . truths which wake To perish
never "? Those who assert the superior worth and importance
of moral judgments speak of '* values" (A. Ritschl, after
J. F. Herbert and H. Lotae). As worked out by Ritschl, thb
is specially a basis for Christian belief. With what Is tptd-
fically Christian we have nothuig to do in the present article:
but it is worth noticing that the appeal to '* values. *' aesthetic
and still more moral, forms a substitute for that natural
theology which Ritschl despised and professed to reject. There
are not a few difficulties in bis programme. When Otto Ritschl >
iDterprets values hedonlstically— recoiUng from Hegel's idealism
tbe whole way to empiricism— he brings again to our minds the
doubt whether hedonist ethics can serve as a foundation for any
feiigk>us belief Julius Kaftan — Balfour's German editor, and
a highly influential theologian, occupying a position of modified
Rttschlianism— is also a very thoroughgoing empiricist. On the
other hand, W. Herrmann's appeal to Kant's moral teaching
is in dose analogy to tbe more thoughtful forms of intuitionalist
ethics. But is the basis for religious belief to be constructed
purely within the region of "values"? Can you contrast
"judgments of value" with "judgmenU of fact"? Or, if.
as the Ritschlians mainUin, it is a slander invented by their
enemy. C E. Luthardt, to say that they draw this contrast, do
you achieve much by calling the principles of moral and re-
ligious belief, with A. RitKhl, "independent judgmenU of
vahie "? Independent of what? Surely not of fact? It is
explained that they are in contest with "accessory value-
judgments. " Terhaps the meaning is that they are of inde-
ptwdent importamc€. But does that carry us far? It all seems
a very hurried aud Impcrfealy studied phiVxophical analysis.
One might prefer as a theist to hold (i) that we need a philo-
fophical doctrine of the nature of reality— the " Absolute ";
given in popular form in the Cosmological argument; (2) that
we take the risk of attaching a higher degree of significance and
authority to tbe revelations of the moral consciousness, which,
although moulded or educed by society, do not terminate In
the authority of society, but point beyond it to God; this
position has its popular form in the moral argument; possibly
(3) that necessities of thought shut us up to belief In omnipo-
tence or infinity; (4) that divine kdp b the supreme revela-
tion But such lines of thought might carry us outside the
tifflits of traditional theism.
<Soa oT A. Ritichl. The younger theok>gian has accepted
If we try to bring the contents of theism under Kant's three
traditional arguments, then moral and aesthetic considerations
— the " values " — fall under the Design argument or the study
of teleology; albeit there is a great gap between Paley's super-
natural watchmaker and any moral argument or appeal to the
beautiful. It might be argued that beauty bears witness
against materialism, and moral values against pantheism;
although such an anomalous type as ethkai pantheism has its
representative*— J. G. Fichte, Matthew Arnold, perhaps H.
Hdffding. Kant's reliance on the moral argument aioru goes
with his scepticism. Giving that argument tbe higktst plat*
seems to involve, as already said, a dash of the same scepticism.
*-^The arguments, as already noted, may be differently am-
bitted, (i) Usually they are alternatives or else cumulative,
(a) Flint spaces out the proof (and the attributes) among them.
(5) Hegel regards them as phases.
V. What are the alternative conclusions to theism? The
extremest form of antagonism is pure scepticism or pure agnoa-
ticism, the assertion that nothing can be known. Attmmt*
Empiricism may lead to this conclusion; or it may thmm.
lead to materialism: True materialism includes **"■■■ 1
within itself dogmatic atheism, and Is probably the only coherent
or reasoned type of atheistic opinion.* Materialism further
brings with it an extreme or " hard " determinism; and.
denying the soul's separate existence in any sense, it nalurall(y
denies immortality. Once again, empiricism may lead to some
qualified and restricted form of agnosticism, religious or anti-,
religious. If polytheism is to be seriously defended at all. the
basis must be empiricist.* Intuitionalism in its turn may
harden out of " natural " dualism into moral dualism ; either
a literally Manichaean scheme — a good God impeded by an
evil personality or principle (Bayle)— or belief in a good God
of limited powers (Mill). And idealism in some cases may
interpret itxlf in favour of pantheism rather than of theism.
Pantheism does not favour free will or immortality, and may
move indefinitely near to materialism. Out of pantheism again
pessimism develops. If the principle of the universe is ioi'
penonal or unconscious, persona] consciousness in finite spirits
comes to wear the appearance of a blunder. Conversely, if
God cares for men, despair is impossible. For another syste-
matic grouping, see A. C. Fraser's Cijord Leawes. Wolff's list
is of some historical importance— atheism, deism (a God with-
out care for men) and naturalism (denial of supernatural revela-
tion); anthropomorphism (assigning a human body to (jod);
materialism, and idealism (non-existence of matter); paganism
(polytheism); Manirharism, Spinozism, Epicureanism. R.
Flint has dealt with the following antitheistic theories: atheism,
materialism, positivism, secularism, pessimbm, pantheism and
(in a separate vohune) agnosticbm. It b hard to be certam
that any systematic grouping will anticipate aD the sugges-
tions that may occur to a restlessly and recklessly inquiring age.
X.iTBaATURX.— Two wti% of writers have been conudered :— ftnt.^
the greater phikMophen. who have incidentaUy furthered theitm
(Socrates. Plato. Aristotle, the Stoics. Descartes. Locke. Kant.
Hegel. Mill. LoUe). or opposed it (Epicurus. Spinoza. Hume. Kant.
He^, Mill. Spencer): and. secondly, the deliberate champions of
theiaR»— Cicero (especially in Ihe Dt Natwa Deorumh Philo, Raymond
of Sabunde (in a sense}. Wolff, Butler (in a sense). Paley. and a
host of English and Cerman iftih<entury authors, who chiefly
handle the L>esign argument; then recent writers like R. Flint.
Theism, AnhUuistie Teeenes, i4{ii«tfirM«»— all wiih valuable notes
and references, and J. Martinca u e s pecially in A Shuly ej Reknen.
The theUtic writers are usually intuitionalists; but it has been
urged above that a fruitful study of theism must in eath case
inquire what is the writer's phikMophkal basis. The Bridgewater
treatises have little more than historical iatcresi to-day. A eeruin
hiatorkal interest also attaches to the Burnett priae essays on
theism: 1815. 1st priae. W. L. Bruce, and J. B. Sumner, after-
wards archbishop: i8m, ist R. A. Thompson, and J. Tulloch.
Among many Icctafeships. the Giffofd Lectures are supposed to
be strictly appropriated to Natural Thcokigy: yet subjccu and
• Dr MacT
""f^
no divine head.
* Dr MacTagnrt's beliefs once more present
lexpected modern type (Sttidie* <n Heiauin Cost
> Vet cf. once more MacTaggart's aociety of ei
tt themselves as an
melon, chap. tii).
crn type \O*W0«C* «>• HKgauttt w»an*i»vr^. %,umy- »••#.
more MacTaggart's aociety of eternal spirits with
758
THEISS-;-THEMISTOCLES
Ueatment vary immeoflely. A. C. Fcatcr's Edinburgh lecture* {Phil,
of Theism) are central in topic and of distinct value. J. Caird (Cla»-
fow: Fuwlamentai Ideas of Christianity, comp. his earlier Introduc.
to Iht Phil, of JUff.) and mon unreservedly E!d. Caird (St Andrews:
The EMltUiom. qfRdim; Glaacow: The EteltUian of Theelcn m
the Creeh Phitasophsesi represent speculative treatment on a basis
of Hegelianism. H. M. Gwatkin (Edinburgh: The KnawUdne of
Cod) pours out his historical knowledge, and W. James (Edinburgh :
Various of Rdig. Exp.) reveals hn manv-sided intellectual interests
and ready sympathiea. W. Wallace {Udures and Essays, incor-
ppratinff Glasgow lectures) ^tcs some useful historical references.
James Ward's masterly criticism of Herbert Spencer (Naturalism
and Agnosticism) has been mentioned above. The student will
rarely lose by reading Gifford Lectures: but it will not always
be upon theism that be fiads himself better informed. In France.
Paul Janet (Final Causes, Eng. trans.) and Ch. Steretan (Fhilo-
sopkie de la LibertS) may be named: in Germany, H. Ulrici; while
R. Eucken represents to a later generation the spirit and tendency
of Lotxe and Ulrici. in originaTand powerful, if rather elusive,
fashion. H. HOflding's Phsl. of ReUnen (translated) is one of the
most original books under that title, but it cannot be called theistic.
F. C. ST Schiller, like W. James, opens up new suggestions in
philosophy: the bearing of these upon theistic (or other) beliefs is
liard to define. In history compare B. PQnjer's Hist, tf/ the Phil,
of Relit. (Eng.. trans. ; it includes a good deal of the history of
Bcneral philosophy): A. Caldecott's The Philosophy of Reltgum m
Eniland and America; and A. Caldecott and H. K. Mackintosh's
Sdutions from the Literature of ^^^eism (useful texts with useful
notes: nothing from Hegel). (R. Ma.)
THEUS (Hungarian, Tisza; Lat, Tisia or Tissus), a large
affluent of the Danube, next to which it is the greatest river of
Hungary. It rises in the north-easiem part of the Carpathian
mountains, in the county of M&ramaros, at a height of above
6300 ft., and is formed by the confluence of two branches, the
Black Theiss (Fekete Tisza), and the White Theiss (Feh^r
Tisza), which unite at about 30 m. E. of Miramaros-Sziget.
The Theiss then follows a north-westerly direction until it leaves
its mountainous valley, then runs west, and after a great curve
to the north, takes a south-westerly direction and enters the
great Hungarian plain (AlfSld). From Szolnok it runs south
hi an almost parallel course with that of the Danube, from
which it is separated by a distance of about 60 m., and flows
Into the Danube near the village of Titel, 30 m. E. of Ujvidek.
Its length from source to mouth is, as the crow flies, only about
340 m., but its windings make its course about 870 m. long.
The Theiss is clear and swift in its course through the moun-
tains, but in the plain It becomes slow, somewhat muddy and
very tortuous. Its basin coven an area of 56,600 sq. m., and
comprises the whole eastern part of Hungary, and the greater
part of Transylvania, and collects all the rivers descending
from the Carpathians westward.
The Theiss is navigable for rafts almost everywhere, but for
steamers only from Szolnok downwards, a distance of about 300 m.,
where the breadth of the river is 450 to 750 ft. The depth of the
Theiss at low-water mark is 7 ft. at Xokaj, 20 ft. at Sseged and
II ft. at Titel. near its mouth, while the difference between the
low-water mark and the high -water mark is as high as 25 to 35 ft.
During its course through the great Hungarian plain the Theiss
flows between flat. k>w-lying banks, which are the cause of periodical
and sometimes disastrous inundations and of extensive marshes.
Therefore extensive works have been undertaken for the regula-
tion and canalization of the river, which is now strongly dammed
in many parts. By these works large tracts of marshes have been
transformed into productf\T ground. Its chief tributaries are the
'Szamos. KOrds, Maros. Latorcxa. and the Saj6. In its lower course
it is joined to the Danube by the Franz Josef canal, while it is
also united with Temesv&r by the Bega canal.
THEMIS, in Greek mythology, the personification of justice.
In Homer 0i|uf is used both as a common and as a
proper noun. As a common noun (plural Otitivns, difurti, BkiuSti),
it is the body of rules and precedents established at the begijining
of the world, as a guarantee of its order and harmony (see
Cr£EK Law); personified. Themb is the servant or companion
of Zeus, her chief function being to summon the assemblies of
both gods and men (Odyssey, ii. 68). In the Hesiodic theogony,
she is the daughter of Uranus and Gaea. and according to Pindar
the wife of Zeus, by whose side she (its, assisting him with her
iKlvice, which is even better than that of any of the gods. She
b the mother of the Horae and of the Moirae (Fates), an indica-
^tioD of b**- influi>nre in the physical and moral world. She is
the npkesdiutive of divine justice in aU its rdatiftna to mea,
and takes special cognizance of the rights of bospitality. Her
opposite is Hybris (vfipa), insolent encroachment tipon the
rigbu of otheis. on whose track she folbwa to punish, like
Nemesis. In this aspect both Themis and Nemem are called
<XMUa dxi^. track). In the lexicon of Festus, Themis ia
described as the goddess who prescribes that which n tigbt in
accordance with divine law (fas) and is herself identical with
this divine law. She is also a prophetic divinity, and there
was a tradition that the orade nt Delphi had firu been in the
hands of Gaea, who transferred it to Themis (sometimes identi-
fied with her) by whom it was handed over to ApoUo CAeschylus.
Eumenides, 2; Euripides, Ipkig. in T. 1x81). Orphic poetry
makes her a daughter of Helios, whose eye is aU<aeeing (cn«i<pa|s)
and penetrates all mysteries. She was espedally honouzed at
Athens. Delphi, Thebes, Acgioa and Tfoeaene. where there was
an altar dedicated to a triad of Tbemides (on the analogy of
the triads of Horae, Charilcs, Moine), In an she was repcc-
sented as of dignified and oomnanding presence, with the
comucopiae (symbolizing the blessings resulting from order)
and a pair of scales.
See article " Justitia '* by J. A. HiM in Daremberg and Saglk»'a
Diet, des Antiquiils; H. Ahrens. Du CMtn Tkesms (iMa);
R. Hirzel, Themu, Dike, und Vervandtes (1907).
THEMISnUS (3i7-?i87). named ^^fia^t (''eloquent*'),
statesman, rhetorician and philosopher, was bom in Paphla-
gonia and taught at Constantioople, where, apart from a short
sojourn in Rome, he^resided during the rest of his life. Tbou|^
a pagan, he was adotitted to the senate by Coostantius in 3S5-
He was prefect of Coastanlinople in 384 00 the nomination of
Tbeodosius. His paraphrases of Aristotle's Posterior Analytics,
Physics and De Anima are valuable; but the orations in which
he panegyrizes successive emperors, comparing them to Plato's
" true philosopher," and even to the " idea " itself, axe servile
and. unworthy. Against this, however, should be set the de-
Kription given by Boetius, " disalissimus script^ ac Ituidus,
el omnia ad facUitatem inieUigentiae revocans" and that of
Gregory Narianzen— with whom Tbemistius corresponded —
fioffikh. X^iiw. Themistius's paraphrases of the De Coelo and
of book A of the Metaphysics have reached us only through
Hebrew versions. In philosophy Tbemistius was an eclectic
He held that Plato and Aristotle were in substantial agreement,
that God has made men free to adopt the mode of worship they
prefer, and that Christianity and Hellenism were merely two
forms of the one tmiversal religion.
The firot edition of Themistius's works (Venice. 1534) included
the paraphrases and eight of the orations. Nineteen orations were
known to Petavius, whose editions appeared in 1613 and 1618:
Hardouin (Paris. 1684) gives thirty-three. Another oration was
discovered by Angelo Mai, and published at Milan in 1816. The
most recent editions are W. Dindori's of the orations (Leipcig.
183a). and L. Speogel's of the paraphrases (Leipzig, 1866). The
Latin translations of the Hebrew ver&ions of the paraphrases of
the De Co^Jo and book A of the Metaphysics were published ai
Venice in 1574 and 1558 respectively. A new edition of the laticr
by S. Laodauer appeared in 1903. See Fabricius, BMietketA
Graeca, vi. 790 seq.; E. Z^X^er. History of Cruk Phil.; £.. Baret.
De Themtsl, sophxsta (Paris, 1853): Jourdain's Recherches crtttqmes
sur VAge et Vongtne des traducttons taitnes d'Arulote (Paris, i8iq):
see NEorLATONisu. For Themistius's Commentaries on Aristotle,
see Comtnenfarttt t» AnOoielem Craeca (Berlin), and also Themnsfti
paraphrases Anstotelu librorum ouae supersunt, ed. I. Speogel
(1866. Tcubner aeries., mentioned above).
THEMISTOCLES (c. 514-449 B.C.), Athenian soldier and
statesman in some respects probably the ablest and most far-
sighted whom Greece produced in the first half of the sth century.
He was the son of Neodes. an Athenian of no distinction and
moderate means, his mother being a Carian or a Tbracian
Hence according to the Periclcan law <{ d^^p dtfrdcv he
would not have been a free Athenian at aO (see Pericles)
Thucydides property brings out the fact that, though he lacked
that education which was the peculiar glory of the Periclcan
age. he displayed a marvellous power of analysing a complex
situation together with a genius for rapid action. Plutarch
similarly enlarges on his consuming ambition for power both
th6nard
759
peraoul end Mtfoaal, and tkeunicffipuJoot ftbiUcy wfdi idikh
kc pursued hit ends. In all thcBe poinu he is the anlitheus
of hit gfcnt rival Aristidcs (f.v.). Of his eariy yean little is
knofim. He may have been stntegus of his tribe at Matmthon
(Plat, il fin. s> ud »e aie told that he deeply envied the glory
which Miitiadcs earned. At all events the death of MUtiada
left the stage to Ariatides and ThemiBlodca. It is sufficiently
dear that their rivaliy, terminated in 4Ss-9> by the ostracism
«f Aristides, turned largely on the fact that Themlstodea was
the advocate of a policy of naval expansion. This policy was
anqucstionably of the higbest importance to Athens and indeed
to Greece. Athens was faced by the equal if not superior
power of Aegina, while the danger of a renewed Persian invasion
bomed Urge on the horiaon. Thembtodes therefore persuaded
his countrymen to put in band the building of soo triremes, and
—what was of even greater imporunce*«to fortify the three
natural harbours of Peiraeus (see E. Gardner, Amdent AtkemSt
0> f ) in place of the open loadstead.of Phalerum. For the
building of the ships Themistoclcs peisuaded the Athenians to
allocate too talcnu obtained from the new stiver mines at
Lattrinm (Alk.i^.3t) which were about to be distributed to
the dtiaens ( lo drachmae each). One hundred of the proposed
» AcconUng to the Alk. Poi. it would seem that Themistocles
was archoo in 463-S2 at the time when this naval programme
began. Diooysius of Halicamassua places his archonabip in
493^2. IB bvour of which are several coasiderations. In 487
the office lost much of its importance owing to the subatitu*
tsDo of the lot for election: the chance that the lot would at the
particular crisis of 483 fsU on Themistodcs was obviously
lenote: and the Atk. Pd. is generaily wrong about Themis*
toclcsL In any case the year prior to the invasion of Xeixes
found Themistocles the chief roan in Athens If not in Greece.
Though the Greek fleet was nominally under the control of
the Spartan Eurybiadca, it was Themistocles who caused the
Creeks to fight the indecisive battle of Artemisium, and still
nsore it was he who, by his threat that be would lead the Athenian
army to found a new home in the West, and by his treacherous
Bifiasgr to Xerxes^ predpittted the engagement at Safatmis
(9 v.). The retirement of the Peiiians left the Athenians free
to restore thdr ruined city (see Athsns). Sparu, nominally
en ihe ground that it was dangerous to Greece that there should
be any citadel north of the Isthmus which an invader might
bold, uigfd that this should not be done, but Thembtodes by
means of diplomatic delays and subterfuges enabled the work to
be carried sufficiently near to completion to make the wails
defensible. He afao carried out his original plan of making
Priraeus a real harbour and fortress for Athens. Athens thus
became the finest trade centre in Greece, and this Uct, coupled
with Tbemistodes* remisaion of the ahen'a tax {pimUim),
induced many foreign business men to settle in Athens.
After the crisis of the Persian invasioo Themistocles and
Aristides appear to have composed their differences. But
Themistocles soon began to lose the confidence of the people,
partly owing to his boastfulness (it is said that he built near
his own house a sanctuary to Artema AristoboulS "of good
counsd ") and partly to bis alleged readiness lo take bribes.
Diodorus <xi. 54) and Plutarch {Themut. 33) both refer to some
accusation levelled against him,' and some time l)etweeD 476
and 471 he was ostracized. He retired to Aigos, but the
Spartans further accused him of treasonable intrigues with
Persia, and he fled to Corcyra. thence to Admetus, king of the
Molos&ians, and finally to Asia Minor. He was prodaimed a
traitor at Athens and his property was confiscated, though his
friends saved him some portion of it. He was wdl received by
the Persians and was allowed to settle to Magnesia on the
Maeander. The revenues (50 talents) of this town were assigned
to him for bread, those of Myus for coodiments, those of
Lampsacus for wine. He died at Magnesia at the age of sixty-
five« and a splendid memorial was raiised by the people of the
* There it, however, much difficulty regarding thia aocu»tipo.
It aaay be amply a mistindrrsUodiag of his oitxadsm.
town, though it Is said that his bones were secretly trmnsfened
to Attica. He was worshipped by the Magnesians as a god,
as we find fh>m a coin on which he is shown with a patera in his
hand and a slain bull at his feet (hence perhaps the legend that
he died from drinking bull's blood: d. Aristoph. Eq. Vy^
Diod. xi. 58; Plut. Them. 31).
Though his end was discreditable, though his great wealth
can hardly have been obuined by loyal public service, there is
no doubt that his senrices to Athens and to Greece were great.
He created the Athenian dect and with it the possibility of the
Delian League [q.v.) which became the Athenian empire, and
there are many indications (cf. his wdl-aitcsied plan of ex-
pansion in the west) that the later imperialbt ideal originated
b his fertile brain.
There are monoeraphs by Bauer (Merteburg. 1881) and Wccklein
(Munich, 1882): but the best discusMons of hit career wttl be
found in the chief Greek hiMorics «.f. Bueolt: on the difficult
chrondogv of his later yean see Crote, HtUary of Greece (and the
one-voL ed. by Mitchell and Caspari. 1907, p. a8^, note 1, with the
authorities there quoted); on the Magnesian coin, Rhousopoulos,
in Atken. MttUtl (1896). p. 22. On the walls, see Ed. Meyer in
Httmts, xl. (1905). pp. 561-569. (J. M. M.)
THtRABD, LOUIS JACQUES (i 777-1857)! French chemist;
was bom on the 4tb of May 1777 at Loupti^re, near Nogent-
sur-Seine, Aube. His father, a poor peasant, managed to have
him educated at the academy of Sens, and scot him at the age
of sixteen to study pharmacy in Paris. There he attended the
lectures of A. F. Fourcroy and L. N. Vauquelin, and succeeded
in gaining admission, in a humble capacity, to the latler's
laboratory. But his progress was so rapid that in two or three
years he was able to lake his master's place at the lecture-table,
and Fourcroy and Vauquelin were so satisfied with his per-
formance that they procured for him a school appointment in
1797 as teacher of chembtry, and in 1798 one as repilUew at
the ^cU Potytechniqui. In 1804 Vauquelin resigned his pro-
fessorship at the ColUgt de France and successfully used bis
influence to obtain the appointment for Th£nard, who six yean
later, after Fourcroy's death, was further elected to the chairs
of chemistry at the £cole PolyUchnique and the FactUti des
Sciences. He also succeeded Fourcroy as member of the
Academy. In 1825 he received the title of baron from Charics X.,
and in 1832 Louis Philippe made him a peer of France. From
1827 to 1830 he represented the department of Yonne in the
chamber of deputies, and as vice-president of the conseti superiew
de VtHStruction puUigne, he exercised a great influence on
scientific education in France. He died in Paris on the 21st of
June 1857. A suiue was erected to his memory at Sens in
1861, and in 1665 the name of his native vUlage was changed Ia
Loupti^re-Th^nard.
Above all things Th^nard was a teacher; as he himself said/
the professor, the assistants, the laboratory— everything must
b( sacrificed lo the students. Like most great teachers he
published a text-book, and his Trail* de Chimie ilimentaire,
UUorique et pratique (4 vols.. Paris, 1813-16). which served as a
standard for a quarter of a century, perhaps did even more
for the advance of chemistry than his numerous original dis-!
coveries. Soon after his appointment as repitHeur at the ^<dt
PotyUcknique he began a lifelong friendship with J. L. Gay-|
Lussac, and the two carried out many researches together..
Careful analysis led him to dispute some of C. L. BerthoUrl's|
theoretical views regarding the composition of the metallic,
oxides, and he also showed BerthoUet's " zoonic acid '*' to be
impure acetic acid (1802); but BerthoUet (f.r), so far from
resenting these corrections from a younger man. invited him to
become a member of the SociiU d'Arctieil. His first original
paper (1799) ^^ on tbe compounds of arsenic and antimony
with oxygen and sulphur, and of his other separate Investiga^
tions one of the most important was that on the compound
ethers, begun in 1807. His researches on sebacic acid (1809)
and 00 bile (1807). and his discovery of peroxide of hydrogen
(1818) also deserve mention. The substance known «a
" Th6naiU's blue, " he prepared in 1799 in response to a pereinp>
toiy demand by J. A. Chaptal for a cheap colouring matter, is
760
THEOBALD— THEOCRITUS
'^^ i^'f •
I
'' '•'':'!^^?^'"5. 1/)^^^^^ Academy o( Scicocf.
"CTi^ M ^6«n^hbUhop of Cnterbury. w^ of
^'"^•*^. !1 Uii lie date of bis birth U unknown. Early
:c-.n ?^'*^ *r^ J^ abbey of Bee. of which he became
* ' ' ^ "Z'^'SbJtU^ yean Uler. In 1 138 he was selected
^' r ■* ' ' '- rZ ci EitfUnd. to fiU the vacant see of Canter-
' '"'^^r^^i^^-'r bTowed this advancement to his character
' '"'"L^SSTwi as archbishop he behaved with a moderation
" TTiT^r^ contrast to the conduct of his nval. Henry
' "a? "^..^o^rf Winchester. During the struggle between
;: ^^S^L^dakwa. Bishop Henry who fought for the
^~^ tht Owrch; Theobald, whUe showing a preference
!^'tS«» tAk. B«de it his rule to support the ic faeto
^JrW^Bat as Stephen's cause gained ground the archbishop
^f^e^ independence. He refused to consecrate the
"^ JS^TinhTsee of York, and in 114* attended the
S?at\^iS^ Reims in defiance of a royal prohibition This
.^ was ended by the intercession of the queen, Matilda of
bT* >«e but another, of a more Krious character, was pro-
***. ,^'-fVobaId's refusal to crown Count Eustace, the eldest
I^i" Stephen, the archbishop pleading the pope's orders as
fw *T.-'ise for this contumacy. He was banished from the
^ '-VM but Pope Eugenius terrified Stephen into a reversal
!i J* sinience. In iiS3 Theobald succeeded in reconciling
5 -Sen with Henry of Anjou, and in securing for the latter the
^-^^skm to the throne. On the accession of Henry in 1154,
tvobald naturally became his trusted counsellor; but ill-
K-ll'h prevented the archbishop from using his influence to its
h ' extent. He placed the interests of the Church in the hands
J*Tlioma5 Bcckcl, his archdeacon, whom he induced Henry to
«:-^>y as chancellor. Theobald died on the x8th of April
1. A He is said to have recommended Becket as his successor.
ia history Theobald lives chiefly as the patron of three
eotiaent men: Becket, who began life as a clerk in his house-
Md; Master Vacarius, the Italian jurist, who was the first to
^<ich Roman law in England; and John of Salisbury, the
Bhwi learned scholar of the age. Theobald's household was a
university in little; and in it were trained not a few of the
kading prelates of the next generation.
Sec the Vita Theohaldi printed in J. A. Giles, Lanfranci Opera,
Yoi I (Oxford, 1844); W. Hook, Lives of the Arckbtskops of CanUr-
Sttr^ it c vi. (London, 1863); and K. Norgate, England under tkt
Anp^n kings, y<A. i. (London. 1887). (H. W. C. D.)
THEOBALD. LEWIS (1688-1744), English man of letters,
playwright and Shakespearian commentator, the son of an
attorney, was born at Siltingbourne. Kent, and was baptized
on the 2nd of April 1688. He was educated under a clergyman
named Ellis at Isleworth, and became a good classical scholar.
He followed his father's profession, but soon abandoned it for
literature. In 17 13 he translated the Phaedo of Plato, and
entered into a contract with Bernard Lintot the publisher to
translate the tragedies of Aeschylus. He seems to have made
other promises not carried out, but in 1714 and 1715 appeared
versions of the Elcctra, the Ajax, and the Oedipus Rex of
Sophocles, and the Plulus and the Clouds of Aristophanes. He
became a regular hack-writer, contributing to MisVs Journal,
and producing plays and poems of very small merit. The
publication of his play The Perfidious Brother (acted 1715;
printed 1716) involved Theobald in considerable difficulty. He
apparently received a rough draft of the play from Henry
Meystayer, a London watchmaker, with a commission to arrange
it for the stage. Theobald brought it out as his own work.
In the next year Meystayer produced a version, and charged
Theobald with plagiarism, but there is no means of ascertaining
tha eiact tights St the case. His poverty compelled him to
ttrodtiCe rapidly. He translated the first book of the Odyssey
^f f6)| wrote tragi-comcdles, operas and masques, and helped
** ,r*'
Joha Rich in the production of pantomhncs, theft ma innn<»
tion at Dcury Lane. But in 1736 he produced SkaMtpemt
Restored, or a Specimen of Ike many Errors as tocff CowumHied as
Unamended by Mr Pope in hit laU ration of this Poet; desigmei
not only to correct the said Edition, but to restore tke Irue Ejeadimg
of Shakespeare in all tke Editions eoer pmbUsfted (173^)- How-
ever ill Theobald may have succeeded as a poet and dramafisi.
he showed great discrimination as a textual editor. Some oC
his happiest emendations are to be found in this work, mhkk
conclusively proved Pope's incompetence as a Shnke^xaiua
editor. Two years later a second edition of Pope's vock
appeared. In it he stated that he had iiM»rporated soiae of
Theobald's readings, in all amounting to about twenty-five
words, and that he added the rest which could " at worst but
spoil half a sheet of paper that chances to be left vacant here."
He also insinuated that Theobald had maliciously kept back
his emendations during the progress of the edition. All this
was a gross misstatement of fact. He had in reality inoar
porated the majority of Theobald's best emendations. In the
first edition of the Dunciad (1738) Theobald figured as the bcfo.
and he occuined the place of chief victim until nylaced by Cofley
Ctbber in 1741. In spite of the critics, Theobald's work was
appreciated by the public. In 1731 he undertook to edit
Shakespeare for Tonson the publisher. The work appeared ia
seven volumes in 1734. and completely superseded Pope^
edition. From 1739 to the date of its publication Theobald
had been engaged in correspondence on the subject with War-
burton, who after his friend's death published an edition at
Shakespeare, in the preface of which he asserted that Theobald
owed his best corrections to him. Srudy of the correspondence
proves, however, that the indebtedness was on Warburton's
side. Subsequent editors reaped, in most cases without acknow-
ledgment or with actual scorn, the fruit of Theobald's pains-
taking labour, his wide learning and his critical genius. But
Pope's satire, as Johnson justly remarked, blasted the char-
acters that it touched. Theobald remained the type of the
dry-as-dust commentator. His merits obtained a taidy reoog*
nition on the publication of a detailed study of his critical wo^
by Mr Churton Collins in an essay entitled " The Ponon of
Shakespearian Criticism " {Essays and Studies, 1895). Theo-
bald gave proof of the same happy gift in classical scholarship
in some emendations of Aeschylus. Eustathius, Athenaeus and
others, contributed to a learned journal started by John Jortin
in 173 1. He was a candidate for the laureateship in 1730, but
Qbber gained the coveted post. His last years were harassed
by poverty and disease. He began a critical edition of the
plays of Beaumont and Fletcher, completed by Seward and
Sympaon after his death, which took place on the xSth of
September 2744.
His correspondence with Matthew Coocancn. Styan Thiriby and
Wtlliam Warburton is to be found in Nichols's JUustratiams «i
Literature (ii. 204-654). which also ^ves the fullest account 01
his life.
THEOCRACY (Gr. BtoKparla, the rule of God, from Mt,
god, and 'Kparia, KpartXv, to rule), a term applied to a form of
government or to a state ruled by such a form of government,
in which God or the divine power is looked to as the *>xirce
of all civil power, and the divine commandments regarded as
the laws of the community. The typical example of such a
state is that of the Jews till the establishment of the kingship
under Saul (see Je ws) .
THEOCRITUS, the creator of pastoral poetry, flourished in
the 3rd century B.C. Little is known of him beyond what can
be inferred from his writings. We must, however, handle,
these with some caution, since some of the poems (" Idylls ")
commonly attributed to him have little claim to authenticity.
It is clear that at a very early date two collections were made,
one of which included a number of doubtful poems and formed
a corpus of bucolic poetry, while the other was confined to those
works which were considered to be by Theocritus himself.
The record of these recensions is preserved by two epigrams,
one of which proceeds from Artemidorus, a grammarian, who
THEOCRITUS
761
lived Itt the time of 9alk and li tild to have been the fint
editor of thete poems. He tay%, *' Bucolic muaei, once were
ye scattered, but now one byre, one herd is ywa," The
acoond epigiam is aoonjrmoas, and mna as foUons^— " The
Chian is another. I, Theoczitas,who irtote these soog^ am of
Syracuse, a man of the people, the son of Pfazafons and faSDed
Philina. I never sought after a strange muse." The last line
may mean that he wrote nothing but bnooiic poems, or that he
only wrote in Doric The sutement that he was a Syrantsan
is confirmed by allusions in the "UyHi" (xi. 7, soviii. x6-x8).
The information conceraing his parentage bean the stamp of
genuineness, and disposes of a rival theoiy based upon a mis-
inteipretation of Idyll viL — which made him the son of one
Simxdius. A Uiger collection, possibly more extensive than
that of Artemidorus, and including poems of doubtful authen-
Ucilj, was known to Soidas, who says: ** Theocritus wrote the
oo-atUed bacoKc poems in the Dorian dialect Some persons
also attribute to him the following: DoMgfUars oj Pfoetm, Htpes,
Hymns, Herpina, DvgeSt Lynct, SkgUt, Iambics, Epiffams,"
The first of these may have been known to Virgil, who refers
to the ProttUes in the Eclogues} The spurious poem xzL may
have been one of the Hopes (cf. L 66, Vixlt rStf Orvwv),
and poem zxvi. may have been one of the Herrines (d. 1. 36,
ipciHMi): elegiacs are found in viii. 35-60, and the spurkras
epitaph on Bion may have been one of the DirffS' The other
classes are sll represented in the Urgef collection which has come
down to us.
The poems which aie generally held to be authentic msy be
1. Bmcolks and Mimts,— The distinction Uit ira en tke« is that
the ■oenes of the former are laid in the cottfltiy and those of the
latter in a town. The most famous of the BueeUcs are i., vii.,
xL aad vi. In L Tbynis siRn to a toetheid how Dsphnis, the
mythical herdsman, having de6ed the power of Aphrodite, dies
twther than yield to a paMMO with which the goddess had tmpired
him. In xi. Polyphemus is depicted as In love with the sea^iymph
Gatatea and finding solace in song: in vi. he is cured of his pasaon
and naivdy tdates how he repulses the overtures now made to
him by GatotBa. The monster of the Odyssey has been '* written
op to date " after the Alesandrian manner and has become a
gentle simpleton. Idyll vii., the Harvest Feast (eaXWia), is the
most Important of the bocolic poems. The scene is laid in the
isle of Cos. The poet speaks in the fint person and is styled
Simicbklas* by his frieods. Other poets are introduced under
feigned names. Thus ancient critics identified Sicdidas of Samos
(1. 40) with Asdepiades the Ssmlan, and Lvcidas, *' the goatherd
of Cydonia,** may well be the poet Astacidcs, whom CalKmachus
calls "the Cretan, the goathent.** Theocritus speaks of himself as
Iraving already gained fsme. and ssys that bb lays have been brought
by report even unto the throne oTZeus.* He praises Philetas. the
veteran poet of Cos, and critsdsee '* the fledgeKngs of the Muse,
wlw eackle against the Chian baid and find their labour lost***
Other persons mentioned are Nkiaa, a frfiysician <^ Miletus, whose
name occurs in other poems, and Aratus^ whom the Scholiast
identifies with the author of the Phenomena,
The other bucolic poems need not be further discuased. Several
of them consist of a singing-match, conducted accofding to the
rules of amoebean poetry, in which the second singer takes the
•object chosen by the first and contributes a variation in the same
air. It may be noted that the peasants of Theocritus differ greatly
In refinement. Those In v. are low fellows who indulge in coarse
•base. This Idyll and iv. are laid in the neighbourhood of Croton,
and we may infer that Theocritus was peraonallrecquamted with
Magna Gnecia. Saspicbn hasbeen caat upon poemsviiL and is.
on various grounds. An extreme view holds that in ix. we have
two genuine Theocritean fra^^ments, IL 7-13 and 15-ao, describing
Che loys of summer and winter respectively, which have been
pi w i d ed with a clumsy preface, U. f-6, while an eariy editor of a
booolic coUactkm has appended an epilogue In wh^h he takes
leave of the Bocolc Muses.* On the other hand, it is clear that
both poems were in Virgil's Theocritus, and that th^ passed the
scrutiny of the editor who formed the short collectioo of Theo-
cntean Bucoltcs.
• " Proetides implerunt falsis mugitibus agros."— £rf. vi. 48.
*Two explanations are offered by the Scholiast: either that the
poet was " snub-nosed " (iriMt). or that he was the son of Simichus.
The second is obviously a mere guess.
* rA «ov ««i Z>w^ M 9pim» trmrf Mm*, I- 93* It » possible
that Zeus refers to Ptolemy: cf. Horace. Ep. i. 19. 43. /•«» osr»*ia
ista Servat, where /Mpf/er» Augustus.
' Some think that there is an aUoaon to ApoOoaius Rhodioa.
•a.Hma, ad Uc,
The mimes are three In aondier, via., it, xiv., xv. In 3. Simaetha,
deserted by DelpUs. tells the story of her love to the moon: in
xiv. Aeschlnes narrates his quarrd with his sweetheart, and is
advised to go to Egypt and enlist in the army of Ptolemy Phila*
ddphus: in xv. Goigo and PraxInoS go to the festival of Adonia.
It maybe noticed that In the best MSB. n. comes immediately
before xiv., an arrangement which is obviously right, since it frfacee
the three nnmes tog^her. The secondplsce in the MSS. is occupied
by Idyll viL, the "Harvest Pesst." These three mimes are wonder-
fully natural and lifelike. There is nothing in ancient literature so
vivid and real as the chatter of Coigo and PTaxinoe, and the socsr
pofdilnxv, ■
It will be oenvenient to add to the Bucolics and Mimes three
poems which cannot be beought into any other class, vis. : xil. (airw ).
a poem to a beautifal youth; xviU., the mairiage-so^g of Helen
CS«ifaXA|iigr); and xxvi., the murder of Pentheus Uirai). The
genuineness of the last has been attacked by U. von Wilamowits-
MMIendorff on account cf the crudity of the language, whkrh
soosetiniee degeneratea into doggersl. It is, however, liimy that
Thsocritns intentkmally used realistic language for the sake of
dramatic effect, and the MSS. evideooe is m favour of the poem,
Eusuthius quotes from it as the work of Theocritus.
If. £pici.— Three of these are Hymns, viz., xvi., xvii. and xxSL
In xvL the poet praises Hiero II. of Syracuse, in xvii. Ptolemy
Philsddphus, and in xxH the Dioscuri. The other poems are
xiiL, the stoiy of Hylas and the Nymphs, and xxiv. the youthful
Heracles. It cannot be said that Theocritus exhibits signal merit
in his Epics. In xtii. he shows some sldll in word-painting. In xvL
there is some delicato fancy in the description of his poems as
*' Graces " (Kiptrm), and a passage at the end, where he foretelb
the joys of peace alter the enemy have been driven out of Skaly.
has the tru^ bucolic ring. 'The most that can be said of xxiL and
xxiv. b that they are very dramatic Otherwise they differ little
from work done by other poeU, such aa Callimachus and Apolloniua
Rhodiua. The fiattery heaped upon Ptolemy is somewhat nanseonn
From another point of view, however, these two poems xvi. and
xvii. are supremely interesting, since tney are the only ones which
can be dated. In xvii. Theocritus celebrates the incestuous marriage
of Ptolemy PhOaddphus with his sister Arsmoe. This marriage
have taken place in S77 a.C., and a reoei '
inacriptioo .
of her brother's rrign. • This ^ ,
which Theocritns wroto to please
fiuoMk) must fail within this period.
Hiero II. would from internal reaaona se ^..„ r_.
ne in it Theocritus is a hungry poet seeking for a
t in the other he is well satisfied with the world. Now
Ptolemy PhOaddphus with his sister Arsmoe. This
held to nave taken place in an a.c., and a recendy t
icription shows that AsmoUt died in 170. in the fiitecuw /uw
poem, therefore, together with xv«
ase Arrinoe (&Mf. xa^f^fi^wor rg
his period. The encomium neon
nteentk yesjr
I prior to that upon
to the front in S75 b.c. when he was made
(#rMrtYA»): Theocritua speaks of his achievements
aa still to come,* and the aOence of the poet wouM ahow that Hiero's
marriage to PhilistH hia vktoiv over the Mameitines at the
Longanussnd his election sa"Kmg" (^iMt), evtnts which are
ascribed to S70 B.C.. had not yet taken place. If ao, xviL and xv.
can only have been written within 275 and S7a
III. Xyraw.— Two of these are certainly by Theocritus via.,
xxviii. and xxix. The first is a very naceful poem presented
together with a distaff to Theugenis, wife of Nidas, a doctor of
Mlletas. on the occasion of a voyage thither undertaken by the
poet. The theme of xxix. ia similar to that of xii. Averycorrapt
poem, only found in one very late MS., was discovered t^ Ziegler
m J064. As the subject and style very ckMely resemble that of
xxix., it Is assigned to Theocritns by recent editors^
IV. The Epignms do not call lor detailed notke. They do not
ooaaesa any special merit, and their authenticity is often doubtful,
it remains to notice the poems which are now geoerally considersd
to be spurious. Theyareasfolk>ws:—
xix. "Love stealing Honey" (KspMcXivr^). The poem is
anonymotts in the MSSb and the conception of Love ia not The^
critean.
XX. " Herdsman '* (Boi«oXfmf).xxL " Fishermen " OAXitff), xxui.
" Paasionate Lover " CKpa"^). These three poems are remark*^
able for the corrupt state of their text, which makes it likely
that they have come from the same aouice and possibly are by
the same author. The " Fishermen " has been much admired.
It is addressed to Diophantua and conveys a moral, that one ahould
work and not dream, illustrated by the story of an old fisherasan
who dreams that be has caught a fish of gold and narrates bis
vision to hia mate. As Leonidas of Tarentum wrote epigrams oa
of them la a dedication of his tackle to Poaeid<
by IMophanttrs, the fisher.* it is likely that the authorof this poem
was an iautator of Leonidas. It can hardly be by Leonidaa Mm-
seir, who was a con t empor a ry of Theocritus, as it bean marks of
lateness.
XXV. ** Heracles the Lkm-sbyer *' (Awro^iMf). This is a. long
* The evidence is contained in a new fragment of the Mendes
Stele. Cf. von Prott in RJuinisckes Museum (1898), p. 464.
' iooerot, eSrsi k^ tt kiuA s«xA4^«r' AeiioS, I. 73.
• Ay^MsIf A<*» a i jM Mmof^Hum rkxpm (AuA, Pel vL'4.7}-
762
THEODECTE8
poem conBwting of two epiaodM, vis. the iaterviev of Hendes
with the bafliff of Augeas and bis recital to Phykus, aon of Augeoa,
of the story of the Nemean lioa. The oomiwiitioa is not unworthy
of Theocritus. It u, however, anonymous in the MSS. and oomea
next to anothtf anonymous poem called " Megara, the wife of
Hercules." It is probable from some metrical and linguistic pecu*
Carities that xxv. and the " Megara" are both by the same author,
xxvii. " The wooing of Daphnis" COapMrfa) is also anonymous.
It contains imitations of Theocritus, but the tone and thft language
betray a later writer.
We have no sore facts as to the life of Theocritus beyond
those supj^ed by Idylls zvi. and xviL It is quite uncertain
whether the bucolic poems were written in the pleasant isle of
Cos among a drde of poets and students, or in Alexandria
and meant for dwellers in streets. Tlie usual view is that
Theocritus went first from Syracuse to Cos, and then, after
suing in vain for the favour of Hiezo, took up his raddence
permanently in Egypt. Some have supposed on very flimsy
evidence that he quarrelled with the Egyptian coart and retired
to Cos, and would assign various poems to the " later-Coan "
period.* Wilamowits^Mdllendorff , laying stress on the fact that
in the best MS. the poem to Ptolemy (xvii.) comes before that
to Ifieto (xvi.), very ingeniously puts the £^gyptian period first
and supposes it to have been of very short duration (i.e. 277 to
375), and then makes the poet, after his unsuccessful appeal to
Hiero, retire to Cos for the rest of his life. This view would
enable us to see a' reference to Ptolemy in vii. 93, ^d even to
the young ApoUbnius Rhodius in 47-48 of the same poem.
The poems of Theocritus were termed Idylls {dOikha) by
the grammarians. The word is a diminutive from eTior, and
is supposed to mean " little poems.'* The use of ttSos in the
sense of " poem ". is somewhat doubtful, and so some have
referred dUtWui to dSos in its usual sense of " form " or
*'type." Thus cTJbt /SovxoXodir, iiruoi¥, yvpuA^ might be
used to dasafy various kinds of poetry, and these poems might
be called €l26XXwtj since they include so many types.
IjangKogg and iiietre.— Theocritus wrote in various dialects accord-
ing to the subject. The Lyrics xxviii., xjdx. (and xxx.) are m
AeoUc, that bemg the traditional dialecit for such poeitia. Two
poemsj xii. (Alnfi) and xxii. (to Castor and Pollux), were written
in Ionic, as is suted in titles prefixed to them, though a number
of Doric fonns have been inserted by the scribes. The epics in
general show a nuxture of Homeric, Ionic and Dorie forms. The
Bucoliu, Mimes, and the " Marriage-song of Helen" (xviii.) are in
Doric, with occauonal forms from other dialects.
The metre used by Theocritus in the Bucolks and Mimes, as
well as in the Epics, is the dactylic hexameter. His treatment of
this may he compared both with Homeric usage and that of other
Alexanonan poets, e,g. Callimachus. It was the tendency of these
writers to use daixya in preference to spondees with a view to
tightness and rapidtty. Inis tendency snows itsdf most in the
thud foot, the favourite caesura being the trochaic, ijt. after the
•econd syllable (- u 0< On the other hand, the Alexandrians
admitted a spondee in the fifth foot, especially when the verse
ends with a quadrisyllable. Theocritus in the Epia conforms to
the new technique m both these tespecto: in the Bucolics his
practice agrees with that of Homer. The feature in his versification
which has attracted most attention is the socalled bucolie caesura.
The rule is that, if there is a pause at the end of the fourth foot,
this foot must be a dactyl. This pause is no new invention, being
exoeediMly common in Homer. Tneocritus uses it so frequently
in the Bucolics that it has become a mannerism. In the Epics
bisjpiactioe agrees with that of Homer.
We always think of Theocritus as an original poet, and as the
*' inventor^ of bucolic poetry " he deserves this reputation. At
the same rime he had no scruple about borrowii^ from predecessors
or contemporaries; in. fact he did so in the most open manner.
Thus xxix. be^ns with a line of Alcaeus,' and xvii., as the Scholiast
points out. With words used by Aratus at the beginning of the
rkenomna. The love of the Cyck>ps for Galatea had been treated
bjr Philoxenus, and fragments quoted from this show that Theo-
critus copied some of hM phrases closely. In the mimes Theocritus
appean to have made great use of Sophron. Idyll it is modelled
upon a mime of thu writer which began in a very similar way.*
^ The chief argument is that in xii. 5 the poet says —
Stfvor wmf09tK^ w/to^ifiti rpiykiioio yimviA.
As Arsinoft h&d been married three times, it is thought that she
•might have been offended by this remark.
' olwcn, w ^IX< vat, >JkytTtu. nol AXotfio.
*Sophron's mime began with vu fkp 4A«^aXrM; Theocritus's
begins with ir^ iwt rot Sd^at;
The Scholiast thought that Theooritna showed want of ttslt ia
roaldng Thestylis a fsr*o«a wirfa, instead of giving her a share
m the dulcMrae as Sophron had done. The famous poem about
Gorgp and Fkaxinoe at the fcut ol Adonis was modelled on one
by Sophron about women looldag on at the Isthmian games
('l0iui4f«ur«), and fra gmen ts quoted from this are doaely i«i|ta tfit
by
Jt is octtemely interesting to find a similar pooa
in the recently discovered mimes of Herondas, the fourth of which
is termed " Women making offerings to Aescubmhi^ i'km^mm^
imwiM^M cat AwiAroiwai). The ndatwn of Theocritw to Hcsm-
das is a subject a great interest. Herondas mtist have been
a contemporary, as he refers to Ptolemy Philadelphus,* and was
a native of Cos, so that he and Theocritus must have been acquainted.
There are some cuiiouft parallds in the language and idioms of the
two poets, but which of them copied the other it ia * p*rTi w iti1 f to
determine.
Afanium;^.— The oldest authority for any part of Theocritus
is a papyrus discovered by B. P. Greniell and A. S. Hunt at Oxy-
rhynchus, written in the 3nd century a.d. and contahnng xin.
19-34-* There are also fr^mesta ot another papyms bekK«ii«
to the ^th century, which contain some lines of i., v., siii., xv.,
xvi. and xxvi.* These papyri are carelessly written and do not
contain any notable variants. The most valuable of the existing
MSS. belongs to the Library at MUan (Ambros. 92a). It was
written in the 131th century, and contaiiui Idylte i^xvS., r*^ ,
and the Epigrams. Other good MSS. of the same family mttySn
xviii. also. The other poems come from two sources. One oC
these is represented by several MSS. and contains xix., xx., xxt.,
xxii..kxiii.. xxv. The other contains xxii. 69-233, xxiv., xxv.,
xxvi., xxvii., xxviiL, xxix. This collection was first published in
the JiuUine e<Ution (151 5) from a codex Patopinus now lost. The
only existinf^ MS. of any value in which it is found is in Paris (27a6),
and was wntten in the T4th century. These two cdlections are
termed ^ and w by Hiller and other recent writers. It will be
noticed that xxv. and a portion of xxii. are fouini both in # and w.
In these poems there are constant divergences, and w appears to
give the better recenstoiu
There are important Scholia to Theocritus, or rather to that
portion of the poems (L-xvii. and xxix.) which is found ia the best
MSS. The most valuable of these are those contained by Ambros.
33a (K). They are composite in character. The Argument to
xii. is ascribed to Eratosthenes, a Gontemporary of Justinian, while
reference is frequently made to the views <A Munatius, who lived
in the time of Hcrodcs Atticus. and Amarantus, a contemporary
of Galen. WiUmowita-MOUendocff ascribes the nudeus ol these
Scholia to Theon. who wrote similar scholia on Lycophron and
Apcrflonius Rhodius, and is stated to have written a commentary on
Theocritus.' This Theon is suted to have been the son of Aitemi-
dorus, the first editor of Theocritus. It is, therefore, suggestted
that Theon formed the shorter colleaion of Theocritean poems,
furnished them with scholia^ and wrote the second epigram quoted
at the beginnii^ of this article. The other poems, wiuch. possess
no scholia and have come down to us from the other eoilections.
would, according to this ingenious theory, be those which appeared
in the larger collection of Artonidorus but were excluded by Theoo.
BiBUOGRAPHY.— (i.) Editions, (a) Critical. H. L. Ahrens (1855);
Ch. Ziegler (1879); U. von Wilamowitz-Meilendorff. in Oxford
ClassicaTTexU j[i907)- (b) epexegetical, £. HiHer<i88i; German
notes); R. J. Cholmeley (1901; English notes), (il) Transit
turns, A. Lang (x88o; prose): J. n, Hailard (1901: vene).
Oil) Snbjeci-maUer. Ph. E. Leerand, Etude sur ThiocriU (1898):
Qv.) Textual Questions. E. Hifler. BeUr&g/e wr TextgesckichU der
Griechiscken BukoUker (1888); U. von Wilaroowitx-MdUendorfir.
C. Kutut, De Theocriti versu Juroico (1887).
Ziegler, Codicis Ambrosiani 232, Scholia in Theoaitum
Die TextBtschichte der Griechtschen BukoUker (1906). (v.) Motrg,
" •' "^ •" [. (vL) Scholia. Ch.
(5l t'C)
THBODBCTBS (c. 3S0-340 B.C.), Greek rhetorician and tragic
poet, of Phaselis in Lycia, pupil of Isooates and Plato, and an
intimate friend of Aristotle. He at first wrote speeches for
the hw courts, but subsequently composed tragedies «ith
success. He spent most of hfs life at Athens, and was buried
on the sacred road to Eleusis. The inhabitants of Phaselis
honoured him with a statue, which was decorated with gariands
by Alexander the Great on his way to the East. In the contests
arranged by AYtcmisia, queen of Caria,at the funeral of Mausolus,
Thcodectes gained the prize with his tragedy J/awo/M (extant
in the 2nd century a.d.), but was defeated by Theopompus in
oratory. According to the inscription on Ua tomb, ht was
* 1. 30. 6(Sv Ut\4^ rifupot, 6 fiaffi3iti% xfinoris.
» Oxvrkynckus Papyri, iv. p. 139,
* C. We&sely in Berliner PhiMogische Wochensckrift (1906),
p. 831.
' Qiup kf T^ irr^iirhoi. ^eeaplrov, I
tpovtib.oaw.'S' Cf. Ahrens, ii. p.
deoKpfrov, Etym. on i. 39: Oiwy i *A#r<^f
it. Si _ jQtvJJ^
TWEGDOLTTE
763
cislit tloKi ^rktoriout ia thlften dimmiric contcitt. Of lik
tisfediet (fifty in number) thirteen titles and tome fragmenu
nmun (A. Nauck, Trapemum CratcontM Fragmenta, 1887).
Ha treatise on the art of rhetoric (aooarding to Suldaa written
ia vene) and his speeches «r« lost. The names of two of the
Intter-nSecrdto and N0MM (referring to a Uw proposed by
Tlwodectcs for the reform of the mercenaiy 8ervice>~are pre-
served by Aristotle {RMtkric, H. sj, 13, 17). The Tkeptkctea
(Aristotle, MkM, iii. 9, 9) was probably not by Theodectcs, bat
an earlier work of Aristotle, which was supeneded by the
ynfunf RhtUfHcA,
See monograph by C P. Mircker (Breilau, 1835). Thel« b
a leoKthy anade 00 Theodectes ia Soiui's Dietmury cf Cndt aad
R^moM Bi0g^pky, in which the ronnerioa of the tn«edy with the
Artemisian contest is diqnited.
TUMUHOUTV a sorveying instrument consisting of two
graduated drdea placed at right angles to each other, for the
measttrement of horiaontal and votical aagkv n teleaoope,
which turas on axes mounted centrically to the drdcs, and an
afidade for each drde, which carries two or more vemien.
The whole ia supported by a pedestal resting on footscrews,
which are also employed to levd the inatrumenL The aiae
waries from a minimum with drdes 3 in. in diameter to a
maximum with a 36'in. horiiontal and an 18-in. vertical circle.
Theodolites are designed to measure horiaontel aaglea with
greater aconracy than vertical, because it ia on the former
that the most important work of a survey depends; measures
of vertical angles are liable to be much impaired by atmospheric
rcffactkm, more particularly on long lines, so that when heighu
have to be determined with much accuracy the theodolite must
be discarded for a levelling instrument. When truly adjusted
the theodolite measures the horizontal angle between any two
ol^iects, h ow ever much they may difier in altitude, as the pole
ttar and any tencstiial object.
The mstrumeat b made in three fo rms t he Y pattern, the
Evcfcst and the traorit. Certain parti are comnoa to all the
foreu in use and to the leveL The stand b tenerally made drcubr
in aectwn, each of the three legs being shod at the lower extremity
with sted. Their upper ends are hinged to a flat plate provided
with a ■crewed collar of Urge diameter (6g. t). To the l^s b
■crewed a plate OO, which supports the lower side of the pUte
PP. Thb receives the encb of the screws SS by which the instru-
ment b levelled, its annular portion being laiger than the coUar
in 00. so that, until cUmpcd by the screwed pbte above it,
whole of the instrument except the legs can be moved Hon-
the y
aootaBy in any direction to the extent of about 4 ia. Thb fadli'
tates oeatriag over a point. The upjper plate PP ts bored centrally
to receive a parallel or conical piUar which supports the lower
circle of the theodolite or the arm of the level which carries the
telescope. In the theodolite the edge of the plate rr b bevelled
and divided into 360 or 400 degrees, and to naif decrees, or to
ao aunmea or 10 minules, acooitfing to the aiae of the tnstrament.
A eoUar b pcovided, which when tightened on the vertical axis,
otherwise free to move, holds it rigidly in position with respect
to the plate PP. To thb collar b attached a slow-motion screw,
worldM against a reaction spring, by which the pbte rr can be
roeatea through a amaH arc The upper plate canviar twob three
or four vcrabrs w b attached to a vertical coned p«lUr passinji
through the centre of the larger pillar and rotating in it; this
plate can be cbmped to the lower plate by means of the screw C.
and can be rotated with respect to it by the dow-motion screw 4.
Oa the opper plate are placed two araall Icvdhng bubbles, and two
scaadanb U are attached to the upper side of the plate for sup-
porting the trunnions of the telescope T. The bearinn for receiving
these trunnions are V-shaped; the V on otie side is fixed, while
the other b cut through and can be narrowed or made wider, thus
lifting or lowering the tmnnion by means of two capstan-headed
screws. To the t el es c op e the vertical circle for reading angles in
* Hib word has been a purtle to etymologists. Various ingenious
czplanatioos have been given, all based on the apparent Greek
form of the word; thus it has been derived from iM«0««, to see,
Mk, way, and >«rk, smooth, pUin; from Mp. to run, and toktx&t,
long, and in other ways equally fanciful. Another imaffinary origin
has been suggested in a corruption of " the O deleted, «.<. croMed
out, the circle being crossed by diameters to show the decrees ;
others have found in it a corruption of " the alidade ** (^v.). It
would appear, however, to be taken from the O. Fr. HuodoUi or
tk^odtUt, the name of a treatise by one Theodulus. probably a
aiathematician (see NoUs and Quiries, 3rd series, vit. 337, 438. Ac.
*^--". £fyw. Dia., 1910).
'o the same fn
alticude b fbad» aad rotates with k; both can he damped to the
standard, and motion can be given by a suitable double^nded
The verniers are attached to anna aa bearing on
of oae tnmnion of the tdesoope, one arm pnn
and embradng a pioiectk>n on the standard f.
mv u«B •>!«•« ■■•w^ b attached a bobble, which should be parallel
with the centre line of the verniers. The diagonal tel^oope nn
b provided with croes hairs, and b used for the final centring of
the instnunent over aa object. The use of alumininm ia the Con-
struction of an paits not hable to much wear b to be commended,
owing to the emaller weight. The Y theodoHte differs from the
tmnstt in that the supports for the telescope are low, that the
telescope reeta hi a cnidle the txunnioos of whidi rest on the sup-
ports, and that a segment of a drde attached to the cradle replaoea
Fic. I.
the vertical cir^. When it b desired to read a line la the reverse
direction the tdesoope b lifted out of the cradle, turned end for
end, and repboed in the Y bearings of the cradle again. In the
Everest theodolite the supports are low and the telescope cannot
be transited. The instrument is simibr to that descr i bed above,
except that the vertical drcb b not continuous, but b formed of
two ares.
In Germany and elsewhere refractinr theodolites and transit
instruments are sometimes employed. The eye end of the tele-
scope tube is removed — a counterpoise to the object end bring
substituted in its pbce— and a prism is inserted at the intersection
of the visual axb with the transit axis, so that the nys from the
object-glass may be reflected through one of the tubes of the transit
axis to an eye-piece in the pivot of this tube. In thb case the
piDara need only be high enooeh for the counterpoise to pass freely
over the pbte of the horiaootalcircb: but the observer haa always
(
^<H
THEODORA
»^ ^^ ^iiMift «i f«^ mcIh to tht ducetiott ol the olqect be
* "^riiT «*^^' Mwiwi^Tlwa a eaothcr rarvcyiag iiutnimeat coiif
v^ . ^ ,-.^-»v. \ ^^ * MiocMpe bearing e Ijwd and mounted
V :^«..».x ..^s» « iraMe. To the upper wde of the paiallel
,. x« t * «. '» iui Ml comtnKtion to the theodolite. No pro-
X . ,» A 4M1V K«* (Mtrine over a point. The upp^ plate is
V ,^. .\ v^!k i»sr <««Hi« and carries a conical pillar, which robttea
•ts^.x -t 4 A M MtttMTt* a horinontal plate, to the extreme ends of
♦.v.\ *.v *nA.Jwd. by mean* of ap$(an •crewt or otherwiac. two
>%«« 4.' •■ »<»«>w>itK on whkh the tdocope, which la constructed to
bw s<.i%'«sH«iUr to the vertical axis of the instrument, icsta and
««. » s. «uik It. The level bubble, by which the instrument is
^v. ^M «nio a portion at right angles to the axU of the earth,
^. ,v N,aU^ placed on the top of the telescope. In the best tele-
«. vv «h«ther for theodolite or level, the duphragm on which
t ■« . I Mi^e i» formed is made of glass, and the cross hain aie engraved
iSM\»n. In the level the eye-piece and objcct-glasa axe inter-
v)uii«vable« to facilitate adjustment for coOination.
THlODOIlAt the wife of the emperor Justinian (f.v.), w«s
bom probably in Constantinople, though according to some in
Cyprus, in the early years of the 6th century^ and died In 547.
According to Procopius, our chief, but by no means a trust-
worthy authority for her life, she was the daughter of Acadus,
a bear-feeder of the amphitheatre at Constantinople to the
Green Faction, and while still a child was sent on to the stage
to earn her living in the performances called mimes^ ^e had
no gift for either music or dancing, but made herself notorious
by the spirit and impudence of her acting in the rotigh farces,
as one may call them, which delighted the crowd of the capital
Becoming a noted courtesan, she accompanied a certain
Hecebolus to Pentapolis (in North Africa), of which he had been
appointed governor, and, having quarrelled with him, betook
herself first to Alexandria, and then back to Constantinople
through the cities of Asia Minor. In Constantinople (where,
according to a late but apparently not quite grotmdlesi stoty,
she now endeavoured to support herself by spinning, and may
therefore have been trying to reform her life) she attracted the
notice of Justinian, then patrician, and, as the all-powerful
nephew of the emperor Justin, practically ruler of the empire.
He desired to marry her, but could not overcome the opposition
of his aunt, the empress Euphemia. After her death (usually
assigned to the year 533) the emperor yielded, and as a law,
dating from the time of Constantine, forbade the marriage of
women who had followed the stage with senators, this law was
repealed. Thereupon Justinian married Theodora, whom he
had already caused to be raised to the patriciate. They were
some time after (537) admitted by Justin to a share in the
sovereignty; and, on his death four months later, Justinian
and Theodora became sole rulers of the Roman world. He
was then about forty-four years of age, and she some twenty
years younger. Procopius relates in his unpublished history
('Aj^xSora) many repulsive tales regarding Theodora's earlier
life, but his evident hatred of her, though she had been more
than ten years dead when the Aneedota were written, and the
extravagances which the book contains, oblige us to regard
him as a very doubtful witness. Some confirmation of the
reported opposition of the imperial family to the marriage has
been found in the story regarding the conduct of Justinian's
own mother Vigilantia, which Nicholas Alemanni, the first
editor of the Aneedota^ in his notes to that book, quotes from a
certain " Life of Justinian " by Theophilus, to which he fre-
quently refers, without sasring wiiere he found it. Mr Bryce,
however, discovered in Rome what is believed to be the only
MS. of this so-called life of Justinian; and his examination
of its contents makes him think it worthless as ah authority
(see TKEOPBiLUs).
Theodora speedily acquired unbounded influence over Her
husband. He consulted her in ever^'thing, and allowed her to
interfere directly, as and when she pleased, in the government
of the empire. She had a right to interfere, for she was not
merely his consort, but empress regnant, and as such entitled
equally with himself to the exercise of all prerogatives. In the
most terrible crisis of Justinian's reign, the great Nika in-
sunectloD of 5J3, her courage and firmness in refusing, to fly
when the rebels were atta^iag 0^ palace aavad ber fanband's
crown, and no doubt sUengthened her command over hts Bind.
Officials took an oath of allegiance to ber as well as to the
emperor (Not., viii.). She even corresponded with foreign am-
bassadors, and instructed Belisarius how to deal with the popes^
Procopius describes her as acting with harshness, tebing on
trivial pretexts persons who had offended her, stripptng aoae
of their property, and throwing others into dungeons, where tbey
were cruelly tortured or kept for years without the knowledge
of their friends. The dty was full of her spies, who reported
to ber everything said against herself or the adminittratian.
She surrounded herself with ceremonious pomp, and requited
all who approached to abase themselves in a manner new even
to that half-Oriental court. She was an incessant and tyrannical
match-maker, forcing men to accept wives and women to
accept husbands at her caprke. She constituted herself the
protectress of faithless wives against outraged husbands, yet
professed great seal for the moral reformation of the dty, en-
forcing severely the laws against vice, and immuring in a
" house of repentance " on the Asiatic side of the Bosphoms
five hundred courtesans whom she had swept out of the streets
of the capital How much of all this is true we have no means
of determinmg, for it rests on the sole word of Pxoooplas. Bat
there are sli^t indications in other writers that she had a
repuution for severity.
In the religious strife which distracted the empire Theodora
took part with the Monophysites, and her coterie usually con-
tained several leading prelates and monks of that party. As
Justinian was a warm upholder of the decrees of Chakedon,
this difference of the royal pair exdted much remark and indeed
much suspidoir. Many saw hi it a design to penetrate the
secrets of both ecclesiastical factions, and so to rule more
securely. In other matters also the wife spoke and acted very
differently from the husband; but their differences do not seem
to have disturbed dther his affection or his confidence. The
maxim in Constantinople was that the empress was a stronger
and a safer friend than the emperor; for, while he abandoned
his favourites to her wrath, she stood by her prottgfe, and never
failed to punish anyone whose heedless tongue had assailed
her character.
Theodora bore to Justinian no ton, but one daughter^— at
least it would seem that her grandson, who is twice mentioned,
was the offspring of n legitimate daughter, whose name, bow-
ever, is not given. According to Procopius, she had before
her marriage become the mother of a son, who when grown up
returned from Arabia, revealed himself to her, and forthwith
disappeared for ever; but this is a story to be recdved with
distrusL That her behaviour as a wife was irrepinachhble
may be gathered from the fact that Procopius mentions only
one scandal affecting it, the case of Areobindus. Even he does
not seem to believe this case, for, while referring to it as a mere
rumour, the only proof he gives is that, suspecting Areobindus
of some offence, she had torture applied to tbis supposed
paramour. Her health was delicate, and, though she to^ all
possible care of it, frequently quitting the ca))ital for the
sedusion of her villaa on the Asiatic shore, she died compara-
tively young. Theodora was small in stature and rather pale.
but with a graceful figure, beautiful features, and a pierdng
glance. There remains in the apse of the famous church of
S. Vitale at Ravenna a contemporaneous mosaic portrait of
her, to which the artist, notwithstanding the stiffness of the
material, has succeeded in pving some character.
The above account is in substance that which historians of the
two centuries and a half prior to 1885 accepted and repeated re-
garding this famous empress. But it must be admitted to be open
to serious doubts. E>^mrthin^ relating to the early career of
Theodora, the faults of her girlhood, ^tne charges of crueltv and
insolence in her government of the empire, rest on the soleautboriiy
of the Aneedota of Procopius— « book whose credit b shaken by
its bitterness and extravagance. If we reject it. little is Idt against
her, except of course that action in ecclesiastical affairs which ex-
cited the wrath of Baronius. who had denounced her before ibc
Aneedota was published.
In favour of the picture whkh Procopius gives of the empiesi it
i
THEODORA^THEODORE (TSARS)
76s
■ay be aqoied (1) thmijim cotaiaiy^lid iatofcre coostaatl/ and
idf
is
, ! administration of pubUc affaira. and showed her-
f therein the kind of person who would be cruel and unscrupuknia
her cbokt of ineaaa, and (a) that we K^thcr from other writan
_ _ Mnprrwinn chat she was' hanb and tyfaimical, as, for iastanoe,
fcom the referenoes to her in the Uvea of the popes in the Liber
fMttficatis (which used to pass under the name of Anastasius, the
papal libranan). Her threat to the person whom she commanded
to bring YisUiua to her waa " aiai hoc leoerU, per Viventem in
aaecula excoriari te fadam." Much of what we: find in tbeae livta
ia iMpendary. but they are some evidence of Theodora's reputation.
Again. (3) tne sutnte (Cai., v. 4, 33) which repeab the older law so
far as relates to scentatt mfdieres is now generally attributed to
Justin, and agrcea with the statement of Procopius that an altera-
tion of the law was made to lecaliae her marriage. There b there-
fore reason for holding that aoe waa an actiesa, and, coasideringi
what the Byzantine stajre was (as appears even by the statute in
question), her life cannot nave been irreproachable.
Against the evidence of I*iQoopius, with such oonfimatloas m
have been indicated, there is to M pet the silence of other wrltcra,
contemporaries like Agathias and Evagrius, as wcJl as such later
historians as Theophanes, none of whonf repeat the charges as to
Tbeodoca's life before her manriage. To this oonaideFatioa no
great weight need be attached. It is difficult to establish any
view of the controversy without a bns; and minute examination of
the authorities, and in particular of the Antcd*^. But the moat
prabable conduskMia saem to be — (1) that the odious details which
Pipcopius gives, and which Gibbon did not blush to copy, deserve
00 more wetcht than would be given nowadays to the malignant
scandal of disappointed courtiers under a despotic government,
where scandal b all the blacker because it is propagated in secret;
£) that apparently ahe waa an actreaa and a courtesan, and not
tprobably conspicuous ia both those chaimcten: and <>) that it
is Impossible to determine how far the spednc cnargca of cruelty
and oppression brought against her by Pnxopiua deserve credence.
We are not bound to accept them, for they are uncorroborated;
yet the accounu of Justinian'a government given in the Ameitta
agree in too many reapects with what we know aitufuir to enable
ua to reject them altogether: andjt must be admitted that there
ia a certain internal consistency in the whole picture which the
Aneoiota present of the empress. About the beauty, the intel-
lectual gifts, and the Imperious will of Theodora there can be no
doubt, lor as to these all our authorities agrae. She was evkkncly
an exttaordinary person, born to ahiae in any station of life.
Her fortunes nave cmploved many pens. Among the later
serious works dealing with tiiem mav be mentioned M. Antonin
IMbidour's VImphatriu Theaiors: Elmie Oilimu (Paiia, 18S5),
whkh endeavours to vindicate her from the a«waiona of Procopius:
amd aanong more imaginative writinss are Sir Henry Pottinger'a
interesting romance Bhu and Green (London. Hurst and Blackett.
1879), NT Rhannb6'a tragedy e<oM^ (Leipzig, 1884). and M.
Sardou*a play Thtadam, produced ia Paris in 1884. Sea alao Dr
F. Dahn's Froka^s ton CAfarea (1865), and, in addition, the works
dted under Justuran. (J- Ba.)
TimiNIIIA, wife of the Koman emperor TbeophShis. In the
Ittt year of her htisband's reign (842) she overrode his ecdesi-
artlol polKy and summoned a council under the patriarch
Methodius, in which the worship of images waa finally restored
mad the iconochstic clergy dispossessed. Appointed guardian
of her hifiant son, Michael HI., she carried on the government
with a firm and judicious hand; she replenished the treasury
and deterred the Bulgarians from an attempt at Invasion.
In order to perpetuate her power she purposely neglected her
ion'a education, and therefore must be held responsible for the
volttptuous character whidi he developed under the influence
of hb uncle Bardaa. Theodora endeavoured in vain to combat
Bardas*s authority; in 855 she was dis pl aced from her regency
at hb prompting, and being subsequently convicted of intrigues
against him was relegated to a monastery. She was sainted
in recompense for her xeal on behalf of image-worship.
THBDOORA (d. 1057), daughter of the emperor Constant
tine VIIL Fonessed of a strong and austere chazacter, she
refused the hand of the heir-presumptive, Romanus, who was
married instead to her sbter Z06 (xosS). Though living in
retirement she excited ZoC's jealousy, and on a pretext of con-
wfinxj was confined in a monastery. In Z043 the papular
movement which caused the dethronement of Michael V.also
led to Theodora's mstalment as joint-empress with her sister.
After two months of active participation in govenunent she
allowed herself to be virtually superMJided by ZoC's new husband,
ConsUntlne IX. Upon hb death In 1054, in spite of her
seventy yean, she reasserted her dormant rights with vigour,
add frustrated an atteaipt to npvsede her on hthMU of the
general Nicspborua Biyenatua, By her firm adnunistrmtion she
oontraUed the unruly nobles and checked numcroua abuses;
but the marred her leputatioB by excessive severity towards
private enemies and the undue employment of menials for
advisers. She died suddenly in 1057.
See G. Finlay.^ifuliinp ef Gmu, vol. U. (Oxfoid. i8n); G.
Schlumbeiger, L'E^pU ByttuUint, voL iiL(Pafis. 1909}.
THBODOBB; the name of two popes. Theodore L, pope
from, November 649 till May 649, succeeded John IV. He was
the son of a bishop, and was bom in Jerusalem. A aealous
opponent of monotheiitism, in the course of the protracted
controversy he in a Roman synod excommunicated Pyrrhus,
patriarch of Constantinople, and signed the document with faik
ndnglod with oonsocrated wine. Theodore IL had a pontificate
of only twenty days (Nov.-Dec. 897).
THEODORE (Rua. Fedor, or Feodor), the name of three
TaxQDOKs L (1557-159S), tsar of Russia, the son of Ivan
the Terrible and Anastasia Romanova, nominally succeeded his
father in 1584, but being of weak intellect was ffoveroed
throughout his reign by the boyar, Boris Goduoov, whose sister
Irene he married in is3a On his death-bed he is said to have
Icit the throne to his consort, with the Patriarch Job, Boris
Godunovj and Theodore Romanov, afterwards the Patriarch
Philaret, as her chief counsellors. Izeoe, however, retired into
a monastery and her brother Bori^ stepped into her place.
See S. M. Solovev, Sialmytflbmia (Rua.), voL viiL (IVtcrtbaiv,
1895.^).
Tbeoooik n. (r58^r6os), tsar of Russia, was the son of
Tsar Boris Godanov and one of the daughters of Malyuta-
Skuratov, the infamous favourite of Ivan the TerriUe. Pas-
sionately beloved by his father, he received the best available
education for those days, and from childhood was Initiated faito
aU the MtattfMia of government, besides sitting regularly in the
oouncO and tecdv^ the foreign envoys. He seems also to
have been remarkaUy end precociously intdligent, and the
fifst map of Russia by a native, still preserred. Is by his hand.
On the sudden death of Boris he was proclaimed tsar (xjth of
April X605). Though hUi fkther had Ukcn the precaution to
surround him with powerful friends, he lived from the first
moment of his reign in in atmo^riiere of treacheiy. On the
ist of July the envoys of Pseudo-Demetrius I. arrived at
Moscow to demand his removal, and the letters which they read
publicly In the Red Square decided his fate. On the roth of
July he was most foully murdered, in his apartments in the
Rreml.
See D. L Itovalsky, Tla AnankUci Piriod h 'Ou Rudm pt JUaMeay
(Rtts.) (Moscow, 1894).
THzopoaEin. (x66x-i68a). tsar of Russia, was the eldest
surviving son of Tsar Alexius and Maria Miloslavskaya. In
1676 he succeeded his father on the throne. He was endowed
with a fine intellect and a noble disposition; he had received
an excellent education at the bands of Simeon Polotsky, the
most leaned Slavonic monk of the day, knew PoHah, and even
possessed the unusual accomplishment of Latin; but, horrib^
disfigured and half paralysed by a mysterious disease, supposed
to be scurvy, he bad b^en a h op el ess invalid from the day of
his birth. In 1679 he married his first cousm Agatha and
assumed the acqttxc^ His native energy, though crippled, was
not crushed by his terrible disabilities; and he soon showed
that he was as thorough and devoted a reformer as a man
incompetent to lead armies and obliged to issue his orders from
his litter, or his bed-chamber, could possibly be. The atmb«
sphere of the court ceased to be appiewve; the light of a new
liberalism shone ia the highest places; and the severity of
the penal laws waa considerably mitigskted. Bt founded the
academy of sciences in the Zaikonospassy monastery, where
everything not expressly forbidden by the orthodox churcb,
including Slavonic, Greek, Latin and Polish, was to be taught
by competent professors. The chief difference' between the
766
THEODORE— THEODORE OF MOPSUESTIA
Thebdoreta and the kter Pttiine reforms wis that while the
former were primtifly, though not ezdusivdy, (or. the benefit
of the chnrch, the hitter were primarily for the benefit of the
state. The most notable reform of Theodore III., however,
was the abolition, at the suggestion of Vastly GoliUuin, of
Myestneckestvo, or "place priority," which had paralysed the
whole civil and military administration of Kfuscovy for genera-
tions (see Goutsuin). Henceforth all appointments to the
dvil and military services were to be determined by merit and
the will of the soverdgn. Theodore's consort, Agatha, shared
his progressive views. She was the first to advocate beard-
shearing. On her death (4th of July x68x) Theodore married
Martha Apraksina. He died on the 37th of April 1680, with-
out issue.
See M. P. Pogodtn, The Pirsi SeaaUem Years ef tke Life of Peter
the Great (Rus.)(Mo8cow. 1875). (R. N. B.)
THEODORE (609-690), seventh archbishop of Canterbury,
was bom at Tarsus in CQida in 602. On the death of Wighard,
who had been sent to Pope Vitalian by Ecgberht of Kent and
Os¥no of Northimibria in 667, apparently for consecration as
archbishop, Theodore, who had become prominent in the Eastern
work of the church, was recommended by Hadrian of Niridanum
to fill the vacant see. Vitalian consecrated Theodore in April
688 on condition that Hadrian, afterwards abbot of St Peter's,
Canterbury, should go with him. Hadrian was detained for
some time by Ebroin, the Neustrian mayor of the palace, but
Theodore reached England in May 669. According to Bede's
account he made a tour of the whole of Anglo-Saxon England,
reforming abuses and giving instruction as to the monastic
rule and the canonical Easter. Bede also dedares that he was
the first archbishop to whom all the " church of the Angles "
submitted. From the first he seems to have ignored the scheme
for a separate province of York, but he reorganized the episco-
pate, assigning Bid to East Anglia, Putta to Rochester, Hloth-
here to Wessex, and Ceadda after reconsecration to Merda.
He brought the monastic education up to date by introducing
literary, metrical and mudcal studies. In 673 Theodore pre-
dded at the first synod of the dergy in Enj^nd which was
hdd at Hertford. Various disdplinary regulations were
emphasized, and an annual meeting arranged at a place called
Cloveshoe. After this ooundl Theodoi:e revived the East Saxon
bishopric, to which he appointed Earoonwald. Soon after the
first eiqMilsion of Wilfrid in 678 he divided the Northumbrian
diocese, appointing Trumwine bishop to the Picts. This led
to a quarrel with Wilfrid which was not finaUy settled until
686-687. In 679 Theodore intervened to make peace between
Ecgf rith of Northumbria and Aethdred of Merda. He predded
at other synods held in 680 at Hatfidd and in 684 at Twyford,
and died in 690. A penitential composed under Theodore's
direction, is still extant.
See Bede, Hist. Bed., edited by C Plummer (Oxford. 1896) ;
Eddius, Vita WUfridii in J. Raine's Historians ef the Church of
Yorh, vol. i. (London, 1879); Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, edited by
Earle and Plummer (Oxford, 1899); Haddan and Stubbs, Councils
vad Eccle si ast i cal Documents (Qsford, 1869-78), liL 173-313.
THEODORE LASCARIS (d. xass), emperor of Nicaea,'was
bom of a noble Bysantine family. He became the son-in-law
of the Emperor Alexias m. and distinguished himself during
the deges of Constantinople by the Latins (1203-4). After
the capture of tht dty he gathered a band of fugitives in
Bithynia and established himself in the town of Nicaea, which
became the chid raHying-point for his countrymen. Relieved
of the danger of invadon by a Latin force which had defeated
him in X 204 but was recalled to Europe by a Bulgarian invasion,
he set to work po form a new Byzantine state in Ada Minor,
and in 1206 assumed the title of emperor. During the next
years Theodore was beset by enemies on divers ddes. He main-
tained himself stubbornly in ddendve campdgns against the
Latin emperor Henry, defeated his rival Aleipius Comnenus of
Trebisond, and carried out a succesdul counter-attack upon
Gayath-ed-din, the sulUn pf Koniah, who had been instigated
to. war by the deposed Aledus in. Theodore's crowning
victoiy was gained in 12x0, when in a battle near Pfdcfiaa
Antioch he captured Alexius and wrested the town itself from
the Turks. At the end of his rdgn he ruled over a territory
roughly contennii^ous with the old Homan provinces of Asia
and Bithynia. Though there is no proof of higher quah'ries
of statesmanship in him, by his courage and military skill
he enabled the Bysantine nation not merdy to survive, but
ultimatdy to beat back the Latin invadon.
See E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, voL vL,
ed. J. B. Bury (London, 1896); G. Finlay. History of Gr^ce^ voL iii.
(Oxford, 1877); and A. Metiarakei, 'Urepla rod BmJOmv rft N«4i«s
cd roO A ww iAfw rfi 'firii^ov (Athens, 1898).
Theodore's grandson, Tbeodose It. (Lascaris), emperor from
X254 to X258, is chiefly noticeable for two brilliant campaigns
by which he recovered Thrace from the Bulgarians (x 255-56).
His ill-health and eariy death prevented his making fuU use of
his ability as a ruler.
See M. J. B. Pappadopoulos, ThMore IT. Lascaris, empereur do
HiUe (Pans, 1908J. '^
Irene Lascaus, daughter of Theodore L (Lascaris), was firtt
married to the generd Andronicus Palacologus, and after his
death became the wife of Theodore's successor, John VaUtxes
{q.v)^ and mother of Theodore II. She is much praised by
historians for her modesty and prudence, and is said to have
brought about by her example a condderable improvement
in the morals of her nation. She died some ten years before
h er hus band.
THEODORE OF MOPSUESTIA (c. 350-428), early Chxistian
theologian, the most eminent representative of the so-called
school of Antioch, was bom at Antioch about the middle of the
4th century and was a friend of John Chrysostom; in rhetoric
the celebrated Libanius was his teacher. Soon, however, he
attached himsdf to the school of the great exegete and ascetic.
Diodorus, a presbyter in Antioch, and with only a trandtory
period of vacillation, from which he was won back by Chrysostom,
he remained faithful to the theology and ascetic discipline of
this master. Under Diodorus he became a skilful exegete,
and ultimatdy outstripped his master in bibUcal learning.
About 383 Theodore became a presbyter in Antioch, and began
to write against Etmomius the Arian and against the christology
of Apollinaris. Soon after 392 he became bishop of Mopsuestia
in Cilida (the modem Missis near Adana). As such he was held
in great respect, and took part in several synods, with a repuu-
tion for orthodoxy that was never questioned. It was greatly
to his advantage that in the Eastern Church the period between
the years 390 and 428 was one of comparative repose. He was
on friendly terms even with Cyril of Alexandria. He died in
428 or 429, just at the begixming of the Nestoriaa controversy. •
Theodore was a very prolific writer, but, bdore dl, an exmte.
He wrote commentaries on dmost every book of the Old and New
Testaments, of which, however, only a small proportion is now
extant, as at a later period he lost credit in the church. We still
possess in Greek his commentary on the Minor Prophets, in a S^^c
verrion his commentary on St Joha,^ and, in Latin tnuidations,
commentaries on the shorter Pauline epistjes, beddes very many
fragments, especially on the epbtle to the Romans. Theodore^
impottance as an exegete lies in two characteristics: (i) in oppod-
tir- *- '•- -" =--1 method he insists on ^tting at the Kterd
m I to it when found; (2^ w hu interpretatioo
of ikes into account the historicd circnmstancca
in roduced, and subsdtutes the historical-typo-
loj tico-chnstologicd interpirtation of prophecy;
in tprets all OldTestament passages historinJly
t passages 1
and sees the fulfilment of (3d Testament
pr ^ of Christ and His chuidi ody in ao far as
th mt is a " shadow of things to come.** Follow-
ing ..„ ...^ ^.>^»rus, who had dready written a treatise Tts
iio4opk Stupttu cd AXXirroplat, Theodore dso was the author of a
specid dissertation agdnst the dlegorists, i^ aniast Origen and
his fdlowers, whkHi. however, has uafortunatdy pemhedu The
comparadve freedom of Theodore's view of inspirauon is also note-
worthy- He discriminates between historicd, prophetical and
didactic wrirings, and in accordance with this distinction assume*
varying degrees of inspiration. Finally, he entertained veiy bold
opinions about the canon and several of the books indudea in it.
>Ed. P. B. Chabot (Paris, X897).
THEODORET
767
ok of
»: the
of itt
I mnd
f the
them
liantc
idzed
ntere,
great
itions
ming
lebiut
Ifc
Job;Caiitici
book of Job
•ubjcct, and
Nehemiah 1
tKlcs of the
bekMiff totk
tfement aim
the Catholk
teristics sue
■earest to t
deal of leam
are stUl to so
mim not be
and Jerome,
■pectally no
textual critk ^ , . ^ ,^ i that
or revelation, and never manifests the slightest effort to control it
by the original or even by the Svriac. lie is a prosaic and often
monotonous writer, and has other faults, €.g a' lack of insight into
the deeper movements of scriptuxal thought* and a want of spiritual
mud devotional fervour.
In addition to his commentaries Theodore also wrote extennve
dogmatico-polemical works, which were destined to operate long after
his death aisastrously for his fame. As a disciplie of Diodorus,
llieodote accepted the Nicene teadting on the doctrine of the
Trinity, but at the same time in christok>gy took up a position
very closely approachins that of Paul of Samosau. The violence
of ms oppOMtion to bis ielk)w-countryman, ApoUinaris of Laodicea,
perhaps the most acute and far-seeing theologian of the century,
made h necessary for Theodore to formulate his christoJogy
with precision (in fifteen books on the Incarnation— all kMt
CKcpt a few fragments— and in special treatises against Apol-
Imans). H^ starts with a theory of man's relation to the
world. Man is the wituulum of the cosmos, uniting in his person
the material and the S|xritual. This bond, broken by sin, was
restored by 'Christ. According to Theodore the Logos ^f^tfj^ a
complete manhood, ^which had to pass through the stages of ethical
development just as in the case of any other human being. In
this the Logos only supported fhe man Christ Jesus, but was not
essentiaUy connected imh him; the Logos dwelt in 1dm (iMUMir),
but any such thiog as- Inwvu 4«<vi«i did not and could not exist,
because the finite is not " capax inhniti," and because any buats
would have destroyed the reality of the human nature. The same
sober and thoughtful way of looking at things, and the same
tendency to give prominence to the mocal element, which diarac-
tcriae toe commentaries of Theodore, appear also in his dogmatic.
When, accordingly, the Nestorian controversy broke out, his works
also were dragged into the discussion. At Ephesus, indeed, the
tnemoiY of Theodore does not appear to have been attacked.^ but
aoon afterwards the assault began. Marius Meicator, Rabbula of
Edesaa. Cyril* and other moooph>«itcs brought the dunige of heresy
against his writings, and sought to counteract their influence. But
it was not until more than a century stfterwards that his fanatical
adversaries succeeded — in spite of the stronff opposition of the best
thooloaians of the West — in obtaining from Justinian the condesraa-
tion 01 his works in the controversy of the Three Chapters; this
act of the emperor was confirmed by the fifth oecumenical council,
and Theodore's name was accordmely deleted from the list of
orthodox writers. From that day Theodore's works ceased to be
read within the Byzaatiae Chnrch, and hence have been lost. The
Syrians, on the other hand, have always held in hifjti esteem the
■lemory of the great teacher, and have even earned back their
nturgy to his name. The Nestoriana, who called him ** the Inter-
preter," possess, or possessed, a very large number of writings by
bim in Syriac translations.*
Theodore took part also in the Pelagian controversy at the time
when it raged in Palestine. In the treatise, only partially pre>
served,' n^ ro«^ Xiyorras ^6r<i kuI ob yvCifip rraUuf roirs MaCtiwt,
be sharply controverts the doctrine of oriflnal sin and Jerome
su advocate. In his view the theory of Aaguttine is "a new
berasy.'* a " malady "; he regarded it as a doctrine whk:h oece»-
drily led to dualism and Manichaeism. The attitude thus taken
by Theodore is not surprising^ he more nearly takes up the ground
of the old church doctrine as set forth in the apologists and in the
great Greek fathers of the 3rd and 4th centuries. The Pelagians
driven from the East were received by him in Ciljcia.
A brother of Theodore. Polychronius by name, bishop of Apamea
in Syria (A. 4y>) also achieved high fame as an excgete. and expounded
the theology of the school of Antioch.*
LiTERATUKE.— Migne. Plrol^ aer. Gr., Ixvi. The Greek frag-
tteou of Theodore's New Testament coomeatariea have been
'A confesnoo, however, drawn up by kim was spoken of; see
Uahn. BMiotk, der SymMe, and ed.. p. 229 se^.
* See the catalogue in Asaemani, Btbl. Cfr., m. 1. p. 3 seq., based
on Ebediesa, the Nestorian metropolitan (d. 1318).
* See Photms, BibHolk., c. 177: Mereator^ p. 339 •«!•. ed. Baltti.
* See O. Bardenhewer, PUyekratuus (Freibing. 1S79).
«<f7)-
Iby a Fr Fricnehe {TUtd. Mo^, ta S.T. Comm^Truuu
^. , The commentaries oa the Proline epistlet (Pitra, Sfndi
kgjmm SslsMWfus, Paria, 185*, 1 49 acq.) have been edited by H. fi.
Swete iThtod. Mo^. im Epp. B. Pmdt Comm., i., iL, Cambridge.
1880-82). akMi^ with the Greek fragments and the fragments of Um
dogmatu:al writings; on this editiott, see E. SchOrer, Tkeol. LU,
Ztg-n i88o-6a. Tae oommcntafy on the Minor Prophets will be
found in Mai's Nob. Potr, BmoOu, viL 1854, (Berlin, 1834: Mai.
ScripL VeL Noo. CM., vi., 18^). See also ETSachau. Theod. Mops,
Ffopn. Syriaca (Leipog, 1869): Fr Bitten, "Der Psahnen-
commentar des Tbeod. ▼. Mops, in Syr. Beaxteitung," in Zisckr. /,
AU-TtsL WisMensek^ v. M seq.. vi. 261-388, vii. 1-60: and H.
Lietsmann in SilMtmgtbenchlt ier K^pftuu. Ahad. der Wisstiuck,
MU BtrUn, 1902, pp. 334 seq. Extracts from the writiags of Theodore
occur m the CoUmm of Marius Mercator, in the Acta of the third and
fifth oecumenical councils in Facundus. Liberatus. and Theodore's
chief adversary Leontius Byantinus. E. voa DobschOtz, in Anur.
Jown. oS TktoL, IL ^-387, published die Greek prologue of a
comm e ntar y oa Acts that ts probably the wodt of Theodore.
The principal monograph on Theodore, apart from the oroiego-
mena of Swete, and the same writer's article in Dkt. ChrisluM
Btof., iv. (1887), is that of H. Kihn (Th. v. Mops, u. Juuilitu AJrie,
als Exegeltih Freiburg. x88o). On his importance for the history
of dogma see the works of Baur. Doner, Hamack, Loafs and
Seeberg. literary and Inographical details will be found in O. Fr.
Fritxache, De Theod, Mops, Viid et ScripHs (Halle. 1836); Fr. A.
Specht. Theod. 9, Mops, m, Tieodont Munich. 1871): H. Kihn
in the Tub, QuaiiaUchr., 1870: E. Nestle in TieoL Stmd. am
W€riemb., iL 210 seq.; P. Batdtol, " Sur une Traductkm Latine de
Th. de Mope.." in itiia. de PkUos. ChriL, 1885: Th. Zahn. " Das
N. T. TheodoTB von Mop.," in Neue Kirehl. ZeUsckr., xL 788-806:
W. Wright. Syriae lilerahtre (Loodon, 1894); R. Duval. La lilUn^
tun syna^ee (Ptois, 1899). (A. Ha.)
TBEODORSr, bisliop of Cyrrhus, an important writer In the
domains of exegesis, dogmatic theology, church history and
ascetic theology, was bom in Antioch, Syria, about 386. At m
cariy age he entered the cloister; and in 423 he beoime blshott
of Cyrrhus, a small city in a wild district between Antioch and
the Euphrates, where, except for a short period of exile, he
spent the temainder of his life. The date of his death is uncertaio,
but it must have been at least ax o^ seven yean Uter than the
council of Cbalcedon (451). Although thoroughly devoted to
the ideals of monastidsm, be discharged his episo^al duties
with remarkable seal and fidelity. He was diligent in the cure
of souls, labouring hard and successfully for the conversion of
the numerous Gnostic communities and other heretical sects
which still maintained a footing within the diocese. He himself
claims to have brought more than a thousand Marcienites
within the pale of the diurch, and to have destroyed many copies
of the DiatessaroH of Tatian, which were still in ecclesiastical
use-, and he also exerted himself to improve the diocese, which
was at once large and poor, by building bridges and aqueducts,
beautifying the town, and by similar works.
As an cxegete Theodoret bekmgs to the Antiochene school, of
whkh Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia were the
beads. He was not actually the personal disciple of either, but
be adopted their methods, though without the consistency and
boldness of the first-named. His extant commentaries (those on
Cantkles, on the Prophets, on the book of Psahns and on the
Pauline epiitles-^he last the most valuable) are among the best
performances of the fathers of the church. They are brief, yet not
wanting in that element of practical edification on which Chrysostom
lays special weight as characteristk of the Antiochenes. In addition
to these complete ooounentaries. we have fragments of some others
(of that on Isaiah, for example), principally met with in catenae.
There are also special elucidations of some difficult Scripture tcxta
Theodoret's chief importance is as a doematic theologian, it
having fallen to his lot to take part in the Nestorian controversy
and to be the most oonsiderable oppon ent of the views of C>-nl
and Dioscunis of Alexandria^ For more than twenty years he
maintained the struggle against the Alexandrian dogmatk and its
fonnulae (tforAcst. Indrit ««#' tfdrrmeir, fde^ driffroaa, fpuou ^twurf,
and the Uke). and taught that m the person of Christ we
must strictly distinguish two natures Qtyposiases), whkh ^re united
indeed m one person {prosopom), but are not amalgamated in essence.
For these years his history coincides with that of the Eastern
Church from 430 to 451, and for this very reason it is impossible
to sketch it even briefly here (sec Hefcle, Conc't*^-* vol. ii.).
The issue was not unfavourable to Theodoret's cause, but mebii'
cholv enough for Theodoret himself: the council of Chakedon
condemned monofrfiysitism. but be unhapptiy yielded to 'pressure
so far as also to take, part in pronouncing " anathema upon
Nestorius, and upon all who call not the Holy Virgin Mother of
God. and who divide the one Soa into twa" As Theodoret had
768
THEODORIC
previousty been a constant defender of Nestnnus it was rfnpoiaible
for him to concur in this sentence upon his unfortunate friend with
a clear conscience, and in point of fact he did not chancy hk own
dogmatic position. It is painful, therefore, to find him in his
subsequent Epitoms classing Nestorius as a heretic, and speaking
of him with the utmost hostility. Some of Theodoret's dogmatic
works are no longer extant : of his five books Ihpl km^pttrivtutf
for example, directed against Cyril after the council of Ephesus,
we now possess fragments merely. A good deal of what passes
under his name has been wrongly attributed to him. Certainly
genuine are the refuutwn ('ApwrfimHi) of Cyril's twelve ipoBtttmnvtiol
of Nestorius, and the 'EpopUrrnt, or HoXbuof^ot, (written about
446), consisting of three dialogues, entitled respectively 'Arpcvrot,
'Affiyxynn, and 'Ara%. in which the monophysitism of Cyril u
opposed, and its ApolUnarian character insisted on. Among the
apologetko-dogmatic works of Theodoret must be reckoned his ten
discourses Utpl irporoJot. , , . .
Theodoret gives a valuable exposition of his own dogmatic in
the fifth book of his Alfitrunt ksmuvOUu IrmM. already re-
ferred to.» This, the latest of his works in the domam of church
history (it was written after 451), is a source of great though not
of primary importance for the history of the old heresies. In
spite of the investigations of Volkmar and Hilgenfeld. we are still
somewhat in the dark as to the authorities he used. The chief
unceruinty is as to whether he knew Jusdn's Syntagma, and also
as to whether he had access to the PkUosopkuwutia of Hippolytus
in their complete form. Besides this work Theodoret has also left
us a church history in five books, from 3^4 to 429, which wm
published shortly before the council of Chaloedon. The style is
better than that of Socrates and Sozomcn, as PhoUus has remarked,
but as a contribution to history the work is inferior in importance.
Its author made use of Eusebius's Ldfe of Qmstantine, and of the
histories of Rufinus, Socrates and Sozomen. and probably of Philo-
stoigius as well. He also used other sources, and made a thorough
study of the writings of Athanasius, but apart from some docu*
ments be has preserved, relating to the Arian controversy, he does
not contribute much that is not to be met with in Socrate^ As
regards chronok>gy he is not very trustworthy: on the other hand,
his moderation towards opponents, not excepting Cyril, deserves
recognition. The 'EkXipwOp dtpanvrut^ waBnnhruip {De Curandis
Christianity as compared whh " the moribund but still militant
Hellenism of the day, and deals with the assaults of pagan ajK-cr-
laries. The superiority of the Christian faith both philosophically
and ethically is set forth, the chief stress being laid on monachism.
with which heathen philosophy has nothing to compare. Much
prominence is also given to tne cult of saints and martyrs.
On this side of nis character, however, Theodoret can best be
ttudied in the thirty ascetic biographies of his «iM9eot I^roplo.
This collection, which has been widely read, is a pendiknt to the
Historia Lausiaca of Palladius and the monkish talcs of Sozomen.
For the East it has had the same importance as the similar writings
of Jerome, Sulpicius Scverus and Cassian for the West. It shows
that the *' sobriety " of the Antiochene scholars can be predicated
only of their exegesis; their style of piety was at exaggerated in
its devotion to the ideals of monasticism as was that of their mono-
physite opponents. Indeed, one of the oldest leaders of the school,
Diodorus of Tarsus, was himself among the strictest ascetics.
181 letters of Theodoret have come down to us. partly in a
teparate collection, partly in the Ada of the councils, and partly
in the Latin of Manus Mercator; they are of great value not only
for the biography of the writer, but aho for the lustory of his
diocese and of the church in general.
The edition of Sirmond (Paris, 164a) was afterwards completed
by Gamier (1684), who has also written dissertations on the author's
works. Schulie and NSsselt published a new edition (6 vols.,
Halle, 1769-74) based on that of their predecessors: a gkwsary
was afterwards added by Bauer. The reprint will be found in
vois. lxxx.-lxxxiv. of Migne. and considerable portions occur in
MansL The church history has been published frequently in con-
nexion with the histories ol Socrates, Sozomcn and others, e.f. by
Valesius (1603) and Reading (1720). There is an English transla-
tion of the history by Bloomfieid Jackson in the Nicene and Pest-
Nicene Fathers, series ii., vol. lii.; the translation including alto
the dialogues and letters. ^ «.
Besides the cariicr labours of Tillemont, Ceillier, Oudin. Du Pin
and Fabricius and Harlcss, see Schr&ckh. Kirckengeuh., vol. xviii.;
Hefele, Cone.-gesck., vol. u.: Richtcf, De Tkeodortto Epf>. Pant.
JnUrprete (Leipzig, 1822); Binder, EJtndes sur TModaret (Geneva,
1844); StSudlin, Gesck. u. Lit. dtr Kirckengesck. (Hanover, 1827);
Kihn, Die Bedeutung der antioch. Schute (§866); Diestel, Das A. T
in der chfisU. Kirche (Jena, 1B69): Specht, Tkeodor p. UopPiesHa
* Roman Catholic writera vary greatly in their estimate of
Theodoret's christolbgy and of Ins general orthodoxy. On Ber-
■ •- -ssay on this subject (Theodoreli, Episcopi Cyrtnsis, Doclritta
^. Hildcsheim, 1881), see Tktot. Lu.-Ztuut. (188^. $63 teq.
et a the TiMmi. Qnar^
lai eodoret." in Hersos-
Hi ith and Wace'a Dici,
of FatraU>ti€, p. 345 II.
O1 y tee Jeep. QudUu"
m tm (Lopm. 1884):
an tk. dies Tkmdortt torn
K. fU.; A.CMCG.)
THEODORIC, king of the Ostrogoths (c. 454-526). Referring
to the article Goths for a general statement of the position of
this, the greatest ruler that the Gothic nation produced, we add
here some details of a more personal kind. Theodoric was
bom about the year 454, and was the son of Thettdemir, one of
three brothers who reigned over the East Goths, at that time
settled in Pannonia. The day of his birth coincided with the
arrival of the news of a victory of his unde Walamir over the
sons of Attlla. The name of Thoodoric's mother was Erelieva,
and she b called the concubine of Theudemir. The Byzantine
historians generally call him son of Walamir, apparently because
the latter iras the best known member of the royal frateniity.
At the age of seven he was sent as a hostage to the court of
Constantinople, and there spent ten years of his life, which
doubtless exercised a most important influence on his subsequent
career. Soon after his return to his father (about 471) he
secretly, with a comitatus of 10,000 men, attacked the king of
the Sarmatians, and wrested from him the important dty of
Singidunum (Belgrade). In 473 Theudemir, now chief king of
the Ostrogoths, invaded Moesia and Macedonia, and obtained
a permanent settlement for his people near ThessalonicA.
Theodoric took the chief part in this expedition, the result of
which was to remove the Ostrogoths from the now barbarous
Pannonia, and to settle them as foedcrati in the heart of the
empire. About 474 Theudemir died, and for the fourteen follow-
ing years Theodoric was chiefly engaged in a series of profitless
wars, or rather plundering expeditions, partly against the
emperoE Zeno, but partly against a rival Gothic chieftain,
another Theodoric, son of Triarius.* In 488 be set out at the
head of his people to win Italy from Odoacer. There is no
doubt that he had for this enterprise the sanction of the cm*
peror, only too anxious to be rid of so troublesome a gucsL
But the precise nature of the relation which was to tmite the
two powers in the event of Theodoric's success was, perhaps
purposely, left vague. Theodoric's complete practical inde-
pendence, combined with a great show of deference for the
empire, reminds us somewhat of the relaticm of the old East
India Company to the Mogul dynasty at Delhi, but the Ostrogoth
was sometimes actually at war with his imperial friend. The
invasion and conquest of Italy occupied more than four years
(488-493). Theodoric, who marched round the head of the
Venetian Gulf, had to fight a fierce battle with the Gepida^,
probably in the valley of the Save. At the Sontius (Isonzo)
he found his passage barred by Odoacer, over whom he gained a
complete victory (aSlh of August 489). A yet more decisive
victory followed on the 30th September at Verona. Odoacer
fled to Ravenna, and it seemed as if the conquest of Italy was
complete. It was delayed, however, for three years by the
treachery of Tufa, an officer who had deserted from the service
of Odoacer, and of Frederic the Rugian, one of the companions
of Theodoric, as well us by the intervention of the Burgundians
on behalf of Odoacer. A sally was made from Ravenna by the
besieged king, who was defeated in a bloody battle in the Pine
Wood. At length (26th of February 493) the long and severe
blockade of Ravenna was ended by a capitulation, the terms of
which Theodoric disgracefully violated by slaying Odoacer with
his own hand (rsth of March 493). (See Odoacer.)
The thirty-three years' reign of Theodoric was a time of
unexampled happiness for Italy. Unbroken peace reigned
within her borders (with the exception of a triffing raid made
by Byzantine corsairs on the coast of Apulia in 508). Tlie
' In one of the intervals of friendship with the em p eror in 483
Theodoric was made master of the houseboki troops and in 484
THEODORUS— THEODOSIA
769
vendity of the RonMn offidab Mid the torbulcnceof theCethic
Bobks were sternly repressed. Marshes were diahied, harbours
formedt the burden of the taxes lightened, aakl the state of
agiicnlturc so much improved that Italy, froqi a, oom^iraport-
iag, became a corn-exporting coontry. Moreover Theodoric,
though adhering to the Arian creed of hia forefathers, was
during the greater part of his reign so conspicooasly impartial
kk religbus matters that a legend which afterwards became
current represented him as actually putting to death a Catholic
deacon who had turned Arian in order to win his favour. At
the time of the contested papal election between Symmachus
and Laurentius (496-502), Theodoiic's mediation waa welcomed
liy both contending parties. Unfortunately, at the very dose
of his reign (524), the Emperor Justin's persecution of the
Arians led him into a policy of reprisals. He forced Pope John
to undertake a mission to Constantinople to plead for toleration,
and on his return threw him into prison, where he died. Above
afl, he sullied his fame by the execution of Boetius and Sym-
machus (see Bornus), It should be observed, however, that
the motive for these acts ol violenoe waa probably political
imther than religious— jeaJousy of intrigues with the imperial
court rather than xeal on behalf of the Aiian confession. Theo-
doric's death, which is said to have been hastened by remorse
for the execution of Symmachus, occurred on the 30th of August
526. He was buried in the mausoleum which is stiD one of the
marvels of Ravenna {q.v,)^ and his grandson Athalaric, a boy of
ten years, succeeded him, under the regency of his mother
AmaLunntha.
Ceneaioty of Tkeodmic
TtaOPum« EnSeva.
''sss'
■hurolClQTli.
AKAUiran*- Eutkarie.
^ SJ4- I sdoonna .
Amihfrida. a fnn 4Hrt ofTlwoderi^ muAti Thnanind. Ui« o( Ibe Viadab.
Md MM aoav. by aa Mflkr MiiiaSBi eT Ikmkliad <d. s jS).
AoTiioarnBS.~The aathoritka for the life of Theodoric are very
imperioet. Jordama, Praoopius, and the curioua fiagmcnt known
9M Aoonytnua Valeni (printed at the end of Amnuanua Marcellinus)
are the uiief direct aources of narrative, but far the mo«t important
indirect lource is the Variae (itate-papen) of Cassiodorus, chief
minister of Theodoric. Malchos furabhcs some interesting par-
taealan as to hia eariy life, and it is potaible to extract a httle
information from the turgid ^anuync of EnnodiuL Amoi^
German acholara F. Dahn UCdntgi ier Cermanen, U., iii. and Iv.),
J. K. P. Manso (GesckuhU des Ostntkiselien ReUhs inlkdien^ 1824).
and Sartoritts (Ktrnidb «6cr dit Rtgienrnt itr OitgoOun, Ac.) have
done most to iOttstiate Thoodoric's priaaples of goverament. The
English, mdcr may consult Gibbon's Dulnu and Fatt, chap, xxxix.,
ano Hodgkin's Italy and ier IrtPoders, vol. iii. (1885), hit intro-
duction to Letters ef Cassiedorus <t886) and Theodoric the Goth
(London and New Vorh; i89r). For the legends connected with
the name of Theodoric ate the article Dibtmch of Bbrm.
a- HO
TBB0DOEO8, FLAVnA MAURM, Ronaa consd Ai>. 599,
avthor of an extant treatise on metres, ono of the best of its
fciiid(H. Kdl, GrWRiu^ Xofc'm, vi.). He also studied philo>
sophy, astronomy and geoaetiy, and wrote works on thoae
subjects, which, together with his consulship, formed the sub-
Je ctof a panegy ric by C hudian.
THIOOORUS STODlTA (aJ>. 7S9-^»^), Greek thcolo^cal
writer, abbot of the monastery of Studium, was bom at C^n-
ttaatinople. In 794 he succeed e d his uncle flaUy, who had
persuaded him to become a monk some ten years before, as
head of the znooastery of Saccudium in Bitbynia. Soon after-
wards he was banished to Tbeasalonica for having excommuni-
cated CoBstantine VI., who had divorced his wife Mana in order
to marry Theodote. After the emperor's death in 797 he was
recalled with every mark of favour, and removed with his monki
to the monastery of Studium in Constantinople, where he carried
on a vigprous campaign in favour of asceticism and monastic
reform. In 809 he was again banished in consequence of hiif
refusal to hold communion with the patriarch Nicephorus, who
had pardoned the priest Joseph for his part in. the marriage of
Constantino and TheodotS. In 811 he was reined by Michad
Rhangabes, and again banished in 814 for his resistance to the
edict o£ Leo the Armenian, which forbadp the worship of
images. Liberated in 821 by the Emperor Michael the Stam*
merer (Balbus), he soon got into trouble again. In 824 he
violently attacked Michael for showing too great leniency
towards the iconodasts and even favoured an insurrection
against him. When the attempt failed, Theodorus found it
prudent to leave Constantinople. He lived at various mona»>
terles in Bitbynia, on Cfaalcitis (one of the Princes' Islands)
and on the peninsula of TVyphon, near the promontory of
Acrita, where he died on the xxth of November 826. He was
buried at Chaldtis, but his body was afterwards (26th of
January 844) removed to Studium. He subsequently re-
cdved the honours of canonization. Of his extant works the
following are the most important >—i>M«ri, which are of con-
siderable value as giving an insist into the life and character
of the writer, and throwing light upon the eCdesiastioal dis-
putes in which ho was havolved; Catecheses (divided into
iiagna and Parva), two oollectiona of addresses to his monks
on various subjects connected with the spiritual life; funeral
orations on his mother and his unde Phto; varioua polemical
discoorMs connected with the question of image-worship. He
was also the withor of epigrams on various subjects, which
show oonriderable origiiiality, and of some church hymns.
Like an the monks of Studium, Theodore was famous for his
calligraphy and industry in copying MSS,
BiBLiocRA PRY.— General edition of his works in J. P. Migne,
Palrtdotia Craeca, xcix., to be mipplemented (for the Letters) by
A. MaPs Palnm Nova BMiotkeea, viil. (1871) and (for the Cate-
ekeses) by ib., ix. (1888), which contains the Greek text of the
Parva (also ed. acpacately by £. Auvray, 1891): hymns in J. B.
Pitra, Analecta Sacra, i. (1876). See also Alice Gardner, Theodore
of Studium: his Life and Times (1905), containing specimens of
Engliflh translatioo and an account of his published works; C.
Thomas, Theedor von Slndien send seiu ZettaUer (1893); G. A.
Schndder, Theodor von Studion, in " IGrchenectchKhUiche Studien,**
V. 3 (MQnster, 1900); S. Schiwtetx, Ve Sancto Theodoro Sludita
(Breslau, 1896); E. Marin, De Studio coenobio ConstantinopoUiana
(1897): C Schwardoae, Der BilderstreU (1890); A. Tougard, La
PerskuHoH iemudasU iPapeU la eorrespondance de saint Thiodore
Studite (t8oi). Some of the hymns have been translated by
J. M. Keale in his Hymns of the Eastern Church, For further
bibliographical details see C. Krumbachcr, Gesch. der byt. Litt.
(3nd ed.. 1897) and article by Von DobschOtx in Hcrzog-Hauck'a
Mealencyclopddie fUr protestatUische Theohgie, xix. {190^), On his
relation to Theophanes Confessor (q.v.), see J. Par^^ire. " Saint
Thfophane Ic Chronographe et ses rapports avec saint Theodore
Studtte '* in fivforrwA XporuA, ix. (St Petersburg, 1902).
THBODOnA. formerly Kaita, a seaport and watering-place
of South Russia, on the east coast of the Crimea, 66 m. E.N.E.
cd Simferopol and 7s m. by a brandi line from the Sebastopol-
Ekateiiaoslav railway. It has an excellent modem harbour,
ahd its sosdstead, which is never frozen, is well protected from
east tnd west winds, and partly also from the south, but its
dq>th is only xi to 14 fL, reaching 35 ft. in the middle. The
population was to,8oo in 1881, and 37»3i6 m 1897. Among
the motley population of Russians, Tatars, Armenians, Germans
and Greeks are several hundred Qaraite Jews. Few remains
of its fionner unportatice exist, the chid bdng the Citadd built
by the Gttoese and still showing Latin inscriptions onsomeof
its towers, the one or two detached towers Idt when the town
walls were pulled down, and two or three mosques, formerly
Genoese churches. The town also poaacsses a museum of
antiquities and a picture gallery containing the works of the
marine painter Ayvaaovsky. Theodosia is an episcopal see of
the Onhodox Greek Churdi. Gardening is one of the leading
industries; fishingi a few manufactures, and agriculture ate
770
carricxl on. Theodosia has gained much of the trade d
Sevastopol since that town was made a military port in 1894,
and the value of its exports (i^-H millions sterling annually),
principally grain and oil-seeds, is increasing year by year. A
bronze statue of Alexander HI. was put up on the sea-front
in 1896.
The andcnt Theodosia, the native name of which was
Ardabda, was a odony founded from Miletus. Archaic terra-
cottas show it to have been inhabited in the 6th century BX.,
but it is first he^ of in history as resisting the attacks of
Satynis, ruler of the Ctmmecian Bosporus, c 390 B.C. His
successor Leucon took it and made it a great port for shipping
wheat to Greece, especially to Athens. This export of wheat
continued until the days of Mithradates VL of POntus, against
whom the city revolted. Later it became a special part of the
Bosporan kingdom with its own governor. In the 3rd cen-
tury A.D. it was still inhabited, but seems to have been deserted
not long afterwards. Besides the terra*cottas and pottery
very beautiful Greek jeweLry has been found near Theodosia.
It coined silver and copper during the 5th and 4th centuries B.C.
The name Kaffa (Genoese Capha, Turkish K^t) first occurs in
a writer of the 9th century. The Genoese established them-
selves on the site shortly after 1266, and the settlement flourished
exceedingly, being the dep6t of a trade route reaching to China.
It became the head of the Genoese establishments in Gazaria,
the see of a bishop, and the chief port on the northern shore of
the Black Sea, Car surpassing the Venetian Tana. Its popula-
tion is said to have reached 80,000 souls of many creeds and
nationalities. There was a citadel (still remaining) and magnifi-
cent walls. These were rendered necessary by the occasional
hostility of the Tatar khans. When the Turks took Constanti-
nople the cdbny was almost cut off from the mother dty,
which handed it over to the enterprising bank of St Geoige;
but it coidd not be saved and fell in 1475 to the Turks, who
sometimes called it Kuchuk-Stambul (Little Stambul or Con-
stantinople) or Krym-Stambul (Stambul of Crimea). Its new
masters kept it under their own direct rule and its prosperity
was not entirely destroyed. In 17 71 it was taken by the
Russians, and in 1783 annexed by them, whereupon the greater
part of its population deserted it. Its prosperity did not return
until about 1894, when new harbour works made it a convenient
port for grain ships coming light out of the Sea of Azov and
wishing to complete their cargoes.
See E. von Stem, Theodoiia (Germaa and Ruasian, Odessa,
1906): E. H. Minns, Scylkians and Greeks (Cambrid^. 1909);
for the history of Kaffa see Hcyd, Hiskrin du ammerct du LetoMt
«a moyeH dgt (Paris, 1886). voL li. (E. H. M.)
THBODOSIUS, the name of three Roman emperors of the
East.
Thegoosius I., "the Great," son of Theodosius, Valen-
tinian's great general, who in 368-69 drove back the Picts and
Scots from the Roman territories in Britain and suppressed the
revolt of Firmus in Mauretania (372). Shortly after (376), the
elder Theodosius was put to death by order of Valens, probably
through fear lest he should be the Theodosius or Theodore
whom a magician had indicated as the future emperor. The
younger Theodosius was bom about the year 346. He was a
native of Spain, but the exact place of his birth is uncertain
(Cauca in Galicia according to Idathis and Zosimus, Italica
according to Marcellinus). He accompanied his father into
Briuin (368), and a little later distinguished himself by defeatr
ing the Sarmatians who had invaded Moesia (374). On his
father's death be retired to his native place, where he lived
quietly till after the great battle of Adrianople (August 9, 37S),
when Gratian summoned him to share the empire. After
gaining some fresh victories over the Sarmatians, Theodosius
was made Augustus at Sirmium on the 19th of January 379,
and was assigned all the eastern provinces, indmfing part of
Illyricum. It was a time of great peril for the Roman state.
While the Visigoths were carrying their raids up to the waUs o(
rmwiAntinople, bands of Ostrogoths, TaifaU, Huns and Alaaa
''tm in otvemBDing the Balkaa coantiiet. Jb 379
THEODOSIUS (EMPEROR]^
Theodosius, after reorganizing the army at
carried on a successful campaign of skirmishes along the Danube
and induced ntamerous Gothic bands to give in their allegiance;
his lieutenant Modares, a Gothic refugee, defeated the in<^
vaders severely in Thrace. At the end of the year Theodosius
went to Constantinople to be crowned. Returning t» Thessa-
tonica in 380 he was kept out of the field for some time by a
serious illness. In this year or the next he was called upon to
meet two armies ol invaders. He conducted in person the war
against the Visigoths under Fxitigem (in li^lacedonia and Epirus)»
and on one occasion was nearly betrayed into the enemy's
hands; this campaign, in which Gratian 's general Arbogast
eventually lent help, was ended by Fritigcrn's death. The
defence of the Danube against the Ostrogoths under Alatheus
and Safrax was entrusted to the general Promotus, who severely
defeated the enemy in an attempt to cross the river. Theo>
dosius attained even greater successes by his diplomacy. He
persuaded the fugitive Visigoth king Athanaric to enter his
service, and enlisted 40,000 of his former enemies as /Mtf«ra<i»
providing them with settlemenU in various parts of the realm.
Though this kindness towards the Germanic tribes was resented
by the Romans, and In some cases ill requited; yet it may be
said that it not only averted a great danger to the empire, but
considerably strengthened Theodosius' army. In 3^7 the paci-
fication of the Balkans was complete. In 386 Promotus checked
a new attempt at invasion on the Danube.
In 383 Theodosius created his eldest son Arcadius Augustus.
The same year saw the revolt of Maximus in Britain and the
murder of. Gratian. For five years Theodosius consented to
accept the usurper as his colleague; but when Maximus at-
tempted a few years later to make himself master of Italy
Theodosius advanced against the invader and overthrew him
near Aquileia (July s8, 388). This victory was followed by
the murder of Maximus and hjs son Victor, after whose death
Theodosius conferred upon Valentinian ll. all that part of the
empire which his father had held. After celebrating a triumph
in Rome (389) he stayed to arrange the government of Italy for
another two years. If we may trust the evidence of Zosimus,
from the end of the year 388 Theodosius resigned himself to
gluttony and voluptuous living, from which he was only roused
by the news that in the Western empire Arbogast had slafa
the young Emperor Valentinian and set up the grammarian
Eugeoius in his stead (May 1$, 392).
Theodosius made extensive levies and with a force partly
composed of barbarian auxiliaries inarched out against
Eugenius. The armies met near the river Frtgidus, some
thirty-six miles distant from Aquileia. On the first dayThco-
dottus' barbarians, engaging with those of the hostile army,
were almost destroyed, and the victoiy seemed, to be wiUi
Eugenius. After a ni^t of prayer, towards cockcrow the
emperor was cheered by a vision of St Ph3|p and St John, who,
mounted on white steeds, promised Um success. On the
second day the Issue was doubtful till, i£ we may trust the con-
current testimony of all the contemporary church historians, a
sudden gust of wind blew back the enemy's arrows on them-
selves. This was the turning-point of the battle: Eugenius
was slain by the soldiers; and two days later Arbogast com-
mitted suicide (September 5-9, 394). From the norDi-eastem
parts of Italy Theodosius passed to Rome, where he had hb
son Hoooiias proclaimed empemr under the guajdStt^fp of
StiGchow Thence he retired to Milan, where be died of dropsy
(January 17, 395), leaving the empire Co be divided between
his two sons Honorius and Arcadius.
Important as the reign of Tbeodosias was from the political
point of view, it is pettaps still more so (lom the theotogicaL
According to Sozomen. hb parents wen both orthodox Chritttans,
according to the creed sanctioned by the cooncil of Nkaca. Ic
was not, however, till his illneaa at Thessalonica that the emperor
received bapdim at the hands of Bishop Asciiolius, whereupoo,
mys the same historian^ he issued a decree (February 380) in favour
of the faith of St Peter and Pope Damasus d Rome. This was to
be the true CathoKc faith: the adherents of other creeds were
to be le ch poed as heretics and punsfaed. The gnat amndl of
THEODOSIUS OF TRIPOLIS
771
19> flftlwdtHf i*yl 36 liacedoniMi
DUDopo, nm in^ loe* loiiowiny y«ar, coofinned the Nioeac fjith.
ordered tbe affairs of the various sees, and declared the bishop of
Constantinople to rank next to the bishop of Rome. The emperor
cannot be acquitted ct the intolerance wliich marln edicts toth as
that depnvinf apostatisittr Chnstiana td the richt of bequest. It
was not till ^89 or JSQ that be issued orders lor the destnictioa
of the great image 01 Serapis at Alexandria. Other edicts of an
earlier or later date forbade the unorthodox to hold assemblies in
the towns, enjoined the surrender of all churches to the catholic
bishops, and overthrew the heathen temples "tfarouchout the
whole world." Dorinsthe feign of Theodosius Gosgory of Nsiisnras
was made bishop of Constantinople. In 38^ Theodosius called a
new coandl for the discuttion of the true faith. The orthodox,
the Arians, the Eunomians and the Macedonians all sent champions
tw maintain their special tenets befoiw the cmperer, who finally
decided in favour of the orthodox party. He seems to have suffered
the Kovatians to hold assemblies in the city. Perhaps the most
remarkable incident in the life of Theodosius from a personal point
of view is the incident of his submission to the reprimands of
, who dared to rebuke him and refuse to admit him to
the Eucfaatist till he had done public peoanoe for punishiM a _ _ _
in Thcssalonica by a wholesale massacre of the populace. Equallv
praiseworthy is the generous pardon that the emperor, after much
mtercession, gtanted to the seditious people of Antioch, who, out
of anfcr at the growing impoats, had beaten down the imperial
sutuea of their aty (387). When the Christians in the eastern
part of the empire destroyed a Jewish synagogue and a church
belonging to the Valcntinians, Theodosius gave orders for the
o#tnden to make reparation. Such impartial conduct drew fortb
a remonstrance from Ambrant, who, where the interests of his
deed were cooocmed, could (oiget tha ooaimoii priadplca of justice.
Theodosius was twice married — (1) to Aelia Pladlla, the mother
of Arcadlus (377-408) and Honorius (384-423); (2) to Calla (d. 394),
the daughter 01 Valentinian I.
The chief authorities for the age of Theodosius are Amndanus
Marcellinus, Zosimus, Eunapiua and the eccks isi t l ril hi i toria t tt
(Socrates, Soaomen. Theodoret). Much information mav also be
^eancd from the writings of St Ambrose, St Gregory of Nazianzui^
Isidore of Seville, and the orators Pacatus, Libanius, Themistius.
Among modem anthorities see: E. Gibbon, TU Dtdim and PaU
of ih* R9mmn Empin (ed. Bury, London. 1696), cha^ 9% and
27: T, Hodgkin, Italy and her Ituaders (Oxford, i892)> chaps. 5, 6,
%-ii; A. GOldenpenning and J. Ifiand, Dtr Kaiur Theodosius der
Grotse (Halle, 1878); G. R. Sievers, Stvdien tur CeschichU dtr
- • r (BerUn, 1870). pp. »«3-3M-
T&EOOosiis IL (401-450) succeeded his fatber Arcadius as
emperor of the East in 40S. During his mioority the empire
was a^y ruled by tbe praetorian prefect Anthemius and Pul-
chcria, who became hex brother's guardian in 414- Under bis
sister's care the young emperor was tiaaned in divert accom-
plishments which won him the name of CaUifjrapkU (" tbe
Penman "), but grew up into a weak tbough amiable character.
Tbrough his generals Ardoburius and Aspnr ho wa^ed two fairly
successful wars against tbe Penians (421 and 441), and alur
the failure of one expedition (431) by means of a gigantic fleet
put an end to the piracies of the Vandal (^enscric A Hunnish
invasion in 40^ was skilfully repelled, but from 441 the Balkan
country was repeated^ overrun by the armies of Attila, whose
incursions Theodosius feebly attempted to bi^ off with ever-
increasing payments of tribute. His internal administration,
tliough not sul&dently rigoious to check abuses, was upright
and thoughtful. Among its chief events may be mentioned
the endowment of the university of Constantinople (425). the
conciliatory council of Ephesus (434) aq<) the pubficatlon of the
Codex TkcedofisHHS UiB), a collection of imperial constitutions
for the benefit of public oflidals, wliich is our chief soufce of
information about the government of the empire in the 5th
century. In 4)0 Theodosius died of injuties sostafawd through
a fail from bis horse.
Sec C. Gibbon. Tie VecJine end Fall of the Roman Empire (ed.
Bury. London. 1896), iii. pp. 381-444; A. Gfltdcnpcnning.
Geuhuhte dts eOr&miuktn Reiehet unier den Kaisem Arhadius und
Theodosius //. (Halle. 1B8O. pp. 17a a<|q-; T.
P. Meyer, TMeodoiu lihri XV L (Beriin, 1904-9)'
Theodosius IH, emperor of the East (716-71 7), was a financial
officer whom a Byzantine army rebelling against Aoastasius HI,
unexpectedly proclaimed monarch in his stead. He captured
Coastantino|>le after a six months' siege and deposed Anastasius,
but in the following year was himself forced to resign by t
new Qtttiper, Leo m. (f.v.). Tlieo<ldtitts ended Us life in a
monastery.
See G. Ftnlay, History of Greece (ed. 1877, Oxford), i. p. 396).
<M. O. B. C)
THBOOOSniSOPTBIPOLIS, Greek geometer and astronomer,
three of whose works were contained in the collection of lesser
writings named 6 ftucfidt d9rpoKvio6jf(0>of (sc. r^ot), or 6 iUKpdt
iaTpviiiieit> Suldas erroneously identifies him with 41 sceptical
philosopher of the same name who lived in the second half of
tbe 2nd century aj>. or Utter, but, on tbe other hand, distinguishes
him from a native of Tripolis who wrote a poem on spriixg.
He is doubtless the same as Theodosius the mathematician,
who is mentioned by Strabo amongst the natives of Bithynin
distinguished for their learning, and whose sons were also
mathematicians, the same, too, bs the inventor of a universal
sun-dial (Aoro^tiMi xpds tow Miie^ of that name who is
praised by Vitruvius {Dt Arckiteciura, ix. 9). His date, there*
fore, could not have been later than tbe ist century B.C.; he
may, however, have lived in the preceding century, inasmuch
as tbe names mentioned by Strabo in the passage referred to
above are, as far as we know, arranged dironologicaUy, and
Theodosius immediately follows Hipparchus, who made astro*
x¥Hnical observations between 161 and 126 B.C., and precedes
AscJepiadcs tbe physician, who lived at Rome at the beginning
of the ist century B.C.
His chief wor k ej i mpu^ in three books— is a tolerably com*
ptete treatise on the pure geometry of the surface of a sphere, and
was still the classical book on tne subject in Pappus's time. Ir
does not contain (except for a faint suggestion in lit 11-12) any
trace of spherical trigonometry, which, on the other hand, was the
special subject of the work having the same title, and included
in the same collection, of Meoelaus of Alexandria, who lived at
the end of the ist century.
A. Nokk iUeber dU Sphdrih des Theodosius; Karlsruhe, 1847),
Heiberg itiUerarg^uhichuiche Studien iber Buhlid, pp. 43 seq.s
Leipzig. 1882), and Hultsch iJakrlticher fur classiuhe PUiolepe,
1883, pp. 415-420, and Autotycus; Leipzig, 1885) have proved that
as early as the middle of the 4th century B.C. there existed a Greek
text-book on Spherics which, in its essential contents, scarcely
deviated from the three books of Theodosius. He must therefore
be r^arded as merely the editor, or at most the eJaborator and
expounder, of a doctrine which existed some centuries before him*
A careful analysis of Thcodonus' work, from this point of view,
will be found in A. A. Bjdrnbo's Studten uber Mendaos SthSrih
(Abhaudiunien tur Cesthuhle der ntathematiseheu Wissensehoften,
xivj Teubner. I904).
The Spherics of Theodosius was translated into Arabic at the
beginning of the loth century, and from the Arabic into Latin in
the isth century by Plato of Tivoli (Tibaftinus) This translatfon
was published m IS18 at Venice, but was found so faulty by
J. Voegelinus that ne published a new Latin version, together
with additions from the Arabian commentatora (Vienna, 1529, 410);
other Latin translations were published by F. Maurolycus (Messina,
iSS9i fol-): by C. Clavius (Rome, 1586. 4to); and by Barrow
under the title, TheodosH Sphaerica, Methodo Neva Illustrata et
Succincte Demonstrato (London, 1675, 410). The Greek text was
first published, and with it a Latin translatkin, by I. Pena JParis,
.^ . V . . . ..... . " p)> >iu
iSS^i 4^0): it has been edited since by Joseph Hunt (Oxford,
1707), and by E. Nizze (Beriin. 1852). but these two editions s"
founded on tnat of Pena. There is also a German translation 1
1707), and by E. Nizze (Beriin. 1852). but these two editions are
founded on tnat of Pena. There is also a German translation by
Nizze (Stralsund, 1826). His two editions are accompanied wito
valuable notes and an appendix containing additions htim Voege-
linus and others.
The two other works of Theodoana which have come down to
us have not as yet been published in tbe originaL The propositions,
without demonstrations, in the work npj ibMPw* ifl Msrwv (On
Days and yights), in two books, were given by Dasypodius, in
Greek and Latin, in his Sphaericae Doctrtnae Propotitienes (Stras-
boT]^, iST^t 8vo). A Latm venioo of the complete work, «-tth
ancient scholia and figures, was given by Joseph Auria (Rome,
1591, 4to). Pappus has given a pretty full commentary on the
» This collection conuined. aooording to Fabricius. BiHiotheca
Cneca, ed. Harica, iv. p. 16. the followiiw books:— " Tbeodosd
TripoUtae, Sphaericermm, libri iii.; Euclidis, Pola, Optica, Calopirua,
ac Phaenomena; Theodosii Tiipolitae, De tiabitationibus et Nocttbus
ac Diebus, libri ti.: Autolyci Pitanaei. De Sphaera Mota, et libri li.
De Orlu MJque Otcasu SteUarum InerranHum', ArisUrchi Samii. !>•
MaprUmdinibus ac Dislamtiis Selis oe Luuaei HypsKlis Alexandnni,
•A w ^ap wi t sive Do Aecentionibus: Menelai. Sphaerieorum, hbn
iiL" EucUd's Dala is. however, wrongly included, for Pappus, viL,
makes it part of analysis (« AvaXii6M0«i rfosf ).
772
THEODULP^THEOLOGY
first book of this work o( Thcodosius. His work wtpl ab^«Mii
{On Habitations) also was published by Auria (Rome, 1588). It
nves an account of how, for every inhabitant of the earth from
tne equator to the pole, the starry firmament presents itself in the
course of a year. The propositions in it were also given by Dasy-
podius in his work mentioned above. (T. L. H.)
THEODITLP, bishop of Orleans, was born about the middle
of the 8th century, of a noble family of Gothic extraction, pro-
bably in Spain. He found favour at the Prankish court, was
made abbot of Fleuxy and of Saint-Aignan, and in 781 became
bishop of Orleans. He was a staunch supporter of Charle-
magne's principles of government and educational reforms; he
established schools, and by his own literary achievements showed
himself a worthy member of the learned drde whidi graced the
Caroiingian court. He was likewise a good churchman and an
able administrator of his diocese; he encouraged the reforma-
tion of the clergy and the monasteries. In 798 he was appointed
missis dominicus, and two years later performed so great
services for Leo HI. as judge in the cause between the pope and
his enemies, that he returned from Rome with the pallium.
After the death of Alcuin he became the foremost councillor
to the king on theological matters: it was he who made, on
Charlemagne's request, a collection of the opinions of the
fathers on the much-disputed point of the pxocessioB of the
Holy Ghost. Theodulf maintained his influence a short time
after the death of Charlemagne, being sent as escort to Pope
Stephen V. who came in 816 to crown Louis the Fair. Later,
however, he was accused of having taken part in the con-
spiracy of Bernard of Italy, and in 818 was deposed from all
his dignities and imprisoned in a monastery at Angers. Theodulf
asserted his innocence to the end, and no proof of his guilt has
come down to us; in fact, from what we know of the bishop's
Ufe and political principles we should presuppose bis innocence.
He died in prison, probably from poison, in 8ai.
Theodulf was called Pindar in the palace school of Charlemagne.
Fond of Latin literature, whether Christian or {Kigan, and a fnend
of the arts, he was himself one of the best writers of the period.
His prose works include sermons, treatises on vices and on baptism,
a penitential, capitularies and exhortations to bishops, priests an4
judges. His poems arc his best work, and afford us a vivid picture
of the times. Theodulf was the author of at least part of the
hymn for Palm Sunday, the Gloria laus. The complete works of
Theodulf arc in J. P. Migne, Pafrol. Lat., vol. 105 (Paris, 1851).
The best edition oi his poetry is that of E. Dflmmler in the Man.
Germ. Hist. Poeiae laiini am carolini, vol. i. (Berlin, 1881).
Sec C. Cuissard, Tkiodulphe hhtu d'OrUans, sa vie et ses matres,
(Orleans, 1893) ; and a critical study of the writings by M. Manitius
in Neuts Arckiv der Ges. far &, deutsckt Gesch. xi. (1886).
TREOONIS OF MBOARA (6th century B.C.), Greek poet.
More than half the elegiac poetry of Greece before the Alex-
andrian period is included in the 1400 lines ascribed to Theognis.
This collection contains several poems acknowledged to have
been composed by TVrtaeus, Mimnermus and Solon; with two
exceptions (T. W. Allen in Classical Reviev^ Nov. 1905, and
E. Harrison) modem critics unanimously regard these degies
as intruders, that is, not admitted into his works by Theognis
himself; for this and other reasons they a»time the existence
of further interpolations which we can no longer safely detect.
Generations of students have exhausted their ingenuity in vain
efforts to sift the true from the false and to account for the
origin and date of the Theognidea as we possess them; the
question is fully discussed in the works of Harrison and Hudson-
Williams.
The best-attested elegies are those addressed to Cymus, the
young friend to whom Theognis imparts instruction in the ways
of life, bidding him be true to the " good " cause, eschew the
company of " evil " men (democrats), be loyal to his comrades,
jand wreak cruel vengeance on his foes. Theognis lived at
Megara on the Isthmus of Corinth during the democratic re-
volution in the 6th century B.C.; some critics hold that he
witnessed the " Persiaa terror " of 590 and 580; others, in-
cluding the present writer, place his fioruU in 545 B.C. We
know little about his life; few of the deUils usually given in
text-books are capable of proof; we are not certain, for in-
stance, that the poem (78^-88) which mentions a visit to Sicily.
Sparta and Euboea comes from the band of Tlieognis Uimdf 2
but that is of Kttle concern, for we know the man. Whether,
with Harrison, we hold that Theognis wrote "all or nearly all
the poems which are extant under his name" or follow the
most ruthlesa of the higher critics (Sitzier) in rejecting all but
530 lines, there b abundant and unmistakable evidence to show
what Theognis himself was. However much extraneous ma.Uer
may have wormed its way into the collection, he still rcmainft
the one main personality, and stands dearly before us, a living
soul, quivering with passion and burning with political hate,
the very embodiment of the faction-spirit {stasis) and all it
implied in the tense city-sute life of the andent Greek.
There is ndtber profound thought nor sublime poetry in the
work of Theognis; but it is full of sound common-sense em-
bodied in exquisitely simple, concise and wdl-balanced verse.
As York Powell said, " Theognis was a great and wise man ";
he was an able exponent of that intensely practical wisdom
which we associate with the " seven sages Of Greece." Had be
lived a century later, he would probably have published his
thoughts in prose; in his day verse was Uie recognized vehicle
for political and ethickl discussion, and the gnomic poets were
in rnany ways the precursors of the philosophen and the
sophists, who. indeed often made their discourse turn on points
raised by Theognis and his fellow-moralists. No treatment ol
the much-debated question "Can virtue be taught?" was
regarded as complete without a reference to Theognis 55-36,
which appears in Plato, Xenophon, Aristotle, Musonius and
Clement of Alexandria, who aptly compares it with Psalm xviiL
26. Another famouscooidet is 177-78: " In poverty, dear CsmnsI
we forego I Freedom in word and deed~4)ody and mind, |
Action and thought, are fetter'd and confin'd " (trans. Frere),
discussed by Aristotle, mercilessly criticized by Ludan and the
Stoics, and warmly commended by Amroianus MarceUinus,
who introduces the author as ** Theognis poeta vetuset pmdens."*
For many generations Theognis was to the Greeks the moralist
par excdltnct; Isocrates says that Hesiod, Theognis and
Phocylides were admitted to be the best tcachos of practical
morality; and the Emperor Julian in his defence of paganism
asks whether " the most wise Solomon is equal to Pho^des or
Theognis or Isocrates."
Besides the degies to Cyfnus the Theognidea comprise many
maxims, laments on the degeneracy of the age and the woes
of poverty, personal admonitions and challenges, invocations of
the gods, songs for convivid gatherings and much else that
may well have come from Theognis himsdf. The second
section ('* Musa Paedica ") deds with the love of boys, and,
with the exceptions dready noted, scholars are at one in reject-
ing its daim to authentidty. Although some critics assign
many degies to a very late date, a careful examination of the
language, vocabulary, versification and generd trend of thought
has convinced the present writer that practically the whole
collection was composed before the Alexandrian age.
Enrnows.— Imm. Bekker C181S, 2nd ed. 1827); F. G. Wdcker
(1836); both these are epoch-making booloi which no serious
student can ignore: Th. Bergk (1843, 4th ed. 1882: re-edited by
E, Hillcr, i8qo, and O. Crusius, 1897): J. Sitdcr (1880): E. Harri-
son (<902) ; T. Hudson^Williams (iqio). For further bibliographical
references see the two last-mentioned books. There is a prose
translation by J. Banks in Bohn's Classksil Library (1856). which
also tndudes verse traoslations by J. Hookham Fnere.
(T. H. W.)
THEOLOGY, literally the science which deals with (k>d «r
the gods. The word is Greek (Oc^s, God; Xfryos. theory).
But doctrine counted for less in Greek or Roman rdigion than
in Christianity, and forms of worship for more. In the oldest
usage OfoKiyoi. were those who dealt in myths, like Hesiod
and like the supposed Orpheus, the BtoUyvi par careettiwce.
Paul Natorpi contends that tfsoXoyfa in Plato's Repwbiic
refers wholly to the control of myths. He further denies that
Aristotle identified his First Philosophy with a *' theology/*
holding the text of the Metaphysics to be out of order and
^ Philoiopkisck$ Monatshefis (1888). Heft 1 and a. See also
TUBXSU.
THEOLOGY
773
cormpted, llioa||i f lem t very early period. He r^ards tbe
Stoics as having iniUated a phiksopiiical theology, and gives
Bumeroos ceferences for the " three theolo^es " which they
distinguished. Philo the Jew is also quoted as using O^okbyot
of poets, of Moses par excdl€tu4, and of Greek phiIosc^>hefs. It
is possible that the epithet BtMrot for St John may go back
as far as Papias. This is the first appeaianoe of the term upon
ChrisUsn ground. The primitive application of $uMy» to
the poets and myth>fanders meeU us sgain in Oiurch writen;
but there Is also a tendency to uae the name for a philosophical
theology based on the doctrine of the Logos, bi this sense
Gregocy Nasisnsen also receives the title BmMjm. His
wffil fkaK&flas is a dissertation on the knowledge of God.*
Many centuries later Abelard genenlixed the expression in
books which came to bear the titles Tkeohgia CknsHana and
ItUroductio ad Tkeohgiam. (Abelaid spesks himself of '* theo-
hjtgia nostra.")* It is of interest to note that even In these
books the Trinity and Christology are the topica of outstanding
importance. In the Summa Tkeahgiae of lliomas Aquinas the
technical sense is fully established Esoept in special dxcom-
stances which generally explain themselves, e.g. "Homeric
Tbeotogy " (a book by NXgelsbach), Old Testament Theology,
Cooiparative Theok)gy, Natural Theology, the word in modem
languages means the theology of the Christian Church. What
follows here wiO be confined to that subject.
While the word points to God as the special theme of the
theologian, other topics inevitably find entrance. Theistic
fhsiinrs philosophy thinks of God as the absolute being; end
^ , every monotheisUc religion insists, not indeed that
•"^' the knowledge of God includes all knowledge, but
that this supremely important knowledge throws fresh light
upon everything. So, with an added Christian intensity, St
Paul declares: " If any man is in Christ, he is a new creature;
the old things are passed away; behold, they are become
new. But all things are of God, who reconciled us to himself
through Christ ** (a Cor. v. 17, 18). A minimum division might
be thntfQld--Cottabegrif, SdbstbeurteUung, Weltamckauung*
Bui historically it is more important to note that Christian
theology has developed as a doctrine concerning Christ: his
rdstion to God, our relation to God in or through ham. For
Chitst is viewed as bringing redemptioit— a eonception of im-
portance in many reUgions, but in none so important as in
Christianity. Indeed, another possibility opens up here. In-
stead of being mainly a doctrine oonceming God, or one con-
cerning Christ, theology may be construed as being mainly the
theory of Christian experience. Most schools of theology will
concur, however, in giving prominence to a complementary point
of view and making their systems a study of Divine reodalion.
Even if they accept Natural Theoloor, they geoersUy hokl that
Christian theology, properly so called, begins at a further point.
Those who deny this were formeriy called Naturalists, ijt.
dcnaen of i upv naturai revelataon; those who extend the
province of reason in theology, and push back the frontier
of revcktlon, are often called Rationalists.^ Sudk being the
Tliiiip- usual point of view, it is plain that the claim of
m»* theobgy to be a sdenoe, or a group of sciences, is
*'*'*** made in a sense of its own. In so far as theokigy is
orderly, coherent, systematic, and seeks to rest upon good
grounds of some sort, it may be called a science. But, in so far
as it daima to deal with special revelation. It lifts itself out of
the drde of the sciences, and turns away from natuial kaow-
* Other usages of tf^X^yla are the Divine nature of Christ (St
John Chrygoscom, quoted in Konstantinides' Greek Lexicon), Oki
and New Testamenu (Theodoret, ib.)i Greek theok>gy and Mosaic
or nevealed theology (ThGodoret)«
* F. Nitach in Hersog-PIitt. ReaUncyk. (1877). ^"^ deuilt
regarding Abelard'a writings in the same author s art. in Herzog-
Hauck (1896).
* So Ritachl, following Schleicrmacher, Dtr CkrisUkke Claube,
*A, W. Bean (History tf Eu^ish Raticnalism iu tU iglh Cent.)
goes beyond ordinary umm in defining rationalism as a militaat
theory opposed to all belielin God.
ledge towards what it regards as more intimate messages ham
God. ^^
*ed: (1) a medieval use of
knowledge of God. as in the
Two special ussges should be ._
" theology " for mysiieal or intuitive _ .^. _
weU-knowa book called Tksslofia CermamicA; (2) "theology
pcoper," in ProtesUnt systems, is the portion of theek)gy which
deals directly with the doctrine of God.
Another characteristic of theology is its secondary and
reflective character. Reli^n, therefore, is earlier than theo-
logy. Or the theology which idigion contains is in
a sUte of solution— vaguely defined and suffused m^
with emotion; important practically, but intellectu-
ally unsatisfying. "Scientific" theokgy contrasU with this
as a laboratory extnuA. History may soften the contrast by
discovering transitional forms, and by showing the reb'gioiis
interest at work in theok)gy as weU as the scientific interest
affecting early utterances of religion. Still, this contrast enters
into the meaning of divines when they say that they are at
work upon a sdenoe. A religious man need no mom be a
theologian than a poet need have a theory of aesthetics.
Where, then, are we to k>ok for Christian theokigy? It is
not the ttuism it may seem if we reply that we are to find it
in tbe writings of theokgisns. As authorities oontiolr
Gng their work, theologians may name the Bible,
or tradition, or the religious oonsdousaess, or the Choich, or
some combination of these. But the teaching of the Bible is
not systematic, and the authority of consciousness is vague;
while the creeds into which Church tradition crystallises emerge
out of k>ng theok>gical discussions. Ordinarily, doctrine has
been in close connexion not only with edification but with con-
troveray. Anselm of Canterbury stands ahnost alone among
the great theok}glcaI masters in working puely from a scientific
interest; this holds alike of his contribution to theism and of
his doctrine of Atonement. Among the earlier theological state-
ments are catechetical books, e.g. Cyril of Jenisalem. These
books record doctrinal instruction given, for practical ends, to
laymen of adult years who were candidates for baptism. Dis-
interested discussions by experts for experts is medieval rather
than primitive. Modem catechisms in the form of question and
answer for the instruction of baptised children are sometimes
convenient if dry summaries of doctrine {t.g. the Westminster
Assembly's Shorter CaUchism); but sometimes they have the
glow of religious tenderness, like Luther's Lesser CotocMnw, or
the Heidelberg Catechism. They generally expound (i) The
Apostles' Creed, (2) the Ten CommandmenU, (3) tbe Lord's
Prayer. Medieval theology hss an appearance of keeping in
touch with the Apostles' Creed when it divides the substance
of doctrine into (usually) twehre " articles " — not always the
same twelve — ^a remioiscentt of the legendary composition of
the Creed, in twelve seaioos by the twelve apostles. This
treatment, however, lias little real influence upon the structure
of medieval theology. German Protestant writers, again, follow-
ing their catechisms, often distinguish three articles-H)f the
Father, of the Son, and of the Holy SpiriL This, too, is 00 more
than convenient phraseology.
Before the Christian age. there had been a good deal of reflective
thinking in the Jewish schools, though the interest there was legal
rather than uieculative. To some extent Christianity in-
herited this Jewish theology. True, Jesus Christ sprang tT^T*
from the people. He was a^*^ layman" (Paul Wernle), with- """"^^
out technical Jewish lore. Thegrcat attainment of the Old Testa-
ment, ethical monotheism, had become the common property of the
nation; it occurs in Christianity as a simple presupposition. Early
Christian writers find it unnecessary to prove what no one dreams of
questioning. Along irith this great doctrine there pass on into Chris-
tiani^ the slowly attained hope of resurrection and the dreadful
doctrine of future punishment lor the wicked. Leading thoughts in
tbe teaching of Jesus, so far as they are new. are the Fatherhood of
Cod— new at least in the central place given it — the imminence
of the " kii^om '* or judgment of^God, and Jesus* own place as
" Messiah,'* tje, as king (and as judge). The *' second founder " of
Christianity, Paul of Tarsus, was mdced rabbinicafly trained. His
recoil from Judaism u all the more intense because of stPa^
the special mtellcctual presuppostions which he con-
tinues to share with Jooatsm. In many respects, Pauline Chris-
tianity is the obverse oif the Pharisaic creed. Modem Christians are
i
77+
THEOLCXjy
cd Co cfaafie the aeeni^ extmvacuoe of St l^uil'a thoocht
his Jewish inheritance, while m oder n Jews axe tempted to
mated to
of reasonable raobimcal
of» Ine (cms
watered with a
These caanot
stigmatise them as Krotesqiie o s M Cfations of reaso
doctrines. Ptabably both are r^giit, and both wra
were Jewish; bat. transported to a new soil, aad
new enthusiasm, they assumed new forms. Thei
the merit of correctncsa, but they are works of religious gci
At the same time, they employ aU the resources of dialectK.
have, therefore, taken quite half the journey from primary rdimon
to thoology. But the dislocation of rdtgioos thinking, when
Christianity ceased to be a Jewish faith and found a home with
r^tttiT**, destroyed the continuity of Panlinism and of Jewish
thought working through St FauL In later times, when PSaultnism
revived, the epistles spoke for themselves, though they were not
always correctly understood. It should be added that, according
to A. Hamack. Hellenistic Judaism had worked out the principles
of a theology which simply passed on into the Gccek-speakiog
(~|ir»a ^^« Church>
Besides the teaching of Jesns (beA preserved in the fixst
three cospds) and the Leaching of Paul (in six, ten, or thirteen
f^^,^ epistles), the recent ** sdcnce " of New Testament
mtmw theology finds other types of doctrine. TbeEpistkto
T^wtf the Hebrews is a parallel to Panlinitnt, working out
***^ upon independent fines the finality of Christianity
and its superiority to the Old Testament. The Johannine
Gospel and Epistles are later than Panlinism, and presuppose
its leading or less slartKng posilinn^ Whatever historical
elements may be preserved in Christ's disconiacs as given in Che
Fonrth Gospel, these disooones fit into the author's type of
thought better than into the synoptical framework. They have
been tiansibrmed. i Peter is good indqwodent Panlinism.
The Epistle of James may breathe a Christianised Jewish
legalism, or, as others bold, it may breathe the legalism (not
vntooched by Jewish influences) of popular Gentile-ChrisUan
thought. The Johannine Apocalypse is chiefly interesting as
an apocalypse. F. C Banr and bis school interpreted it as a
wnMwtlu^n of anti-Pauline Jewish Christianity; on the oontiaiy,
it closely appcoadies Paul's doctrine of the Atonement and his
Christology. Other wriUnfi are of less importance. Acts is
indeed of interest in showing us PauUnism in a later stage; the
writer wishes to reproduce his great master's thought, but his
Fanhniam b simplified and cut down. Possibly the Ptastocal
Epistles show the same process. Iftlien we go outside the New
Testament, this involuntaiy lack of gnsp becomes even more
Neither die theory of iirfallible inspiration, with its aasertionof
absolute uniformity in the New Testament, nor Baur's criticism,
with its assertion of irrccoocxUble antacooisnis. is borne out by
facts. The New Tes tamen t is many-sided, but it has a predominant
gpiritoal unity. Only in minor details do oontradictioas cmcrae. It
is to be remembered that criticism has broken up the historicaluaity
of the New Testament colkctioo and placed many of its componraU
side by side with writii^s which haw new been canonized,
and which conservative writers had supposed to be distinctly
later. Bat in rcgaid to date there has brcjn a temarkahle retreat
from the earlier critical assertioos. And at any rate, since the New
TcsUment caaoo was set up^ New Testament writings have had a
thcokcical influence which no others can claim.
On both sides of the gnat tiansitton from beinga Jewish to
beii« a Gentile faith. Christianity, a ouadi ng to recent rtndy. ottai-
fested itsdf as "enthusiastic" We any distingpush
^™5^ arverel points in this coocrption. (0 Most important.
^^ perhaps— the end of the worM was held to be doseat
hand, ''lannlomof God ''as generally used was an eschatdhigical
oonecot; and. whatever difficulties there may be as to certain
gospd passages, Christ, to say the least, cannot have disclaimed
this view. Toe watchword rings thioagh aO the New Testament-^
** the Lord is at hand.*" A broado- popular form was giTen
expectation in " Chiliasm **— the doctrine of the *^ThM
years* rriga* of Christ oo earth (Rev. xr. 1-7). But e«n Chil ia wn
—which itself has its sabtlcr and iu gmsser moifificatioo»— is found
in carty Gentile "^ wvU as in earl>' Jewish Chrrstxsnitr. (2) i Corin-
thiaas shows «s a Christian community fflkd with disturbances,
and apparently without rrcogniaed oftriah The demociatic. or
father theocratic, rights of the apiritnal man were for a time retted
on to extcmparire so moch Chuich government as ought be needed
di the Master returned. Yet the brginaiags of Church order
rooer. and ■
than those of doc time puMKr ,
of eschatxdogical hopes. (5)
moch earlier than the
~ wdeand
outside the New Testament of avcnion to reeeivinf hnck into
Church fellowship those who. after confessiw Christ, had beew
guOty of grave sins. The New Testament e v i<fence is by no means
uniform (contrast Heb. vL 4*6. a. a6-ji : 1 John v. 16; with
a Cor. iL 7) : but this high c o ncep ti on of ChurAmitmess m attested
by a aeries of rigorist here si e s ' duriiag the earijr centuries; and
nothing could be more characteristic of eschatolofpcal enthusiasm.
Those who had fallen were not bamshed from hope, even by the
rigorista. Still, their case was hdd over for a higher Jodge: while
the Church, especially in these iKire Poritian and separatist gnnipSto
kept her garments miite. (4) The enthusiastic view of the possi-
bilities of the Christian Cfe — associated, as modem and espcicnlly
Western Christians must sustpect, with shallow external views off
sin— lent itself to belief in smicas perliectiott. Even St ^al has
been supposed, not without a certain pbuaibilitY. to teach the
sinless perfection of real Christians. The West, with its theology
protesting in the background, but in vain, still angs the grayer 01
the Te Demm: ** Vouchsafe, O Lord, to keep us thb day without sin."
Such an enthusiastic temper does not lend itself to cool theory.
Why dMmU thetrfony laboiw at defiaitioiw? "The Loni is at
hand:'* a Christians one wisdom b to be ready to ^^^^
meet him. And yet materials for theology were nchly y**"*
provided even dunng this period. That ts true above afl !!r!_.__
of the man whom we know best in New Testament dafs '■■■"Wr-
St PauL HinneU throngh and thioimh anwnatrd with the joff nl
hope, even iriien prepared to sunemkr U Cor. v. B; PhiL L 23.
iL 17) the p ro sp e c t ct personal survival (1 Thess. iv. 17: i Cor.
sv. St. S2} until that bright day. yet as a teadKr he laya
such stress upon Christ's first coming that the emphnas on the
aeoond Advent may be struck cmt— leaving stiD. we might almost
claiou a oomplete Paulinism. He who pjanned his campaigns to
the great dinliaed centres of Corinth, tphesus and Rome. aiKl
thus prepared for a historic future of which he <fid not «hreaas,
drew his peraOeb of thought with no lem firm hand, nnd ilwiJ
himsrw mdeed a wise msttrtMWiilder.
In oneaspect Montanism is the ceatial reaction of the primitive
Christian enthusiasm against the forces which were transforming
its character. Of coarse It had other aspecu and ekments as wrC
Hippohftns and Novatian repeat the protest km v ehement ly;
Donarism shows it blended with later hierarchical ideasL
But. when the enthusiasm cooled, it was Greek thooght which
interpreted the contents of Christianity. The process of change
is called by Hamack sometimes ** sccniariation'* — ^
someiimes ncuennanon. Acnre rieueauing. 1
toM. took the form of Cansticwm. The GaosticL
the '* first theologians.'* When the Chusch in turn began to produce
a theology of her own she was imitaring as well as gimdii^ against
those wayward spirits. What was to oe the central tope? The
Chunk's first creed had been *'the Fatherhood of Cod and the
M> wiihihip of Jeans" (A. RitschI): bat the " Rde «f Faith *'
(Irenacns; TertuOian. who nsm tfe csxt espreasiaa; Origen) —
that summary of rdigioosly important facts which was meant to
ward oil error without rdianoe oo necnlatioas such as the Logos
doctrine— boat itself up aloog the lines of the hnptisaBal f
of Matt. ncviiL 19.* There we . - ^. —
tof a
mtheNewTei^
baptismal rrinffMinn simply of the name ofChrist (i Cor. L ix. 15;
R<Mn. vi. 3; cf. even the late wrae Acts via. 37). not of the three-
fold name. Moreover, textual criticism points to an early type of
reafing in Matt. nviiL to without the threefold fismali StS.
it is stnnge how oompietcly this wni i nglf imlaaBd paamge takes
mmmand of the devdopnent of early thcdbgy.
Out of the Rule of Faith there came in time what U aili ti un iris-
the Apostles* Cr e ed . the Roman baptismnl creed, a forwndary
rest imp or ta nce in al the West: then other creeds, wfcich
are in a mtmt etpansions of the Rdfe of Faith. .The Gseek
1 threw Itself upon the p ro b l e m — ^who precii
the Lord? His Messiahship is asserted; who
STtTf*"Tf* was expanded and rehned upon tiH two great
doctrines had been built up — that of the Trinity oiavu
in the unity of the Godhead, and thatof dtt umon of two distinct
natnres, divine and hnmnn. in tfhe penon of Jeans Chnst. H m
cndonsthsttheSfsiancharchof the 4th ccatnrv (eg. ibptesatcs)
was almost nnaflerted by the great d ogmatic drtates. Bat there
is no hint of a reasoned rejection of Grrek drcvlopinents in favour
of primiriw sim p Gcity . AiD less of any i nd e p en deot theofagical
devdopoirat. Apiuaatcs accepts the Logos ChnstoHgy. nwa, soon
after ms tone, nss church is fau n d on the beaten track of orthodosrp.
mC:.
En.
yms h amithcr significant figure in the Jewish j not the staninj^-potnt
I The starting pmnT is n
« If Hamack is right in re garjKn^ ^ a jfew Te! ^ _ _
one of the Apostolical autnuriiies which the Cmsui tsfows^t
into the field agaifkst Gnosticism, we see the truth on histowal
' i^ounds of the posituo taught 00 d uainatic g round s Iqr IL Rainnr
I {DtUttry «W DneSafmm ti Chrii*icn i>so»tnr) wriplnisHakii
the goal of theokgicai 1
rthe'*RuleofFaidk>
THEOLOGY
77S
Modsn ClwMnM (bmuBjt tnni tid
ol them muit admit that it meks to i
out of the elements of Kcv Testament bi
but aho thete is one Lord ; how are the twi
claim that can beput forward for the di
that it ia ioval to Chriat withoot bein^ dirii
Coocunently, there was a speculative o
and some prefer to defend Tnnitarianiam
personality with the infinity of God. Bi
^i up ia the doctrine betray little son
t. We may take it as wdl eatabU
7.
est
is
ty.
ds
he
tu
9j will bear such wdjgbt as he putt qpon it» Of coune, wq
rht seek to infer an unwritten tradition of Q&rist's words; but
viii. o: PhiL iu l-ii) taught the .
A. M. Fairt»im (PkiL^CkrisHan
that P^ul could not have given this teach!
of Christ's advancing the daim. Fairbi
Fourth GoMMliathiaooonexkm^aiidit ia _
si. a/ irill bear such wriigbt as he |
might seek to infer an unwritten tra
wtthovt pedantic uhta-Protestant devotion to written acripturCi
one may distnnt on sdenrific grounds the attempt to reconstruct
cnditiott by a praoeas of inference. If such reoorda aa John vi. 36,
viii. 5S, Kvti. 3. 4 can be taken as historicali we niay fed certain
that Jesus taught hia pce^xistence. If not, modem Christian
minds win hardly resani the doarine as more than a specuUtioA.
Yet we should mention another argument of some welriit. There
ia no trace that any Jcwiab Christum critica chaOenjpid St Paul's
Christology. TUa may point to iu beiiy the Chnstology of the
whole Church. If so, who could first teach it except the one Maaler?
W Bousset has suggerted that the title "Son of Man'* (Dan. vii.
13), used by Jesus, may have come to imply for all eariy Christiana
pcssonal pre-existence. W. Wrede and others have more boldly
oonjectured that the Christ's pre-existence had become an accepted
clement in lewish Messianic— it certainly occurs in one portion of
the Book of Enoch and in 4 Enta' — and that PMl merely trans-
ferred to Jeans a doctrine which he had held while atiU in the Jews'
rdigwn. " Son of God " might seem to carry us further still;
but the Old Testament makes free use of the title as a meu-
phoncal honour, and we have no proof that any Jewish school
interpreted the phrase differently.
The rival type of eariy theology ia known aa Adoptiooism or
tf.v.). According to it« the man Jesus waa exalted
to Messiank or divine rank. It baa been arnied that
__ the namtive of Christ's baptism pointt to an Adoptionisi
Christology. and that the genealogiea of Jesuf (through
Ipseph) presuppoae this type of belieC if not a still lower view of
Qftrist's person. It has further been argued that the narratives
of the Vugin birth (Matthew, L4ike) are an intermediate stage in
Christology. When pre^xistenoe b deariy taught (Paul. John),
virgtn birth, it is suggested, loses iu importance; another theory
of Divine Sonship has established itself. This trenchant analysis is.
however, not universally admitted. Further devdopment^ doctrine
weeded out the last traces of Adoptionist belief.* though CHirist's
exaltation continued to be taught in correbtion to Hts humilia-
tion (Phil. U. 8), and became m due time a dogmatic kicus in
Protestant jam.
The lineamcDls of Greek Christian theok)gy show themselves
more clearly in Justin Martyr than in the other Apologisu, but
stiH more plainly in Irenactis, who, with little specu-
Utive power, keeps the safe middk pat h. Tcrtuliian's
le^ training as a lawyer was a curious coincidence,
if nothing more, and those legal concepts which show
themselves strongly in him have done much to mould the
Western type of Christian theology. He had great influence
on die course of Latin theology, partly through his own
writings, but still more through the spell he cast upon Cyprian.
At Alexandria, Clement and his great pupU Origen state Chris-
tianity in terms of philosophy. Origen's Ueatise, De Principiis,
is the first and in some respccU the greatest theo-
logical system in the whole of Church history. The
Catechetical school was 'primarily meant for instructing adult
inqiiiren into Christianity. But it had attained the rank of a
Christian university; and in this treatise Origen does not
furnish milk for babes; he writes for himself and for
like-minded friends. Wildly conjectural as it may seem, his
thinking— though partly Greek and only in part biblical— is
*Thc passages referred to have aometunes, but wkh no great
probability, beeo regarded aa Christian infiltrations.
'Adoptionism b ooe species of Monarchiaoism. The other
nedes, Modalism, has hs most important type historically in
SiibelKaabm. And the name SabelKanism b ofcen loosely applied
(#.C. to Swedenborgianbm) to any medalist ic Monarchianism
(Christ one phase of GoA. Not three persons bt the Godhead. b«t
• threefold revdatioa of a God strictly one in person).
completely fused together in Us own mind. Nor docs it ever
suffer from lack of thoroughness. It may be summed up in one
word as the theology of free wilL
Unfaltering use b made of that conception as a key to all religious
and moral problems. Usually, apoloeists and divines are hampered
by the fact that, beyond a certain limited rame, men cannot be
regarded as separable moral units. A new world, after death, may
be called in to redress the balance of the old; but anomalies remain
which faith in a future immortality does not touch. Origen called
Id a seoond new world — that of pre-existence. All soub were tried
OQoe. with equal privilege; all idl, save one, who steadily dave
to the Logos, and thus merited to become in due time the human
soul of lesus Christ. No higher function could be given to free
will; unless, by an extravannoe. some theokigian ritould teach
that the Almighty Himself had merited Hb sovereignty by the -
virtuous use of freedom. On the other hand, a shadow b cast
upon the future bv Origen's fear that incalculable free will may
again depart from Cod. Human birth in a grossly material body
b partly doe to the pre-tempor a l fall of souls; here we sec in Origen
the Greek, the dualist (mind and matter), the ascetk:, and to some
extent the kinsman of the Gnostics. But he breaks away again
when he asserts that CoA ever wills to do good, and b scckine
each lost soul until He find it. Even Satan must repent and live.*
It was not possible that this brilliant tow de force should
become the theology of Christendom. Origen contributed one
or two poinU to the central development of thought; e.g. the
Son of (}od b " eternally " begotten in a continuous process.
But while to Origen creation also was a continuous process, an
unspeculative orthodoxy struck out the latter point as incon-
sbtent with biblical teaching; and we must grant that the
eternal generation of the Divine Son adds a more dbtinctive
glory to the Logos when it b no bnger balanced by an eternal
creation. While the (Hiurch thus lived upon fragments of
Origen's wisdom, lovers of the great scholar and thinker, who
had dominated hb age, and reconciled many a heretic to hb
own version of orthodoi^, must submit to have him branded
as a heretic in btcr days, when all freedom of thought was
falling under suspicion.
For a time, freedom in scholarship lingered in the younger
rival of Alexandria, the school of Antioch; thougb speculation
was never so strong there. Alexandria, on the other hand,
tended to be unduly speculative and allegorizing even in its
scholarship. The antagonism of the two schoob governs much
of the history of doctrine; and behind it we can trace in part
the contrast 'between Church Platonism and what chnrduncn
called Aibtotelianism.
Arius. a Libyan by birth, of Antmch by tramiag (though
eariier than the greatest days of that theological school), and a
presbyter of Alexandria, represents the working of Aristo- Xfiankm.
telianisffl. Hb diief opponent, Athanasius, is probably
the greatest Christian, if Origen b the greatest thinker, among all
the Greek fathers. Few wiu deny that Athanasius stood for the
Christian view of the questions at issue, upon the prin* umam
dples held in commpn by all disputants. Arius reprc- maim,
sented a dlatlow if honest intellectualism. He found it
necessary to think clearly and define sharply; but Athaaassus
found it necessary to believe in a divine redemptbn. According
to Hamack, Athanasius simplified the faith of hb time by fastening
on the eascntui point — human immorUtity or " deification
through the Incarnation of true God. (Cosmic theories of the work
of a Logos subordinate to the Father fell into the backsround.
'O^eo^ioc. successfully discredited earlier as a Sabellbn formula
by Paul of SamosaU, was now found to be the one unambi-
guous term which asserted that Christ was truly (}od (Council of
Nicaca, a.d. 32$) ^nd inr6trrmtts (Lat. persona) became the technical
name for each of the Divine Three. Athanasius himself tried to
draw a distinction between affirming the Son ifiaobetot, and
calling Him imroab^m. Yet it seems pUin that he considered
^belUanizing rcduaion of the Divine Persons to phases or modes
in the unity a leaser evil than regarding the Logos (with Arius)
as a creature, however dignified. This was made plain by the
leniency of Athanasiu^ towards Marcellus of Ancvra. In those
days there was no word for " Person " as modem philo- g^gn^g^
sophy defines it; perhaps no word would have served
the purpose of the Church if precisely so defined. The result
is, however, that a critic of doctrine sometimes questions whether
Athanasiantsm offers a definiUon of the mystery at all, or only
* Harnack ukea a different view of Origen; the certainty of
ultimate salvation overbears free will with a sort of physical neccS'
sity. He also thinks that in Ormen's esoteric doctrine the historical
Christ becomes unimportant. That b a severe judgment.
776
THEOLOGY
• Mt of onctioacd plirues« and a loofcr Kit of ^
proscribed as hcreticaL The long and dubious oooflicts of opinion
c o i Mj ef u Chureh history bat left lew traces on doctrine; Athanasios
never flinched through all the Raction against Nicaea, and his
faith ttkiniatfly Gonquered the Catholi c Church. There is only
this to notice, that it conquered under the great Caypadociaas
Ti, f^ (Basil, Gregory Najiaaaen. Gicsory of Ny«a). who
m^tgO^, represented a somewhat different type of teaching.^
The Trinity in Unity stood firm ; but, instead of reoog-
nixing God as one yet in some sense three, men now began to
recogniae three Divine beings, somewhat definite^ distiaguisbed in
rank each from each and >-ct in some sease one. Alhaaasms's piety
is thus brought into amodation with the detaib of Logos specala-
tioa. The new type passed on mto the West throu^ Augustiae,
. aad the so<aUed Athanasiaa creed, whi^ states an
^^!r Augustioiaa venioa of Greek dogma. There is indeed
fgf^/g^^ one immenre change. **"^''***»««»*"'*"«T" b blotted out,
^,^1^^, more even than by Athaaasiua. On these lines modern
popular orthodoxy maintains the doctrine of the Trinity.
It seeks to prove its case by assertiiw first the divinity of Christ, and
secondly the nersonality of the Holy Spirit. The modern idea oi
personality, though with doubtful fairness, hdpa the change.
The first great siipplement ot the doctrine of the Locos or
Son was the more explicit doctrine oC the Holy Spirit. Mace-
ftiifi^, donius, who defended the semi-Arian or H<Hnoio!wian
•res* position that the Spirit was merely a Divine in-
fluence — Orieen had held the Spirit to be a creature
i branded as a heretic (Synod of Alexandria, 362; CouncO
of Constantinople, 381); a strong support to Cappa dorian or
modem Trinitarianism. Then, in the lig^t of the aflBrmation
of Christ's foil divinity, the problems of His person necessarily
received further attention. Did the Divine Logos take the
place of the higher rational soul in the humanity of Jesus?
So ApoUinaris or ApoUinarius of Laodicea taught, bat the
CouncQ of Constantinople (381) mariccd the position as hereticaL
Did the two natures, human and divine, remain so separated
in Jesus as to jeopardize the unity of His person? Tliis was
the view which Cyril of Alexandria ascribed to Nestorius, who
hesitated to call Mary BeoriKot^ and represented the tradition
of the Antiocheoe school Such views were marked as heretical
by the Council of Ephcsus (431), the decision resulting in a
profound and lasting schism. Did the two natures coalooe in
Jesus so as to constitute a single nature? This is
the Monophysite or Eotychian view, developed out
of the Alexandrian tradition (*' Entychianism is simply Cyril-
lianism run mad,** A. B. Brace). The Council of Chalcedoo
(451) rejected the Akxandxian extreme in its turn, guided by
Leo of Rome's celebrated letter, and thus put the emphaias on
the dnafity rather than the unity in dirist's person. Another
grave and lasting schism was the resnlL Tm> great doctrinal
trailitiftiif bad thus been anathematind ; the nairow line of
orthodoxy sought still to keep the middle track. Was there at
jMnaA*- feast unity of wiH in Jesus? No, said orthodoxy;
**^ He had two independent faculties of wiU, divine and
hoBan. The Maionitcs of Syria, reconciled to the see of Romt
in 118a, probably represent the Monothelete schian. John of
Itotijss Damascns*s theory of Enhypostasy (Christ's manhood
tm^. not tm p«»r«ftnaii_ but oude r^*v*^t? ooly throo^
unioa with Has Godl^ad) is held by some to be the ooping-
ttooe of this great dogmatic d evelopmen t.
In the Trinity the problem is to combine independence aad
unity; in Christology, to combine duality of nature* with the
ntgag unity of the person. Verbally this is done; is it
sfr'rrr done substantial!]^ The question. Who is Jesus
toBs^^ Christ?hasbeenpushcdtothe very end, and anthori-
"^ "^"^ tatively aaswexed in the definitions of Church ortho-
doxy. With these the Oithodox Cnck Churches— and with
' Haraack aad F. Loofs describe them as It ri ii n g ing to the
Homoioosan party— hdieven in the S#o*s ** likeness of essence **
CO the Father's, not ** ideBtity of essenoe." Bcthuae Baker vehe-
Chat these great feadcrs were oootcnted with
Anyway, we must remember that radical theology
I greater extremes in denial (A nnattara na— the Son
It waa wit by any means jbiImbiiIj the
their divcrpent dedsioas the various noivOithodoK Basfem
Churches, Coptic, Armemaa, ftc.— desire to rest satisfied;
theology has finished its work, unkss insofarasitistobc
It is never true whik men live that thoi^^ is at n
but, as nearly as it may be true, Eaatcn theolog^r
has made it so. In the West the drriwnm of the peat umncib
have been accepted as a datum. They enter into the basis d
theology; lesulu attained by long straggles in the East are
siaaply pneauppositioos to the West; bat, for the most part,
no independoit tnterest attaches to them in the Western world.
Tliey are taken as involved in xedenption from sin— in the
Atonement* or in the sacramentSi Belief in the Trinity is
almost onfaraken. Western Christendom widies to caO Christ
God; even the RityhKan school uses the wonted language in
the Ught of its own definitions. For othcn, the Trinity is the
accepted way of making that fonfrwinn It hnromrs of *prac^
tical importance, noooeding to S. T. Coleridge,* in mnm linm
with Redemption. It passes, therefore, as a datom of irveln-
tion. In Ch ri stolopr the tradition has been UKxe frequently
thf Rcfomation.
the doctrinal dev el opment. He coonUen that
Christianity is best d clen d cd on the basb of the doctrine that
Christ is a man chosen aad eoumped for His task by God. Bwt
in the Eastern Chnrch the refigious interest, as he thinka, points
to Mooophysitism. Py ophy site orthodoxy has strriliard Eastern
Christian^, or thrown it upon inferior forma of piety. Of ooorae
this does not mean that Haraack c oow d ers mooophysitiBm nearer
the historic truth, or nearer the normal type of Chrotian thoaght.
On the coatrarf , he would hold that the scholarly teadition of
Antiodi more nearly reaches the real hiatofkal manhood of JesM^
Bat if it be presupposed that the puri^oae of Christ's m is sion wma
to deify aaen by bestowing physical unmortafity, then %c mnat
aasaaae. fint. Christ's essential Godhead, and, aeoondly. the f asHm
of Hb divine and human natures. Whatever be the truth in the
assertion that death lather than sin is the enemy dreaded by EMterw
Christianity, and immortaSty lathcr than fornvcnem the lih aiiin,
craved, it w diffenit to take the talk about dcificatioo aa anythiv
more than rhetoric Did they not start from belief in one God?
Waa not polytheism atiB a Kvuy enemy? It is a more obvions, if
perhaps a more vulgar, criticism of the great developmeat to say
that It was too aimply intellectual — setting dear-cut drfiniiioas
and dogmas without measnriar the nauum e s at the Tmmmand of
Christians or the mgency of Uicir need for such things. We aiw
sometimes told that the eouocils sirophr denied cmM- after cmr.
alBraiiiig fittle or nothing. But the TYiaity and the Hypoatatic
Union are vast specabtiwe owstinctioiis reared npan liemi er
biblical data. To oomplam of the over-sobtlcty of a theologies
adversary is a reoogniaed move in the gasK; it may oonatancly
be played in gpod laith: it proves little or notUng. The facta
apoear to be. that the Chuich embarked co n fide nt ly bn the task
01 blending philofiophy and rdigion. that the Trinity satisfied 1
minds in tl»t age as a lational (ijt.
but that in Cfaristofegy th '
If 1
neo^btosnc) conatni
I Christolagy the data or the aaethods moved km
K added to <
what can the humanity be except one drop in the ocean of <Sviiae
' ? The ba>lical authorities plainly j
power, wisdom, 1
forth "the man
I theory Hi*n<V asunder; for theory hadTlooe it» ut(
K baffled. Another admi«ion ought to be made. W
tribotioos to the prolonged ddMte constantly tended to take the
form of aaaeiting truths of faith rather thaw theories. Yet what
waathewhoteproceai but acotoaaal theory?*
One peipkzity cmmected with theology is the qoestion. How
far docs Christianity succeed in embodying its essential interests
in its doctrines? The Orthodox Eastern Church rhitsu
might seem to have socceeded beyond afl others. wiBmtmtt
Factions of lay-fo&, who quandkd hrrioosly over Jj^^'
shades of opinion never beard of in the West, and
scarcdy intdfigibie to Western minds even if eipoanded, ml^ht
seem to have placed their sinceriiy beyond all question. And
yet there were at least two other developments which were
important in the East and proved still more so in the West
up the naitf
I Christian theolDgy was the climax of the
almnal without I aad ao far alien to piMy. ahhoogh he ii
|t»nontoftha4i«y. CkrulmkMtrmJ
• O. ^s^ to R^^bdisn. Aphorism a. Commeat.
•A. M. FaiA^m takes the rather nnaanal view 1
hemncemof Greek ni l i ^ l j ^
» B far from banishing sy
i7V«L.pp.gi.9Qbi^
THEOLOGY
777
baJtate to raigii to tbeir fivals. Ya( ther» b eonvwkuivt and
no small sifmfiaince in cponectiog the term with a certaia
characteristic and un-ProtcaUnt type of the Christian religion.
Catholicism ia not dogma only, but dogma plu^ law plus sacra*
int. From very early da^ Christianity was hailed as the
" new law '*; and the suppression of the rigorist sects, by
definitely giving law supremacy over enthusiasm, aggraodiaed
it, but at the same time aggrandised the sacramenu. The
Western Christian must needs hold that the Easterb develop-
ment was incomplete. It laid these things side by side; it
did not work them into a unity. The latter task was accom-
plished with no little power by the Western Church in the
period of iu independent development.* The Greek and the
Roman Catholic CbuKhes stand united against Protestantism
in the general theory of law and of sacramenU; but n
Protestant can hardly doubt that, if Catholicism is to be
accepted, a Catholic organisation, and doctrine are better
furnished by the Western Church than by the arteated
development of ita rival.
Hie theory of asceticism had also to be more fully woHced out
and better narmonired with Church avthoritv Tne priesthood
had sttcceasive rivals to face. First in the period of " entiraasasm,**
the pfopbctf ; then the martyrs and confcMon; finally the aacetica.
^^^^ The last, in regulated forms, are a pCTmartent feature
.!^""L of Cathotictsm; and the rivalries of these "regular"
" clergy with their " secular " or parochial brethren continue
to make history to-day. That the ascetic life is intrinsically higher,
that not every one is called to it, that the call is imperious when
It comes, and that asceticism must be developed under Chwch
oontrol'-^U this may be common to East and West. But, in the
utilisation of the monks as the best of the Church's fovoes, the
Western Church far surpasses the East, where meditation rather
than prsctical activity is the monastic ideaU In the West, '* en-
thusiasm." in the transformation under which it survives, is not
merely bridled but hamessod and set to work.
The new developments of the West could not grow directly
out of Eastern or even out of early Western conditions. They
Am^" <row out of the influence of Ambrose of Milan, but
^M^M- far more of Augustine of Hippo; and behind the
**■""' Utter to no small degree there ia the greater influence
of St Paul. Intellectual devdopments do not go straight
onwaH; there are sharp and sudden reactions. Pelagianism,
the rival and contradictran of Augxastinianism, reprcsenta a mode
of thought which appeared early in Christianity and which could
count upon sympathisers both in East and in West. But,
when the Christian world was faced with the clear-cut questions,
Was this, then, how it conceived man's relation to God? and
Dkl it mean this by merit? Augustine without much difficulty
secured the answer " No." In the East (Council of Ephesus,
431) he was helped by the entanglement of Pelagianism with
Nestorianism, just as in the West the ruin of Nestorian prospects
was occasioned partly by dislike for the better known system
of Pelagianism. In Augustine's own case, reaction against
Felagianism was not needed in order to make his position dear.
Ue may have left a vulnerable frontier in his earlier dealings
with the same thorny problem of free wilL Certainly his
polemic as a Christian against the Manichaeism of his youth
constitutes a curious preface to his vehement rejection of
Pelagian libertarianism. Once again, a narrow track of
orthodoxy mkiway between the obvious landmarksl But
Augustine had a deeply religious nature, and passed through
deep personal experiences; these things above all gave him
hii power. He was also genius and scholar and churchman,
transmitting vncriticized the dogmas of Athanaaianlsm and
the philosophy of ancient Greece, according to his understanding
of them. Without forgetting that Augustine was partly a
symptom and only In part a cause— without committing our-
selves to the one-sidedness of the great-man method of con-
stxtung history— we must do justice to his supreme greatness.
If caxlier times lived upon fragments of Origen, the generatk>ns
of the West since Augustine have largely lived upon fragmenU
s Loots declares that the very coneeptioo of a means of grace
IsraedievaL
of his thought and eqwricno. Oil the other hand, not even
the authority of Paul and of Augtistine has been able to keep
alive the belief in unconditional predcstanatmn. If in the West
Athanasianism is a datum« bat wnrTaminrH, and not valued
for iu own sake, Augustinianism is a bold inteipretatkm of
the essential piety of the West, but an interpretation which not
even piety can long endure— morally burdensome If religiously
impressive. The clock is wound up at the great crises of history,
but proceeds to run down, and docs so even more rapidly ia
Protestantism than in Catholicism. It may be held by hostile
critics that the whole thing is a delusion. More sympathetic
judgments will divine unquenchable vitality in a faith whose
very paradoxes rise up in new power again and again. Augus-
tlae's (erroneous) inierpretatwn of the MiUtnninm (Rev. ax.),
as a parable of the Church's histodc triumph, stands for the final
eradicatioB of primitive '* enthusiasm" in the great Church,
though of course milleoarianism has had many revivals in
special drcks.
Even If the Augustlnian stream Is the main current of Western
there arc feeders and also stde-eurrents. Ambrose, Augustine,
Gregory the Great are known as the four Latin Fatheriw
is very great as a scholar, s^id Pbpe Gr^eiy as an ^miais*
trator. As a writer, too, Gregory inodifies Augustmian beliefs into
forms which make them more available for Church teaching— a
process very characteristic of Western Catholidsm and carried BtiH
fuithcr m later centmka (aotabty by Peter Lombard). Perhapa
two ride-currents of niety should be named. There ia an
ethical rationalism which can never be wholly suppressed
in the Christian Church by the Pauline or Augustinian
Botmology. One thinks one sees traces of it, though
hdd down fay other iafluenoes, ia the whole of medieval
theology, and notably in Abelard. U diseagans itself
in the 17th century as Socinianbm and m the iSth as Rationalism
or Deism. Secondly there is a strong ride-current in the mystical
tradition, which we may perhaps treat as the modified form under
which the philosophicar theology of the Greek Church maintained
its life in the medieval West. If so. Myslxism includes in itself
a prophecy of modem Christian Platonism or idealism, with its
cry of " Back to Alexandria.'*
A Western echo of the Christdogkal controversies of the East
is found in the Adoptianism of Spain 785-^18). These Adoptianists
do not hold that Christ the person is adopted (He b God by birth),
but hb ktamin nature may be.* There might be need of this,
indeed, if the Adoptianists* theory oP redemption were to stand,
according co which Christ had talcen to Himsdf a rinful humaa
nature, and had washwd K clean. This extreme assertion of duality
as against Christdogical unity was naturally marked as heretical.
Great advance is made in organising Catholic theology by
the fuller theory of sacraments.. The East had a tenutiva
hesiuting doctrine of transubetantiation;* the West sscm-
defines it with absolute predsion (d. Paschasitts aMes.
Radbertus against Ratramnus; the fourth Lateran Council,
XS15). But if the medieval Church -and modem Catholics
regard the Eucharist as the prindpal saaament, Protestants
can hardly keep from assigning the supreme place, hi the
medieval system, to the sacrament of penance. If early
" enthusiasm " conceived the Christian as sbnoet enttrdy free
from acts of sin, and if Protestant Paulinism concaves the child
of God as justified by faith once for all, the full Catholic theory,
representing one development of Augustinianism, views the
Christian as an invalid, perpetually depoident on the good offices
of the Church. Hie number of saaaments Is fixed at seven,
fint by Peter Lombud, and the essence of the three sacraments
which do not allow of repetition— baptism, confirmation, orders
—is defined as a " character "* imprinted on the soul and never
capable of being lost. We nniat mark the advance fai formal
completeness. Theology Is now not merely the dogma of the
Divine nature or of Christ's person; it b also a dogmatic
* The term Adoptbnism arose at thb rime. Modem theok)giana
carry it back to much earlier views.
•Until indeed, in modem times, Gredc theology accepted the
Western term and ddinitwn.
* Thb, too. has been adopted In modem Orek theology*
* Augustine already has thb conception (Loofs). A nostile critic
might say that the conception affirms the absolute worth o^
sacraments while absdutdy dedlshig to say what they accom-
pibh.
778
THEOLOGY
theory of bow tbe QntsUui satvatioB it conveyed through
sacnunentB to sinful men. On the other hand, a theology
which is mainly sacxamental is overtaken prefly soon by
dumbness. It is of the essence of a sacrament to be an
inscrutable process.
Theories of legal merit, amount of debt, supererogatory good-
ness, and ascetic claim — representina the aspect of Catholictsm
as taw — are more and more worked out. The occasion of the
formal aeoaration of East and West — the Western doctrine of
the twofold " procession " of the Holy Spirit, incorporated in
the (so-called Niccne) creed itself (" filioque ">— i* of little or no
real theological importance. The schism was due to race rivalries,
and to dishke for the ever-growing claims of the see of Rome.
An important contribution to doctrine is contained in the
Cur Deus Homo of Anselm of Canterbuty. Tbe doctrine of
Mosttai Atonement, destined to be the focus of Protestant
oaAtmmf evangelicalism, has remained imdefined in Catholic
mwaL circles,* an implicate or presupposition, but no part
of the explicit and authorized creeds. When treated in the
early centuries, it was. frequently explained by saying that
Christ's sufferings bought off the devil's claim to sinful man, and
some of the greatest theologians {e.g. Gregory of Nyssa) added
that the devil was finely outwitted—attracted by the bait of
Christ's humanity, but caught by the hidden hook of His
divinity. Ansehn hokis that it was best for the injured honour
of God to receive from a substitute what the sinner was per-
sonally in no condition to offer. Whatever other elements
and suggestions are present, the atmosphere of the medieval
world, and its sense of personal claims, are unmistakable. With
Anselm Ritschl takes Abelard, who explains the Atonement
$imply by God's love, and thus Is the forerunner of " moral "
or " subjective " modem theories as Anselm is of the " ob-
jective " or " forensic " theory. It must be admitted, however,
that there is less definiteness of outline in Abelard than in
Anselm. He does not even deal with the doctrine as a specialist,
in a monograph, but only as an exegete.
Contemporaneously with the new and vivid intellectual life of
an Anselm or an Abelard, the " freezing up " of traditionalism is
evidenced by the preparation of volumes of SenUnces from Scripture
and the Fathers. One of the earliest of such collections
b that of Isidore iq.v.) of Seville (560-^36), who, from this
and other writings, ranks among the few channels which
conveyed ancient learning to the middle ages. His SenUnces are
selected almost (though not quite) exclusively from Augustine and
Gregory the Great. Direct influence from the Greek Fathers upon
die West is vanbhing as the Greek language b forgotten. The
neat outburst of Sentences at a later tune has been referred to
the consternation produced by Abelard's Sic el Non. The modem
reader can hardly banish the impression that Abelard writes in a
spirit of sheer mischief. Probably it would be truer to say that
be riot* in the pleasures of ditcusuon, and in setting tasks to other
irretpooaible and ingenious spirits. He does not (ear to contrast
authority with authority, upon each point in succession; the
harder the task, the greater the achievement when harmony is
reached! In regard to Scripture alone does he maintain that
seeming error or discrepancy must be due to our misinterpreta-
tion. If throughout the middle ages Scripture b treated as the
ultimate authonty in doctrine, yet Abelard seems to stand alone in
definitely contrasttt^ Scripture with later authorities. Modems will
question the poenSiUty of asserring Bible infallibility a priori;
but it b nu>re really startling and noteworthy that Abdard should
pMserve a. living sense of bsllibility outside the Bible.
/Hugh
;h with
om the
e Intel-
ler pole
timidly
rd, but
s great
not in
imican.
consist
a time
gained
lU had
Had this been all, WWCem theology might have sunk into a
purely Chinese devotion to ancient classics. But the medieval
world had not one authority but two. Thin and
turbid, the stream of classical tradition had flowed
on through Cassiodorus or Boetfus or Isidore; througfi
these, at second-hand, it made itself known and did its work.
But before the great outburst' of scholasticism, ancient Gterature
found a somewhat less inadequate channel in Arabian and
partly even in Jewish scholarship. Aristotle was no Ar^iam
k>nger strained through the meshes of Boethis; "^ff
and the new Ught inspired Roscellinus with heresy. ^ **■«■■
True, we must not exaggerate thn influence. There was
no genuine renaissance of civilization, such as marked tbe
dawn of modem hbtory. The medieval world did not copy
the free scientific spirit of Aristotle; it made him, so far as
known, a sort of phik>sophicai Bible side by side with the theo-
logical Bible. But it was a very great matter to have two
authorities rather than one. And if any man was to be put in
the preposterous position of a secular Bible, no writer was fitter
for it than Aristotle. The middle ages did their best in thb
grouping; only here and there a rare spirit like Roger Baoon
did something more, something altogether superior to hb age,
in showing that the faculty of independent scientific inquiry
was not quite extinct. It b possible to exaggerate the influence
of the revived knowledge of Arbtotle; but, so far as one can
trace causes in the mysterious intellectual life of mankind,
that influence gave scholasticism its vigour. (See Aiabiah
Philosophy, Scholasticisu.)
With the new knowledge and impulse, there came a new method.
Alexander of Hales b the first to adopt it. in place of the " riietori-
cal " method of previous thcok>gian$. Everything b ..-^-.-_.^
now matter of debate and argument. The Sentences L^J^g^
had resolved theology into a string of headings; with ^"■•^
scholasticism each topic dissolves into a string of arguments for
and against. These arguments are made up of " lationes *' and
" auaoritates." philosophical authorities and theological autho-
rities. They are as litigious as a lawsuit — without any summing
up; the end comes in a moment with a text of Scripture or an
utterance by one of the great Fathers. Once such a dictum has
been cited, the rest of the discussion b treated as by-play and
goes for nothing. " I am a transmitter," Confucius is reported
to have said. The great schoolmen were transmitters — puttmg in
order, stating clearly and consecutively, condurions reached by
wiser and holier men in earlier times. Are the systems aelf-coo-
sistent? Their guarantee is the tireless criticbm carried 00 by
rival systems. No parallel display of debating acuteness has ever
been seen in the world's history. It b easy to underrate the
schoolmen. Indolence in every age escapes difficulties by shirking
them, but the schoolmen's activity raised innumerable awlorard
questions. On the other hand, they possessed to perfection the
means of makiiig their speech evasive. If there are hollow places
in the doctrinal foundations of the Church, it will be a tacit under-
standing among the schoolmen that such questions are not to be
pressed. Above all, one must not look to a schoolman to speak
a piercing and a reconciling word. " There b no revidon 01 the
premises in debate from a higher or evea from a detached and
independent point of view. The premises from which he may
select are fixed; many of the concfusions to be reached are aUo
fixed. He speaks, most cleveriy. to hb brief, but he will not go
outside it. He may argue as he likes ao long as he respects the
Church's decisions and reaches her conclusions.
The systems of the leading schoolmen must rank above their
commentaries upon the Lombard's Sentences, as the greatest of
all systems of theology. Especblly b that honour due to St
Thomas Aquinas's larger Summa Theohgiae. * We may ^-^-a-
wdl believe that he represeou scholastic divinity at its
best. He is not an Augustine, still less perhaps an Aristotle, but
he is the Aristotle and the Augustine of hts age. the normal thinker
of the present and the lawgiver of the future. He teaches the
medieval Platonic realism, but he accepts the AristoteUan philo-
sophy of his day, marking off certain truths as proved and under-
stood by the light of nature, and stamping those which are not so
proved as not understood nor understandable, i.e. as " mysteries,"
• The Summa contra CentUes has a more polemic or apologetic
interest than the dogmatk: Summa, bat deals almost equall)r with
the contems of Chnstbn theology as a whole. Books i.rHiL are
said to deal with what b later known as natural theokigy, and
Book iv. with what is later known as dogmatic. But Aquinas
appeals to the Bible as an authority all through. That b not the
procedure of modern natural theology.
THEOLOGY
779
ia cIm mnm to vlikli tht tcm hM cons tQ be ti«d by aon that
b«v« inherited Aauinas's thoughts. He has Auguctincs Pre*
desdoarianism, •tllrened (according to Loofa) by Arab philosophical
detemiimsni, and Iw has much of Augostim's doctiine of the gnc«
of God, thoach it a ttuked with dattriaes of humaa nerit which
alight have astonished Augustine. The sevep sacraments ot course
have their place in the body of the system, and are exhaustively
studied. When we turn to Dans Scotus, we still find realism, still
1^,, pccdcstinarianism. And yet these are rivals. An at-
jt„!L Umpt has been made br R. Seebeiv to interpiet Duns
as tne foeerunner of Lutner in his emphads oo the praC'
tical. Expert knowledge and judicial insight must decide the
point; but, lo far as the present writer can judge* it is illuaory
to imagine that Duns points us beyond the medieval assuroptiottB.
As generally nndentood. Duns makes caprice supceme ia God*
' Duns is the forerunner of thoae later Nomin-
alirta, Hke William of Occam, who unsettled every intellectual
ground of belief in order that they might resettle belief upon Church
authority, not reason but rather scepticism being for them the
aiuiUa dmm in u Later authoritative pronouncements on the part
of the Roman Catholic Church favour Thomism and disown the
Occamites; though the kcea hostile criticism of Hamack affirms
that the Chmdi had need of both syatema— of Thomism, to champion
its cause in the arena of thouefat, and of the Nominalist theology
to aggrandise the Church as the ruling power in practice.
When Protestantism arose, there was urgent need of reform.
AH sides granted that at the time, and all grant it now. Separa-
Ov^taa fion was not contemplated by any one at the first;
•i P in u n this again is manifest. Yet it is also matter of plain
ff*'^ history that Pratestantism ia more than a removal
al abuses* or even than a removal carried out with ieckJcss
disregard of consequences. It is partly an outcome of Luther*s
peiaoaaiity^-H)! his violence, no doubt, but also of his great
qosNties. It ia due mainly to the dominant tradition in Church
doctrine. AugusttniaDism reacted against attempts to tone it
down in tbeoiy or neutralize it in practice, until at hst it broke
fcMse in the form of Protestantism. But Protestantism is
largely due further to the Reiiaissance. The new knowledge
auSbfed men to read the Bible, like all other ancient books,
with a fresh mind. Finally, we have the true central cause
fa the Pauline doctrine of faith. Evaded by Augustinianism,
it came back now, with some at least of iu difficulties and
paradofltci; but abo with ita immense attractive and dynamic
power. When the Reformen went beyond Augustine to Paul,
Protestantism was bom.^ Even the Counter-Reformation, so
far aa it was a matter of doctrine (Council of Trent, i545-*^3)i
took the formof icaffinmng a cautious vcision of Augustinianism.
Whether Pnytestantism found its adequate doctrinal expression
as very doubtiuL Luther was no systematic thinker; Mclanchtbon.
Mui^mg^ the tbcoloeian of the Lutheran Church, gave his system
ij,, the loose form of Loci communts, and went back more
and more in successive eifitions to the traditional lines
of doctrinal theory~-a coune which oould not be followed without
bringing back much of the older substance alon^ «>ith the familiar
forms <» thought. To find the distinctive technicalities of Luthcr-
anism we have to leave Melanchthon's system (and his mat
Reformation creed, the Augsbrng Cm/mmwi) for the Fsrmato of
CsfSfrf and the lesser men of that later period. Ia Calvin, indeed,
C^^ the Reformed ' theology posiessed a master of system.
We notice in him rvsolute Prcdcstlnariantsm — as in
Luther, and at first in Mclanchthon too; the vehicle of revived
Auguitinian piety—and resolute depotentiation of sacmmems, with
their definite vedudwa to two (admittedly the two chief sacra-
asents)— baptism and the Lord's Supper.* In affirmina the
** inamiflsibility " of grace in the repneraU (not simply in the un-
knowable elect] Calvin went beyond Augustine, perhaps beyond Paul,
certainly beyond the Epistle to the Hebrews, resolutely loyal to the
logic of his nonosaoamemal theory of ^raoe. Yet. in contrast with
the doctrine usually ascribed to Ulrich Zwinsli, Calvin teaches
that grace does come through sacraments; but then, nothing comes
beyond the fruits of faith; from which grace all salvation springs
* Roman Catholic scholan natunlly hold that Paul was mis-
conslnied, but they cannot deny that Protestant theology was
directly a version and interpretation of Psulinism.
* The more radical fVoiesuntiam of the non-Lutheran orthodox
diurrhcs is catted in a technical sense " Reformed. " German
acholanhip generally ranks the Church of England mith the ** Re>
fooncd " churches because of its Articles.
> Luthcnuiism aecks to add. in a sense, a third
t (soev«
neoesiarily. To use technical language. Calvinimi holds that
sacraments are needful ex raHoke praetepH, (merely) "because
commanded. ** In contrast with thb, orthodox Lutheranism haa
to teach baptismal rcBsneration and ooneubstantiation, aa well as
S* istific»tion by faith. It is hard to see how the positions harmonise
wingli and Calvin, developing a hint of Hus. introduce a distinc-
tion between the visible and the invisible Church which Melanchthon
repudiates but later Lutheranism adopts. The Articles of the
Church of England (19, a6) speak of the visible Church, but unless
by inference do not assert a Church invisible. Up
Anglicanism sedcs f or a ns wudia of its own. "Resolutdy Pro-
testant in early days and even Calvinistic. it yielded to the sug-
gestions of its episcopal constitutmn* and sacramental liturgies;
and now hs thcowgies ran«s from Calvinism at one extreme to
outspoken hatred of Protestantism at the other. Historically, great
issues have hung upon the dislike by which High Lutheranism and
High Anglicanism, those two midway fortresses between Rome and
Geneva, have been estranged from each other.
It is thus plain that the stream of Protestantism was veiy
early split up into separate channels. Did any of these theologies
do justice to the great master thought of grace given to failh?
Antecedently to their separation from each other the Refdnnci9
took over the theology of Greek orthodoxy as a whole. Com-
plaints against that theology may be quoted from early writings
of every Reformer, even Calvin. They knew well that the
centre of gravity in their own belief lay elsewhere than in the
elaborately detailed scheme of relations within the Godhead
or in the Theanthropic person. But ultimately they persuaded
themselves to accept these definitions as normal and biblical,
and as presuppositions of Christ's saving work. The decision
had immense results, both for religion and for theology. Nor
did the unity of Protestant theology— Lutheran and commmH
Calvinist — confine itself to the period before the great mHy Im
divergence. Men of the second or third generation ^?^?*— *
—often called the " Protestant Scholastics " —work
together upon two characteristic doctrines which the fathers
of Protestantism left vague. The Reformation doctrine of
Atonement, whUe akin to Anselm's, diffen in making God the
guardian of a system of public law rather than of His private
or personal honour. This conception came to be more fully
defined. Christ's twofold obedience, (a) active and (ft)
passive, produces jointly a twofold result, (i) satisfaction to
the broken moral law, (3) merit, securing eternal life to Christ's
people.* There is no such full and careful theory of Atonement
in any CathoUc (heobgy, and, according to so unbiassed a
judge as A. Ritschl, it represenu the last word in doctrine along
the lines laid down by the Reformers. Could Catholics adopt
it? Hardly; for the ProtesUnt assertion of Christ's merit it
shadowed, if any doctrine of merit in the Christian is brought
in. Yet the very word reminds us of the legal piety which
is characteristic of IVestem popular religion through all its
history. We now find "merit " confined to Christ, and the
usual applicaUon ruled out, somewhat as St Paul's intenser use
of Pharisee conceptions destroyed instead of confirming the
idea of righteousness by works. But it is by no means clear
that this ProtesUnt doctrine of Atonement is a unity. ** Merit "
is an intruder in that region of more strict and majestic law;
yet Christ's " merit " b the only form under which the positive
contents and promises of the Christian Gospel are there repre^
scnted. Even the most resolute modem orthodoxy usually
tries to modify this doctrine. There is a break with the past,
which no revival or reaction can quite conceal.
Again, the Reformation had drawn a line round the canon—
sharply in Calvinism, less sharply in Lutheranism (which also
gave a quasi normative position to its Confessions of Faith).
Anglicanism once more resembles Lutheranism with differences;
*Few Lutheran churches
'episcopal system'
u a ngi
possess
iht clai
bishops. In Germany the
claimed on behalf of the civO
' This is not fully formufaUed even in the Lutheran Pormula ef
C^mc9rd, nor yet in the Calvinistic canons of Dort and Confession
of Westminster, though thew and other Protestant creeds have
various instalments m the finished doctrine. One might add a
still further distinction of the Protestant scholasticism. The
Atonement imparts to the believer (a) forgiveness, (b) oosiliw
aooeptance. Actual renewal ik of course, something beyond either
780
THEOLOGY
it en joios pubEc reading of certain lessons from the Apocrypha
and uses in worship even the " Athanasian " as well as the two
more a&dent aeeda. On the basis of bdief in inspinition we
find, daring the days of Protectant scholasticisin, the most
recUcss and insane assertions of scriptural perfection. Even
in our own time, pop\ilar Protestant evangelicalism joins with
the newer emi^asis upon conversion the two great early Pro-
testant appeab— to Atonement and to infallible Scripture. But
the Protestant Church is by no means alone in making such
assertions. Other durches make them too, though they over-
lay and di^uise them with appeals to tradition and to the
authority of the Church itself or the Fathen. The definite
and limited burden had to be more definitely dealt with; hence
these Protestant extravagances.
The first great rival to Protestant orthodoxy, apart from
its old enemy of Rome, was Sodnlanism, guided by Laeliiis
S9timlam» Socinus (q.v.), but still more by h^ nephew Faustus.
'M^ Thoroughly intellectualist, and rational, and super-
naturalist, it has no one to champion it to-day, yet its influence
is everywhere. Jesus, a teacher who sealed His testimony
with His blood, and, raised from the dead, was exalted or
adopted to divine glory, thus giving to men for the first time
the certainty that God's favour could be won and eternal life
enjoyed — such is the scheme. There is no natural theology; the
teachings so described are really part, or rather are the essence,
of the revelation of Jesus. Atonement is a dream, and an
immoral dream. Supernatural sacraments of course drc^ out.
The Lord's Supper is a simple memorial. Baptism were better
disused, though Faustus will leave the matter to each Christian
man's discretion. There is not in all Church history any state-
■lent of doctrine better knit together. Socinus's church is a
school— a school of enlightenment. He was also — like Calvin,
if on more narrowly common-sense lines — an admirable exegete.
Harnack ranks his system with Tridentine and post-Tridentine
theology on the one hand, and with Protestantism on the other
hand, as the third great outcome of the history of dogma.
Nevertheless the judgment of history declares that this brilliant
exploit was entirely eccentric, and could only in indirect ways
subserve theological study. Those to-day who are nearest the
Sodni in belief are as far as any from their fashion of approach-
ing and justifying their chosen version of Christian doctrine.
Even after the loss of the Protestants and the suppression
or expuluon of the Jansenists, the doctrinal history of the
I f U» Church of Rome is described as governed by discus-
tmtyt sions in regard to Thomist Augustinianism. The
*«■ MoUnists (».e. followers of Louis Molina the Jesuit,
y}jy not Michael MoUnos the mystic) are the leading
representatives of a different theology. Harnack, a
keenly hostile critic, draws attention to a change in the region
of moral theology, not dogmatics. After long controversy, St
Alfonso Liguori's doctrine of Probabilism (originated by Molina)
definitely triumphed everywhere. Conduct is considered lawfid
if any good Church auUiority holds it to be defensible; and
" probability " warrants the confessor in taking a lenient view
of sins which he himself, and authorities of weight in the
Church, may regard as black in the extreme. From Harnack *s
point of view, the theory destroys Augustinianism, whatever
honour may still be paid to that name. Another impc^tant
change in Roman Catholic theology has been the increasing
persona] power of the pope. This was significantly foreshadowed
when Pius IV. put forward by his own act what is known as the
creed of the Council of Trent; and, after the coldness of the
18th century and the evil days of the French Revolution, an
Ultramontane revival, relying with enthusiasm on the papacy,
grew more and more strong until it became all-poweriul under
Pins IX It gained a notable victory when that pope, acting
<ni hsown authority, defined (1854) as of faith a doctrine which
I long and hotly discussed— the Immaculate or abso-
; Conception (deeper than mere sinlessness in act
of the Blessed Virgin. The second and decisive
at the Vatican Council (1870), which, at the
(■i^ SBiU secession of distinguished men, declared the
pope perKmaOy fahdBble (see JxTAUisiUTi) and xnefonBable
as often as he rules ex eaihedra poinU of faith or morals. This
once again teems to be the Ust word in a long devebpmcnt.
Uncertainty as to the aothnrittcf detcnaining religious belief —
Scripture, tradition, Fathers, Doctors— is now, at least poten-
tially, at an end; the pope can nilc every point definitely, if
he sees good to do so.
The theocy of Devdopnent a A. Mahler. J. H. Newaaa). which
throws so new a light upoa the meaning of txaditioo. is a valuable
rapport of the conceptioa of a toveieign poatiff drawing ^_^ ._
out dogmas from implicit into cxpliat file. Still, new j!'"'^* ^
and obscure questionings may still arise. When is the ""'^ •^
> questionings may 1 .
pope rttling faith and morals faom his thranc? When
may the Church be assured that the infallible guidance
is oeiiw given? A startling fresh development is suggested by
Harnack, while vehemently dismissed as impossible by another
ProtcsUnt scholar, H. M. Gwntkin. May a refonning or inno-
vating pope arise? He would find, in theory at least, that be
ajpon of matchless power and predsioii. But
tiithorto Roman Cadu^ theology has refused to conceive of any
development except by enhugement of the Chordi's creed. Much
may be added to fonnolatod belief; it is not admitted that any-
thing has been or can be withdrawn. Brilliant Modernist scholars
like A. Loisy may have s is iis s u i s iriio will champion theocics
of evolutionary transformation. Bat at the present hour a repre-
sentative writer names as a typical open question in his commanioa
the Assamption of the Virpn. Pcxhacis. indeed, it is lalbcr a
dogma hastcnjiw towards definition. Is the theory or traditioo
correct, that, after death and burial. Mary was bodily received
into heaven and her grave left empty? Snch problems rngigr
the official theologians of the Church of Rome.
It is natural that the " variations " with which Bossaet re-
proached the Protestants should tlemand more space. Tlw
Christological problem seems to require separate j-^^^j^^
treatment. In regard to the Trinity, Protestantism <m#*^
has nothing very new to say, though ''Sabellianism " <»y*>
is revived by Swedenbocg and Schleiermacher. But *""*■'■
hi regard to Christology opinion takes fresh forms as early as
Luther himself. • While this became oonspkuous in connezioa
with his doctrine of consubstantiation in the Eudumst, it ap-
pears* that he had a genuine speculative interest in the matter.
CommMnicalio idiomoHim was well known in the schoob as an
affair -of terminology. You might say correctly that God has
died (meaning the Godman), or that a man is to be worshipped
— Christ Jesus. Acconiing to Luther, however, it is not merely
in words that the attributes of the Godhead qualify Christ^
human nature.* That takes place in fact; and so the hmnan
glorified body of Christ is, or may become under conditions
which please Him, e.g. at the Eucharist, ubiquitous. This new
qxusi-monophysitism disinclined the Lutherans to make much
of Christ's humanity, whfle the Reformed, partly from the
scholariy ttadiUon of Calvin, parity from a polemical motive,
laid great emphasb on the manhood. A. Ritschl* even speaks
of the Reformed as teaching Kenosis in the modem sense; but
it is to be feared they rather taught alternately the manhood
and the Godhead than made a serious effort to show the com-
patibility of divine and hunuin predicates in one
Christ as man was one of the Elect (and their head); He 1
grace; He depended upon the Holy Spirit On the other hand,
as God, He was the very source of grace. The Lutherans held
that the Incarnate One possessed all divine attributes, but
either willed to suspend their use — this is the Kenosis doctrine
of the Lutheran school of Tubingen m the 17th centtuy— or
concealed their working; the latter was the doctrine of the
Giessen schooL
A theory which flickers through Churdi history in the train
of mystical influence proceeding from the pseudo-Dfaxiysios
Areopagita has become more prominent in modem
times — that Christ would have become Incarnate
even had man not sinned. Rejected by Thomas, it
is patronized by Duns— not, one thinks, that he loved
rational certainties more, but that he loved redemptive n
« According to T. A. Domer.
*The human predicates are not held to modify the Divine
nature, except by modem Kenoticists. who therefore, when they
are Lutherans, claim to be completing Luther's theory.
' RtdUjertigumi a. Venoknumi, i. p. 384.
THEOLOGY
781
leas.*^ In » sense thb theoiy puts theeoping-ftone vpon Christo-
l^cal dcvrlopnient. If we are warranted in regarding the
Second Person of the Godhead as in very deed " Himself vouch-
anfing to be made, " that great Becoming cannot well be sus-
pended upon a contingency which might or might not arise; and
theologians in general regard the sin of man as such a contingent
evenu Incarnation almost demands to be speculatively inter-
pnied as the necessary last stage in the self^roanifcsuiioo
and seif-imparttng of God. Yet interest in man's moral neces-
sities threatens to be lost amid this cosmological wisdom.
Theology pushed too far may overleap itself. Those who
shrink from, the <Ad confident assertion, " Christ would not
have become incamate but for man's sin," might claim to say,
from reverence and not from evasiveness, igwrarmts. On the
other hand, the type of thought which would perfect Christianity
ia the form of a philosophy, and subordinates Atonement to
Incarnation, is pledged to this doctrine that Incarnation was a
rational necessity. Such speculative views are associated with
the revival of another traditional piece of mysticism— the Holy
Spirit the Copuia or bond of union in the Godhead. There is
BO such assertion anywhere in the New Testament.
For modern German theories of Ken^sis among Ljithenn and
Reformed, see A. B. Bruce's Humiluition oj Christ, Basing on the
^ _^ language of Phil. ii. 7, they teach, in different forms,
ff'ffy^ .^ that the Son of God became a man under human limita-
ifryi-if ttons at conception or birth, and resumed divine predi-
■""^ catcs at His exaltation. It might be put in this way—
a really Divine personality, a really human experience. Strong as
are the terms of Phil. ii. 7, we can hardly suppose that St Raul
had a metaphysical theory of Christ's person in view. In Great
Briuin and America many have adopted this theory. It is often
taught. «.(. that Christ's statements on Old Testament literature
are to be mtcrprcted in the Keht of the Kenosis. The enemies of
the theory insist that, while it safeguards the unity of Christ's
personal experience at any one point, it breaks up by absolute
gulfs the continuity of experience and destroys the identity of the
person. Indeed, those forms of the theory, which give us a Lo^
in heaven (John iii. 13) along with the humbled or Incamate Chnst
on earth, leem to fail of unifying experience even at the single
point. Other suggestions in explanation of the mystery have been:
a gradual Incarnation, the prxess not being complete
until Christ's exaltation (I. A. Domer's earlier view);
impersonal pre^xistence of the Logos, who became
personal— compare and contrast Marcellus of Ancyra —
^^ at the Incarnation (\V. Beyschlae'a eariier view, prac-
tically adopted by Domer in his later days) ; Jesus the
man who was absolutely nllcd with the consciousness of God
(Schkiermacher) ; Jesus not to be defined in terms of " nature,"
either human or divine, but as the perfect ful filler of God's absolute
purpose (A. Ritschl's view, practically adopted in later days by
Be^hlag). The orthodoxy which refuses alt new theories may
loolc for help to the pathological dissociation of personality, or
at least («.£.!. O. Dylces in Expoiitory Times, Jan. 1906: Sanday
Ckristotagia Ancient and Modern) to the mystery of the subconscious.
We have now to look at Protestant theology in its dealing
with questions in which it is more immediately or more fully
interested. In the eariy period known as the Protestant
tcholastidsm there was no desire for progress in doctrine.
AmmM Challenged by Arminianism in Holland, the CaWioistic
•■ > ■ theok)gy replied in the Confession of Dort; at which
Synod English delegates were present. This creed may almost
rank with the Lutheran Formula of Concord as summing
up post-Reformation Protestant orthodoxy. But the diiect
hXJt of Anninian teachers or churdies was no ueasnre of their
influence. One proof of the latter is found in Archbbhop Laud
and the EngUsh High Churchmen of his school, who throw off
the Augustinian or Calvinistic yoke in favour of an Anninian
theefegy. Lutheranbm had set the eiample of this change.
Later 'editions of Melanchthoo's Loci Commmnes, generously
protected by Luther, drop out or tone down Luther's favourite
doctrine of prcdestinatkm. Tlie Augustinian ckKk was running
down, as usual. In the i8th century " Illmnination " — an age
^^ which piqued itself upon its " enlightenment, " and
which did a good deal to drive away obscurity, though
at the cost of losing depth— Deism outside the churches
is matched by a spirit of cool ooomon-scnse within them, a
spirit which is not confined to professed Rationalists. Civil
wars and theological wranglinp had wearied awa. Supposed
XXVI 13 ♦
univetsal truths and natural certainties were in faahioB. Tfaa
plainest legacy of the 18th century to later times has been a
humaner spirit in theology. Christian teachers during the
19th century grew more reticent in regard to future punish-
ment. The doctrine when uught is frequently scrfiened;
sonctimcs universalism is Uught. A movement to- VmHagh
wards Arianism and then towards Socinianism (Joseph '■'>••
Priestley, Nath. Lacdner, W. £. Channing) among English
Presbyterians and American Congregationalisu left permanent
results in the shape of new non>subscribing churches and a
diffusion of Unitarian theology (J. Mariioeau)., The i8lb
century is very dilTcrently interpreted in different quarters*
Orthodox evangelicalism is tempted to view it as an apostasy
or an aberration. On the other hand, not merely agnostics
like Leslie Stephen but Christian theologians of the Left like
Ernst Troeltsch regard it as the time when supernaturalism
began decisively to go to pieces, and the " modem " spirit to
assert lis authority even over religion. A* Rilschl, again,
claims that neglected elements of Christianity ^fere striving for
utterance, particularly a serious belief in God as Father and in
His providential care. It was not, says Ritschl, a turning away
from Christian motives, but a turning towards neglected Christian
motives. This view seems logically to involve Rilschl's belief,
that it Is not the light of reason but the revelation of Christ which
warrants the assertion of God's fatherly providential goodness.
Whether temporary or permanent, a great reaction from the
zSth-century spirit set in. It was partly on Augustinian lines*
partly on the lines of what the Germans call Pietism. nk# A>av
Under John and Charles Wesley, a system known as 9^^
Evangelical Arminianism was worked out in i8tli-€cn- '**'''*'*
tury England, strongly Augustinian in its doctrines of sin and
atonement, modem Augustinian in iu doctrine of conversion,
strongly anti-Augustinian in its rejection of absolute predes*
tination. Within the Anglican Church, however, the new ro*
viva! was Augustinian and Calvinistic, till it gave plsce to t
Church revival, the echo or the sister of the Ultra- r*»Ox«
montane movement in the Church of Rome. The ^
vigorous practical life of the modern school of High ^
Church Anglicanism, initiated by John Keble, W. Hurrell
Fronde, J. H. Newman, E. B. Puscy, is associated with a
theological appeal to the tradition of the early centuries, and
with a strongly medieval cn^ha&is upon sacramental grace. In
Germany, dislike of the Prussian policy of " Union"
-^the le^ fusion of the Lutheran and Reformed
Churches— gave life to. a High Lutheran reaction J* 'JV „
which has shown some vigour in thought and some "''''**'
asperity in judgment (E. W. Hengstcnberg; H. A. Cl Haever-
nick; dogmatic in G. Thomasius and F. A. Philippi; more
b'beral type in C. F. A. Kahnis; history of doctrine in
G. Thomasius). The most distinguished of the theologians classed
as "mediating" are C. Ullmann, C I. Nilzsch and Julius
MUller. Later evangelicalism in the English-speaking lands
gives up belief in predestination, or at least, with very few
exceptions, holds it less strongly. That change is dearly «
characteristic feature of 19th-century theology.
Many of the movements just mentioned are, at least in
design, pure reactions involving no new thoughts. Apart from
apologetics or single doctrines Uke that of the Atone- t^fniB
meat, the task of rethinking Christian theology upon <•«■*»■
the great scale has been left chiefly to German science, ^•'*''
philosophical and historical. If the task b to be accom-
plished, then, whatever merit in detail belongs to wise and
learned writers already referred to, it would seem that sonw
one ceotml principle mtist become tiominant. This considera-
tion, as far as an outsider can judge, excludes any formal Roman
Catholic cooperation in the suggested task. So long as theo-
logical troth is divided into the two compartments ^ natural
or rational theok>gy and incomprehensible revealed mysteries,
there Is no possibility of carrying through a unity of prin-
ciple. Again, many Protesuots rule themselves out of par-
ticipation ia the search for unified doctrine. It is a nsodem
commonplaoe—Loofs dates the formula from aboot i8a$-*tbat
782
THEOLOGY
Protestantism has two principles: a " formal principle/' the
authority of Scripture, aiul a " material principle," the doctrine
of justification by faith. We have already indicated that some
such pair of principles was prominent when historic Protes-
tantism pulled itself together for defence during its scholastic
age. But surely serious thought cannot acquiesce in a dual
control. While the double authority continues or is believed
to continue in power, there seems no hope of making theology
a living unity, which will claim respea from the modem age.
One great attempt at unifying Christian theology came from
the side of philosopher. Kant's scheme, which in religious theory
as well as in chronoloey may be regarded as a link
ZmISu between the i8th and loth centuries, led on to the
JJ'V** very different scheme of He^l; and the latter system
•■■**"' began almost at once to influence Church doctrine.
D. F. Strauss (q.v.) applied it with explo&ive effect to the study
of the life of Jesus. F. C. Baur, assisted by able colleagues, if
hardly less revolutionary, was much more in touch with theology
than Strauss had been. The Hegelian threefold rhythm was to
run through all history, especially for Baur through the history
of the Chnstias^ Church and of its doctrine. Baur maintained a
thorough-going evolutionary optimism. " The real was the
rational " from first to last. However biassed, this a priori study
had its merits. It unified history with a mighty sweep, and
revealed through all the aees one evolving process. But we have
still to ask whether the doctrines it made prominent are really
those which are vital to the Christian Church. And we have to
look into Baur's esoteric interpretation of the doctrinal develop-
ment. For him, as for Strauss, the unity of God and man is tne
central truth, of which Christ's atoning death is a sort of pictorial
symbol. This implies that the whole of Western theology has been
an aberration or an exoteric veiling of the tnith.^ In Pogmatic
the school is represented by A. E. Biedermann, and with variations
by O. Pfleiderer. A more orthodox reading of Hegel's thought,
which brings it into line with some Christological developments
already described, is found in I . E. Erdmann and the theologians P. K.
Marheineke and Karl Daub. Influences from Hegel are
imn^ also to be traced in Richard Rothe, I. A. Domer. A. M.
Z f^ Fairbaim; and through the mediation of British philo-
"*** sophcrs Hegelianism has widely affected British theology.
The ordxxlox wing of idealists take as their watchword Incarna-
tion; Christianity is " the religion of the Incarnation" (sub-title
of Lux Mundti see B. F. Westcott, tasstm). The rationalist
wing resolve Incarnation and still more Atonement into symbols of
philosophical truth. Of the two parties, the latter appears the more
successful in accomplishing the task of unifying theology, although
at the cost of subordinating both theology and religion to philosophy.
The strength of all the idealists consist.* in their appeal to reason. ^
Schleiermacher set himself to explain what is distinctive in
rcHgion. He distinguishes religion from philosophy as feeling in
^,,....,^ contrast with thought: but when he has done that
*2Ir 1^'"^ *^'' ^^ RdtgioH, IT"' •- •- - ' "•- Id.
'"^'^ Any type of highly wrough an
relidous, whether it be theistic or pa ild
of Romanticism, Schleiermacher puts ite
upon the pantheistic type. What else < cer
who is interested simply in feeling a Jte
his GlaubensUkre (1821) Schleiermachi are
of a Christian churchman. " Christiat cal
pieties," and has as its peculiarity that 'ed
to the redemption accomplished throug (ut
it is doubtful whether the elements < lly
interpenetrate. He tells us {Kurze I ten
Studtunu, 1811} that the theologian, his
Church, must expound, as a historian, in
the branch of the Church which he re; do
not mix. Do the unchecked individw m,
and^ the loyalty to established beli ter
writings, combine to form a living thi ler
if Schleiermacher attains a compromis. He
has been one of the great ferments in modem Protestant doctrine
both of the Right and of the Left. Alex. Schweiaer' maintained
his general positions more nearly than any other. But there is
no Schleiermacher school. W. Herrmann, from his own point of
view, has quoted J. C. K. Hofmann and F. R. Frank as making
important modifications and sometimes corrections of the lines
laid down by Schleiermacher. while I. S. Candlish. representii^
a moderate Scottish Calvinism, was half inclined to welcome the
reduced form of Schleiermacher's basis found in H. L. Martensen
(a Dane), J. T. Beck, and th« Dutchman, J. J. van Oosterzee,
M. Scripture the true source of doctrine, but the religious conscious-
ness its ordering principle.
» Hence R. B. Haldane. in the Scottish Church lawsuit of 1904,
I found telling the House of Lords that Justin Martyr had a grasp
r ..»w...u«ive truth which was impossible to St Augustine,
itcbman, J. H. Scholten.
A boUer and more original attem^ to reatatt Protestantism
ats a systematic unity is found in the work of A. Rtischi, with
H. Schulu and W. Herrmann as independent allies and afc-c*.
colleagues, and with J. Kaftan, A. Hamack and many fff^
others as younger r epr e sen tatives on divergent lines. Reacdoa
against the philosophy of Htgel and the criticism of Baur is common
to all the schoolj though Ritschl went further back than the younger
men towards critical tradition and further in some points towards
orthodox dogma. Positively, the school build upon foundations
laid in ethics by Kant and in philosophy of rdigioa by Schletcr*
macher; so also R. A. Lipsius, and yet his dogmatic results coin-
cide more neariy with Biedermann's or Pfleiderer's than with the
" intermediate though not mediating " position taken up by the
Ritschlians. Not even the acceptance of forgiveness as the central
religious Messing is exclusively Ritschlian, still, it is a challenge
alim to the i8th century, to the Church of Rome and to the modera
mind. Ritschl and his friends forfeit that unifying of life and duty
which is gained by making tlie moral or perhaps rather legal point
of view supreme. As they deny the natural religion of the 18th
century — the religion which works its way into harmony vitk
God by virtue — so, still more emphatically, they refuse to bid the
sinner merit forgiveness.^ Thus they constitute one more revival
of Paulinism or Augustintanism, though with qualifications.
Their effort is to expound Christianity, not from the point of
view of philosophy like the Hegelians, nor fr<Mn that of an abstract
conception of religion, tempered by r^ard for historical precedents^
like Schleiennacber, but from its own, from the Christian point ol
view. Ritschl has several dogmatic peculiarities, intenser in him
than in his fellow-workers and followers. A notable instance is
his doctrine of the Church — the community (pemeinde) : the sole
object of God's electing love, according to Ritschl's interpretation
of St PauL Hence theokigy is not to be the utterance of individual
Christianity merdy, but of the Church's faith, embodied in its
classical literature, the New Tesument, and (subordinately) in the
Old. The finality of the New Testament is partly due to its
being the work dF minds^including St Paul — who knew the Old
Testament from the inside, and did not misconstrue its religious
temunology as Greek converts almost inevitably did (cf. Harnack
or E. Hatch). Upon the Church, Ritschl, who very much disliked
and distrusted mysticism, poured out the same u-calth of emotion
which the Christian mystic pours out upon his dimly visualized
God or Christ. Again, Ritschl divides all theology into two com-
partments, morality and religion; service of men in the Kingdom
of God. direct relation to GwJ in the Church by faith. Though he
later declared that " Kingdom of God " was the paramount category
of Christian thought, it does not appear that he substantially recast
his theology. Here then his strong desire for unity is cut across by
his own action. There may well be room for relative distinctions
in any system of thought, however coherent ; but it looks as il
Ritscnl's distinction hardened into absolute dualism.
Again Ritschl modifies the doctrine of sin. Like Schleiermacher
he substitutes collective guilt for original an; and he attaches
great dogmatic value to the assertion that sin has two stages —
Ignorance, in which it is pardonable, and obduracy, when it is ripe
for final sentence (probably annihilation). Here then Ritschl
swerves from Paulinism; it is in other Scriptures* that he finds
his guarantees for the position just sUted. The result is to elimi-
nate everything remedial from the Christian gospel. Yet Ritschl
claims that his doctrine of Christ as Head of the Church combines
the lines of thought found separately in Anselm and AbeLird,
while Schleiermacher is said to have been one-sidedly Abdardian.
Ritschl denies natural theology * as well as natural religioa, denies
dogma outright in its Greek forms — ^Trinitarian and Christological ;
and seeks to transpose the doctrine of Atonement — Christ's Person
" or " Works as he puts it — from the legal to the ethical. The Pauline
touch shows itself plainly here. Justification by faith is a " syn-
thetic " judgment — the sinner is righteous; it is not an " ana*
lytic " judgment — the believer is righteous. God " iustifieth the
ungodly*" Sacraments are'a repubfication of the *' Word " of the
G<»pel; we have to content ourselves with this rather evasive
formula, so often employed by the Reformers.
The highly academic Ritschlian movement has had wide practical
influence in many lands. Here English and American thought
strikes in sympathetically, offering moral theories of Atonement,
though not looking so exclusively towards forgiveness. Horace
Bushnell'slast theory declared that in forgiving sin God " bore cost."
as even a gpod man must do. lohn M'Leod CampbcU — with
a strong desire for unity in thought, " the simplicity that b in
Christ '^—caught most attention by the suggestion of a vicarious
repentance in Jesus Christ. With K. C. Nloberiy this bectmies an
assertion that Christ has initiated a redemptive procesa of self-
humiliation, which we can prolong in ourselves by the help of
sacraments if we choose; while W. Porcher du Bose OikeE, Irving
eariy in the loth century) holds the Adoptianist theory styled by
A. B, Bruce redemption by sample " — the divine Chnst baa
' Unless I Tim. i. 13; but is that epistle Paul's?
• The doctrine of value judgments "' which he substitutes for
Schleiermacher's appeal to feeling, belongs to phBosophy of teligioo
and is thus analogous to aataral theok^gy.
THEOLOGY
783
ttiuinerf « uinted hmnftii natuvr aad iraalwd It deui. thus making
k a promMe and potency of tho world's redtiapcbn.
Even if we accept the pixigrainoie of reconstructing theology
iioma tingle point of view, we may desire to criticiie.not
meraly Ritschl's execution of the scheme, but hii selection of
the ruling principle. Is it enough to extricate the spirit of
Piotestantism from the imperfect letter of iu early creeds?
lli,rm One set of difficulties is raised by the progress of
Mf sdcnoe. No Protestant can deny that' it is a duty lor
S"''*"**' Christianity to come to terms with scientific dis-
covericSi and few Catholics will, care to deny it. Anxious
nccotiations thus arise, which colour all modem schemes of
theology. But with a certain school they become central and
dominant. We distinguish this poaitioa from the new emphasis
on Christology, whether churchly or xadicaL Thos« who find
a giospel in philosophy are ready to dictate terms to outsiders;
but those who wait upon science for its verdicts supplicate
tenns of peace. Just as much of Christianity is to survive as
science will spare. Often the theologians In question look to
psychology as the permanent basis of religion; who is to deny
that fdigion is a psychological fact, and tbe natural expression
of something in man's constitution? This strain ma/ be
recognized, mingled with others. In Schleiermacher; it has
found interesting expression in the contributions oC H. J.
Holumann and Ernst Trodtsch to the volume dealing with
Christianity in Die KuUm der CegenwarL Christ Is confessed
•s the greatest figure of the past, and as one of no sraaU im-
portance still for the present and future. But, with entire
decision, Christianity is called to the bar of modem culture.
From that tribunal there is to be no appeal, whether to a higher
rerelation or to a deeper • experience. This view stands in
connexion with the study of comparative religion. Out of that
very Ritschl school, which began by despising all religions
except those of the Bible, has developed the rdigionigtsckkktlUk
movement, which dissolves Christianity In tbe wider stream.
Such a policy is at the opposite pole to Ritschl's; he desired
to interpret Christianity in the light of its own central thought.
If Christians can find in their faith new resources to meet the
new needs, they nuiy hope to command the future. Theology
if it Is to live must be henceforth at once more Christian and
more scientific than it has ever yet been.
A less threatening yet important possibtlity of modifica-
tion arises out of the scientific study of the New Testament.
_^ Augustine, Luther, the evangelical revival, went back
g'^j JP' to St Paul; can Christianity not dig deeper by going
tmt^ iMck to Jesus? A Protestant has to view the past
mtmi history of doctrine very much as a succession of de-
f^*f' — ' densions and revivals, the latter more than counter-
*^^ acting the former. He does not claim to have regained
the inspirstion of a Paul; but he holds that Augustine was more
Christian than the sub-apostolic age, and Luther more Christian
than Augustine. That is the hopeful feature in the past. The
task for the present, with its unequalled scientific resources, is
to get nearer than ever to the heart of the Gospel. Must Pauline.
categories always be supreme? The Ritschl school, and others
too, have made an earnest effort to incorporate Christ's words
in Dognutic and no longer shunt them into systems of
" Christian Ethics." They havje not idolized Paulinism; but
have they not idolized Luther? They seem to take for granted
that the spirit— though not the letter— of that great man was a
definitive sUtement of the Christian principle. To interpret
Cbristiam'ty out of itself b one thing; to interpret it out of
Luther, even out of a distillate of Luther, is pottibly a lower
thing. The theok>gy of the future may draw more equally
from several New Testament types of doctrines. Tlie scheme
that includes most may be the successful scheme. Unity may
be safeguarded in the confession of Christ, and theology indeed
prove "Cbristocentric"^ Above all, the social message of
Jesus may well prove a gospel to our materially prosperous
• TfaomaMus and H. B. Smith are quoted as holdtng the " ChriMo-
centric " ideal. A. M. Fairbairn. mindful of the vast importance of
the conception of Cod. amendi theprogrammc. Thcolofy is to be
formally ChxistooeBtric, materially TMoeeatiic (Fatherhood of Cod).
but inwardly -sorrowful age. ^y school of thoogfat which
despbes that hope has small right to call itsdf Christina.
Casting a backward glance once more over the evolution
of Christina theology, we may say veiy roughly that at fint
It reoognaed as natural or rational truth the being p^
of the Logos, Slid as special fact of revelation the SS-
Incamatloa of the Word in Jesus Christ. laaiedieval
limes the basis was altered. What had been ratiooal
truth now daimed acceptance as supernatural mystery.
Modem idealists, ill at esse with this inberitsiioe, try to show
that Christ*s.Incamation no less than His eternal divine being
is a natural and ratkmal truth. But, when this progrsnune is
carried out, there b no small danger lest the rebtiona txaced
out between God and men should ooUapse into dust, the fscU
of Chrbt ttmnsform themselves into symbob, aad the Idsalbtic
theology of the right wheel tothelefL
Again, Western theology, very roughly snauaarised, while
accepting the earlier doctrinal tradition, has broken new ground
for itsdf, in affirming, as rational neceadty that God fi«
must punbh sin (thb b at least latent in Aquinas'a Mtmt^
doctrine of natural law), hut as contingent fact of le- mmc*
vciation that God has in Christ combined the punbhment of sin
with the sslvation of sinners; thb b the Reformation or post-
Reformation thought. Hcfe again the desire makes itself fdt
to impute more to Cod's nature. Is Hb mercy not as inherent
as Hb justice If so, wasf He not redeem? For, if He
merely may redeem but must inioish, then Hb. greatest deeds
on our behalf wear an aspect of caprice, or suggest unknown
if not unknowable motives. The doctrine of penal substitulion
in the Atonement, as usually conceived, seems to point In the
same direction as predestinarianbm. Behind supetfidal mani-
festations of grace there b a dark backgroundr almost like the
Greek Fate. The ultimate source of God's actkms b something
dther unintelligible or unrevealed. Christian theology cannot
acquiesce in thb. In our day especially it must seek to light
up every doctrine with the genuine Christisn beUef In God's
Fatherhood. And yet hero again incautious advance may
seem to overleap itself. If it should come to be hdd that with
so kind a God no redemption at all is necessary, the significance
of Christ b immensely curtailed if not blotted out. Even If
He should still be taken as the prophet of the divine goodwill,
yet the loss of any serious estimate of sin makes good nature
on God's part a matter of course. Christianity of such a type
is likely to be feeble and precarious. Perhaps we may find a
third and better possibility by ceasing to aim at a scientific
gnoab of God, dthcr limited or unlimited. Perhaps what
concerns the Chriuian is rather the assured revelation that God
is acting in character, like Himself, and yet acting wonderfully
by methods which we could not predict but must adore. The
free life of personal beings is no more to be mastered by a
formula than it b to be assigned to caprice. A God who is
love will act neither from wilfulness nor from what b called
ratfonal but might more correctly be calkd physical necessity.
He will act In and from character. Always wise, always holy,
always unsearchable, the Christian's Cod b that heavenly
Father who has His full image and revelation in Jesus Christ.
. While the greatest of all theological systems, the SummM
of the middle ages, include everything in the one treatise, it
has been the business of post-Reformation learning j|,||,,
to effect a formal improvement by distributing theo- mvi^Hm
logical studies among a definite number of headings. jTf^*^
The new theory lived and grew throughout the i8th- '*"''
century Age of Enlightenment {eg. J. S. Semler), linking Pro-
testant scholastidsm with modem thought, and eahibiting
the continuity of sdenoe in spite of great revolutionary changes
and great reactions. The banning b ascribed to A. Hyperius
(Gerhard of Yprts), a professor at Marburg, and, it seems, a
conciliatory Lutheran, not. as sometimes said, a Rdormed
(x5ii-«4). He publtthed Four Books on Ike Slmdy of Thio-
inf iWfl^)' Book iv. b said to be the fint appearance of
Practical Theology—Liturgies, Pastoral Theotogy, &c. In
virtue of. another work {Dt Pormandit Comioitibus, ISSS),
78*
THEOLOGY
flyperins has been fottlier tAned Uas father of HonufeticB.
L. Danaeus (Daaeau), a Ftench PtotesUnt, has the merit of
pQUishing lor the fint time oa Christian Ethics (1577). It
has been supposed that the Reformed divinity here set itself
to remedy the dogmatic dryness of Protestant scholaatictsm,
fifty years before the Lutheran GrCalixtus moved in the matter
{TheeL MoraHs, 1634). Ibo much has been mads of -this.
Danaeus hardly represents at all what modems mean by
Christian ethics. He does not oontxast.the Christian outlook
upon ethics with all others, but dsrells chiefly upon the super-
eminence of the l\en Commandments as a summaiy of duty.
Other distinctions are named after an interval of two centuries.
J. T. GaUer, for the first time *' with clearness" <R. Flint),
wrote in X7S7 De Jusio Discrimine Theohgiae BibHcae d
Dogmaticae. Biblical Theology is a historical statement of the
different Bible teachings, not a dogmatic statement of what
the writer holds for truth, 911a truth. Again, P. K. Marfaeincke
h named as the tnt writer (rSro) on Symbolics, the com-
parative study of creeds and confessions of fiaith. In * x 764 the
introductory study of theology as a whole, which Hyperius
invented, had been given.by S. Mursinna the name it has since
usuafly borne — ^"Theological Encyctopaedia. " Most of such
Encyclopaedias have been " material, " t.«. connected treatises,
living a brief outline of theology as a whole; not, of course,
alphabetic indeses or dictionaries. The most famous of all,
howevcr-^hkiermacher's Kune JiarsUUimg its theologischeu
Studtums (rst ed. x8xi)— belongs to the class of ** formal"
encyclopaedias. It states how theology should be divided,
but does not profess to give a bird's-eye view of results.
Schkiermacher's treatise is highly individuaL Theology is
viewed as essentially a branch of church administration. True,
in the theologian property so called the scientific interest is
strong; where the religious or practical interest is stronger, you
get church rulers or administrators in a narrower sense. Still,
even to the theologian the practical interest in church welfare is
vital. Theology loses its savour when studied in a spirit of merely
scientific curiosity; and it does not concern the lay Christian.
In spfite of what may be deemed eccentric in this standpoint,
ScMciermachcr's summary is full of tatcrest. He divides as
foUowa:— 1. Philosophical Theology: A« Apokigetics; B. Polemics.
II. Historical Tbeolwy: A. Exegctical — including tlip flctcrmina-
tion of the canon; B. Church History proper: C The depicting
of the present state of the Church; (i) its faitn— Dogmatics; the
bdtef of one branch of the Church; (2) its outward condfttoiv->-
Sutistics; these should be universal. Symbolics is to be a branch
o( statistics. Biblical " Dogmatics " also is said to be nearer this
tlmn it is to Dogmatics proper. III. Practical Theology: A. the
service of the (local) church; Homilctks, Litumcs, &c.; B. the
C(fiernmeni of the (national or international) Church; questions
of relation to the State, &c. The reader will note Schleiermacher's
peculiar way of dealing with Dogmatic as the belief of the Church
— an unprecedented view, according to A. Ritschl — and his requiring
that belief to be reported qua historical fact.
It is singular that Schlctermacber on the wnote sbms up in the
Kune DarOMunz against the separation of Christian Ethics from
Dogmatics. But he grants that much may be said on both sides
of Uiat question, and in his own ClaubensUkre he follo^ifs ordinary
usage and aa far as possible banishes Ethics to a Christiiche Sitten-
Mm, a book which has caused him to be regarded by Protestants
as the founder of modem Christian Ethics. There aie therefore
,Aflie paradel studiea, on all of which Schlciermachcr published —
iMgmaticor CUutbemUhre, Christian Ethics, Philosophical Ethics.
,«£uriousIy enough, it is from Schleiermacher's philosophical
nlBci that « threefold division^the Chief Good, Virtues, and
fittl)ror the Law^-^passed into almost alL text-books of Chris-'
'^ \ till recently a rebellion rose against it on the
^lundancy and overlapping. Books on Christian
llso found room for a quasi Synoptic doctrine of
laf God, which PauUnized dogmaUc systems were
t It should also be noted that SchhHermacher's
bgetics is by no means undisputed. Many dislike
borne would thrust it into praaical theology.
€w study of the religions of the world isseekingits
jieurricnlufh of Christian theology, just as it is seeking
imy^^o modify Christian thought. The recognized
Amand results, have not yet been attained '
Further details must be sought in text-books. But it may
be affirmed that Dogmatic must remain the vital centre; and
so far we may soften Flint's censure of the British s^m*
thoughtlessness which hss called that study by the as — t i
name "systematic theology." Systems of ethics and *''**' J
apologetics are welcome to the theologian; " encydopaedtn *^
is a new and broader-based " systematic thtology " in itsdf ;
but none of these is central as Dogmatic is.' One mty also
venture to declare that Dogmatic rests upon philosophical and
historical studies, and exists for practical uses. Thus a triple
or fourfold division of theological sciences seems naturaL
Last^, it must be confessed that at the beginning of the
3oth century there is more life or health in history than in
philosophy, and much more in either than in dogmatic theology.
Sub-divisions of Dogmatic, whether well chosen or ill, throw
light upon theology as developed in the past. The six usual
Protestant headings are as follows: Theology proper, Anthro-
pology, Christology (C. Hodge here inseru Hamartioloor),
Soteriology, Ecdesiology (omitted by C. Hodge), Eschatology.
The Lombard's Sentences deal in bk. i. with God; bk. ii. the
creatures; bk. iii. Incarnation, Redemption, Virtues; bk. Iv.
Sacraments and Last Things. Aquinas's Summa has no sucfa
clear lines of division.
The Church carried forward from the middle ages a tradition
of " Moral Theology "'answering to Christian Ethics, akmgside
of Dogmatics or of all-inclusive Summae. Casuistry (with
parallels in early Protestantism like Jeremy Taylor's DuUtt
Dubitantium), growing out of the Confessional, is character-
istic of this Roman Catholic Ethic; yet the study b not re-
stricted to the technical equipment of confessors. The Romaa
Catholic contributors to the volume on Christianity in Die
Kulturder Gegenvart write on: — ^I. Dogmatic: A. Apologetic
or General Dogmatic; B. Special Dogmatic or Dogmatic proper.
IL Moral Theology. IIL Practical Theology. The Protestant
contributors, representing somewhat varied standpoints ta
German religion, follow much the same plan. Apologetic has
no separate place with them; but the system of theology (in &
sense midway between the dogmatists and the encydopedists),
is allotted between Dogmatics, Christian Ethics and Practical
Theology.
LiTESATuae.'-A btbliogTai>hy of theology cannot name every
important book. The effort is made here (i) to mention writer*
of great originality and distinction, (2) writen of special importance
to some one Christian oonfesnon, (3) without needless repetition of
what has already been said, (4) dogmatic treatises being p i efein ad
but not to the exclusion of everything else.
Origcn is great in scholarshin as well as in system. Athanaaias'a
On the Incamolion 0/ the Eterniu Word represents his central thougfata
not less interestingly because it is eanier than the Arian contro-
versy. Cyril of Jerusalem's Catechetical teciures are a sutcment
of doctrine for popular use. but arranged as a complete system.
Gregory of Nyssa'a Great Calechesis is an instruction to catcchists
how they should proceed — though of course stating the writer's
theology and apologetic, with his belief in universal salvrntion.
Tbcodocct has an 'outline of theology in the last book (v.) of his
treatise Against Heresies. Theodore of Mopsucstia is a more su»>
Dccted representative of the same scholarship — that of Antioch;
John Chrysostom is the orator of the school. Cyril of Alexandria
represents the later Alexandrian theology. With John of Damascus
the pr o gre ss of Greek divinity ends. A good modem statement is in
Chr. Androntsos'»^07M«rt<4. 1 n the West, Augustine is the chief agent
in breaking new ground for theology. The Enchiridion ad Laurenlttim
is a sli^htl)ut interesting sketch of a system, while the De Doctrina
Christiana is another lesson in the imparting of Christian instruction.
as is also, naturally, the Dc Caiechiaandis Rudibus, The Ct(y <»/ G^
and the Confeuions are of unmatched importance in their several
ways; and nothing of Augustine's was without influehce. Gregocy
the Great's Magna Moraita should also be named.
In the middle aees Isidore (at its gateway), then Peter Lombard,
then Aquinas (and his rivals), are preeminent for system. Anaelm
and AbcJard for originality, Bernard of Clairvaux as the theologian
who represents medieval piety at its purest and in its most char-
acteristic forms, while Thomas k Kempis's devotional masterpiece.
On the Imitation of Christ, with Tauler's Sermons and the TkeelogiQ
Germonaa, betong to the m'orld'a classics. All the Protestam re-
formers are of theological importance^Luther, Mclanchthon and
* " Mystical Theology " is described in Addis and Arnold's
Cathoiie DicU4nwy as a branch " of Moral Theology.
THEON-iTHEOPHANES
785
Cilvio, then Zwiiigli* then John Knox and othera. The reply to
Protestantism is represented oy Cardinal Bellarmine, Petavius (lc*s
directly). Moehler.
' Speculative theology iraa repreeeated in the Roman Catholic
Church of the 19th century by the Italian vritert A. Roamini.
V. Cioberti, T. Mamiani delta Rovere. Roman Catholic learning
has always taken a high place (the Botlandists; the Benedictines;
the huge collections of Migne). Of the Church's ample devo-
tional Ittecatuxe St Francis of Sales and F. W. Faber are favourable
specimens. A modem Dogmatic is by SyL T. Hunter, SJ.
Anglican theology is little inclined to dogmatics. We have such
unsystematic systems as Bishop Pearson's Expoxiiim ai the Apostles'
Creed — a book of the golden age of great writers — or we have
average 19th-century Church orthodoxy in Bishop H. Browne, On
ike XXXIX. Artides. Anglicanism prefers to philosophize mstitu-
tions (R. Hooker, Lams of EcdeHasticai Polity), or states ancient
learning (R. Cudworth; the Cambridge Platonists), or else polemical
learning— Bishop Bull (against Petavius's innovating views of
history), D. Waterland (against S. Clarke), S. Horsley (aeainst
J. Priestley), J. B. Lightfoot (very strong as an apologist m sdaolar-
ship: not strong in pure thinking); the polemic Secomes altogether
conciliatory in those other glories m I9th<entury Cambridge,
B. F. Westcott and F. J. A. Hort. Or Anglican theologv deals
with hatorical points of detail, such as fill the JounuU of Theol.
Studies. In devotional literature Anglicanism has always been rich
(e.g. Jeremy Taylor, Archbishop R. Loghton, L. Andrewes, W. Law,
J. H. Newman). Bishop Butler stands bv himself in lonely greatness.
English Puritanism lives in the affections of modem readers
more than the Protestant schoolmen of the Continent do — ^Richard
Baxter, John Owen. John Howe, Thos. Goodwin,. John Goodwin
(an eariy Arminian); for learning, John Lightfoot; for genius,
John Mfltoo; for literary and devotional power, John Bunyaa^
always admirable except when he talks Puritan do^ma. Essential
Puritanism is prolonged in the 19th century by R. W. Dale
mkc Atonement; Christion Doctrine). The Scottish leader, T.
Chalmen {Lectures on Dtmnity), is more important as an orator or
as a nan than aa a thinker. The somewhat earlier lectures of
G. HDl are dry.
Arminianism is leas fully worked out by Arminlus than by later
Dutch divines, of whom tne *' conciliatory " Limbonch is sometimes
need aa a Methodist text-book. The theokman of English
Methodism, apart from John Wesley himself, is Richard Watson.
W. B. Pope's Compendium is a somewhat more modem version.
Jonathan Edwards, a very stem Calvinist, is one of the few
first-rate geiuuses America has to boast in tbeok>gy. C Hodge,
A A. Hodge, W. G. T. Shedd, published Calvinistksystana. Hoiace
Boshadl had great influence.
While the production of systems of Dogmatic (and of Christian
Ethics) never ceases in Germany, A. Ritschl was content to rely
on hu treatise upon Justi/ication and Reconctliation (vol. i. History
of the Doctrine: ii. Bibbcal material; in. PCsitive construction —
but much intermingled with history; good English translations
of 1 and iii.). His Unleniekt in der Ckristlicken Rdigion b poor
as a school-book but useful for reference. Something is to be
lear n ed renrding Ritschl himself from his very faostue Hist, of
Pielitm. The earlier EMtstekung der oUkaikolisehm Kircks (and ea.
1857) is a landmark in Apofeg^tica and Church history. JT. Kaf-
tan s Dopnatic shouM be named, also the Modem Positae Theology
of Th. Kafun and othera.
H L Martensen's DogmaHes restates substantial orthodoxy with
fine literwy taste. His ChrisOon. EAics, thouch diffuse, is per-
hapa the finest piece of Protiesunt theology under that title. His
friend, I. A. Domer, had a powerful mind but an inferior gift of
style.
The student of theology w9I do well to sede in the best histories
of doctrine more detached treatment than Dogmatic can give.
F. Loots mentions W. MQnscher, J. A. W. Neander, F. C. £iur.
G. Thomastus, F. Nitxsch, A. Hamack. as showing steady advance.
Add Loofs himself and R. Sccberg. Works in English by W. G. T.
Shedd. G. P. Fisher, J. F. Bethune Baker. Church formularies in
Winer {Conhstions of Christendom), Schaff (Creods of Christendom),
F.hooin (Symbolih). TY»SymMih<d} A. Moehler is a very able
anti-Protestant polemic
A (German reviewer has associated as Enriish contributions to
Dogmarics, A. M. Fairbaira's Christ in Modem Theology, A. B. Bruce's
Apologetics, and the present writer's Essay towards a New Thoolory.
Two American books represent modem evangelicalism — ^W. N.
Clarke's very successful
Christian TMoryin Outline.
represent modem evangelicalism — ^W.
I Outline of Theoloty, and W. A. Browns
utline. The High Church position is riven
in the Manual oiT. B. Strong, Evangelical Anglicanism in H. G. C.
Moule's Outtine.
cd in J. F. R&biger, translated with
, . J. Cmimmond (Unitarian) and A.
Cave (Congregationalist) have written Introductions to Theology-,
Cave'ft bibbogtaphics are not free from errors. American contri-
butions in P. Schaff*s Propaedeutie and J. F. Hurst's Literature
sf Theology: a Classified BMiography. Recent German work by
C F. G. Hemrid; for older treatment see C. R. Hagenbach.
(R. Ma.)
Encsrdopaedia may be studied in J.
kfitiona by J. Macphoson. ' *"
THBOir» ASUTOf Alenodrian aophist of imoertaiii date,
author of a coUectipn of pnhmhatyaDudatiBipro'gymtsasmata)
for the training of orators. The work (extant, though iacom-
pilete), which probably formed an appendix to a maual of
rhetoric, shows Irarning and taste, and contains valuable
notices on the style and speeches of the mastets of Attic oi&toiy«
Theon also mote commentaries 00 Xenophoo, Isocrates and
Demosthenes, and treatises on style. He is to be disUnguishec)
from the Stoic Theon, vho lived in the time of Augustus and
also wrote on rhetoric ((^uintilian, Intl. Oral. is. 3, 77).
THBON. of Samos» Creek painter d the age of Alexander
the Great, b mentioned by (^uintilion as a good artist of the
second rank. If we may trust the somewhat flimsy stories told
about him, his forte consisted in a lifelike, or pezlu^M, as Brunq
{KUnstUrgfischickU, iL 353) puU it, a theatrical represenution
of action. His figiues were said to start out of the pictuiei
He chose such congenial subjects aa the madness of Orestes,
and a soldier rushing to battle. Another painter, Theorus, is
mentbned, whom Brum regards as identical with Theon.
THEOPHANES. sumamed " the Confessor " (ca.d. 758-41x7),
Greek ascetic, chronicler and saint, belonged to a noble and
wealthy family, and held several offices under C<NDstantine V.
Copronymus (741-775)* He subsequently retired from the
world and founded a monastery (rov Mcy&Xou 'AypcSf) near
Sigrianc.^ He was n strong supporter of the worship of
images, and in 8x5 was summoned to Constantinople by Leo
the Armenon, who formally ordered him to renounce Us
principles. Tlieophanes refused, and, after two years' m-
prisooment, was banished to the island of Samothrace, where
he died. He subsequently received the honours oi canoniza-
tion. At the request of his dying friend, (jeorge the Syncellus
(f.p;), Thcophanes undertook to continue his Chronicle, which
he carried on from the accession of Diocletian to the downiaU
of Michael I. Rhangabes (284-8x3). The work, although
wanting in critical insight and chronological accuracy, is of
great value as supplying the accounts of lost authorities. The
Language occupies a place midway between the stifi ecclesiastical
and the vulgar Greek. In chronology, in addition to reckoning
by the years of the worid and the Christian era, Theophanes
introduces in Ubular form the regnal years of the Roman
emperors, of the Persian kings and Arab caliphs, and of the five
oecumenical patriarchs, a sysUm which leads to corsiderable
confusion. The Chronicle was much used by succeeding
chrooiden, and in 873-875 a oompilatioQ in barbarous Latin
(in voL iL of De Boor's edition) was made by the papal librarian
Anastasius from Nicephorus, George the Syncdlus, and Theo-
phanes for the use of a deacon named Johannes. The transla^
tion (or rather paraphrase) of Thcophanes really begins with the
reign of Justin IL (565), the ezcerpU from the earlier portion
being scanty. At that time there were very few good Greek
scholars in the West, and Anastasius shows himself no exception.
There is also extant a further continuation, in six books, of the
Chronicle down to the year 961 by a number of mostly anonymous
writers (called 02 itwi. Om^^'V'* Scriptores post Theophanem),
who undertook the work by the instructions of Constantine For-
phyrogenitus.
Editions of the Chroniclef^Editio frinceps, J. Goar (1655):
see also the monograph by J. Pisrgoire, ** Saint Thfophane fe
Chronogiaphe et ses nppcMrta avec saint Thtedoce stndftc.** in
Bvr«rrw4 XpomtA, ix. (St Petersbuiz, I903)*
Editions of the Continuation in J. P. Mvne, Pair. Gr., dx., and
by I. Bekker, Bonn Corpus Serif torum Hi^. Byt. (1838); on both
worics and Theophanes generally, see C. Knimbocher, Ceschickie
der hyaantinisehen Uueratur (1897); Bin DHhyrambns auf Theo-
phanes Cor^essor (a panegyric on Theophanes by a certain proto-
asecretis, or chief secretary, under Constantine Porphyrogenitus)
and Bine neue Vita des Tlieophanes Conjessor (anonymous), both
edited by the same writer in SUsungsheruhte der philos^fMM. und
^ Near the village of Kunhoala. on the Sea of Mannoca, between
the site of the ancient Cyzicus and the mouth of the Rhyndaois,
ruins of the monastery may still be seen; on the whole question
see J. Pargoire's monograph, section 6 (see Bibliography).
^
786
THEOPHANQ— THEOPHILUS
in hisL. CLitfk. kaytr'Akad. itr WUumseh^m (1896. pp. $83-
635; and 1897, pp. 371-390) ; Gibboa't DecUne Md Fall (ed. Bury),
p. 500.
• "THBOPHANO (c. 956*^1), wife of the Roman emperor Otto
II., was a daughter of the Eastern empexor Romanus 11., and
passed her eariy years amid the tragic and changing fortmcs
,which beset the court of Constantinople. Otto the Great having
procured her betrothal to his son Otto II., she was married to
Mm and crowned empress at Rome by Pope John XIII. on the
X4th of April 972. In return for costly giifts brought by her to
her husband, she was granted extensive estates in all parts of
the empire. She appears to have been a woman of great beauty
and considerable intelligence, and after the death of Otto the
Great in 973 gradually superseded his widow Adelaide as the
diief adviser of the new emperor, whom she accompanied on
several military expeditions. She introduced many Byzantine
customs into the German court. After the death of Otto in
December 983 she returned to Germany, which she governed
with conspicuous success in the name of her son, Otto III. In
989 she visited Rome, where she exercised as imperatrix the
imperial prerogatives, and probably compelled the Romans to
swear to acknowledge her son. Theoph^o died at Nimwegen
on the xsth of June 991, and was buried in the church of St
FantaUon at Cologne.
I See J. Moltmann. Theephano, die Ctmahlin Ottos II. in ikrer
BtdeulMngfOr dit PcUHh Ottos I. und Ottos II. (Gdttingen. 1878).
-YRiOPHILE, the name by which Th£ophile de Viaa (or
Viaud), French poet (1591-1626), is more commonly called.
He was bora in 1591, at Clairac, near Agen, and spent his early
years at Bouss^res de Mazdres, his*father's property. He was
educated at the Protestant college of Saumur, and he went to
Paris in his twentieth year. In 16x2 he met Balzac, with whom
be made an expedition to the Netherlands, Which ended in a
serious quarrel. On his xetura he seems to have been for two
years a regular pUiywright to the actois at the H6tel de Bour-
gogne. In x6x5 he attached himself to the ill-fated Henry,
duke of Montmorency (x 595-163 2), under whose protection he
produced with success the tragedy of Pyrame et 7AuM, acted
probably about x6x7 and printed in 1623, although placed later
by some critics. This piece, written in the extravagant Spanish-
Italian manner, which was fashionable in the interval between
the Pl^iade model and the innovations of Corneille, was ridiculed
by Boileau (Preface to his (Euvres, 1701). Thfophile was the
acknowledged leader of a set of Parisian libertines, whose
excesses seem to have been chiefly dictated by a general hatred
of restraint. He himself was not only a Huguenot, but a free-
thinker, and had made unsparing use of his sharp wit in epigrams
on the Church and on the government. In x6x9 he was accused
of blasphemous and indecent writings, and was "banished from
Paris. He took refuge in the south of France, where he found
protection with many friends. He was allowed to return in the
next year, and effected a partial reconciliation with one of his
most powerful enemies, the due de Lujmes. He served in
that year in the campaign against the Huguenots, but in the
autumn was ag^ in exile, this time in England. He was re-
called in 162 X, and began to be instructed in the Roman
Catholic religion, tbou^ his abjuration of Protestantism was
deferred untU the end of 1622. There is nothing to show that
this conversion was purely political; in any case it did little to
mollify his enemies. In 1622 he had contributed four pieces
to the Nouveau Pamosse Satirique, a miscellany of verse by
many hands. In the next year a new ecfition appeared, with the
Addition of some licentious verse, and the inscription par Ic sieur
TkiopkiU on the title-page. . Contemporary i^inion justified
Thfophile's denial of this ascription, but the Jcduit father,
Francois Garasse, published a tract against him entitled La
Doctrine curieuse (1623). Tb6ophile was again prosecuted.
This time he fled from Paris, to the court of Montmorency, and
was condemned in bis absence (t9th of August 1623) to death.
On his flight to the border he was arrested, and imprisoned In the
Condergerie in Paris. He defended himself in an Apologia au
- -» was liberated in September, his sentence being
commuted to banishment for life. Under Montmorency's pro-
tection he was able to hide in Paris for some time, and he subse-
quently accompanied his friend and patron to the south. He
died in Paris on the 25th of September x6s6.
The ^reat interest aroused by the prosecution and defence of
Theophile b shown by the number of pamphlets on the subject,
forty-two of which, written between the dates 1622 and 1626, are
preserved in the BibKoth^ue Natlonale in Paris.
Les (Euvres du Sieur Thio^ile were printed in Parts in 1621,
and other collections followed during his lifetime. Six years after
his death Georges de Scud^ edited his work with a Tomheau
(copy of obituary vcrse»), and a challcnze in the preface to any
one who mi^ht be offended by the editor t eulogy of the poet. A
tragedy entitled Pasiphac, published in 1631, is probably not
Thtepnile's, and is not included in his works, the standard modern
edition of which b that of Allcaume in the BUdiothkque Eitivirieunt
(a vols. 1856). Besndcs Pyrame et Tkisbi, hb works include a para-
Phrase, half verse, half prose, of the Phaedo. There are numerous
rench and Latin letters, hb Apdogie^ a prombing fragment of
comic prose narrative, and a large collection of occasional verses,
odes, elegies, stanzas. &c.
In addition to Alkaume's edition, a delightful article in Th^
F»hile Gauticr's Grotesques should be consulted respecting htm. A
uU account of the extensive literature dealing with Thte^iile b
given by Dr K. Schlrmacher in a study on Theophile ae Vtan
(Leipzig and Paris, 1897). In the Page disgracti of Tristan THermite.
the page makes the acquaintance of a dramatic author, and hb
description may be accepted as a contemporary portrait of Th&>-
phile's vigorous personality.
THEOPHILUI&, East Roman emperor (829-842), the second of
the " Phrygian " dynasty. Unlike his father Michael II., be
declazed himself a pronounced iconoclast. In 832 he is^ied an
edict strictly forbidding the worship of images; but the stories
of his cruel treatment of recalcitrants are probably exaggerated.
At the time of hb accession, the Sicilians were still engaged in
hostilities with the Saracens, but Thcophilus was obliged to
devote all hb energies to the war against the caliphs of Bagdad
(see Caliphate, especially sect. C, f 8). Thb war was caused
by Theophilus, who afforded an asylum to a number of Persian
refugees, one of whom, called Theophobus after hb conversion
to Christianity, married the emperor's sister Hdena, and became
one of hb generals. The Roman arms were at first successful;
in 837 Samosata and Zapetra (Zibatra, Sozopetra), the birth-
place of Motasim, were taken and destroyed. Eager for re-
venge, Motasim assembled a vast army, one division of which
defeated Theophilus, who commanded in person, at Dsssrmon,
while the other advanced against Amorium, the cradle of the
Phrygian dynasty. After a brave resbtance of fifty-five days,
the city fell into Motasim's hands through treachoy (a3xd of
September 838). Thirty thousand of £he inhabitants were
slain, the rest sold as slaves, and the city razed to the ground.
Theophilus never recovered from the blow, hb health gradually
failed, and he died at the beginning of 842. Hb character has
been the subject of considerable discussion, some regarding him
as one of the ablest of the Byzantine emperon, others as an
ordinaiy oriental despot, an overrated and insignificant ruler.
There b no doubt that he did hb best to check corruption and
oppression on the part of hb officials, and adminbtexed justice
with strict impartiality, although hb pimbhments did xMt
always fit the crime. In spite of the drain of the war in Asia
and the laige sums spent by Theophilus on building, commerce,
industry, and the finances of the empire wero in a most flourish-
ing condition, the credit of which was in great measure due to
the highly efficient adminbtration of the department. Theo-
philus, who had received an excellent education from John
Hylilas, the grammarian, was a great adxnirer of music and a
lover of art, although hb taste was not of the hi^esL He
strengthened the walb of Constantinople, and built a hospital,
which continued in exbtence till the latest times of the
Byzantine Empire.
See Zonaras, xv. 25-29: Ccdrenus, pp. SI3-533; Theophanes
continuatus. iil.; Gibbon, Decline and Falf, chaps. aS and 5a;
F. G. Schlosser, GesckichU der bilderslurmenden Kauer (1812};
G. Finlay, History 0/ Greece, ii. (1877) p. 142; G. F. Hertaberg.
Gesehichte der Bytanttner und des osmanischen Reiches, bk. i. (Berlin.
1883); H. Gelzcr, " Abriss der byzantinischen Kaisergeachiclitc **
in C. Krumbacher's CeschickU der hytantinisehtn IdUeratur (and ed.
THEOPHRASTUS— THEOPOMPUS
7«7
1897): and AutlMnties under Roman. EicniiB, Latm. On the
early campaigns against the Arabs see J. B. Buxy, in Jown, Hdl,
Stud, xxix., 1909, pt. L
THBOPHRASTUS. the successor of Aristotle In the Peri-
patetic school, a native of Eresus in Lesbos, was bom c. 372 b. c
His original name was Tyrtamus, but he later became known
by the nickname ** Theophrastus, " given to him, it is said, by
Aristotle to indicate' the grace of his conversation. After re-
ceiving his first introduction to philosophy in Lesbos from one
Lcucippus or Alcippus, he proceeded to Athens, and became a
member of the Platonic circle. After Plato's death he attached
himself to Aristotle, and in all probability accompanied him to
Stagira. The intimate friendship' of Theophrastus with Callis-
thencs, the fellow-pupil of Alexander the Great, the mention
made in his will of an estate belonging to him at Stagira, and the
repeat^ notices of the town and its museum in the History of
Plants, are facts which point to this conclusion. Aristotle in
his will made him guardian of his children, bequeathed to him
his library and the originals of his works, and designated him
as his successor at the Lyceum on his own removal to Chalcis.
Eudemus of Rhodes also had some claims to this position, and
Aristozcnus is said to have resented Aristotle's choice. Theo^
phrastus presided over the Peripatetic school for thirty-five
years, and died in 387 B.C. Under his guidance the school
flourished greatly— there were at one period more than 3000
students— and at his death he bequeathed to it his garden with
house and colonnades as a permanent seat of instruction.
Me&ander was among his pupils. His popularity was shown in
the regard paid to him by Philip, Cassandcr and Ptolemy,
and by the complete failure of a charge of impiety brought
against him. He was honoured with a public funeral, and
" the whole population of Athens, honouring him grea|ly,
followed him to the grave " (Diog. La£rt.).
From the lists of the anciaito it appews that tbe activity of
Theophrastus eactended over the whole field of contemporary know-
ledge. His writing probably differed little from the Aristotelian
treatment of the same themes, though supplementary in details
(Me Pbupatstics). He served hb ajie mainly as a great populafiaer
ofscitflce. Tbe most important of hi« beaks are two lar|^ botanical
treatises. On the Bistory of FUuUs, in nine books (orii^inally ten),
and On the Causes of Flanls, in six books (originally eight), which
constitute the most Important contribution to botanical sctenct
during antiqttity and the middle ages. We also posaen in fragments
a Hiitorj of Physics, a treatise On Stones, and a work On Sensation,
and ccruin ineuphysical 'Awoplmt, whkh probably once formed
part of a systematic treatise. Various smaller scientific fragments
hare been collected in the editions of J. G. Schneider (1818-21)
and P. Wimmcr (1842H63) and in Usener'a AneJeda Tkeophrasten.
The Elkieal CkaraOen ('Wusal xmmt^m) deserves a separate
mention. The work consists of brief, vigorous and trenchant
delineations of moral types, which contain a most valuable picture
of the life of his time. They form the first recorded attempt at
eysteniatic character writing. The book has been regarded by
namt as an independent work; others- indine to_the view that the
•ketches were written from time to time by Theophrastus, and
collected and edited after hb death; others, again, regard the
Characters as part of a hrger systematic work, but the stvie of the
book is against this. Theophrastus has found many imitators in
tlus kind of writing, notably Hall (1608). Sir Thomas Overbury
(X614-16), Bishop Earle (i6a8) and La Bruyire (1688), who also
translated the Characters.
BiBLiOGftAPHY.— A good accouut of Theophrastus b found in
ZeUer. Aristotle and the Earlier Peripatetics (Eng. trans, by B. F< C.
Cootelkw and J. H. Muirhcad. vol. ii., chap. 18, 1807)* For hb
astrooomical work see Astionomy (Historical Section), and for the
botanical works, see Dr J. Berendes, Die Pharmacie bei den aUen
Culturvdlhen (vol. 1., 1891). The Ethical Characters was edited by
Casaubon in 1592 and translated by La Brayire (1688-89); the
best modem translation (with introduction ami notes) b that of Sir
R. C Jebb (1870: new ed. J. E. Sandys, 1909); recent editions
arc that of J. M. Edmonds and G. E. V. ^sten (1904). containing
text, notes and illustrations (Intended for schools), and that of
C E. Bennett and W. A. Hammond (190s). a translation, with a«
intvodoctkxL The work has been trandated into ncariy all Earo
pean languages (see Baldwin's Did, ^ Philos, and Psych., vol. in.
pt.L). 7* -^Wh.)
THBOPHTLACT (d. r.^xxio), biblical commentator, was bom
aost probably at Euripus, in Euboea, about the mkidle of the
xith century. He became a deaoon at Constantinople, attained
a high repatatkm- as a scholar, aad hecame the tutor :.of
Coutanthie Potp hy r o genteta, nn of the Emperor Miehad VII.,
for whom he wrote Tkc Education of Princes (JIoMa fiaathuHi).
About 1678 he went into Bulgaria as archbishop of Achrida.
In his letters he complains much of the rude manners of the
Bulgarians, and he sought to be relieved of hb ofiice, but
apparently without success. Hb death took place after 1x07.
Hb commentaries on the (xMpels, Acts, the Pauline epbtles
and the Minor Prophets are founded on those of Chrysostom, but
deserve the considerable place they hold in execetical literature
for their appositeness, sobriety, accuracy and judiciousness. His
other extant works include 130 letters and various homilies and
orations and other minor pieces. A careful <Mition of nearly all
hb writings, in Greek and Latin, with a preliminary dissertation,
was publbhod in t754-63 by J. F. B. M. de Rossi (4 vols, fol.,
Venice).
See Krumbacher, Byaantinische UUeratnrgeschichte (2nd ed. 1897X
PP- 132. 4fi ^
THBOPOHPUI (b. e. 380), Creek hbtorian and rhetoridaa,
was bom at Chioa about 380 b.& In early youth he seems to
have spent some time at Athens, along with hb father, who
had been exiled on acoouut of hb I^ronian sympathies. Here
he became a pupil of Itocrates, and rapidly made great progress
in rhetoric; we are told that Isocrates used to say that
Ephorus required the spur but Theopompus the bit (Cicero,
Brutus, 204). At first he appears to have composed epideictic
speeches, in which he attained to such proficiency that in 352-
35X he gained tbe prize of oratory given by Artemisia iq.v.) in
honour of her husband, although Isocrates was himself among
the competitors. It b said to have been the advice of hb
teacher that finally determined hb career as an hbtorian— a
career for which be was pecuUarly qualified owing to hb
abundant patrimony and hb wide knowledge of men and places.
Through the influence of Alexander, he was restored to Chioe
about 333, and figured for some time as one of the leaders of
the aristocratic party in hb native town. After Alexander's
death he was again expelled, and took refuge with Ptolemy in
Egypt, where he appears to have met with a somewhat cold
reception. The date of hb death b unknown.
The works of Theopompus were chiefly historical, aiul are much
2uoted by btcr writers. They included an Epitome of Herodotus's
listory (the geouineiiessof whkh b(toubted).the&«tiMtcf ('EXX^mA.
EJOipiMtlofs^fsi}. the Histonr of PkUip (MUmcA). and sevcial
panegyrics and hortatory aadnnses, the chief of which was the
Letter lo Alexander. The Hellenics treated of the history of Greece,
in twelve books, from 411 (where Thacydkles breaks off) lo 394"*
the date of the battle of Cnklus (cf . Dtod. Sic. xiii. 43, with xiv.
64). Of thb work only a few frsaments were known up tiU X907.
The papyrus f foment of a Greek historian of the 4th century a-c.
dbcovered by & P. Greniell and A. & Hunt, and publbked by
them in Oxyrhynchns Papyri, vol. v. (1908), has been recognized
by Ed. Meyer, U. von wHaniowits-MoellcndoriT and G. Busolt
as a portion of the Hellenics. Thb identification has been disputed,
however, by F. Blass. J. B. Bury, E. M. Walker and others, most
of whom attribute the fragment, which deals with the events of
the year 395 B.C. and b of considerable extent, to Cratippus (q.*.).
A far more elaborate work was the ^iXtmcA in 58 books. In tins
Theopompus nanated the history of I*hilip's vrign (360-336), with
digresnons on the names and customs of the various races and
countries of which he had occaaon to speak, whkJi were so numerous
that Philip V. of Klacedon reduced the bulk of the history from
58 to t6 books by cutting out those fiarts which had no connexion
with Macedonu. It. was from this history that Tragus Pompeius
(of whose Historiae Philippicoe we possess the epitome by Justin)
aerived much of hb material. Fifty-three books were extant in
the time of Photius (9th century), who read them, and has left
us an epitome of. the X2th book. Several fragments, chiefly ancc«
dotes and strictureTof various kinds upon the character of natbns
and individuab, are preserved by Athenaeus, Plutarch and others.
Of the Letter to Alexander we possess one or two fragments cited
by Athenaeus. animadverting severely upon the immorality and
dnsipations of Har^os. The Attach upon Plato, and the treatise
On Pieiy, which are sometimes referred to as separate woiks, were
perhaps only two of the many digressions in the history of Philip:
some writcn have doubted their authenticity. The libelknis attack
CTpicApsm. the •'three-headed**) on the three cities— Athens,
Sparta and Thebe»-was published under the name of Theopompus
by hb ei»emy Anaximenes of Lampsacus. The nature of the extant
fragmems fully beara out the divergent critfckms of antiquity
Theopompus. Their style b clear and pure, full of choice
minted expressions, but lacking th weight and dignity. The
artistic unity of hb work suffered severetv from the frequent and
and ^inti
artistic
lengthy
already lefened to. .. The most impoclant was
788
THEORBO— THEOSOPHY
.tk»t On A$ Atkmiam Dtma»t!»ts b tlie lofth book of the PkOippka,
ooQtatning a bitter attack on many of the chief Athenian ftateamen.
and generally recoffnized as having been freely used by PluUrch
in several ot the Lives. Another fault of TheopMompus was his
txeessive fondness for romantic and inciedlble stories; a collection
of some of these (OaivUwM) was afterwards made and publishod
under his name. Ue was also severely blamed in antiquity for
his censoriousness^ and throughout his fragments no feature is
more striking than this. On the whole, however, he appears to
have been fairly impartial. Philip himsdf he censunes severely for
drunkenness and immorality, while Demosthenes receives his warm
praise.
BiBLiocRAPRT.—Fragments in C. MQller, F^g. HisL Grau., i.;
monograph by A. J. Pflugk (1837), and a good account in W. Mure,
Lmtftiazt and Literature of Ancient Greece, v. pp. ^a^-^.^ See
also Greece: Ancient History, } Authorities. A complete edition of
the fragments of Theopompus and of Cratippus has been published
by the Clarendon Press, Oxford (1909), containing the fragment
of the new historian. For a discussion of the autnorahip q« this
(nginnit see Oxyrkynckus Papyri (1908), vol. v. pp. 110-442
" Busolt, Hernus (1908), pp. 255-365 (J)er Neue Rtst "
nophon); E. M. Walker. Klio (1908) (" Crati
npus"); W. A. Goligher, Enilish Htstorical Re
pp. 377-^83 ("The New Greek Historical Fragnr
Mess, RJuiniukes Museum (1906}. pp. 37(^591 (" Die Hellenica
Xenophon); E. M. Walker, Klio (1908) ("Cratippus or Thco-
j"); W. A. Ck>ligher, English Htstorical Renew, vol. xxiii.
r-383 ("T '• -" • • - ^
Mess, Rhetnitchea
roa Oxyrhynchos ").
i
(E.M.W.)
THEORBO {Ft. th^rle, Ger. Theorha, Ital. tkeorba^ Barbltone],
the large double-necked bass lute much used during the x6th
and X7th centuries as general bass in the orchestra. The body of
the theorbo was constructed on the same principles as that of the
lute but larger, and the same scheme of decoration was followed.
The neck, instead of being bent back at an angle to form the
head, was straight, having sufficient pegs set in the sides of the
head for from 13 to x6 strings tuned in pairs of unisons; on
the fingerboards were marked 8 or more frets for semitones.
Above this neck was another without frets, curving forwards
and sGgfatly to one side to enable the long bass strings, stretched
not over but at the side of the neck, to escape the pegs of the
shorter strings. These free strings, known as diapason strings
(Ger. Begleiiseiten) were plucked d tide like those of the lyre,
each giving but one note; the number of .these strings varied
from 8 to xz.
The theorbo was made in two sixes, the ordinary instrument
measuring about 3 ft. 6 in., and the Paduan, also known as archlute,
•bout 5 ft. The chitarroiie, or Roman theorbo, was the larp»t
of all, a contrabass lute in fact, and frequently stood over 6 ft.
high. It differed slightly from the theorbo; the body was a little
•mailer than in the Paduan variety, the whole of the extra length
being in the second neck. The strings over the fingerboard were
of steel or brass, and the diapason strings of spun wire.
"-' For the history of the theorbo, see Babbiton and LuTB.
THEOSOPHT (from Gr. 9c6t, god, and ao^Io, wisdom), a
term used to denote those forms of philosophic and reh'gious
thought which claim a special insight into the Divine nature
and its constitutive moments or processes. Sometimes this
insight is claimed as the result of the operation of some higher
faculty or some supernatural revelation to the individual; in
other instances the theosophical theory is not based upon any
special illamination, but is simply put forward as the deepest
qxculative wisdom of its author. But in any case it is char-
acteristic of theosophy that it starts with an explication of the
Divine essence, and endeavours to deduce the phenomenal
universe from the play of forces within the Divine )iature itself.
)' General Theory. — ^Theosophy is thus differentiated at once
from all philosophic systems which attempt to rise from an
analysis of phenomena to a knowledge, more or less adequate,
of the existence and nature of Cod. In all such systems, God
is the terminus ad quern, a direct kaowledge of whom is not
claimed, but who b, as it were, the hypothesis adopted, with
varying degrees of certainty in different thinkers, for the eX'
planation of the facts before them. The tJieosophist, on the
other hand, is most at his ease when moving within the circle
of the Divine essence, into which he seems to claim absolute
luigfa^. This, however, would be insufficient to distinguish
' «^- '• — those systems of philosophy which are some-
Uative " and " absolute," and which also in
deductive!/ ixDn the idea of God.
In a wide sense, the system 0! Hegd orthe s^ettof Spindst
may be cited as examples of what is meant. Both thinkers
claim to exhibit the universe as the evolution of the Divine
nature. They must believe, therefore, that they have grasped
the inmost principles of that nature: so much is involved,
indeed, in the construction of an absolute system. But it is
to be noted that, though there is much talk of (jod in such
systems, the known universe^the world that now is— is no-
where transcended; God is really no more than the principle
of unity immanent in the whole. Hence, while the accusation
of pantheism is frequently brought against these thhikers, the
term theosophical is never used in their regard. A theosophical
system may also be pantheistic, in tendency if not in intention;
but the transcendent character of its Ckklhead definitely dis-
tinguishes it from the speculative philosophies which might
otherwise seem to fall under the same definition. God is re-
garded as the transcendent source of being and purity, from
which the individual in his natural state is alienated and afar
off. An historical survey shows, indeed, that theosophy gene-
rally arises in connexion with religious needs, and is the expres-
sion of religious convictions or aspirations. Accepting the
testimony of reli^on that the present world lies in wickedness
and imperfection, theosophy faces the problem of speculatively
accounting for this state of things fxom the nature of the God-
head itself. It is thus in some sort a mystical philosophy of
the existence of evil; or at least it assumes this form in some
of its most typical representatives.
The term Mysticism {q.v.) has properly a practical rather than
a speculative reference; but it* is currently applied so as to
include the systems of thought on which practical mysticism
was based. Thus, to take only one prominent example, the ptt>-
foimd specuhitions of Meister Eckhart {q.v.) are always treated
under the head of Mysticism, but they might with equal rig^t
appear under the rubric Theosophy. In other words, while axi
emotional and practical mysticism may exist without attempt-
ing philosophically to explain itself, speculative mysticism is
almost another name for theosophy. There is still a certain
difference observable, however, in so far as the qieculative
mystic remains primarily concerned with the theory of the
soul's relation to God, while the theosophist gives his thoughts
a wider scope, and frequently devotes himseK to the elaboxation
of a fantastic philosophy of nature.
In the above acceptation of the term, the Neoplatonic doctrine
of emanations from the supra-essential One, the fanciful emana-
tion-doctrine of some of the Gnostics (the aeons of the Valcn-
tinian system might be mentioned), arid the elaborate esoteric
system of the Kabbalah, to which the two former in all pro-
bability largely contributed, are generally included under the
head of theosophy. In the two latter instances there may be
noted the allegorical interpretation of traditional doctrines and
sacred writings which is a common charaaeristSc of theosophical
writers. Still more typical examples of theosophy are furnished
by the mystical system of Meister Eckhart and the doctrine d
Jacob Boehme {q.v.), who Is known as *' the theosophist " for
excellence. Eckhart 's doctrine csserts behind God a predicatelcss
Godhead, which, though unknowable not only to xnan but also
to itself, is, as it were, the essence or poteiitiality of all things.
From it proceed, and in it, as their nature, exist, the three persons
of the Trinity, conceived as stadia of an eternal self-revealing
process. The eternal generation of the Son is equivalent to
the eternal creation of the world. But the sensuofis and pheno-
menal, as such, so far as they seem to imply independence of God,'
are mere privation and nothingness; things exist only through
the presence of God in them, and the goal of creation, like its
outset, is the repose of the Goidhead. The soul of roan, which as
a microcosmos resumes the nature of things, strives by self-
abnegation or self-annihilation to attain this unspeakable'
reunion (which Eckhart calls being buried in God). Regarding
evil simply as privation, Eckhart does not make it the pivot of
his thought, as was afterwards done by Boehme; but his notion
of the (Godhead as a dark and formless esqence is a favoorit«.'
thesis of theosophy.
THBOeOPHY
789
Bendei wyUkal fhedogy, BochAe vat bdebCed to the
writings of Pftracdius. Thia arcuoMtaiioe is not accidental,
but pointe to an affinity in thought. The natnie-philaadphera
of the Renaiisaooe, wch as Ntoolaut Cusaaua, Baiacelsus, Cardan
and othco, cntioualy blend scientific ideas with speculative
notions derived from scholaatic theology, from Neopbrtoniam
and even from the Kabbalah. Henoe it is cuatomaiy to speak
o( theii theODca as a mixtuie of theosopfay and physics, or the»-
lophy and chemistiy, as the case may bk Boehme offcia us a
natural phiJoeophy of the sane sort. As Boehme is the tjrpical
theosophist, and as modem theooophy has nourished itself
almost in eveiy case upon the study of his works, his dominating
ODoccptions supply us with the best illustMtion of the gcsenl
trend of this mode of thought. His speculatbn turns* as has
been said, upon the necessity of leoondling the ezistenoe and
the mii^t of evil with the eiistence of an aU-cmbmcing and all-
powccful God, without falling into Maolcbaesnism on the pne
hand, or, on the other, into a natunUstic pa n t he is m that denies
the fcality of the distinction between good and eviL He faces
the difficulty boldly, and the eternal oonflkrt between the two
may be said to funush him with the principle ol his phUoaaphy.
It is in this oonnesfon that he insists on the necessity of the Nay
to the Yea, of the negative to the poailife. Edthart's Godhead
appeals in Boehme as the abyss, the eternal nothing, the
cmencelew quiet ('*Uttgnmd" and '*Stille ohne Wcsen" are
two of Boehme's phrases). But, if this woe all, the Divine
Benig would remain an abym dark even to itaelf * la God,
however, as the condition of His manifestation, lies, acooniing
to Boehme, the " eternal nature" or the atyafarumi wafffwa,
which is aa anger to love, as daiknem to iight,and, in general,
as the negative to the positive. This principle (which Boehme
often eaOs the evU in God) illumiaates both sides of the anti-
thesis, and thua contains the possibility of their real cristence.
By the " Qua! " or torture, as it were, of this diremption, the
universe has quahutive eristenre, and is knowable. Even the
three permns of the Trinity, thoti^ exisdng idealiltr befoiehand,
attain reality only thnnifl^ this principle of nature In God,
which is hence spoken of as their matrix. It fonns also the
matter, as it were, out oC which the world is created, without
the dark and fieiy principle, we are told, there would be no
cemture. Hence God is sometimes spoken of ss the father, and
the eternal nature ms the mother, of things. Creation (whlck is
c oBee i ved ss an eternal prooms) begbs with the creation of the
angels. The sdbsequent fall of Lodfer is ezplahwd m^ his
soitender of himself to the principle of nature, instead of dwell-
ing in the hestt of God. He sought to make anger picdominate
over h>ve; and he had his will, hfwnhtg prince of hell, the
Kff'^**" of God's anger, which still remains, however, an in-
tegral part of the Divine universew It is uselem to foHow
Boehme further, for his oosmogony is disliguied by a wild
FUaoelsian symbolism, and his constructive efforts in general
axe full of the uncouth straining of an untrained writer. In
spite of these def ecu, his specu l a t io n s hsve eiwrdied a re-
markable biihience.
SctaeilhigS Pkihsopkieal Inqmrus imU Ae Nature of Human
Ftudam iiSoq) Is ahnost entirely a reproduction of Boehme's
idess, and forms, along with Basder's writings, the best modem
esample of theiMOphical ipenilation. In his philosophy of
identity Schellfng lq.9.) had alfendy defined the Absolute as
pure tbdiffeiunce, or the identity of subject and object, but
without advancing further into theogouy. He now proceeded
to dfstioguisb three momenu In God, the fint d which b the
pure indUfereaoe which, in a sense, precedes ail existenoe- the
primal baris or abyss, ss he calls it, in agreement with Bofhsur,
But, ss there is nothing before or besides God, God must have
the ground or cause of fiEs existcnoe in Ifimself. Thb is the
second moment, called luiCore in God, distinguishable from
God, but inseparable from Hfm. It is that hi God which Is not
God Himself, it is the yearnhig of the eternal One to ghre birth
to itself. This yearning is a dumb unintelligent longing, which
moves like a heaving sea in obedience to some dark and in-
definite law, and is poweriess to fashion anythuig fa
BtttineonaspoodsBOi to the first stirring of the Divine «ilrtened
there awakes in God Himself ad inner reflective perception, by
means of wbich--«tnoe no object is possible for it but God«»
God beholds Himself in His own image. In this, God it for the
first time as it were realized, although as yet only within Hiift*
self. This perception combines, as understanding, with the
primal 3reaniing, which becomes thereby free creative will, and
works formativdy in the originally kwlem nature or groundL
In thb wise is created the wodd as we know it. In eveqe
natural existence there are, therefore, two prindpks to bo
distinguished*-first, the dark principle, thrmagh which this
is sepatsted from God, and erista, as it were, in the mere
ground; and, secondly, the Divine principle of understanding.
The fint ia the particular wHl of the creature, the aecond is the
universal wilL In irrational creatures the particular will or
greed of the individual is controlled by estemai forces, and thus
used as an instrument of the oniversaL But in man the two
principles are consciously present together, not, however, in
inseparable union, as they are in God, but with the possibility
of separation. This posribility of separation 2s the possibility
of good snd eviL In Boehme's spirit, SriM»lliiig defended hhl
idea of God as the only way of vindicaling for God the con-
sciousness which luturalism denies, and which ordinary theism
emptily asserts. This theoaophical tranaformation of Schelling's
doctrine was largely due to the influence of his oontempocary
Baader (f.v.). Baader distinguishes, in a manner which may
be paralleled from Boehme, between an immanent or eaateric
prooem of self -producthm in God, through which He issues
from His unrevealed sute, and the emaneot, exoteric or real
process, in which God overcomes snd takes up Into Himself
the eternal " nature " or the principle of selfhood, and appeam
asaTrinityofpemons. The creation of the world is still further
to he distingmrimd from these two processe s as an act of freedom
or wiU; it cannot, tfaemfoK, be speculatively constructed, but
must be Ustorically accepted. Baader, who combined his theo-
sophy with the doctrines of Boman Catholicism, has had many
followers. Among thinken on the same lines, but more or less
independent, MoUtor is perhaps the most important. Sweden-
borg (9.V.) is usually reckoned among the theosophists, and wme
parts of hto theory Justify this Inclusion; but his system as a
whole has little ia rommon with those speculative constructions
of the Divine naturo whidi Ibcm the essence of theooophy, as
strictly understood.
Beridet the boohs mentioBcd uuder MvsTictsu, and thaw fsferred
to under indi^ual aiithore. Beer's Dm tkHtUieke Gitotis tn iknr
g fu ku M i du n Emtwkiutu (lAjs) and HambcrBer. Stmmen ams
d€m ffeiliglkum dtr ckruUtchcm Mystik u»d TJuosophU (1857), may
be mentioned. (A. S. P.-P.)
QBiBiixAi.TBB08onnr
The term " thcosophy " has in recent years obtained a mmit*
what wide currency in a restricted signification as denominat-
ing the beliefs and teachings of the Theosophleal Society. This
society was founded in the United States of America in the year
rS75 by Madame H. P. Blavatsky (f.v.), in oonneiien with
Colonel H. S. Olcott (d. 1906) and others. The main objects of
the society were thus set out: (r) To esUblish a nudeos of the
universal brotherhood of humanity; (s) to promote the study
of comparative rdigion and philosophy; (3) to make n sys-
tematic Investigatioii faito the mystic potendca of life and
matter, or what Is usually termed "occultism.** As regards
the first object the mere fact of joining the society and hecaming
an ** initiated ftilow " was supposed to faivolve a certain kind
of mtelleaual and sodil brotheihood, though not 'implying
anything in the nature of an economic union. Hds latter
aspect of the fraternity Wss to be 'satisfied by the contribution
from each fellow ef fi^ dollan by way of initiation fee. The
society's theory of universal brotherhood was, however, of far
wider seope, bring based upon a mystical conception of ** the
One Life"— an Idea derived from and common to varioua
forms of Eastern thought, Vedic and Buddhist It hnpfies the
necessary interdepcwlaice of all that is— that ultimate OMMeii
' aB pheMmenal diverrity, whether
799
THB080PHY
InvaRlly or oatwanlly, whether bdWidiul or anivetsaL The
theosophktl conception of brotherhood it thus rather truiace&p
dental than materialistic, and is not therefore to be regarded
as the exact equivalent of the aodaljstic doctrine of the solidarity
of the human race.
The second object of the aodcty, the stndy of comparative
rdigion and philosophy, soon crystallised into an exposition of
a mere or leas definite system of dogmatic teaching. The leading
thesis seems to have been that all the great religions of the world
originated from the same supreme source, and that they were
all to be regarded as so many divecs expressions of one and the
same fondunental truth, or ** Wisdom Religion," in such form
and diess as was best adapted, to suit the times and the people
for whose spiritual growth and development religious mstruction
was required. Now, in order to discern this underlying truth
in the various and apparently mnfKrting worid oecds, appeal
was made to a " Secret Doctrine," and " Esoteric Teaching,"
which Madame Blavatsky proclaimed had been held forages
as a sacred possession and trust by certain mysterious adepts
in occultism, or " MahitmAs/' with whom she said she was in
fsychkai as well as in direct physical communication. It is
here that the theoaophical movement showed its most serious
shortcomings. From time to time Madame Blavatsky's
numerous friends and associates were allowed to witness the
manifestations of " occult phenomena," which she averred were
the outcome of her connexion with these "MahitmAs." The
fraudulent character of the "phenomena" was on several
occasions exposed by numerous painstaking investigators (see
Procadings of the Society for PsychM Research, vols. iiL and
ix., and A Modern Priestess ^ Isis, by Solovyoff). There are,
moreover, numerous passages in the sacred books of the East,
especially those of the Buddhists, which warn the student
against the assumption that " magical " peiformances of any
kind are to be regarded as proving the truth of the performer's
teaching; and indeed it must be owned in justice to the theoso-
phists that similar warnings are to be found scattered through-
out their writings; while even Madame Blavatsky hersfclf
was wont to expatiate on the folly of accepting her "pheno-
mena " as the mark of spiritual truth. Yet at the same time
it cannot well be denied that she was in the habit of pointing
jto the said marveh as evidence of her MahAtmi's existence.
If theosophy were .to be judged solely by the published
revelations of this " Secret Doctrine " it would hardly be de-
serving of serious consideration; for, as suggested in the
separate artide on Madame Blavatsky, the revelations them-
selves appear to have been no more than a crude compilation
of vague, contradictory and garbled extracts from various
periodicals, books and translations. It was an article of faith
with her disciples that the outward and visible Helena Petrovna
Blavatsky was on certain occasions the vehicle of psychic
powers of transcendent spiritual import. Although there is
not much to justify such a proposition, it may perhaps be con-
ceded that she was in many respects abnormal and that some
of her work is characteristic of a process known to modem
psychok>gists as *' automatism," or in other words that it is
the result of a spasmodic uprush to the surface of sub-conscious
mental activities. Apart, however, from these pseudo-revela-
tions the Theosophical Society has given rise to an extensive
literature, some of which displays a high degree of argumentative
and expository ability; and moreover the movement has from
time to time attracted the attention and secured the co^>pera-
tion of many earnest seekers, of some few of whom it can be
truly said that they poMcssed undoubted spiritual power, in-
sight and knowledge;
Soon after the dealh of Madame BlavaUky a split in the
society was brought about by Mr Wm. Q. Judge (d. 1896) of
New York, who claamed the leadership; and there came into
existenu two if not three separate theosophical societies
(following Judge and later Mrs Katheiine Tlagliey in America,
Oicott and Mrs Annie Besant in America and India, with a more
or less independent organization in England), each one con-
tending that the original afflatus of the founder had descended
upon it eichatvely. The fortunes of the societies are, however,
of less importance than their leading doctrine.
. It will be surmised from what has been said that any concjae
statement of orthodox theosophy is hardly to be expected;
though from the materials available a fairiy definite outline of
its leading tenets can be deciphered. We will try to give a
cursory review of three of the most important of these, viz.:
the constitution and development of the personality or ego;
the doctrine of " Karma "; and the Way or Path towards en-
lightenment and emancipation. Human personality, we learn,
is the temporary manifestation of a complex organization con-
sisting of "seven principles," which are united and inter-
dependent, yet divided into certain groups, each capable of
maintaining temporarily a spurious khid of personality of its
own and sometimes capable of acting, so to speak, as a distinct
vehicle of our conscious individual life Each "principle" is
compned of its own form of matter, determined and condi-
tioned by its own laws of time, space and motion, and is, as it
were, the repository of our various memories and volitions.
These seven " principles," starting from the most gross— the
physical body, or " Rilpa "-^become more and more subtle and
attenuated until we reach the Universal Self " Atmi,*' the centre
as also the matrix of the whole, both individual and universal.
Now that which binds together these elements of our nature
and maintains their interrelation in thdr respective q>heres
of activity— that which determines an individual's powers, his
tastes, his opportunities, advantages and drawbadts, in a word,
the characters-is his " Karma." Broadly speaking, it is the
sum of an individual's bodily, mental and spiritual gromiki
having its roots, aa it were, spread over many lives, past and
future. The two sentences, " as a man soweth, «> must he
reap," and " as he reaps so also he must have sown," give com*
prehenslve expressfon ttf the idea of Karmic activity.
The doctrine of Karma is with modification common to both
Buddhism and Brahminiam, and in their expositions theoao-
phists have appeirently drawn from both sources.
The theosophic " Path " to the final goal of emancipation
or Nirvina, is in a great measure derived from the Buddhist
literature, available to the English-speaking peoples through
numerous oKellent translations, more especially those of Pro-
fessor T. W. Rhys Davidf, and also from the many translations
in all the European languages of the Bhaga^ GltA and
Upanishads. Theosophic teachings on this subject are not,
however, exclusively Oriental, for foUowing their contention
that they are the exponents of the universal and unchangeable
"Wisdom Religion" of all the ages, theosophisu have selected
from various sources— Vedic, Buddhist, Greek and Cabalistic —
certain passages for the purpose of exposition and illustration.
To the uninitiated it would appear that this selection has been
made, generally speaking, at random; it is at any rate lacking
in the wise discrimination one would expect from the supposed
source of its inspiration. Nevertheless theoaophists by their
investigations and expositions have undoubtedly been brou^t
in touch with some of the most profound thought in both
ancient and modem worlds; and this fact in itself has assuredly
had an inspiring and ennobling influence upon their lives and
work. The lustories of all the great religious and philosophic
movements show them as developments ot an evolutionaxy
process, arriving at their accq>ted dogmas through long periods
of contention between numerous tendencies and cross-currents,
resulting in some compromises and not a little confusion of
thought. So it is m the main with theosophy. It has foUowed
Buddhism in deprecating any reliance upon rituaL Ceremonial
and sacrificial observances of all kinds are held to be useless
in themselves, but operative for good or ill indirectly by their
effect upon the menul attitude of those who practise them.
Theosophists hisist, however, that all religious observances
had their origin in tome mystical process, the true meaning of
which has in most instances been lost. The Path is represented
a the great work whereby the inner nature of the individual
is consciously transformed and developed. The views of life
held by the ordinary mortal as well as his aims and motives
THEOT—THERALITE
791
tntnt b« ndlcally altered; and rimultaneiMisly a diange muat
take place !n bis modea of speech, conduct and thought. The
Fath is aajd to be long mnd difficult, and with most individnab
moat extend over many lives. It is divided into four stages,
each one repieseDting the degree of spfajtual growth and karmic
development at which the "chela" or disdple has arrived.
But even the entrance upon the veiy first sUge impUes some-
thing more than, and something fondamentally different from,
the life of an ordinary layman, however monOy excellent this
life may be. Molality, important though it be as preparatory
to the " higher life," docs not alone lend itself to that awakening
of the spixitiial faculties without which progress along the Path
is not possible. In good citizenship morality is practised out of
rapid to certain pieconceived notions of the needs, the health
•ad happinem of ootselvcs, our fellows and the community at
krse. According to theoaophy, it would appear that thes«
notions are for the moat part mistaken, or at any late they are
«|aite insignificant in comparison irith the interesU with which
the traveller along the Path soon finds himself absorbed. It is
not that human needs are to be disregarded, but that the
pabulum which he bow sees that humanity really requires is of
an incomparably higher order than that whidi is generally so
coosMlered. The physical methods and spiritual cxecdsca ra-
cnmmended by theosophisu are those inculcated in the systeass
known in Hindu pMleeophy as RAja Yoga in contradistinction
to the Hatha Yoga s^em, wUch is most comaaonly to be met
with in India, and In which the material aspects are given
greater prominence. The Path has an active and a passive side.
Fresh knowledge, new forces and faculties, have to be acquired
by positive and atrenuous efforts, while, on the other hand,
dehisiona and superstitions are to be abandoned by an attitude
of consdoos neglect; or to use the phmaeology of the Hhidus,
Andyd, Besdeace--tha mental sute «f the unenlightened—
through which the individual energies ase scattered and dis-
sipated in futile effort, is gradually replaced by VidyA, the
higher wisdom which dispeb the darkness of the mind, awakens
onr latent faculties and oonccntrates our efforts in the directlun
of that harmonioaa unk>n, which ultimately resulu in NlrvAaa.
Mthoogh the way of the disdple or " chefat " is always repro-
lentcd as kog and difficult, it b said that as he proceeds, the
tra n s cendm tai facultiea which arise to help him enaUe him to
pofsoe the right coone with ever increaring conladenoe and
•eoirity. These powers of the nund, or '* siddhi," should never
be soagfat lor their own sake, or be used for adfish purposes.
The attempt Co develop and use them without reprd to the
Ittgber porpoae la apoken of aa practising the arU of ** black
magic," the exercise of which invariably leads to disaster. It
is prsdaimcd that were the " cheU " to attempt to make an
improper use of his powers-^hat is to say, were he to yidd to
the promptings of sflfithnrss, lust or aatagomsm— such a lapos
would at once set in action ooonteracting f oroca, which not only
letasd his upward growth, but which would, were such evil
courses persis t ed in, lead ultimately to the oblitcrstion of all
his newly acquired paycbk possessions.
The Path may also be described in terms of the *'aevtn
prindpka." It may be said to be a proocas of lanfutlUm,
whereby the centres of volition, consciottsnesa and active
memory are systematically shifted upwards from the lower to
the hi^mr *' principles " until they have become finnly estab-
lished m the " Bnddhi," or '* sixth prindpie." As this last stage
ia approached the " chda " beeomes km and less dependent
on the guidance of traditions and scriptures. The truth be-
comes revealed to him by the opeaiog of hta inner visioB, and
he leans to see I>harma» the Eternal Law, aa it were, face to
face. Thus theoaophista may be said to accept In thdr owa
sense the saying: "He who docs the Will sbaU know the
doarine."
Along the Path are ranged ten great obstacles, or fettcn,
the Buddhist Sanyojanas, which have to be su c c e ss ively ovct^
come before the final goal is reached. As these sanyojanas
give a very good idea of what has been termed the negative
aspect of the Path, we may enumerate them as foQowac-^
I. The delasMM of pcrsoaality^-ihe bdSef hi a peniiantnt and
a. Doubt as to the uie of the higher edorti. or as to tlw poui-
bilicy of lolving the great mystcrict of life.
3. The rehaace upon ritual— eeeking salvation through outward
aets.
4- Lvtt..
«. lU-witl. or anUgoniaoi.
0. Love of this life and iu posscsaiona— " The care of the world
and the deoettfulness of riches.**
tThe egoistic tongtng ior a future life.
Pride.
9. Self-righ^
laNeKience.
A few words should be added as to the theosophic heD, or
" AvichL" This is described as a long drawn-out dream ef
bitter me m o r i es a vivid conaciouaness of failure without
voUtion, or the power of initiative--a dream of k>st oppor-
tunities and futile regrets, of ambitions thwarted and hopes
denied, of neglected duties, abused powers and impoUnt hate;
a dream ending ultimately in the oblivion of utter aimihilation.
There ia no doubt much of valuable soggestioa to be found in
the pbiloaophic syatem, or rather the congbmcratc of systems,
-rhich pass to^y under ^"^ » ^^ .^ . ...
the name of theoBophy: and probably
much has been done by roeaBs of its propaganda to popuUriae
Eastern thought in the West, and in the East to reawaken a truer
app r eciation of its own philosophic txeaaures; but however that
may be, the aerious student would be well advised to seek his
information and his iaspiration from the fountain-heads of the
theoiophists* doctrines, which are all easily accessible in transla-
tions: and to avoid the confusions and errors of writers who in
roost cases have but a superficial if any knowledge of the original
languages and systems from which their doctrine has been arbi-
trarily GoUed. (Si G. L. F^P.)
ThAOT, GATHBROIB (d. 1794), French visionary, was bom
at Barenton (hfanche). From her youth a victim of halludna-
tions, a long course of reUgknas asceticism in the convent of the
Miramionea in Paris unhinged her ndnd, and she sraa placed
under restraint. liberated in 17S2, her early delusions cotf
ceming a Messiah became accentuated; that she was destined
to be the mother of the new Messiah, she was now assured;
she pictured to her followers the fantastic featureaof the coming
Paradise on earth; and was hailed aa the " Mother -of God."
From the idea of the advctft of a Messiah to its reahtatkm waa
but a step; in Rohespicne the Thtetists saw the red e emer of
mankind; and preparations for his initiation were put in train.
The enemies of Robespierre, resenting hta theocratic aina»
adsed upon his raktiona with the Thfotisis aa an engine of
revenge; Catherine, with Gczle (f.s.) and others, was arrested
and imprisoned, and a kttcr to Robespierre disoovcsed in her
house. In the Convention M. G. A. Vadier trumped up the
conspiracy of Thfiot, aaaertmg that Catherine waa a tool of
Pitt, that the nmmmeriea d the Th^ists were but a ckiak for
clerical and reactionary intrigue, and hinting that Robespierre
favonred their designs. The case waa adjourned to the Re-
volutionary Tribunal, and figured in the proceedings of the 9th
Thermidor. The accused were ultimately acquitted, Catherine
heneK having died in prison on the 1st of September 1794.
THBRA, the aoutberamoat island of the Sporadea, now called
Santorin (f.«.). It was known as Thcra until after the Fourth
Cruaade, when it became part of the duchy of the Archipelago.
THSRAUTB (Ok. ^pov, to pursue), in petrology, a group
oi Plutonic holocrystaUine rocka consisting of nepbeline, bssic
plagioflaar, aagite and olivine, aikd so c^led because it is of
rare occurrence, and iu discovery was looked forward to with
iatereat as completing the series of basic rocks containing
nepheline as an essenUsl constituent. The felspars are mostly
of bssic charaaer and are often aonsl; the nephehne is of
latar aystalhsation, -rarely idiomocphic and often decomposed.
Pyioicne k these socks may be of green cobur or purplish-
brown and rich in titanium; olivine is usually abundant.
Among the accessories may be mentioned apatite and iron
osidea, biotite and dark brown hornblende, the latter often
•umnnding the purple augite. The rocks have rarely ophitic
structure, but their minoals tend to have good crystalline
f9RQ» eioeyt in the caae of nepheline and orthodase (if that be
THB080PHY
^0^id^v ooiveiul. The
<gyo^ h tbttt rather trtnsceii-
*Ti. Bot cfaeiefore to be regarded
uTiociiliBrii' doctsiiie of the aoUdarity
U.^ ^i^^ 9l Che •odety, the atudy of comparative
.-^ -> ^.^ jjirnirftQ- moo cfystaUked into an exposition of
--%sN v^«l»«Mi«syeicm of dogmatic teaching. The leading
•V -«\ «,^.«.M«^ iwk Imivo been that all the great religions of the wori
,« ^^.^ >M| fi^M the flame supveme source, and tliat they •
«4 ^« ^ r ^ < u < iitd as so many divers exi»essions of one .> ' ':*
y,,^^ WMMlaneotal truth, or " Wisdom Keligion," in - ^;^
#*^jj«|» ** ^'•* ^*^^ adapted, to stiit the times an<' l,ntnsry
f •^««» spiritual growth and development religi -^"ul" 5"**
«a» rtquircd. Now» in order to discern this ***/„'JjntiS
ja the ^^riooa and apparenUy conflicting u. -ft-, abundant.
«•» made to a " Secret Doctrine." and '"*
i0O(
here
pun
isanifcstatiotts of ^ oc>- .
the outcome of her r
fraudulent charac
occaaiona expoy
Procttdings n^
vL, and A
aed
J%d^ and some
. , Ind from Arran.
-it tranaitions to
'i^tca on the other,
'.iie basaltic lavas which
• i^^wtof theCarboni-
;„^it?are the Caucasus and
Vntafningr « larger amount of
c< '
eapr
ar
.iVCan
^ ;, *rp dark gre i
•K^•*^ biolite, n«
'■ \«ivt(ioni 01 so<»»..i.w--/^...v., «...» ..»T^ «.^..u. .«.««....^
^ V*«*Mt<«, etpecially in the association of nephetine with
\ 1 of auaite and olivine. They aie of exceedingly rare
..ICT a.s-F.)
u^MtAWiBS (<^ A0$ B.c.)» Athenian statesman, was the
^^vsA SOB ^ Hagnon, a prominent oooservative who in .430
2^««h«d Pericles, snd after the Sicilian expedidon became
jIlilMa' the ten probuli {rpifiaoKoit commissioners) appointed to
jl^Mts economies in the administration. As a pupil of the
,^itt Prodicus he acquired facility in public speaking. Under
|M» father's patronage he joined in the oooservative reaction
which came to a head in 4x1, when hopes of a Persian alliance
or peace with Sparta strengthened the existing dissatisfaction
.Tith the democratic rule. Theramenes specially studied the
consUtotional side of this movement and formulated a new
party-cry, " the constitution of our fathers." It was no doubt
largely due to his advocacy that the prob§ilit strengthened by
further members, were commissioned to draft new measures
on behalf of the public safety and to examine Qeisthenes'
" ancestral code." In their report the following measures were
recommended: (i.) annulment of the aa against promulgating
illegal measures; (ii.) abolition of pay, save for the troops in
the 6eld and the archons; (iii.) restriction of the franchise to
5000 able to serve "with person and purse"; (iv.) the appoint*
ment of a special board to choose the 5000. When thoe pro-
posals were passed (apparently in a packed assembly outside
the walls), a Constituent Assembly of 100 was elected, nominally
by the 5000, who as yet were a mere phantom body, in point
of fact by the leading conspirators. The new constitution
provided for a boule whose members were to be recruited by
lot from all dti2ens above thirty; the functions of this body
to be exercised by four sections succeeding one another by yearly
rotation and serving without pay; all high officials to be chosen
by it out of its own members. This scheme embodied the
chief reforms desired by Theramenes, and marks the trhilnph
of his policy. But before it could be carried into effect it was
superseded by a "provisional constitution," which gftve mt-
upon it exchr . i>t<tBot ^ (chosea by a touBdabout tyttem
of less imr -<n«ue) and its nominees, the tea " sbuhie "
It will »' extreme reaction displeued TUmaeaes, vbs
suterr vsc*« to *«itftlc «« the calling d ihe 5000 inio leal
tl^,, ^ >^rthermore he warned Atheoi agidnii tbc iietsoa
it? . , yttemt oligarchs, and induced the troops to me a mole
,w^i <o facilitate a Spartan descent on Peiiteus.
iior the disaster of Eretria (see PuJopoNHjaAH Wax)
^rhich caused the fall of the extremists and the instituUon oC
/« government of " 5000 " (<*.«. all citizens vho could afiord a
' suit of. armour), Theramenes stood in high esteem. Aiiet
assisting in the prosecution of his former ooUeagues he rtcdved
the command of a sqxiadron with which he helped toiria the
great victory at Cyzicus (4x0) and to lecover the Bo^na.
After the triumph of the radical democrats ivhich iolbived
upon these successes he lost his high command. At Argiausae
(406) he fought as a simple ship's captain, but after the battk
was commissioned by the generals to rescue some drowning
crews, an order which, with his ill-trained and exhausted tioops,
in a heavy storm, he was unable to carry out. For this iailuie
the generals were severely criticised at Athens; an inquiry by
the boulS led to their arrest, and before the eoclesia they
aggravated their case by pleading (i.) that the storm made a
rescue impossible, (ii.) that Theramenes was to blame. Thera-
menes in reply brou^^t out the implied oontradiction in these
statements, and in consequence the assembiiy condemned the
accused to death and subsequently returned Thexamenes
general.
Late in 405 Theramenes went as plenipotentiary to Lysandcr
iq.v.) to obtain peace terms; after long negotiations he proceeded
to Sparta and arranged a settlement which the Athenians ratified
(April 404). In spite of this peace the disorder in Aiheiks did
not abate. The restored fugitives selected five "epbors," in-
cluding Critias, to organise a revolution, while the radicals
opposed that rettim to the " ancestral coitstitution " for which
Theramenes had stipulated. Hereupon Lysander returned to
Athens and had a Constituent Committee dected, of whom
ten members were iwminees of each section. In this body
Theramenes at first assumed the chief part, and the new
measures rescinding the laws against the Areopagus and au|>-
pressing ^cophancy were wdl received. But, exactly as in
41 X, a more violent party under Critias, forgetting its real
duties, ^pointed an autocratic boul6 of its own creatures, sxkI
proceeded by judidai murders and confiscationa to earn fot
the new government the name of "the Thirty Tyraxita."
Theramenes protested, and managed to get a dtisen-body of
3000 admitted to a share of the government. Critias, bosrever,
fearing a renewal of the collapse of 41 x, disarmed the people sxid
decided to remove Theramenes before he could create * ncm
democratic party. The latter successfully repelled Csitlas' de>
nunciation of treaaout but was led away by violence aod focoed
to take poison. His well-known gibe, " Here^ to the noble
Critias," attests his strength of mind at the hour of death.^
Theramenes demonstrably had a definite policy throughout
his career. His ideal was a return to a 6th century constxtutioD,
which his contemporaries could equally regard as a modermte
oligarchy or a restricted democracy. The main features o£ bis
programme were: (i) property qualification for franchise;
(ii.) abolition of pay; (iii.) transferexxce of some judicial powers
from the popular courts to a restored Areopagus. At times
he seemed likely to succeed, but amid the violent osrillafions
of party he could not definitely |oin any one faction, and ao
earned the nickname K69of0os (a stage-boot fitting either ioot>.
Aristotle, however, discerned Theramenes* real policy, axad, like
Cicero and Caesar, in later years ranked him among the greatcal
Athenian statesmen.
SouacBS.— The CoHstUutUm of AtJuns with its numeroua «loctt-
meats affords sauch valuable lcnowled|e, but does not give the
iooer history of 411. Thucydides vui. supplies this, out Jbia
* The attempted rescue by Isocrates (Pseudo-Plutarch, Vita s JC.
Oralorum) is improbable; but Theramenes may have taught !■
rates in oiatory.
THERAPEUTAE— THERAPEUTICS
793
laowMpe of the «Daskit«6oHal mle of the Mvohitioa and «{ Thflpa-
meaM' activity U tomewhat IrMmentary. Xeaophop UleUtmai,
L. U.) was an cye-witnes$ in 40&-A03, but is ckarly inaccurate in
his details and prejudiced throughout. Lysias (c. Eratostk- and
€. Aiorai.) gives an avowedly hostile acoouot of Thera m encs. Dk>-
doniB xiii., xiv., eoes too far in making Thct a ro ea ea a pure democrat.
See also Plutarcn, Cittr^t chai». SO; Cicero, de Oratore, liL t6, |^;
Wilamowitz-Mdellendorff, ArisioUUs und Atken (BerCn and Leipzig,
i8ot), U. p. iri sqq.; E. MeytT,F<frschurtgen atr alien Ceschiehie
maiie, 1899), 11. pp. 406 aqq.; B. Perrio in Amtriain Historical
Remap, is. (i9a4)< PP- 649-^ (M. a 0. C.)
' THBRAPBUTAt (Or. 0<pa«wraf, HtertOy ** atteodanjls "
or " phsFsidans,** hence *' wordiippers of God ")> » moouUc
order among the Jews of Egypt, similar to the Esstnes. Our
sole authority for their eiistence is Philo in his treatise De Vita
C^ntempUtha. He ukes them as the type of the oontempbtive,
in contrast with the Easenes, who represented Atther the pracdctl
Iffe. While the Essenes were confined to Pilestine or its near
neighbourhood, the Therapeotae, we are told, existed in mnny
parts of the wof M, but especially in Egypt. Tlieir hesdqoarters
there were on Lake Mareotis, wfaidi at that time delMittched
into the sea. This csublshment near Alenndtia was, as it
were, the Grande Chartreuse of their order. Philo himself was
uncertain as to the meaning of the name, whether it waa ghwn
to them because they were ** ph^rsicians " of souls or because
they were '* servants " of the One God. Their mode of Mfc he
inftoe place (ii. 473, line 14) cattt BipavdOt and his use of
werds generally accords better with the Utter meaning: That
the origin of the name of these ascetics was tinkaowB in Phile's
time goes to prove their antiquity.
A man on joining the order died to the imrld, and ao vohm-
tarily resigned his property to his heiiSi How the order itself
was supported does not appear. So far as we are inlemed,
prayer and study were the sole occupations of the Therapeoue.
The commimity at Alexandria lived in mean and aeatteied
houses, near enough to afford protection, without depriving
the members of the solitude which they priced. Each of these
bouses contamed a chamber called 0C|iw^Sor or fumnii^pu^
(cf. Matt. vi. 6), which was devoted to prayer and study, and
into wliich the inmate brought nothing but the Law and the
Prophets, together with the Psalms and other works which
tended to the promotion of piety. At sunrise the Thcrapeutae
prayed and again at sunset. The whale fntefrsl was devoted
to a study of the internal sense of the Scsrfpturee. In addition
to the OU Tesument the Thcrapeutae had books by the founders
of their sect on the allegoHcal method of interpreting Seripttiic.
They also oontributed to sacred fiteratnre thetasdves te the
composition of new psalms. Attendance to the oidiaaiy needs
of nature was entirely relegated to the houfa of darkness. Some
of these reduses only ate evety second day, while others sue*
ceeded in confining the necessity to a single we^-day. But the
Sabbath was a feast on wUch, after attending to their aouls,
they indulged their bodies, like yoke animals let out to grace.
But their indulgence even then h not mentiooed to have gone
beyond the coarse bread, flavoured with salt and sometimes
hyssop, while their drink was water from the spritig. Thua
during the lax days of the week the Thenpeulae "philo-
sophszed," each in hb own ceD, but on the Sabbath they met
in a common assembly, where women also had places scRened
off from the men, and fa'stened to a discoune from one Who was
the eldest and most skilled in their doctrines.
In contrast with the drunken revels of the Greehe, Philo
describes the sober enjoyment by the Thenpeuue of the feast
of Pentecost, or rather of the eve of that festival. They
assembled together with glad faces and in white garments, -and
the proceedings were begun with prayers, in which they stood
and stretched their eyes and hands to heaven. Then they
took thdr seats in the order of their admtsaion, the men on the
right and the women on the left. Shivery being against their
principles, the younger members of the society waited on the
elder. Ko flesh was served at table, and for driidc only water
either hot or cold. 'But first came " the feast of reason and the
flow of souL" AH listened devoutly to a discourse delivered
with an emphatic slowness and penetiating beneath the letter
of the Law to the spiritual truth that ky bidden wiihin. Wheft
thepvcaident's address had been duly applauded, there CoUowed
the singing of hymns ancient and modern. Then came the meai
of the simple kind already described. And after this, a ptr-
viplium, celebrated with antiphonai and joint singing on the
part of ffleo and women and with choral dancing in imitation
of Moaca and Miriam at the Red Sea. At aunriae^ turning to the
east, they prayed that the light of truth might iUumine thcii
minds, and then returned to their studies.
Sack is the aoeonnt of the Therapcutae given by Philo. It
seems to have fonned part of the Apology for the Jews (Eus
Pr. JSs. vui. to, I is>---henoe iu hijUy rhetorical charactsr-*
froai which Etadnua gives the cxiraa abonl the Essenes;
while this in its turn may have coostitpted the fourth book of a
larpe woi^ entitled ('* saicastkally," aays Eusebius, H ,£. ii. iS)
wtfl 'Apertflr, of which the Lnalia ad Catmm fonned the
first. The Jk Vita ContemplaHoa thus owes iU pAace next to
the Quod Omms Prthut JAber, a place which it already occupied
inthecopy of Philo'sworkrpossaBed byEnsebiua (ir.£. ii. i£),
merely to the mention of the Eaaenesat the beginniBg of it.
To the modem reader the imporunce of the Thcrapeutae, as
of the Essenea, lies m the evidence th^ afford of the eziatence
of the wi oBa s t ic system long before the Christian era. We hAve
no due to the origin of the Therapentae, but it is plain that they
were already aodent when Philo described them. Eusebios
was ap much atfuck by the likencaa of the Therafyeittae to the
Christian monks of Us own day as to cUum that they were
Christians eonvccted by the preaching of St Mark. He goes so
far as to say that *' the writings oi ancient men, who were the
founders of the sect " referred to by Philo, may very well have
been the Gospeb and Epistles (which were not yet written).
This is a strong instance of how the wish may be father to the
thonght even in a fairiy critical mind, Eusebius having 8ob€
wtong on this point, others of the Fathers followed suit, so that
Philo is reckoned by Jevome aaMmg the ecclesiastical writen of
the Chifctiaaa.
Nothing ismore likely than that Christianity 'gamed adherenU
among the Tberapeutae, and that their institutions were adapted
to the new rcUgion, just as they seem to have been boirowed by
the Jews from the Egyptians. Strabo (zi. 39, p. 806) tells us
how he saw at HdiopoGs large buildings belonging to the priests^
which had «BQe been tenanted by men skilled in philosophy and
astronomy, who had been consulted by Plato and Eudomts,
but that the adrnfiia and AmqMr (the very words loed by
Philo in speaking of the Tberapeutae) had then fallen into
decay. The syttem, however, was not even then extinct, for
it was described by Chaeremonthe Stoic, a contemporary of
Strabo'a. Chaereflwa's account has been preserved by Pwphyry
{D§ Ahstdmmia, iv. 6); and has curious resemblances to Phjlo's
description of the Theiapeutae, even down to such details
as their poatore and gait and the eating of hyssop with their
bread.
After 1879 a theory became concnt in Germany (first stated
in P. E. Lttdus, DU ThtnpwUn wid ihn Steilwitt), and ac-
cepted bi En^and, to the effea that the De Vita ConUmplaiita
is not a work of Phllo^s at all, but a forgery put forward about
the end of the 3rd century and intended to procure the authority
of Philo'a name for the then rising numasticism of the Church.
But tfaii theory was signally refuted by F. C. Conybcare in his
Pkih about tko ConUmpiaiioe Life (Oxford, 1895).
See also works quoted by Conybeare (pp. 39i~399): Bouisct,
Rditiou du Juienlktmi wm muteelamenUidun Zeitalter it^oj);
A. Hamack, ui " Thenpeutea ** in Hemg-Hauck, Jto^emvL,
in. 677 (1907). . (SxG.S.)
THBRAPBOTICi (Or. ^y ass tfru r^, u» rix^ ^m Otpth
irefitti*, to serve), the name given to that branch. of medi-
cine which deals spedficalty with the means employed to cure
disease if possible, or to control and lessen its evil resuhs wfaena
cure is impossiUe.
The cure which is sought for may either be symfitomatic or
radical. Various morbid conditions of the body generally may
give rise to different symptoms. Thus a gouty condition msy
794
THERAPEUTICS
Btanifttt itself is one mtn as ecsema of the skia, givuig rise to
redness and intense itching; in another as neuralgia causing
most severe pain; in a third as bronchitis, producing a dis-
trcssing cough; in a fourth as dyspepsia, giving rise to flatulence
and intestinal disturbance; and in a fifth as inflammation of the
great toe, acoompanied by redness, swelling and pain. The
therapeutic measures employed in these different cases may be
directed towards alleviating the symptoms, such as itching,
pain, cough and swelling, in which case the treatment will be
merdy sympicmatie; or they may be directed towards removing
the root of the disease, viz. the gouty condition underiying
them all, and thus e£Eecting a radical cure. It very frequently
happens that we do not know what the underlying condition
is, and we are forced simply to relieve as best we can the most
prominent and most distressing symptoms. In symptomatic
treatment we are frequently obliged to use remedies simply
because we know they have done good before in similar cases,
and we expect them to do so again without having the lesst
idea of how they act. Thus in acute gout the most common
and most trusted remedy for removing the pain b colchicum,
but at present we do not know what action it has upon the
system, or why it gives so much ease in the pain of gout while
it has comparatively little effect upon pain due to other causes.
This plan of treatment is term^ empirkaL It is a useful
methoid, and is often very satisfactory, but i t has the disadvantage
that it admits of but little progress, and when a trusted empirical
remedy fails we do not know precisely in what direction to look
for a substitute. In contradistinction to empirical we .have
raHonai therapeutics, by which we mean the application of a
remedy, whose mode of action we know more or less perfectly,
in disnsed conditions, the nature of which we also understand
more or less fully. As an example may be taken the use of
nitrite of amyl in angina pectoris. It has been found that in
many cases of this disease the pcessure of blood within the
arteries becomes increased, probably from spasmodic contrac-
tion of the arteries themselves. Nitrite of amyl has the power of
dilating the arteries; it has consequently been employed -with
much success in lowering the blood pressure and removing the
pain in angina pectoris. But such ratioi^l knowledge as this
not only enables us to remove pain at the time, but helps us to
prevent its recurrence. For on the one hand knowledge of the
fact that nitrite of amyl lessens blood pressure has led to the
successful empbyment of other nitrites and bodies having a
similar action, and on the other the knowledge that increased
blood pressure tends to cause anginal pain leads to the pro-
hibition of any strain, any food, any exposure to cold, and also
of any medicines which woidd unduly raise the blood pressure.
Here we notice one of the greatest advantages of rational over
empirical therapeutics. In cases of angina, while the resistance
opposed to the action of the heart by ^>asm in the vessels may
be great, the heart itself may be feeble, and it may therefore
be necessary to give some remedy which will increase the power
of the heart. But if such a remedy were given alone it might,
and probably would, act on the arteries as well as: the heart,
and by causing the contraction of the vessels do motre harm
than good. But if we know what remedies will increase the
power of the heart and what will lessen resistance in the vessels,
we may combine them and thus obtab the objects we desired,
viz. removal of the pain fbetter action of the heart, and more
perfect circulation.
The testing of ideas by observation and expoiment which
was begun in anatomy by Vesalius. and by Harvey in physiology,
was applied by Morgagni to alterations in the organs produced
by disease, by Bichat to the tissues, and by Vixcfaow to the
celL The study of disease in the living body may be said to
have been began by John Hunter, developed by Magendie,
Claude Bernard, Bnywn-S6quard and others. Of late years
enoimous impulse has been given to our knowledge of the causa-
tion of disease by microbes, through the Works of Gaspard, who
injected putrid matter into the veins of a living animal; by
Villemin. who discovered that tuberculosis is infective; by
'Sine; and especially by Pasteurj Koch and others too
ttumdrous to mention, who have worked, and are ttUl working,
at the microbic causation of disease with marvellous success..
The natural end of life is that all the organs should become
old and gradually decay at the same time, so that at the last
the individual should become less and leas active, weaker and
weaker, and finally die without any definite disease, without
pain and without struggle. But this is exceptional, and
generally one part gives way before another, either on account
of one part being naturally weaker or of one part having been
overtaxed or more severely attacked by some injurious external
influence, <» by some undue preponderance of another part
of the body itself. For health consists in a due proportion
between the action of all the different parU of the body, and if
one part be unnaturally strong it may lead to injury or death.
Thus a very strong heart, although it may be useful to its pos-
sessor for many years, driving the blood rapidly through the
vessels, and supplying all his tissues with such abundant nutri-
ment as to enable him to endure great exertion, mental or
bodily, may in the end cause death by bursting a vessel in the
brain, which might have resisted the pressure of a feebler
circubtion for years longer. On the other hand, a heart that
is too feeble may cause its owner's death by its in-
ability to carry on the circulation against increased
resistance. This may occur suddenly, as when the
resistance is increased in the arterial system by a
sudden exertion or strain, and more slowly when the
resistance is increased in the pulmonary circulation •fi^
by inflammation of the respiratory passages. The ^^^'
thyroid gland, which is situated in front of the neck, yields
a secretion which passes into the blood and there tends to
maintain a state of moderate dilatation in the blood-vessels and
of oxidisation in the tissues, so that the circulation remains
good and the body-heat and muscular activity remain well
maintained. When this gland becomes enlarged, and its secre-
tion consequently increases, the vessels dilate, the heart beau
more rapidly, the skin becomes too hot, the nervous system
becomes irritable, and tremors occur in the limbs. On the other
hand, when it becomes atrophied the circulation becomes feeble,
the face heavy and dull, the patient suffers from cold, the
features grow lumpish, mental processes become sluggish, and
bodily vigour diminishes.
Disease of the whole body may thus be produced by over-
action or under-actlon of some part of it, but such causes of
disease are slight as compared with the effect of external noxious
influences, and more especially the effea of microbes. These
enter the body through various channels, and once they have
effected a lodgment they grow, multiply and give rise to various
poisons which attack and injure or dntroy different tissues or
organs in the body. Various safeguards are provided by nature
to prevent their entrance. On the skin we have a thick epidermis
through which microbes cannot pass, although if an jy^^^^^^
entrance is obtained for them by a prick or cut they
may readily grow in the tissues below and spread from them
throughout the whole body. They pass more readily through
mucous membranes, but almost every one of these is provided
not only with a coating of mucus, which obstructs their passage,
but with some reflex mechanism which tends to remove them.
Thus irritation of the eye causes winking and secretion of tears,
by which the irritant is removed; irriution of the nose causes
sneezing; of the air-passages, coughing; of the stomach,
vomiting; and of the intestines, diarrhoea. Even when they
have passed through an abrasion in the skin or through the
mucous membranes and enter the blood they are met, in some
instances, by a toxic action of the blood itselC upon them; and
in others they are attacked by the white corpuscles, which
destroy them, eat them up, and digest them, the process being
known as phagocytosis. The greater the number of leucocytes
that can reach the spot where the invading microbes enter
the more quickly can the microbes be desuoyed and general
infection prevented. The microbes appear in many cases to
attract the leucocytes (positive chemiotaxis), but when very
virulent they usually repel the leucocytes (negative chemiotaxis)
THERAPEUTICS
l9i
and excrete toxins which fciH the leocoeytei. The irritAtioii
eitised by the microbes generally is fbflowed by dilftUtion of
Che vessels o( tliat part and thus more leucocytes are brought
Qp to the fight. This dilatation may be increased by local
srarmth, and poultices or fomentations are commonly applied
to inflamed parts; recently suction apparatus has been used for
the same purpose or ligature so as to cause venous stasis (Bier's
treatment). Blisters also cause local dilatation of vessels, but
are usuafly applied to the skin for inflammation in deep-seated
parts, such as the lungs, though they aho rdieve pcdn in the
Joints in acute rheumatism. Bier increases the blood In a part
by compressing the veins and thus producing passive instead of
active congestion. The toxins produced by microbes, if too
areak to destroy the leucocytes, induce them to secrrte anti-
toxins, which not only act as antidotes to the toxins and are
injurious to the microbes, but also increase the phagocytic
power of the leucocytes (opsonius of Wright). By inoculation
with increasing doses of these the resistance of the organism
is greatly incroised and the invading microbes destroyed. The
vaccine b usually made by sterilizing a virulent culture and the
proper dose is ascertained by noting the extent to which the
power of the leucocytes to envelop and digest the microbes is
increased.
Moreover, the products of microbic secretion tend to produce
fner. The high temperature characteristic of this condition
is no doubt injurious to the body itself, but it is frequently more
so to the microbe which has invaded the organism; and thus
fever, instead of now being regarded as a morbid condition
to be suppressed by tvery means in our power, is considered io
be a reaction of the organism tending to protect it by destro3dng
the faifection. But it must be kept within limits, lest it should
of itself cause death, and here again we see the difference be-
tween empirical and rational medicine. Fever is not to be
looked upon as an unmitigated evil, to be removed If possible,
but rather as a defensive mechanism by which the organism
may prevent invasion from noxicus microbes. Nevertheless,
as in a campaign the general's plan may be tpoSkd by too hasty
or too eager action on the part of some of his troops, so the de-
fensive arrangement carried to excess may prove injurious or
fatal to the organism. Thus too great a rise of temperature
in fever may kill the patient; and the aim of therapeutics b
to restrain the temperature within proper limits, neither allowing
It to rise too high nor to fall too low. The old plan of lowering
it by means of cold baths was known to Musa, the physician
of Augustus, and by it he saved the emperor's life; but the
same treatment kQled the emperor's nephew. The introduction
of the dinical thermometer, which allows us to ascertain exactly
the amount to which the temperature rises in fever or to which
it is reduced by antipyretic measures, is to the. physician like
the compass to the sailor, and allows him to steer safely between
two extremes.
After the struggle between the organism and the microbes
is over, even when It has ended victoriously for the former^
injuries are left behind which require repair. Every one has
noticed after prok>nged fever how thin and weak the patient is,
and both the muscular and nervous power throughout the whole
body are sadly in want of repair. Where there has been local
mischief due to inflammation the dead leucocytes must be re^
moved, and this is done either by their being converted into pus
in one mass, and making their way through the tissues to the
nearest surface, whether of skin or raucous membrane, from
which it can be discharged, or they may imdergo a process
of fatty degeneration and absorption, leaving behind in some
cases cheesy matter, in othen hard connective tissue.
Poisons formed by microbes are partly eliminated by the
kidneys, partly by the mucous n>embrane of the stomach and
intestines, and possibly abo by the skfai. In old days free
elimination by these channels was hioked upon as a sign of
retumuig health, and was termed a " critical " diuresb, <Sarrhoca
or sweating, according to the channel through which the elitni-
native act had occurred.
By therapeutic measures we strive to limit as far as possible
the entry of hijiirioos microbes Into the organism, to expel or
destroy them and their harmful products, and to mainuin the
strength of the organism itself. One of the influences which b
most injurious to the body, and favoun most the invasion of
microbes, b ehiO. So much b thb the case that some dbeases
which are now known to be due to infection were formerly
attributed entirely to the effect of cold. Thus pneumonia b
now known to be due to the diplococcus pneumoniae, and yet
its invasion occura so frequently after a chill that it b almost
impossible not to look upon chill and pneumonia as cause and
effect. The reason <rf thb appears to be thai the diplococcus
b frequently present in the mouth or air-passages without
giving rise to any symptoms; but when the patient b exposed
to chill, and the tbsues of the respiratory passages are thereby
weakened, the diplococcus grows, multiplies and gives rise to
inflammation of the hmgs. Even what are khown as common
colds are probably due chiefly to microbic infcctton aided by a
chill, just as In the case of pneumonia. Therapeutic measures
which are commonly adopted In the treatment of a ccltd have
for their object to destroy the microbes before they penetrate
fairiy into the organism,, and to restore the balance of the
drculation and increase the strength of the invaded parts.
Thus carbolic add or carbolixed ammonia are sniffed into the
nose to destroy the microbes there, or the nose b washed out
by an antiseptic solution as a nasal douche; bismuth or mor-
phine are inmifflated, or suic ointment b applied, to cover the
mucous membrane, and protect It from further urritation; and
various antiseptic gargles, paints and powden appb'ed to the
pharynx in order to prevent the microbic inflammation from
extending to the pharynx and down the trachea and bronchi,
for many a severe bronchitb begins first by sneezing and nasal
irritation. Sometimes the patient fo put to bed and the dreula-
tkm b encouraged, espedaUy on the surfisce of the body, by the
use of hot spiriu and water, or opium and ipecacuanha, while
the outside of the nose b protected to a certain extent from Iobb
of heat, and consequent iiritation, by smearing It with a tallow
candle or rubbing some ointment over the skin. At the same
time, if the throat has begun to sh<)w signs of bebg involved, a
hot poultice or wet pack b applied to the neck.
Both inflammation and fever are protective processes cat-
cuhited to defend the organbm against the attacks of microbes.
But protective processes mbdirected or carried to excess may
become injurious or even dangerous to the organism. As an
mstance of misdirection, we may take the irritation which remains
in the eye after a particle of dust has been removed, or the
itching of the skin which occun hi ccaema. The vritatlon of
the conjunctiva caused by dust leads to winking of the eye^
lids, lachiymation and rubbing, which tend to remove it; but
after the dust has been removed violent rubbing tends rather to
keep up the irritation; and sometimes, if the particle of dust
remains under the eyelid and b sharp and angular, the process
of rubbing may cause it to injure the conjunctiva much more
than if it were left alone. In the same way itching b oftei
caused by the presence of insects or other irritants upon the
skin, and it tends reflexly to cause rubbing, which b useful by
removing the irritant. But when the irritation b situated in
the skin itself, as in eczema, the scratching tends to increase
inflammation, and makes the irritation worse. &i the same way,
the reflex act of coughing b useful in removing dtber fbrrign
bodies or excessive secretion from the air passages; but when
the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract b irritated and
inflamed, it produces a fcding of tickling and a desire to cough
somerimes very violently; yet the coughing simply tends to
exhaust the patient, because there b really little or nothing to
bring up. The same b the case in inflammation of the hmg
substance itself. As an example of excessive action we may
take sneezing, which b calcobted to remove irritants from the
nose, but when too powerful may cause the patient to burst a
blood-vessel In phthisb abo, although thm may be some
expectoration to bring up, yet a good deal of the irritation b in
the hing substance, and the efforts of coughing are far greater
and more continuous than are required for the removal of
79^
THERAPEyXIQS
expectoration, ud they limply abAOSt the ptdAt. In
fnflamm^tinn «{ thc .sloouch bIio such a>ntinuoi» vomiting
occaaonajly occun tlutt the patient's Jile is in danger by hia
inability to retain food; and similar danger also occurs ixom
infiammation of the intestines and consequent diarrhoea.
We will next take the various paru of the body, and consider
more in detail the therapeutic measures most commonly em*
Dtinthm ployed in the treatment of their diseases. The de-
««aMv«a. fensive poweis of the body against microbes, when
sctually on or in it, may be classed as means (i) of passive de-
fence, (a) of active defence, and {3) of repair. Besides these,
however, we must consider the protection of the whole body
from injury caused by 0>) inaction, or (Jb) overaction, or (c)
weakness of any one of its parts. The means of passive and
active defence are sometimes so closely associated that it is
difficult to distinguish between them. Thus if a little diphtheritic
q>utum were coughed into a person's eye, or some blood con-
taining anthrax bacilli were to touch a raw spot upon the hand,
the removal of microbes in either case by washing with simple
water might be regarded as a means of passive defence^ whilst
washing them away with an antiseptic k>tion might be rqganded
as active defence, because the antiseptic would tend not only
to remove but to destroy the mkrobes. In the same way,
washing the skin with spirit would tend to harden the epidermis
and thus prevent the entrance of microbes; and the application
of an ointment to an abrasion would have a similar action.
But by the addition of some antiseptic to the ointment its de-
fensive action would be converted from passive to active, and
its power to prevent infection would become greater; and if
inflammation had already aet up in the skin, the addition of
opium, belladonna, or cocaine would lessen local pain; and an
astringent, either metallic or organic, would restrain inflamma-
tion and accelerate repair. The thickening of the epidermis
in the hands and feet, which occurs from constant use, is nature's
provision for meeting the extra wear to which these parts are
subjected by m\ich \mt; but pressure is apt to cause the de-
fensive process to be carried too far, and to lead to corns,
whkh give rise to much pain and annoyance. To remove
these salicylic add dissolvied in flexible collodion is now generally
employed. When this is painted upon the part the com usually
peds off in a day or two, and the patient is cured.
But the objea of therapeutics is not merely to cure. It is,
in the words of the old formula. Curare, cile, tuto, et jmcmiit,
ffilii»ii to cure quickly, ssfely, and pleasantly. There are
•twn, therefore in most prescriptk>ns (x) a basis or chief
ingredient intaided: to cure {curare), (a) an adluvant to assist
its action and make it cure quickly (cila), (3) a oonective to
prevent or lessen any undesirable effect (IhId), and (4) ^^
vchide or exdpient to make it suitable for admlnistratwa and
pleasant to the patient (jucunde). In the remedy just mentioned
the salicylic acid forms the basis; but sometimes chloride of
sine or lactic acid is added to it to make it act more quickly,
«nd these are the adjuvants. Extract of belladonna is added to
lessen the pain which might oocur during the removal of the
oem, and this acts as a corrective, while the flexftle collodion
forma a means of applying it canveoiently, and constitutes the
vefaide;
. The surface of- the akin may be ibvaded by parautic organisDis
and may exhibit spots, which are removed by something which
will destroy the parasite, sach as ointments containing meicuriai
Salts. In psoriasis the epidermis separates in flakes at various
AMm^ spots idiich have not been subjected to pressure,
■MiiM. gnd to cure it ointment containing tar or other pro-
dncU of the dry distiUation of wood is empk>yed. When the
true skin is inflamed various appearances may arise, according
to the mtensity and extent of the inflammation, and the enip-
tkm may be papular, vesicular, pustular, tubercular, bulbous
or ulcerative. lb lessen irritatk>n the skm is protected by
dusting powders, such as oxide of sine, surch, fuller's earth, &c.,
• omtments. Irritation is lessened by lotions containing
-xs that win diminish irriubility of the nerve-encfings
, such as carbolic add, faydiocyaiiic add, motphme or
ophua, cocaiiie, hHladonna or atropine. Where the surface
is ulcerated it may be protected from external violence and
placed under favourable conditions for healing by covering it
with lint moistened with water and with oil-sQk over ii to pre-
vent ev^wratioo. If the granulations tend to become too
abundant, some astringei^, such as sulphate of copper or
sulphate of zinc, is added to the water. On the other hand,
when the ulceration is old and the circulation through it poor,
the aim of the. therapeutist is to reawaken the normal reparative
process,* to bring about increased circulation and increased
tissue change, and thereby insure healing. For this reason a
blister is placed upon the callous ulcer, whkh heals with the
fresh inflammation thus excited.
The treatment of inflammation of mucous membrane ia
based upon the same principles as inflammation of the skin,
and these too we usually associate means (x) for removing
microbes, (a) for destroying them, (3} for lessening the irritation
they produce, and (4) for repairing any mischief they have done.
Thus in the eye and ear, lotions containing an antiseptic, a
sedative and an astringent are very generally used. For
inflammation of the mouth a similar combination is used as a
mouth wash, in the throat as a gaigle, and in the nose as a wash
and sometimes as an ointment or spray, the ointment possessing
the advantage of protecting the delicate nasal mucous membrane
from irritation by stopping the entrance of irritant dust into
the nasal cavities. In the stomach we aid the vomiting by
which microbes or the products of decomposition of food are
usually eliminated by giving to the patient repeated draughts
of hot water so as to wash the stomach dean. Frequently this
is suffideiit; but if the stomach refuses to eject its objectionable
contents, we may dther give an emetic or wash it out by means
of a stomach-pump or siphon. Similar procedures are used for
the intestine, sod one of the best methods of treating the
diarrhoea consequent upon the presence of irritating substances
in the intestinal canal is to give a dose of castor-oil together
with a few drops of laudanwn. By means of the castor-oU
the irritating Substances are removed, and the Isiidsnum which
is mixed with the purgative soothes the intestine^ Even in
cases Df vtxy acute intestinal diseases similar treatment is now
pttisoed, and Instead of treating dyse«teiy sin^y by sedatives
or astxingcats^ an dimiaative treatment by means of sulphate
of magitfsia is largely employed. After the irritant has been
removed dther fibm the stomach or ibtestine, a feeling of irri-
tation of the ffluooua membrane may remain, and sickacss»
diarriioea or pain may • continue in the stomach and intestine
although the irritant is no longer present witUn them, just as
the How -of tears and desire to rob may remain, in the eye afts
the piece of grit which has occasioned U may have been re>
moved. The oooditioa which remains after the irritant has
been removed is eoe of inflammatien more or leas intense. Tht
process of inflammation is a ddensive one, but if carried too
far mi^ profve injurious.
For the purpose, of checking the inflsonmatory processes and
lessening discharge from mucous membranes astringents are
employed. Some of these are of minersl and some of vegetable
origin, but they almost all possess one chemical property in
common, namdy, they predpitate albumin. This power is
possessed alike by a ghus of brandy, by aohitioa of lime, sohihle
sdts of uac, topper, or silver, by tannic and gallic acids, as well
as vegeuble juices and extracts which contsin them. The
strength of the astringent application and the mode of its ad*
ministratfon ut varied according to the ddicacy and podtkn
of the mucous membrane affected. Thus to the eye we may use
a solution of sulphate of dnc of half a grain to the ounce, while
to the ear, urethra or vagina a solution of four to dght gfeMns
or even more may be applied. For the stomach and intestines
we empby the same drug in the form of a pill; and when it b
desired to act especially upon the mtestbes, the pills are made
of a harder consistence or less soluble preparation, or are covered
with keratin, so that they may not act much, if at all, upon the
stomach while passing through it before reaching the intestines.
The heat which occua in inflamed partt is chkfly due to the
THERAPEUTICS
797
liiier •mouBt o! f>lood dicolaHnf in tbe put on account of
the dihutioo of the vesiels. The pain is due to itKtching of
tJie nerve fibrils or compceision of them by the turgid veneto
10 the swollen tissues. This latter cause is chiefly observed when
the tissues are of a very unyielding character; for example,
when the inflammation occurs in a bone or under a thick fibrous
and onyielding membrane. The swelling, heat and pain may
sometimes be relieved by mere change of position altering the
flow of blood to the inflamed part. Thus when inflammation
occurs in tbe iinger, as in a whitbw, the pain is not only con*
stantiy severe* but it is increased by every pulsation of the
heart, and thus has a throbbing character. By raising the
hand nearly to a levd with the head both the constant pain
and the severity of the throbs may be relieved, as the blood is
sot sent with such great force into the arteries and returns
more readily through the veins;. In other parts of the body
the same relief may be obtained by raising the inflamed part as
high as possible. Rdief is frequently given also by both heat and
cold, and at first sight it seems strange that agents having such
aa opposite action should each produce a similar effect. The
reason probably is that the application of cold causes oohtrac-
taoo of the arteries leading to the inflamed part, while heat by
dihiting the vessels around forms a side channel through which
the bbod passes, the tension in the seat of inflammation being
thus lessened in both cases. When the inflammation occurs
in soft parts where the surrounding vcsseb can be readily
dilated, heat often affords more relief to the pain than cold, but
#hen the inflammation is in a bone or in unyielding fibrous
ttssnes, cold generally gives more relief. For example, the pain
of a gum<boil is gentry relieved more by warmth, because the
yielding tissues of the gum, mouth and cheek can be readily
rdaxed by beat and their vessels dilated; but when the pain
is dependent upon inflammation In the hard unyielding socket
of a tooth, oold generally gives greater relief. The removal of
blood, either by incision or by the application of leeches, some-
times gives considerable relief to the pain and tension of inflamed
parts. Blisten applied at some distance from inflamed parts
are also sometimes useful; and probably they produce this
good effect by causing a reflex contraction of the arteries in the
|^^fl^t^M^ part, and thos acting like a cold application. Certain
dru^ have the power of relieving inflammation by slowing the
heart and rendering iu impulse more feeble. Amongst those
are to be classed smaO doses of aconite and colchicum; the
fonner especially tends to lessen the process of inflammation
generally, when it is not too severe. There can be little doubt
that the intensity of inflammation frequently depends very
BKich on the condition of the blood, and that by altering the
blood Inflammation may be lessened. Thus free purgation,
and especially purgation by choUgogues and salines, has long
been leoogniaed as a useful ineans of reducing the inflammatory
process. For example, a mercurial pill at night, followed by
salts and senna in the morning, will often relieve the pain in
toothache or gum-boil, and lessen inflMumation not only in the
mouth, but other parts of the body as well. Such remedies are
termed nHpkhgitHc. Venesection (blood-letting) at one time
was highly esteemed as an antiphlogistic measure, and while
it is pnsible that it has now fallen too much into disuse, there
can be no doubt that at one time it was veiy greatly abused,
and was carried to such an excess as to kill many patients
who would have recoivered perfectly had they been let alone.
Ahhoufih the high temperature in an inflamed part is chiefly
due to the increased drcubtion of blood In it, y^ the presence
of inflammatloB appears to cause increased formation of heat
either in the inflamed part Itself or in the body generally,
because we rai^ find inflammation exist to any extent without
the tempenture of the body being raised and a febrile oonditiott
Two very eld remedies for fever are acetate of ammonia and
wkmm ether. These were formerly given empirically, simply
because they had been found to do good. Now we can see
the reason for their adnunistratlon, because the nitrous ether,
wasiat'Jig chiefly of tthyl nitrite, dOaUs tht nperfidal imcli
and thus aOows greater escape of heat from the surface; while
acetate of ammonia, by acting as a diaphoretic and stimulat*
ing the secretion of sweat, increases the loss of heat -^ ^^
by evaporation. When a patient is covered with *
several blankcu, toss of heat from the surface both by ndlatlba
and evaporation is to a great extent prevented, but if a cradle
be placed over him, so as to raise the bedclothes and allow
of free circulation of air around his body, both radiation an4
evaporation will be increased and the temperature consequently
bwered. If his body be left uncovered except by the sheet or
blanket thrown over the cradle, the loss of heat Is still greater,
and it may be much increased by sponging the surface with
either hot or cold water so as to leave it sli^tly moist and in*
crease evaporation. The temperature may be still further re-
duced by placing vessels filled with ice inside the cradle. When
the patient is very restless, so that cradling is impossible, a wet
pack may be employed, a sheet wrung out of cold water being
wrapped round him, and over this a blanket. The pack has
the double effect of restraining his movements and thus lessen^
ing the production of heat, while at the same time it dilates the
vesseb of the skin and produces loss of heat. The restraint
which it imposes and the equal distribution of heat over the
surface frequently cause sleep quickly in patients who have
previously been wildly delirious and entirely sleepless. When
the temperature continues to rise in spite of wet sponging and
cradling, recourse must be had to the cold bath. The bath
shouM be brought to the bedside and the patient, wrapped in a
sheet, should be lifted into it by two attendants. The water
should be at the temperature of 90^ and gradually reduced by
the removal of hot water and displacement by cold, until the
temperature of the patient as taken in the mouth is reduced to
about 99^* or 99^ After this the patient should be taken out
and again put into bed. It is inadvisable to lower the tempera«>
ture quite to the normal while the patient is in Uie bath, as fre-
quently it falls after his removal, and may fall so far as to induce
collapse. In cases where no bath is available a large mackintosh
sheet may be spread upoa the bed under the patient, the sides
and top may be raised by pillows, and cold water may be
applied to the surface of the body with Urge sponges. Tbe
mackintosh sheet forms a shallow bath, and the water may
afterwards be run off from it at the lower end of the bed.
Another way of applying cold is to dip an ordmary sheet into
cold water, apply it for three or four minutes to the surface of
the body, then remove it and replace it by another sheet while
the first one is being dipped in water. By the alternate use of
the two sheets, or by the use of one quickly wrung out of cold
water as soon as it becomes warm, the patient's temperature
may be rapidly reduced.
There are a number of dxufgf which have a very powerful
action in lowering temperature. Most of these belong to the
aromatic group of bodies, although one of them, antipyrin,
belongs rather to the futfurol group. Carbolic add has an
antipyretic action, but on account of its poisonous properties
it cannot be employed as an antipyretic Salicync add has a
strong antipyretic action, and is most commonly used In the
form of its soditmi salt, which is much more soluble than the
add itself. Amongst other antipyretics, the most important
are quinine, phenaoetin and antifebrin. These probably lessen
fever by thdr action upon the nerve centres which regulate the
temperature of the body, and partly by ^hdr peripheral action
in causing the Secretion of sweaL Very high fever in itself
win cause death, the fatal temperature in rabbits bdng 114-6*.
JBefore death occurs the pulse and respiration become exceed-
ingly rapid and weak, and complete unconsdoxisness sets in.
That these symptoms are simply due to heat is shown by the
fact that if the temperature be quickly reduced by the applica-
tion of ccM the symptoms at once subside. But the drlirium
which is common in fever, although it may be partly due to rise
of temperature, is very often due to poisons in the blood, for in
some cases it occurs with quite a low temperature, xoi* or xoi*,
whereas in othen the temperature rises to 104* and xo$* with no
delirium whatever. The presence of toxins in the blood nr
798
THERAPEUTICS
affects the bnin, causing delirium, but also othtat organs, the
heart and lung, and may cause fatal syncope or respiratocy
failure.
^ Many yeais ago Dr S. L. Mitchill (i 764-1831) pointed out in
America the resemblance which exists between symptoms of
j^^^ poisoning by snake venom and infective fevers.*
S. Weir Mitchell and otheis have shown that serpent
venom consists chiefly of albumoses, and the toxins
formed by infective bacilli have a somewhat similar
chemical nature. Calmette and Fraser found that when small
doses of snake venom, insufl&dent to cause death, are injected
into an animal, temporary disturbance is produced; but after
a few days, the animal recovers, and a larger dose is then re-
quired to produce any symptoms. By gradually increasing
the dose the animal becomes more and more resistant, until at
last a dose fifty times as great as that which would at fint have
produced immediate death can be injected without doing the
animal any harm. If a horse be chosen for the experiment,
a considerable q>iantity of blood may be withdrawn without
injuring the animal. When this is clotted the serum is found
to act as an anti-venin, so that when mixed with the venom
of a snake it renders it harmless. Although this result is best
obtained when the venom and serum are mixed in a glass before
injection, yet if they be injected at the same time in different
parts of the body the animal will still be protected and the poison
will not produce its usual deadly results. What occurs with
snake venom takes place also when the toxins are formed by
microbes, and a new method of treatment by anti-toxic serums
has been introduced of Ute years with great success. This is
most coomionly and successfully used in the treatment of
diphtheria. This disease depends upon the presence of a bacillus
which grows rapidly at the back of the throat and in the air-,
paf^ag^ spedaUy of children, causing the formation of a mem-
brane which, by plugging the windpipe^ causes suffocation and
death. At the same time it produces a poison which causes
inflammation of the nerves, leading to paralysis, Which some-
times proves fataL By growing this bacillus in broth a toxin
is fom^ which remains in solution and can be separated from
the bacilli themselves by filtration. This toxin-containing
broth is injected into a horse in increasing doses, just as in the
case of the serpent venom, and after the resistance of the horse
has been much increased it is bled into sterilixed vessels and the
blood is allowed to coagulate. The serum is then removed and
its anti-toxic power tested by ascertaining the amount necessary
io counteract a given amount of active toxin in a guinea-pig of a
certain size, the standard weight being three hundred grammes.
The serum, the strength of which has thus been ascertained*
is distributed in bottles and injected in the proper quantity
under the skin of children suffering from diphtheria. If used
at an early stage of the disease, and in sufficient quantity, the
results are wonderful. The same method of serum therapeutics
has been used in other infective diseaseSi but not with the same
success.
Another therapeutic method which is historically much
older than that of serum therapeutics is that of inoculation.
iMoito* The virulence of infective diseases varies in different.
O^* epidemics, and at different times in the same epidemic.
It had been noted that many infective diseases did not attack
an individual a second time, the first attack appearing to protect
from subsequent ones. The idea of inoculation, therefore, was
to infect an individual with a mild form of the disease, so that
be should escape infection by a more virulent one. This was
tried largely in the case of smallpox, and once at least by Dr
Erasmtis Darwin in the case of scarlet fever. Hie worst of this
method was that the disease thus inoculated did not always
prove of a mild character, and in the case of Dr Erasmus
Darwin's son the scarlet fever was exceedingly severe and
very neariy proved fatal. To Edward Jenner we owe the dis-
covery that vacdnation protects against smallpox, and it is
now generally acknowledged that smallpox and vaccine are
> Quoted by Weir Mitchell. " Researches on the Venom of the
^•^fikanaki^^J_SmWuotaaH dnUribiawu (i860}, p. 97.
piobaUy the laiBe disette, the vims of wMch is modified and its
virulence kmened by passing through the body of the oow
Pasteur found that the germs of anthrax oonld be cultivated
outside the body and their virulence weakened either by growing
them at too hi^ a temperature or in an unsuitable medium.
By inoculating first with a weak varus and thai with others
which were ttxonger and stronger, he was able completely to
protect oxen cither from the effects of inoculation with tht
strongest virus or from infection through conuct with other
animals suffering from the disorder. On the other hand, he
found the weakened virus could be again strengthened by inocu*
bting a feeble anim^ such as m guinea-pig a day or two old with
it, and then inoculating stronger and stronger animals: an in>
crease in strength was gained with each inbculation, until at
last the virus could attack the strongest. A similar increase
in virulence appears to occur in plague, where animah, especially
rats and mice, seem to be affected before human beings, and
not only incxease the virulence ef the microbes, but convey the
infection. Two methods of protective inoculation have been
used. In one, Haffkine employs tlie toxins obtained by growing
plague badlli in broth for five or six weeks, and then heating
the whole to 65* or 70" C. so as to destroy the baciBL This
preparation is ptophylactfc, but does not seem to be contive.
Yersin has prepared a serum from horses in the same way as
diphtheria anti-toxin, and this is said to have a cucativc action
during the attack. In the same way sterilised cultures of
typhoid bacilli have been used to protect against attacks of
typhoid fever, and an anti-typhoid serum has been employed
with intent to curfe. Protection does seem to be afforded, but
the curative action of the serum is still somewhat doubtful.
Although the anti-toadns which axe used in the cure of infective
diseases are not dangerous to life, yet they sometimes cause
unpleasant consequences, more etpedally an urticarial eruption
almost exactly like that which follows eating mussels or other
shell-fish. Sometimes the swelling of the skin is much more
general, so that the whole body may be so swoDen and puffy as
exactly to resemble that of a person suffering from advanced
kidney disease. These disagreeable results, however, are not
to be compared with the b^efits obtained by the injection of
anti-toxic serum, and this method of treatment is Itkdy to
maintain iu place in therapeutics.
For many years pepaine has been used as 1 remedy in dys-
pepsia to supplement the deficiency of digestive juioo i& the
stomach, and it has been used popularly in dyspepsia ajm
for a still longer period. From time immemorial ! >■> ■
savages have been accustomed to eat the hearts of P*""^
lions and other wiki animals, under the belief that they will
thereby obtain courage and strength like that of the animal
from which the heart had been Uken, but in 1889 Brown-
Sequard proposed to use testicular juice as a general tonic and
stimulant. Observations wero made on the connexion between
thyroid gland and myxoedema, which appeared to allow that
this disease was dependent upon atrophy of the ^and. Accord*
ingly the liqiiid extracts of the glaiid, or the gUnd substance
itseU compressed into tablets, have become Urgely used in the
treatment of the disorder. The success which has been achieved
has led to the use of many other organs in a raw or compKsaed
form, or as extracts, in other diseases; e.f. of suprarenal
capsule in Addison's disease, of bone marrow in pernicious
ansffmia, of thymus and suprarenal capsule in ext^thalmic
goitre, of kidney in renal disease, and of pituitary body in
acromegaly. To this method of treatment the name of organo-
therapeutics or opo-therapy has been giveiL The first scientific
attempt to employ portions of raw organs in the treatment of
.disease was nusde by Lauder Brunton in diabetes in 1873,
sixteen years before Brown-S£quard*s paper on the effect of
testicular juice. From considering the nature of diabetes, be
had oome to the conclusion that many cases were due to im-
perfea oxidation of sugar in the body; that this oxidation was
normally carried out by a ferment in the muscles, and that
probably the disease was in some cases dependent upon ab-
sence of the ferment. He tried to supply this by giving raw
THERAPEUTICS
799
; snd glycciine ortfict of nieit, but aWwugh he
to get tome benefit fnnn die t r ea t ment, h ms not wISdeBtly
mriied to sttzact gcnefil atteatioii. His attempts to iwiatc
a glycolytic ferment from flesh were also only paitiaUy socoes-
fuL One of the great difficultica in the my of ap|:4yiag this
treatment is that in aU probability many of the fennents or
ODsymes are altered dunng the pnoocm of abeoiptifln in the same
way as the aoimal fennents of digestion, and wdesf the tissue
CB<ymes can be isolated and injected subcotaneously the desired
icsults will not be obtabied. The most stxiking of all the resnlu
of organo-therspy are thoae obtained in mynedema. In this
disease the face is heavy, pnffy and expressionkss, the lips
thkk, the speech slow, the hands shapekm and q>ade4ike, the
patient aptthetic, the drcolathm stow and the extremities
ookL Under the influence of thyroid gland these qrmptoms all
disappear, and the patient is frequently rest ore d to a nonnal
condition. When the thyroid glaad is abaent in children, not
only is the espresalon of the face doll and heavy as In the adult,
but the growth both of body and mind is anested, and the
chUd remains « stunted idiot. The eflect of thyroid gbnd in
such esses is manreUoos, the child growinic in body and becoming
hoahhy and intclUgent. In the case of the thyroid the function
of the i^d appears to be to prepare a secretion which is poured
out into the blood and alters tlsine^hange. When the thyroid
taUeu or eztnct of thyroid are given in too laige quantities
to patients suffering from myioe d em a, the symptoms of
myioedema disappear, Irat in their place appear others in-
dicative of increased meUbolism and aecderated circulation.
The pulse-mte becomes very rspid, the eztremitics become
warm, so that the patient ia obliged to wear few ctothcs, the
temper becomes irritable, the patient nervous, and a fine tremor
is observed in the hands. Oa stopping the administration of
thjrroid these symptoms again disappear. When the thyroid
Is hypertrophied, as in Gmves's disesse, the same symptoms
are observed, and these are probably dne to increased secretion
from the thyroid. At the same time other symptoms, such as
exophthalmos, may appear, which have an independent origin
and are not due to the secretion 4if the gbnd. The whole of
the secretion here is poured into the blood and not at all on to
a mucous surface, and herein the thyroid gland differs largely
from such glands as the pancreas or peptic and intestinal glands.
But it seems now probable that sll glands which have what
may be termed an extenud secretion like the pancreas, stomach,
intestine, skin and kidneys have also an internal secretion,
so that while they are pouring out one secretion from the ducts
Into the intestine or external air, they are also pouring into the
lymphatics, and thus into the blood, an internal secretion.
lis fact, a splitting appears to take pkce in the process of
secretion somewhat resembling that which takes piaoe in the
fbrmatiott of a toxin and anti'toxin. The secretion of some
digestive glands would prove poisonous if absorbed unchanged.
For example, the trypsin of the pancreas (see NlTimiTiOM)
dignts albunuaous bodies in neutrsl or alcoholic solution, sikI
K the whole of that which is secreted in the pancreas for the
digestioo of meat in the intestine were absor1)ed unchanged into
die drculatioo, it wouU digest the body itself and quickly
cause death. The secretion of trypsin by the pancreas may
therefoee be looked upon as the formation of a toxin. We do
■ot know at present if any corresponding anti'toxin or ami-
trypsin, as we may term it, is returned into the lymphatics or
Mood from the gland, but the pancreas, which in addition to
secreting trypsm secretes a disstatie ferment forming sugar
from starch, pours this into the intestine and secretes at the
same time a ^ycolytic ferment which breaks np sugar, snd this
latter passes into the Uood by way of the lymphatics. Thus
liie gland not only breaks up starch into sugar in the intestine,
but breaks up the sugar thus formed alter it has been absorbed
into the blood. It is known that several, perhaps very many,
if not ail g^nds have also the power of secreting subsunces to
which Starling has given the name of " hormones." These
pass into the blood and cause other glands to secrete. Thus
an acid ia the duodenum causes it, to secrete a hormone to which
the name of "Moetin" has been given. This passes to the
pancreas and causes increased secretion from that glknd. It
is probable that the pancreas in its turn also secretes wmething
which activatea a ferment in the muscles. It is evident thoo-
fore that the connexion between the different ^ands of the
body is a^very complicated one and that tSie effecu of a drug
which acts upon any one of them may be of a very far-readiing
character. It is by no means improbable that all gUnds have
a double or even triple function, and that sometimes the external
may be even leas impostant than the mtenal secretion. On
this point, however, we have but little definite knowledge, and
a great field is open for future research. At the same time,'
there are many indications of the importance of an internal
secretion in popular treatment. For example, there are many
people who fed very much better after profuse perspiration,
and aa sweat appears to contain little but water and a few ndts,
it is not inqKobabie that the impcovement in their condition
is due rether to the intenud secretaon from the skhi than to the
dinunation effected by the sweat. It is probable that the
kidneys also have an hitemal secretion, and that the ghat
oedema sometimes found in kidney disease is rether due to the
action of some protdd body resembling in its effecu the strepto-
coccus anti-toxin, than to accvuiulation of water due to im-
perfect action of the kidney. SimBariy the beneficial effects
of purgation may be due not only to the elimiiuition which
takes place through the bowel, but also to the internal secretion
from the intestinsi gfamda.
The health of the body depends upon the proper kind and
supply of food, upon its proper digestion and abaorption, on
the proper metabolism or tiasuo<hange in the body, and the
proper excretion of waste. We have considered how these may
be disturbed by microbes from without and from within. We
have also considered in a general way the treatment of. load
diseases by passive protection, active protectton and repair of
waste; but both maintenance of health and repair of waste
depeiKi very largely upon the condition of the blood. When
this is healthy the attacks of microbes are resisted, wonnds heal
readily^ and patients recover from serious diseases which in
persons of debUiUled oonstUution would prove fataL In order
to keep the blood in a satisfactoiy condition it must be well
siqtplied with fresh nutriment, and the products AMHKta*
of waste freely eliminated. The food, required for ««tf«AtP
the body may be divided into five kind>--carbo- ••**•■•
hydrates, such as surches and sugars; fats; proteids, such
as meat and eggs; salts;' and last, but not least, water.
Water forma almost three-fifths of the weight of the body, w
that it amounts to more than all the other constituents pot
together. Without it life would be impossible, and it is well
recognised that death from thirst is more awful than death from
hunger. The healthy oigannm can adapt itself to great varieties
both in regard to the quality and quantity of food; but when
health begins to fail much care may be required, and many
aflfflcnts arise from dyspepsia. Imperfect digestion is very
often caused by defective teeth or by undue haste in eating,
so that the food is bolted instead of being sufficiently masticated
and insalivated. The food thus reaches the stomach in large
lun^ which cannot be readily digested, and either remain
there till they decompose and give rise to irriution in the
stomach itself, or pass on to the intestine, where digestion is
likewise incomplete, and the food is ejected without the proper
amount of nourishment having been extracted from it; while
at the same time the products of its deoompositkm may have
been absorbed and acted as poisons, giving rise to lassitude,
discomfort, headadie, or perhaps even to irritability and sleep-
lessness. Much dyspepsia wouki be avoided by attention to
the condition of the teeth, by artificial teeth when the natural
ones are defective, and by obedience to one or two simple rules:
(i) to eat slowly; (2) to masticate thorou^y; (3) to take 00
liquid with meak excepting breakfast, but sip half a pint of hot
water on rising in the morning, on going to bed at night, and
again about aa hour before luncheon and dinner. The object
of taking no liquid with meals is that it ensures mastication
8oo
THERAPEUTICS
being more oomptete, becanto penoos cuuiot muh the tm-
masticated food down by dxmkizkg, and it pieventa the gaatric
Juice from being greatly diluted, and ao allowa it to digeat more
npidly. Should these lulea be insuflfident, then (4) proteid
and farinaceous food should be taken in aepaxate meala —
farinaceous food at breakfast, proteid alone at lunch; farinaceous
in the afternoon, and proteid again in the evening. Ihe reason
for this is that farinaceous foods are digMted in the intestine
'and not in the stomach, where they may undergo fermentation,
whereas proteid foods are to a great eactent digested in the
stomach. When the secretion of gastric juice is deficient it
may be excited by gastric tonics, such as ten grains of bicar>
bonate of soda and a drachm of compound tincture of gentian
in water shortly before meals, and may be supplemented by the
administration of pepsin and hydrochloric add 'after meals.
When the nervous system is below par, and both secretion and
movements are defident in the stomach* nervine tonics, mch as
nux vomica or strychnine, are most usefuL .
High tension in the arteries is often asaodated with aleepless-
nesa, the pressure of bk>od being such that the circulation in
Stovpta*' the brain is constantly maintained at a high rate of
«>u. speed and the brain is unable to obtain rest. The
means of producing sleep may be divided into two classes:
those (i) which lessen the circulation, and which (2) diminish
the exdubility of the brain cells. The circulation in the brain
may be lessened by warmth to the feet, cold to the head, warm
food in the stomach, warm poultices or compresses to the
abdomen, antipyretics, which reduce the temperature and con-
sequently slow the heiXB of the heart in fever, and cardiac or
vascular tonics, which slow the heart and tend to restore tone
to the bbod-veasels, so that the drculatioo in the brain may be
more efficiently regulated. Amongst those which lessen ex*
dtability of the brain-cells are opium, morphine, hyoscyamus,
chloral, sulphonal, trional, paraldehyde, chloralanude, cfaioralose,
hop and many others. A combination of the two kinds of
remedy is sometimes useful, and chloral sometimes succeeds
when other things fail, because it depresses the circulation as
well as lessens the activity of the brain-oells.
' Irritation of sensory nerves tends to cause contraction of the
vessds and to raite the blood pressure, and where pain is
p^^ present opium or morphine is the most efficient
sedative. The sensation of pain is felt in the brain,
and the cause of it may be in the sensory centres of the brain
ak>ne, as in cases of hysterical pain, with no lesion to cause it.
Ordinarily, however, it is due to some peripheral irritation
which is conducted by sensory nerves to the spinal cord and
thence -up to the sensory centre in the brain. Pain may be
stopped by removing the cause of irritation, as, for example,
by the extraction of a carious tooth or by rendering the nerve-
endings insensitive to irritation, as by the application of cocaine;
by preventing its transmission along the spinal cord by anti-
pyrin, phcnacetin, acetanilide, cocaine, &c.; or by dulling the
perceptive centre in the brain by means cX opium or its alkaloids,
by anaesthetics, and probably also, to a certain extent, by
iantipyrin and its congeners.
Both sleeplessness and pain are sometimes due to the action
of toxins absorbed from the intestine, and both-of them may
ji%ft sometimes be relieved more efficiently by thorough
umiBM. purgation than by narcotics. Another condition
which is probably due to toxins is high pressure within
the arteries. When this continues for a length of time it tends
by itself to cause deterioration of the blood-vessels and leads to
death either by cerebral apoplexy or by cardiac failure. It is
therefore very important to discover high tension at an early
period. It mav be diminished or iu increase prevented by a
diet from which red meat and meat extracts are excluded, by
the use of the Uctic acid badllus, by the administration of
laxarives and cholagogues to regulate the bowels, and by the
use of iodides and nitrites. By such rCgime and medicines
'mes be prolonged for many years.
/oils action also leads to defective secretion and
e intestine, sometimes with flatulent accumula-
tion and sometimes whh constipatioa. In such esses noz vomka
or strychnine is usefuL Flatulmt distension in the stomach or
boweb is partly due to air which has been swaUowed riaia
and partly to gas which has been formed by the Amo*.
decomposition of food. The stomach may become distended with
gas on account of add fermentation leading to the frequent
swallowing of saliva, and both this form of ^tulence and that
caused by the actual formation of gas are much diminished by
such drugs as tend to prevent fermentation. Amongst the best of
these are carbolic add in doses of one or two grains, creosote in
one or two drops, and sulpluxarbolate of soda in doses of ten
grains. Othem which may be mentioned are salicylate of bis*
muth, saktl, /3-naphthol and naphthalene. By preventing fef>
mentation in the intestine these also tend to prevent or check
diarrhoea, and they may do good after the irritant has been re-
moved by castor dL After the irritant has been removed and
fermentation stopped, the irritation still remaining in the in-
testinal wall may be soothed by chalk mixture and bismuth,
to which if necessary small quantities of opium may be added.
In cases where diazrhoea ia very obstinate and lasts for weeks,
sulphuric add is sometimes more efficadous than alkalis; and
in chronic colica it may be necessary to treat the mucous mem-
brane by local application of astringent solutions. For this
purpose solutions of su^hate of copper or of nitrate of silver
may be gently introduced into the bowel in quantitiea of a
quart at a rime. It is essential that a large quantity should be
used, as otherwise the seat of irritation may not be reached by
the aatringent. Flatulence and diarrhoea as well as many
general disorders are often due to intestinal depression caused
by microbes. To these injurious nucrobcs Metcfanikoff has
given the name of " wild," and he proposes to restore health
by giving '* tame " microbes, such as lactic acid badllL This
treatment on the princ4>le of " setting a thief to catch a thief "
is frequently very usefuL The lactic acid badlli are given
dther in the form of tablets or milk soured by them, or ^ecse
made from the sour milk. Tbe*most effident form is soured
milk, which acts as a food as well as medidne.
Constipation is so common that it may be almost looked
upon BS the normal condition in dvillzed countries. Two of
its chief causes probably are (i) improvement in cwtp.
cookery, whereby the harder and more irritaUng »«'»fc
parts of the food are softened or removed; and (a) improvement
in grinding machinery, whereby the harder and mote stimulat-
ing parts of the grain are separated from the finer flour which is
used for bread. In consequence of the abience of merhanical
stimulant the bowels act more sk>wly, and constipation is the
result. It may be con^dembly diminished by a return to a
more natural system of feeding, as by using brown bread instead
of white, by taking oatmeal porridge, and by eating raw or
cooked fruits, such as apples, oranges, pnmes and fi^ or pie-
serves made of fruit, such as laspberry and stiawberry jam,
marmalade, &c., by vegetables or by dried and powdered sea-
weed. Should these means fall, aperients may be used. The
commonest are lenna m the form of compound liqaonce powder,
sulphur in the form of locenges, cascara sagrada, dther in
Ubleu or in the form of liquid or dry extract, ihubarb,cok)cynth
and especially aloes. The last acts chiefly upon the lower bowel,
and forms a constituent of nearly ev«ry purgarive pill. The
medidnes above mentioned may be taken dther in a moderate
dose at bedtime or in the form of a dinner pill, or they may
be taken in small doses three times a day just before or after
meals. Some sufferers from constipation find that they get
greater relief from salu dissolved in water, or from natural
aperient water taken on rising in the morning, and othere again
find that the best way of opening the bowels is to inject one or
two drachms of glycerine into the rectom, or use it as a sup-
pository. If these means fail, exerdse, massage and ctectridty
may help a cure.
The most common diseases of malassimlktion (or *' meta-
bolic " diseases) are gout, rheumatism and diabetes. In health
most of the nitrogenous waste in the body is diminated as urea,
but hi gout uric* add is dther formed in too great quantity or
THBRAKBUTICS
Soi
100 liule li tliminAtAd, ao that It tends to be depooted aa urate
oC aoda in the Jotntt and other tistuei. Two meam of tKating
akMMt it by diet have been pfopoied. One k to put the
mimmi' patient oa an almost complete vegetarian diet, ao as
y^.***^ to limit both the amount of uric add introduced
into the body as well as its focmation in the body.
The other plan is to use an exclusively meat diet, combined
with the ingestion of a large quantity of hot water, so as to
cause free elimination. Where neither method is strictly
pursued it is usual to forbid to gouty patients sugar, pastry
and pickles, and to forbid heavy wines, espcdaliy Burgundy and
porL During an atuck of acute gout nothing relieves so much
as Golchicuffl, but during the intervals potash or lithia salts
taken in water are advisiUile, as tending to prevent the deposits
of urate of soda. In true diabetes, which probably originates
in the central nervous system, or in disease of thi; pancreas, as
well as in the glycosuria common in gouty patients, sugar in
every form should be entirely forbidden, and starchy food
restricted to within narrow limits. The remedy most trusted
to in this disease is opium and its alkaloids, morphine and
codeine. In acute attacks of rheumatism the remedy paf
txcdknu is salicylate of soda, whidi reduces the temperature,
relieves the pain, and removes the svellinga from the joints.
Rest in bed should be insisted iq)on for a longer time than ap-
pears actually required, because acute rheumatism tends to
bring on cardiac changes, and is more likely to do this when the
heart is exdted than when the patient is kept at rest. In
chronic rheumatism the chief remedies are salicylate of soda,
and iu alh'es iodide of potassium, guaiacum and sulphur, while
massage, liniments and baths arc bene&dal as local applications.
Elimination of waste-products is one of the most important
points in regard to health, and when this is interfered with by
disease of the Iddneys, the life of the patient Is rendered more
or less uncertain and the health frequently seriously impaired.
In some cases of chronic inflammation of the kidneys, where the
ducaae is not exteitsive, the patient may continue in fair heahb
for a number of years, provided attention be paid to the follow*
ing nales^-<I) llie body must be kept warm, and diOls must be
scrupufeusly avoided; (s) the digestion mnst be attended to
carefully, so that no excess of poisonous bodies is formed in the
intestine or absorbed from it; (3) eliminating channels such as
the skin and bowel must be kept active. It Is usual to reduce
the quantity of proteid food to a minimum, in order to lessen
the amount of nitrogenous waste to be accreted by the kidneys.
Sometimes an entirely milk diet is useful, but in others it does
not agree, and a more liberal diet is essential. Alcohol should be
avoided as much as possible. The small contracted kidney,
which is so common in elderly gouty people, is usually associated
with a very large secretion of urine containing only a minute
trace of albumin. The tension within the bh>od-vesaels is
generally high, and the patients run a risk of angixul attacks or
of apoplexy. A neariy vegetarian diet and a complete ab*
stinence from alcoholic stimulants is the ideal in such cases,
but it must be modified to suit individuals, as sometimes very
strict linutations prove injurious. The daily use of potash, and
especially nitrate of potash, tends to reduce the tenston and
inoease the patient's safety, but if pushed too far may some-
ttfl(ies render him very weak and depressed.
It has already been mentioixd that Crater is absolutely
necessary for the body: by taking it hot it does not lie like a
Oirt$mm4 weight 00 the stomach, and by Uking it an hour
"^"■••'* before meals it washes out the remnanU of the prfe.
vfous meal; and being absorbed into the Uood, it probably
feadeit the secretion of gastric juice freer and accelerates
digestion, instead of diluting it and interfering with the digestive
processes. Where the stomach and bowels are irritable, all food
likely to cause mechanical irritation should be avoided, such as
skins, bones, fibres and seeds. In some cases of diarrhoea an
entirely milk diet has to be prescribed, and in the diarrhoea
ef children it is sometimes necessary to alternate a diet of barley
water with one of beef Juice or white of egg and water, or to
give whey instead of milk. The drinking of large qnantitirt
of whey b used as ft means of cure for dyspepsia in addts, and
«Iso in cases of chronic bronchitis. The whey is drunk warm,
and for this cure it is usual to go to some Alpine resort when
pasturage is abundant and fresh milk can be had at all times of
the day. The cure is greatly helped by the fresh air and sun*
shine of such pUoes, among which are Interlaken, Rigi-Scheideck
and Weggis in Switserland; lachl and Meran in Austria;
Harzburg, Relchenhall and Sanct Blasien in Ger^umy. Another
therapeutic method is the so-called "grape cure," in which,
along with a regulated diet, five or six pounds of grapes arc eaten
daily. As the grapes contain a quantity of water and of salts,
they tend to lessen the amount of food taken, to increase the
action of the boweb, and to stimulate the kidneys. The " grape
cure " b used both in chronic disease of the stomach arid in-
testioes with or without constipation, and also in cajes of gout
or ailments depending 'upon a gouty constitution. The chief
places where It b carried on are in the neighbourhood of the
Rhine, on the Lake of Geneva and in Tirol Amongst places
in the Rhine and its vicinity may be mentioned Kreuznach,
Neustadt, Rildesheim and St Goar; on the Lake of Geneva, are
Montreux and Vevey; and -in Tirol Grics and Meran. The so-
called " Sahsbury " cure omsbts of living entirely upon minced
beef and h6t water. It sometimes answers very well in persons
troubled with flatulence, since meat does not g^ve rise to the
. same amount of gas in the Intestines as carbohydrates. Puring
its contiiuiance fat is absorbed from the subcutaneous tissue,
and patients become very much thinner, so that it not only
lessens flatulence, but reduces obesity. It b, in fact, very mncb
the same system as that proposed a number of years ago by
Banting (see Corpulcncb>. It is very important for those
who are trying thb diet to bear In ndnd the necessity of abun*
dance of water, because sometimes they may be tempted ta
kssen the water on account of the inconvenience produced
either by frequent micturition or too profuse sweats. If this
meat diet be continued with too small a proportion of water,
a gouty condition may be brought on. Tlib diet has been re-
commended in gout, and no doubt the essential part of it b the
hot water, but there can be little doubt that in fat gouty pe6pk
it b often usefuL An entirely opposite dietary b that in n^ch
butcher's meat b completely excluded and proteids reduced to
a minimum, as advocated by Dr Haig. Thb dietary also b
very useful In gout, but it answers better In thin gouty people
than in fat ones.
The dietaries already mentioned, the whey cure, the grape
cure, the meat cure and the vegetarian cure, are all more or
less systems of starvation, one or other article of ordinary diet
being either reduced to a minimum or omitted altogether.
In three of them at least— the whey cure, the grape cnre and
the meat cure— a diminution in qne or other of the solid goi>-
stituents of food b associated with the ingestion of an unusually
large quantity of water. In visiting the most famous watering-
places, it b curious to mte how one finds, in the varfous waters,
here some chloride, there some sulphate, here ioae'potash»
there some magnesium, but in all of them we find Water. In
watdiing the troops of patients who go to the weUs we notice
that most of them do more eariy rising, take more regular
exerdse, and drink more water in the course of a month at the
weQ than they would do in the rest of the year at home. Ths
watering-places divide themselves, according to the temperature
of the waters, into cold and thermal, and according to the com*
position of the waters, into purgative saline, indifferent saline,
sul|Aar and iron. Amongst the most celebrated saline waten
are those of Carbbad, which contain sulphate of aoda and
bicarbonate of soda. These salts ctystallixe out when the water
b partially cvapontcd and may be used with hot water at home,
the best imitation of the Carbbad water bemg obtamed by
mixing with hot water the powdered Carbbad salts {puher*
fdrmig), which contain all the constituents of the natural water.
Where it b impossible for the patient to visit Carlsfaed, half •
teaspoonful or a teaspoonful of salt may be taken in ft hugs
tumbler of hot water on riang every morning; but when takn
at booe the tRfttaaent H not ao effective fti at Cftdabftd, beoauM
802
THERAPEUTICS
at the wdb sippu^ water b aaodated with eaiiy risiagi con-
tiderable czerdse and a very carefully regulated diet. It is,
indeed, the care with which the diet of patients is regulated and
the difficulty that patients find in obtaining forbidden foods
at hotels and restaurants, that make Carlsbad better for the
liver than any other watering-place. Amongst other places
having a similar action are Maricnbad, Franzensbad and Tarasp.
The waters just mentioned contain free alkali as well as sulphates,
and are emptoyed more especially in cases of hepatic dborder,
such as congestion of the liver, jaundice, gall«stone and diabetes.
A number of other waters containing sulphides and chlorides
are powerfully purgative, and are more oif ten drunk at home
than at the springs. Amongst these are the Hungarian waters,
Aesculap, Apenta, Franz Josef and Hunyadi Janos; and the
Rubinat and Condal waters of Spain. Waters which have a
similar composition are drunk at the springs of Leamington
and Cheltenham in England, Brides Salins and St GervaiS in
France, for chronic constipation, dyspepsia, gout and hepatic
disorders of a milder character than those usually treated at
Carlsbad. Tb6 waters in which chlorides foitn the purgative
principle are those of Hombuig, Kissingen, Wiesbaden and
Baden Baden in Germany, and Bridge of Allan in Scotland.
Similar waters, but much weaker, are found at Innerieithen and'
Pitkeithly. Sulphur waters are chiefly used for painful and stiff
joints, chronic skin disease, and chronic catarrhal affections.
The most important are Aix-les-Bains, and a number of springs
in the Pyrenees in France, Aachen in Germany, Harrogate in
England, Strathpeffer and Moffat m Scotland. Iron waters
are used in STiarmia and the affections which are frequently
associated with iL The most important are Spa in Belgium,
Scfawalbach in Germany, St Moritz and Tarasp in Switzerland.
Iran waters are; however, common, and are generally found
at all those places which have sulphur waters. Simple alkaline
waters containing carbonates, chiefly of sodiimi along with
some magnesium and caldum, are drunk for their utility in
gastric and intestinal disorders as well as in rheumatism and
gout. They are also empfeyed locally as sprays and douches
to the nose, throat, vagina and rectum, for catarrhal conditions
of the mucous membranes. The most important are Vichy and
Vals in France and Neuenahr in Germany. Alkaline waters
containing a little common salt are perhaps even more important
than the pure alkaline, as the salt lessens the depressing effect
of the alkalL They are therefore used largely in dironic gout,
rheumatism and in calctilous affections of the kidney. Amongst
the most important are Ems and Wiidungen in Germany,
Cootrex£viUe and Royat in France.
Simple thermal waters are those which contain only a very
snail quantity of solids, and owe their efficacy chiefly to their
temperature. They are used partly for drii^dng, but even more
so for baths. Bath, Buxton and Matlock in England; Mallow
in Irdand; Wildbad, Scfalangenbad and Baden weiler in
Germany; Gastein and Teplitz in Austria; Ragatz in Switzer-
land; Plombidres and Daz in France; and Bormb in Italy are
amongst the best known. When water is dashed against the
body with more or less violence, its effects are more powerful
^,fc. than when the body is simply immersed in it. Thus
the stimulating effect of sea-bathing is more marked
than simple salt-water baths, for in addition to the effect upon
the skin produced by the salt and by the temperature of the
water, we have the quicker removal of heat by the continual
renewal of the water as the waves dash over the body, and
mechanical stimulus from its weight and impetus. Somewhat
similar effects are produced by sonrallcd wave-baths, and at
Naufaeim, although the fresh movement of the water agamst
the surface of the body is much less than in the sea, yet its
stihiulating ef!ect is greatly increased by the presence of carbonic
acid in it. Douches have a stiH more powerful action than
waves. Tliey are generally given in the air, but at Plombiires
very shnplc douches are given under water. These form a
more powerful wave-bath, and in combination with intestinal
irrigation, are used very successfully for the treatment of
•MoiQinal disorders. Douches to the spine are much employed
for netvons debilily, and good effects are abo obtained in such
cases from the so-called needle-bath, where small streams of
water at high pressure are driven against the whole surface of
the body. In the treatment of stiffened joints, massage under
water is very serviceable, and in the 80<alled Aiz douche a
nozzle from which water continuously streams is fastened to
the wrist of the masseur, so that a current of water b constantly
playing upon the joint which he b robbing. While water co*n-
taining mudi saline matter, and more especiaUy water contain-
ing free carbonic add, has a voy stimulating actu>n upon th«
skin, mud has a sedative effect, so that in a mud-bath one feels
a pleasant 'soothing sensatk» as if bathing in aeam. These
mud baths are chiefly employed at Marienbad, Franzensbad
and Hombuig. Sulphur-baths and sulphur waters are chiefly
used in combination tot rheumatism and gout, and massage,
especially under water, b frequently combined most advan-
tageously with baths and drinking water to effect a cure.
Exercises, passive and active, are also used in diseases of the
joints, as weU as massage and baths, but exercises and training,
are even more important in cases of cardbc disease, prtrrhr
In very bad cases of heart disease^ where the patient
b unable to go about, the best plan of treatment usually b to
nudce him stay absolutely quiet in bed and have massage, which
aids the circulation, tends to remove waste, and increases the
appetite. To thb b added gentle exercise, beginning with the
fingers at first. At Meran walks have been arranged according
to Oertel's system, and at Llangammaich in Wales both Oertd's
and Schott's systems are employed, and baths according to
the Nauhdm system are also to be found in London, Sidmouth,
Leamington, Buxton, Strathpeffer, &c Many people who have
sedentary employments are unable to get as mudi exercise as
they require because they have not either the time or the oppor-
tunity. Such persons may sometimes get a good deal of exercise
in a short time by the use of dumb-bdls, of elastic cords, or of
cords running over pulleys and weighted at one end. The
whole system of methodicsl exercises was started by Ling in
Sweden, but it has been devdoped to a large extent for the
purpose of increasing muscular strength by the professional
athlete Sandow. A punching ball or rowing machine b even
better as bdng less monotonous. Fencing, boxing or wrestling
may also be resorted to. Walking on the flat b of comparativdy
little use as a mode of exercise, and has become supplanted to a
considerable extent by bicyding. AKending mountains, how-
ever, b veiy different, because in walking up a steep ascent all
the musdes of the body are thrown bito action, and not only
those of the legs. In addition the purer and rarefied air of the
Swiss mountains seems to produce a sense of exhibration which
b not fdt nearer the sea>-levd. For those who suffer from
nervous depression, exercise in the Swiss mountains b useful,
and even living at a height of about 6000 ft. above the sea-
levd seems to have an exhilarating influence. The nature of
thb b liot very easy to analyse, but as mental d^wesston b
dosdy associated with irritation of the vagus nerve and weakoi'
ing of the circulation, it seems not at all unlikdy that mountain
air acts by accderating the pulse and quickening the circulation,
and thus creating a sense of well-being. Indeed, many patients
liken its effect to that of drinking champagne. In some persons
rarefied air b too stimulating, so that they find difficulty in
sleeping, and for those who suffer from insomnia a warm mobt
air nearer the sea-levd b prderable.
It sometimes happens, however, that people cannot sleep
at the seaside itsdf, although they do so perfectly well a mile
or two inland. Where the nervous system b exhausted, sufh
warm and mobt climates as Malaga, Maddra, Tencrife and
Grand Canary are suitable. In these places not only b the air
mobt, but the temperature b particularly equable, andthey are
therdore suitable places also for persons suffering from kidney
disease. Many such persons also do well in dry, ftoaa*
warm places, such as the higher reaches of the Nile, ^—^hm.
Egypt, Mentone, St Raphael and other sheltered places 00. the
Riviera. The places mentioned are all suitable for persons suf-
fering from chronic bronchitb, who should avoid any irritation
THERESA, ST
803
of the luyifft tnchm or bnmciii by tir which it too <!fy or
which is Uable to great changes of temperature. Some cases
of phthisis, therefore, do better in wanner and moist climates,
•ad especially those where the Urynx has become af ected by
the disease. Such patients are apt to suffer much from cough
and laryngeal irritation in the cold, dry air of the Alps, whereas
they live in comparative comfort on the Riviera, in the Canary
I^Uusds, Madeira or at Capri. fi«t worvw ^Mtitt cttdHftes
rather favour sodeaUry habits and tend to lessen appetite,
io that the nutriiioa of the patient is apt to suffer; and although
phthisical patients may live in comparative comfort in such
TWwJ^t*f^ their tendency to recovery in them is smaU. At the
S?m bttlth reaorta, on the contrary, during the winter the air
is very pure, and has just sufficient coldncaa to make excfdse
ngiceable to patients. They are thus induced to be out the
whole day, and to take food with an appetite which greatly
improves their nutrition and aids their restoration to health.
The beat-known Alpine health resorU are St Moriu and Davos,
to which lately Griodelwald has been added. St Moriu ia,
upon the whole, better for less advanced cases, while Davos
is more sheltered and better for cases which are severe. It is
» mistake, however, to send those in whom the disease is veiy
far advanced away from home and friends, because when there
is no hope of cure it is better for them to die in comfort at home.
At the health resorts just mentioned the amount ol food taken
is legokted by the appetite of the patient himself, but a sysum
of cure has been inaugurated by Dr Brefamer at Gtebendorf,
by Dr Dettweiler at Falkenstdn, and by Dr Walther at Nord*
rach, ia the Black Forest. The most important point in this
treatment consists in forced feeding, the want of appetite
which is so prominent in many cases of phthisis being nguded
as an abnormal sensation not to be regarded; and under the
forced feeding, oombioed with open-air life, muxy marveUoua
recoveries are recorded. Numerous other institutions have
been started in Great Britain in.imitation of Dr Wolther's with
a oomiderable amount of success. Even when patients are
unable to stay kmg at a sanatorium they Icam there the ad-
vanUges of open air and can continue the treatment at home
to their great advantage.
In the well-known "rest" cure, which we owe to Weir
Mitchell, forced feeding Ukes a prominent part The essence
of this cure is to give to the patient rest, bodily and mental,
1^ confinement to bed and isolation from the outade world.
While this treamcnt by itself would aid recovery from nervous
eshaustion, it would lessen appetite and thus interfere with
nervous repair; but the want of exertion is supplied by means
of massage, which stimulates the circulation and increases the
appetite, sp that the patient gets all the benefit of exercise
without any exhaustion. Where nervous exhaustion is less
marked and the M^r Mitchell treatment is not appropriate—
for example, in men who are simply overworked or broken down
by anxiety or sornyw~>a sea voyage is often a satisfactory form
of *' rest " cure. The lack of posts and telegrams prevents much
of the excitement which they would have qpoa shore, the space
for excrdse is limited, food is abundant and appetite is supplied
by the stimulus of constant exposure in the open air. In order
that the voyage should be satisfactory, however, it must be
sufficiently long, and the weather must be sufficiently warm
to allow the patient to sUy in the open air the whole day long.
During the heat of summer voyages to the North Cape arc
suitaUe, and during the spring and autumn to the Mediterranean,
but in the colder months of the year the West Indies, India,
Cape Town, Australia or New Zealand forms the best objective.
(T. L. B.)
THBBISA, rr (1515-1583), or Teresa d« Cepeda, Spanish
nun, was bora at Avila, in Old Castile, on the aSth of March
1515, and was educated in an Augustinian convent in the town.
As a child she was interested in the stories of martyrs, and at
the age of eighteen left home one morning, and applied for ad-
mission at the Carmelite convent of the Incarnation. She was
disappointed at first at the slackness of diKipline. but she ap-
pears afterwards to have accommodated hcrsdf with tolerable
» the voildliaev of her eaviionment, though not
without intervals of religions misgiving. It was ia the year
1554, whea she was aeariy forty, that the event known as her
oonversioa took pboe, and the second part of her life began.
The death of her father roused her to serious reflection, aad one
day, as she entered the oratory, she was struck by the image oC
the wounded Christ, plsced there for an approaching festivsL
She fell in tears at the feet <^ the figure, and felt every worhlly
emotion die witUn her. The shock threw her into a tranoef
and these trances, accompanied by visions, recurred frequently
in the subsequent pert of her life. They have since boea ad<,
duced as Diviae attestations ot her saiatship but the sister*
hood ia the ooaveat set them down to possesswn by a devil;
her new departure was due In their eyes to no worthier motive
than the desire to be peculiar and to be reputed better than other
people. Teresa herself was very humble, and thought their
eaplsaalion might be true; she took her case to her confessor
asid 10 the proviadal-geaeni of the Jesuits, who pot her uadcr
a oouTK of disdplioe. One day, while thus occupied, her trance
came upon her, end she hesrd a voice say, " Though shalt haveno
asore converse with men, but with angels." After this the trance
or fit always returned when ahe was at prayers, and ahe lelt
that Christ was ckse to her. Presently she was able to see Him,
" exactly as He was psinted rising from the sepulchre." Her
confessor directed her to exordae the figure, and she obeyed
with pain, but, it is needless to ssy, in vain. The visions grew
more and more vivid. The cross of her rosary was snatohed
from her hand one day, and when returned it was made ol
jewels more brilliant than diamonds, visible, however, to her
alone. She had often an acute pain in her side, and fancied
that an angel came to her with a lance tipped with fire, which he
struck into her heart. Ihe 37th of August is kept sacred ia
Spaia to this mystery, which has also formed a favourite sub*
ject of Spanish psinteis. She had also visions of another
description: ahe was ahown hell with its honors^ and the devil
would at upon her breviary, belabour her with blows, and fill
her cell with imps. For several years these experiences con-
tinued, and the verdict as to thdr source still remained far
from unanimous. Mesnwhile, the spresd of th^ Refcrroatwa
became the subject of mudi searching of hearts to pious Catholics.
Teresa reflected like the rest, and her experience led her to find
the real cause of the catastrophe in the relaxation of discipline
within the religious orders. She formed the project of founding
a house in which all the ociginal rules of the Csrmeliie order
would be observed. In spite of peat opposition from the
authorities of the wder, and m partiadar from the prioress snd
sisters of the Incsrnatioa, she persevered with her scheme,
being encouraged to appeal to the pope by certain priests who
saw the benefit which would accrue to the Church from her
seaL A privau house in Avila was secretly got ready to servo
as a saasU oonvent, and, when the bull arrived from Rome»
Teresa went out on leave from the Incarnation and installed
four poor women in the new house dedicated to her patron
St Joseph. It waa on the S4th of August 1562 that mass was
asid in the little ehspd and the new order constituted. It waa
to he SA order of Descalaos or Barefoots, in opposition to the
relaxed parent body, the CaUados. The sisters were not to
be literally shoekss, but to wear sandals of rope; they were to
sleep on strew, to cat no meat, to be ttrictly confinied to the
cloister, and to live on alms without regular endowment. After
lodging her four sisters, Teresa returned to the lacaittation; but,
when the secret waa discovered, Carmelites and townspeopls
were alike furious. Violence, however, was prevented, and the
matter was referred to the council of state at Madrid. Philip U.
referred It again to the pope, and after six months s fresh bull
arrived from Pius V. The provincial of her order now gavo
her leave to remove and take charge of her sisterhood. The
number of thirteen, to which on grounds of discipline she had
limited the foundation, was soon fiUed up, and Teresa spent here
the five happiest years of her tife. Her visions continued, and,
by command of her ecclesiastical superiors. Ae wrote het
autobiography containing a full account of these experiences.
8o4
THEREZINA—THERMOCHEMISTRY
though she wu fast from basing any daim to holinets upon them.
The general of the order visited her at Avila, and gave her powers
to found other houses of Descalzos, for men as well as women.
The last fifteen years of her life were spent mainly in hard
journeys with this end and in the continually growing labour
of organiaation. Convents were founded at Medina, Malaga,
ValladoUdi Toledo, Segovia and Salamanca, and two at Alva
under the patronage of the fanMua duke. Then she had three
years of rest, as prioress of her old conxxnt of the Incarnation.
She next went to Seville to found a house, thus overstepping
for the first time the boundaries of the Castiles, to which her
authorization limited her. The latent hostility of the old order
was aroused; the general ordered the immediate suppression
of the house at Seville, and procured a bull from Gregory XIII.
prohibiting the further extension of the reformed houses (1575)4
But the movement against her came from Italy, and was re<
aented by Philip and the Spanish authorities as undue inter-
ference; and after a fierce struggle, during which Teresa was
two years under arrest at Toledo, the Carmelites were divided
into two bodies in 1580, and the Descalzos obtained the right to
elect their own provincial-generals (see Casmeutes). The few
remaining years of Teresa's life were spent in the old way,
organizing the order she had founded, and travelling about to
open new convents. Sixteen convents and fourteen monasteries
were founded by her efforts; she wrote a history of her founda^
tioas, which forms a supplement to her autobiography. Her
last journey of in^tection was cut short at Alva, where she died
on the agth of September 1583. A violet odour and a fragrant
oil were said to distil from her tomb; and when it was opened
nine months afterwards the flesh was found uncorrupted. A
hand cut off by a fervent brother was found to work miracles,
and the order became convinced that their founder had been a
saint. It was resolved in 1585 to remove her remains to Avila,
where she was bom, the sisters at Alva being consoled by per*
mission to retain the mutihitcd arm. But the family of the
duke of Alva procured an order from the pope enjoining that the
body should be restored to Alva, and ^e was accordingly laid
tiiere once more in a splendid tomb. But even then she was
BOt allowed to rest: she was again disentombed, to be laid in a
more magnificent coffin, and the greed of reverential relic-
seekers made unseemly havoc of her bones.
Teresai was canonized by Gregory XV. in 1622. The henoar
was doubtless largely due to her asceticism and mystic visions.
She called herself Teresa de Jesus, to signify the closeness of her
lelatbn to the heavenly Bridegroom, who directed all her actions.
Though she deprecated excess of ascetic severity in others, she
soout]^ herself habitually, and wore a peculiarly painful hair-
doth. But her life shows her to have been, besides, a woman
of strong practicality and good sense, full of natural shrewdness,
and with unusual powers of organization. " You deceived me
in saying she was a woman," writes one of her confessors; " she
is a bearded man." She was brave in the face of difficulties
and dangers, pure in her motives, and her utterances, some of
which have been quoted, have the true ethical ring about them.
Her MSS. were collected by Philip II. and placed in a rich case
in the Escorial, the key of which the king carried about with
bim. Besides her autobiography and the history of hec founda*
tions, her works (all written in Spanish) contain a great number
of letters and various treatises of mystical religion, the chief of
which are Tke Way of Perfecium and The CasHe of iht Sotd,
Both describe the progress of the soul towards perfect union
with (M.
Her works, edited by two Dominicans were first published in
1^87, and have since appeared in various editions. They ycert
toon afterwai^s tianslated into Italian, French (4 vols., Paris,
1S40-46) and Latin: an English translation of th^ Life and works
(except the letters) by A. Woodhead appeared in 1669. Other
translations of the Life are those by John Dalton (1851). uho also
translated The Wav of Perfection and the Letters (190J), and by
David Lewis (1870), who in 1871 also translated the Foundations.
A. R. Waller reprinted Woodhead 's translation of Tht Way ef
Pcffettiam in " The Cloister Library " (1901). Biographies appeared
'^eath by the Jesuit Ribera, who had been ner c6n>
by DiesooeYepea, confessor to Philip 1 1. (1599).
Dcuils are also erven m Ribadeneyra*s Floa Santtorum and in
Alban Butler s Ltves of the Saints. A separate bioenphy, with
preface by Cardinal Manning, appeared in 1865; a full and critical
edition of the Ltfe is that by Mrs G. C. Grahani. 2 vols. (1894).
See also H. Prins v. Oettingcn-Spielberg, Ceschichte d. heil. Theresia
(Regensbure, 1899): A. Whyte. Santa Teresa, an. apprtciatiom,
mth some of the best passages of the writings (1897) ; £. Hello, Studies
in Saintshtp (1903).
THBRBZINA, a city of BrazQ, capital of the state of Pianhy,
dh the left bank of the Pamahyba river, about 220 m. from its
mouth. Pop. (1890) 21,620; for the coAmune or rounicipio,
3^523; (1906, estimated), 25,000. It is prettily situated on
an open plain and is laid out regularly with broad straight
streets with seven large squares. Among its public buildings
are the government palace, the legislative and municipal hall,
the "Quatro de Setembro" theatre, Misericordia hospital,
public market, sanitation and public works, building, courts,
police headquarters, barracks, &c. The tov^-n is characteristically
Portuguese in appearance, its buildings being one or tM-o stories
in height, plastered and frequently coloured outside, with
large rooms, thick walls, and tile roofs to ensure coolness.
There is one lyceum, or high school, with about 400 students,
in addition to its primary schools. Its manufacturing industries
include a cotton mill, foundry, and soap-works. A steamboat
service, with three small boats, maintains regular communication
with Pamahyba, near the mouth of the river, besides which
there are a number of independent freight<arrying boats.
Thereaina was founded in 1852, its site being originally called
Chapada de Corisco, and was named in honour of the empress.
Dona Thereza Christina. I^ was made the capital of Piauby
in succession to Oeiras.
THBRMIDOR (from Gr. Bkpijai, heat, and Supenr, gift), the
name given during the French Revolution to the deventh month
of the year in the Republican Calendar. The month fell in
the hottest season <tf the year, beginning on the 19th or 20th
of July and ending on the i8th or 19th of August, according
to the year. As in all the other months of the Republican
Calendar, each of the days of Thermidor was, in accordance
with the suggestion of Fabre d'£^antine, consecrated to some
useful object. Thus x Thermidor was oonsecrated to spelt,
10 Thermidor to the watering-pot, 15 Thermidor to sheep, and
27 Thermidor to lentils. The most important event that took
place in this month was the revolution of 9 Thermidor year II.
(27th of July X794), which resulted in the fall of Robespierre
and the collapse of the Terror. The name Thermidorian
(Tfaermidorien) was given to the authors of this revolution and
to the supporters of the reactionary movement of which it was
the signal.
See C. d'H^ricault. La JUvotution de Thermidor (2nd edl, Paris,
1878); E. B. Courtois, ISa^^r/ /a tf au nom de la commission charfjte
de Vexamen des papiers trotnxs chet Robespierre tt oes complice*
(179s): D. A. Marttn. Papiers inidiis . . . mtprimis on omxs par
Courtois (3 vols., 1828); also bibliography in M. Toumcux, BiUtog,
de la viUc de Paris , . . (1890), vol. i., nos. 4265-4309.
THERMOCHEMISTRY, a branch of Energetics, treating <rf
the thermal phenomena which are assodated with chemical
change.
§ I. That vigorous chemical action Is accompanied by a
brisk evolution of heat is evident from such familiar examples
as the combustion of fuel or the explosion of gunpowder. The
heat attendant on these actions, and on the vital processes of
the animal organism, naturally first attracted attention. Robert
Boyle, A. Crawford, A. L. Lavoisier and P. S. Laplace, P. L.
Dulong, H. Davy, Count Rumford, all concerned themsclx'cs
with thermochemical investigations of such processes. Their
quantitative experiments were, however, loo rough to permit
of accurate generalization; and although Lavoisier and Laplace
stated the principle that the same amotmt of heat must be
supplied to decompose a compound as would be produced on
its formation, the statement was not based on exact experi-
ment, and only received experimental confirmation much later.
The beginnings of modern thermochemistry, though made
independently of the doctrine of the conservation of energy.
THERMOCHHMISTKY
805
'wgt pmctkiJIy concemponaeoia nith tin ncegfiltioD of that
law, and without it the science oould scarcely have reached
the degree ol developmeot which it rapidly attained* Thomas
Andiewa and, e^wdally, G. H. Hess (1840) were the fint wJm
^ftenaticalty investigated thennochcmieal effects in solution,
and arrived at conclusions from their espenmental data which
still possess validity. Andrews, for example, found that whea
a series of adds were under similar conditions used to neutiaUa
a given amount of a base, the quantity of heat evolved on the
neutrajization was the same in aU cases* Hess, from his work»
arrived at the converse conclusion, that when a series of bases
were used to neutralise a given amount ol an add, the heat ol
neutiaiisatioo was always the same. Both of these-Statementa
art correct when the powerful mineral acid and bases are con*
sidered, exceptions only arising when weak adds and bases are
enployed. Again, Andrewa discovered that when one metal
displafHt another from solution oC iu salts U-fr sine with aolu-
tioiis of copper salts), the thermal effect is practically independent
of the nature of the add radical in the salt employed. Andrewa
Ukewiae found that when the heat evolved on the displacement
horn iu salts of a metal M' by a metal M is added to the heat of
di«placemem of another metal M' by M',. the sum is equal to
the heat which is evolved on the direct displaoemeAt of M'
from iu salts by M. This affords an eamplo of a pondpla
which had been stated by Hels in a very fenenl form under
the name of the Low nj Ccnslant Heat SMw-^namely, that the
thermal effect of a given chemical action is the same^ inde*
pendent^ of the charecter and number of the ttagea ia which
it takes place. Thus, in the above example, it is immaterial
whelher M dispfauxa M' from itt salt directly, or whether M
int displacea M', which is then used to displace M'. This
iaqwrtant pdndple is a direct consequence of the law of the
coosefvatiDn of energy, but waa discovered i adspa nrt e n tly by
Hem faom acennte caperiment.
Hem employed this prindple to detcnniBe mdirectly the Meat
cffarmoHom of compounds from their elements, when this magai**
tode, aa is gsnetaDy the case, was inaccessible to direct measure-
ment. Thns the heat of f onaatkm of anhydreus sine sulphate,
ZnSO^ which cannot be determined directly, may be arrived
at by snmmatioB (in Hess's unita) as follows>-
Oxidation of Zn to ZnO 5391 units
S toSO. ^84 „
Dissolution of SOi in much water ...... 2566 «
M. ZnO in the resulting aqueous HaS04. 1609 „
Deduet heat of <fiisolution of anhydrous ZttSO« . . 1193 „
Heat of fbnnatioa of ZaSO^ from Zo. S. and 40« • 14657 *•
Heata of formation are stiB deCcrmiaed for the most part in a
pncisdy similar manner.
Hess also stated another principle on empirical gicnmds,
which, although admitting of many exceptions, is of consider'
able utility and significance. It had been known long before
his time that when sohrtSona of neutnl salts were mlasd, and
BO predpiute resulted, tiie miied sohition waa aho neutral.
Bess BOW observed that in the ptocesa of mixing such neutral
solutions no thermal effect was produced — that is, neutral salts
In aqueous solution ooiild apparently interchange their radicals
without evohition or absoiption of heat. Thcae experfaneatat
naulta wi^ genenliaed by him under the title of the Xms ef
After the lavcstigaiioiis of Hem and Andrews, a great deal
of excellent experiioenial work was performed by P. A. Favre
and J. T. SUbemMdm, whose chief theoretical achievvraent
was the reoognition that the heat of neutralixation of adds and
bases was additively oompooed of two constants, one deter*
arined by the add and the other by the bine. This deducthm
harmoniaed the observations of Andrews and of Hess previouBly
alluded to^ and alao accounted satlafaciorOy for the Law of
Tfaermoneutrality.
Julhia TlKNnseB was the first investigator who deliberately
adopted the prindple of the conservation of eaagy aa dm bnis
of a thermochemScal qrstem. 1& thennocheraical work waa
begun in 1853, but moat of his experiments were performed ia
the yean 1869-89, the whole bcfag published collectively, under
tlK title Thtr m e k emisfkt C/nlcTMcteMfm, in four volumes.
Somewhat later than Thomaen, Maroellin P. £. Berthckit
began (ia 1873) a long seqes of thermocfacmical determinatioas.
It js to these two investigators and their puptb that moat of out
exact thecmodmmical dau are due.
Thomson and fierihdot independently enunciated a generalixa»>
tion (commonly known aa' Berthctofs Third FHndpUf'ot
Frindpk of Miummm Wvrkh which may be stated in brief
as follows: — ^Evety pure diemical reaction is accompanied by
etettOim of heat. Whilst this principle is undoubtedly appUc-
aUe to the great majority of chSmicaL actkms under ordinary
conditions, it is subject to numerous exceptions, and camiot
therefore be taken (as its authors origioally intended) as a
secure basis for theoretical reasooiog on the connexion between
thermal effect and chemical afiSoity. The existence of reactions
which are reversible on slight alteration of conditions at once
invalidates the prindple, for if the action proceeding in one
direction evolves heat, it must absorb heat when proceeding
in the reverse direction. As the prindple was abandoned even
by iu authors, U is now only of hlstoriod imporUnce, although
for many years it exerted considerable influence on themw
diemical research.
|>. Fro^i the standpomt of the hw of conservation of
energy, the relation between chemical and thermocheinical
action bean the foUowiag aspect >-A'giv«ii amount of any-sub-
stance under given conditions posmsaes a perfectly definite
amount of intrinric energy, and, no matter what chemical and
physical transformations the substance may undergo, It wiO^
when it returns to its original Mate, possess the origiiul amount
ol intrinsic energy. If we consider now the transformation of
one system of chemical suhatancea into another system under
specified coBditia&s, we shall find that la general the intrinsic
energy of the secopd system is different from the intrinsic energy
of the first. Let us assume, as is commonly the case^ thkt the
intrilisic aaetgy of the initial system is greater than that of the
final system. When the fint system thea Is transformed into
the second, the excess of energy wfaidi the former possesses
must appear in the shape of beat, light, dectrical energy,
mrrhaniral energy, &c It ia for the most part a simple maUer
to obtain the excees of energy entiiely in the form of heat, the
amount of which is easily susceptible of measurement, and thus
the existence of thermochemistiy aa a practical science is
rendered posrible^ Since the intrinsic energies of the two
systems under ^vea conditions are invariable, the dilfeRaca
between them is constant, so that the heat evolved when ^
first system is converted into the second is eqw4 to that ab^
sorbed when the second system is le-transformcd hUo the fint
(d. Lavoisier and Laplace, <mh, | r). The total thermal effect,
too, whtch B associated with the transformation, must be the
same, whether the transformation is conducted directly or in-
directly (Hem's Lam af Csnsiamt Htat Sums), since the thermal
effect depends only on the hittinsic energies of the initial aad
final systema.
Since the intrinsic energy of a suhetance varies with tha
conditions under which the substance exists, it is necesmiy,
before proceeding to the practical applicatioo of any of the
laws mentioned above, accuratdy to specify the conditions Of
the initial and final systems, or at least to secure that they slan
not vary In the operations considered. It is alao a necessary
condition for the apjdication of the preceding Uws that no form
of energy except heat and the intrixaic energy of the substances
should be ultimatdy involved. For example, when metallic
dnc is fOttdved in dOute sulphuric add wiUi productfon of
zipc sulphate (in solution) and hydrogen gss, a definite quantity
of heat is produced for a given amount of zinc dissolved, pro*
vided that the excess of energy in the initial system appeals
entirely as heat. This provision may not always be fulfilled,
rince by placing the sine in dectrical contact with a piece of
platianm, likewise immersed in the sulphuric ac^, we caa
8o6
therm(x:hbmistry
genemte » cuntnt of dectildty tlnovg^ tlie solotian ad the
metallic pait of the cixcuH. The xeectwo ae before b com-
pletety expressed by the dKraical equatioa Zn+HiSO«
■•ZnSQiH-fst the initial and final lystema being ezai^ the
tame as in the first case; yet the amount of heat generated by
the action is much smaller, a quantity of the intrinsic eneigy
having been converted mto electrical energy. This electrical
energy, however, is equivalent to the heat which has disappeared,
for it has been shown experimentally that if it is converted into
heat and added to the heat actually evolved, the total quantity
of heat obtained is exactly equal to that produced by the direct
dissohitkm of the sine in the absence of platinum.
. f 3. The following conditions have to be considered as affecting
in a greater or less degree the intrinsic eacigy of the initial
and final systems: —
(i) Pilution of solutions.
(2) Physical state.
(3) Change of volume.
(4) Allotiopic modifications.
(5) TjnnpenLture.
(x) Generally ^leaking, there is a conriderabic thcnnal effect
when a sulMUnce is dinolvcd in water, and this effect varies in
magnitude aoconlinff to the amount of water employed. It b only,
however, when w« deal with compatativdy concentrated solutions
that the heat-effect of diluting the loluoons b at all gr^t, the
faeat<haage on diluting an already dilute solution being for most
practical purposes negligible. In dealing, therefore, with dilute
solutions. It b only necessary to state that the solutions are dilute,
the exact degree of dilution being unimportant. It o ccs si on s H y
happens that a chai^ in dilution affects the chemical action that
occurs. Thus if concentrated instead of dilute sulphuric acid acts
upon sine, the action ukes place to a great extent not according
to the equation given above, but according to the equation
Zn+2HiSO4-ZnSO«+S0k+2HA
sulphur dioxide and water being produced instead of hydrogen.
tfere we have a different final system with a different amount of
intrinsic energy, so that the thermsl effect of the action b alto-
w»th*T different.
(2) .The phyacal state of the reacting substances must be con-
ridered, since comparativdy large amounts of heat are absorbed
00 fusion and on vaporization. Thus the heat of fusion of ice
(for Up^tS g) b 1440 cal„ and the heat of vaporizatioo of water
at xoo*. for the same quantity. 9670 caL
(3) The effect of change of volume against external pressure
(due to production or consumption of mecnanical energy) may be
negkcted ui the case of solids, fiquids or solutions, but muse usually
be taJon into account when gases are dealt with. Each namme-
molecule of a gas which appears under consunt pressure dunog a
chemical action (e.t. hydrogen during the action of sine on dilute
sulphuric add) performs work equivalent to 580 cat. at the ordinary
temperatureb wMch must be allowed for m the thermoehenucal
calrnlation. A similar correction, of opposite sign, must be made
when a grsmme-molecule of gas disappears during the chenucal
action.
' (4) When a substance— €.f. carbon, phosphorus, sulphui^-^xbts
in aJlotropic forms, the particular variety employed should always
be statad. as the conversion of oae modificatiaa into another b
frequently attended by a considerable thermal effect. Thus the
conversion of yellow into red phosphorus evolves about one-sixth
of the heat of combustion of the latter in oxygen, and so the know-
ledge of which variety of phosphorus has been employed b of essential
impoitance in the thermochemistry of that element,
(5) The influence of temperature on the thermal effect of a
chemical action is sometimes considerable, but since the initial and
final temperatures, winch alone determine the variation in the
thermal effect, are in ahnost all cases within the ordinary laboratory
fiaMof a few degrees, thb influence may in general be neglected
without serious enor.
f 1 4. M€tkeis.--la order to estuaate the thermal effect of any
f^ifmi«^^] process, use b made of the ordinaxy methods of caloric
BMtry, the particular method being selected according to the
nature of the chemical action involved. In almost evexy case
the method of xnizture (see Calorzustky) b empbyed, the
nethod of fusion with Bunsen's ice^aloximeter being only
vsed in special and rarely occurring cixaixnstaaces.
As %. veiy great number of important chemical actions take
place on miziag solutions, the method for such cases has been
thoroughly studied. When the solutions employed arc dilute,
DO water b placed in the calorimeter, the temperature-change
of the solutions themselves being used to estimate the thermal
effect brou^t about by mhxng than. Known quantiifai ol
the solutions are taken, and the temperature of each b ac*
cnrately measured before mixing, the aolutionB having been
allowed as far as possible to adjust themsdves to the same
temperature. The change of temperature of the lohitioDS
after the mixing has taken place b then observed with the usual
precautions. It b of oouxse in such a case neocssaxy to know
the specific heat of the liquki in the catorimeter. Thomien by
direct experiment found that the heat-capacity eC a dilute
aqueous solution diverged in genetal less than r per cent, from
the heat-capacity of the water contained in it, the divcmcnce
being sometimes in one sense, sometimes in the other. He there-
fore absuined from determining for each case the specific heats
of the solutions he employed, and contented himself with the
above approximation. Berthelot, on the other hand, assumed
that the heat-cspadty of an aqueous solutmn b equal to that of
an equal volume of water, and calculated hb teiuita on thb
assumption, which involves much the same uncertaintj as Chat
of .Thomsen. Since thennochemical measurements of tUs type
may be frequently performed with an error due to other cauaes
of mnch less than t per cent., the error introduced by eUier of
these assumptkms b the chief cause of imcertainty in the method.
The cakfimeter used for solutiona b usually cylindrical,
and made of gisn or a metal iriiicfa b not attacked by the
xeacting substances. The total quantity of liquid employed
need not in general exceed half a litre if a saffidently ddiate
thennometer b available. The same type of calorimeter b
used in detennining the heat of aohitioa of a soUd or Jiquid in
water.
Combustiatt cabnimetetB are employed for observing the beat
geoented by the lirisk interaction of substances, one of which
at least b gaseous. Th^ are of two kinda. In the cider type
the con^bustion chamber (of metal or glass) b sunk in die calori-
meter proper, tubes being provided for the entrance and exit
of the gaseous substances involved in the action. These tubes
are generally in the foxm of woxms immrrsrd in the water of
the calorimeter. In the newer type (which was first proposed
by Andrews for the combustion of gases) the chemical action
takes place in a completely dosed oombostion chamber of
sufficient strength to xcsbt the pressure generated by the sudden
action, which b often of explosive violence. The sted com-
bustion chamber, b of about 250 c.c. capadty, and b wholly
inunersed in the calorimeter. To withstand the dtemicsl
action of the gases, the " calorimetric bomb " b lined cither
with platinum, as in Berthdot's apparatus, or with porcelain,
as in Mahler's. . For ordinaxy combustiona compressed osygen
b used, so that the combustible substance bums almost in-
stantaneously, the action being induced by mesos of some
dectrical device which can be controlled from without the caloci-
meter. The accuracy of heaU of combustion delexmined in the
doeed calorimeter b in favourable cases about one-half per cent,
of the quantity estfanated.
{ 5. Units and NoMi0H.-^Tht heat-'onits empbyed in thermo-
cheoiistiy have varied from time to time. The foUowing are
thooe which have been m most genexal mt :—
Small calorie <ir gramme calorie .... cal.
Large or kilcNEramme calorie . ) . . CaL
Centuple or "^tational" calorie . . . . K.
The centuple cstoile b the amount of heat required to xmise
x g. of water from o** C. to 100* C, and b approximately equal
to xoo cal. The laxge cabrie b equal to xooo caL In view of
the not veiy great aocuiacy of thermochemical measurements,
the precise definition of the heat-unit employed b not a matter
of special importance. It has been proposed to adopt the JottU,
with the symbol j, as theimocbemical unit for small quantities
of heat, large amounts being expressed in terms of the kihjpmUt
Kj-xooo j. (For the exact relation between these heat-uiuts»
see Caloumxtky.) For ordinary thexmo c h em i c al wodc we
may adopt the relatbn x cal. > 4>xg j» or i CaL •■ 4-tS Kj.
Except for technologKal purposes, thermochemical dam ase not
rsf^rred to unit quantity of matter, but to o h eoM ca l quaatiries
—:«•«• to the gramme-equivabnts or gmmme-molecules of the
TH£RMOCH£MI8TKY
807
fMcttar w itf rtn i Wf f j or to ioiim mriltiplci o( thtm* The woi t it i tm
viuehijulim Thomsea craplpyed to aprm Jut tberroochemicikl
roeaMimnenu is still extensively used, and b as follows:— The
chemical symbob of the reacting sobstanoea are written in fincta-
podtkm and separated by commas; the whole is then tncJnsfd
in brackets and* connected by the sign of equality to Che number
expressing the thermal effect of the action.
stand for quantities measured in grauiines, and h cat^¥ o l ution is
reckoned as positive, beat-absorption as negative. Thna
IS. 201-7X100 cal.
i n d i c ates that 71100 cakmes are evolved when 33 gcuanwa of
sulphur react with 1X16 grammes of free oocygea to form sulphur
dioxide. It is of course necessary in accurate work to state the
conditions of the reaction. In the above instance the sulphur
m supposed to be in the solid rhombic modification, the oacygen and
snlpaur dioxide being in the gaseous state, and the initial and final
•yatems bctag at the ordinary temperature. Again. tJhe equation ■
[sN.O]— UsoocaL
indieates that it 38 grammes of mtrogen eould be "***f* to unifee
directly with 16 grammes of. oxygen to fona nitrous oxide, the
•nion wouki cause the absorption of 1S500 caforics. When sub<
sunces in solution are dealt with. Tbonuen Indicates their state
by affixing Aq to their symbols. Thns
[NaOH Aq, HNO, Aql - X3680 caL
w p t esmt s the heat of nfiitrafiation of one gramme-equivalent of
caustic soda with nitric add, each in dilute aqueous solutMMi before
being brought into contact. One drawback of Thomsen's ootatMu
u that the nature of the final system Is not tndknied, although tUs
^.* , s no ambiguity.
I in general
Berthdot's noution defines CotlT bitial and final systems by
giving the chemical equation for the reactk>n considered, the thermal
effect being appended, and the sute of the varions substances
being affixed to their formulae after brackets. W. Ostwald has
proposed a modificatkm of Berthdot's method which has many
ndvantagee. end is now commonly in use. Like Bcrthdot.. be
writes the chemical equation of the reaction, but in addition he
considers the chemical formula of each substance to express not
only its material co m pos it ion, but also the (unknown) valne of its
intrinsic energy. To the right«hand m e mb e r of the eqimtmn he
then adds the number enreasing the thermal effect of the reaction,
beat-evolution being as before counted positive, and heat-absorp-
tton negative. The msas equation then be co m es an energy-equation.
He thus writes
S-K)k«>SOk+7iioo cat.,
which ca pi ts s ts the (act that the intrinsic energy of the quantities
of sulphur and oxygen considend exceeds that of the sulphur
dioxide derived from them by 71100 caL when thermal uniu are
■ The
H,-fI»-aHI-t3aoocaL
the intrinsic energy of
hydriodic acid is greater than the intrinsic energy of its cwn-
ponent elemcnu by laaoo cal., *'.«. that hydriodic acid is formed
from its elements with absorption of this amount of heat. Encny-
equatwns, such as the above, may be operated with precisely as
if they were algebraic equations, a piup ci ty which is of great advan-
tage in calculation. Thus by traiuposition we may write the hurt
equatkm as follows i-'
3Hl-H«+Ii+i3MacaI., ,
and thus express that hydriodic acid when decomposed into its
elements evolves 12200 caL for the quantity indicated by the
equation.
Ostwald has made the further proposal that the formulae of
solids should be printed in heavy type (or within square brackets),
of tiqukis (solutions, ftc) in ordinary type, and of gases in italics
(or within curved brackets), so that the physical state of the sub-
stances might be indicated by the equation Itself. Thus the
equation
Cl^+aKI. Aq-2KCI. Aq-f-Ir+ 52400 cal..
or (Ck)+aKI. Aq-aKCl, Aq+(IiI+S34oo caL.
wookl t*p i UM that when gaseous chlorine acts on a solutkm of
potassium bdidc, with separatbn of solkl iodine. 52400 calories
are evolved.
f 6. Heat tf Pmmathn.'—Voi tbemiochemical calculations
It is of great importance to know the heat of formation of com-
pounds from their elements, even when the combination cannot
be brought about directly. As an example of the use of Ost-
wald's energy-equations for the indirect determination we may
take the case of carbon monoxide.
The foOowaag equations give the result of direct experiment :—
C -f- 2O -COk +94300 caL
CO+ 0»CO«-K8ooocaL
If now it is rpquirad to find the beat of formation of the com*
pound CO. which cannot be dnectly ascertained, we have merely
to subtract the second equation from the fint, each symbol repre»
senting oooscant intrinsic energy, and thus ^ "' '
C+O*-C0«9^300 caL,
or C -f O • C04-s63oe caL,
that is. the heat of formaHon of a gramme^moleeule of enboii
m o noaod e ia aftyo caL
As has already been stated, the heat of formation of a com-
pound is the amount (expressed in thermal units) by which its
mtrinrfc energy eaoeeds or falls short of that of the elemenu which
enter into iu oomposition. Now of the abeohite values of iatriaaic
enei;Ey we doMW nothing; we can only estimate differences of
intnnric energy when one system a compared with another into
whkh it may he directly or Indirectly converted. But since the
%lements cannot be oo n »cr t ed one into the other, we are absolut^
wKhout knowledge of the relative values of thctr intrinsic energy.
This being the case, we are at liberty to make the assumprion thisl
the intrinsic eneray of each element (under specified conditions)
is aero, without thereby introducing any risk of self •contradiction
in thermochemkal calculatioaB. This assumptiott has the neat
advantage, that the inttinac energy of a compound reUtiveiy to
its elements now appean as the neat of formation of the com«
pound with its sign reversed. Thus if we consider the energy-
equation
C-|-Oi-COi-H4y»oeal.,
arul replace the syrobola by the values of the intrinsic energy,
via. sera for carbon aiui oxygen, and x for carbon dioxide, we
obtain the equation
o-i>o «x-|-9430o cal.
or x> —94300 cal.
With knowledge then of the. heau of formation of the subsunces
involved in any chemical action, we can at once calculate the
thermal effect of the actum, by placing for each compound in the
cnergy-equatkMi its heat of formation widi the sign revctscd,
r>. Its heat of decomposition into its dements. Thns if we wish
to ascertain the thermal effect ol the action
Mg-l-CsO-MgO+Ca,
we may write, knowing the heats of formation of CaO and MgO
to be 131000 and 146000 respectivdy,
0-131000 -0-146000 -(•«
»*i5ooocaL
Since heats of formation afford such convenient data for calcula-
tion on the above method, they have been ascertained for as many
compounds as possible.
Substa n ces with positive heats of fonsation are termed cx»>
thtrmic; those with negative heats of formation are termed end**
thermic. The latter, which are not very numerooa, give out heat
on decomposition into their elements, and are more or less unstable.
Amongst endothermic compounds may be noted Imlriodlc acid,
MI, acetylene. CtHt. nitrous oxide, N^. nitric oxide. NO. aapimide.
N«H. nitrogen trichh>ride, NCU. Some of these pam into their
elements with explosive violence, owing to the heat generated by
their decomposition and the gaseous nature of the products.
I 7. H*et </ CMH^Mf^Mn.— The theimocbemical magnitude
which is universally determined for oiganac compounds is the
heat of combustion, usua^y by means of the calorimetric bomb.
The relation between the beat of combustion of a hydrocarbon
and its heat of formation may be readily seen from the following
example. The hydrocarbon methane, CH4, when completely
burned to carbon dioxide and water, generates 313S00 cal. We
may therefore write
CH4+40-COi-»-2HiO+2i38oo.
Now we know the heats of formatiofi of carbon dwxide (fron
diamond) and of liquid water to be 94300 cal. and 68300 cal.
re^)ectively. The above equation may consequently be written,
if X Is the heat of formation of methane,
-at-H) — 94300-(2 X6«300) -f-2 1 3800
x« 17000 cal.
This heat of formation, like that of most hydrocarbons, it
comparatively small: the heat of formation of saturated
hydrocarbons is always positive, but the heat of formation
of unsaturated hydrocarbons is frequently negative. For
example, ethylene, CtH4, is formed with absorption of 16200 cal.,
acetylene, CtHt, with absorption of 59100 cal., and liquid
beniene, C«H«, with absorption of 9100 cal. Since the heat of
combustion of a hydrxarbon is equal to the heat of combustion of
the carbon and hydfoctn it contains minus its heat of fonnstion»
(
8od
THERMODYNAMICS
IhoH hydfocarbont with positive hett of formation geiiente
Im* Ke*t on burmng than the eleoisnta from which they were
tokrmeU, whilst thoae with a negative heat of formation generate
more. Thus the heat generated by the combustion of acetylene,
C>H>, is 316000 cal., whereas the heat of combustion of the
carbon and hydrogen composing ft is only 256900 caL, the
diflvrtnce being equal to the negative heat of lormation of the
tcttylene.
For Mbatancei consittiog of carboo, hydroeen and oxygen, a
.ttle wat early devised for the pnrpote of rouEUy calculaung their
heat of combuttioo Q. J. Welter's rule). The oxygw contained
rule was early devised for the pnrpose of rouEUy calculaung their
heat of combuttion Q. J. Welter's rule). The oxynp containai
ia the compound was deducted, together with the equivalent
amount of hydrogen, and the heat of combustion of the compound
was then talcea to be equal to the heats of combustion of the
elemenu in the residue. That the rule is not very accurate may
be seen from the following example. Cane-sugar has the formula
CuHiAt. According to Welter's rule, we deduct 11 O with the
equivalent amount 01 hydrogen, namely, 12 H, and are left with
the rcdkiue 12 C, the heat 01 combustion of which is 1131600 caL
The observed heat of combustion of sugar isy however, 1354000^
so that the error of the rule is here 20 per cent. A much better
approximation to the heat of combustion of such substances is
obtained by deducting the oxygen together with the amount of
carbon necessary to form COa, and then ascertaining the amount
of heat produced by the residual carbon and hydrogen. In the
above case we should deduct with 11 O the eqmvaTent amount
of carbon 5-5 C. thus obtaining the residue 6-5 C and 22 H. These
when burnt would yield (6-5X94300) +(11X68300) -1364250 cal.,
an amount which is less than i per cent, different from the observed
heat of combustion of sugar. Neither of the above rules can be
apidied to carbon compounds containing nitrogen.
§ 8. Heat of Ifcutralaatum.~-lt has already been stated that
the heats of neutralization of adds and bases in aqueous solution
are additively composed of two terms, one being constant for a
given base, the other constant for a given add. In addition to
this, the further regularity has been observed that when the
powerful monobasic adds are neutralized by the powerful
monacid bases, the heat of neutralization is in all cases the same.
The following table gives the heats of neutralization of the
commoner strong monobasic acids with soda:^
Hydrochloric acid
Hydrobromic acid
Hydriodic acid .
Nitric acid
Chloric acid
Bromic acid ;
. HQ . . . 137400 caL
« HBr . , 137500 „
. HI . . . 136800 .,
. HNO. . . 136800 „
. HCIO, . . 137600 „
. HBiOa . 137800 „
Within the error of experiment these numbers are identical.
It was at one time thought that the greater the heat ol
neutralization of an add with a given base, the greater Was the
strength of the add. It is now known, however, that when
weak adds or bases are used, the heat of neutralization may be
either greater or less than the normal value for powerful adds
and bases, so that ihere is no proportionality, or even parallelism,
between the strengths of adds and their heats of neutralization
(sec SoLunoNs).
S 9. Heat of Solution. — ^When substances readily combine
with water to form hydrates, the heat of solution in water is
usually positive; when, on the other hand, they do not readily
form hydrates, or when they are already hydrated, the heat of
solution is usually negative. The following examples show the
tffect of hydration on heat of solution in a large quantity of
water: —
Hsu of SohilMa. HaterBydmioo.
I. Sodium carbonate—
NaiCOi . . . +5640 cal.
NatCO>,H,0 . +2250 „ +3390 cal.
NaiCOa. 2HiO . +20 „ +5620 „
NaiCOa, loH^ . -16160 „ +ai8oo „
II. Sodium sulphate —
NaiSOt . . . +460 cal.
NaiSOi, H/3 -1900 „ +2360 cal.
NaiSO«. loHiO . -> 18760 „ +r930O «
I 10. ApplUatioH of the Second Law of Tkermodytumks io
ermockemistry.^'Whit is commonly understood by thermo-
nistry is based entirely on the first law of themodynamics,
' vears great progress has been made in the study
of chemical equilibriam by the aptilkatioB of the second lav;
For an account of work in this direction see Chemical Acncnr.
BiBUOGftArBY.-v-Julius Thomsen, Thcrwiockemucka Unltrsmck'
amfen (Leipzig, i88a-86): M. Berthelot. Essai do Micamiqiu
Cktmiqae fondite sur ia Thermockimie (Paris, 1870); Tkenmochimie.
dmuttes el lots nutiUriqius (Paris, 1897); W. (Jstwald. Lekrhaett
der atlgimomen Ckemie, 2nd ed., vd. it. part i, pp. 1-517 (Leipzig.
1893): M. M. P. Muir and D. M. WUson, ElanoHU of Therwud
Chemistry (London, 1885): P. Duhem, TraUi de iHcanique Ckimiotit
(Paris, 1897-99); J. J. van Laar, Leh^uck der matkematuckat
Ckemie (L^p^ 1901). U- WiX.)
THERMODTNAMICS (from Gr. 0q>/i^, hot, 5vr(i|ut, force).
I. The name thennodynamics is given to that branch of the
general science of Energetics which deals with the relations
between thermal and mechanical energy, and the transfomu*
tions of heat into work, and vice versa. Other transformations
of heat are often induded under the same title (see Eneecetics).
An historkal account of the development of thennodynamics is
given in the article Heat. The object of the present article
is to illustrate the practical application of the two general
principles— (i) Joule's law of the equivalence of heat and work,
and (2) Camot's prindple, that the efficiency of a reversible
engine depends only on the temperatures between which it
works; these prindples are commonly known as the first
and second laws of thermodynamics. The application will
necessarily be confined to simple cases such as are commonly
met with in practice, or are required for reference in cognate
subjects.
^. Application of the First £<».— The complete transforma-
tion of mechanical energy into heat by friction, or some analogous
process of degradation, is always possible, and is made the basis
of experiments for the determination of the mechanical equi-
valent of the heat unit (see Cawwmetey). The converse pro-
cess of the transformation of heat into mechanical work or other
forms of energy is subject to limitations.
When a quantity of heat H, is supplied to a body, part is expended
in raising tne temperature of the body, or in expanding the volume
against molecular forces, and is represented by an increase in the
total quantity of energy contained in the body, which u generally
called lU Intrinnc Enerry, and will be denoted by the symbol £.
The remainder is equivalent to the external work, W» done by the
body in expanding or otherwise, which can be utiHaed for nwchaiiical
purposes, and ceases to exist as heat in the body. The appUcadon
of the first law leads immediately to the equation. • -
H-E-B.+IF. . -t .^ .^ . (I)
in which £• r epre s e n t s the quantity of eaesgy originally pieaent ia
the body, and all the quantities are sup posed, as usual, to be
expr e ss ed in mechanical units. This equation is generally trve
for any series of transformations, provided that we regard H and W
as rep r esenting the o/frfrnnc ntms of all the quantities of beat
supplied to, and of work done by the body* heat taken from the
body or work done on the body being reckoned negative in the
summation. E-Et, then, represents the total increase of the
intrinsic energy of the body in it» final state, which may be detei^
mined by measuring H and W. If after any series or cycle of
transformations the body is restored to its initial state, we must
have £•£•. whence it follows that H^W. But this simple rela-
tion is only true of the net balances of heat and work in a complete
cvcHcal process, which must be adopted for theoretical purposes
if we wish to eliminate the unknown changes of intrinsic energv.
The balance of work (4>tainable in such a cycle depends on the
limits of temperature in a manner which forms the subject of the
second law.
3. tndiealar or p.9. Dtagram.-^Tht afgnificsBioe of relatioB (0
is best appreciated by considering the graphic representation
of quantities of heat and energy on a work-diagram.
On the familiar indicator diagram the state of the working sub-
stance is represented by the position of a point called the " state^
point,*' defined by the values of the pressure p and volume 9 of
muU masst as ordinate and abscissa respectively (fia. 1). Any line
(" path " or " graph '*) on the diagram, such as BCD, represents
an "operation or "process" i.e. a continuous series of states
through which the substance may be made to pass in any trans-
formation. It is tadtly assumed that the rootiOR ia relatively so
slow that the pressure and temperature of the aubuance are prac-
tically uniform throughout its mass at any stage of the process.
Otherwise the transformation could not be fully represented on the
diagram, and would not be reversible. The area BCDtf^ under
the path uprcscnts the external work done by the ■ubstance in
THERMODYNAMICS
809
Utcgralot
f io« B to D. wkkfc it uMlytkaQy npratesMd by the
pd» Ukea albng the sivcn path. Any doaed pftth or
figure, such at ABCD, reneaenu a complete cycle or Kries of
operatioiu. in the coune of which the aobsUuice is restoced to its
original sUte with lespect to tempentare. intrinsic enerfy and
other properties. The area DABM under the letum path (v
diminishing) represents work done on the subsUnce, or against
the b«ck-pressuce. and is negative. The area of the cycle, via.,
that encloaed by the path BCuA. represenU the balance of external
work done by the subsunce in one cyde, and is positive if the
cyde b described dockwiK
as indicated by the arrows.
The simplest types of pro-
cess or operatbn are.<— (i),
beating or cooling at amstaiU
weimne, represented by ver-
tical lines such as B^, called
Isomttrks, in which the
pressure varies, but no c»-
temal work is done. (2)
Heating or cooHng at con-
Mtaut pnsmrt, represented
by horiaontal lines such as
NA. called IsopiesHcs, in
which the external work
done is the product of the
pressure p and the cxpan-
stoQ v'^r. (3) Expansion
or compression at tonslant
y tomptratmof represented by
curves called luthtrmaU^
such as EC, AD, the form
PiA I of which depends on the
nature of the working su1>-
■Imnoe. The asothermals are approximately equihteral hyperbolas
(pv -constant)! with the axes 01 p and v (or asymptotes, for a gas or
UBsatunted vapour, but coincide with the isopiestlcs for a saturated
w^MMir in piejcnce of its liquid. (4) Expansion or compression
under the condition of koat^msnlaiion, rapraaented by curves called
AdiabaticSt such as BAZ or CDZ', which aie necesearily steeper
than the isothermals.
A cyde such as ABCD endosod by paitt of twt> isothermals,
BC AD. and two adiabatics, AB. CD, is the rimplest form of cvde
for theoretical purposes, tinee all the heat absorbed, ^, w taleen
in during the orocess represented by one isothermal at the tempera'^
ture ^, and all the heat rejected, H , is given oat during the process
icpmented by the other at the temperature 9* This b the cycle
employed by Camot for the establishment of hb fundamental
prindple of levertibility as the criterioo of perfect efficiency in a
heat engine. The area ABCD, representing the work, Vr, per
q^cle, b the difference {H'—H') of the quanuties of heat absorbed
and rejected at the tempentares ^ and #'. As the temperature
f b lowered, the area of the cycle increases, but since W can never
•need U\ there roast be a aero limit of temperature at which the
pveasuie would vanieh and the area of the cycle become equal to
the whole heat absorbed at the hbher temperature. Takine this
ideal limit as a theoretical or absolute aero, the value of Br may
be represented op the diagram by the whole area induded between
the two adbbatics BAZ. CDZ'^down to the poihts where th«r
intersect the isothermal of absolute aero, or the sero iiopiestic OV
asymptotically at infinity.
If the substance in any state such as B were allowed to expand
adiabstically idH'^o) down to the absolute aero, at which point
it contains no heat and exerts no pressure, the whole of its avail-
able heat energy might theoretically be recovered in the form of
external work, represented on the diagram by the whole area
BAZcA under the adiabatic through the sute-poiat B, bounded
by the isometric B6 and the sero isopiestic AV. The change of
tne intrinsic energy in passing from one state to another, as Trom
B to C b represented by the addition of the heat^arca H-BCZZ',
and the subtraction of the work-area W»BCcb. It follows from
the first bw that the intrinuc energy of a substance in a^ given
state must always be the same, or that the change of £ in any
transformation roust defend only on the initial and final states,
and not on the path or process. It will be observed that the areas
represcotinE H and W both depend on the form of the path BC.
but that the difference of the areas representing the oiange of
intrinsic energy iE b independent of BC, whkh b a bouodaiy
ooimnon to both H and W. This b mathematically expressed by
the statement that dE b an exact differentbl of a function of the
e»<>nlinates ddining the state of the body, which can be integrated
beimn Kmits without reference to the rebtion representtng the
path along which the variations are taken.
4. ApptkaHon of Camats PrnuipU.—CMXwA adopted as the
analytical expi^^on of his prindple the statement that the efli-
cseocy WfH, or the work obtainable per unit of heat by means
of a perfect engine taking in heat at a temperature f* C. arid reject-
ing heat at o» C.. must be some function F(0 of the temperature I.
the lower limit o* C. being supposed coastast. He was unabb to
apply the prtndtilc dln^ ia thb foroi, as it would teqafre n
exact knoinedge of the properties of substances through a wide
range of temperature. He therefore employed the corresponding
expression for a cycte of infinitesimal range dt at the temperature I
in which the worii 4W obtainabb from a quantity of heat H would
be represented by the equatioa
dWmEFifidt,
where F(i) b the derived function of F(l), wdF{l)ldt, and repretents
the work obtainabb per unit of heat per degree faO of tetraeraf
at a temperature t. The prindple m thb form b readily ai:
cabb to all cases, and b independeiK of any view with regard .
the nature of the heat. It simply asserts that the efficiency function
/*(/), which b known aa Camot s function, b the same lor all sub>
stances at the same temperature. Camot verified thb by calculating
the values of F{t) at various temperatures from the known pip'
perties of vapours and gases, and showed that the efficiency function
diminished with rise of temperature, as measured on the scab of the
mercury or gas thermometer, from about 1*40 kilogrammetRs per
kikxalorb per degree C. at o* C. to about i*ii at 100* Caccordwg
to the imperfect data avaibbb in his time. Apfdying the above
equation to a gas obeyin|( the bw pvRTt for which the srork
done in isotheiinal expansion from a volume i to a vohuae r b
WmRT log.r. whence dW'R log^dt, he deduced the expressioB for
the heat absorbed by a gas in isothermal «
He also showed that the difference of the specific heats at coaetast
pressure and voluroe, 5— «, must be the same for equal volumes
of all nses at the same ternpemtu
sented by the expression RJTF(I).
acoordiin to which the motive pow. ^ _
points 01 the thermooietric scab is intimatdy connected with that
of the varbtioos of the specific heats of gases at different tempera-
tures—a bw which experiment has not yet made known to us
with suffideat exactness." If he had ventured to aasinne the
difference of the specific heats constant, it would have foUowad
that F(t) must vary invcrsdy as T. The same result follows If
the work W^RT lojgir done by • K^ hi h
of all gases at the same ternpemture and pressure, bdng rebre-
ssion RJTFd). He remarks that " the law
to which the motive power of heat varies at different
assumed to be equiwsleBt or proportional to the heat absorted.
H'R loa^fFU). Mayer (iSaifmade thb ^ _ : _ _: ,
the merhanical equivalent 01 heat. Joub (1845) ^*fs the first to
isothermal expansion b
^ to the heat absorixd.
thb assumption in cakubting
prove it apprxMiiniatdy by direct experiment, but did not see hb
way to recondb Canwt's principb, as suted by Cbpeyron. with
the mechanical theory. Hoitzmann (l84S) by the same assumption
deduced the value JiT for the function F{l), but obtained emmeoua
resulu by combining thb assumption with the caloric theory.
Cbusitts (1850). appfying the same assumption, deduced the same
value of f (I), and snowed that it was coasiatent with the mechanical
theory and Joub's experiments, but required that a vapour like
steam should devbta more considerably from the gaseous bwa
than was at that time generally admitted. The values of F(fi^
cakubted previously by Sir W. Thomson (Lord Kehdn) from
Renault's tabba of the pnopertica of steam, assuming the gaseous
bwB, did not vary exactly as J/F. Joub's experknents on the
equivabaoe of W and H were not sufficiently predse to decide
the question. Thb most fundamental point was finally settled by
a more delicate test, devised by Lord Kelvin, and carried out ia
conjunction with Toub (1854), which showed that the fundamenul
assumption W^H in ifothermal expansion was very nearly true
for permanent gases, and that F{$) must therefore' vary very
nearly as JiT, Kdvin had previously proposed to define an absolute
scab of temperature independent of the properties of any particular
substance in tcrma of Camot's function by making FO) constant.
He now proposed to define absoluie temperature as proportional
to the redprocal of Camot's function, so as to anee as dosdy as
possibb with the scab of the ns thermometer. With thb deJBnl-
tion of temperature #, if the beat H b measured in work units,
the expression of Camot's prindpb for an infinitesimal cyde 01
lange d§ reduces to the simpb form dW/di^H/^. Combining thb
with the first bw, for a Camot cycb of finite range, if iT is the
heat Uken in at f, and H' b the heat rejected at f % the work
W done in the cyde b equal to the difference B'^H', and we
have the simpb rdations.
Wtifr-nmfflVmW' . ... (a)
5. TJurmodymamkat Rdatiotu. — The most Important and most
useful of the rebtions betsre cn the thermodynamical properties
of a substance may be very simply deduced from a consideration
of the indicator marram by a geometrical method, which is in
many respects more instructive than the analytical method gene-
lally emptoyed. Referring to fig. », bt BC be a small portion
of any isothermal corresponding to the temperature tf', and AD
a neighbouring is o t hermal f. Let BE be an isometric throudi
B meetif^ AD in E. and EC an isopiestic through E meering BC
in C Let BA, CD be adbbatics through B and C meeting the
isothermal #* in A and D. Then by rebrions (2) the heat, J7.
absorbed m the isothermal change BC, b to the work, W, done
ia tb cyda ABCD fai the latb of f to (^-O- H the dafercncc
{
8io
THERMODYNAMICS
of tcmpcfattiK (S'^-f*} is fmalL the figure ABCD nay be
a* a parallelogram, ana its area Tf as equal to the rectangle BEX EC.
This is accurately true in the limit when (f'-*0') is mfinitesunal.
but in practice it is necessary to measure specific beats* &c, over
finite rang^ of temperature, and the error involved b generally
negligible lif the range does not exceed a few degrees. BE is the
increase of pressure ip^—p') produced by the rise of temperature
i^'—d') \£ the volume b Kept constant. EC is the expansion
(v'-ir') fxoduced by the same rise of teroperaJture if the pressure
is kept constant. Substituting these symbols in the expiession
for the area, the relation becomes
»-fl(A'-^')(tr'-0/(e'-0 . . . (3)
This relation may be interpreted in two ways, according as we
— |uire the heat absorbed m terms of the change of pressure or
reqi . _ ^ .
volume, (i) The heat. H, absorbed in isothermal expansion
(latent heat of expansion) from f^Xop'n equal to the diminution
of pressure {p*-^p') multiplied oy the absolute temperature and
by the expansion per degree (»'— »0/(^— *') at constant pressure.
(3) The heat, H, atMorbed in isothermal expansion from r to v' b
equal to the increase of volume (o'—vO multiplied by the abso-
lute temperature, and by the increase of pressure per degree
iP^—p'Vff'^''), at constant volume. In the notation of the
calculus the relations become
—dH/dp (8 const) mBivfJe (p const) ) /.^
dH/<lv {9 const) -erf/»/<i» (v const) ] ' ' • ^
The negative sign is prefixed to dH/dp because absorption of heat
+dff corresponds to diminution of pressure — <f^. The utilitv of
these relations results from
the circumstance that the
pressure and escpansion co-
efficients are familiar and
easily measured, whereas the
latent heat of expan«on b
difficult to determine.
The most instructive ex-
ample of the apjplicatiott of
relations (i) and (2) b af-
forded by the 'change of
state of a subsunce at
constant temperature and
pressure. Starting with unit
mass of the substance in the
first state («.g. liquid) pos-
sessing volume v' at a tem-
perature 9' and oressure p'
Fig. a. represented by ttie point A
in fig. 3, the heat absorbed
in rainng the temperatare to ^ and the pressure to p^ without
change of sUte may be written s* (^-r-tf')> where / b the
apedbc beat of the substance in the first state at saturation
pressure. If now the substance in the state B b entirely con-
verted at constant temperature and pressure into the second
state ie^ saturated vapour), in which it occupies a volume v',
the line BC represents the change of volume (a'^-sO* The heat
absorbed in thb change b called the latent heat of change of state,
and may be represented by the symbol U, The substance is then
cooled to the lower temperature 0' aloiw the path CD, keeping
it in the saturated state. The heat evolved in thb prooesa may
be represented by j'Ctf'-a'), where 5' b the specific heat of the
substance in the second state at satxuation pressure. Finally, the
substance b reconverted into the first state at the temperature
$', oofflplering the cyde by the abslraction of a quantiw of heat L'.
By the application of the fint law, the difference of the quantities
of heat absorbed and evolved in the cycle must be equal to the
work represented by the area of the cycle, which b equal to
(p^^p^w'^i^) in the limit when the difference of pressure b
small. By the api^ioarion of the second bw, reUtions (2), the
aame work area is equal to W'-9')L'^. Dividing bv (tf'-tf').
and writing dp/d9 and dL/dt for the limiting values of the ratios
(p^-)>'}K<r'-9') and (I,'-L')/(^-*'), we obtofai the imporUnt
rdatioos
f'-*»-l-<fI/«»- {jf'^VydpfdB'Lft,
(5)
iq which dpfdB is the rate of change of pressure with temperature
when the two states are in eouilibnum. It is not necessary in this
example that AB, CD should be adbbatics, because the change
of volume BC is finite. The same equations apply to the case of
fusion of a solid, if X b the latest heat of f u«on, and v', i', «'. 9'
the specific volumes and specific heats of the solid iad liquid
. Ratio and Difference 0/ Spuific Heals. — If we take unit mass
ef the substance at B, fig. a. and cool it at constant vekiroe to E»
through an interval of temperature (^—0'), the amount of heat
abstracted may be written A->5^'— tf'), where $ b the specific
heat at amstanl volume. If, startmg from £, the sawte amount of
heat h b restored at constant pressure, we should arrive at the point
F on the adiabatic through a, since the substance has been trana>
ibnned from B to F by a xeveruble path without loss or gain of
heat on the whofe In older to itstore the tufastanee to tea orient
temperature ^ at constant pmsmn, it would be necessary to supply
a further quantity of heat, B, represented by the area between
the ^ ^' ' ■' '
FC down to the abaohits
aero. Thb quantity of heat
b the same as that already
found in equation (3), but
for the small area BFC,
which b negligiMy small
in the limit compared with
/f. The whole quantity of .
heat required to raise the "
temperature from 0' to ^ ff
at constant pressure along
the path EC is H-^h, whkh
b equal to 5(0' -tf'), when
5 b the specific heat at
constant pressure. Since
hms{9''-9\ the difference
5-># between the spedfie
he^s at constant pressure
and volume b evidently
7
7
0'
\o
I
t
\
Fig. 3.
ni^-9'). Substituting for H its value from (3), and employing
the notation of the calculus, we obtain the relation
(«
• 5-J-»(rfp/d»)(Ar/d»), . ., .
in which the partial differential coefficients have the nme
as in (4).
Since the amounts of heat supplied at constant pressure from
E to F and from £ to C are in the limit proportional to the expan-
sions EF and EC which they produce, the ratio S/s b equal to tbe
ratio EC/EF. EF b the change of volume corresponding to a
change of pressure BE when no heat b allowed to escape smd the
path b the adiabatic BF. EC b the change of volume for f*e
samt change of pressure BE when the path is the isothermal BC<
These changes of volume are directly as the compressibilities, or
iavenely as the elasticities. If we write K for the adiabatic elaa-
tictty. and A for the isothermal elasticity, we obtain
5/j -EC/EF -X/* .... (7)
The value of the specific heat 5 at constant pressure can always
be determined by experiment, and in practice b one of the most
important thermodynamical properties of a substance. The value
of the specific heat s at constant volume can abo be measured in
a few cases, but it b generally necessary to deduce it from that at
constant pressure by means of rdation (6). It b often impossibhe
to observe the pnessure-coeflkient dp^ directlv, but it may be
deduced from the isothermal compresribility by means of the
geometricaUv obvioua reUtion, BE* (BE/EC) X EC. The ratio
BE/EC of the diminution of pressure to the increase of volttme at
constant temperature, or '"dpfdn, b readily observed.
The amount of heat absorbed in any small change of state, as
from E to G in fig. a, may be found by adding to the heat required
for the change of temperature at constant volunie, sd9, or at 000-
stant pressure, SdO^'xi^ heat absorbed in isothensal eitpanwion aa
given by relations (4). We thus obtain the firpreiisioni
dH'^sd9-^idpfd9)iomSM'-${d9ld9)dp . . . (8)
The fint b equivalent to measuring- the heat along the path EBG.
the second along the path ECG. The two differ by the area BEC,
which can be neglected if the change is small. For a finite change
it is necessary to represent the path by a series of small steps,
which b the graphic equivalent of integration along the path repre-
sented by the given relation between v and 9, (ft p ana 9. If we
put dH'-o in equations (8), we obtain the relations between d»
and d9, or dp and d0, under the condition of no heat-supply. i.«.
ak>ng the adiabatic, which can be integrated, givii^ the equations
to the adiabatics, Provided that the values of the ^>ecific beats
and expansion-coefficients are known.
6. Intrinsic Energy. — ^Thc change of intrinuc energy B along
any path is found by subtracting the work pdv from eitner of the
expressiofis for dH. Since the change of energy b independent
of the path, the finite change between any two given states may
be found by integration along Any convenient path. It b generally
convenient to divide the path into two steps, isothermal and
isometric or isothermal and isopiestic, and to integrate aloi^
each separatdy. The change of energy at constant volume b
simply sdB, the change at constant temperature b i9dpld»~p)d9,
which may be written
dBld$i9ooiat)»s,dB/doi9cotu)t)'0dp/dB-p . (9)
These must be expressed aa functions of * and 9, whUb k theo-
retically ponible it the values of f, p, and dpld9 am knomt. Since
the two expressions (9) are the partbl differential*ooeffiaenta of a
single function JS of the independent variables v and 9, we diall
obtain the same result, namely d^EldSdv. if we differentbte the
first with respea to v and the second with respect to 0. We thus
obtain the relation
dsm9caut)m9fipiifi{woaiu(t), . . . (10)
THERMODYNAMICS
tit
^AUk b mtful for calcuUtUg tlie variattM of the ipectfic heat s
with variation of density at oonctant temperature. A limilar
txpfeaaion for the variation of the specific heat 5 at constant
pranufc is obtained from the second cxpreaston in (8), by taking
f and 9 as independent variables; but it follows more directly
from a ooosidcration of the variation of the function (£+pv).
7. TakU HeaL— The function F-(£+^), like E itself, has a
value depending only on the state of the body. It may con>
yeniently be called the Tptal Heat, by a slight extension of the
meaning of a term which has been for a long time in use as applied
to vapours (see VAPOiuZATtON). Since dS-'dH-pdv, we nave
evidently for the variation of the total heat from the second ez-
presskMi (8)i
dP''d{B'k'p9)'iB-^vdpmSiB-{9d9li9^v)ip . (II)
This expresnira ^ws that the rate of variation of the total heat
with temperature at constant pressure is equal to the specific heat
at constant pressure. To find the total heat of a substance in any
given state defined by the values of p and 9, starting from any
convenient aero of temperature, it is sufficient to measure the
total heat required to raise the substance to the final temperature
gnder a constant pressure equal to p. For instance, in toe boiler
of a steam engine the feed water b pumped into the boiler against
the final pressure of the steam, and is heated under this constant
pressure up to the temperature of the steam. The total heat with
which we are actually concerned in the working of a steam engine
is the total heat as here defined, and not the total heat as deuied
by Regnault, which, however, differs from (E+pv) only by a
quantity which is inappreciable in ordinary practice.
Obeerving that F is a function of the co-ordinates expresnng
the state oi the substance, we obtain for the variation of^ 5 with
pressure at constant tcmperatiue,
dSldp {9 coiM)'i^F(d9dp»-9AJdt^ {p const) . (i3)
If llie beat sapptied to a substance which is expanding rever-
tfbly and doing external work. pd»t is equal to the external work
done, the intrinsic energy, £, remains constant. The lines of
constant ener]^ on the diagram are called Isenerfics. The equation
to these lines m terms of v and 9 u obtained by integrating
dB'sd9+{9dpld9'P)dv'0 . (13)
If, 00 the other hand, the heat supplied b equal to -vdp, we see
from (11) that F remains constant. The equation to the lines of
constant total heat is found in terms of p and 9 by potting dF^o
and integrating (ll).
8. Idui Gbsei>-^An ideal ^ is a substance possessing very
simple thermodynamic properties to which actual gases and vapours
appear to approximate indefinitely at low pressures and high
temperatures. It has the characteristic equation po^R9, and
cbeys Boyle's law at all temperatures. The coefficient of expansion
at constant pressure is equal to the coefficient of increase of pressure
at constant volume. The diif ereiue of the specific heats by equation
(6) is constant and equal to R. The isothermal elastku^ -Mdp/do)
w equal to the pressure p. The adiabatic elasticity is equal to
Jp, where Y is the ratio Sis of the specific heats. The heat absorbed
I isothermal expansion from sb to s at a temperature 9 is equal
to the work done by equation (8) (since d9«o. and 9{dp/d9)d»^pdv)t
and both are given by the expresBion R9 k)g«(o/m). The energy E
■ad the total beat F are functions of the temperature only, by
equations (9) and (11), and their variatfens take the form
dB'*Md9, dF»Sd9. The s^ific heaU are independent of the
pressure or density by equations (10) and (la). If we also assume
that they are constant with respect to temperature (which does
iMit necenarily follow from the characteristic equation, but is
fsosrally assumed, and appeare from Rcgnault's experiments to be
appranmately the case tor simple gases), the expressions for the
cfaange of energy or total heat from 9* to 9 may be written
£-J««5(^-ffi), F-ft-SCf-*.). In this case the ratio of the
spsdfie heats is constant as well as the difference, and the adia-
batic equation takes the simple form, pf « constant, which is at
once obtained by integrating the equation for the adiabatic tHait-
tiat/,-9{dpfd»\^yp.
The specific heau may be any function of the temperatur
sisteRtty with the characteristic equatk>n provided that their
Merence b constant. If we assume that r b a linear function
of f, B^M^i-H^), the adiabatic equation ukes the form,
*.ior(i»/»i)+««(«-«»)+^iog.(»M)-o. . . (14)
(ik«)t (99, 9t) are any two points on the adubatic The
" expressions for the change of energy or tottl heat
by adding the term )a««(«>~f^) to those already
^ . „ F-F.mS^$Z^t^XlMf^-9f)\
where J»»M*J^
9l DgriaHcm tf Actual Gasa from Ikt Ideai Skate.— Since no gas
b ideally perfect, it b most important for practkral purposes to
discuss the devbtions of actual gases from the ideal state, and to
consider how their propOTties imy be thermodynamically explained
and defined. The most natural method of procedure b to observe
the devfatioas fnm Beylt's bv V m iju t f rn^ 4m ^»«««.« ^>»
at varioas OMutant map c ra uifea. ftl » iv^MK. v/ ^-^^^^jHttr 'iW
the change of p9 with p sm s sir M mt^'*-^ 5«M^,r^ « *^%^^
pvxyportional to the rh>fr ^ p/m tKhnr »v«<« .<»• *^ vm^«<^ f-w
d{p9)fdp b to a first appseSMS^^j^ a fos^^-M* ^ Wt ^«.>^^,««*
only. Thb cocficicac b ssascusMs k*.'M 4Sft ' ttf^^-w %w<iC
ctent," and 1
rbc rcfw4ad m» 1
t ^ fjm 4^'mf'*
maybe rcfws^
Boyle's hw, wUeh fltty be I , ^., _^
pressures by feranlatjag the «sri«jvs *4 *^ **1^*^ v<^#<^.#yir
with temperature. Bat chb psuM^w* m •Jttft m u>^ a«iiU.A««
because, although it would be higSrf/ f*UU4^ *h^ m r^ vv^/'**
Boyb's hw at aH t wpe ra t iwes was ptw^tfj^t s« K**^ <«» ^ »
evklent that Boyb's law wo«l4 he wt«db^ S^ »^ 100^^0*^^ i-m^^tt
the characteristic equatios p9»f'0), wtM* ^0, m mmf itf*^-*^t
function of «, and that the scale of umt^** y*m ^m« v/ #«^ •
substance would not neoesssrify cowv^fe w^ <fet k u*<»»» •'^
A sufficient test, in addbiofl to lk/ylc<s Ww. m <*^ '•>v*'4*'^a
rfE/dr»o at constant temeentiare. This g^es i^ «w««i>a« V '*^
condition 9dptd9»p, whfch b Mrybrf by «»y *J^^**^ y^^ •*"«y
the characteristic equation pt9''Ji9}, miUtm /'»; m it*^/ »^^«v#««/
function of t. Thb test was applbd by J'^vlc m d^ w^o^
experiment in which he aUowed a fM to csp««i4 U'/m <ui«
to another in a calorimeter without d c Amg cKursisl w^*^ </4<<^
thb conditbn the increase of iaCrioiie saergy sw/tM W *wm& cv
the heat absorbed, and would be faidiraWtd by fa4 /4 i^my^^vtm
of the calorimeter. Joub failed to o b ser w a«y cluisiys *4 umtj/^*.
ture in hb apparatus, and was therefore jvstiM m asssxun '<«r
the increase of intrinsic energy of a gas ia bodMrsisl *#|^wm«<^
was very small, and that the absorptkm of heat tAmm>*4 m •
simttor experiment in which the gas was allowed t» 4> ^*^*^
work by expanding against the atmospheric pre ssu re was •/, .»/^4#
to the external work done. But owing to the large tki^tud » mu>^^ y
of hb cak>rimeter, the test, though uffideot for h«s m^mA m* ^
purpose, was not ddlcare enough to delect and msssufs tte saMl
deviations which actually exist.
10. Uelkod of Joule and rHonwrn.— William ThomsM 4ljm4
Kelvin), who was the first Co realise the importance of the Mt,vA ,*m
scale in thermodynamics, and the inadequacy of the test aK//f4*4
by Boyb's bw or by experimenU on the constancy of the sow 4b
heat of gases, devised a more delicate and practical toit« wtnch hs
carried out successfully in conjunction wito Joule. A cooUniMas
stream of gas, supplied at a constant pressure and tempsratufv, b
forced through a porous plug, from which it issues at a W««r
pressure through an orifice carefully surrounded with ooi»<oi»'
ducting materbl, where iu temperature b measured. If we con-
sider any short leiwth of the stream bounded by two imagMiafy
cross s e ctions A and B on either side of the plug, unit mass of the
fluid in passing A has work, yv', done on it by the fluid behind
and carries its energy, £'+ cr, with it into the space AB, where
IT b the kinetic energy of flow. In passing B it does work, ^V,
on the fluid in front, and carries iu energy, £'-f V*. with it out
of the space AB. If there b 00 external loss or gain of heat throuch
the waUs of the pipe, and if the flow b steady, so that energyia
not aocamubtiiw m the space AB, we must evidently have the
condition £'+a'+/V-£*+i;'+pV at any two cross-sections
of the stream. It is easy to arrenjEC the experiment so that O b
small and neariy constant. In this case the condition of flow b
simply that of consunt total heat, or in symbols, iI(£-f|«)«o.
We have therefore, by equation, (11),
sdim(fid9id$'f)'dp, . - . . dao
where df b tlie fall of temperature of the fluid correapondii^ to
a diminutkm of pressure dp. If there is no fall of temperature
in passing the plug, d9wo, and we have the condition 9aold9»9.
The characteristic equation of the fluid must then be of the form
*/**/(P)> where /(^) b any arbitrary function of #>. If the fluid
is a gas also obeying Boyb's bw, ^ ■■/(#), then it must be an
ideal gas. As the result of their experiments on actual gases (air,
hydrogen, and COi), Joule and Thomson (PkiL Trams., i8s4. i86»
found that the cooling effect, d9, was ^f the same order of magnitude
as the devbtions from Boyb's bw in each case, and that it was
proportional to the differeace of pressure, dp, so that d9jdp was
neariy constant for each gas over a range of pressure of five or six
atmospheres. By experimenU at different temperatures between
o* and 100* C, they found that the oooliaa effect per ataoosphere
of pressure varied inversely as the square of the absolute tempera-
ture for air and COs. Puttii« deidp^AH^ in eauatkm (15)* and
integrating on the assumption that the small vanations of 5 could
be neglected over the range of the experiment, they found a solution
of the type, v^ -/(^) -&4 /3#*, in which /(^) b an arbkrery function
of p. Assuming that the gas should approxiroate indefinitely to
the ideal sure pv-M at Ugh temperatures, they pal f(p)»R/Pi
which gives a characteristic equation of the form
v^BBjp^SA!^ (1^
employed by
It RegnauH's
*shw. Thb
pressu re s with that
8l2
THERMODYNAMICS
deviaed by Clauiius (PJktI. llia^.. 1880) to lepneaent the behaviour
of COk np to the critical poinL Experiments by Natansoo on
Cpk at 17* C. confirm those of Joule and Thomson, but show a
slight inciease of the ratio iBlip at -higher pressiires. which is
otherwise rendered probable by the form of the isothermals as
determined by Andrews and Amagat. More recent experimenu
by J. H. Grindley iProc Roy. Soc., 1900. 66, p. 79) and Callendar
(Proc Say. Soc^ 1900) on steam confirm this type of equation, but
give much larger values of the cooling effect than for QOu and a
more rapid rate of variation with temperature.
II. Modified JouU'Thomson EqKotion.'-G. A. Htm (TMoru Uec,
de la ChoUuri ii. p. 211, Paris, 1869) proposed 9a, equation of th*
lorm (^.+^)(r-&)"i&'. in which the effect of the sise of the
molectiies is represented by subtracting a quantity &. the "co-
volume," from the volume occupied by the gas, and the effect
oC the mutual attractions of the molecules is r e prese n ted by adding
a quantity p^ the internal pressure, to the external pressure, ^.
Thu type of equatk>n, was more fuUy worked out by van der Waals,
who identified the internal pressure, ^ with the capillary pressure
of Laplace, and assumed that it varied directly as the square of
the dttisity. and could be written oM This assumption represents
qualitatively the theoretical isothermal of James Thomson (see
Vaporization) and the phenomena of the critical state (see Con-
OBMSATiON OP Gases) ; but the numerical results to which it leads
differ so widely from experiment that it is necessary to suppose
the constant, a. to be a function of the temperature. Man/ com-
plicated expressions have been suggested by subsequent wnters in
the attempt to represent the continuity of the gaseous and liquid
states in a single formula, but these are of a highly empirical nature,
and beyond the scope of the present inquiry. The simplest assump-
tion which suffices to express the small deviations of gases and
vapours from the ideal state ai mcdtraU pnssures is that the coeffi-
cient « in the expression for the capillary pressure varies inveisely
as soaae power of the absolute tempemture. Neglecting smaU
terms of the second order, the equation nay then be written in
the form
te which e is a amall quantity (expressing the defect from the ideal
volume V»EBfp due to oo^ggragation of the molecules) which
varies inversely as the nth power of 0, but is independent of p
to a first approidmation at moderate pressures. The constant c^
is tt>e value of e at some standard temperature 9t. The value
of the index, n, appears to be different for different types of mole-
cule. For COk at ordinary temperatures f»— 3, as in the Joule"
Thomson equation. For steam between 100* and 150* C. it
approaches the value 3*^ It is probably less than 2 for air and
the more f)erfect gases. The introduction of the covohime, ft, into
the eguation is required in order to enable it to represent the
behaviour of hydrogen and other gases at high temperatures and
pressures according to the experiments of Amagat. It b generally
taken as constant, but its value at moderate pressures is difficult
to determine. According to van der Waals, assuming spherical
molecules, it should be four times; according to O. E. Meyer, on
slightly different assumptions, it should be 4Va times, the actual
vorume of the molecules. It appears to be a quantity of the same
order as the volume of the liquid, or as the limiting volume of
the gas at very high pressures. The value <rf the co^aggregation
volume, c, at any temperature, assuming equation (17)7 may be
found by observing the deviations from Boyle's law and by experi-
ments on the Joule-Thomson effect. The value of the angular
.coefficient dipvydp is evidently (b—c), whkh expresses the defect of
the actual volume r from the ideal volume RBjp. Differentiating
equation (17) at constant pressure to find dv/SB, and observing
that dc{d»''—nel$, we find by snbstitution in (15) the following
nmjrfe expression for the cooling effect d»idp in terms of c and b,
Sd9ldpf^{fi+t)c-b . . • • Cifi)
Experiments a't two temperatures suffice to determine both c and
w if we assume that b is equal to the volume of the liquid. But
it is better to apply the Boyle's law test in addition, provided
that errors due to surface condensation can be avoided. The
advantage of this type of equation is that r is a function of the
temperature only. Other favourite types of equation for approxi-
mate woric are (i) ^ »/»/»+/(•), which makes p a Imear function
of $ at constant volume, as in van der Waal's equation; (3)
w^RBfPHiP)* which makes «a linear function of $ at constant
pressure. These have often been employed as empirical formulae
(e.g. Zeuaer's formula for steam), but they cannot be made to
represent with sufficient approximatk>n the deviations from the
ideal State at moderate pressures and generally lead to erroneous
results. In the modified Joule-Thomson equation (1^), both c and
n have simple theoretical interpretations, and It is poesible to
express the thcrmodynamical properties of the substance in terms
- of them by means of reasonably simple formulae.
la. ApplkatiM of Uie Modified £aiMltofi.~We may Uke e9uation
(17) as a practical example of tlie thcrmodynamical principles
abeady given. The values of the partial differential coeffiaenU
ia terma of « and « are as foUowa:-^.
d«»/d»« .. m ^nU+iic/^. . . . , raS
if//i»(fcon«t)-(^/K)(i+iitf/V) .... Cai>
^^ tfip/d0^ „ -i?ac(i-«+aac/F)/9K» . . . <aa>
rf(/*)/«fp(^ const) -6-c . . . • . . . . (33)
Substituting these values in equations already given, we find,
from (6) S-S'R{i+ncfV)* (aa)
\9X dEfdv {$ coaat) ^ncp/V ht^
^(n+i)c-b.
-Cl-a
, n+2HcfV)Bsu/V* . . . (37)
-»C»+l)f/» (38)
In order to deduce the complete variation of the specific hcata
from these equations, it is necessary to make some assumption
with regard to the variation of the specific heats with temperature.
The assumption usually made is that the total kinetic energy of
the molecules, including possible energy of rotation or vibration
if the molecules consist of more than one atom, is proportional to
the energy of translation in the case of an ideal gas. In the case
of impenect gases, all the available experimental evidence shows
that the specific volume tends towards its ideal value. V^B»Jp,
in the limit, when the pressure is indefinitely reduced and the
molecules are widely separated so as to eliminate the effects of
their mutual actions. We may therefore reasonably assume that
the limiting values of the specific heats at zero pressure do not
vaiy with the temperature, provided that the molecule is stablp
and there is no dissociation. Denoting by 5«, sg, these constant
limiting values at ^bo, we may obtain the values at any pressure
by integrating the expressions (27^ and (28) from « to s and faom
to ^ respectively. We thus obtain
S''Si,-\-nin+i)pcl$ . tv ,. ^ . (39)
*-«i+(»-x-«/K)f»c^/» .... (30)
In worldng to a first approximation, the amaU term nc/V aay be
omitted in the expression for s.
The expression for the change of intrinsic energy E between
any given limits i^t to p9 i» i^ily found by sutetituting these
values of the spcafic heats in eauations (i 1^ or (13), and iot^tat^
ing between the given limits. We thus obtaiA
We have aimikirly for the total heat P'^E+po,
^-F,»5,(ff-«,)-(«+i)(cp-r^)+6(p-^).
The energy is less than that of an ideal gas by the term npc. If
we imagine that the defect of volume c is due to the formation of
molecular aggregates consisting of two or more single molecules^
and if the kineuc energy of translation of any one 01 these aggre-
gates is equal to that ol one of the single molecules, it ia clear tnat
some energy must be lost in (»-aggregating. but that the propordon
lost win be different for different types of molecuka and also for
different types of ooraggregation. If two monatomic molecule
having energy of translation only, equivalent to 3 degrees of freedom,
combined to forxn a diatomic molecule with ^ degrees c^ freedom,
the energy kist would be Pcii for co-aggregation, c, per unit mass.
In this case n^ili. If two diatomic molecules, having each
5 degrees of freedom, combine to form a molecule with 6 dcgreet
of freedom, we should have n*>3, or the energy Uat would be ape
per unit mass. If the molecules and molecular aggregates were
more^ complicated, and the number of degrees of treecfem of the
aggregates were limited to 6. or were the same as for angle mole-
cules, we shouki have n^n/R. The loss of energy couM not be
greater than this on the simple kinetic theory, unless there were
some evolution <rf latent beat of co-aggn^tion, due to the work
done by the mutual attractions of the congregating molecules.
It is not necessary to suppose that the co-aggregated molecules
are permanently associated. They are continual^changing partners,
the ratio dV representing approximately the ratio of the time
during whkh any one molecule is ^ired to the time during ^ich
it is free. At higher densities it is probable that more complex
<>8Sregates would be formed, so that as the effect of the coUisaons
became more important e would cease to be a function of the
temperature only: experiment, indeed, shows this to be the case.
13. EtUropy, — It follows from the defiiution of Uie absolute scale
of temperature, as given in relations fa), that in passing at constant
temperature from one adiabatic ^ (Fig. i) to any other adia-
batic ^', the quotient 1JJ9 of the heat absorbed by the temperature
at which it is absorbed is the same for the same two aaiabatiea
whatever the temperature of the •isothermal path. This quotient
is called the change of entropy, and may be denoted by (^'^40>
In passing along an adiabatic there is no change of entropy, since
no heat is absorbed. The adiabatics are lines m constant entropy,
and are also called Isentropics. In virtue of relations (a), the
change of entropy of a substance between any two states depends
only on the initial and final sutes. and may be reckoned along
any revenibte path, not necessarily isothermaJ, by dividing each
small inorement of heat. dH, by the temperature, 9, at which it is
acquired, and taking the sum or integrai of the quotieata* dB/k
f so obtained.
. THERMODYNAMICS
813
Tbe jypw Mfe h for tHe cjMSfb/of eatfopy iwt«Mn any tim •«
jk foMod oy dividing ttthar of tW Mptatiomfqriliria <^ by •
tnt«giaiiag between tho nven liarfto* wioo Mf/t Is a perfect dif-
fereatiaL la tbe case of « coUd or a liquid, the latent heat of
isothermal expansion nuy often be neglected, and if the ipedfic
Heat I J, be aUo taken aa oonstaat, we have eiiiiply 4-^>« »tJi/K
U the.iobitaDoe at the tenperature $ andeiBoea a change of sute.
absorbing latent heat, L, we have mcvely to add the term Lf0 to
the above expression. In the case of an ideal ^«, dp/fl0 at oonstant
volume -"/{/v, and dtAlt at oonstant premure^K/^; thua we obtain
the exprcuionft for the change of entropy ^-^ from the itate
M^ to the 6Uto p$v,
♦Hk|-»l0g^/l»,+^l0g^^
-5log^/tfo^/l!og.^/^ . ^^..(3*)
In the oaflc of an imperfect gas or vapour, the above expressions
are frequently emplojrcd, but a more accurate result may be obtained
by employing equation (t?) with tho value of the specific beat,
S, from (39), which gives the expresaioa
4''^'SJlogJffS'-R\oe.pfp.^niepf9^e4^y ... (33)
The state of a substance may be defined by means of the tempera*
ture and entropy as co-ondinates, instead olensployinff the pressure
and volume as in the indicator diagram. This method of repre-
■entation is appUcabU to certain kinds of problems,^ and has been
developed by Macfarlane Cray and other writers in its application
to the steam engine. (See Steam Ekcinb.) Areas on the tempera-
ture-entropy ot 9, ^ diagram represent quantities of heat in the
same way as areas on the indicator djagnun lepreoent quantities
of work. The 0. 4 diagram is useful in the study of heit waste
and condensation, but from other points of view the utility of
the conception of entropy as a " factor of beat ** is limited by the
fact that tt does not correspond to any directly measurable physical
pcoperty. but ia merely a mathematical function arising from the
lorm of the definition of absolute temperature. Changes of entropy
roust be calculated in terms of quantitks^of heat, and mmt^ be
interpreted in a similar manner. The majority of thermodynaroical
problems may be treated without any reference to entropy, but it
affords a convenient method of expression m abstract thcrmo.
dynamics, especially in the consideration of irreversible processes
and in reference to the conditions of equilibrium of heterogeneous
8>'StCm8.
14. Irrewersihte Processes. — In order that a process may be
strictly reversible, k is neocasary that the ataee of the working
substance should be one of equilibrium at uniform pressure and
temperature throughout. If heat passes " of itself " from a higher
to a tower temperature by conduction, convection or radiation,
the tfansfer cannot be reversed without an expenditure of work.
If mechanical work or kinetic energy is directly converted into
heat by friction, reversal of the motion docs not restore the encigy
so converted. In all such cases there i» necessarily, by Carnot's
principle, a loss of efficiency or available energy, accompanied by
an increase' of entropy, which serves as a convenient measure or
cfiterioQ of the loss. A common illustration of an irrever^le
process is the expansion of a gas into a vacuum or against a pres*
sure less than its own. In this case the work of expansion, pdv,
is expended in the first instance in producing kinetic encr^ o\
motion of parts of the gasL 1 1 this could be co-ordinated and utilized
without dissipation, the gas mi^ht conceivably be restored to its
initial state; but in practice violent local difTcrence» of pressure
and temperature arc produced, the kinetic energy Is rapidly con-
vert«l into heat by viscous eddy friction, and residual difVo'enrca
of temperature are et^ualizcd by diffusion throyghouc the mass.
Even if the expansion is adiabatic, in the sense that it takes place
inside a non-conducting enclosure and no heat is supplied from
external aources, it will not be Isentropic, iTince the heat supplied
by internal friction must be included in reckoning the change of
entropy. Assuming that no hcnt is supplied from external sources
and no external work is done, the intriniic energy remains constant
by the first law. The final state of the Substance, when equilibrium
haa been restored, may be deduced from this condition, if the
energy can be expressed in terms of the 09*oniiaat«a. But the
line 01 constant energy on the diagrani does not represent the path
of the trensformatmn, unless it be ro pnose d to be effected in a
■eriea of infinitesimal steps between cad^ of wMdi the sobetanee
ia restored to an equilibrium state. An irrevvnible process which
permits a more complete experimental investigation is the steady
flow of a fluid in a tube already referred to in section lo. If the
tube is a perfect non-conductor, aed if there are no eddies of
ffictional djasipatioa, the state of the substance at any point of
tha tube as to £» ^, and a, is represented by the adiabntic or i«en«
tropic path, (f£-— pd*. As the sectbn of the tube varies, the
change of feinctic energy of flow, dC/, is represented by —vdp.
The Bow in thw case is reversible, and the state of the fluid is the
aame at points when: the sectioo of tbe tube is the same. In
practice^ jmwever, there is always some frictioaal (UssipatioQi
aooompanicd by an increase of entropy and by a faU of pressure,
fn the limiting case of a long fine tube, the bote of which vanes
ia such a manner that U is comteant, the state of the substance
aloag a. Bae of Aonr aaay bt nrprwcated by tha tine al oomtaaft
XXVI iA
total beat, dfE-fpv) -o; bot in tha caea of a poroiia {rtaf ar snwll
throttling anertme, the atepe of the proccH Gaanot be foUowad.
though the bnal-ctate is the
equal
dHU
In any small revenue change in which the tubctance absorbs
heat, d£r. from external sources, the inoease of entropy, d^, maet
be equal to 4Ht$. If the change Is not reverMble, but the final
state ia the aame, the change of entropy, df, is the aame^ but it is
iual to dtf/0. %y Carnot's principle, in aU irrevenible
. Hl» must be algebrakally less then dl^, otherwise it
would be possible to devise a cycle more efficient than a levenible
cyde. Thb affords a useful criterion (see EwstCBncs) betweea
transformations wfakh^M impossible and those which are pessible
but irreversible In the special case of a substance isolated from
external bent supply, dtf «o, the chango of entropy is zero in a
reversible process, but must be positive if the process is not rcver*
Bible. The entropy cannot diminish. Any cfiange involving de-
crease of entropy is impossible. The entropy tends to a maximom,
and the state is one of stable eqailibriun when the value of the
entropy is the maximum value consistent with the conditions of
the problem.
15. Heterogtiuoms EguilibriMm.^ln a systftm, as dietinguifliicd
from a homogeneous substance, con^istina of two or more states
similar condition of eouiltbrium applies. In aav
irrevensible change, if the system is heat*isolated»
there must be an incrosse of entropy. The total entropy of the
system is found by multiplying the entropy per unit mass of the
substance in cadi state by the mass existing in that state, and
adding the products so obtained. The simplest case to consider
is that of equilibrittm be t we en solid and liquid, or liquki and vapour.
The more ^eneial case is discussed in the article Enbrcbtics, and
in the original memoirs of Willard Gibbs and others. Sinee the
condition of heat-isobtion is impracticable, the condition of maxi-
mum entropy cannot, as a rule, be directly applied, and it is neoca-
sary to find a more convenient method of expression. If dW is
the external work done, dH the heat absorbed from external •ouroes.
and dB the increase of intrinsic encrey, we have in all cases by
the first bw. dli-^E^dW. Since fd^ cannot be less than dtf,
the difference {Od^E) cannot be less than 4W. Thb inequality
holds in all cases, but cannot in general be applied to an irreveiw
aiMe change, because Bd^ b not a perfect difterential. and cannot
be evnluatea without a kaowledee of the path or process ef trans-
formation. In the spedal case, bowevcr, fai which the treasforin^
tion b conducted in an botheraul encbaum, a common oonditioa
emOy realiaed in practice, the temperature at the end of the tiana>
formation b reduood to its initial value throughout the iubsUacaw
The value of 0(to b then the aame as d(0f ). which b a perfect
differential, so that the oonditkm may be written d(^£)-dfK.
The condition in thb form can be readily upUed prcnrided that
the external workdH^ can be measured. Tliere are two special
cases of importances— (a) If the volume b oonstant, or div-o,
the value of the function («^fi) cannot diminish, pr (£-#^)
cannot increase, if the temperature b kept constant. This functna
may be represented, for each state or phase of the system con-
sidered, by an area on the indicator diagram similar to that repns
seating the intrinsic energy, E, The product H may be represented
at any point such as D in Fig. t by the whole area #'DZ'VO under
the isothermal $^D and the adbbatic DZ', bounded by the axes of
pressure and volume The intrinsic energy, £, b aimliarty repre-
sented by the area DZ'Vd under the adiabatic to the i^ght of the
iscmetric Dd. The difference B^E b represented by the arn
$'VdO to the left of the isometric Dd under the isothermal 9't),
The increment of thb area (or the decrement of tbe negati\'e area
JS-^^) at consUnt temperature represents the external work
obtainable from the substance in isothermal cxparsbn, in the
same way that the decrement of the intrinsic energy represents
the work done in adiabatic expansion. The function /-£-«♦,
has been called the " free energy " of the substance by Helmholts,
and ^ the " bound energy." These functions do not. however,
represent energy existing in the substance, like the intrinsic energy;
but the increment of H represents heat supplied to, and the decre-
ment of (£-^) represents work obtainable from, the substance
when the temperature b kept constant. The coiiditton of stable'
equilibrium of a system at constant temperature and volume b
that the total / should be a mimmum. Thb function b also
called the " thermodynamic potentbl at constant volume " from
the analogy with the condition of minimum potential eneigy as tbe
Criterion 01 stable equlUbrimn in «atlcs.
As an example, we may apply this condition to the case of
change of state. If J\ P represent the values of the functjoo
for unit mass of the substance of specific volunnes r and v' in the
two states at temperature 9 and pre«sure p, and if a mass m is m
tbe state »*, and i-m in the state r'jthe value of J for unit mass
of the mixture b mr+(i-m)/'. Thb must be a minimum in
the state of equilibrium at constant temperature. Since the
^ome b constant, wa have the condition mtr+d-w)* -con-
stant. Since dJm-i^B-pdv, we have also the rejation*
iTfd^ - « p « dJ'(d9', at constant temperature. Putting d/(flin "O
at ooastant volunm, we obtain as the condition of equUibnum of
tea /'•|-^a'«/'4-^*t'. Thb nay be ioterpxeted u
I
8i4
THERMOEI.ECTRICITY
the equatioa of the bdrdar auvt pviSag the relation bettreen p
and i, but is more euily obteioed ay considering the equilibrium
at constant pressure instead of constant volume.
(6) The second case, which im of greater practical utility, is that
in which the external pressure, Pt » kept constant. In this case
dW^pdomdip9\ a perfect differential, so that the esEternal work
done IS known trom the initial and final sutea. In any possible
transformation difi^-^E) cannot be less than d{p9), or the function
(E^9^-\rp9) *=G cannot increase. The condition of stable equili-
brium is that C should be a minimum, for which reason it has
been called the " thermodynamic potential at constant pressure."
The product pv for any state suck as D in fig. i is n^resented
by the rectangle MDdO, bounded by the isopiestic and the isometric
through D. The function G is represented by the negative area
4'DM under the isothermal, bounded by the isopiestic DM and
the axis of pressure. The increment of tf^ is always neater than
that of the toul heat F'^E+pv, except in the special case of an
equilibrium change at constant temperature and pressure, in which
case both are ei^ual to the heat absorbed in the change, and the
function G remains constant. This is geometrically obvious from
the form of the area representing the function on the indicator
diaBTam. and also foUows directly from the first law. The simplest
application of the thermodynamic potential is to questions of
change of state. If ^\ E'j v'; and ^', E% v', refer to unit mass
of the substance in the first and second states respectively in
equilibrium at a teniperature B and pressure p, the heat absorbed,
X, per unit mass in a change frmn the first to the second state is,
by definition of the entropy, equal to 0(^'— ^Oi and this by the
fiirst law is equal to the change of intrinsic energy, E'^E*, plus
the external_work done, p{v'—i^, ix, to the change of total heat,
re the vail - • - • ^ ^ .* .
r-R If C and Caret
dues of the function G for the two
states in equUtbrium at the same pressure and temperature, we
must have G'<^G*. Assuming^ the function (7 to be expressed in
terms of P and 9. this condition represents the relation between
P and 9 corresponding to equilibrium between the two states, which
IS the solution of the relation {v'''i/)dpid9'L/9, (s). The direct
integration of this eouation requires that L and v'— v' should be
known as functions of p and 9, and cannot generally be performed.
As an example of one of the few cases where a complete solution
is possibte, we may take the comparatively simple case equation
(17), already considered, which is approximately true for the
maiority of vapoura at moderate pcessuxes.
Writwg formulae (31) and (aS) for the enetigy and entropy with
indeterminate constants A and iB. instead of taking them between
limits, we obtain the following expressions for the thermodynamic
functions in the case of the vapour >—
*'-5ilog^--Rlog^-iitf^y»+il» .... (34)
mS^^in+i)cp+hp+B'
J'^si'^S^]SiJ9-\-R9ki7p-A'9+i'' . ' . . (38)
The function /' may be expressed in terms of 9 and v by writing
G'~S^(T~\ogj9)+R»\og,p-{c''b)P'-A*9+B'
for p its value^ namely, Jtf/(9+c— 6).
the relations
We have also in any case
dG'/d9 (p const) m^'mdJ'/dB (rconst)
!t) -^d/'/^C* const) -p
S21
dC'/dp (9 const]
And all the properties of the substance may be expressed in terms
of G or / and their partial differential coefficients. The values
of the corresponding tunctions for the liquid or solid cannot be
accurately expressed, as the theoretical variation of the specific
heat is unknown, but if we take the specific heat at constant pres-
sureV to be approximately constant, and observe the small residual
variation dA of the total heat, we may write
r-*'«+rf*+B' ...... UO
♦'-r'log^+d*+^' U2S
G'-*'tfCi-k«^+(<tt-W«)-^'^+B' . . (43)
where d^ is the corresponding residual variation of 4', and is easily
calculated from a table of values of k.
To find the border curve of equilibrium between the two states,
giving the saturation pressure as a function of the temperature, we
have merely to equate the values of G^ and G'. Rearranging the
terms, and dividing throughout by 9, we obtain an equation of the
form
R \og.P''A-BI9-is'~S,)log^Hc''h)pl9Hdhl9^d4) . (44)
In which B-B'-B', and i4 ->f'-i4'+j'-5». The value of .4 is
determined by observing the value of 9o at some known pressure
«.{. at the boiling-point. The value of B is determined by
serving the latent heat, Lo-F*©— F'o, which gives
B-B'-B'-£fl+(«'-5«)«<i+(ii+i)(^-6^+<ttf . (45)
This constant may be called the absolute latent heat, as itexpresses
the thermal value' of the change df state in a manner independent
of temperature.
I The term {dhf9--dil) depending on the variation of the specific
l«at of the liquid may be made very small in the case of water by
iroper choice of the constant f. It is of the same order at the
probable errors of obscfvvtlM, and nay be neglected fan practice.
(See VAPOuzAnoN. § 16.) The expresskM for R ]ogp for an im-
perfect ^s of this type diners from that for a perfect «• only by
the additk>n of the term (e^b)p/9. This simple result is generaOy
true, and the ccnrespondin^ expres^ns for G* and J' are valid.
provided that c— ft in fonnula (17) b a function of the temperature
only. It is not necessary to suppose that c varies iovendy pa the
nth power of the temperature, and that b is oonstant. as assumed
in deduciiw the expressions for ^, £, and P.
Although the value of G in any case cannot be found without
that of 4* and although the considefatkm of the properties of the
thermodynamk potential cannot in any case lead to results whkh
are not directly deducible from the two fundamental laws, it affords
a convenient method of formal expression in abstract thermo-
dynamks for the condition of eguilibrium between different phages,
or the criterion of the possibility of a transformatmn. For such
purely abstract purposes, the possibility of numerical evaluation
of the function is of secondary importance, and it is often possible
to make oualitative deductions with regard to the general nature
of a tran^ormatwn without any knowledge of the actual form of
the function. A more common method of procedure, however, is
to infer the general relations of the thermodynamic potential from
a consideration of the phenomena of equilibrium.
As it would be impossible within the limits of this article to
illustrate or explain adequately the applications which have teen
made of the principles of thermodynamics, it has been necessar>'
to select such illustrations only as are required for other reasons,
or could not be found elsewhere. For fuller details and explana-
tions of the elements of the subject, the reader must be referred
to general treatises such as Baynes's Tkermodynamics (Oxford),
Tail's Titermodynamics (Edinburgh), Maxwell's Theory ttf Heat
(London), Parker's Thermodymamies (Cambridge), Clausius's
Mechantcai Theory of Heat (transUted by Browne, London), and
Preston's Theery of ntoi (London). One or two chapters on the
subject are also generally included in treatises on the steam engine,
or other heat engines, such as those of Rankine, Perrv or Ewing.
Of greater interest, partkulariy from a historical point di view,
are the original papers of Joule. Thomson and Rankine, some of
which have been reprinted in a collected form. A more complete
and more elaborate treatment of the subject will be found in foreign
treatises, such as those of Clausius, Zeuner, Duhem, Bertrand,
Planck and others
Alpkabetieal Index of Symbols Employed.
0, Thermodynamic or absolute temperature.
^, Entropy. Section 13.
bt Covolume of molecules of gas. Equation (17).
c. Ct, Co-anje^tion volume per unit mass. Equatioa (17).
e. Base of Napierian logarithms.
B, Intrinsic energy per unit mass. Section a.
F^E+po, Totafheat. Section 7.
G. /. Thermodynamic potential functions. Section 15.
H. Quantity of heat (in mechanical units). Section 2.
K, k, Adiabatic and isothermal elasticities. Equation (7).
X, Latent heat of fusion or vaporization. Equation (5).
M, Molecular weight. Section 8.
iM, Mass of substance or molecule.
II, Index in expression for c. Equation (17).
P, Pressure of fluid, po. Initial pressure.
K'^Sn—So, Constant in gas-equation (17).
5. Specific heat of jas at constant pressure.
So, Limiting value of 5 when p -o. Section 12.
5, Specific heat of gas at constant volume.
St, Limiting value of s when /><-o. Section 12.
i'. i'. Specific heat under other conditions. Equation (5).
U, Kinetic energy of flow of fluid. Section 10.
a. Mean velocity of gaseous molecules. Section 8.
V''R9fp, Ideal volume of gas |>er unit mass. Equation (17).
V, Specific v(^ume of fluid, redprocal of density.
W, External work done by fluid. (H. L. C.)
THERHOELKCTRICnr. i Fundamental Phenomena. —
Alessandro Volta (1801) showed that although a eeparatioii of
the two electricities was produced by the contact of two different
metals {VoUa Effect), which cotdd be detected by a sensitive
electrometer, a continuous current of corresponding magnitude
could not be produced in a purely metallic drcuit without the
interposition of a liquid, because the electromotive ioite at one
junction was exactly balanced by an equal and opposite force
at the other. T. J. Seebeck (183a), employing a galvanometer
then recently invented, which was more suited for the detection
of small electromotive forces^ found that a current was produced
if the junctions of the two metals were at different temperatures.
He explained this effect by supposing that the Volta contsct
electromotive force varied with the temperature, lo that the
exact balance was destroyed by unequal heating. The intcBsHy
THERMOELECTRICITY
3iS
of the cntrait, C» (or Misr gUnea pair oC meub, wai fovndi to vacy
directly as the difference of teraperatiire, t-f, betucen the hot
and cold junctions, and inversely as the resistance, J?, of the
(ucttit Wc conclude by applying Ohm's law that the electro-
motive force, Bt of the thermocouple oaay be approximately
reprdented for small differences of tempetatuxe by the fbrmoU
£-CJe-p(<«-0 (0
a. Tkermadictrk Power, Series, Imersion.^Tht limiting
Value, dEldi, of the coefficient, p, for an infinitesimal difference,
dt, between the junctions is called the ThermoeUOric Fewer of
the couple. One metal (A) is said to be thermoelectricaUy
poMtivc CO another (B), if positive electricity flows from A to B
across the cold junction when the circuit is completed. The
opposite convention is sometimes adopted, but the above »
the 4no8t convenient in practice, as the circuit is generally
broken at or near the cold junction for the insertion of the
galvanometer. Seebeck found that the metals could be arranged
in a ThermoeUctric Series, in the order of their power when com-
bined with any one metal, such that the power of ai^ thermo-
couple p, composed of the metals A and B, was equal to the
algebraic difference {p'-pl of their powers when combined
with the standard meUl C. The order of the metak in this
series was found to be different from that in the corresponding
Volu series, and to be considerably affected by variations in
purity, hardness and other phjrsical conditions. J. Gumming
shortly afterwards discovered the phenomenon of Thermo-
electric Innrsien, or the change vi the oider of the metab in the
thermoelectric series at different temperatures. Copper, for
instance, is negative to iron at ordinary temperatures, but is
positive to it at 300* C. or above. The E.M F. of a copper-
iron thermocouple reaches a maximum when the temperature
of the hot junction is raised to 270* C«, at which temperature
the thermoelectric power vanishes and the metals are said to
be neutral to one another. Beyond this poiiit the E.M.F.
diminishes, vanishing and changing sign when the temperature
of the hot junction is nearly as much above the neutral point
as the temperature of the oold junction is bcfew it. Similar
phenomena occur in the case of many other couples, and it is
found that the thermoelectric power ^ is not in general « con-
stant, and that the simple linear formuh (i) is applicable only
for small differences of temperatuie. More accurately it may
be stated that the thcrmoelcctrDmotive force in any given
circuit containing a series of different metals is a function of the
temperatures of the junctions only, and is independent of the
distribution of the temperature at any intermediate points, pro-
vided that each of the metals in the series is of uniform quality.
This ttatefOfPt Admits of the simple mathematical expression
. (t)
«-/1/*+/;Va+&c
where f, p, &c., are the thermoelectric powen of the metals,
and /«, f, h, &c., the temperatures of the junctions. There are
some special cases of sufficient practical importance to be
separately stated.
3. Homogtntout Cirarit. Strain Hysteresis.'^n a circuit
consisting of a single metal, no current can be produced by varia-
tions of temperature, provided that the metal is not thereby
strained or ahered. This was particubrly demonstrated by
the experiments of H. G. Magnus. The effects produced by
abrupt changes of temperature or section, or by pressing together
pieces of the same metal at different temperatures, are probably
to be explained as effects of strain. A number of interesting
effects of this nature have been investigated by Thomson.
F. P. Le Roux, P. C. Tait and others, but the theory has not as
yet been fully developed. An Interesting example b furnished
by an experiment due to F. T. Trouton {Proc, X. S. Dub., 1886).
A piece of iron ot sted wire fai the circuit of a galvanometer is
heated in a flame to bright redness at any point. No effect ia
noticed so long as the flame is stationary, but if the flame be
moved slowly in one direction a current is observed, which
changes its direction with the direction of motion of the flame.
The explanation of this phenomenon is that the metal is trans-
f«iMd St a led heit into aaothcr modififatinn, u is proved by
simvltaneous changes in its magnetic and electrical properties.
The change from one state to the other takes place at a higher
temperature on heating than on cooling. The junctions of the
magnetic and the non-magnetic steel are therefore at different
temperatures if the flame is moved, and a current is produced
just as if a piece of different metal with junctions at difiereni
temperatures had been introduced into the circuiL Other
effects of " hysteresis " occur in alloys of iron, which have been
studied by W. F« Barrett {Tram. R, S» Dub., January 1900).
4. Law of Successim Temper9tures.-^Tht E.M.F. of a given
couple between any temperatures f and t' is the algebraic sum
of the E.M.F. between f and any other temperature / and the
E.M.F. between fanAf. A useful result of this law is that it
is sufficient to keep one junction always at some oonvenient
standard temperature, such as o* C, arid to tabulate only the
values of the E.M.F. in the circuit corresponding to different
temperatures of the other junction.
5. Law of Intermediate Hetah.-^A thermoelectric drcuit may
be cut at any point and a wve of some other metal introduced
without altering the E.M.F. in the drcuit, provided that the
two junaions with the metal introduced are kept at the same
temperature. This law is conunonly applied in connecting a
thermocouple to a galvanometer with coils of copper wfar, the
junctions of the copper wires with the other metals being placed
side by side in a vcsad of water or otherwise kept at the same
temperature. Another way of stating this bw, which, though
apparently quite different, b really equivalent in effect, b the
following. The E.M.F. of any couple, AB, for any given limits
of temperature b the algebraic sum of the E.M.F.S between the
same limits of temperature of the couples BC and CA formed
with any other metal C. It b for thb reason unnecessary to
Ubulate the E.M J^.s of all possible combinations of metab,
since the E.M .F. of any couple can be at once deduced by addition
from the values given by its components with a single standard
mctaL Different observen have chosen different metab as
the standard of reference. Tait and J. A. Fleming select lead
on account of the smallneas of the Thomson effect in it, as ob-
served by Le Roux. NoD adopts mercury becattse it b easily
purified, and its physical condiiion in the liquid state b deter-
minate; there b, however, a discontinuity involved in passing
from the liquid to the solid state at a temperature of -40* C,
and H caimot be used at all with some metab. such as leul, on
account of the rapidity with which it dissolves them. Both
lead and mercury have the disadvantage that they cannot be
emptoyed for temperatures much above 300* C. Of all metab*
copper b the most generally convenient, as it b always emptoyed
In electrical connexions and b easily obtained in the annealed
state of uniform purity. For high temperature work it b
necessary to empkiy platinum, which would be an ideal standard
for an purposes on account of its constancy and hifusibility,
did not the thermoelearic properties of different specimens
differ considerably.
6. Thertmoeleetrk Af«i«/ae.-^>R the hasb of the prindplet
stated above, the most otnious method of tabubtinc the observa-
tions wouM be to eive the values £1 of the E.M.F. between o* C.
and f for each metal against the standard. Thb involves no aasampo
tions as to the bw ol variation of E.M.F. with temperature, but
is somewhat cumbrous. In the majority of cases it Is found that
the observations can be represented within the limits of experi-
menul error by a fairly simpb empirical formub. at least for
moderate nnges of teroneratuies. The following formuUe are «ome
of those employed for tiib purpose by different obierven:--
Et^U-^-ef (Avenarius, 1863.)
£,-^+5<«+ef» .. _: . (Generaltvpe.)
(Dccquern. t863 )
lotB^a-^blT-^ctogT
£.+£.— to-^-f-io-'*^'* .
Eo-tl-eit-n+Ht-iy
EtTT»)-iiiT*-mr^, £i»wr
£, - « +c /c« r/273. (« - T')
(Tait. 1870)
(Barus. 1889.)
(Holbom and Wien, 1 89s.)
(PSschcn, 1893.)
(Steele. 1894.)
(Holman. 1896.)
(Stanfield, 18^.)
£,-- a+W+ci« (Holbcra and Day. 1899.)
£,-a/-»-^+**(r/fff .r-a73'»C'»73)- „
(Where t-f*-»>acr. and e a snull. See sec 15.)
8i6
THERMOELECTRICITV
Tor tnodeimte nngjea of temperature the binotnUI fonniila of M. P.
Avenariu* is genetally suiiiciet c. and has been employed by many
oboervers. It is figured by Avenarius {Pog^. Ann,, 119, p. ^)
as a 8emi<trcle» but it is restlly a parabola with its axis parallel to
the axis of E, and its vertex at the point /--6/2ff, which gives
the neutral temperature. We have also the relations dB/dl^b+ict
and fiB/dfi^lc. The first relation gives the thermoelectric power
p at any temperature, and is probably the most convetiient method
of stating results in all cases in which this formula Is applicable.
A discussion of some of the exponential formulae is given by S. W.
Holman {PhU. Mag., 41, p. 465, June 1896).
7. Experimental PesuUs.^ln the following comparative Uble
of the Ksuk» of different observers the values are ruerred to lead.
Before the time of Tait's researches such data were of little interest
or value, on account of insufficient care in securinjg the purity of
the materials tested; but increased facilities in this respect, com-
bined with great improvements in electrical measurements, have
put the question on a different footing- The comoarisoa of inde-
pendent results shows in many cases a remarkable concordance,
and the data arc becoming of great value for the testing of various
theories of the relations between heat and electricity.
TaBLS I.— ThBRMOELECTRIC POWBR. P»dEldt, IN MICROVOI.TS AT 50* C. OP PURE METALS WITH RESPECT TO LEAD.
change, 2c=^d*E/di*, of the thermoelectric power per degree Cover the lange covered by.t^e experiments, is added in
each case.)
Noll employed mereory ihenab^aebtn, but 1
over a small range with vapour baths» it is probable that be did
not experience any trouble iroro immersion corrections. He docs
not record any systematic deviations from the formula. De«>ar
and Flemmg. working at very low temperatures, were compelled
to use the platinum thermometer, and ca(>retted their results in
terms of the pJatiaum scale. Their observations were probably free
from immersion errors, but they record some deviations from the
formula which they consider to be beyond the possible limits of error
of their work. The writer has reduced their rcsulu to the scale
of the gas thermometer, assuming the boiling-point of ox>'gen to be
-i82-5*C.
9. Peltier £/«/.— The discovery by J. C. A. Peltier 0834)
thai heat is absorbed at the junction of two metals bypassing a
current through It in the same direction as the current produced
by heating it, was recognized by Joule as affording a cine to
the source of the energy of the current by the application of the
principles of thermodynamics. "Unlike the fricttonal generation
of heat due to the resistance of the conductor, which Joule (1841)
.(The
Meu).
Tail (o* to >»•>.
Stcck (<^ M 100^
NoU (•• to mT)
I>«w^ and Flemfng
■ ( ^utT to -aoo').
p.
2C.
p.
3C.
/>.
2C.
^
2C.
Alumim'um
-'0-56
+ 0039
-042
+4283
+ •0021
-041
-f 00174
-0394
+•00198
+-02817
Antimony
4-14SO*
•f3-2io
-76^70
Bismuth ....
—08480
Cadmium ....
+4-75
+ 0429
+479
+•0389
+4'7I
+•0339
+4792
+-02365
Carbon . « . .
+12-795
P^\
S^Tf : : ; :
+i-8|^
+ •0095
+3"37
+ 0122
+i'22
+.0080
+3156
-19252
—0734
Gold
+3-30
+'0102
+3-19
+•0131
+3- 10
+ 0063
+i-!6i
+.~3i5
Iron
-f 14-74
—0487
— 0328
*•
+ii'83S
—0306
+9W0
—01330
- -01092
Steel (piano)
Steel (Mn 12%) . .
+9-75
-5-.73
-•00445
MagnesiuAi
Mercury ....
+i-75*
-"009S
-01 13
tsa
-o-fa6
+-003S3
Nickel ....
''2±'2i*
-§.04
—0512
— ojw
-ii-87
— 056139
Palladium
—0359
,.
..
-9-100
—04714
-■03708
Platinum ....
-II5*
— •Olio
;f:S
— 021 1
-4-347
Silver. . • . . .
-1-2 -86
4-0150
+i-07
+ 01*15
-f-oo76
+3-3>7
+•00714
Thaltium ....
.,
+ 176
—0077
..
Tin
— o-i6,
+ 0055
-0-091
-f K)oo4 ■
-0-067
+-0019
+^o&7
+K)0O2l
•f -01040
Zinc
+3-51
+ 0240
+ I-77'
+•0195
+33»8
+ 0172
+J-233
Exphnafion «f TakU, — ^The figutes marked with an asterisk (•)
represent discrepancies which are probably caused by impurities in
the specimens. At the time of Tan's work in 1873 it was difficult,
if not impossible, in many cases to secure pure materials. The
work of tne mher three observcni dates from 1 894-93.' • The value
of the thermoelectric power dElH at 50* C. is taken as the mean
value between o* and lOo" C, over which mnge it can be most
accurately determined. The' values of tPEfdP agree as wdl as can
be expected, considering the difference of the ran^ of temperature
and the great variety in the methods of observation, adopted; they
are calculated assuming the parabolic formula, whkh is certainly
in many cases inadequate. Noll's values apply t9 the temperature
of +100* C, Dewar and Fleming's to that of -lOO* C, approxi-
mately.
In using the above table to find the value of E or dEfdi at any
temperature or between any limits, denoting by p the value of
dEfdt at ^^ C. and by 3c the constant value of the second coeffi*
ciem, we have the following equations :-?
dE/dt - p-\-2cit -50), at any temperature i. Cent.
£0-.')-(/-n(P+cC/+<'-ioo))
for the E.M.F. between any temperature f and /*.
8. Methods of Observation. — In Tait's observations the E.M.F.
was measured by the deflection of a mirror galvanometer, and the
tempecature by means of a mercury thermometer or an auxiliary
thermocouple. He states that the deviations from the .formula
were "quite within the limits of error introduced by the altera-
tion of the resiftance of the circuit with rise of temperature, the
deviations of the mercury thermometers from the absolute scale,
and the non<orrection of the indications of the thermometer lor
the long column of mercury not immersed in the hot oil round the
iunctkms." The latter correction may amount to about 10° C at
350*. Later observers have generally employed a balance method
(some modification of the potentionwter or Poggcndorf balance)
for racaauring the E.M.F. The range of Steele's observations was
too small to show any certain deviation from the formula, but he
Dotes capricious changes attributed to change of conditJ<»n of the
1J5
prbved to be proportional to the square of the current, tha Pdtier
effect is iwersible -with the current, knd being djredly pfopov-
tional to the first power of the current, changes sign irhca the
current is reversied. The effect i» most easily shows by coit-
necting a voltaic cell to a thermoinle for a short interval, then
quickly (by means of a suitable key, such as a Fohl comnntator
with the cross connectors removed) discoimecting the pile from
the cell and connecting it to a galvanometer, which will indicate
a current in the reverse direction through the pile, and approxi*
mately proportional to the original current in intensity, provided
that the other conditions of the experiment are constant. It
was by an experiment of this kind that Quinlus Icilius (1853)
verified the proportionality of the heat absorbed or generxted
to the first power of the current. It had been observed by
Peltier and A. £. Becquerel that the intensity of the effect
depended on the thermoelectric power of the juDction and was
independent of its form or dimensions. The order of the metals
in respect of the Peltier effect was found to be the same as the
thermoelectric series. But on account of the difficulty of the
measurements involved, the verification of the accurate relation
between ,the Peltier effect and thermoelectric power was left
to more recent times. If C^ is the intensity of the current through
a simple thermocouple, the junctions of which are it tempera-
tures / and /*, a quantity of heat, PxC, is absorbed by the
passage of the current per second at the hot junction, /. and a
quantity, P'XC, is evolved at the cold junction, Y. TKc co-
efficients, P and P", are called coefficients of the Peltier effect,
and may be stated in calories ot joules per ampere-second
The Peltier coefficient may also be exprc^ed in volts or micro-
volts, and may be regarded as the measure of an E.M.F. located
THERMOELECTIOGITY
817
at the Junetian, and traosformliic lieat into clectHcal tntrgy or
vice versa. If Ris ihe whole resistance of the circuit, and E
the E,M^. Of the coupb» and if tJie 6ow of the current does not
produce any other thermal effects iA the circuit besides the Joule
aod Pettier eifects, we should find by applying the principle of
the conservation of energy, m, by equating the balance of the
heat absorbed by the Peltier effects to the heat generated in
the dxcuit by the Joule effect,
(P-POC-C»lf-BC;whenceE-P-P' . - (5^
If we might ako regard the couple as a levefsible thcroKH
dynamic engine lor converting heat into work, and might
Begleci irreversible effects, such as conduction, which are
independent o( the current, we should expect to find the ratio
of the heat absorbed at the hot junction to the heat evolved
at the cold junction, namely, P/P*, to be the same as the ratjo
TIT ^ the absolute temperatures of the junctions. This would
lead to the conclusion given hy R. J.E. CtausiuS (1853) that the
Peltier effect varied directly aa the absolute tempeiature^ and
that the E.M.F. of the couple shoukl be dii«:tly pioportional to
the difference of temperature between the juncti-wis.
10. Thomson £/fc/.— Thomson* (Lord Kelvin) had already
pointed out {Proc. US* Eiin^ zSsx) that thia candusioa was inr
nt ^with the known facts of tbennoefeotric fatveiskm.
(1) The 5M.F. waa not
a linear function of )St
temperature difference.
(2) U the PdUer effect
was proportional to the
thermodectxfc power and
changed sign with it, as
ail experiments appeared
to indicate, there, would
be no absorption of heat
in the circuit due to the
Peltier effect, and there*
fore no thermal source to
account ior the energy of
the cuncat, in the case
in which the hot junction
was at or above the
neutral temperature. lie
_ therefore predicted that
Fic. i.^DiaeTam of Appamtus for there must be a levemble
Dc ii M u rtml og the ThomMi Effect, absorption of heat in som^
other part of the circuft
due to the flow ol the current through the unequally heated
conductors. He suc c e eded a few years aftorwards ia verifying
this remarkable prediction by the exper im ental demonstration
that a current of positive electricity flowing from hot to cold
in ixon produced an absorption of heat, as though it possessed
Mfdli'w ^icctfic heat in the metal iron. He also succeeded in
diowing that a current from hot to cold evolved heat in copper,
hut the effect was smaller and more difficult to observe than in
»<?5- _^ . - - .
\ lecture
I wire
» thick
/ current
from a storage cdl adjusted by a suitable rhecstat. Tlie cxpcri*
mental wise AB b connected m panllel with about J aeues of
thicker wire (No. 23), which is not aopredably heated. K low-
Rtistaoce galvanometer i» connected ny a' very fine wire (a to
3 mils) to the centre C oC the aiq^mental wire AB, and aho to
the middle point D of the paiallel witb ao as to forma VVheatstone
bridgr* Toe balaaee is adjusred by shunting either AD or BD
with a box, S, oootaimng ao to 100 ohms. All the wires in the
nuadrilatenl must be of the same metal as AB, to avoid accidental
thcrmoelectrie cllecta which wmild obscure the result. If the
current flows from A to B there will be heat absorbed in AC and
evolved ia CB by the Thomsoa effect, if the KMcific heat of eloc-
tricity In AB is positive as in copper. Whea the current is
revened. the tcmpccatnc of AC wul be niacd and that of CB
lowared by the revcnal of the effect. This will disturb the resist-
ance balance by enamooat which can be measured by the deflectioii
of )ht gahranoraiter, or by the dianve of the shunt-box. S, required
to nstors the balance. Owiag tb the aasaSsiaeoi the experimental
wbe, the neihod U very qnkfc and seeskSve^ and the appamtus
dan be set up in a few mmutes when oace the experimenul quadri-
laterals have been made: It works very well with piatiaum. iron
and copper. It was applied with elaborate modifications ,by the
writer m 1886 tq determine the value of the Tliomson effect in
pbtimim in absolute measure, and has recently been applied with
further improvements by R. O. King to measure the effect io
copper.
If. fAoeismi'a rAsory.— Takkg account of the Thomson
effect, the thenaodynaniicsl thewy of the couple was satia-
factoifly completed by Thomson (7roM. R. S. Bdin., 1854). U
the quantity of heat absoibed and converted into electiical
energy, when Unit quantity of eiectddty (one ampere-second)
flows from cold to hot through a difference of temperature, dt,
be repsesented by tdi, the codScient i ia called the specific heat
of electricity in the metal, or simply the coefficient of the Thomson
effect. Like the Peltier coefficient, it may be measured in joukai
or calories per ampere-second per degree, or more conveniently
and simply in microvolts per degree.
Pettier effect are P and P+dP. Equating the quantity of heat
absorbed to the quantity of electiical eaefgy (enaated, we fiave
by the first law of theriaodynamica the relation
iBtdT^dPHTW^n . ... (4)
If we apptv the secon d law , regarding the couple as a revcrrible
engine, and Ooosideringonly the reversible effects, we obtain*
(i'-n/r--d(p/nw . . (7)
Kliminstirtg (f^-^i*) we find for the Peltier effect
P»nSfdt'*Tp . . , .0)
Wheoc<^ we obtain for tlft difference of the specific heati
_;, (/''s')''-Td'EldT»m^Tdp/dT , . (9)
From thcs^'relataons we observe that the Pettier effect P. and
the difference of the Thomson effects if-^f'}, for any two metals
are easily deduced from the tabubtcd values of dE/dt and sPEfdfi
respectively. The tiais in the above equations are chosen on the
assumption that poutive electricity flows from cold to hot in the
metal s*. The signs of the Peltier aiid Thomson effects will be the
same as the dgfts of the coeffidsnla given in Table I., if we suppose
the maCal f' to be lead, aod assume that the vakie of sf may be
Uken MA zero at all temperatures.
12. ExptrimenUl VtnicAllon of Thomson* s Theory. -^In. ordtt to
Justify the assumption Involved in the application of the second
Thomson pointed out (Pftff. Mai., D ece m be r t8«»)r, to make experi-
ments to verify quantitatively the rebtion PfT-'dE/dT between
the Peltier effect and the thermoelectric power.. A qualitative
relation was known at that tfme to exist, but no absolute measure-
ments of sufficient accuracy had been made. The most accurate
measuretnents of the heat abeorotion due to the I^lrier effect at
)ly taose t
;loaed vari .
Bunscn ice calorimeter, and observed, the evolution of heat per
hour with a current of about l -6 amperes in cither dhrcctioo. The
I junctions in a
present svaOable are probably tikose of H. M. Tahn {Wiod. /4m..
M* P- 7^1 i88S), He enckMcd various metallic f
Bunscn ice calorimeter, .
hour with a current of ab ^
Mtiei' effect was only a small fraction of the total effect, but could
be separated from the loule effect owing to the reversal of the
current. The values oi dE.'dT for the tamo specimons of metal
at o* C. were determined by experiments between +ao* C. and
-30* C. The results of his observations are contained in the
rollowing table, heat absorttod being reckoned positive as in
Table I.:—
TABLStL
"
i£/iT
p^us/tr
Bat ok.
BMieteMMd
iss
Micwvpks
Mkravda
aioritt
Calorics
pttdm.
rt«rc .
>rlNyr.
IHTlM^.
Cu-Ag
^.12
+579
1:r43S
+0^13
Cu-F?
+11 -as
-t^
+31^
Cu.Pt
-1.40
-«-3»7
-0-390
Cu-Zo
Cu-Cd
-l-I'SI
+a^
t?j;
t^j
ttSl
Cu.NI
-10H>3
-5468
-4-«0
-4-3fa
The aBTtement between the observed and calculated values in the
last two caliimns ia as good as can be expected conaidcriog the
great difliculty of measuring such small c|iianttties of heat. The
analogous reversible heat effecu which occur at the junction of a
metafand an electrolyte were also investigated by Jahn, but he
did not succeed in obtaining so complete an agreement with theoiy
ittthiscaasw
8i8
THERMOELECTIUCITy
13. Tait*i Hypotkesis.—Fram general conaideratkMit ooacen«
ing minimum dissipation of energy (Ptoe. R. S. Edin., 1867-68),
Tait was led to the conclusion that " the thermal and electric
conductivities of metals varied inversely as the absolute tem-
perature, and that the specific heat of electricity was directly
proportional to the same." Subsequent experimenU led him
to doubt this conclusion as regards conductivity, but his thermo-
electric experimenU (Proe. R. S, Edin., December 1870) appeared
to be in good agreement with it. If we adopt this hypothesis,
and substitute s= tcT, where c is a constant, in the fundamental
equation (9), we obtain at once d^E/dT*^ —a (c'-0» wWch is
immediately integrable, and gives
: :.a?]
where /• is the temperature of the neutral "pc&aX at which
dE/dt^o. This is the equation to a parabola, and is equivalent
to the empirical formula of Avenarius, with this difference,
that in Tait's formula the constants have aU a simple and
direct interpretatidn in relation to the theory. Tait's theory
and formula were subsequently assimilated by Avenarius {Pogg.
Ann., 149, p. 37a, 1873), and are now generally attrS)uted
to Avenarius in foreign periodicals.
In accordance with this hypothesis, the curves l«piwenting
the variations of thermoelectric power, dE/dt, with temperature
Fro. a.'-Temperature by Thermocouple. Difference from
Tait's Formula.
are straight lines, the slope of which for any couple is equ>l to
the difference of the constanU 2(e'— c'). The diagram con-
structed by Tait on this principle is fully explained and illus-
trated in many text-books, and has been generally adopted as
embodying in a simple form the fundamental phenomena of
thermoelectricity.
II. Experimental VerifUaium.--'Ta\i*% verification of this hypo-
thesu consisted In showing that the experimental curves of E.M.F.
were parabolas in most cases within the limits of error of his obser-
vations. He records, however, certain notable divergencies, parti-
culariy in the case of iron and nickel, and nnanv others have since
come to light from other observations. It should also be remarked
that even if the curves were not parabolas, it wonM always be
possible to draw parabolas to agree closely with the observations
over a restricted ran^ of temperature. When the question is
tested^more carefully, either by taking more accurate meaMirements
of temperature, or by extending the observations over a wider
range, it is found that there are systematic deviations from the
parabola in the majority of cases, which cannot, be explained by
errors of axperiment. A more accurate verification of these rela-
tions, both at high and low extremes of temperature, has become
possible of late years owing to the developroeat of the theory and
apf^icatioa of the platinum resistance the r mo m eter. (See THsa-
MOHETRY.) The curves in fi^. a illustrate the differences from the
paraboKc fomula* measured in degoecs of temperature, as observed
by H. M. Tory (iB.il. RMpoH, 1897}. The deviations for the copper-
iron eouple, ana for the copper cast-iron couple over the ranee
O* to Joo* C. appear to be of the order of 1* C, and were carefully
)niM)tA. by tnpeated and independent series of observations. The
deviation* ^f thA niatinum and platinum-rhodium 10 per oent.
couple over the range o* to 1000* C are shown- o(v.a smaUcr aoalcb
and are seen to be of a similar nature, but rather greater in pro-
portion. It should be observed that these deviatmns are continuous,
and differ in character from the abrupt chances observed by Tait
in special cases. A number of similar deviaaona at temparaturea
below o* C were found by the writer in reducing the curves iepre>
senting the observations of Dewar and Fleming (JPAi(. Mag., July
1895) to the normal scale of temperature from the platinum scafe
in which they are rooorded. In many cases the deviations do not
appear to favour any simple hypothesia as to the mode of variatioo
of s with temperature, but as a rale the indkation is that s is neariy
constant, or even diminishes with rise of temperature. It may be
interesting therefore to consider the effect of one or two other
simple hypotheses with regard to the mode of variation of x with T.
15. Oiker Aisnmptions,—\t we uke the ansJogy of a p(»fect
gas and assume inconstant, we have
d&fdrm -sir, dEIdT'ms log ,T^T
EiT-r>^sT log .flT-sriSg, .UT
n
where T and V are the temperatures of the junctions, and T* is
the neutral temperature. These formulae are not so simple and
convenient as Tait's, though apparently founded on a more dm pie
assumption, but they frequently represent the observations more
dosdy. If we suppose that i is not quite constant, but increases
or diminishes sligndv with chan^ of temperature according to a
linear formula x*x«-f-2er (in which lo represents the constant part
of X, and c may have either sIm), we obtain a more general formula
which is evidently the sani 01 the two previous solutions and may
be nuKb to cover a greater variety of casea. Another simple aad
Dossible assumption is that made by A Stansfield (PhU. Mag.,
July 1898), that the value of s vanes invcfsdy as the absolute
temperature. Putthig s^'c/T, we obtain
E(7^,mc log .r/r-c(r-r)/n
(14)
which is equivalent to the form given by Stansfiekl, but with the
neutral temperature T9 explicitly included. According, .to this
formula, the Peltier effect is a linear function of the temperature.
It may appear at first sight astonishing that k should be possible
to apply so many different assumptions to the sniution of one and
the same problem. In many cases a formula of the last type
would be quite inapplicable, as Stansfidd remarks, but tlve differ-
ence between the three is often mach less than might be suppoaed.
For instance, in the case of 10 per cent. Rh. Pt.-Pt. couple, if we
caktthite three formulas of the abcrve types to satisfy the same
pair of observations at o*— 445* and oT— looo* C, we shall find
that the formula x -constant lies nudway between that of Tait
and that of Stansfidd, but the difference bet»-een the formulae b
of the same order as that between different etbservers. In this
partictilar case the parabolic formula appears to be undoubtedly
inadequate. The wnter's observations aeiec more neariy with the
assumption x "constant, those of Stansndd with s^cfT. Many
other formulae have been sugoaated. ■ L. F. C Holbom and A. Day
(BerA Akad., 1899) have eonc back to Tait's method at high tempera-
tures, employing arcs of pacabolaa for limited ranges. But since
the parabolic formula is certainly erroneous at low temperatures,
it can hardly be trusted for extrajpolatwn above 1000* C.
16. Absolute Measurement of Thomson Effea.— Another method
of verifying Tait's hypothesis, of greater difficulty but of con-
sideraUe interest, is to measure tlu absolute value ci the heat
absorbed by the Thomson effect, and to observe whether or not
it varies with the temperature. Le Roux (AnH. Chim. Pkys^ x.
p. 201. 1867) made a number of relative measurements of the
effect in different metals, which agreed qualitativdv with obser-
vadoaa of the thermoelectric power, and showed that the effect
was proportkmal to the current for a given temperature gradienL
Batelli has applied the same method (Auad. Set. Turin, 1886) to
the absolute measurement. He observed u-ith a thermocouple the
difference of temperature (about 'Oi* C.) produced by the Thomson
effect in twenty minutes between two mercurj^ calorimeters. B%
and Bi, surrounding the central portions of a pair of rods arranged
as in Le Roux*s method (see fig. 3). The value of the Thomson
Fic 3.~Thomson Effect. Batelli (Le Roux*s Method).
effect was calculated by multiplying this difference of tempeiature
by the thermal capacity of either calorimeter, and divklittg by the
current, by the number of seconds in twenrr nunutes, and by
twice the difference of temperature (sibout 30*7 between the enda
• and h of either calorimeter. The method appears to be open
to the objection that the difference of temperature reached in so
long an interval would be more or less independent of the tbsnnal
THERMOELECTRICITY
819
CRpaotiM of tht calonmetert, and would also be dUBcalt to measure
accurately with a thermocouple under the conditions described.
The general results of the work appeared to support Tait's hypo-
fbcws that the effect was proportional to the abvolute temperatttcck
but dirccc tbenaooleccnc teau do not appear to have been made
on the specioens employed, which would have afforded a valuable
confirmation by the comparison o( the values oC d?Eli1\ as in
Jahn's experiments.
17. King's Exfenments.^The method temptoyed by the writer,
to which allusian has alieady been made, conastad in (^Merving
the change oC distribution of temperatarc in terms of the rcsisuoce
along a wire heated by an electric current, when the heating
current 'was reversed. It has been fully described by King {Proc,
Amer, Acad., June 189B), who applied It most succosfully to the
case of copper. Altboagh the effect in copper is so smalt, he suc-
ceeded in obtaining chanees of temperature due to the Thomson
cf^t of the order of i* C. which could be measured with satis-
factory accuracy. He also determined the effect of change of
temperature distribution on the rate of generation of heat by the
current ; and on the external loss of heat by radiation, convection
and conduction. It is necessary to take all these conditions care-
fully into account in calculating the balance due to the Thomson
effect. According to King's experiments, the v^ue o( the effect
Fig. 4.— Potental Diagrams of Thermocouple on the
Contact Theory.
appears to diminish wHh rise of temperature to a slight extent
in copper, but the diminution is so small that he does not regard
it as establi4bed with oertaiaty. The vsUmc found at a temperature
of 150* C was -fa$ miorojoules per nmpere-sfcond per
or -f 2'S microi^^lts per degree io the case of copper, which agrpcs
ytry fairly with the value deduced from thermoelectric testa. The
value found by Batelli for iron waa —5-0 microvoHs per degree
at 106* C, which appears too small in comparison. These measure-
ments, though subject to sone uncertainty on aoooonc of the mat
experimental difhculties, are a vcty vafaable coofirmntion of the
acconcy of Thomson's theory, because they show that the magni-
tude of tfie effect Is of the retired ovder, but they cannot be said
to be strongly in support of Tait's hypothcsia. A comparison of
the results of different obMrven would also suggest that the law of
variation may be different in different metab; although the dif-
fetences in the values of d*£/dP may be due in part to differences
of purity or enors of observation. It would appear, for instance,
according to the observations of Dewar and Fleming, that the
value of f for won is positive below -ija* C. at which wAn% it
vanishes. At onSinary tempef a t w t s the value is negative, Increas-
ing rapidly in the negative diiection as the temperature tiscol This
might be appropriately repnsented, as already suggested, by a
unear formma r>-r»— <r.
18. PoUHti«l Dtagnms m fie Contact Tkeory^'^t is Instructive
to consider the distribution of potential in a thermoelectric circuit,
and It s relation to the resultant E.M.F. and to the seat of the
E.M.F. In fig. 4. which is given as an illustfation, the cold jumc^
tipns are supposed to be at 0* C. and the hot Junctions at 100* C
Noll s values (Table I.) are taken for the E.M.F., and it is supposed
that the coefficient M the Thomson effect is aero in lead, ir. that
thert fa no E.M.P. and thM the pocantial ia watfom thKnighottt
Iron-lead
Cadmium-lead.
Platinum-lead .
Nickd-lead .
the length of the lead wire.. Taking tba feed-iron couple as an
example, the value of dEidt at the hot junction too* C. is 10-505
microvolts per degree, and the value of the Peltier coefficient
>« TdEldT is +5844 mkrrovolts. >In other words, we may suppose
that there is an EMJP. of that magnitude situated at the iunction
which causes positive electricity to ibw from the lead to the iron.
If the circuit is open, as represented in the diagram, the flow will
cease as soon as it has nisra the potential of the iron 3844 micro-
volu above that of the lead. In the substance of the iron itself
there is an E.M.F. due to the Thomson effect of about 10 micro-
volts per degree tending to drive fxisitive electricity from hot to
cold, ami raising the cola end of the iron 989 microvolts in potential
above the hot end on open circuit. At the cold junction the iron
is suf^XMed to be connected to a piece of lead at o* C, and there
is a sadden drop of potential doe to the Peltier effect of 3648 micro-
volcs^ If the orcuit is cut at this point, there remains a. diffvence
of potential £ « 1 184 microvolts, the resultant E.M.F. of the circuit,
tendine, to drive positive electridtv from the Iron to the lead across
the coM junction. If the circuit is dosed, there will be a current
C«£/A, where R^R'-k-R', the sum of the resistances of the lead
and iron. The flow of the current will produce a fall oif potential
BRfjR in the lead from cold to hot, and ER'JR in the iron from
hot to <^d. but the potential difference due to the Peltier effect
at either iunction mil not be affected. For simplicity hi the
diacnm the temperatnc gradient has been taken as untlbnii.
and the speci&: heat fcqnstant, bnt the total P.D. would be the
same whatever the gradient.
Similar diagrams are given In fig. 4 for cadmium in which both
the specific heat and the Peltier effect are positive, and also for
fdatinum and nickel in which both coefficients are negative. The
metals are supposed to be all joined together at the hot iunction,
and the circuit cut in the lead near the cold junction. The digram
will serve for any selected couple, such as iron-nickd. and is not
restricted to combinations with leadl The foRowing table shows
the component parts of the E.MJF. in each case^-— '
Tablb III.
'» - -*• -loox^ - J^
+3844- +3648- -988- ^-1184
+2389- +821- -fioos- -f47i
— 1919— —828— — 682«« —409
-8239- -5«*- -975- -ao58
The components for any other combination of two are found by
taking the algebraic difference of the values with respect to lead.
19. JUUUimt t9 the Fato £/ee/.— It ia now generally conceded
that the relalivdy large differences of potential obaervabte with
an electrometer between metaU on open circuit, as discovered
by Volta, are due to the chemical affinities of the metals, and
hflnre no dirca rektion to thennoelecCric pheaomeaa or to tht
Vthkr effect The order of the metak in respect of the two
effects is quite different. The potential difference^ due to the
Volts effect in air, haa been shown by Thoinaon (Lord Kelvin)
and hit pupQa to be of the saiAe order of magnitude, if not
absdutdy the aune, aa that produced in a dilute electrolyte la
which two RicuUically connected plates (<.g. sine and copper)
aie imraeradd. (On this hypothesis, it may be eaqilained by
regarding the air as an electrolyte of infinite specific resistaiKe.)
It is also profoundly modified by the state of the exposed sur-
faces, a coating of oodde on the oopper greatly incMasing the
effect, as it would ia a voltaic cdl. The Pdtier effect and the
theano^ll.F., on the othfer hand, do not. depend on the
state of the surfacca, but only on the state of the
s a b stan c ft An attempt has been Made to explain the Vdla
effect as due to the affinity of the metals /vr each other, but that
wookl not account for thevaiiation of the effect with the stale
of the tariMBt, except as afleciiag the actual suxface of contact.
It h equally evideiit that chemkal affinity between the metals
be the explanatloR ol the Pdtier E.M.F. This would
necessitaie chemical action at the Junction when a current
thnxigh it, as ia an ckctrolytic cdl, whereas the action
appears to be pordy theraaal, and leads Io a consistent theory
that faypothesia. The dieniical action between metals in
the solid state must be infinitcsima], and could only suffice to
produce small cbargcs analogous to those of frictional electricity;
it could not maintain a permanent diffcrraoe of potential at a
metallic jtaKtion through which a current was passing. Although
it is possible that difference of potential fatigcr than the Pdtier
effect m%ht east between two metajb in contact on open circuit,
k ia ccisaia tkU the only effective £jhf .F. b piactke is the
8i8
TF
13. Tait's Hypotkesh.'—Tmm general con
ing minimum dissipation of energy (Proe. R
Tail was led to the conclusion that "the *
conductivities of metals varied invencly
pecature, and that the specific heat of el<.
proportional to the same." Subsequent
to doubt this conclusion as regards conduc '
electric experiments (Proc R. S. Edin., Vr
to be in good agreement with it. If wc
and substitute ^" acT, where c is a cons'
equation (9), we obtain at once tPE/dJ'
immediately integrable, and gives
TffjunDELECTRICITY
E^'^it-ffifi'-c') {2U'
where ./• is the temperature of th'
dE/dt^o. Tbis is the equation to a
to the empirical formula of Avci
that in Tait's formula the const
direct interpretation in rebtion t>
and formula were subsequently a^
Ann., 149, p. 37a, 1873), and
to Avenarius in foreign periodioi!
In accordance with this hyp<
the variations of thermoelectric
Fic. a.— Tempv
are straight lines,
the difference of
itructed by Tai'
trated in many
embodying in .
thennoelectrid
. 14. Experin'
thesu consiitc
were parabola
vations. Hr
cularly in th
come to ligb
that even :
possible to
over a re
tested roor
of tem(wr
f heat by an
, dcctricity"
.1 expressing
I (>t intend to
L or negative
' w as absorbed
! from cold to
: >ic absorption
cut conversion
I. cnt. The ele-
M.F..<fE«=*ir,
.twccn its ends.
..en drawn on this
really due to con-
urcof anE.M.F.
I. This view witb
I generally taken by
It is not, however,
. the equations given
any assumptions with
ly on the balance of
different parts of the
> are open to an entirely
A from that which is
: cady given in { ix for an
the following equivalent
r^pdT^{p''P')dT,.
eltier effect,^ and.tbe thenno*
^y be expressed in terms of
ic powers, p^ and p', of the
.1 neutral standard. So fat as
AC might evidently regard the
iiirely in the conductors tbem-
ictions, ii p or (p' -^) is the
Icgree in corresponding elements
ase, however, in order to account
eltier effect at the junctions, it is
ere is a real amvection of heat by an
. coefficient P or ^r is the difference
I tried by unit quantity of dectridty
ibis hypothesis, if we -confine our
) metals, say ^', in which tbe current
\ hot to cold, we observe that p'dT
heat converted into electrical energy
y an E.M.F. p' per x° located in the
lis that the absolute magnitude of p'
lly deterrainod, but this is immaterial,
rned with differences. The quantity of
.viection as the current flows from hot. to
in the equation by dP^d(pT). Since
>', it is clear that the balance of heat
lement is only Tdp'»s'dT, namely, the
>d is ftoi the equivalent of the E.M.F. f^dT,
oory the absorption of heat is masked by the
is constant there b no Thomson effect, but it
bat there is no E.M.F. located in the elemenL
t, OB the other hand, may be ascribed enrivdy
The quantity of heat p'Tik bnoght vp ta one
i^Mbcance I aide of the ^mction per unit of electricity, and the quantity
be greater of heat p'T taken away on the other. The balance (P'^p^T
objected, is evolved at the junction. If, therefore, we are prepared to
depends admit that an electric current can carry heat, the existence oi
about the Peltier effect is no proof that a corresponding E.M.F. is
jding located at the junction, or, in other words, that the conversion
. (Terence oi heat into electrical energy occurs at this point of the circuit,
that no or is due to the contact of dissimilar metals. On the conUct
when theory, as generally adopted, the E.M.F. is due entirely to change
absorption of subsUnce (dP-Tdpy, on the convection theory, it is due
entirely to change of temperature (pdT). But the two ex-
pressions are equivalent, and give the same results*
21. PottnUai Diagratm on Comectum rfcsory.— The difference
between the two theories is most readily appreciated by drawiiM
the potential diagrams corresponding to the supposed locations 01
the E.M.F. b each case. The contact theory has been already
illustrated in fig. 4. Corresponding diagrams for the same metals
on the conveaion theory are given in fig. 5. la this diagram
the metals are supposed to be all joined together and to ^ at
the same time potential at the cold junction at o* C. The ordinate
of the curve at any temperature is the difference of potential
between any point in the metal and a point in lead at the same
temperature. Since there is no conuct E.M.F. on this theory,
the ordinates also represent the E.M.F. of a thermocouple metaU
Fio. 5.— Curves of Th«rmo-E.M.F., or Potential Diagrams,
on the Convection Theory.
lead, in which one junction is at o* C. and the other at I* C. For
this reason the potential diagrams on the con>'ectioB theory are
more shnple and useful than those on the contact tbc»ry. The
method of recording the numerical data, more particularly in cases
where they do not admit of being adequately represented by a
formubu The line of lead is taken to be horizontal m the diagram,
because the thermoelectric power, p, may be reckoned from any
convenient Hero. It b not intended to imply that there b no
E.M.F. in the metal-le^i with change of temperature, but that
the value of ^ in thb met%l b nearly constant, as the Thomson
effect b very small. It b very probable that the absolute values
of ^ in different metab are of the same sign and of the same order
of magnitude, being laige compared with the differences obser^-cd.
It would be theoretically poesible to measure the absolute value in
some metal by 'observing with an electrometer the P.D. between
parts of the same metal at different temperatures, but the differ^
ence woukl probably be of the order of only one-hundredth of a
volt for a xlifference of 100* C. It would be sufficiently difficult
to. detect so small a difference uader the best conditions. The
difficulty would be gttsatly, increased, if not rendered practically
insuperable, by the large difference of temperature.
22. Conduetum Tkeiry.^Xn. Thomson's theory it b expressly
assumed that the reversible thermal effecu may be comiderei
separately without reference to conduction. In the conduction
theory of F. W. G. Kohlmusch {Pou, Ann., 187S. voU 156, p. 601),
the fundamenul postubte b that the thermo-E.M.F. »» due to the
conduction of heat in the metal, which is contrary to Thomsons
theory. It is assumed that a flow of heat Q. due to conducuon.
tends to carry with it a proportional electric current C'^aO. Th»
b interpreted to mean that there b an E.M.F. dE* -oAf dr*
-"HT, m each element, wbcfe ik b the fbcrmal cvpducUvity aad
THERMOMETRY
631
Ike wptetiSc ntwtaape. The ** thtiwioilPCtiic ohmum/* #. of
KdUrMttdi. n evidently the wuae «• tlie thenaoelectric power. *,
la Tlkonuon's theory. In order to explain the Fdtier effect, Kohl-
nineh further URuroet thnc nn dectHe-eumot. C, cnnie* n bent-
iow. Q^MQ wHIi it* where '^Am aoomtant which can be nada
equal to nnaty^ a proper cheioe of ttnitft" liXaad#am«ocMiMijb
toe Fdtier effecto at the hot and cold junctiona axe equal mbA
oppodte, and may therefore be neglected. The combiaatk>n d(
the two poettiiaiefl leads to a cooiplieatioa. By the aeeond postu*
hue the flow of the aimnt incieaMa the heat-flow, and tfaia by
the fint pogtttlaie iecraMBi the E.M.F., or the radttaoce. whacb
therefore depends on the current. It is difficult to see how this
complication can be avoided, unless the first postulate is abandoned,
and the hcAt-flow due to conduction is assumed to be indepen d e nt
ei the thcraodectric phenomena. By applying the first law of
thermodynamics. KoMrausch deducea thsu a ouantity of heat.
C$dT, ip absorbed in the element dTVper second oy the current (7.
He wrongly identifies this with the Thomson effect, by omitting to
allow for the heat carried. He does not make any application of
the sBoood Uw to the theory. If we apply Thomson** oonditioa
P^TdEJdT'-rp, ^ have AmT, If we also asMiae the i«tio
of the current to the beat-flow to be the same in both postulates,
we have o-i/TV, whence i^^ktlT. This condition was applied
hi 1899 by C H. J. B. Uebenow {Wkdi Ann., 68. p. 31^: It
simplifies dm theory, and gives a posable relatioa between the
constants, but it does net appear to remove the complicatfoo above
referred to. sfhich seems to be inseparable fipm any condection
L. Boltzmann (Silt. fTsnt. Aini., 1887. vol. 96. p. r»8) Rtvea a
theoretical discassfon of all possible forms of exprcssioo for therrae-
; oooduflt
to the
Neglecting oooduetioa. all the exprsssiooB
which he givea are. equivalent to the eauations of Tbomsoiv
Taking coniduction into account in the appiicatbn of the second
equation given
however, Thomaoa'e
W/der-i»<JVT(VT7'+ Vf*7*). instead of the
by.Tboeuoo, namdy. PmTdEtdT. Since, howm
eqnntion has been so closdy verified hy Jahn, it is brobable that
Boltzmann would now consider that the kcveraible effects mi^t be
created independently of conduction.
2j. Tkeniioelectnc Rdations.-^K number of sdggestioos have
been made as to the possible relations between heat and dectri-
dty, and the mechanism by which an electric cunent might also
be a carrier of heat The simplest is probably that of W. E. Weber
iWkd. Ann., 1875), who regarded electricity as conasting of
atoms much smaller than those of matter, and supposed that
heat was the kinetic energy of these electric atoms. If we
suppose that an electric current in a metal b a flow of negative
electric atoms In one direction, the positive dectrictty associated
with the lar heavier material atoms remaining practically
stationary, and if the atomic heat of dectridty is of the same
order as that of an equivalent quantity of hydrogen or any other
dement, the heat carried per ampere-second at o* C, namdy P,
would be of the order of '030 of a joule, which would be ample
to account for all the observed effects on the convection theory.
Others have considered conduction in a metal to be analogous
to dectrolytic condMction. and the observed effects to be due
to "migration of the ions." The majority of these theories
are too vague to be profitably discussed in an artide like ifnt
present, but there can be little doubt that the study of thermo-
electfidty affords one of the most promising roads to the dis-
covery erf the true rdatioos between heat anid dectridty.
AlphabetiMi Indix of Symbott,
#. h, ^MNnmetical constants in focmolieu
C'Electnc Current.
B ^ E.M.r . ' Electromotive Force.
k -• Thermal Conductivity.
F* Coefficient of Pdticr Effect.
i «dE/dr«Therroodoctric Power.
7 « Heat-flow due to Conduction.
< * Electrical Reaisunce ; r, Spedfic Resistaoee.
f » Specific Heat, or Coeflkiient of Thomson Effect.
I -Temperature on the Centigrade Scale.
r^Temperature on the Absolute Scale.
(H.L.C)
nUHMOnniT (Gr. Btfpti, warm; iiirper. a measure),
the ait of measuring tenperature or degree of heat. The insirn-
ments used for thb pnrpose are known as thermometers, or
sometimes, wljen the temperatures to be measured are high,'
■a pyxometera. *
I. A brief sketch of the evrfution of the thermometer is !n-
ctuded in the artide Hkat« || a and 3. tlie object of the
present artide is to dimsi the Benefal pnadples on wfaidi the
accurate measurement of temperature depends, and to describe
the application of these principles to the oonstxuction snd use
of the most hnportant types of thermometer. Special attention
will be devoted to more recent advances in scientific methods
of testing the r mom e ters and to the appiicatton of dtatrical
and optical methods to the difficult probkm of measuring high
temporatures. In the article PYSOMBTsa an account will be
found of some of the the r moscopic methods employed ia the
arts for determining high temperatures.
3. Zero: ftmdamenUd Inlarval,-^ln all systems, of. measuring
temperature it is neoeaury (x) to choose a ^ero or starting-point
from which to reckon, (a) to determine the siaeof the degree by
subdividing the interval between two selected fixed pointaof
the scale (called tho "fundamental intervai") into. a siven
number of equal parts. The fundamental interval selected is
that between the ten^Mratura of melting ice and the tem«
perature of condensing steam, under standard atmo^hcric
pressure. On the Centigrade system the fundamental interval
is divided into 100 parts, and the melting-poiot of ice is ta^ea
u the zero of the scale. We shall denote temperature teckoneci
on thb aystem by the letter /, or by affixing the letter C. It .is
often convenient to reckon temperature^ not from the meUIng*
point of ice, but from a theoretical or abfolu^ aero representing
the lowest ooncdvable temperature. We shall denote tem-
perature Ironed in this maxmer by the letter T, or 9, or 1^
aflSxing the letters Abs, In practice, since the abeolute xero is
u n a tt ai n abl r, the abaoluta temperature is deduoed from the
Centigrade temperature by adding a constant quantity, T«i
representing the interval between the absolute aero and tha
melting-point of ice; thus T-i-fTs.
3. Arbitrary Scal€s,-~Aa arbitrary scale can be censtzvcted
by selecting any physical property of n aubstance which vaiim
regularly with the teniperature, such aa the volume of a liquid,
or the pressure or density of a gas, or the electrical resistance of n
metal. Thus if V denote the volume of a given maaa at the
temperature f, and if V«, Vi represent the volumel of the same
mass at the temperatures o* and xoo'* C, the size of i^ C. on
the scale of this arbitrary thermometer is one hundredth part
of the fundamental interval, namdy (Vi->V«)/ioo, and the
temperature t at volume V is the number of theie degrees coni
taincd in the expansion V-V« between o* and f" C We thus
arrive at the formula
i-ioo(V-V^/(V,-VO
(1).
which is the general expression for the temperature Centigrade
on any such arbiuary scale, provided that we substitute for V
the particular physical property selected as the basis of the
scale. ,If we prefer to reckon temperature from an arbitrary
zero defined by the vanishing of V, which may conveniently bo
called the fundameniol Mtro of the scale considered, we have»
putting V«o In equation (i), the ntunerical values of the funda-
mental zero T«, and of the temperature T reckoned from this
Ts«iooV«/(Vi- V«). and T-T«V/Vs>-/-f T«
(a).
It is frequently convenient to measure temperature in this
manner when dealing with gases, or electrical resistance ther-
4. AbtatnU Scokj^t is necessary for theoretical purposes
to reduce all experimental resuUs^as far as possible to the ab-
solute scale, defined as explained in Hjsat, S ai, on the basis of
Cimot's pcindple, which is. independent of the properties of
any particular substance. Temperature on this scale measored
from the absoluU zero will be denoted by the letter 9, This
soale can -be most nearly realized in practice by observing the
temperature T on the sode of a gas-thermometer, and making
special experiments on the gas to detennine how far its scale
deviates from that of the thenno4yiumucal engine. In the
case of the gases hydrogen and helium, which can exist ia the
liquid state only at very low toaperatures, tke deviations from
the absolute scale at ordinary temperatures are so amall that
822
THERMOMETRY
(MEKCURIAL
UsscuuAX. TwFuiamiET
S* Thft BMJtH nvBnwut typ6 of timmuiiiffffr dcpsnds on tbc
•ppucBt txpumrm of a liquid faennetkally sealed in a gbss
bolb atUcbed to a graduated stem of fine boie. Of all liquid-
io-glus tlje nwm i etefs those contaimiig merouy are almost
invariabfy selected for srimtifif poiposes, altlwogii at fifst
aiglit BBerauy would appear to be the least suitable fiquid, on
account of its small co ffli fi m t of fip a n w on Hie smalhifis of
the eipaasioB neoessitates an extremely fine bore for the stem,
wfaich mtipdoces cnws in cxmsequenoev of the hi^ surface
tensioa of mercoiy. The cooaidecable density of the liquid
abo tends to CAaggeia te the effects of dtange of position doe
to variatioa of the ineasme exerted on the interior of the bolb
by the liquid cohmuL These enon are small and fairiy regular,
and can be corrected nilhin certain Emits. A much more
serious source of trouble, especially at ia^ tempexxtures, is
the imperfect dsstkity of the glass, which causes more or less
■regular dianges in the vofaune of the bulb. The effca of
these dianges on the readings of the thermometer is enlianced
by the smaUneas of the expansion of mercuiy, and might be
reduced by employing a more expansible Itqidd. It is more
likely, however, that the defect wiD be remedied by the con-
stniction of thermometers of fused quartz, which is the most
perfectly clastic solid hitherto discovered. For work at bw
tempentures the range of a mercoiy tbennometcr is limited
by iu freesing-pohit (— jgT C).
These are tbie serious disadvantages attending the use off
mercury, but in other respects it possesses so many advantages
over akohol or other substitutes, that it wil! In afl probability
continue to be used almost exdi^vely In thermometers of ths
type for scientific woik. Among its dtief advantages may be
reined its hi^ boiling-point (357* €.)• snd the absence of
evaporetion fidm the -top of the thread, which is so serious a
source of error with the alcohol thermometer. With mercury
the evaporation is almost inappreciable at 100* C, and can in
all cases be avoided by exposing the upper parts of the emergent
thread to the temperature of the air. AMioogh *n evacuated
mercuiy thermometer cannot be safely used at temperatures
over 300* C, owing to the breaking up of the thread of Hqoid in
the stem, it has been found possible, 1^ filling the upper part
<rf the stem with nitrogen or carbon dioxide under hi^^ pressure,
to extend the range to 550* C. A more important advantage
for actnimte work b the £sct that mercuiy does not wet glass,
and avoids any possibb ermis due to adherent films of liquid
on the waDs of the tube. Thb greatly fadfitates observations,
and abo renders it possibb to calibiate the thermometer after
construction, which cannot be satisfactorily accomplished with
other liquids. The process of constnictiott and calibration b
further facilitated by the fact that mercuiy does not dissolve
air to any appredabb extent. In consequence of the regularity
of expansion of mercury at ordinary temperatures, ths scab of
the mercuiy thermometer agrees very dosdy with that of the
gas tbennometcr. The liquid b very easily obtained in a fai^
state of purity by distHbtion, and has practlcafly no diendcal
action on glass. In thb respect it b superior to the liquM
alloy of potassium and sodium, wfaich has been employed in
some hii^-temperature thermometers, but which rapidly re-
duces siBca at high temperatures. The high conductivity and
low spec ii c heat of mercuiy as compared with most other Hqmds
tend to render the ther mo me t er quick and sensitive in action.
Its opadty considerably f a cilitates accurate reafing, and even
the smalhiem of its esponsion has one great countervalKng
advantage, in that the correction for stem-exposure b pro-
portionately reduced. Thb correction, Fhich (even in the case
of mercury) may amount to as muchas 4cr C. at SV^ C, b far
Ibe most ttnoettain in its application, and b the most serious
dbjection to the use of the liquid-in-gbss thermometer at high
6. ComtbwaUm.'^'Tht fldttstruction of the moat aocns«U type
of mercury thermometer has undctgooe aome changes of dctafl
in recent years. The range of the bbqsI aocniale staadaida
b generally restricted to the fundamental intcxvaL The knglh
of a degree on the stem can be increased to any extent by c»-
biging the bulb or diminishing the bore of the stem, bat it b
found in practice that there b no advantage in nokiog the scile
more open than one centiawtre to the degree C. in «**"'*—?
instruments, or in inaeasiog the number of divisMas bcyoaid
ten or at most twenty to the degree. Enlarging the bolb makes
the instrument slugj^h, and exaggerates the cnocs doe 10
imperfect dastidty. Diminbhing the bore of the tube wcaeaaea
the enots due to capiUaiy friction. Even one oesiiasctie to
the degree b an impracticabk scab for theimometexs gndnated
continuously from o** to 100* C, owing to the cxcessve bagth
of the stem. In oidcr to secure so open a acale, it b Mifsiis i y
to limit the range to 3^, or at most 50*. The fixed points o*
and toG^ may still be retained, for purposes of testing and re>
Cerence, by the device, now commonly cmpfoyed, of blowinc
aoxiliaiy bulbs or amfsubr on the steaa, the iMluam of mhkk
b carefully adjusted to m i nsp o ud with the number of decrees
that It b desired to suppress.
In the best ii w t n i wrnt s far woik of jisff iiiu n the bulb b Mot
blown on the capiUary tube itself, but b fosmed of a srpnraftr
piece of tube fused on the stem. It b posahb in thb manner
to secure greater uniformity of strength snd regularity of
dlmrnsions The thifknr^ of the glass b generally b«twof» hall
a miUimetre and one nuUimetre. The advantage in pamt of
quicknem gained by making the gbss thm b aove than oonntcF-
babnced by increased fragiUty and fiabffity to dbtortiaa. The
best form of bulb b cylmdricd, of the same external dbmrtrr
> as the stem. The bore of the stem should sbo be cyliadrical,
and not oval or flattened, in order to diminish etrocs due to
capillarity, and to secure the greatest possibb uniformity of
section. The glass should be dear, and not backed with opal,
both to admit of reading from dther side, and to minimiar liafc
of bending or distortion. In the rommonrr sorts of ther-
mometers, wfaich are intended for nni|^ purposes and to be
read without the application of minute corrections. It b not
unusual to divide the tube into divisiona of equal volmne by a
preliminary calibration. In the most accurate instruments It
b preferable to divide the tube into divisions of equal length,
as thb can be more accuratdy effected. The corrections to be
applied to the readings to aUow for inequalities of bore can be
most satisfactorily determined in the case of mercuiy thcxmo-
meters by calibnOiog the tube after the instrument b ctwnplrtfd
(see Calibration). Thb correction b known as the **cafi-
bration correction." Instead of bong separatdy detennined
it may be included in the scab correction by comparison with
a standard instrument, such as a pi«»t«"in-»<i«>«iM^ ther-
7. CsrrcdfMu. — ^The corrections to be appDed to the rcadin^i
of a mercuiy thermometer, in addition to the calibration oonecT
tion, may be summarized under the following heads: -COi Zero,
(ii.) Fundamental IntervaL (iii.) Internal and External Pre»-
sure. (iv.) Stem Eipoiue (v.) Scab Cossectiott, 8"*'-^'ng
PoggendoriTs ooRection.
CD The caoMMf I,
aero due to ^adual recovery frooi changes or strains acquired by
the bulb dunng the process of manufacture. Tfab process may tie
hastened and subsequent changes practically diminate^ by anneal*
ing the bulb after manufacture, and bdore final adiustmeat, at a
h^ l e uip eia iui c. such as that of boiling sulphur (about 450* C).
A the r m om eter wfaich has not been so treated may show a rise of
after
of hard glass show a d e pres si on, of re
one-tenth of 1* C. after exposure to ioo*^C In softer ^aas the
depreiMOB N usually greater and more penbtent, and may amount
m half a dcme after 100* C At hisilier teraperetuica the depre»
sign generally ancreasos roughly as the square of Che tmpeimtnre
above o* C. It nay amount to a* or 3* at joo* C The effect
cannot be calcubted or predicted in any series of r*— — ^ —
MBSCURIAU
ft
THERMOMETRY
md oo the tune. It b • mtm mnooM difficuky in aocnMte
atrial thenoometiy, especially at high tempentures. The moet
Mtiifactofy method of c u r i » n iuii eppesn to be to obMrvc the
Kfo immtdiakh vpm mck rmdtHg, and to reckon the temperature
§mn the variable aeio thus obaenrcd. The rationale of this pfo-
eedine ia that the deprcarioo ia produeed at the hMi temperatuf*
much more rapidly than the aubaeqaent fecovery at the low tempera-
tare. The tbermoneter ia ulcen from the bath and allowed to
ODol ra)Ndly by free expoeme to the air. As aoon aa it reaches
40* or «o* C., it ia pluqged in the meltinf ioe« and the lowest point
Rafehedia taken aa the temporary ttto.
The following fomulne have been proposed by vartfl
to represent the depression of lero (or different kinds qf (lass.—
Ptemet; French tnst4l, ds _ . _,. ,_. .
Guilbitme, K«rf«d«r,o— ioo*C.,tfs
0*0040(1/100)*
_ 00* C, tfs " ( W86I + io>&«^)
Bottcher, CHstai dwio-^ 190* C, ^*<7970lHh329^0~*
(71001-8^ lOf*
i«(-»l
(4)
The symbol dg in these formulae stands for the depression of
aero produced by an exposure to a tempe ra ture t. The depro M ion
ia about three times aa laige ia French crysUl a* in Engluh flint
glass, and varies rou^ly as the square of f. Kfrrr dur and Jena.
16, iii.; are varieties of hard glass chosen aa standards in France
and Germanv respectively, on account of the comparatively small
depression 01 aero to whxh they are liable. .At low temperatures,
up to 50* C, the de pr es s iuti b very ncariy proportional to A but
at temperatures above 100* C it is necessary to adopt another
formuh in which the term depending upon ^ b more imporunt.
These formulae are useful as giving an idea of the probabb sise
of the correction in any caae. but they cannot be employed in
practice except in the simplest cases and at
low temperatuaea. On
porary changea of aero, a mercury thermo-
meter Intended for the most accurate work
at ordinary temperatures (as in calorimetry)
should prelenbly never be heated above 40^
or so* C. and certamly never abo«« foo^ C.
Above 100* C. <be changes of aero become
more irregubr and more variabb, depending
00 the rate of cooling and on the aequence
of prcvioua observatiooB* an that cvan if the
method of observing the aero after each
reading b adooted, Ihe order of precision
attainabb rapidly diminiahas.
(II) Fundamenldi Interval. —Vit ttienno-
to be tested b exposed to steam
g ai atfftospherie preaiufe in an
^ which b aiten called a '*hypa»-
oonstnjcted with doubb walb to
protect the inner tube contaiains the thermo-
meter from any cooling by raobdon. The
atandard atnoapherie p i i as un at whkh the
• temperature o< the sttam b by defiaiCMn
equal to 100* C b equivabat to that pro-
duced by a ooluroii of mercury at o* C. and
760 mimmetref high, the force of gravitation
being equal to that at sea-4evel In btitude
45*. The atOMaphesic pieaanra at the time
«f observatioa b reduced to thaaa units by apdlylng the usual
oorrtetions for temperature and gnviutioo. If the pressure
ia near 760 mm., the temperature of the steam may be de-
duced by aeauming that it hur e a a tt at the rate of 1* C. for
W7-M mnu of presaone. If the pranura b not near jta nun., the
a«»plicatiM of the oorrectioo b kss certain, but b genefally taken
from Regnault's ubles» from which the following dau are ex-
tracted. Thermomctere cannot be ntisfactority tested at an
elevated station where the height of the barometer H b bss than
700 snm., as the ataam point b too aneertaaik
A ooaveftictt type of hypaooMter b Acma m fig. 1. The
boilec B b aepante from the steam-jacket A aurroundinK the
thymom ctcr. A gauge G b^prwiAid foi* indicating the steam
presanre (dinerence from atmoapheric) and a condenser C for
i«timiinff the uinJiHSHd saeaa to the boibr. Tba thennomefer
b observed by the mknsoope M.
823
point. If < bfe tha Intmid hi degteea of the aenb Ut n tui
the two obaervatkMia, and if li be the temperature of the steaito,
the fundamental interval of the thermometer may be taken aa
too mfh, provided that h b nearly 100* C. Since att the readinga
of a thermoeNter have to be uai a u e a for the ervor of the f und^
mecAal interval, by dhddfaig by the fundamental mtarval thua
Observed and muMplyhig l^ too, it b a matter of aome ooo-
venience in practice to hav» the inatrumeat graduated ao that the
differenoe between the readinga in ice and at too* C b very nearly
too* of the stem. The correodon can then be applied aa a amaU
paroantaae faMbpendantly of the other oocvectiona. The method of
determinmg the fundamental interval above described appBea to
all other ktaida of the n nomc t e ia . except that it b not gencnrily
e the aero a/kcr the steam point. The tempera*
' -■---" •- ^isd hi the acab of the therw
appreciably from that of
ture of the atcam h ahould be expired hi the scab of the therw
mometer testad, if the scab diilen ap]
Rcenault.
(Ill) Preum$ Carvwfbn.— The co w ^ cihm a for variatfona of
internal and external preasore on the bulb ara df aome importance
in accurate thermometry, but can be applied with considarabb
certainty at moderata t e mp erat urea . Tba cofrcctioo for external
pressure b aasomed to be proportkmai to the change of preaiuret
and to be independent of the tem p e rat u re. It b generally detei^
mined by encfoeing the thermometer to be teated in a vemd «f
water, and obaennngthe diange of icadlna on eahauating of
readmitting the air. The con^taw b generaOy b et n asi one and
tW9 thousandtha of a dearee per oentimetra of mefany change of
pressure, but must be determined' for each thermometer, aa It
depends on the natun» of thegbaa and 00 the form and thidmcsa
of the walls of the bulb. The ooefBdent of the eofioctaoo for
internal pressure b greater than that lor external picsiar^ by the
difference between the c o mpres si bility of mercury and that of ghssi
and may be eakubted from it by assuming thb rebtion. If 9%, 61,
are the external and internal eoelficients, sapresstd in degraaa of
tcm'perature per centimetre of ncfcury, we have tho>reiatioii
tcm'perature per c
Ai«{i»-|-o<ooois,dcgreea per cm* of mercury (fi)
The cbeflbient 01 intcraal ptf'eaiure can also be determined by
taking nadinn in the horiaontal and vertical oeai th wia when the
ther m ome t er n at some steady temperature such as that of be or
ateam. The readier of the thermometer b generally reduced to an
external presanre ot oo« standard at moaphere. and to an internal
pressure corresponding to the horiaontal position. It b als6
possibb to include the internal preaaure oorrectioo in the acab
oorrectaon, if the t h c p nom e ter b alwaya read in the vertical posi-
tion. In addition to the variations of internal pressure due to the
column of mercuty in the stem, there are variations doe to cipil*
brity. The internal premore b greater ^hcn the mencuryb rising
than when it b falling, and the reading b depresaed to an extent
depending on the fineness of the bore and the thinness of the walb
of the bulb. The capillary preasure does not depend only on the
bore of the tube, but also apparently to an even greater extent on
the state of the waHs of the tube. The bast trace of dirt on the
glass or on the mercury b capaUe of producing capillary preaaurea
much greater than would be cakulated from the diameter of the
tube. Even in the best thermoiftetera, when there are no in-
equalities of bore sufficient to account for the obeerved lwbtion%
it b seklom found that the mercury runa equally easily In all parts
of the stem. These varbtiooa of capillary preaaure are aomewhat
capridoua, and aet a limit to the order of aocura^ attainabb with
the aKfouy thermometer. It appeara that the difference of raading
of a good tncnnoneter bct we m a rising and Catting meniscus may
amount to live or t«n thouaandths oTa dagrae. The difference
may be leduoed fay centwuoua Upptng, but it ,ia generally best
to take readinga always on a naiaa column, especially as the varia-
tions in the angb of contact, and therefore in the capiUary pressure,
appear to be much smaller for the risimr meniscus. In ordiaary
work the aero reading and the ateam reading wouU both oenerally
correapond to a fallins meniania; the former neoessarily, the btter
on aeconnt ef the phenomenon of the temporary depresuon of
aero, which causes the tfaeimometer to read higher during the firat
moments of iu exposure to steam thaq it does when the expansion
of the bulb has reached ita limit. It b easy to lecure a naing
St the steam point by momentarily cooling the ther*
At Che aero point the mmiaciis generally begina to rise
TavLS T.-^rmrAcraterv af Sk^m 1
pmsnresfrm 790 fa 710 mm.
Pieaaure (corrected) . • .
Steam temp. - 100* C.+ . .
.+i3S
770
7«o
-5;
740
-74a
730
-I-lJO
Tao
-IS
Appnsimate fanaab dti ■•>0367(H -760) — oooO(ao(H -760)*
If the barometer haa a beam acab correct at o* C. and H be the
faading in milliraetvla, the oamctlon for temperatore b made
M yft mma t f V by aub tra ctiag o-oca^s H am.
If L b the btJtttde andM the height of the station ia aietres
above the sea-level, the correction for graviution b approximately
nuMb by subtractii^ (o«0O96 cos 2L-f-o-ooooooaM) H mm.
*~ ' -^ thcnwfliaiw ii
ThoKiDof the t
after the
after five or ten minutes. The question, however, b
importance, as the error, if any. is ragular, and the 1
capilbriw b necesiarily uncertain.
(IV) Slem-Exfomn Csmctfaa.— When the bulb of
thermometer b nnmersed in a bath at a l em p er at t*— '
of the column of mercury having a length of a di
to a bwar tevpaiMnfa K the reading of the
C5)
for
:ure I. and a part
b CI p os ed
tirinllSi
824
THERMOMETRY
lower by «XfliX(i-lO dcfnea (MMiy) thui it muM havt bceo if
the whole of the mercury ftnd ctem lud been et the tenpemture I.
The factor « in this cxpreenon is the ftppnient cod&cient of expen*
uoii of mercury in fbss. and varies Crom •000190 to -000165 for
diflfercnt kind* of gUae. In order to apply this cortectioo, it is
MMial to <riMerve ib oy means of an auxihary " ■tem*themK>metec "
with its bulb placed near the middle of toe tmergaat
- • " ' ■ with lof« thin bulbs areemployed
to give OBore nearly the avenge tempeiature of the whole emcrstttt
column. Owing to condugtion along the stem of the thermometer*
and to- heated vapours near the bath, the mean temnentune deter-
mined in this manner is generally too low. To allow tor tins tmpiri-
cftlly. an arfoitiary reduction is often made in the value taken for
» or e, but this cannot be regarded as aataaCactoiy for work of
predsioD. The only practical method of redodaff the cocvection
la to limit the number of degrees n exposed, •r, m other wordsb
to woric with thermometers of ** limited range.'* Each of these
Ihecrooraeieri mu«t then be corrected by oompamon>Rnth a standard
tlMrmooNter free from 8tem*«iqxmire oomction. eucb as a pbtinum-
resistance thermometor. To secure results of any value the comc-
Uoa must be determined nt each point under the actual oonditiona
oil observation under which the thennometer ia to be uaad. In
work of preciaion it is neoeasary to use ten or twenw thennometcn
to cover a range of 300*, as this ia the only method of securing
an open scale and reasonable accuracy as regards stem^exposura.
To (^wte' the opinion of C E. Guillaume, one o( the leading autho-
rities on mereurial thermomctfy: " When thu correction u laigew
it cannot generally be determined with sufficient approximattoa
for mcaaurements of predaioo. The nicreury thermometer sbouhl
then be refiaced by other instrumeats, among irhich those based
on the variarion of the electrical resistance of metals hold the
fine rank.''
CV) Scak CoTftcUon.^-'thb conectioii required to reduce the
rsadiags of a mercurial thermometer to the normal scale may
appropriately be called the " scale correction." One of the chief
advant^es of the mercurial thermometer for sdentifk purposes is
that its scale asrees very cloaely with the thermodynamical scale
between o* ana 300* C. The scale correctional of the standard
French thermoraeten of rem dur have been very carefully deter-
mined over the range o* to 80* C by P. Chappuis using a oonataot-
volume gaa thermometer containing hydronn (at an initial pres-
aure of one metre of mercury at o* C.) as the representative <^ the
normal scale. His observations between o* ana 80* C are tepre-
acttted by the quartic equation
«»-«»-l^-xoo) C-ex-Ssg-K^r^sx l-<w»ii577 ^Xi«f^. (7)
in which 4 and /» rqncsent temperatine 00 the acaSea of the
hydrogen and mercury thermometers respectively. The verr« dw
mercury thermometer reada o-iu* C ^ve the hydrogen thermo-
meter at 40* C. where the difference of the fcales is a maximum.
on either side ol the mean. It may be questioned whether it is
possible to construct mercury thermometers with scales agreeiag
more dosdy than this, owing to inevitable variations in the quality
and treatment <^ the g^bss. According to Cnillaurae, the scale m
a French crittal thermometer im differs from that of the standard
wtm dur tm between o* and 50* C, according to the cubic formula
i«*-i«-i(ioo— /)(«4*X«6-0'Oi3H/)Xn>-» . . (B)
According to some unpublished observations made by the witter In
i693'"i894. the scale of an English flint-glasa thermometer, tatted
by comparison with a fJatinum thermometer, does not diff^ from
that of the constant-pressure air thermometer by more than one or
two hundredths of a degree between o* and too* C. But for the
comparison of the scales to be of any value, it would be necessary
to study a large number of cuch thermometere. It is possible to
obtain mnch more conastent results if the thennomeiere are not
heated above ^* C.
The comparisons of tiie 4errt dmr tl i te mum e t a * with the norma!
scale at the International Bureau at Paris have not as yet eztcoded
beyond too* C. The most important obaervations on the mercury
thermometer above these limits appear to be dioae of Resnaul^
1 to Fres
The later observations of J. M. 'Crafts were confined
thermometen of trislal dmr {Ctntki Rndms, 1882, 9«, p. 863).
He found the following deviations from the hydrogen saJe: —
U- »S»' t3»* «»• ajo* aso* a8o» joo* 330»
<s-l. +-*5 +'35 +-a7 —02 •-- «6 —63 -i-ai ---a^a
The oonrectioo dianget dgn at about aijo* C, owing to the rapid
increase in the expansian of mercury. Between o' and tw* C. it
would appear that the ooeffident of expansion of glus locrcasea
more rapidly than that of mercury.
FpOltmft Comchm.— It should be observed that, since in the
* n of a mercury thennometer the tube b divided or
i» aa 10 read m divisions of equal volomc when the
*^ tube-ts at one temperature, the degrees, do not as a
^ «Nre8poiid to equal incremento of the apparent
The scale doea not ' '
piactioe with the theoretical fomuhr Ql) for the sede of tbenpaii*
sion of mercury, since the expaanoo u measured in a tvbe vhicfa
itself is expamfing* A similar argument applica to tbe method of
the wdjjtht thennometer, in whidi the ovimow ia measured by
wdght.' Even if the expansion of mercury and i^asa were boda
nniiorm, as measured on the thermodynamical scale, the acale of
the meroiry thermometer, aa ordinarily calibrated, woiild not agree
with the thermodynamkal acale. The differeaoe < *
cakuUted if the actual expaaaioo of mercury and glaaa
nenoe can be easily
and glaeaia known.
The oorrectVm is known aa Poggendoiff*s» but is generally i
in the acale correction, and ia not applied senamtdy. It
effect of making the thermometer read higher at
has the
in the acale correction, and ia not applied 1
'* ' ' ninny the thermometer read fc
and 100* than it woukf if the di^Mos of the aten dad
FtG. 2.— Differences Wtween Scales of Mercury, aad Cas
meters and Hydrqgea Scale, according lo
Chappuis.
fVot expand as the temperature rose. The amount of the onmctioa
for sarM dur is given by CuiUaume as
P.C.«f(ioQ-0(>3-9M+<H>240<)Xior« . . (9)
The value of this cprrectioa is between •060* and •o8»* at 30* C.
f of different thenaoioeCcnL
Cas TBEtMOMEiKy
8. The deviations of the gas themiometer from the absolnte
scale ftie so small that this instnunCDt is now unhrcnany
regarded as the ultimate standard in thennomet^y. It bad, in
fact, already been adopted for this poipose by Itegnault and
others, on a priori considerations, before the abaolate scale
Itself had been invented. Although the indications of a ^as
Ibennometer are not absolute^ iDdependent of the duAges of
volume of the envelope or bulb in iriiidi tbe gas Is contained,
the effect of sny uncertainty In this respect is minimigrrf by the
Tdstivdy luge ezpSnsbflity of tbe gas. The capricious changes
of volume of the bulb, whicb are so great a difficulty in mer-
curial thermometiy,are twenty times less important in the caae
of the gas themiometer. As additional reasons for the choice
^re have the great simplidty of the laws of gase^ and tbe
approximaU equality of fTpansimn and ckxe agreemcat of tbe
thetmometric scales of all ipses, provided that they ase above
thdr critical temperatures. Subject to this oooditJOB, at
modetate pressures and provided that they are not <&sodatcd
or decomposed, all gases satisfy approximately the Uvs of
Boyle and Charies.. These two laws are oombuiedin tfaechaxac^
teristic equation of the gaaeo« state, via., ^«RT, te srhicb
f is tbe pressure and s the volume of unit mass of the |^ in
question, and R is a constant which varies invcneiy as tbe
molecular weight of the gas, and is apptosksatdy equl to tike
difference of the specific heats.
9. ProOkal CondUUm.-^ln practice it is not convcnieat to
deal with unit mass, but witb an sibitzaty ssaas If ocenpgriag
a space V, so that the specific volume vV/M. It is abo
necessaiy to measure the pressure ^iatcrmsafmctaiiyoohmn^
and not in abaohite mitt. The numerical value of the ooaataat
R is adjusted to suit these conditions, but is of no consequence
in thennomeHy, ss we are oonoemed with ratios and differences
only. The equation may be written in the form T-#V/RU,
but in order to satisfy the essential condition that T shaQ be n
defmite function of the temperature in the case of a gas which
does not satisfy Boyle's law cnc4y» it li necesi»iy to fimit
GA^
THERMOMETRY
82s
4h« appIicaUoB of Ihe equation to epedal cifles whkh lead ta
definUc; but net necessarily identical,. tkcrmoBietric scakat
Thcfe an thme special cases Of- pnctkal inporiancef cone*
•poodiiig to three eneatially dininct eKpcnmcntai methods
(t.) VchtmeUic MeUud (ccm8lant'f>re8Buje).'-Ia tliia nMlhod
V is variable and p and M are constant. This method was
employed by Gay'Lussac, and is typified in the ideal thermo*
meter wkh reservoir of variable capacity designed by Lord
Kelvin {Eney. BriL, cd. fx.» vot xi. p. 57$* fig. 10). It corre*
sponds to the method ordinarily employed in the common
Uquid-in-glass tbermomeler, but is not satisfactory in practice*
owins to the difliculiy . oC making a bulb of variable and
measurable vohtme the wholo of which can be exposed to ihe
temperature to be measured. • '
(iu) iianomctric UttM (constant-volume or .density).— In
this method p is variable and V and M are constant. Varia*
tioas of temperature ate observed and measured by observing
the corresponding variations of pressure with a mercury mano*
meter, keeping a constant mass, M, of gas enclosed in a volume^
V, which is constarit except for the unavoidahle but small
expansion of the material oi which the bulb is made.
(iti.) Grmimdrk M^tkad <constAnt*picssuit). — In this method
M is variable and p and V are constant. This method ia gene-
rally confounded with (i.) under the name of the constant-
pressure method, but it really corresponds to the method of
the weight thermometer, or the " bverflow " method, and i>
quite distinct from an experimental standpoint, although it
Idds to the same thcnnom^tric acade. In applying the method,
the wdgbl M of the vapour* itself may be neasured, as In
Rcgnaoh's mercuty-vaponr thermometer, or in DtehriHe and
Troost's iodine-vapour thermometer. The best, method of
aaeasuring the overfbw is that of weighing mercury displaced
by the gas. The mass of the overflow may also be estimated
by observing iU volume in a giAduated tuba, hut this- method
is much less accurate;.
In addition to the aboVe^ there are mixad methods iit whkh
both p and V or M an variable, such as thoae emptoyed by
Rndbeig or Becquerel; but. these :ate unaattrfactory for pro*
ciskm, as not leading to a su^ctently dcAnite thccmomelric
scale. There is abo a. variation of the oonstanfc^vohime method
(ii.), m which the pressure- is measured by th6 volunelric
compceaaion of an equal mala of gas kept at noonataBt tftmper»-
ture, instead of by a manometer. Thu method is c]Q)erimentally
■hnihir to <iiL), and givex the same eqUaticni^ hnt a diAerent
thermometric9calefnmek]ier(ii>or(]ii.). JtwilihoeaDaidered
with method (iii.), as the apparatus required is tho fame, and
it i* uaefid far testing the theory oC the instrument. We shall
consider in detail methods (ii.> and (iii.) only, aa they are the
most important for accunte vodL
ta Cawiiriirtidw af Xf^draJW^— The manometiic or coostanl*
volume method was selected by Segnault as tfaft standard, and
has been most generally adopted since his time. liia apparatus
has not been modified except in points of detail A dmoiptioo
ti fali iastnimwnt. will be found in moat texfr-bookaon heat.
A simplejmd convenient form of the htftrunsent ior general ow
is JoUy't (doKribed in Poggotdorif't JuteHoMf. p. Sa, 1874). and
repiesented in 4g. 3. The two vertical tubes of the manometer
are connected by an India-nibbcr tube properly ftren|;iheiied l>y a
cotton covering, and they can be made to slide vertically up and
down a wooden pillar which mpports them; they aift peovided
with clamps for hxing them hi any position and a tangent screw
for fine adjustment. The connexaxi b^ween the bulb and the
manometer is made by means of a thiee-way up. The scale of
the inttfnntent is enjjmved on the back of a strip of olaae Mfaior
before nlvcrbit. and the divisfoas are csniad aumdentiy fsr acrots
the scale for dbe refleccions of the two surUces of the meneury to
be visible behind the scale. Parallax can thus be avoided and
an accurate reading obtained without the necessity of usinr a
cathetometer. In order to allow for the expaosioR of the glass
ef the reservoir a wcigbtpthermoneeer bulb is^ supplied with the
tnstntment.. made from another specimen of the same kind of
glass* and the relative expansion of the mercury and the glaw
can thus be determined by the observer himself. The volume of
the air-bulb apd that of the capillary tube and the wnall portion of
the maaomtter tnbe Aovo the small beak of glass« the point of
which asmaatthe fidwitl mmK Mf d^tersiaa^ by the iastm-
menc-m^kecs. The Impmvemeots mtroduced by Qiappu!% of the
International Bureau at Sevres, in the construaun of the con-
stant-volume hydrogen thermometer selected by the committee
for the determinaiion of the normal scale, are descri b ed in the
text-books (e.g. Watson's Physics). The most important is the
combination of the manometer and the
barometer into a single instrument with
a 6ingk» scale, thus reducing the numbtf
of reading required. The level of the
mercury m the branch of the mano-
meter communicating with the bulb of
the ns thermometer is adjusted in the
ustiaT manner op to a fixed contact-point,
BO as to reduce the oontained gas to a
constant volume.. Simultaneously the
barometer branch of the manometer is
adjusted so that the surface of the
meffcury makes contact whh another.
Eint fixed in the upper end of the
rometer tube. The oistance between
the two contact-ipoints, giving the pres-
sure of the gas in the thermometer, is
deduced from the reeding of a vernier
fixed relatively to the upper contact-
point. This method of neadmg the pres-
sure is probably more accurate than the
method of the cathetometer which is
usually employed, but has the disadvan-
tage 01 nquiriag a double adjustment.
11. Pressure Corredum. — In the prac-
tical application of the manometric
method there are certain corrections
peculiar to the method, of which
account must be taken in work of
precision. The volume of the bulb
ia not accurately constant, but varies
with change of pressure and tempera- Fic. 3.
ture. The thermal expansion of the
bulb is common to all methods, and will be consklered
in detail later. The pressure correction is small, and is
dcten^ned in the same manner as for a mercury thermo-
meter. Thef value so determined, however, docs not apply
strictly except at the temperature to which it refers. If the
pressure-coefficient were constant at all temperatures and equal
to e, the pressure correction, dt^ at any point I of the scale
would be obtainable jfrom the simple formula
dlr-f^(i-ioo)/Ts .... (10)
where Po ia the initial pressure at the temperature T*. But*as
the coefficient probably varies in an unknown manner, the
correction is somewhat uncertain, especially at hi^ tempera-
tures. Another very necessary but somewhat troublesome
correction is the reduction of the manometer readings to allow
for the varying temperatures of the mercury and scale. Since
it is generally impracticable to immerse the manometer in a
liquid baih to secure certainty and uniformity of temperature,
the temperature must be estimated from the readings of
mercury thermometen suspended in mercuiy tubes or in the
air near the manometer. It is therefore necessary to work in
a room roecially designed to secure great constancy of tempera-
ture, and to screen the manometer with the utmost care from
the source of hsat in measurements of high temperature.
Regnault considered that the limit of accuracy of correction
waa one-tenth of a millimetre of mercuiy, but it is probably
possible to measure to one-hundredth as a mean of several
readings under the best conditions, at ordinary temperatures.
12. Stem-Exposure.— Ixi all gas thermometers it is necessary
in pcactice that the part of the gas in conuct with the mercury
or other liquid in the manometer should not be heated, but
kept at a nearly constant temperature. The space above the
mercury, together with the exposed portion of ihe capillary
tube connecting the manometer with the thermometric bulb,
may be called the " dead q>ace." If the volume of the dead
space is kept as nearly as possible constant by adjusting the
mercuiy always up to a fixe^ mark, the quantity of air in this
space variee nearly in direct proportion to the pressure,^
in proportion to the temperature of the thermometric
: bulb I
S2b
THERMOMETRY
at constant volume. This oeoettiutcs the a|>plieation of a item-
exposure correction, the value of which b approximately ghren
by the formula
A-rid -ioo)/Tfc . . . .ill)
where r is the ratio of the volume of the dead space to the
volume of the thermometric bulb, and Tt is the mean tempera-
ture of the dead space, which is supposed to be constant. The
magnilude of the correction is proportional to the ratio r, and
increases very rapidly at high temperatures. If the dead space
is I per cent, of the bulb, the correction will amount to only
one-tenth of a degree at 50° C, but reaches 5" at 445* C, and
30* at 1000" C. It is for this reason important in high-tem-
perature work to keep the dead space as small as possible and
to know its volume accurately. With a mercury manometer,
the volume is liable to a slight uncertainty on account of changes
of shape in the meniscus, as it is necessary to use a wide tube
in order to secure accurate measurements of pressure.
. 13. C^mpensalion Method wUk OU-Cauic—lt is possible to
avoid this difficulty, and to make the dead space very small,
by em{4oying oil or sulphuric add or other
non-volatile liquid to confine the gas in place
of mercury (Phil. Trans., A. 1887, p. 171).
The employment of a liquid which wets the
tube makes it possible to use a much smaller
bore, and also greatly faciUutcs the reading
I of small changes of pressure. At the same
lime the instrument may be arranged so
that the dead space correction is automatic-
ally eliminated with much greater accuracy
than it can be calculated. This is effected
as shown diagrammatically in fig. 4, by
placing side by sidt with the tube AB,
connecting the bulb B to the manometer A,
an exact dupb'cate CD, dosed at the end D,
and containing liquid in the limb C, which is
of the same size as the branch A of the
manometer and in direct communication
with it. The tube CD, which is called the
compensating tube, contains a constant mass
of gas under exactly similar conditions of
volume and temperature to the tube AB. If
-. », . . , therefore the level of the liquid is always
SmMnlatiM adjusted to be the same m both tubes AB
'^ and CD, the mass of gas contained in the
dead space AB will also be constant, and is automatically
eliminated from the equations, as they contain differences only.
14. GravimeirU Method.— In the writer's opinion, the gravi-
metric or overflow method^ although it has seldom been
adopted, and Is not generally regarded as the most accurate, Is
much to be preferred to the manometric method, especially for
work at high temperatures. It is free from the uncertain
corrections above enumerated as being peculiar to the mano-
metric method. The apparatus is mudi simpler to manipulate
and less costly to construct. If the pressure ii kept constant
and equal to the external atmospheric pressure, there is no
strain of the bulb, which is. particulariy important at hi|^
temperatures. There is no dead space correction so kmg as
the temperature of the dead space Is kept constant The
troublesome operation of reading and adjusting the mercury
cohmms of the manometer is replaced by the simpler and more
acconic vpopttn of weighing the mercury diq>laced, which can
The uncertain correction for the tem-
I the manometer is entirely avoided.
(jRlgnattlt to prefer the constant-volume
^ '- quoted, and are generally accepted
^It h very easy to construct the
(instrument in such a manner
I he urges against it. Briefly
lows: (x) Any error in the
^ ( gas in the overflow space
I temperature deduced, when
This source of error is
very simply avoided by keeping the whole of the omfcwui
melting ke, an expedient which also eonsiderably fJ-pUfig* the
equations. It han»wd that Rcgnault's fonn of thcnoflKtcr
could not be treated in thu maimer, becaott he had to«bwvvc
the Irvel of the memny in order to measure the prevarc and
the volume. It is much better, however, to use a aepasate
gauge, containing oil or sulphuric add, for observing small
changes of pressure. The use of loe aho rliminates the correc-
tion for the variation of density of the mereuty t^ which the
overflow is measured, (a) Regnault's second objectioa was
that an error in the measorement of the pressure, or in reading
the barometer, was more serious at high temperatures ia the
case of the oonsUnt-pressure thermometer than in the con-
stant-volume method. Owing to the incemant variatioos in
the pressure of the atmosphere, and in the temperature of the
mercury columns, he dki not fed able to rely on the preasurc
readmgs (depending on observations of four ■wfcury surfaces
with the cathetometer) to less than a tenth of a millimetre of
mercury, which experience showed to be about the fioiit of
accuracy of his observations. This would be equivalent to an
error of 0-036' with the constant-vohme thermometer at any
point of the scale, but with the oonstant-pressore thermometer
the error wouM be larger at higher temperatures, since the
pressure does not increase in proportion to the temperature.
This objectkm is really unsound, because the ideal coodttion
to be aimed at is to keep the proptrtimtle vrm €lfl constant.
That the proportionate enor diminishes with rise of tempera-
ture, in the case of the constant-vohmw thermometer, is really
of no advantage, because we can never hope to he able to
measure high temperatures with greater proportionate accuncy
than ordinary tempemtures. The great increase of premure at
high temperatures ia the manometric method is really a serioMS
disadvantage, because it becomes neocssaiy to work with much
lower initial pressures^ which implies inferior accnacy at
ordinary temperatures and in the determination of the initial
prcnure and the fundamental interval.
15. C&mpensated Difenrntial Cat rAens wm rf^ . — The chief
advantage of the gravimetric method, whidi Regnadt and
others appear to have missed, b that it is posBbie to make
the measuremenu altogether independent of the atmospheric
pressure and of the observatioB of mercury columns. This is
accomplished by ushig, as a standard of constant preasure, a
bulb S, fig. 5, containing a constant mass of gas m melting ice.
side by skle with the bulb M, hi which the vofaime of the over-
flow is meanred. The pressure In the thcrmomctiic bulb T is
adjusted to equality with the standard by means of a ddicate
OS-gauge G of small bore, m wUch the dHf erence of pressnre is
observed by means of a cathetometer micRMOope. This kind
of gauge permiu the rapid observation of small changes of
pressure, and is far more accurate and delicate than the mcrcniy
manometer. The fundamental messuremcnt of the volume of
the overikm in terms of the weight of mereniy diyhwyd at
o* C involves a single wei^ung made at leisure, and requires
no temperature oorrectioa. The aocurscy obtainabie at ocdi*
nary temperatures in this measurement is about ten times as
great as that attainable under the best conditiens with the
mercury manometer. At higher temperatures the relative
accuracy diminishes in proportion to the absolute temperature,
or the errord< increases a c co r ding to the formula
A/<— (T/T#)iw/w.
(«a)
where « » the wcii^t of the overflow and d» the enor. This
diminution of the sensitiveness of the method at high tempera-
tures is commonly urged as a serious obfectfcm to the method,
but the objection is really without weight hi practice, as the
possible accuracy of measurement is limited by other con-
ditions. So &r as the weighmg alone is concenie d , the method
is sensitive to one-hundredth of a degree at loeo* C, which is
far beyond the oider of accuracy attainable in the appBcatieii
of the other conectiona.
16. Method of Using Ike iMstrumonL-^A form of gas thenno-
mcCer ooostncted on the prindples above laid down, with tkm
CA«
THERMOMETRY
827
additloo of t dupUeate Kt of oonnectiAg tubes C for the
eUmiaatioD of the ttem-expofure correction by tht method of
atttomatic compensation aheady explained, is shown in fig. 5
{Pr9c JL S, voL 501 p. a43; Preston's HmI, p. 133).
In aetttnff up the bstniment. after cleaainK. and drying and
calibcstin^ flie bulba sad connecting tubes, the maises of gas on
ihe two sides are adjusted as nearly as possibk to equality, in onkr
that any changes of temperature in the two sets of connecting
tubes may compensate each other. This is effected with all the
bulbs in melting ice, by adjusting the quantities of merciny in the
bulbs M and S and equalixing the prsssures. The bulb T is then
heated in steam to determine the fundamental intervaL A weight
wi of mercury is removed from the overflow bulb M in order to
equalise the pressures again. If W b the weight of the mercury
at o* C which would be required to fill the bulb T at o* C, and if
W+^W| b the weight of mercury at o* which would be required
to fill a volume equal to that of the bulb in steam at It, wn hay«
the following equation for determining the coefficient of eypansinn
a» or the fundamental sem T«,
«<*-^»-(«k+WO/CW-Wi). . . . (t3)
Similarly if w b the overflow when the bulb b at any other tern-
peratare /, and the expansion of the bulb b iW. we have a precisely
similar couation for determining I in terms of Tt. but with I and
w and iW substituted for A and wi and dW%. In practice, if the
preawses are not acUusted feo esact equality, or if the vohuaes of
Fig. 5.— Compensated Differential Gas Thermometer.
the connecting tubes do net easctly compensate^ it b only m
aary to indime in v a small oorrsctioo dm, equivalent to
observed difference, which need never exceed one part in
thousand.
It b poesible to enq4oy themme apparatus at
as well as at coostaat pressure, but the msaiputotion b not quite
so simple, in conseouence of the chance of messare. Instead of
removng meicury from the overflow Bulb M in connenion with
the thennometric bulb, mercury b introduced from a higher level
into the standard bulb S so as to raise iu prmsure to equality with
that of T at constant vohime. The equations of thb iMthod are
the same as those already
accouni 01 vac prwurwavnn^acm, oi
more inqwrtaat to have the masses
apparatus equal than in the other <
obtained in thb method differs siighl
precisely the same as those already given, except that w now
swnifies the " inflow " weight introdtioed into the bulb S, instead
of the overflow weight from M. It b necessary, however, to Uke
account of the pressure-ooefiident of the bulb T, and it b nwch
I of gas on the two sides of the
case. The thermometric ecale
I slightly from the scab of the mano-
metric method, on account of the devbtion of the gas compressed
at o* C. from Boyle's hw, but it b easy to take account of thb
with certainty.
Another use fo which the mme apparatus may be put b the
aocursu oompufboo of the scales of two different gases at constant
volume by a differentbl method. It b usual to effect thb com-
parison indirectly, by comparing the gas tbermometen separately
with a menrary t h e r mome t er, or oth«r secondary standard. But
ty usmg a pair of bulbs like M and S simuhaneoasly in the mme
bath, and measuring the small difference of pressure with an oil-
gauge, a Mgber onAer of accuracy may be attained in the raeasure-
asem of the smalt differences than by the method of indirect
comparison. For instance, m the curves representing the differ-
" 1 the nitroten and hydrogen scales (fg. 1). as found
by Chappws bv eompanson of ths nbrsien and hydvagen thermo*
meten with the mercury thermometer, it b probahb tl^t the
contrary flexure of the curve between 70* and too* C. b due to a
minute error of observation, which b quite as likely to be caused
by the increasing aberrations of the mercury thermouKtcr at thcae
tempemtnrm as ny the diflkulties of the maaometric method. It
may be taken as an axkmi in all such esses that it b better to
measure the small difference itself directly than to deduce it frgoi
the much more laborious observations of the separate magnitudea
17. Bmpaaaim CmreeHoi^—ln the use of the mercury ther-
mometer we are content to overlook the modification of the
scale due to the expansion of the envekipe, which b known as
Foggeadorfi's correction, or rather to mdude it in the scale
correction. In the case of the gas thermometer it b neceasary
to determine the expansion correction separately, as our object
b to arrive at the closest approximation possible to the shsolute
scale. It b a oommon mistake to imagine that if the rate of
expansion of the bulb were unifotm, the scale of the apparent ex-
pansion of the gas would be the same as the scale ctf the real
expansimt-Hn other words, that the correction for the ex-
pansion of the bulb would affect the value of the coefficient of
expansion i/Tf only, and woidd be without effect on the value
of the tempcnture t deduced. A result of thb kind would be
produced by a constant error in the initial pressure on the
manometric method, or by a oonstaat error in the initial volume
on the volumetric method, or by a constant error in the funda-
mental interval on any method, but «m< by a constant error in
the GoeflBdent of expanalofi of the bulb, wKicb would pvodadk
a modification of the scale exactly analogous to Poggndoiflfs
correction. The correction to be applied to the value of f in
any case to allow for any systematic error or variation in the
data b easily fotmd by diffesentiating the formula for I with
lespect to the variable considered. Another method, which is
m some fespects more instructive, b the following ^~
Let T be the function of the temperature which b taken as the
ids of the scale considered, then we have the value of I given by
the general formob (1), already quoted in | ^ Let dT be the
systematic change or error in the measurement of any of the data
on which the value of Tdepends,and let df be the co rre sp onding
correction produced in the value of I, then substituting in formuM
(I) we have,
f-|-A-lOO(T-T.+/r-dTO/CT»-T.-|-ir»-^,),
fmm which, peovided that the variatfons considered are small, we
obcaka the following general erpwisiuii for the correctkm to I,
df-(dT-/TO-(dTi-dT«)(/ioo. . . (14J
It b fr e qu e ntly simpler to estimate the correc ti on. In thb manner,
rather than by differentbting the general formula.
In the spccul case of the ^s thermometer the value of T b given
by the formula
T-^V/RM-^V/R(M,-Mi). ... (15)
where p b the dbs e f v ed pressure at any temperature I, V the
volume of the thermometric bulb, and M the mam of g%» remaining
in the bulb. The quantity M cannot be directly observed, but b
deduced by subtracting from the whole mass of gas Mi contained
in the apparatus the mam Mb which b contained In the doul space
and overflow bulb. In applying these fonmube to deduce the
effect of the expansion of the bulb, we observe that if iV b the
expansion from o* C, and V« the volome at o* C, we may write
V-V.-MV, T-p(V.+dV)/RM-(^Vt/RM)(i-|-<fVW,
! obtam appraximately
dT-TdV/Vt . . . . . (16)
If the coeff ici en t of expansion of the bulb b constant and equal
to die fundamenml ooemdeot / (the mean coefficient batwmu o*
and 100* C), we have simply tfV/Vs*/r; and if we subetitttte thb
value in the general eTprew i o a (14) for di; we obtain
dr-(T-T,)/r-//(/-ioo) . . . C17)
Provided that the correction can be expressed asa rational integral
function of I, it b evkleat that it must oontam the factors I and
(r-ioo), sinoe by hypothesb the scale must be correct at the fixed
points o* and lOO' C, and the correction must vanish at these
points. It b clear from the above that the scale of the gas ther-
mometer is not independent of the expansion of the bulb even
In the simple case where the coef fi cient b constant. The ooBrecwaB
b ^ no means unimportant. In the case of an avarags flaw or
828
, §ar whidi / atv te tiica as <hoaooas "e^t
_ oats to -o-otes^at 50* C, to S'Sa* at 445*<^
and to »*s* «> ><«>* C
The valae of the fuadancati] eoefidat/aa be tktffinfd
with Biuch (icaicj aocimcy thaa the oococifeftt over ajqr other
laiMe of tenpentute. The mo rt Mtkfactot y method ii to oae the
balb itaclf as a nucury weight tfacraomecer, aad dedaca the cubical
ruiaiwina of the glus fiom the abwivte opaanon of luemay
as deienaiiwd far Rcsnaalt. Uafortuaateiy the raducdoos 01
Regnautt's observations by different cakulattxs differ ooosideiafaly
even for the fundamental mtervaL The values of the fundamental
foeiir i fat laaoe froai •00018153 Ragaauit, aikd •oooitelO Bioch.
tt> •oooiSaS} WQIlner. The nmr i i i r difference ccfoesents an nn-
certaanty 01 about 4 per cent, (i in 2O in the expannon of the
glaaa. This uncertaintr b about xoo tunes as great as the prob-
able enor of the weigfat thenaometer observataoas. Bat the
fHpansina it even leascertata be yond t he limiu of the fandaawatal
mtervaL Another method of deter 1 iitnmg the cupanoon of the
bulb b to observe the linear expansion of a tube or rod of the Btme
matienUf and dednoe the cubical cxpaasnn on the assamptiott that
the etpanrion b isotrafiic. ^ It b probable that the unoertainty
THERMOMETRY
(3>Ihr
I ffcaicr ta the case of glass or poioe-
: difficulty of perfect
lata bulba» on aocoont of the
in the case of metalUc bulbs.
Except for snuH raises of temperatuiei the ainiinp oo i i of a
mnrtsat coefficient of expaasioa b not snfficicndy cxict. It b
therefoic usual to assume that the coefficient b a linear function
of the temoerature. so that the whole expansion from o* C, may be
eip i e as e d m the form dV=t{a-^bt)Vt, in which case the fuoda-
' coeffi ci ent /"'a+1006.^ Making thb suly ti tutaoa in the
I abcady (ivcb, we obtain the arhole cjunetlioa
di(-(/+*T)iCr-ioo)
- . (I«)
ft wiD be dbaerv«d that the term
able importaaoe at .^
be determined with the
mvdvmg a becomes of
bnca. Unfortunately, it
/, bfcanse the
of observation at the fixed points are much more perfect than at
ProvioiBd t
' tempera tui es. Provided that the range of the obetrfiLiOiii
for the lietwuiinaciow of the espaasioa n cc^eatensne with the
angeof the Kmpcratnre nMasaimaenu for which the comctioa b
leqdifed, the unceitaiaty of the co tie Llio u wiD not greatly eireed
that of the expansion observed at any punt of the range. It b
not nnniiiil, however, to deduce the valacs of h and /from observa-
tions confined to the range o* to 100* C,in which case an error of
I per ceoc, in the observed rrpanrinn at 50* C, would mean an
of 60 per cent, at 445*, or of 3lSo per cent, at looo* (X (Cal-
r. PkS, Mag. December UI99). Moieovcr, it by no means fioOows
that the average value of b between o* aad 100^ C. should be the
•ame as at h«her or lower temperatures. The method of extra-
polation would tbetefore probably lead to erroneous results in many
cases, even if the value could be determined with ^wolute pre-
^''""^ <we r the f undamental intervaL It b probable^ that thb
capa&moa oooectam* which canaot be reduced or cnmsBatad Uke
many of the other coriec ti oua which have been aw i ifinncd , b the
chief source of uncertainty in the realization of the absolute scale
of temperatuie at the present time. The uncertainty b of the
Older of one part in five or ten fhwisand on the fundamental
interval, but may reach 0*5* at 500* C, and 2* or 3* at 1000* C
18. TkenHcdymtMical Correctum. — Of greater theore ti cal interest,
but of lem practical importance on account of its smallness, b the
reduction of the scale of the gas thermometer to the thermo-
dsmamical scale. The dev btkiu s of a cas from the ideal equation
^•M may be tested by a variety of different methods^ which
should be emf^oyed in combinatioo to determine the form of the
charKterittic equation. The principal methods by which the pcob*
lem has been artarkfid are the following ^«-
(l) By the comparison of gss tbermometen filled with diffierent
gases or with the same gas at different presBurcs (employing both
^vimetric and manoroetric methods) the differences in their
mdicationa are observed through as wKla a raage of tempesature
as possible. Regqault, employing thb mrthod, found that the
differences ia the scales of the permanent gases were so small as
to be beyond the limits of accuracy of hb ooosrvationa. Applying
greater refinements of measuieroent, Chappub and others nave
eu cceede d In measurii^ small differences, which have an important
bearing an the type of the cfaaracteriscic eqimliDn. They show,
for mslaaee, that the aqaation of van der Waab, aocnrding to which
all m a uf ii Mr l iiL ptM thermometers should agree exacdy in their
indications, requoea modttcatioa to enabfe it to represent the
behaviour of gases even at moderate preamres.
(t) By measuring the pressure and expansion c o e ff i ci ents of
diaiereBt gaaea bet w cm o? aad too* C. the valuca of llie fanda-
mental aero (the l eci pw x a l of the coefficient of eamansion or pres-
ttire) for each gas under different oooditaons may be observed and
eampared. The evidence goes to show that the values of the
fuMUBeatal aero for all gases tend to the same limit, namely, the
Ok vlfeei|. tfK presBures are iadefiuitcly reduced. The
TWlirtli Muatistt adapted must be capable of repre-
temperature the deviations of
Bojde's law are determined. Experiment shows that
raae «f
be of the type
»-F(^)y^+/W . . .
in which F(l') and /(V) are -fnnctioas of the temperatwre ealv to
a first ai y roxima tien at moderate pressares. The fonctiaa F(V).
representing the limiting' v^ae of ^ at aero pressore; appeisi^ ta
be rimply proportiDnal to the absolate tempcxatare for afl gaaesL
The function /W. rep w tsentiag the defect of votamefcwm the ideal
volume, b the dope of the taqgent at ^«w to the isotherasal of •
00 the ^, p diagram, and b sometimes raBrd the "a ngu l ar cmffi
- ,- ,.r ^ , *-c. in which fbasMl
Itapfiears to be of Che form I
conMaat qaantity, tfie ** oo*vsluniew** of the <
tnle as the v olume of the
or co-aggrngafion of the 1 ,
continuously and indefinitely with rise of
method of mvestigatioD has been very wide^ ^ . _
at high piessaiea, but b open to the objection that the <
h^c IS m very smaU frKtioo of the ideal -vntatna in the caae of tie
perattaent gases at amdemte ptcssurei^ mid its Cmiliag lahM at
>-o b therefore <iffieult to dstermtne aecnatdy.
?4) By 6baennag the cooHng effect mfip^ or the lado of th*
fall of tempsfatai^to thThSdr pressure wiWcnmlitiaMaf con.
stent total heat, when a gas flows steadily thramgh a 1
it b posrfUe to determine the variatsoa of the r
(Sre
smup
f 10^
.>5,)
(30)
Thb arethod tea tire
advantsge of dfaectly measuring the de\ia.tioai from the k
since $d»ldt»9 for an ideal gas, and the oooGng effect
But die method b difficult to carry out; aad has sdd
Taken in oonjunctian with method C^. the
the cooling efiiect at ( ._^
idenoe with rqpud to the varation of die defect of volu
c^h frodf dK ideal state. The formala *— in*^ to icpicjm t 1
va r iations of c with temperature nmst be such ms ta satisfy 1
the observationa on the compreeribility aad there on the 001
effect It b posrible, for instancr, to ohoore the oonstanta in vaa
der Waab's formula to satisfy cither (3) or (4) aeparately withia
the limits of eipmmpn tel ern>r, bat they cannot be chosen so aa
to satirfy both. The simplest atfumptioa to make wiA rrgani to
e b that it varies inversely as soam power « of the afaaolute tere-
pecetuieb or that £-> c«(i^>*. where ct b the value of r at the tnapcra-
ture K ia thb care the expression Hfi/di-v takes ifae aunpfe
form (n+iy-h. The vahica of ». c and k could be calcnlat^
from observations of the coding effect Sdtjdp alooe over a snffkiriii
'•• of temperatuie, but, owuw to the maigm of ^ *
and the paucity of observatmos xvaSUbU, it b b
ure of the observations on the co m pressibility in addidon to thoae
on the oooUfig effect. It b prefecal^ to calculate, the values of
>^ 573.
variation of the specific heat S, which b 1 ^
Cdkulaiin sf Ikt Cmver/iM.— Having found the most prebabfe
values of the quantities c. 6 and n fropi the cxperimenUd data,
the calcolatiaa of the oorrecfion may be very simply efliectad aa
foOows: The tempereture by gas ther m ome t er b defined by the
relation T-^/R, where the constant R b determined frosa the
observations at o* and too* C. The charsctcristic cqualioa as
terms of absolute temperature • may be pot in the formf-fe^'-hf,
where 4 b a small quantity of the same dimensions aa te ap ei a tiaew
given 1^ the relatbtt
«-(c-*)^ . -- ^ - . . (21)
The constant R' b determined, as before, by reference to the fonda*
mental mtervsl, which gives the relation R7R*i+(A-«i)/ioav
where «, 9i are the values of 9 at too* and o* C. respecdvrfy.
The corre cti on to be added to the f undamenbd aero T» of the gaa
thersBometer in order to deduce the value of the absolate aero iU
(the aboolttte tempereture corre sp oodiag to o* C) b givca fay the
cquatioo«
^-T.-ib'-(st-40^ioo - . . . (»)
Thb correction d( to be added to the ccoticnde tamperetare I by
gas thermometer reckoned from o* C. in order to deduce the com»
^mnding value of the absolute temperature also rechooed fraea
o C b given by the relatioa, deduced from formula (I4)»
dr-(i-8B)-(ft-jb)J/iOO. . . . (»3)
where « b the value at I* C of the devbtfen C^-^)^. The
lormulae may be further simplified if the index n b a umple integer
such as 1 or 2. The values of the cofrrctioos for any gpvcai gas at
different initial pressures are directly pmportinaalt» the gwuwu
MLBcnacm
V^lmt of A* CWmdMUffw—ir tre i«la» for the pta hydiL
values c>-t*5 ex. at o* C^bmS-o c.c,with the iadcx »*i-5, wluch
•atiafy the ob«ervatk>ns of Joule and Thomaoa on the cooling
effect, and thoee of Regnault, Amagat and Chappub on the com*
ncuibUifv, the vakica of the abcolate zero 9%, calculated front
Chappuba vaJuea of the pnaaure and expansion coeffieienta at
JOG cma. imtiaj presmr^ are found to be a7a<io* and 37A>o$"
respectively, the reciprocals of the coefficients themselves being
'73'<>3 *^^ 275-33. The corroctbns are small and of opposite
mgriM. For nitrogen, takanff e**l-58, &w|«i4, A*>i-5, we find
aunilArfy 973* M>* and 37J-I3 for the ab«>lute aero^ the corraction
ii-To in this case amounting to nearly 1*. The agreement is very
good coQsiderinK the difficulty of deteri^lning the small deviations
r and b, and tbo possible errors of the expansion and pressure*
coefficients. It appears certain that the value of the absolute sero
is within a few hundredths of a degree of 375*10*. Other obaerva*
tiona confirm this result within toe limits of experimental error.
The value of the index » has generally been taken as equal to 2
for diatomic gases, but this does not satisfy cither the observations
on the cooling effect or those en the compressibility lo- well as
«-i*5. although it makes compaaMivdy bttle diflFecence to the
value of the absolute aeio. Toe value deduced from Travers's
observation of the pres6ure<oefficicnt of helium is 373* 13", taking
»•§. which ts the probable value of the index for a monatomic
gas. The application of the method to the condcnsible gas carbonic
add is interesting -as a test of the mctfaed (although Che gaa itself
^not suited for thermometry), because its deviations from the
eal sute are so large and have been so carefully studied. The
observations of Joule and Thomson on the cooling eiOTcct give
et«3*76 c.e., 4»o*58 c.c.. »->3, provided that allowance is made
for the variMioa Of the specific heat with teoiperature as determined
by Regnault and Wiedonann. Chappuis'a values a£ Um: pressure
and emnsion coefficients agree in giWng 273-o«" for the absolute
aero, the values of the corrections 9o-To bdog 4*6* and 5-8*
lespectively.
The mltaaeof the «ale cometioa dt deduced from tbme fc»rmalae
agree with those experimentalW determined by Chappuls In the
case of carbonic acid within the Emits of agreement of toe observa-
tions themselves. The calculated values for nitrogen and hydroeen
give mther smaOer differences than those foond expertmentaUy;
but the diffetenras themsetves are of the same order »m the tasptri*
THERMOMETRY
9z4
The deviatiooB of hydrogen and bdium from the
absolute scale between o* and loo'^C are of the order of •001*
only, and beyond the limiu of accumcy of experiment. Evea at
«-3S0* C. (near the botltng-poiat of hydrogen) the corrections ol
the constant volume hydroren and befium tbotnometers are only
a tenth of a degree, but, n they are 01' oppos ite i^"** the difference
amounts to one-filth of a degree at this point, wfaick agrees ap<*
pcoximatd/ with that observed by Travcrk For a fuller discussioa
of the subject, together with labfes of corrections, the reader may
refer to papers by Callendar, PhU. Mae. v. p. 48 (1903), and
D. dcrthdot. TVae. tt M4m. Bur, Int. Pans, xiii. (10Q3). Berthel«
lot
ha aimikr type ol equatkm to that given above, bat takes
If ■■ a in an cases, foUowing the so-called law of corresponding states.
This assumptioB is of doubtful validity, and might give rise to
relatively large enors in the case of monatomic gases.
19. LMMent.-^^ th* applicatfoa of the gas thetttoneter
to the Bftcanuement of Ugh temperatmea oeifain diflicidttes
are cnooiiatend ivlnch materiaUy limit the range of measure-
ncBt and tke degtee of accuracy attaiiMfble. These may be
feonglUx ciMflffied onder tlie lMad»*-(i) c&aages Id the volume
^ the bulb; (s) fealeage, ocdosioii and porosity; (3) tbemical
cfcange and dissodatjon. Tlie diflictdties arise partly from
deferts in the materiah available tor the bulb, and partly fhmi
the small mass of gas enclosed. The trstibles due to irtegular
changes df vohnae of glass bulhB, whidi a£tecC the mercury
t b e in a met ef at ordinary temperatures, become so eaaggeratcd
at hi^wr points of the sale as to be a serious source of trouble
In gas therttomet^ In q>ite of the twentyf old larger expansion.
For faistance, the vohime of a ^ass bulb will be diminished t^
from oae-^iuitrter to one-half of 1 percent, the first thne It is
heated to the tteipemtiire of boi&nlt sulphur (441^ C.). This
fiould not matter lO much if the volume then remained constant.
Unfortunately, the volume contixiues to change, espedafly in
the case of hard ^ass, each time it is heated, by amounts which
cannot be predicted, and which are too large to neglect. The
most accurate method of takmg aoeount of these variations in
a series of observations, without recalibrating and refilling and
deaning the bulb, is to assume the known constant value of
the coeffident of expansion of the gas, and to calculate the
volume of the bulb at any time by taking observations in ice
and steam (Pka. TVmj. A. 1891, vol. iSi, p. X34>. Similar
cftan^ take pbee with porcebln at factor tefflperatnits.
Metallic bulbs an far nors perfect than glass bulbs in this
respect. It is probable that silica buifaa wouM be the most
pertoct. The writer suggested the use of this material (in the
JoMTfK Iron and Stfd InU. for 1893), but faikd to omistruct
bulbs of Sttfficfettt sise; W. A. Shaostone, hoivever, Aibse-
quently succeeded, and there seems to be a good piospcct that
this difficulty will soon be minimized. The difficulties of leakage
and porosity occur chiefly with porcdain bulbs, especially if
they are not perfectly glaaed inside. A similar difficulty occurs
with metalfic bulba of platinum or platinum>iridiuffl, in the
case of hydrogen, vrhkh passes freely through the metal by
ocdusion at high temperatttres. The difficulty can be avoided
by tubstitutkg dther nitrogen or preferably argon or hdium
as the thermometric material at high tempenturcs. With
many Uads of glass and porcehun the chemical action of
hydrogen begins to be appreciable at temperatures as low as
soo* or 300'' C. In any case, if metallic bulbs are used» it is
absolutdy necessary to protect them from furnace gases which
may contain hydrogen. This can be effected dther by endosing
the bulb In a tube of porcelahi, or by using some method of
electric hearing which cannot give rise to the presence of hydro*
gen. At veiy high temperatures It is probable that the dis-
sodatk>n of diatomic gases Uke nitrogen might begin to be
appredable before the limit of re^stanoe of the bulb itself was
reached. It would probably be better, for this reason, to use
the monatomic and extremely inert gases argon or helium.
so. Olk» iiiikois.-^Utny attempts have been made to oVer^
oone the difficulties of gas pyrometry by adopting other methods
of mcasurtment. Among the most interesting may be men^
tloned: (I.) The variadon in the wave-kngth of sound. The
objection to this method is the difficulty of acctirately observhig
the wave4ength, and of correcting for the expansion of the
material of the tubes fn which It is measured. There is the
fnrther objection that the vekx^ity varies as the square toot of
the absolute temperature, (ii.) A slmlhir method, but more
promishig, is the variadon of the refrectivity of a gas, which
can be measured with great accuracy by an fnterierence method.
Here sgahi there Is difficuhy in determining the exact length
of the heated column of gas, and In maintaining the tempera-
ture ui^m throughout a long column at high temperatures.
These difficuhies hA^ been ingeniously met by D. Berthelet
{CompUa Rendu9i *895i iaOi P- «30. But the method Is not
easy to apply, and the degree -of accuracy attainable &i prob*
ably iirferior to the bulb methods, (iii.) Methods depending
on the effusion and transpiration of gases through fine orifices
and tubes have been put in practice by Barus and by the writer.
The method cf transpiration, when the resistance of the tube
thrdiigh which the cilrtent of gas is passed is measnred on the
Wheatstone bridge prindple <JV«f«f», 33rd Mareh r899), is.
extremely delicate, and the apparatus may be made very smaQ
and sensitive, but the method cannot be used for extrapolation
at hiigh temperatures until the hw of increase' of reactance
has been determined with certainty. This may be successfully
accomplished in the near future, but the law is apparently
not so simple as is usually supposed.
On acootmt of these and similar difficulties, the limit of gas
thermometiy at the present time must be placed at t5o6* C.»
or even lower, and the accuracy with which temperatures near
xooo* C. are known does not probably exceed s** C. Although
oseasurements can be effected with greater consistency than
thb by me^ns of electrical pyrometers, the absolute values
corresponding to these temperatures must remain uncertain to
this extent, inasmuch as tiiey depend on observations made
with the gas thermometer.
EUCtUCAL TtthKOKEtKY
3x. The convenience of the mercurial thermometer lies hi the
fact that it is complete hi itself, and can be read without sub-
sidiary appliances beyond a magnifying glass. Its weakness
lies in the very limited range of eadi single mstramenl, and
in the troublesome and often uncertain corrections which must
be applied to its readings in aQ work of precision. Electrical
830
THERMOMETRY
IHectrical
tbennoneteft have the diMdvaiiUge of itquidBg auiliary
•ppantttis, such as galvanometen aod Rsiataaoes, the use of
which involves some electrical training. But they far suipaas
the mercurial thermometer in point of range, delicacy and
adaptability, and can be applied to many iBvestifattons in which
ordinary thermometers are quite uaekss^
There are two kinds of electrical thermometen, which depend
on different effects of heat on the electrical propertiei of metals:
(i) The ThemucoupUt or TkerwupUe, which depends on the
production of a thermoelectric force when the Junctions of
different metals in an electric circuit are at different tempera-
tures; and (a) the EieOricol JUsistonce Tkermomikr, the action
of which depends on the fact that the r es is t a nce of a pure
metal to the passage of an electric current increasea very con-
siderably when the temperature is raised. The theory of the
thermocouple is discussed in the article ToEaif OELECiaiciTy, as
it possesses many points of interest, and has been studied by
many skilful experimentalists. The electrical resistance ther-
mometer is of more recent origin; but although the theory has
been kas fully developed, the practice of the method bids fair
to surpass all others in the variety and accuracy of iU applica-
tions. In order to secure the widest possible range and the
greatest constancy, in either variety of electrical thermometer,
advantage is taken of the great stability and infusibility charac-
teristic of the metals of the platinum group. Other metals are
occasionally used in work at low temperatures with thermo-
ooi4>les for the sake of obtaining a larger electromotive force,
but the substitution is attended with loss of constancy and
uncertainty of reduction, unless the range is greatly restricted.
aa. Applkations of the Tkermec0upU.—'Tht principal uses of
the thermocouple in thermometry are for measuring high
temperatures, and for measuring smaU differences of tempera-
ture, more particularly when the temperature is required to.be
measured at a poinit or in a very small space. The electro-
motive force of the couple depends only on the temperature at
the plane of junction of the two metab, which can be very
exactly located. A typical instance of a measurement to which
the thermocouple is peculiarly suited, is the determination of
the cyclical variations of temperature at accurately measured
depths from one-tenth to one-hundredth of an inch in the metal
•f the cylinder of a heat engine, the interior surface of which is
exposed to q^dical variations of temperature in the working of
the engine.* The exact depth of the plane of junctkw can be
measured without difficulty to the thousandth of an inch. The
insertion of the wire makes the least possible disturbance of
the continuity of the metaL There is no lag, as the thermom e te r
itself u part of the metaL The instantaneous value of the
temperature at any particular point of the stroke can be
measured separately by setting a periodic contact to dose the
drcuit dl the galvanometer at the desired point. A further
advantage ia gained by measuring only the difference of tem-
perature between two junctions of a thermocouple at different
depths, instead of the whole interval from some fixed point.
None of these advantages could be secured by the use of any
ordinary thermometer; some depend on tHe fact that the
method is electrical but some are peculiar to the thermocouple,
and could not be otherwise attained.
On the other hand, the thermocouple is not well suited for
thermometry of precision on account of the f*^^Pf** of the
electromotive force, which is of the order of ten microvolu only
per degree for the most constant couples. By the use of very
delicate galvanometen it Is possible to read to the hundredth
or even in fecial cases to the thousandth of a degree on this
smaU diffeienoe, but unfortunately it is not possible to eliminate
] effects in other parts of the drcuit due to
llf m^^nmtare aad materiaL These acd-
X-taku than one or two microvolts
; Uvlt the accuracy attainable in
:jho tenth of a degree with
" ' \ limit can be surpassed
^ l89i» ynL viS. p. aaS;
jVOl. CSXA. p. X.
by using couples oC greater tbermodectrk power and less
permanence, or by using a pile or series of couplet, bat In
dther case it is doubtful whether the advantage gained in pow«>
is not balanced by loss of aimplidty aad oooatancy. A method
of avoiding these effects, which the writer has found to be of
great use in delicate thermoelectric researches, is to make the
whole circuit, induding all the terminals and even the slide-
wire itself, of pure copper. Platinoid, german silver, oonstantaa
and other alloys most eommonly used for resistances and slide-
wires, are'particuUriy to be avoided, on account of their great
thermodectric power when connected to copper. Manganin
and platinum-silver are the least objectfonable, but the improve-
ment effected by substituting copper is very marked. It is
dear that this objection to the use of the couple does not apply
so strongly to high temperatures, because the dectromotive
force of the couple itself is greater, and the accuracy attainable
is limited by other considerations.
aj. The Resistance Thermometer.— In practice the reastance
thermometer Is almost invariably made of platinum, since there
is very sddom any advantage to be gained by the substitution
of baser metals. The instrument is for this reason often re^
ferred to simply as the "platinum thermometer." It b im-
portant that the platinum should be pure, both for the sake -U
uniformity and also because the change of dectrical resistaBce
with temperature is greatly diminished by irapantics. The
obsovation of the fundamental coefficient, which is <oo390 (or
rather larger than the coefficient of expansion of a gas) for the
purest metal hitherto obtained, is one of the most delicate tests
of the purity of the metaL In additioa to the constancy and
infusibflity of the metal, a special advantage which is secured
by the use of platinum is the dose agreement of the therms
dynamical scale with the platinum scale of tenyentuie, as
defined by the formula
^-ioo<R-IU)/(R*«R40. ... (24)
in which the symbol ft stands for the te mp er at u re on the
platinum scale centigrade, and R, Rt and R« are the observed
resistances of the thermometer at the temperatures fi^ xoo*
and o* C respectivdy. A pbtinum thermometer is genesnily
arranged to read directly in degrees of temperature on the
platinum scale, just as a mercury thermometer is graduated in
degrees of the mercury scale. The reduction to the scale of the
gas thermometer is most oonvenientty effected by the dUieRiMe
formula
i-^«a!r(<-iooVxo/)oo. . . . (ij)
in which ^ b a constant, called the difference-ceeflicient, the
value of which for pure platinum b about i-jo^ but vmrks
slightly for different spedmena. Thb foramla was firat given
by the writer as the result of a series of rompaiiiioii oi di^nent
lUatinum wiies with each other and with other metab^ and
also with an air thermometer over the range o* to 625* C The
pbtinum wire In. these compariaons was enclosed inside the
bulb of the air thermometer itsdf, and disposed in sncb a
manner as to be at the mean temperature of the bulb in case
the temperature was not quite uniform throu^bout {PkiL
Trans. A. 1887, p. 161). The formub was subsequently
verified by C T. Heycock and F. H. Neville (/ram. Cketm. Sec
February X895J, by the observation of a number ol hi^icr
poinU up to the freesing-point of copper at loSa* C, which
they shmd to agree with the most probabb mean of aU the
best determinationa by vaiioua methods of gaa thcnaometry.
At still higher temperatures, beyond the present ni^a of the
gas thermometer, the writer has succeeded in obtaining pre-
sumptive evidence of the validity of the same foimnb by
comparison with the scales of the expanskm and tkc apedfic
heat of pbtinum, which appear to follow simibr bwa (PkiL
Mat, December 1899). If we assume that the coefficient of
expansion of pbtinum, the ooeffident of increase of reaistaiicc,
aad the specific heat are all three linear funaions of the tem-
perature, we obtain results which are in agreement within the
limits of error of observation up to the fusing-point of platinum
itaelL The samo formub has bc^ independent^ vcsfied by
ELBCnaCAt.1
%tft oofl^MBiWB of pntnraiii uicfmoBictus wuii tiis coMlifll*
vehme nftrogen thennometer by Harker and Chappuis {PkU.
Trams. A. 1900), working at th/t International Boreaa at
Sivto, over the nage o" to 650* C It haa alao been ahoim
to latiafy very closely the observationa on the variatioa of
dectrical resistance of other metals over wide ranges of tem-
perature. Although the theoretical riplanation of the lonnula
haa not yet been given* owing to our ignorance of the true nature
of electrical condoction and of the molecular constitution of
metals, it may be regarded from an empirical point of view as
being one of the most accurately established of all thermometric
formulae. It will be observed that it alao represents the
iimplest ponible type of divergence from the thcimodynamical
24. Udkods and dpparolus.—Tht methods of electrical
thermometry may be iwughly dasaified under two heads as
(i) deflection methods, in which the temperature is deduced
from the observed deflection of a galvanometer; and (a) balance
method^, in which the resistance or the electromotive fotoe is
halanced against a known adjustable resastanoe or potential
dUfereaee. The former methods are most suitable for tough
work and rapid reading, the latter for accurate measuremenu.
In the practice of the deflection method it is custonuuy to use a
movable-coil galvanometer, the sensitiveness of which can be
vaHed by varying the resistance in drcuit, or by vaiying the
itiffiDess of the suspension. The accuracy attainable is of the
order of one-half of x per cent, on the deflection, and is limited
by variations of resistance of the galvaaonMtcr, and by the
imperfect elasticity of the suspension. In any case the scale
of the galvanometer should be calibrated or tested for uniformity.
In this kind of work the thermocouple haa the advantage over
the resistanoe thennometer in that the latter requises an
auxilitty battery to supply the current; but in many cases
this Is no disadvantage, beatuse it permits a greater latitude of
adjustment, and makes it possible to obtain greater power
than with the thermocouple.
In cases where it is desired to obtain greater accuracy with-
out abandoning the quickness of reading which is the principal
advantage of the deflection method, it is poouUe to combine
the two methods 1^ balancing part of the potential diflerence
by means of a potentiometer and using the galvanometer for
the small changes only. In cases where the greatest accuracy
is required, a very sensitive galvanometer should be used, and
the whole of the potential diflerence should be balanced as
nearly as possible, leaving very little to depend on (he deflectk>n
of the galvanometer. The degree of sensitiveness and accuracy
obtainable depends primarily on the delicacy of the galvano-
meter, on the power available, and 00 the steadiiwss of the
conditioBS of experiment. For thermometry of precision the
resistance thermometer possesses three very great advantages
over the thermocouple: (i) The power available, owing to the
use of a battery, is much greater; (a) it is possible completely
to eliminate the errors due to accidental thermal effects by
reversing the battery; Cj) the WhcaUtonc bridge method can
be employed in place of the potentiometer, so that the con-
stancy of the battery is iauaaterial, and it is not necessary to
use a standard cell. The oonditioBs to be satisfied in the atuin-
Bsent of the greatest possible accuracy in the measurement of
temperature by this method differ somewhat from those which
obtain m ordinary measoreneaU of resistance, so that a special
type of apparatus has been evohred for the purpose, a brief
description of which will be given.
as. C^mpemsmtd Bridte if^^rafas.— ft Is ntccassfy that tiie
THERMOMBTRY
a3t
evM be comiected to the n w asu r i ag apparatus by
of f ofisidc reMe Is agin, geiMnuly at least two or
I order to avoid cxpOMng the gahviiometcr and
_ - XpOMIIK t
e faoac or other deHoste parts of the app*ffatu«» to chanM
of tsBipcsatute. It •• alw easentiat that the leads should not be
o thick or
.for c o Bvw i ienoe in hamiliiig and to prevent
oood ii c ti ea of heat along the stem of the thermome te r. The
w i i i r s nei of that part of the leads which is exposed to va riations
as teespcratw aecessaniy cnangcs. and would gn'e nse to serious
OBwa if ie sMffe not octermiAKl or cooipcnsatcd. The saethod new
tancnUly adopted in aocmste work is to compcnaatc the variationa
. of the Icada by an caafctly similar pair of dummy
d th« *' oompenaator " and oonnected as shown diafmm-
natieaily in fig. 6. The battery. roMbitng of a single cell, with
arheostat and revsrvng key in circuit, is oonnected to the tcrminala
AB of the two equal resistaiice coils AG, GB, which form the ntio
arass of the balance. These coik most be carefnlly tested for'
eqnaKty of tsm p cm t u r&coettcient, and plond in dose proxunity
to each other so as to be always at the sane temperature. If they
aso interweund 00 the same red, they must oe most carefully
insulated from each other. In parslld drooit with the ratio cam
are connected the eompcnsator CC and the balancing resistances
C'E, on OM side of lae bridge*wire EF, and the oompenaating
resistances rP and the pyrometer and leads PRP on the other
side. The galvanometer is connected to the point G between
the ratio coils, and to the diding contact D on the bxidg«*wire.
Since the ratio coils are always equal, equal chauea of resistance
on dther side of D are eliminated, and do not aftect the 1
the ends of the compensator leads are connected by z. short pices
of the same wire as the pyrometer ooiL For instance, in observing
the vadations of tempenture of the steam in the cyliader of a
steam engine at diffcitnt paints of the stndce with a very delicate
thennometer made of wire one-thousandth of an inch in diameter
(Prae, Inst, C £., voL cxzd. fig. 16, pi 33), the ends of the fine
wire attached to the duck leads could not ioUow the rapkl varia*
dona of tempentuRL and it was found necessary to adopt this
device to eliminate the end-effect. It b also usdul in other cases
to dindaate the effect of conducdon along the leads in cooling the
ends of the fine wire coil. The balandng redsmnces C'E are made
of some alloy such as maaganin or platmum-silver, the resistancs^
fvATWA/-
PSSfee^K^E^Sffl,
AmSkmitt
LoLrvJ
fie. 6.— Diagram of Compensated Bridge Method.
little with change of te mpera tu re . Platinum-
beat material, as it can be perfecdy 1
of which varies 1
silver is probabi)
at a red beat without risk of busaing. and is then extremely constant.
Unless the boa can be kept at an absolutdy constant and uniform
temperature, which is not impos»ible but often inconvenient, it is
necessary to allow for the change of resistanoe of the balandng
coOs C'E due to change in the tempcraturs of the box. The tem^
perature of the coib cannot be aocuratdy determined with a mercury
theroaometsr unless they are immersed in oil, but even in tha^
case it is neceaaary to know die tempaature-coefficicnt of each
todividnal coil. A more convenient and accurate method, which
dimiaatcs the correction automaticaUy. is to compensate each
iadivklttal coil of the balandng coils C'E by a corresponding com-
pensating ooH at FP on the other side ef^ the bridge<vite. The
eempensattng ooib are made of platinun, also annealed at a red
heat, and each is plaoed in the box in dose proximity to the coil
St is intended to compensate. Each balandng ooil and ita com-
pensator aie tested together at various temperatures between
10* and 30* Ch and are adjusted ontil their difference remaina
con s t an t for any small variatbn of Umperatore in the neighbour-
hood of so* C. This method of oompensaikm was applied by the
writer la iStr. but has not been generally adopted on account of
the labour involvud in adiusttng the coils. The absdute values
of the redsiances are immatenal. but h is necessary to toow the
relative values with the greatest possible accuracy. For this
reason It is preferable to arrange the resistance* 1^ the binary
scale, sach resistance being equal to twice die next smaller resist-
ance, or to die sum of afl the amaller resistances, the two smallat
fvsistaaces bdng made equal. This arrangement permits the
greatest aeeuracy of comparison in the simplest manner with the
fewest observatkms. The bridge-wire EF provides a oontmuoos
scale for reading small changes of redstance. Any change of
resistance of the pynmeter coil oecesdtates the movement of the
taUnce point D throagh an equivalent resistance aking the bndge-
wiw. The equivalent resistance of the bridge-wire per unit length
of the attachcd-seale is preferably adjusted, by means of a diuiit
shown in paralld with it in fig. 5, to be an exact aubmultiple of
^--'
THERMOl*^'
---v
.^ >c:
^S'
«o that their {uiidamenta\ yT\**"^
this unit, genecalW «*i**
dge-wire mav t-
lutn «:<-'.-
'tl
scU
ance
nstru.
meter
rieldy le.
r.
brrecHons.-
ectiona in\
bosc on whi
er have alreat
[ sero of the n
Mnsibility of n.
f the containin;.
ag tube ha* noil.
ly poesible strain •
naU dimensions an>.
crease of resistance,
Lhe coefficieat of appa
surprising, therefore,
-mometer should be pr.
is not strained and conu;
with ordinary care the >.
ven limits of temperatun
.ccuracy of observation, du^
f the range considered.
ntal interval of each thcrr:
1 by observations in ice and st-
id by the method already dcs<. i
jrmometer. The difference of t
loo" C. should be determined c
imate formula
/i- -0363 (H - 760) - •oooo20(H - 76
trection, — ^The eflTcct of change of .
)meter of the ordinary tube form 1
e itself is not exposed to the pressuri
nd directly exposed to large changes o.
ling is almost inappreciable. Similarly
analogous to the effects of capillarity, \\
1 delicate mercury thermometers.
\tre. — ^The reading of a platinum thcrn.
leads depends only on tne temperature
g the bulb, and not on the temperature •
t the immersion is sufficient to avoid ercu>
onvection along the stem. It is dcsirablt
> should be immersed to a depth equal to ■
the diailieter of the tabe, acoxding to the a >
ioH.— The cednction to the thermodynam
ted, within the limits of probable error of r
isurements at present available, by the vi
rmula (aO already given, over the Miole rar
+ 1100 C. This is in strikine contrast wi
>meter, which requires a cubic formula to cov.
o* C. with equal accuracy. The value of tl
>nnula varies but littl«. provided that the wir
^ the diermometers properly constructed. I n
Its value m any special case, it is best to take
« boilm|.pomt of sulphur (S.B.P.) for tempera
or at that of oxygen for temperature, beloxv-
C. It appears probable that ther« is a point
curve of resisunce-vanation of platinum^nd
m the neighbourhood of ^»o» t., and that
3t apply accurately bdow this point. It has
ne to be 444-53" C. as determined by Callcnd^
^n~""f*r*"P'^'"^ air. thermomSer. «S iS
ange of temperature with pressure ^ -oSa*
lulfs observations. AccordiJ^g to SwrimeJS. I
;r.S7 r? P*^^'""™ therrali^SfJaS?
fo™n£^ ^'^""^ *• ~?«^»»at Jargcr thin tSt
to detemune this consunt with greater 1J»...
1^ between the above formulae reacSJ a t^S
k"f*f' ft?f"* **y ." "»«• from ^ mi T^
bKilute boUmg-point of sulphurrbo^^^ery^
.ft*lf*»K ^^V**" *«^o"nt
m of thejgaa thermometer
Wnaroical correction of
« a degree at this point.
nt of the extrapolation
^ the aBJ>. rch^SSi
^Vi
tJ**-
^*--
w
^:^\
. - . A
*f *
f^
A-1 --
J'-
;ISTERING1
y abovs ino* C that it it quettioMible wKethcr aay advan*
1 gained by uiiof it beyoad this fwiat. The law of ladiatioa
«a to d oe et y verified by obaenrations at lower temperatui«e
te luwertainty involved m applying it at higher tempefatiitee»
caia of a black body ie pfobabfy leas than the uncertainty
gaa-tha m oawter meaaumncnts^ and much lew than the
of extrapolating an empirical formula for a
eL. F. C Holbdmi "
Lpobtiag
for the melting-point of palkidium, whcreaa Violle foand
THERMOMETRY
«3S
inty of extrapolating an
iliue L. F. C Holbdm and W. Wien IWied. Ann., 1805.
r their thermoelectric formula, found the value
by the calorimetrie method, and CaUendar and Eumorio-
°ML Mag., i899t 4B) found 1540* and 1550* C. fay the
of the eiqpattflion and the change of ccsieunce of plathnim
ly. By a bttcr thermoelectric extrapolation HoRmm and
BerUm Ak&A. 1905, la, p. jti) found 1555* C for the
■int of palladiam, and 1710* C for that of ptatianttt
tch were strikingly oonhrroed bv j. A. Harher at the
hyncal Laboratory, and by Waidner and Burgess at the
Standards, U.S.A. Holbom and Valentiner employing
oethod (Ann, Phys., 1907, », p. 1) found 1^* C. and
r palladium add platinum respecuvelv. TneM cm be
that the extrapolation of the parabolic formula for the
e at these temperatures is quite untnistworthy (me
rraiciTY) and that the values given by the electrical
■thod, or by the laws of radiatioa, are more likely to
\ssuming chat the toul radbtioa varies as the fourth
absolute temperature, a radiatioa pyronaeter can ba
a single obeorvatton at a known tampenture, such
-point of gold, 1069* C. if a black body is employed
: and its mdications will probably be accurate at
>tures under a dmtlar restriction. If the ' —
\c interior of a furnace thnnigh a small
own »—
Nik.
L"*
to I"" - "-^ — "
Vltrrar Pyrometer (C^b. Sdent. Inst. Co^.
pcratuces from 500* C to 1100* C
he temperature of the furnace correctly, pro*
ature is uniform. But it must be remembered
a not fentraUy eaist in lane furnaces. Snp-
at it is required to find the temperature of
the hearth of a furnace viewed through a
eases, which are probably at a much higher
lent that the radiation from the intervening
renter than that from the metal, and may
. The same objection apjplics with greater
tcrs, as the luminous radiation from gases
7ttv-e character. If, on the other hand, it is
temperature of metal in a bdle before
he metal must be cleared of scum, and it
'.c emissive power of the metal or oxide
merits of temperature by the ra<fiatk>n
or Ix^meter, or radiomicrometer. previ*
tre to a black body at a known tempera*
t a known distance to a known area of
he required result may then be deduced
the disunce. The use of extraneous
\ as far as possible on account of selec*
ral purposes, in order to avoid trouUe-
"iurvmcnts. an optical arrangement is
ror. in order to form an image of the
'ire. Fig. 8 illustrates F^s minor
r M, focused bv the pinion P. forms
'y^V., supported by wires of oonsunun
ouple. connected by the bran strips
/''. The observatkm bole in the wall
{gh the eyepiece O. and is made to
rise of temperature of the |unction
to the intensity of radiatknu. and b
J(.licattf galvanometer connected to
l>e substituted for the mirror at
• • • v^ry to allow for the aelective
• ci« extent for that of the wknt.
AsMnung Wbo'a laws for the dbtributioa of eneigy an the
spectfum (see Hbat). the tempeftture of a black body may abo
be measured by observing (i) the wave-length compondiag to
naximnm intensity m tbe normal spectram, whieb varies inversely
aa the absolute tenpenture, or (2) the nundmom intenaity itaeit.
which vnriea aa the fifth power of the ahaolate temperature, or
(3) the intenaity of radbtkm corresponding to soaie particuhir
radbtioa or colour, which varies as aa exponential functkm, tike
exact form of which b somewhat unoeruin. Methoda (1) and (2)
lequjre ebborate appantua and are impiactacafote except for pur>
poaea of scientific research. The end appUcatioa of method (3) b
almost equally difficult, and b lew certain in ita results, but lor
t^ical purfioses this method may be realised with a fair degree of
approximation by the use of coloured glasaea, and forma the buia
in theory of the moat trwtwoithy optiad pyroveten.
34. CftitaX or Pheimetne ^yrMwl«rr.— The change of colour ofa
heated body from red to white with rise of temperattire, and the
great increase of intrinsic brilliancy which accompanies the change,
are among the most fiamiliar methods of estimating high tempera*
tures. For many p rocesse s eye estimatkm suffices, but a much
greater dcsree of accuracy may be secured by the employment of
suitable pnotometers. In Mesur( and Mood's pyroinetric tele-
scope, the estimation of te m perature depends on obeervmg the
rotation of a quarts pobrimeter reauired to reduce the oolmir of
the radbtion to a standard tint. It has the ad\'antage of requiring
00 auxiliary apoaratus. but. owing to the bck of a standard of
comparison, its indicationa are not very precise. In the majority
of photometric pyzometere, a sundard of comparison for the inten-
sity of the light, either an amyl-aoetate or gasoline bmp. or an
electric glow-bmp, b empkiyed. The optJcaf pyrometer of H. L.
Le Chatelier {Complet Rendus, iSoa. 114, p. 214) was one of the
earliest, and has served aa a model for aubeiequent inventors.' The
BUndani of comparbon b an amyl-acetate lamp, the fiame of
which b adjusted in the usual manner and viewed in the same
field as the image of the source. The two halves of the field are
adjusted to equality of brightness by means of a cat's eye dbphregm
and aboorptMn glasaea, aira are viewed through a red gbsa. giving
nearly monochromatic radbtion in order to avofa) the difficulty
of comparing lighta of different colours. Assuming Wien's bw.
the h»aritbm of the intensity of monochromatic radbtion for a
black body b a linear functkm of the reciprocal of the absolute
temperature, and the instrument can be graduated by observing
two temperaturea; but it b generally gramuitcd at aeveral pointa
by comparison with temperatufcs obaervcd by means of a thcrino-
couple.
The Wanner IVrometer {Phys. Zeits., 1902, p. 112) b a modi*
fication of Konig^a spectrophotometer, in which the two halves of
the fiekl, corresponding to the source and the standard of com*
parison, are iUuminated with monochromatic red light pobriaed in
l^nes at right angles to each other. The two halves may be
equalised by rotating the analyzer, the drcle of which is graduated
to read in degrees of temperature. The instrument has a some*
what restricted range of maximum sensitivenen, and cannot be
used below 900* C. owing to the great foss of light in the compli-
cated optical svstem. It cannot be siehted directiv on the object
since no image u formed as in the LeCharelier or Fay Instruments,
but the methods of securing monochromatic light by a direct vision
spectroscope, and of adtusting the fields to equality by rotating
the analyser, are capable of gnat precision, and lead to simple
theoretical foimube for the ratio of the intensities in terms of
Wien's bw.
The F*ipy Absorption Pyrometer {Joum. Pkys., 1904, p. 32) differs
from Le Cnatelicr s only in minor dctaib. such as the repbcement
of the cat's eye dbphragm by a pair 01 absorbins gbss wedges.
The principles of its action and tbe method of calibration are the
same. The pyrometers of Morw. and of L. F. C. Holborn and
F. KuHbaum depend on the empkiyment of a glow bmp fibment
as standard of comf)jsrison, the current through which is adjusted
to make the intrinsic brillbncy of the fibment equal to that ol
the source. When this adjustment is made the filament becomes
invisible against the image of the source aa background, and the
temperature of the source may be determined from an observation
of the current required. Each bmp requires a separate calibration,
but the lamps remain fairly constant provided that thev are not
overheated. To avokJ this, the source b screened hf absorption
glasses (which also require calibration) in observing high tempera-
tures. Except at km temperatures the comparison b effenM by
pbcins a red gbss before the eyepiece. At low temperatures a
special advantage of the glow*bmp as a standard of comparison
is that it matches the source m colour as well as in brightness, so
that the inMrument b vcr^ sensitive. At high temperatures the
red gbss serves chiefly to mitqsate the gbre.
35. Rtiistgring and Ruordimt TTbmwmsfrrs.— The term register*
ian thermometer b usually applbd to an instrument with an index
which requires setting, aad m'ben set will iodkate the maximum or
minimum temperature occurring, or will register the temjicrature at
a particalar ume or pbce. A recording instrument is one con-
' to give a continuoua record of the temperature, and
• rrvolvii« drum or aome squivaknt ck^ckwork mech a nbm
832
THERMOMETRY
fpucntiCAL
Bcoil. ItbuaaalikBtoadfuCtlie
ol the thennoaieten -w that tbdr fnnrifnmttl iatsfvab are oon-
venient maldpJes of this unit, gownUy cither loo, aoo, 500, or
1000, M that the briiige*vire nay read directly in deneea of tem-
perature on the platinum scale. It is easy to get a scale of 10 cms.
or more to the degree, and it is not difficult with a suitable galvano*
meter to read to the ten-thousandth part of a degree. The length
of the bridge-wire itself need not be more dian ao or 3a cma^ aa
the balanang resistances enable the scale to be fauMuitely ex-
tended. Thus the instrument possesses the great advantage over
the mercury thermometer that the most open scale may be easily
secured without unwieldy length, and without restricting the range
of each thermometer.
26. Errorr and Comdi»as.'^lt ia most instructive to rtmiadir
the errors and corrections involved in platinum thcrmometrv on
the same lines as those on which the corresponding enon 01 the
mercuiy thermometer have already been treated.
L The cfaaages of aero of the mercury thermometer arire chiefly
Cram the small expansibility of mercury combined with the in»-
perfea elasticity of the containing tube. In platinum thecaso-
metry the containing tube has nothing to do with the reading,
and the effect of any possible strain of the fine wire of the coil is
minimised by its small dimensions and by the lafge teniperetme-
oo^caent of^the
by the lafge
which is
times greater than the coefficient of apparent expansion of mercury
in glass. It is not surprising, therefore, that the cban^ of aero
of a platinum thermometer should be pra^icaUy negh|(ible, |»o-
vided that the wire is not strained and contaminated witn miporitiea.
k is probable that with ordinary care the changes of lero due to
exposure to any given limits of temperature are in aU cases ksa
than the limit of accuracy of ofaeervation, due to other causes at
the extreme limit of the range considered.
II. The fumianuntal interval of each thermometer must be
determinea as usual bv observations in kx and steam, and a correc-
tion must be applied by the method already described in the case
of the mercury thermometer. The diiTerence of the temperature
of the steam from lOO* C. should be determined on the platinum
acale by the approximate formula
rfp<i - -985^/1 --ojeaCH -760) —ooooao(H-76o)« . (2Q
III. Pressure Correction, — ^The effect of cbaoffe of jHftuun on
a platinum thermometer of the ordinary tube lorm is ef courw
nothing, as the wire itself is not exposed to the pressure. Even if
the wire is naked and directly expoeed to large changes of pressure,
the change of reading is almost inappreciable. Similarly there is
no source of error analogous to the effects of capillarity, wluch are
so troublesome with delicate mercury thermometers.
IV. Stem Exposure. — The reading of a platinum thermometer
with compensated leads depends only on the temperature of the
coil of wire forming the bulb, and not on the temperature of the
stem, provided that the immersion is sufficient to Avoid enoen due
to conduction or convection alon^ the stem. It Is desirable that
the top of the bulb should be immersed to a depth equal to from
three to ten rimes the diameter of the tube, acoocdiac to the aocu>
ncy required.
V. Saik CorretHonj^Tht reductbn to the thermodynaroical
scale may be effected, within the limits of probable error of the
most accurate measurements at present available, by the very
sbnple difference forauila faO already given, over the whole range
from -100" C. to +1100* C. Tfaia is in striking comrast with
the mercury thermometer, which requires a cubic fomnila to cover
the range o" to 200* C. with eaual accuracy. The value of the
constant d in the formula varies out little, provided that the wire
be uirly pure and the thermometen properiy constructed, la
order to determine iu value in any special case, it ia best to tabs
an observation at the boilinff>point of sulphur (S.B.P.) for tempers*
tures above o* C, or at that of oxygen for temperatures below
o" C. down to '-40O* C. It appears probable that there ia a point
of inflection in the curve of resistance<variatioa of platinnm.aad
some other metals m the neighbourhood of -aoo* C., and that
the formula does not apply accurateljc below ^b» point. It haa
become the custom to assume the boilmg<f>oiat of suphur (S.B.P.)
under normal pressure to be 444*53" C., aa determined by Callendar
and Griffiths, using a constantrprcssore air. thermometer, and to
take the nte of change of temperature with pressure aa 'c6a*
per mm< from Regnault's observationa. According to experiments
made at Kew Observatory with platinum thermometers (Cbree.
Ptoc. R. S., 1900), the fate of- change is somewhat larger than that
^tven by Regnault's formula* namely, about '090* per rom.» and
It appean desi.i^le to determine this constant with greater aoen-
^c*' ^ b e i we ti i the above formulae reaches a tenth
-neter dillere by la mm. from 760 mok The
lute boiling-point of sulpbur, however, ia
tcr than one-tenth of a degree, on account
ncpaiuion correction of thej^aa thermometer
899). The thcrmodynamical oorrectioa of
«i* amounts to half a degree at this point,
--. on account of the extrapDlation,
let value of the S.BJ>. as chosen
for n kn a o B, for th0
aC tf^^rtW^toriAHA ^h^Ib
thermometers, the results so reduced w3i be strictly comparable,
and can be corrected at any subsequent time When the value of
Ufee S.B.P. is more accurately determined. The bo&ing-point of
onygen may be taken aa >iaa-s* C with suffiriwit appronantion
for a amilar puipose^
VL CalUtraium Correction. — ^The calibration of the resistance
box and the bridse-wire corresponds to the caUbration of the stem
of the mercury therraometcf , Imt the process is mu^ simpler for
several reasons. It ia aors easy to obtain a uniCoan wirethann
uniform tube. The scale of the wire is much more open, it oorre-
q)onds to a very small part of the whole scale, aad the process of
calibration is easier. One box when calibrated will serve for any
number of thermometen of different ranges and scales, and oovcn
the whole range of temperature (see Caubsaiiom).
a/. Bloetrical PretaMlum».—tht platinum thennometer ia so
far superior to the mercury thermometer in all the pdnts above
enumerated that, if there were no other difficulties, no one would
ever use a m er cur y t h er m ome te r for work of precision. In using a
fdatiaum thermor eter, h owever, sosne dectncal traimng b rsun
tul to obtain the best results- The manipulation and adjustmeat
of a delicate galvanometer present formidable difficulties to the
non-electrical observer. Bad contacts, faulty connexions, and
defective insulation, are not likely to trouble the practised elec-
trician, but present endless possibilitiea of error to the tyro. A
useful diicussion of these ano similar idetails is given in the paper
by Chree already referred to. Bad insulation of the pyrometer
and connexions can easily be detected, in the compensated instru-
ment already described, by disconnecting one of the C leads from
the battery and one of the P leads from the bridge-wire. Under
these oonditiona the nlyanometer^sho^ not deflect if the Inaula-
tion b perfect. Defective insulation is most likely to be due to
damp in the thermometer at low temperatures. This source of
error Is besk; removed by drying and hermetkally aealing the ther^
memeters. Trouble from bad ooocacts genecsUy aciaes freoa the
use of plugs for the reeistanoe ooils. If pli«s ore used, they must
be specially designed so as not to disturb each other, and must be
well fitted and Ccpt very clean. Mercury cups with large copper
terminals, well amalgamated, as used with standard resistance
ooils, are pcoboUy the simplest nnd mast BBfisfamnfy method of
chaofing oonoexiona. Aoadental thermoelectric cffecu in the
circuit are a possible source of error, as >vith the thermocouple, but
they are always very small if the thennometer is properly con-
structed, and are rdatively unimportant owing to the lar^ E.M.F.
available. In any case they may be completely eliminated by
reversing the battery. Tlie noting effect 01 the current through
the thermometer is often neeUgibl^ but should be measured and
allowed for in accurate worK. With a current of
•01 ampere the rise of temperature dioold not ex-
ceed tk% or rlr oC a degree. With a delicate
nJvanometer it is possible to read to the ten-
thousandth of a degree with a current of only
•ooa ampere, in whiCh case the heating effect is
generelljr less than riAnr of a degree. It can be
very eanly measured in aiiy case t^ chai^iing from .
one cell to tvo» thus doubling the current 10 the I
thermometer, and quadrupling the heating effect.
The correction is then applied by subtracting one-
third of the difference between the readings with
one and two ceila from the reading with one cell.
The correction is alwayi^ very small, if a reasonably
sensitive galvanometer is used, and is frequently
negligible, especially in differential work, %-hlch is
one of the most fruitful applications of the platinnm
,^'^XSlUi
aa. Constnutwn of Tkormowietersj^Ot^n of the
chief advantages of the platinum thermometer for
research work is the endless variety of forms in
which ft may be made, to suit the particular
exigencaee of each individual cxpei iwrt . It is
peculiarly suited for observing the average tem-
perature throughout a length or space, which is
so often required in physical experiments. For
this purpose the wire may be disposed in a straight
length, or in a spiral, along the ^laee in qucstioa.
Anin. in obaervmg the temperatare of a gas, the
naked wire, on account 01 its small mass aaa
extremely low radiative power, b far superior CO
any reeitury thermometer. The commonest foraa Fig. 7-'*^
of platinum thermometer (fig. 7)^ and the most Platinnm
suiuble for general purposes, contains a coil B from Thermometer,
i in. to a in. tang, wouna on a cross of thm mica, and
endosed in a tube, «bout } to i in. in diameter, of flase orpovcelam
according to the temperature for which it is required. The pyro-
meter leads and the compeasator kads ore insulated and kept in
place by passing through mica dbka fitting the ts^, which rem
also to prevent convection currents up and down the tube; The
protectinc tube of gbun or porcelain b ^tted with a wooden head A
carrying lour iniulated tenninab, PP.. CC, to which the pyro m e t er
etECTUQUJ
THERMOMETRY
833
__ , , .. ftnd wbkh
•erv« to connect the iastniment to the mcAsuring apparatus. For
work of the highest precisioa these termuials are often omitted,
and the leadt are directly aotdcrcd to a flexibk cable in ofdcr to
avoid possible errors from thermoelectric effects and changes of
resbtaoce of the acmr terminals. For temperatures above 500* C.
the protecting tube must be of porcelain, and the leads of olatinum
throughout that part of the tube which is exposed to htgfa tem-
peratures. For lower temperatures a tube of hard glass and leads
of copper or silver may be employed, but it b better in any case
to make the lower port of the leads of platinum in order to diminish
the conduction of heat along the stem. For laboratory work a
cube 30 or 40 cm. in length usually suffices, but for large furnaces
the length of the protecting tube is often 5 to 10 ft. In the latter
case it Is usual to protect the porcelain tubes with an external
sted tube, which may be removed for delicate measurements.
39. Special Forms «/ Tkgrmomrter. — In the measurement of linear
expansion it is a ^reat advantage to employ a thermometer with
the bulb or sensitive portion equal in length to the bar or column
under test, so as to obtain tm mean temperature of the whole
length. In measuring the linear expanson of a standard metre or
yara, a fine pbtinum wire enclosca in a glass capillary, or other-
wise insulatea, is employed, its length beine equal to that of the
bar. The same method nas been applied by Callendar {PkU. Trans.
A. 1B87) and Bedford (Pkit. Mai., 1898) to the expansion of glass
and porcelain at high temperatures, employing a fine wire sup-
ported along the axis of the tube under test. An equivalHit method,
applied to the expansion of silica by Callendar, is to enclose a rod
of the material inside a platinum tube which is heated by an electric
current. This is a very rapid and convenient process, since the
mean temperature of the rod must be equal to that of the enclosing
tube. Any temperature op to the melting-point .of pbtinum is
readily obtained, and eauly regidated. The temperature may be
obtained by observing dthcr the resistance of the platinum tube
or its linear expanaon. Either method may also be emiA>yed in
j. Joly's meldometer, which consists of an electrically heated strip
for observing the melting-points of minerals or other substances in
small fragments. In obsi^ving the temperature of a kmg column
of mercury, as in the methoa of equQibrating columns lor deter-
mining the absolute expansion of mercury, a platinum thermo-
meter with a bulb equal in length to the column may similariy
be era|4oyed with advantage. Tne application is here partlcularty
imporunt becaoae it b practicaliy impossible to ensure perfect
Uttiformliy of temperature in a vertical column, 6 ft. or more in
feflgth, at high teniperttufea.
yx Sensitm rWniiMMtrr«^~Wbcre quickness of reading is esaeo-
dal, the mcfcufly thermometer, or the tube form of electric ther-
mometer, it unsuitable. In cases where the thermometer has to be
immened in a condncting liquid or solution, the fine wire forming
the bulb may be insulated by endodoE it in a coiled glass capilbry.
This method has been employed by Callendar and Barnes and by
Jaeger, but the instrument is necessarily fragile, and requires
cardul hanging. For non-conducting liquids or gases the bare
wire may be employed with great advantage. This is particularly
important in the case of gases owing to the extreme sensitiveness
thus obuined and the almost complete immunity from radiation
error at moderate temperatures. Thermometers constructed in the
form of a flat grid of bare wire mounted on a mica and ebonite
frame have been employed by H. Brown (Proc. R. S.. 1005, B 76,
p. 124) for observing the temperature of leaves and of air currents
to which they were exposed. They have also been employed for
obeervin^ the air-temperature for meteorological purposes in Egypt
and Spain with very satisfactory results {Frac, R. S., 1905, A 77,
p. 7). The fine wire, owing to iu small size and bright metallic
•nrface, very tapidly acquires the temperature of the air, and is
very little affected by radiation from surrounding objects, which
h one of the chief dimcolties hi the employment of mercurial ther-
mometers for the observatbn of the temfierature of the air.
For the oboenratkm of rapidly varying temperatures, such as
those occurring in the cylinder of a gas- or steam-engine, an electrical
therroometer with very fine wire, of the order of 'OOi in. diameter
is practically the only instrument available. The temperature at
any particular moment may be obtained by setting a mechanical
eontact-maker to dose the circuit at the desired point. The sen-
sitive part of the thermometer consists simply of a loop of fine
wire from half an inch to an inch long, connected by suitable leads
to the measuring apparatus as employed by Burstall (PkU, Mai.^
October 1895) in the gas-engine, and Callendar and Nicoison (Frsc.
ImtL C. &, 1898) in the steam-engfne. The explosion tempera-
tures cannot be satisfactorily measured in a gas-engine in this
manner, because the radiation error at high temperatures is exces-''
dve ttnlMs the wire is very fine, in which case it is very soon melted
even with weak mixtures. Callendar and Dalby accordingly de-
irised a meehankai valve {Ftoc. R. 5., A 80. p. 57) for exposing the
ther uMJ i n eter only during the admission and compression strokes,
and have deduced the actual explosion temperatures from the
indicator dia|ram. B. Hopkinson (Pr«c. R. S.. A 77. p. 387) sue-
eaad t d in following the eourae of an explosion in a closed ve sse l
by OMana of a similar thcrmonMcr connected to a galvanometer
of short period giving a contimiouf record on a moving photo-
graphk; film. When the Bame reached the wire the tenmrature
rose 1300* C. in about A of a second, which illustrates the order
of sensitiveness attainable with a fine wire of this sixe. O. R.
Lummer and E. Priogshdm, in their measurements of the ratio of
the spedfic heats of gases by observing the fall of temperature due
to sudden expansion, employed a very thin strip of foil with the
object of securing greater sensitivenesa. This was a somewhat
doubtful expedient, Decause such a strip is extremely fragile and
liable to be injured by air currents, ana because the sensitiveness
is not as a matter of (act appreciably improved, wherras the radia-
tion error is increased in direct proportion to the surface exposed.
One of the prindpal sources of error in employing a short loop of
fine wire for observing npidiy varying temperatures is that the
ends of the loop close to the thick leads are affected by conduction
of heat to or from the leads, and cannot follow the rapfd Variations
of temperature. This error may be readily avoided by the methwi
first employed by Callendar and Nicoison. of connecting the com-
pensating (eads with a short length of the same fine wire. The
end effect is then diminated by observing the difference of resist-
ance between two loops of different leiwths. Thennocouples of
very fine wire have also been employed for similar measurements,
but they are more difficult to make than the simple loop of one
wire, and the sensitiveness attainable Is much less, owing to the
small E.M .F. of a single thermocoude.
ti. Radiation Tkermoscopes.-^For measuring the intensity of
raoiation, some form of thermometer ^th anadcened bulb or
sensitive area u employed. It is assumed that the rise of tem-
perature of the thermometer is approximatdy p r oportional to the
ratensity of the radiation aoconfing to Newton's law of cooling
(see Hbat) for small differences of temperature. A mercury
maximum thermometer with a smalt blackened bulb is still very
generally employed in meteorote g ieal obscc^ratories for registering
the maximum solar radiation. But the indk^ations are liable to
error and very difficult to interpret, and an instrument of tide
type is not sufficiently sensitive or quick in action for weak aourcea
of radiation. Sir John Leslie employed an air thermoseope, similar
to that of Galileo (Hbat, fig. 1), with a blackened bulb. This haa
the advantage of a small capacity for heat, and b still employed in
various forms for demonstration purposes, but b not soffioently
senntive for accurate work. Euctrkal thermometen are now
generally employed on account of their superior sensitiveness, and
also on account of the greater facility <A adaptation for the require*
roents of each particular experiment. The most familbr instru-
ment b M. Mdloni's thermopile, which b built up of a number of
small ban of antimony and bismuth, or other allo^ of h^h thermo-
electric power, arranged in the form of a cube with alternate junc-
tions on o|)posite fs^es. When connected to a galvanometer of
suitable resistance, thb arrangement gives a high degree of seosi>
tiveness on account of the multiplication of couples, but owing
to the large mass of metal involved in its construction it takes a
considerame time to acquire a steady state. This defect has been
remedied In the radiomfcrometer of C. V. Boys {PM. Train., 1888,
180 A, p. 159) by employing a single junction attached to « small
'disk of very thin copper. The free ends of the minute ban forming
the couple are connected to a loop of thin copper wire suspended
by a fine quaru fibre between the poles of a magnet. Thb arrakige*
ment forms a very delicate galvanometer and ^vca the maximum
sensitiveness attainable with a single couple, since all t
connecting wires are avoided. It I '
more dead-beat in action than the < ,
the disadvantage that it most be set up permanently on a steady
support and the radbtion brought to it in a boriaontal direction.
An instrument of similar delicacy b the radiometer, the action of
which depends on the repubive etiect of the residual gas in a nearly
perfect vacuum on a delicately balanced vane suqiended by n fine
fibre. An instrument of tlus type was first construaed by Sir
Willbm Crookcs (see RADlomTBa) ; the instrvoient was applied
to radbtion measurements, and its sensitivenem greatly irajpnyved
by E. F. Nichols. It requires a very steady mounting, like the
radiomicrometcr, but has the additional ddeet that the radbtion
must be introduced through a window, whicb may give rise to
selective absorption. Other varieties of thermopile, in whkh the
sensitive parts are constructed, as in Boys' cadiomicrameter, ao as
to have a very smdl capacity, but are connected like the ordinal^
pile to a separate gahranomtter, have been employed by Lord
Roase for dbservatkma of lunar heat and by W. H. Julina and
Callendar for the solar corona.
In cases where the radiation can be concentrated on a very
small area, such as the receiving dnk of the radtomicrometer. the
thermoelectric method b probably the moat sensitive. But if
there b no restriction as to the area of the reodving surface, con-
sklerable advantage may be gained in convenience oTmanipubtion.
without k»s of sensitivencas, by theelectiic nsistmnce method.
;le couple, since all unnecessaiy
b incomparably quicker and
i ordinary thermopue, but haa
An instrument of this type was first employed by S. P. Langley
(Proe. Amer. Aeadi>, 1881, f6, p. 342) under the name of the bolo-
meter, by which it has sfaioe been known. The sensitive suifaM
is made to the form of a blackened grid of thin metallic foil, gew'
rally platinum oonted with pbtinum black, connected in one 01 f
«38
THESMOPHOMA.
wishing to see whether Theseus was really the aoa of Poseidon,
flung his ring into th*^ sea. Theseus dived and brought it up,
together with a golden crown, the gift of Amphitrite. On the
return voyage the ship touched at Nazoa^ and there Theseus
abandoned Ariadne. He landed also at Delos, and there he
aod his comrades danced the crane dance, the complicated
movements of which were meant to imitate the windings of the
Labyrinth.^ In historical times this dance was stiH danced by
the Delians round a homed altar. Theseus had promised
Aegeus that, if he returned successful, the black sail with which
the fatal ship always put to sea should be exchanged for a
white one.* But he forgot his promise; and when Aegeus
from the Acropolis at Athens descried the black sail out at sea,
he flung himself from the rock and died. Hence at the festival
which commemorated the return of Theseus there was always
weeping and lamentation. Theseus now carried out a politiod
revolution in Attica by abolishing the semi-independent powers
of the separate townships and concentrating those powers at
Athens, and he instituted the festival of the Panathenaea,*
as a symbol of the unity of the Attic race. Further, according
to tradition, he instituted the three classes or castes of the
cupatrids (nobles), geomori (husbandmen), and demiurgi
(artisans). He extended the territory of Attica as far as the
isthmus of Corinth.
He was the first to celebrate in their full pomp the Isthmian
games in honour of Poseidon; for the games previously insti-
tuted by Hercules in honour of Melicertes had been celebrated
by night, and had partaken of the nature of mysteries rather
than of a festival. Of Theseus's adventures with the Amazons
there were different accounts. According to some, he sailed
with Hercules to the Euxine, and there won the Amazon
Antjope as the meed of valour; others said that he sailed on
his own account, and captured Antiope by stratagem. There^
after the Amazons attacked Athena. Antiope fell fighting on
the side of Theseus, and her tomb was pointed out on the
south side of the acropolis. By Antiope llieseus had a son,
Hippolytus. On the death of Antiope, Theseus married
Phaedra. She fell in love with her stepson Hippolytus, who,
resisting her advances, was accused by her to Theseus of having
attempted her virtue. Theseus in a rage imprecated on his
son the wrath of Poseidon. His prayer was answered: as
Hippolytus was driving beside the sea, a bull issuing from the
waves terrified his horses, and he was thrown and killed. This
tragic story is the subject of one of the extant plays of
Euripides.1
The famous friendship between Theseus and Pirithous, king
of the Lapiths, originated thus. Hearing of the strength and
courage of Theseus, Pirithous desired to put them to the test.
Accordingly he drove away from Marathon some cows which
belonged to Theseus. The latter pursued, but when he came
up with the robber the two heroes were so filled with admira-
tion of each other that they swore brotherhood. At the
marriage of Pirithous to Hippodamia (or Deidamia) a fight
broke out between the Lapiths and Centaurs, in which the
Lq;>iths, assisted by Theseus, were victorious, and drove the
^ The Ostiaks of Siberia have an elaborate crane dance, in which
the dancers are dressed up with skins and the heads of cranes
(P. S. Palbs, Reise durch versckiedene Provinsen des russiscken
lUkhSj 111. 1778).
. ' So. too. the ship that sailed annually from Theasaly to Troy
with ofi^erings to the shade of Achilles put to sea with sable sails
(Philostratus, He.'oica, xx. 3$). The ship that was to brincr Iseult
to the mortally wounded Tnstram was to hoist a white sail if she
was on board, a black sail if she was not. The black sails recur
in the modem Greek venion of the tale of Theseus. Cf. AHaiick
Researekes, ix. 97.
* Besides the Panathenaea Theseus is 8£ud to have instituted
the festival of the Sytwkia or Mdoikia, Wachsmuth ingenuusly
suppo!^ that the latter festival commemorated the kxaJ union in
a single city of the separate settlements on the Acropc^ and its
immediate neighbourhood, while the PanaUienaea oommemorated
the political union of the whole of Attica (C. Wachsmuth, Di€
Stadt Atkeu im AiUrtknm, 1874. p. 453 sq.).
• •'T^'^seus is also said to have taken part in the Acgooautic
and the Calydooian boar-huot.
CenUnrs out of the eountiy. Theseus and Pirithous now
carried off Helen from Sparta, and when they drew lots for her
she fell to the lot of Theseus, who took her to Aphidnae, and
left her in charge of his mother Aethra and his friend Aphidnus.
He now descended to the lower world with Pirithous, to help
his friend to carry off Proserpine. But the two were caught and
confined in Hades till Heracles came and released Theseus.
When Theseus returned to Athens he found that a sedition
had been stirred up by Menestheus, a descendant of Erechtlieus,
one of the old kings of Athens. Failing to quell the outbreak,
Theseus in despair sent his children to Euboea, and after
solemnly nursing the Athenians sailed away to the island of
Scynis, where he had ancestral estates. But Lycomedes, king
of Scynis, took him up to a high place, and killed him by
casting him into the sea. Long afterwards, at the battle of
Marathon (490 b.c), many of the Athenians fancied they saw
the phantom of Theseus, in full armour, charging at their bead
against the Persians. When the Persian war was over the
Delphic oracle bade the Athenians fetch the bones of Theseus
from Seyms, and lay them in Attic earth. It fell to Cimon'a
lot in 469 BjC. to discover the hero's grave at Seyms and bring
back his bones to Athens. They were deposited in the heart
of Athens, and henceforth escaped slaves and all persons in
peril sought and found sanctuary at the grave of him who in
his life had been* a champion of the oppressed. His chief
festival, called Theseia, was on the 8th of the month Pyanepsion
(October 3ist), but the 8th day of every other month was also
sacred to him.*
Whatever we may think of the historical reality of Theseus, his
legend almost certainly contains recollections of historical events,
e.f. the 9wouttaiU$, whether by this we understand the pdlitical
oentralixation of Attica at Athens or a local union of previously
se] ' ' **- " ' •'•- — "^he birth of Theseus
at nian family or tribe.
W >etweett Athena and
Pc Athens, for Theseua
Lt Ionian god.
TI
g;
great
&edby
some modern
h of the acropolis at
as long supposed to
eseus reposed. But
i conjecture. There
emples or shrines of
IS found one of them
eseus is the life by
er writers; see also
ed the sources from
Eriieves that his chief
Iter mainly followed
serves some features
ut for the Minotaur
e Bemhard SchmMt.
77). p. 118 sq..
may be mentioned:
Kausel, De Tkesei
e Tkesd rebus testis
(Dorpat, 1892): see
pp. S81-608: J. E.
tent Atkens (1890);
[nann*s Lekrbuch der
■306; A. Baumcister,
THE5M0PH0RIA, an ancient Greek festival, celebrated by
women only in honour of Demeter Qiat*o4>^pot. At Athens,
Abdera, and perhaps Sparta, it lasted three days. At Athens
the festival took place on the xxth, 12th and x3th of the month
•The Athenian festhral in October^populailY supposed to corn*-
roemorate the return of Theseus from Crete, is mterestin|[, as some
of its features are IdentKal with those ol harvest-festivals still
observed in the north of Europe. Thus the eiresiini, a branch
of olive wreathed with wool and decked with fruits, bread, &c..
which was carried in procession and hung over the door of the
house, where it was kept for a year, is the ErtUemai (Harvest-may)
of Germany. See W. Mannhardt. Antike Wold- und FeldKulte
(1877), p. 213 sq.
• See ErlSukrnder TesU to the Karkn vou Attika (Berlin. 1881).
i. p. 37 sq.
THESMOPHORIA
839
Pyftaepdoa (uUir^stta an^ a6th October), the fixst day being
ddlcd Anodos (ascent),- or, according to others, Kathodos
(descent), the second Nesleia (fast), and the third KalUgeneia
(fair-bom).' If to these days we add the Thesmophoria, which
were celebrated on the lotb ait Halimus, a township on the
coast near Athens, the festival lasted four days.* If further we
add the festival of the Slenia, which took place on the 9th,
the whole festival lasted five days.* The Sterna are said by
Pbotius to have celebrated the return of Dezneter from the
lower world (Anodos), and the women railed at each other by
night.* The Thesmophoria at Halimus seem to have included
duices on the beach.* The great feature of the next day (the
Anodos) is generally assumed to have been a procession from
Halimus to Athens, but this assumption seems to rest entirely
on an interpretation of the name Anodos, and it loses all pro-
bability when we observe that the day was by others cadled
Kathodos." Probably both names referred to the descent ol
Demeter or Persephone to the nether world, and her ascent
from it.' The next day Kestcia, was a day of sorrow, the
women sitting on the groimd and fasting.* As to what took
place on the KalUgeneia we have no information.* Nor can we
define the time or nature o( the secret ceremony called the
" pursuit," or the " Chalridian pursuit," and the sacrifice called
the "penalty.""
During the Thesmophoria (and for nine days previously, if
Ovid, Ud.f X. 434f '^ right, and refers to the Thesmophoria)
the women abstained from intercourse with their husbands,
and to fortify themselves strewed their beds with Aptus castus
and other plants. The women of Miletus strewed their beds
with pine branches, and put fir-cones in the sanctuaries of
Demeter.** Whether unmarried women were admitted to the
festival seems doubtful^ in Lucian's time it would appear that
>IOr, mother of a fair dauaktcr, Ijk. Persephone.] Sdiol. on
Aristosh., Tkumo^k»rwMSiae, 80 and 58s; Diog. Lai»t.. ix. 43:
Hcsycnius, s.v. r/w^>fot (the reading here is uncertain) and
lnS«f; Atciphcon, iii. 39: Athenacus. vii. 307 f. Plutarch
..... .. " , 30) states that the Nesteia took place on the 16th
Mt fa this he ttairif alone.
riitoph., Tkesm., So; Pbotius. lex.. s.v. Ow^o^epfoir
^^ ^ (where Naber shoukl not have altered the MSb nading
r into t<0; Hcsychius, s.v. r^ni Ovfo^ofitum.
* Sehot on Amtof*., Thesm.. 834.
* Photms. IsM*, &v. wr^mAi cr. ApoUodonis, i. 5. 1.
■ Plut.. Schm, 81 for this passage probably refers to the Thtsmo-
phoria, the Cape Cdias mentboed being near Halinus (see ErldU'
lender Text to the Karten von Auikc, u. i sq.). The Thesroophorion
at Hatimtis is mentioned by Pausanias (t. 31, i).
•HmicUub (S.V. 4Mrfot) and the Schol. on Arist.. TUsm.. ^5.
sttppose that the day was so called because the women ascended to
the Thesroophorion. which (according to the icholiast) stood on a
height. But no ancient writer mentions a procession from Halimus.
For the name Knthain, see Scfaol., loc. cit.\ Photius, Lot., s.v.
9^ m*9plm ifkpuk f. For the sutement that at one part of the
intival (oonunooly aasumed. by the writers who accept the state-
ment, to be the Anodos) the women carried 00 their heads the
" boohs of the lav," we have only the authority of the scholiast
on Theocritus, iv. 25, who displays his ignorance by describing
the wonaa sps vifgins (see bebw). and saying that they went in
pracesnon to Eleusia The sutement may therefore be dismissed
as an etymological fiction. Aristophanes, Eccks.t 232, is no evidence
for the book-carrying.
'The Boeotian festival of Demeter, which was held at about
the same time as the Athenian Thesmophoria. and at which the
smisrs (pee bek>w) were opened, is distmctly stated by Plutarch
{pt Is. a Osir., 69) to have been a mourning for the descent
(Kathodos) of Persephone.
■ Plut., Dem^ 30; Id., Ve Is. et Ofir., 69.
* fit was a day of holiday and rcjoidog.]
"Hesychius, s.v. «htm« [perhaps the pursuit of Persephone];
Suidas, S.V. xa>*^i*ii' Uu/itM [according to whom, the prayers
of the women at the fhesmophoria caused the flight of the enemy
to Chakis); Hesychius, a.v. |>0ifa. For flight and pursuit as
pans of fcUgious ceremonies, cf. Plutarch, QumtsL Craec.f 38,
QuM$$. Rom., 63. De Drf. Orac., 15: Aelian, Nai. Am., xii. 34: Pau-
sanias. I 24. 4. viii. SM 3; Diodoras, i. 91; Lobeck. Ath^pkamus
(1829). p^ 676; Marquardt, SltatsmrwaUnni, and ed. (1885).
111333.
*^Aelian« Nai. AtL, u. 26; Schol. on TUoer.t iv. 35; Hesychius
S.V. M9L»pa0; f*liny. N. //.. 34« 59 : Dioscorides. L 135 (i34* cd.
Spmigel); SdhoL on Nicaoder. Tier., 70 sq. ; Galen, xi. to8. cd.
KQhn; SCeph. Byx.. s.v. MOfrss.
they were.^* The women of each deme (township) elected two
married women of their number to preside over them at the
festival; and every married man in thie township who poaiessed
property to the value of three talents had to provide a feast
for the women on behalf of his wife.** During the festival the
women seem to have been lodged by twos in tents or huts,
probably erected within the lacred predncta of the Thesmo-
phorion.*^ They were not allowed to eat the seeds of the
pomegranate or to wear garlands of floweis.** Prisoners were
released at the festival,** and during the Nesteia the law-courts
were closed and the senate did not meet.^ Aiistophanes'a
play on the festival sheds little light on the mode of its
celebration.
At Thebes Thesmophoria were celebrated in summer on the
acropolis (Cadmeia); at Eretria during the Thesmophoria the
women cooked their meat, not at fires, but by the heat of the
sun, and they did not invoke KaUigenda (which seems to mean
that they did not celebrate the last day of the festival); at
Syracuse, during the festival, cakes oiled mytfm, made of
sesame and honey in the shape of pudenda muliehria, were
handed round.** Agrigentum, Ephesus and Dryme, ip Phods,
had also their Thesmophoria***
The above was nearly all that was known about the Thesmo-
phoria down to 1870. In that year E. Rohde published in the
Kkeiuisckes Musnm, n.a, xxv., p. 548 sq., a schotton on Lucian
(Dial. MtrHr., it i), which he discovered in the Vatkan MS.
Palatinus 73. and which furnishes some curious- details about the
Thesmophoria. It also explains two obscure and corrupt passages
of Clemens Alexandrinus and Pausanias. the true mcantngof which
had been divined by Lobeck (AgfaopkamuSt p. 838). The sub-
stance of the Bcholion is this. When Persephone was carried off
Iw Pluto, a swineherd called. Eubuleus was herding his swine at
the spot, and his herd was engulfed in the chasm down which
Pluto had vanished with Persephone. Acconlmgly at the Thesmo-
phoria it was customary, in memory of Eubuleus. to fling pigs into
the " chasms of Demeter and Persephone." (These " chasms "
may have been natural caverns or perha^» vaults. The scholiast
speaks of them also as adyta and sMfaroL*) In these chasms or
adyta there were supposed to be serpents, which guarded the adyta
and consumed most of the flesh of the pigs that were thrown
in. The decayed remains of the flesh were afterwaids fetched by
women called " drawers " (anilelnai), who. after obsorving rules di
ceremonial purity for three days, descended into the caverns, and.
frightening away the serpents by clapping their hands, brought up
the remains and placed them on the altan.*^ Whoever got a
portk>n of this decayed flesh and sowed it with the seed in the
** L4icttn, DiaL Mtretr., iL I. On the other hand, we read in
Strabo (i. 3. 30) of virgins at Alponus ascending a tower as ^wc-
tators OtsrA M«r) of the Thesmof>horia. which would see^a to
imply that they dkl not partidpate in it.
» isaeus, De Cironu Hered,, lo; Id., De Pyrrki Hered., 80.
*• Aristoph.. TkesM., 624, $58, with the Schol. ad IL As to the
custom of camping out at fe^ivals, Plutarch (Quaest. Comtir., iv.
6. 3) compares the Jewish Feast of Tabernacles with the Creek
Dk>nysia; from which we may perhaps infer that the worshippers
camped out at the Dionysia. Cf. J. Cumilla, BisUrire de FOrinofue,
L p. 356 sq. [1758I.
uQenLAIcx., ProUep., ch. IL [p. 16, ed. Potter]; Schol. on
Sophodes. Oed. CoL, 681.
* MarcelUnus 00 Herraogenes, in Rketore* Craeci, ed. Walz, iv.
463; Sopater, Utid., viii. 67.
''Aristoph., Tkesm., 80. The word rpini seems to mean the
Nesteia, as the Schol. ad I. takes it. That the " middle day " was
the Nesteia we know from Athenacus. vii. 307 f.
" Xenophon, HeUen., v. ^- 29; Plutarch, QHoesL Cr., 31 ; Athen*
us, xiv. 647a.
**Polyaenus, v. I, x; Herodotus, vl. 16; Pausanias, x.
33.11.
* C. T. Newton discovered in the sanctuary of Demeter and the
Infernal Deities at Cnklus a chamber which may have been one
of the megara referred to by the scholiast. It contained bones of
aeua>, xi
«»Pol
hr ^.Tfloiif (186^). ii.
NympkarMm. 6) tb-
p. 180 sq. Araoraing to Porphyry {De Antra Nym^nmm, 6]
Infernal Deities haa nurraM. as the Olympian had temples,
the sacrificial piu of the former co r responded to the alui
the latter.
*■ Compare the functioasof the twoArvepboroi at Atheas fl^
L 27* 3)- For scrpeBts inconnesion with Demeler -
alurr
B.1.9-
$40
THESPIAE—THESPIS
ground wu supposed tbereVy to ttaire a fdod crop.* The rest
of the tdiolion is obacune. and perhaps corrupt, but the following
seems to be the sense. The ceremony above described was called
the anetophoria (the carrying; of thinga which must not be spoken
of], and was supposed to exercise the same quickening and (ert»li»ng
influence on men as on fields. Further, along with the pigs, sacred
cakes made of dough, in the shape of serpents and of phalli, were
cast into the caverns, to ^mbouae the productivitv of the earth
and of man. . Braaciies oc pioea wot thrown ia> for a aimilar
leason.
The custom described b this Important scho&on is dearly the
same as that referred to by Oemens Ahexandrinus {Protrep., ch. it.)
(p. 14, ed. Potter] and Pauaanias (is. 8,.i). From the latter we
. Uaxn that the pigs were sucking piga. and from the Conner (if we
adopt Lobeck's emendation jtniUpots {Smat for tttfapUt^tt) that
they were thrown in alive. From Pausanias we may further per-
haps infer (though the passage is corrupt) that the remains of the
pigs thrown down in one year were not fetched up till the same
time next year (cf. Pbus., z. 52, 14). The questwo remains. At
what pmnt of the Thesmophoria did the ceremony described by
the scholiast on Ludan take place? Robde thinks that it formed
Srt of the ceremonies at Halimus, his chief ground being that
cmena (Prolrep., 34) and Amobius {Ado. Gentes, v. 38) mention
l^aUi in oonnexioii with the " mysteries at Haliimni "; but it u
not certain that these mysteries were the Theamopheria. The
legend of Eubuleus seems to show that the oeremony commemo*
rated the descent of Persephone to the nether world; and, if we
are right in our interpretation of the name Kathodos as applied
to the first day of the Thesmophoriabroper, the ceremony described
woukf naturally fall on that day. rurther, if our interpreution of
Pausanias is correct, the same day must have witnessed the descent
ltd' the living pia and the ascent of the rotten pork of the previous
year. Hence the day might be indifferently styled Kathodos or
Aaodoa (" descent " or " ascent "); and so ia fact it was.
It is usual to interpret Thesmophorus " kiwgiver " and Thesmo-
phoria " the feast of the lawgiyer.'* But the Greek for " lawgiver "
IS not Thesmophonis but Thesmothetes (or Nomothctes, when
momos displaced ikesmos in the sense of " law "). If we compare
Buch names of festivals as Oschophoria, Lampadephoria» Hydno-
phoria, Scirophoria (" the carryings of grapes, of torehes, of water,
of mnbrellas") wita the corresponding Oschopbonis, Lampadc
phonis. Hydrophorus, also Thalbphonis and Kanephonis, we can
scarcely help concluding that Thesmophoria must originallv have
meant in the literal and pbysicai sense the carryihg of the iMtsmai,
and Thesmophonis the person who so carried them; and, in view
of the oeremony disckwed by the scholiast on Lneian (compared
with the analogous ceremony observed by the Arrephoroi at Athens),
we are stronpy tempted to suppose that the women whom he
calb Antktriai may nave been ano known, at one time or other,
as Thesroophofbi. and that the thesmn wcfe the sacra whkh they
carried and depodted on the altar. The word wonld then be used
in its literal sense, " that which b set down." How the name
Thesmophonis dtouM have been transferred to the goddess from
her ministers is of course a difficulty, which is hardly disposed of
' r pointing to the epithets Amallophorus (" sheaf-bearing ") and
. eHophorus (" apple-bearing *'), wlUch were applied to men aa well
as to the goddess.
As to the origin of the Thesmophoria, Herodotus (B. 171) asserts
%
that they were introdu(»i into Greece from Egypt by the daughters
of Danaus; while, according to Plutarch (^fafm«n<r, p. 55, ed.
Dflbner {Fraf . Inceria, 84I), the feast was introduced into Athens
by ()rpheus the Odrysian. From thete statements we can only
infer the similarity of the Thesmophoria to the Orphic rites and
to tiie Egyptian representation of the sufferings of Osiris, in con-
nexion with which Plutarch mentions them. The Thesmophoria
would thus form one of that class of rites, widely spread in Western
Asia and in Europe, in which the main feature appears to be a
lamentation for the annual decay of vegetation or a rejoicing at its
revivaL This seems to have been the root, e.e., of the lamentations
for Adonis and Attls. See W. Mannhardt, Antike WoU- vnd
FM'KidU, p. 364 sq.
On the Tnesroophoria, see Meurrfus, Graecia Feriata, p, 151 sq.;
L. Prcllcr, Demeter und PerseplUnu (1837)^0. 335 sq., Gnech.Myth.;'
I3l, i p. 639 sq.; Fritxsche's ed. of the Tlissmcphoriaatsae (1838),
p. 577 sq.; Aug. Monunsen, Heoriologie (1S64), p. 287 sq.; Rhein'
tsckes Museum, xxv. (1870). p. 548; Gautte Arehiohgique (1880),
p. 17; Andrew Lang, '^ Demet ' "' " *
Century, April 1887; J. G,
:er and the Pig,", in NineteaUk
Frazer, G<ftdeH Bough, iL 44; J. £.
1 This, aa Andrew Lang has pointed out, resembles the Khood
custom of buryins the fl^ of the human victim in the fields to
fertilize them. Ttie bumaa victim was with the Khonds, like the
pig with the Greeks, a sacrifice to the Earth goddess. See UtmoriaU
^Senke i:i India ... 0/ Majt^ S. C Uacphenou, ed. William
Maa>her8oo (1865), p. 129.
* Reading lM^&XXovlr^ with Ronde, for Xm^hptuvt. G>rapare
rho n*<tom of Miletus $upru. The pine-tree played an important
•^•^ worship of Cybele. Cf. Marquaidt, Sltakoemaliitmi
Harrison, PreiegMuna U the Study of Creek ReiigiffH (iQC^); ami'
especially the <nhaustive anicles by L. C. Purser in SmitrTs Die*
tionary of Antiquities (ed. 3> 1891) and by F. Lenormant (on Ceres)
in Daicmbeis and SagUo, Ds rt i ^i i aoiri aes Antiquilis.
(J. G. Fr.; X.)
mSPIABL an andot Creek dty of Boedtia. It stood on
levd grotmd oommanded by the low raoge of bills which runs
eastward Atom the foot of Motmt Helicon to Thebes. The deit y
most worshipped at Thespiae, according to Pausanias, was
Eros, whose primitive image was an unwrougbt stone. The
town contained many works of art, among them the Eros of
Praxitdes, dedicated by Phtyne in her native place; It was
one of the most famous stalijes in the andent world, and drew
crowds of people to Thespiae. It was carried off to Rome by
Cah'gula, restored by Claudius, and agahi carried off by Nero.
There was also a bronze statue of Eros by Lysippus. The
Thespians also worshipped the Muses, and celebrated a festival
in their honotir in the sacred grove on Mount Hdicon. Remains
of what was probably the andent dtadel are stiU to be seen,
consisting of an oblong or oval line of fortification, solidly and
regularly bnilt. The adjacent ground to the east and south is
covered with foundations, bearing witness to the extent of the
ancient dty. The neighbouring village Eremokastro, on higher
ground, was thought by Ulrichs to be probably the site of the
ancient Ceressus. In 1882 there were discovered, about 1200 yds.
east of Eremokastro, on the road to Arkopodi (Lcuctra), the
remains of a poiyandrion, including a colossal stone h'on. The
tomb dates from the 5th century B.C., and is probably that of
the Thespians who fdl at Plataea, for those who fell at Thermo-
pylae were buried on the field.
History. — ^Thespiae figures diiefly in history as an enemy of
Thebes, whose centralidng policy It had all the more to fear
because of the proximity of the two towns. During the Pexsian
invasion of 480 b,c. ft stood almost alone among Boeotian
cities in rejecting the example of treason set by the Thebans,
and served the national cause with splendid devotion. Seven
hundred Thespians accompanied Lconidas to Thermopylae and
of their own free will shared his last stand and dolructioB.
The remaining inhabitants, after seeing tlieir dty burnt down
by Xerxes, furnished a fbrce of 1800 men to tl^e confederate
Greek army at Plataea. In 434 bx. the contingent which the
Thespians had been compelled to furnish sustained heavy losses
at Delium, and in the next year the Thebans took advantage
of this temporaiy enfeeblement to accuse thdr ndf^boots of
friendship towards Athens and to dismantle their walls. In
4x4 they interfered again to suppress a democratic rising. In
the Corinthian war libespiae sided with Sparta, and between
379 and 372 repeatedly served the Spartans as a base against
Thebes. In the latter year they were reduced by the Thebans
and compelled to send a contingent to Leuctra (37 1)* It was
probably shortly after this battle that the Thebans used their
new predominance to destroy Thespiae and drive its people
into exile. The town was rebuilt at some later time. In
171 B.C., true to its policy of opposing Thebes, it sought the
friendship ol Rome. It is subsequently mentioned by Strabo
as a place of some size, and by Pliny as a free dty.
See Herodotus, v. 79, vii. ijs-hL sp; Thucydides, tv. 03, 133,
vi. 95 : Xenophon, Huiiniea, iv. vt.; rausanias, ix. 13. ^14, a,
2&^T, Strabo. ix. pp. 409-ro; B.'V. Head, Sistoria Numorum
(Oxford, 1887), pp. 479-8ot Leake, Tratds in Nortkem Greece,
ii. 470 sq.; Uodwell, Tour Ikrow^ Greece, i. 253; Burnan, Ceoir.
von Uriechenland, i. 237 sq.; Ulrichs, Rnsen «. ForsckungfH in
Criukenland, ii. 84 sq.; ITiMnT. d. deutsck. arckOol. InsL in Athen
(1879). pp. 190 «!•. «73 «!•; HAa«Ti«A »f» ««• '^r^plat (x88«).
pp. 65-74.
THESPIS (6th cent. b.c.\ Gre^ poet, of IcarUrin Attica,'
g^eraSy considered the inventor of tragedy, flouxished in the
time of the Pdsistratidae. According to. Bibgeaes LaCrtlui
(iii. 56), he introduced for the first time in the old dithyxambic
choruses a person distinct from the chorus, who conversed with
the leader, and was hence called tntpiHis i" answerer **).*
* Aooording to another catplanatfen, he was so called from npca^^
ing the words of another— toe poet or ooapoier.
THESSALONIANS, EPISTLES TO THE
»+t
Ws cUim to be.AiQuxkd aa the invoitor of tc^fedy in tbt true
leose of the term depends upon the extent to which this penon
was really an " actor " (ace Diama). Suldas gives the titles
(of doubUul authenticity) of several of his plays (not oonfiped
to the legends of Dionysus, but embcadog tht whole body of
heroic legends), but the fragments quoted in various writers as
from Thespis are probably forgeries by Heradeidea of Pontus.
The staUment of Horace {An FMiieat 976) that Theipis vent
round Attica with a cart, on which hia pUys were acted, is
due to confusion between %te origin ol tra^dy «nd coiqedy,
and a reminiscenoe of the scurrilous jests which it was cus^
tomary to utter from a waggon {ctui^Mr^H iiMbfi) at certain
religious festivals. A. and M. Ccotsct iHisUry tjf Grtek IMtra*
lure; £ng. tr., 1904),. who attach more importanoe to the part
played by Thespis in the development of tragedy, acoept the
testimony of Horace. According to them, Thespis^ actor mul
manager, transported his apparatus on t> cart to the deme in
which he intended to produce his dram«» formed and trained a
chorus, and gave a rcpreKUUtion la public.
See Dramas and W. Christ. Grimkitdm IMlenhmt^sdikkk
THBSSAUUnANS. EPISTLBS TO THK, two books ol the
Kew Testament. The Christian community in Thesaaloaica
(mod. Salooica) was founded by Pau}, Silvanus and Timothy*
shortly before the visit to Athena and Corinth. The Gospal
preached covered not only the general Chriatian oonvictloBS as
to monotheism, belief in Jesus as Messiah I«rd, and the ini-
prnding judgment, but also the spwafiotUly Pauline doctrine of
the indwelling Christ or Spirit, the eariicflt of acquittal at the
Day of the JLord and of life with Christ for ever. It is the
same GoqkI as that preached in GaUtia, in spite of the fact
that the word " justification ** docs not appear in the Theiaa^
Ionian letters (^. 3 These. L ft t). The eonwesta, inainly
Gentiles and chiefly manual labourers (many of whom, acoocd-
ing to the episodical narrative of Acts xvii, had been already
attached more or less loosely to Judaism), wffeeed perseoitioo
Isom the beginning at the hands of their fellow-oouatiy]ne&.
Soaae of them, moreover, owing partly to this persecution, but
mainly to the belief that the Lord was soon to return, gave up
work» thus creating most of the dif&culties with which Paul, in
these letters, has to cope. Forced to leave Thessalonica after
a brief sojourn (how long is uncertain), Paul hasfenfid to Athena^
from which place he sent Timothy back to Thessalonica, being
himself uxiiable to go, much as he longed to set his converts^
From Athens, Paul went on to Corinth* where Timothy joined
him, bringing good news about the Thessahmian converts,
espedaUy about their endurance under aiHction, and bringing
Ekewise, as Rendd Harris has suggested, ^ letter from the leaders
of the church. The report waa, however, not wholly favourable.
The sudden departnie of Paul« and his fadnie to returm, had been
misinterpireted. Some weie fosfaraathig that Paul bad praadied
with intent to deceive and as a pretext to cover impure designs
(x These. iL 5); sone, perhaps the ssase people, dimgsnflng
Paul's injunctioa (a Tbess. iiL to), bad lerasinad idle, had fsHen
into dtunken faafaita (1 Thess. r. 7), had been tempted to revert
to ^le impure worship of the heathen gods (x These, ir. 3 ff.),
and, in their lack of fonds,had dfwanrird, spmking in the spirit
(cf. Did4cii xl. xi), money from the drarch officers, thus dis>
tnrfamg the peace of the church, and cauriag the soberer minds
to qoestion the validity of spiritual gifu (t Thess. iv. 11 flf.,
W. 13 ff.).
Paul's reply, the Flzst Epistle to the Thesnionisns, written
Imai Corinth hx aa 53 or 48, Is as tactful ss Philemoa sad as
mm personal as Galatiaas. In the first thsee chapters, he
fisMl^ iwiews his relation to the church bom the beginning,
commending highly the reception accorded to the Go^d aiid
to messengers, and meeting the inrinuations sJresdy alluded
to by reminding the readers that, although sa an apostle he
was entitled not only to special respect but to an honorarium,
yet he earned hia own living and knred them as a father. As
to his failure to return, he explained that it was not his own
fault. Be watted to go back but Satan hindered hlm4 £vcft
now, as he wiSta, he is praying that, he skay soon sefr them
face to face. After the prayer, he takes up the points in which
thcor had shown want of faith. To those who are tempted by
the heathen worship, he points out that Chriatian oonsecration
is something ethics!, to be won only in the power of the conse-
crating Spirit. Reelect for one's wife is an antidote to this
entioenent, and marriage with pure motives a safeguard against
adulteqr. Passing on toother points, he urges that there would
be 00 schism in love of the brethren, if the idlers would work
and mind their own business U These, iv. i-xa). There is no
advantage at the Paroosia of the living over the dead, for
both siaaultaneottsly will meet the Lord* The desire for moae
sco n a t e information about times and seasons is unnwmwary^
for. their prnsent knowledge is aocutate enough, vis. that the
day Is to come suddenly and it is a day of destruction for the
wicked. The main thing for them is to be pmpsred for that
daar-(s Them. iv. x3rv. ix). .With the spedfic situation still in
nJnd, he adde his final iagunaioas. Respect your psesiding
offioecs, puipoeely called ** the labourecs»" and let there be
peaoe. Warn the. idJecs, enoounge thoae who sre impatient of
the Parottsta, and ding to those tempted by the heathen
eracship* In spite of. the temptation to avenge your pcm»>
outei% be patient with thesa, return good for evil, eaempKf yxng
to att what is the Christian good. In.spite of affliction, let
there be joy, prayer and thanksgiving (s Thess. v. x«"x8>.
The fhsriimnta are to be respeeled, and at the aame time
tested (tAid. 19^2). A prnyer foe complete coosecmtion, a
diaigs that sU should hear the letter read (apparenUy the
lesders were tempted to neglea the idleo and the idlers had
thteatened not to listen to any epistolary communication iron
Paul), anda benediction bring the ^ter to an end iiM. S3-sS)»
Snch a letter, dominated aalt is by the spirit of the Paul we
knov^ and fitting nicely the recoverable situation, ia unqucs-
riooah^ genuine, and few there be.who deny it.
What effect this letter had, it ia impeasible fuUy to ssy.
Apparently, it did not quell the excitement for which the idlos
were largely responsible. Paul's discusaioix of the reladoa of
dead and Irving at the Paxpusia seemed insufficient. His rc^
fnsal to go farther into times and seeaons thnn.the statemcat
"^ the day oodaes as a thief In the night," is made the point of
departure for the kilers to assert; on the boriS of alleged spiritual
utterances, corroborated, to the dismay of the leaden, by a
r ef e ren c e to an aaStogrmous letter reckoned to the aoeount of
Paul, that " the day is presenL" The troubled leaders send
post-haste a letter to Corinth stating the situation and ssking
definite opinions as to the Patoosia and the assembling of the
saints. Paul is grievously disturbed, both because the. fictt
letter, in fais judgment, was dear, and because of the assoda»
rion of his authority with the anonymous letter. Only a short
interval hss elapsed, to be reckoned in weeks, when Paul, with
the first letter diadnctiy in mind and with a vivid recollection
of hia ocal teaching .on mooted poinu, hastena with Silvinus
snd Timothy to write the Second Epistle
In one kmg sentence of prayer and thanksgiving (s These. L
3«>xa>,. he insisu tactfully that their religious-ethical growth
mskes it his bounden duty to thank God, in spite of Uemt
their written demurrer, compels him indeed of his own ^n**^
motion to boast of their faith and endurance, qualitim which
are evidence of the Divine purpose to account them worthy of
the kingdom for which they, as they wrote, as well as he, srs
suffering. Suddenly remembering a Pharisaic Psalm, not unlike
in purport to one of the Psalms of Solomon, and admirably
adapted to his present purpose, namely, of oonuasting the fate
of the wicked with that of the righteous at the Parousia, he
quota it, makmg a few Christian touches in his own style
(3 Thess. L 6-30). Whereupon he prays, ss they too prayed 10
thdr letter, that God would deem them worthy of the calling,
and ensure them of the acquittal at the but day, by giving
them in the power of the Spirit that present life in the Spirit
which guarantees the intura life in Christ. Then, disre^uding
the request for more information about the asembling. of
which, he tUakSr he had ipdkca suffidently ia Us first letter*
842
THESSALY
he addresws hiouelf to the other cmestion of the " when " of
the Parotttta, supplementing what wu said in the fint leUcr,
but adding nothing to what he had already said orally in their
presence, and stoutly disclaiming all authority whatever for
the statement ** the day is present." Briefly and allusively, ia
language which has nothing specifically Christian in it and in
style similar to the fint chapter (verses 6-to), he recalls the
familiar story. The day does not come until the final revolt in
heaven and until the lawless one (the man of Uwleasness, the
son of Perdition) is revealed, which revelation eaanot happen>
until the controlling or restraining thing or person is removed.
Then, however, the tool of Satan will appear, but the Lord
will destroy him with the bxeath of his mouth and annihilate
him with thj majesty of his presence (a These, if. 1*1 1).
Following the formal order of the Fi»t Ep^e, he again thanks
God that his converts are chosen to salvation and prays that
they may have strength and obey his orders oral or written.
Even with a " finally," as fai the first letter, he is not quite
through, for the second point of the letter remains to be treated
*--the idlers. These, he says, must remember both his example
(he was never guilty of begging) and his precept (" if any man
will not work let him not eat "). They must work quietly end
eat their own food. Those who refuse to heed his written
orders are to be noted. The test of the genuineDeas of his
lettem is his autograph greeting (3 These. U. 13-^. 18).
The letter meets the known situation excellently. TheaeW
material, compared with the First Epistle, is the supplementazy
discussion of the time of the Parousia (a These. U. i ff.) and the
fuller treatment of the idlers (3 These, iii. i ff.), the pointe
about which the leaders sought advice. The st^ is Pauline
even in the adaptation of Jewish apocalyptic material to
Christian purposes. Indeed, the outline of the letter is
strikingly similar to that of the First Epistle, and many phrases
hold over. At the same time there is & fieedom of style sug-
0e8ting not the imitator but the same author. And above all,
especially in the treatment of the idlers, the letter reveals a
knowledge of the situation which is even more explicit than
that of the First Epistle. On such groonda, together with the
excellent external attesution, it is probaUe, as recent writers
hold {4.g. Zahn, Wohlenberg, Haraack, JQlicher, Findlay,
Askwith, Charles, Bacon, McGifieit, Mofiatt, Milligan, a of.),
that the letter is Paul's.
The objection to the Pauline Authorship fdt by the Tttbinffen
school may, for brevity's sake, be here disregarded. The
modem difficulties, expresMd mainly by recent (xennan scholan
(e.;. Wredj^ and Holumann and others), centre not in the un-
Pauline language or in the lack of the personal element, but in
the eschatobgy and Uie over-Pauline character of the langwagft
As to the first obSeaton, the eschatology, it is implied that the
section ii. x-i3 is scarcely an interpolation, since it b one of
the two main reasons for the letter; that the mstfriaJ of the
section is a distinct alluaioa to, if not a direct quotation of, a
definite bit of Jewish apocalyptic, even if we do not connect it,
as Bousset does, with a 80<alled Antidirist legend; that the
alleged hioonsistency between the esdrntoLogy of the First end
the Second ^istle does not exist, for in the first letter Paul
says not that the day is present, but that the day, when it
comes, comes suddmly " as a thief in the night," while in the
second letter he expressly denies the statement attr&uted to
him, namely, that " the day Is presenL" Wrede, in his briUiant
argument ai^hist the genuineness of the letter (Die Ecktkeii da
tweiten ThessaUmicherhritfes, 1903), indhics to admit that the
argument from eschatology is secondary.
As to the second objection, the over-Pauline chsrartft of. the
letter, an objection used with rigour by McGiffiert (whose artide
on these letters in the Bncy. BiUka is the most satisfactory
discussion known to the present writer), and renewed mde-
pendently by Wrede, it is to be admitted that the similarity of
the second to the first letter is striking, particularly in the
formal arrangement of the material. At the same time, the
"ices, both in arrangement and in the content of the
ices, ire not to be overlooked, as MeGiffert a&d after
him Wemle {Gdlt. gd. Am., 1905, pp. 34r-S») have Iwth
rightly maintained. Again there should be no disparagement
of the new material such as is to be foimd in Roltzmann's acute
discuasioa (Z. IT. T. W., igoi, pp. 9^-108). On the whole, the
peiplexing situation seems to be met on the assumption that
Paul writes the Second Epistle either with a letter from Thessa>
lonica before him, whkh itsdf suggested the main points of his
own epistle, or with a copy or a summary of that epistle before
him (cf. Zahn and McGiffert). ^
The alternative is forgery, as mtzmann, Wrede and Hott-
mann (Z. N. T. W., 1904, pp. 18-38) actually hold. The diffi-
culty with this hypothesa is that it does not explain so many
facts as the hypothecs of Pauline authorship. As it is im-
probable that the forger would write during the lifetime of
PaUl, the date has to be put either shortly after his death, or
with Wrede at the end of the century. But this late date
creates the ussuperaUe d^culty that ii!. x ff. ^ves a more
explicit account of the original sEtuatSon in Thessalomca
touching the idlers Chan dees the First Epistle. The purpose
moreover of the forgery could not be to <£scredit the First
Epistle as un-Pauline, for the alleged trouble is that the Second
Epistle is too Pauline. Hence the puipose is to eonect the
sUtements "Of the F^rst Xpistle. If, however, there is no in>
consistency between the two letters on the score of esduitology,
what Is the forger's purpose? The teadiing about premonitory
signs is not new to Ihessalofifca, but is assumed as hnown,
hence the allusive character of the second chapter. The stete-
ments in ii. 9 and iii. 17 are easQy explicable on the hypothesb
that the idlers found an anonymous letter and attributed it to
Paul, especially when they thonght, perhaps in good faith, that
the Spirit had indicated that the day is present. Finafly, the
forger handles Pattl's style with miraculous knowledge, not
only reproducing phrases fkom the first letter, but knowing
how to amend them to present puiposes with sfaigular natural-
ness. When it comes to putting Christian touches to a Jewish
fragment, the touches turn out to be uniquely PauUne, although
they are not obviously Pauline (e.f . i 6-10 " tfnp," ''dbey the
Gospel," ''was bdieved"). And even with the thought of
Paul, he is curiously at hodie. So certain is he of the substance
of Paul's thought, that he can reproduce it m a eondae sentence
without recourse to the word " justificatfon " (e.f. i ix). On
die whole, then, the rituatlon created by the literaxy relatfon of
the two letters is best met by the hypothec that Paul is the
author of the Second Epistle.
In addition to the literature mcMietaed under Cotxnsuwa,
ErtsTu TO TUr and the apedal liiemture akiady aaamd in this
article, rdcrence should be made to the ooounentariea on these
letters by EIUcoctXj8s8). JowettXi859), Eadie (1877), Hutchinsoa
(1883), Lightfoot (Notes, 1895). Dnimmond (1899). FindUy (189s
and 1904), Milfigan (1908), and Moffatt (1908); and by Schmidt
ZAcUcr (1894).
tnd 1904), Milfigan (1908). and Moffatt (1908): and
[i88i$). Zimmer (1889-53), Schmi«lel (iSa), ZAcI
Bonulmaon (i3m)> B. Wm (1896} and WofaSoberg (i<,.,,
'^ E. F.)
THB88ALY» n district of northera Greece, between Maoe-
donia and the more purely Hellenic eountriea towards the
south, and between the vpland regkm of J^Nms and the Acsean
Sea. It fdrma an iixeguhr square, caOending for about sixty
miles IA each direction, and this area, which is lor the most past
level, IS enckaed by vcU-marked boundariesr-by the Cambunian
Mountains on the north, and by Gthryi on the south, while on
ita leeatcm aide tuna the massive chain of Findus, whkh is
the backbone of this part of Greece, and towards the east Osaa
and Felkm atand in a cootinuoiu line; at the nocth-eaatem
angle is dymptis, the keystone of the whole mountain QrsteoL
The elevadon of some of the summitt In these ranges is con-
siderable, for three of the peaks of Pindus are over 5000 ft.,
and Olympus, Ossa and Pelion reach respectively the hei^
of 9790, 6398 and S3SO ft. The country that is cinntatned
within these limits is drained by a sfaigle river, the Pendui^
which, together with the water of iu
passes into the sea through the Vale of Tempck
On the north side of Thessaly there was an fanportaat pass from
Petra in Pieria by the western side of Olympus, debevchiag on the
^h
THETFORD
843
plaia aoftbvMd of LariMa; it «m by tU» thu Xmsm mttfMl,
^d we learn from Herodotus (viL 173) that, when the Greekt
oJKOvered the^existeooe of this passsfe, they save up aU thoughts
On the side of fipirvB the mate Uoe of cem-
ovsr that nait 01 Pindus which was_ called
deaoeaded the
ofttefeadtecTi
jMmicatipo pat __
fitount l.acmon, and deacendeJlhe upper vall^ of the Ptendus
to Aeginium in the north-west angle of Thetsaly. This was the
route by which Julius Caesar arrivd bcfoie the battle of Pharsalla.
Aaocher pass thtoogh the Pindus chate was that of Gomphi, farther
toothi by aseana of whidi there was communtratioii with the
An^raciaa GoU. The great southern pass was that of Coela,
which crosses Mount Otbrys nearly opposite Thermopylae. These
Thessalian passes were of the utmost importance to southern Greece,
as oommaading the appwachea to that part of the country.
Though Thessaly is the moat levul district of Graeoe, it doea not
present a uniform uabroksn surfacei but is eomposed of a number
of sections which open out into one another, divided by langea of
hBls. The prindpaf of these were called Upper and Lower Tbosaly,
die former comprising the western and south-western part, whin
contains the hi^wr coune of the Fleaeiaa and all thoae of its tribu-
taries that flow from the south-Hbe Eaipens, the Apidanus, the
Ooochonua and the Pamiaus; while the latter, which reaches
eastward to the foot of Ossa and Pfelion, b Inundated in parts at
certain seasons of the year by the Pendus, the flood-water from
which forms the lake Nessooia* and, when that is fall, escapes agate
and pours itself into the lake of Boebe. The chief city of the latter
of these districts was taiissa; and the two were separated fnun
one another by a bng «>ur, which runs southwards from the Cam-
bunian Mountains on the western side of that city. Agate, when
Thessaly, is entered from the south by the pam of Coela. another
plaitt, containing a aoiall lakey which waa formerly called Xynia^
mtervenes, and a line of low hills has to be crossed before tlM.town
of Thaumaki is readied, which from its commanding position over-
looks the whole of the upoer plain. The view from thb pomt has
been described by Livy m the folbwiag remarkable passage >—
" When the tmveller. m paming through the nigged districta of
Thessaly, where the roods are entangled te the windmgs of the
valleys, arrives at thb dty, on a sudden an immense levelexpanse^
resembling a vast sea, b outspread before him in such a manner
that the eye cannot easily reach the limit of the plains extended
btnaath.'* CnodL 4). To the north-east of this, where a porthm
of the great plain benna to run up into the mountainst the Plate
of PhamJia is formed, which b intersected by the river Enipeus;
and still farther te the same direction b the scene of another great
batttek Cynosrfyhalae. Thessaly was further subdividod into four
dbtricts, of whkh Pdaigkitb eoibaocd the lower phte of tha
Peneius, and Hestiaeotb and Thcssaliotb reapediiMly the "''^ —
and the aouthem portions of the upper plate; whde tb
I the fourth,
Phthioti^ whkh lies towards the soath«eart, was geogmphioally
act from the rest of the country, being sepanted wom it by
- inar feature of thb b * ~
Sinus K^ulf of Volo). a Undl
distinct
a watershed.
rom the rest of the country, being sepa n rted
The determining feature of thb b the pMasaeus
Itecked baste, eafanding from ftfaaae
s bead to Apbetae at its narrow outkt* where the
o, tumiiig at ri^ angles to its axb at the end of 1 ^
rs out a proj«ctu|; line of broken ridges, while on the opposite
at lU
Fklion,
throws . . „
side rise the heighu of Othrys. In the heroic age thb
of great importance. It was the birthplaoe of Greek aavlgatieo*
for thb seenui to be hnpUed te the story of the Argonauts, who
started from thb oetghooufhood te quest of the golden fleece.
From it the ^reat Achilles came, and, aocordin£ to Thucvdidcs
(L 5), it was the cariy hoaMof the Hellenic races.
"-Fh."
I centre of so many poetic legends, b at no great diataooe from
the modem Vokx Near that town abo, at a bter period, Demetrius
Poliorcetes founded the dty of Demetrias, which was called by
Philip V. of Macedott one of the three fetters of Greece, Chalcb
and Corteth bemg the other two^
Tie history of Thessaly b dosdy coimected with its geo-
graphy. The fertility of the tend offered a temptatioii to
invaders, and was thus the primary cause of the early migra'-
tions. It was thb motive which first induced the ThrtMHaiw
to leave their home in Epims and descend teto thb district,
and from thb moveinent ante the cxpubion of the Bocwtteiit
from Ame. and their settlement te the country sufaaequcntly
called Boeotb; while another wave of the same tide drove the
Dorians also southward,' whose migrations changed the face of
the Pdoponnese. Agate, thb rich soil was the natursl home
of a powerful aristocracy, such as the families of the Aleuadae
of Larissa and the Scopadae of Crannon; and the absence of
elevated positions was unfavourable to the foundation of dties,
which might have fostered the spirit of freedom and democracy.
The plains, also, were suited to the breeding of horses, and
consequently the force in which the Thessalian nation was
strong was cavalry, a kind of troops which has usually been
associated with oligarchy. The wealth and the semi-Hellenic
character of the people—for in race, as te feographical podUoo,
the TTif ilimii h <tf is teunnedliito piace bihretn tha nan*
HeOnk Macedootena and the Greeks of pure bloodr-CMfted
them to be wantiog te patriotism, to that at the timeof t|i«
PthUn wan we find the Ateitadae makihg common cause irtth
the enemici of Greece. When they were vnited thoy veie a
formidable power, bat, like other half^oiganiaed fommimitift»
th^y tddom oombiaed lor teng together,nuid ooDseqncBtfy they
ip^mmnrmA bQt littte tho fortottcs of the Greeks.
For several centuries during the ndddte agea Rwnanjan imnl-
pants formed so lajge a part of the popolation of llMisely
thit that dbtrict was called by the Byautiiie writcn Great
WallachteCMfv&hsyBltexN: the Jewbh tnveUer» BeiM<ttin o(
Tndda, who passed thxmigh the countfy in the tetter half of
the istb centuy, doKribet them at then oocnpyteg it. At the
pieaent day on^ a few colonies of that race remain, the prin-
ce of which are fbond on the watcn side of Olympas aad te
some of the goDgm of'PiBdus. The TwUah inhabitants were
settled in the iupet towna, and* here and there te the countiy
districts, the most important colony being those caUed Kooia^
rates, who were btonJBht from Konte te Aste Minor ihortSy
before the Uking of Constaatinopte, and pUnted tmder the
south-wot angle of Olympas^ Tho Greeks, however, form the
vast majority of the poputetkm, so much so that, even white
the country bdoi^ed to the Ottomans^ Greek was employed
as the offidal langoage. In soooRianoe with the ptovisfoBS of
the Berlte treaty, Tfewssaly was ceded to the Greeks by the
Piorte te i88x, and became a portion of the Hdlenic kingdom.
Stece that time the prosperity of the province has greatly
tecreased. The port of Volo, which b almost the only outlet
of the trade of the whole district, has become an important
town of 23,000 inhabitants, and daily commmiication by steamers
now exbts Between it and Athens. The teterior of the country
has abo been opened up by means of railways. One Ene runs
north-westwards from Volo by way of Velestlno (the andent
Pherae) to Larissa, which b situated on the Salambtte (Pendus),
and has a popolation of 18,000 soub, teduding sooo Jews.
The Greeks, Turks and Jews here Occupy different quarters d
the dty, but most of the Turkish inhabitants have now quitted
the d>untry, so that only four of the numerous mosques remain
in use. From Velestino another Ime branches off to the west
by Phersala (Pharsabs), Domokos (Thaumaki), Karditsa, and
Trikkala (TOka), to Kalabaka (Aeginium), where the upper
valley of the Sahunbria. b entered. In the nd^bourhood of
the last-named place, where the Cambunian chain of mountains
descends te steep predpices to theplain, are the Meteors (" mid-
air ") monasteries (see Meteoka).
BfBLiocfcAPHY.— W. M. Leake, Traods in Northern Greeu, AroU.
(London. 1835) ; A. Merikes. Mhnoire snr h PHion tt VOssa (Paris,
iflSS): C. Burdan, (koirapku von GritckenUmdy voL i. (LcipBig^
186a): H. F. Tooer. Tho HigH^nds of Tnrkoy, vol. ii. (London,
1869); A. Philippaon, ThtssaUen und Epinu (Berlte, 1807);
Baedeker's Gfcctr. y6 ed. (Leiprig, 1905}. (H. F. T.)
THBTFORO* a. market town and munidpsl borough of
England, mostly te the south-western parliamentary division
of Noriolk, but partly te the Stowmarket division of Suffolk,
91 m. N.N.E. from London by the Great Eastern railway.
Pop. (1901) 46x3. The town Ties te a level, fertile country at
the junctten of the river Thct with the Little Ouse. In the
time of Edward III. the town had twenty churches and eight
monasteries. There are now three churches~St Peter's, St
Cuthbert's and St Mary's— prtedpally of Perpendicular fltet
work; of these St Mary's, on the Suffolk side, b the largest.
There are a few monastic remains, the chief being two gate-
houses. The most important tdic of sntl^ty b the Castle
Hill, a mound rooo ft. te atomiferenoe and toe ft. te height*
The grammar school was founded in 1610. In Kteg Street b
the mansten-house occnpied as a hunting-lodge by Queen
Elisabeth and Jamea L The chief pabKc bnildtegs are a gild
haU and a mechanics' institute; there are several chsrities.
Brewing and tanning are carried on; and there are also manure
and chemical works, brick- and lime-kilns, flOttr^nOb and
agricuHural Implement works, engteeering works and iron
The Littte Our b navigabk for barges dewn to
-J
8+4
THETIS— THIAZINES
the Oicftt Cose; Thetford is ft snfingan bishopric in the
dioeete of Norwich. The town is govemed by a mayor,
4 aldermen, and xa ooondllon. Area, 7096 acres.
Eaiiy antiqvaxies identified Thetiord (Thcodford, Tetford,
Tefibrd) with Sitomagus, but modem research shows that there
is no conclusive evidoice of a permanent settlement before the
coming ol the Angles. 'Tradition teUs that Uffa, who probably
threw up the earthworks caDed the Castk Hill, esUblished the
ciq>ital of East Anglia hers about 575. Thetford owned a
royal mint4n the 0h century and was a flourishing town when
the Conqueror acquired it. Richard I. granted it to Hamelin,
Earl Warenne, and when his heirs failed, it merged in the
duchy of Lsncaster and so in the crown. About . 1290 its prin-
cipal officers were a mayor and coroner, afterwards assisted by
eight burgesses, whom Henry VUL increased to ten. Thetowa,
never very prosperous since the Cbnquest, had then fallen into
gvest decay, but the petitions of the buxgeases for a charter
Wete not heeded till 1573 when FJiraheth incorporated it under
a mayor and common coundL This cfaaxter, restored in 1691
after its surrender to Charles II., reraaiiied in force till 183$
when the borough was re-amstitated. Thetford returned two
members to parliament from 25 29 till its disfranchisement in
xB68. Its Saturday market, which certainly existed in the
X5th century, was gmnted by the charter of 1573 and also a
Magdalen fair (the aand of July). Fisheries were important in
the 13th century.
5^ A. L. Hunt. CafUaf nf Bast An^ia (1870); T. Martfn,
Bistory cf Tketfofd (1779).
.THETIS, in Greek mythology, daughter of Nereus, wife of
Peleus and mother of Achilles. The chief of the fifty Nereids,
she dwdt in the depths of the sea with her father and sisters.
When Dionysus leaped into the sea to escape from the pursuit
of Lycurgus, king of the Thxadan Edones, and Hephaestus was
flung out of heaven by Zeus, both were kindly received by
Thetis. Again, when Hera, Athena and Poseidon thieateaed
to bind Zeus in chaiils, she sent the giant Aegaeon, who delivered
him out of their hands. She was married against her will to
Peleus (q.v.; see also Anm.T.Tis). Thetis is used by Latin
poets simply for the sea. .
THEURIET* CLAUDE ADHlSlUR AKDRfi (1833-X907),
French poet and novelist, was bom at Marly-Ie^Roi (Seine et
Oise) on the 8th of October 1833, and was educated at Bar-Ie-
Due in his mother's province of Lorraine. He studied law in
Paris and entered the public service, attainiing the rank of
chef de bureau before his retirement in 1886. He published in
1867 the Chtmin d4s Ms, a volume of poems, many of which
had already appeared in the Retue da Deux Uondet^ Le lieu et
le ncify pohues de la tU rtdU (1874), Nos oiseamx (1886), end
other volumes followed. M. Theuriet gives natural, simple
pictures of rustic and especially of woodland life, and Thiopfaile
Gautier compared him to Jaques in the forest of Arden. The
best of his novels are those that deal with provincial and country
h'fe. Among them are: Le manage de Girard (1875); Raymande
(1877); Le fits Maugars (1879); La maison des deux Barbeaux
(1879); Sauvageonne (1880); Reine des bois (1890); Villa
tranquille (1899); Le manuscrit du chanoine {1^2). Theuriet
received in 1890 the prix Vitet from the French Academy, of
which he became a member in 1896. He died on the 23rd of
April 1907, and was succeeded at the Academy by M. Jean
Richepin.
See Emm. Besson, Andri Theuriet (1890).
THiVBNOT, JEAN BE (x633>i667>, French travcEer hi the
East, was bora in Paris on the x6th of June 1633, and received
his education in the college of Navarre. The perusal of works
of travel moved him to go abroad, and his circumstances per-
mitted him to please hin^If. Leaving France In 1652, he first
visited England, Holland, Germany and Italy, and at Rome
he fell in with D'Herbclot; who invited him to be his companion
' 'octcd voyage to the Levant. D'Herbelot was detained
^airs, but Th6venot sailed from Rome in May 1653,
'mly waiting five months at MalU, took passage
for Constantinople alone. He remained {& Constantlaople till
the end of the following August, and then proceeded by Smyrna
and the Greek islands to Ef^t, landing at Alexaodria. on
New Year's Day, 1657. He was a 3rear in Egypt, thcsi idsited
Sinai, and, cetuming to Csiro, Joined the Lent pilgrim caravan
to Jerusalem. He visited the chief places of pilgrimage in
Palestine, and, after being twice taken by ooisaiis, got back
to Damietta by sea, and was again fn Cairo in time to view
the opening of the canal on the rise ot the Nile (on the X4th off
August 1658). Iq January 1659 he sailed from Alexandria in
an English ship, taking Goktta and Tunis on the way, and,
after a sharp engagement with Spanish oorsairs, one of which
fen a prize to the English merchantman, reached Leghorn on
the rsth of April He now spent four years at home in studies
useful to a traveller, and in November 1663 again sailed for the
East, calling at Akxandria and landing at Sidon, whence he
proceeded by hnd to Damascus, Aleppo, and then through
Mesopotanua to Mosul, Bagdad and Mendeli. Here he entered
Persia (th^ 27th of August, .1664), proceeding by Kermanshah
andHamadan to Isfahan, where he spent five months (October
i664-Febni8ry 1665), and then johiing company with the
merchant Tsvemicr, proceeded by Shiras and Lar to Bander-
Abbasi, in the hope of finding a passage to India. This was
difikuU, because of the oj^xwition ol the Dutch, and though
Taverfiier was aUe to proosed, Thtvenot found it prudent to
return to Shiraz, and, having visited the ruins of Persepolis,
made his way to Basra and sailed for India on the 6th of
November 1665, m the ship " Hopewell," arriving at the port
of Surat on the loih of January 1666. He was in India lor
thirteen months, and crossed the country by Golconda to
Masulipatam, returning overland to Stuat, from which he sailed
to Bander-Abbasi and went up to Shitaa. He passed the
summer of r667 at Isfahan, disabled by an acddental pistol-
shot, and in October started for Tabriz, but £ed on the way at
MIyana on the s8th of November 1667.
Th^enot was aa aocompIi«hed luiguist, skilled In INnldah;
Arabic and Persian, and a curious and diligent obaerm'. He
was also well skilled in the natuial scienees, esMcSally in botany,
for which he made large eoUeotions in India. His personal char-
acter was admirable, and Ms writlnga are still esteemed, though
It has beeojustly obcerved that, ualTke Chafdin, he saw only the
outiide of Eastern life. The account of his firet foumey was pub-
at Paris in 166c; it forms the fine part of his coHected
The licence is dated December 1663. and the pcefaoe
Koysfer.
shows that Th^venot himself arranged it for
ubiieation before
snows tnat Tnevenot hmiaelt arranged it for publteation be
leaviiv on his setond voyage. The second and third parts ^
posthumously published from his journals in 1674 ana 1684 (all
4to). A collected edition appeared at Paris in i^, and a second
in lamo at Amstetxlam in 1727 (5 voU.). There u an indiffefeat
English tranalatSoa by A. Lovtil ^ol., London, 1687).
THIAZINESt in organic chemistry, a series of cyclic com*
pounds containing a ring system of four carbon atoms, one
nitrogen and one sulphur atom. These may be grouped in
three ways, giving the following skeletal stmctures:-r
„- CCN
(nL,c:Hc
Members of the first series have not as yet been isolated. De*
rivatxves of the second type have been obtained by A. Luch-
mann {Ber, 1896, 29, p. 1429) by condensing 7-chlorbutyl-
amine with carbon bisulphide or with mustard oils in the
presence of caustic alkali; by M. Kahan {ibid,, 1897, 30, p. T32X)
00 condensing bromhesylamine hydrobromide with thioben-
zamide:
CHj CR(CBi)Br , HS ^ CHt CB(CBi)-S
(CHj>»e N1I« ■•• aN.-t C«B» ""' (C»i)je - N tCOLt
Benroihlazines are obtained from ortho-aminobcnzyl halides
and thio-amides:
4-a^ CS CBs-^CiBK^
N— CCHi.
The most important thiazines are those derived from class III.,
thiodipheuylamine, CaBi^\:e8«, bdng the parent substance
of the methylene blue series of dyestuffs« Thiodipbei^yhiaiDe
THIAZOLEB^TMIBAUT IV.
a+s
b obtained syntheticftllr by hMtiog tulphiir with diphctiylamfne
or by the condensation of ortho-amtnothiophenol with pyro>
catechin» It is a compound of neutral reaction. The &t%l
known dyestufi of this secies was Laulb's violet, which was
pKpsred by oxidizing paraphenylene dismine iq acid solution
in the presence of sulphur. By using dimethyl paraphenylene
diamine in place of the simple diamine, methylene blue is
obtained. The relationship of these suhatanrrs to thiodiphenyl-
amine waa shown by A. Bemtfasen, who, by nitnttioo of
thiodiphenylamine, cbtatned a dinitro^ompound which on re-
duction was converted into the corresponding di-amino-deciva-
tive and thia on oiidalion yielded Lautb's vioieL
cai.<^.>
miaira <stk Octobef 179s) be opposed those Tbecmidoriaaa wIm
wMied to postpone the diasAuion of.tfae CoavcAtion. At tha
elections for the Corps L6gislatif he was elected by no Icsa than
thiity-t«o departmenta. It was only by the iatarvaBlion of
Boiday de la Meurtha that he escaped transporutlon after the
coup d*ena of 18 Pkuctidor C4th September 1797), and he then
returned to the practice of his profession. The establishment
of the consulate brought him back to public life.. He waa made
pKfect of tlie Gifonde, and then member of the council of
state, in which capacity he worked on the civil code. He at
this time had Napoleon's confidence, and jgave him whole-
He did not entirely conceal his disapproval
of the foundation of the Legion of
^ >cA^ifOkOBi< >aHiNOj-»NB,GiBi< >oRi • KHiH^ BN :<;iHi^^ >«»•!«■ B^ttMii; of the Cflneerdacaud of ttw
^^'^ *^ * ^ CoiMifarte for lift, and bit -appQin^
Methylene blue is the most important of all blue basic dyes
and is put on the market f reqoently in the form of its sine
diloride double salt, which is aohible in water. Add oxidanta
in dilute aqueous solution convert it into methylene asure.
See further A. Bemthsen, Ann^ 230, p. 73; 9$t, o. f ; Getman
Patent* 45839 (1887); 47374 (1888). ' For a diacunion as to the
cointitution of these dyestuffs, whether they are quaternary am-
monium sahs or thlonmm aslts, see A. Uantzseh. Btr., 1906, 39,
pp. 1^3, 1365; F. Kfhrmann. ibid,, 1906, 39. p. 914.
TBIAZOUS, in organic chemistry, a series of heterocycltc
compounds containing the grouping shown below; the re-
placeable hydrogen atoms in which are designated a, fi and ji.
They are piepared by oondenang thio-amides with o-hahrid
ketones or aldehydes, the thio-«mide reacting as the tauto-
meric thio-imino acid. Amino derivatives similarly result from
thio-ureas and a-haloid ketones; the oxy derivatives from
•4ulphocyanoketones by the actkm of caustic alkali; and the
caiboxylic acids from ddoro-aceto-acctic ester, &c and thio-
amides. The thiazolcs ar^ somewhat basic in character, and
combine with the olkyl iodides to form thiaxolium iodides.
DIbydrothiasoks. or thiafolinrs, are obtained by condeosmg
ethylene Uibroroides with thio-amides; by the action of ^Muloiu
alkylamiocs on thio-amides (S. Gabriel, Ber.. 1891, 24, p. 783;
1896. 29, p. a6io) ; and by the actron of phosphorus pentasulphide
00 acyl-^DiOfnalkylamides (A. Salonioo, Btr,, 1093, 96^ p. 1328).
They are much lew suble than the thiaaokt. ,Tbe bcnaothiazolcs
are a scries of weak bases formed by condensing cartxH^lic acids
with ortho-aroinothiophenols (A. W. Hofmann, Btr., 1880, 13,
p. 1224), by heatinr the ackf anllides with sulphur or by the
OKidatkm of tMo-anilides. On fusion with cauttte alhalb they
decompose into their oonstituent asninotliiophcnol and acid. D»*
rivaeives of this group are important as substantive cotton dyc-
He:CH/"
W)(«)
a:
\
/at
IHIBAQDEAU. CLAIR AMTOINIi; Comie (i765-rS54).
French politician, was bom on the sard of Match 1765, the son
of Antoine de Thibaudean (i73^iSt3), a Uwyer of Poitiers
and a deputy to the SutevGeneral of 1789. He waa admitted
to the bar in 1787, and In X789 accompanied has father to the
States-General at Versailles. When he returned to Poitiers in
October he immediately set op a local revohitionaxy dub^ and
in 1792 was returned as a deputy to the Convention.
Thihaudeau johied the party of the ^fountain and voted for
the death of Louis XVL unconditioaaOy. Nevertheless he in-
curred a certain amotmt of suspicion because he declined to
join the Jacobin Qub. In May 1 793 he was on a special mission
in the west and prevented his department from joining the
Federalist movement. Thibaodeau occupied himself more par-
ticularly with educational business, notably in the organuation
of the museum of the Louvre. It was h? who secured the
inclusion of Tom Paine's name in the amnesty of Girondist
deputies. Secretary and then president of the Conventkm for
a short period, he served on the Committee of Public Safety
and of Ceoeraly Secunty. After the iasuntction of x j Vend£-
XXVI 14*
ment aa prefea of the Bouches du Rh6ne, with conaectocfil
ba n is hm e n t from Pacis, was a. semi-disgraoc.
A peer of the Hundred Days, he fled at the second Ratom*
tion to Lftusannr. During his exile he Jived in Vienna* Prague^
Augsburg and Brussels, occupying hineelf with his Mtmoiru
tnrM ConttHliou elU Dirtdoirt (Paris, 2 vols., 1824); hiinmrei
jMf k Cantuht: par im amim fomtiikr d*4l(U (Paris» i^lh
Uistmrt siMMle 4e NapMm B^naparU (6 vols^. Bans and
Stuttgart, 1827-28, voL iiL not printed); U Comukl ft VEmfif^
voL i. of which ia identical with voL vi, of the Histoir* da
NofttU&n (10 vols, 1834)* The Mvolution of 1830 permitted
his return to Fiance, and he lived to beeome a member of the
Imperial Senate under the third empire. He died in Paria on
the 8th of March 1854 in his cightyvninth year.
The special value of Thibaudeau's works arises from the fact
that he wrote only of those events of Which he had personal know
kdgew and that he qiaoles with great aficuracjr NapolcoU's actual
woirds. His ilimoirti^sur U ConsulaJt has been tranylaied into
Endish, with introrfuction and necessary notes, by G. K. Fortcscue
with the title of Bonaparte and the Considate (1008). Among the
papan left by TMbaudeao were documeau eotltied Jfa Bietmpki»
and U4m9ira$ ataai ms n^min^ioH d U CanpetUion. These wcrf
published in a small volume (Paris and Niort, 1875) which includes
a list of his works and of the narrative of his life,^
THIBAUT (or Thsobau) IV. (120X-2253), count of Cham^
pagae and Biie, and kln^ of Navarre, French poet> was bora
at Troycs in xsox. His father, Thihaul IIL of Champagne;
died before his sob's biith, and his mother, Bhunche of Navaoe^
waa coa^ieUed to resign the guaidianship of the youag prinoQ
to Philip Augustus, king of France, but there is Uttla doubt
that the chUd was acquainted with Chr^en de Troyes and the
otiier tiomreres who found patronage at the court of Cham-
pagne. Thibaut's venes belong to what is called " courteous '*
poetry, but they have a personal. note that distinguishes them
from mere exercises. They are addressed to Blanche of Castilloi
the wife of Louis VIIL, and Thibaut's relatk)ns with her have
been the subject of much controversy. The count took part
with Louis in the crusade against the AJbigenses, but in 1226,
with no apparent reason, kft the king and returned to Cham-
pagne. Three months later Louis died under doubtful circuift>
stances,. and Thibaut was accused by his enenuos of poisoning
him to facilitate his own intrigue with Blanche. The real
reason for Thibaut's desertion aj^>6ars to have been a desire
to consolidate his position as hcir-apparent of Navarre by an
alliance with the disaffeaed nobility of the south of France,
but from this confedetatkm Blanche was skilful enough to
detach him. The resentment of the league involved him in a
war in which Champagne was laid waste, and bis capital saved
only by the royal intervention. In 1:234 be succeeded his
unde, Sancho VIL, as king of Navarre, and from this period
date his most fervent songs in praise of his lady. The crusade
tamed Thibaut's thoughts to religion, and he announced his
Intention of singing henceforth only in honour of the Virgin.
Unfortunately his devotion took darker forms, for before s&Ui&g
for the Holy Land he ordered and witnessed the burning of a
hundred and eighty-three unfortunate men and women coo*
victed vf Manlchacism. The years 1239 and 1240 wtn spent
in Palestine, and from the time of his return Thibaut devoted
846
THIBAUT, A. F. J.— THIBAW
hiinsell to efforts for the improvemeiit of his dominions that
won for him the title of U Bm, He died at Pampduna on the
14th of July 1253.
Thibaut was the most popular of all the 13th century song-
writers* and his woric is marked by a grace asB sweetness which
he owes perhaps in part to his association uith the troubadours
of the south, ne is said to have set his own songs to music. It
seems doubtful whether the notes that have come down to us can
with justice be attributed to him. but there is no contesting the
musical quality of his verse. His fame spread beyond the Alps,
and Dante admired his poetry. He was one of the most celebrated
authors of jeux-partis, elaborate discussions between two inter-
locutors, usually on the subject of love.
His works were edited in 1851 by P. Tarbi in his CiboaJsiiti^s
de Ckampapu,
THIBAUT, ANTON FRIEDRICH JUSTUS (1774-1S40).
German jurist, was bom at Hameln» in Hanover, on the 4th of
January X774, the son of an officer In the Hanoverian army,
of French Huguenot descent. After passing his school-days in
Haroeln and Hanover, young Thibaut entered the univtirsity
of GOttingen as a student of Jurisprudence, went thence to
KOnigsberg, where he studied tinder Kant, and afterwards to
Kiel, where he was a fellow-student with Niebuhr^ Here,
after taking his degree of doctor juriSt he became a PrivtU-
dotent. In 1798 he was appointed extraordinary professor of
civil law, and in the same year appeared his Vtrsucke Hher
Hmeln* TkeiU der Tkeorie dos Rcckts (179S), a collection of
essays on the theory of law, of which by far the most important
was entitled Ober den Einftuss der Pkilosopkie auf dU Auslegung
der posithen Gtsdaey wherein he sought to show that history
without philosophy could not interpret and explain law. In
X799 was published his Tkeorie der logischcn Auslegung des
rdmischen Reefits, one of his most remarkable works. In 180a
he published a short criticism of Feoerbach's theory of criminal
hw, which recalls in many ways the speculations of bentham.
The same year appeared Ober BesUt und Vcrjdhrung, a treatise
on the law of possession and the limitation of actions. In 1802
Thibaut was called to Jena, where he spent three years and
wrote, in Schiller's summer-house, his chief work. System des
Pandektenrechls (1803), which ran into many editions. The
fame of this book depends before all else upon the fact that it
was the fint modem complete compendium of the subject,
distinguished alike by the accuracy of its sources and the
freedom and unpedantic manner in which the subject b handled.
It is, in effect, a codification of the Roman law as it then obtained
in Germany, modified by Canon law and the practice of the
courts into a comprehensive system of Pandect law. At the
invitation of the grand-duke ol Baden he went to HeidclbeiY
to fill the chair of civil law and to assist in organizing the
nnivernty; and he never quitted that town, though he re-
ceived in after years, as his fame grew, invitations to G5ttingen,
Munich and Leipzig. His class was large, his influence great;
and, except Gustav Hugo and Savigny, no civilian of his time
was so well known. In 1814 appeared his Cinlistiscke Ab/tand-
lungen, of which the principal was his famous essay, the parent
of so much literature, on the necessity of a national code for
Germany {vide infra). In 1819 he was appointed to the upper
house of the newly constituted Baden parliament. He was
also made member of the Scheidungsgericht (divorce court).
In 1836 Thibaut published his ErCrlenmgen des rdmischen
Rcckts. One of his last works was a contribution in 1838 to the
Arckiv far die civilisliscke Praxis, of which he was one of the
editors (see below). Thibaut married, in 1800, a daughter of
Professor Ahlers of Kiel. He died after a short illness, at
Heidelberg, on the 29th of March 1840.
Thibaut, a man of strong personality and manly conastent
nature, wras much more than a jurist: he deserves to be remem-
bered in the history of music. Palestrina and the early composers
of church music were his delight; and in 1824 appeared anonv-
mously his work, Vber die Reinheil der Tonkuml, in which he
eulogized the old music, and especially that of Palestrina. He
was an ardent Collector of old compositions, and often sent young
'"^ly, at his own expenie. to discover interesting mosical
Among the masters of German prose, too. Thibaut
n place. His style is simple and manly, but rich in
idents of expression which come only to true artists.
Most of Thibaut's worics have alraady been fMadoMd. but hi*
f ^ the necessity of a code for Gmnany wber die NotkweH-
I mes aUegemeinen burgerlicken Rechtsfur Deutsekland), which
> ired by the enthusiasm of the war 01 Liberation and written
i een days, deserves further notice. Thibaut himself ea-
] in the Arckivfir die eHriiisliscke Praxis, in 1838, the origia
( oeroorable essay. He had realized the change denoted oy
I ch of German soldiers to Paris in 1814, and the happy
1 pened up for Germany. The system of small states he
I id believed would contmue: for the big state he considered
c to the life of the individual and harmful as concentrating
t krm life "of the nation in one central point. In his judg-
I : only unity practicable and needful for Germany was that
< ind for this he urged all the German governments to labour.
,y Has as much a condemnation of the entire state of juri»-
I s as an argument for codification; it was a challenge to
< to justify their very existence. Savigny took up the
< e thus thrown down; and a long controversy as to points
I ' cleariy defined took place. The eloi^ of the controversy
1 I to Savigny; the real victory rested with Thibaut.
ramcrs 01 the new German civil code (bArgtrlieka Gesett'
I 1879 were indebted for the arrangement of their matter
all degree to Thibaut's method and clear classification, but
this, the code, based on the common law of the several
states, which was adroitly blended by the usus pamdectamm
harmonious whole, does not reflect nts influence. He «-aa
Ive earliest to criticize the divisions found in the Institutes,
earned on with Gustav Hugo a controversy as to these
xlem German legal literature Thibaut's Influence is not
xcptible. Even at Heidelberg It was quickly superseded
of his successor, Karl Adolf von Vangerow (1805-1870).
krmany his works arc now little used as text-books. But
St able to judge Thibaut have nk>st praised him. Au»tin,
d much to him. describes him as one " who for penetrating
IS, rectitude of judgment and depth of learning and elo-
>f exposition, mav oe placed by the side of von Savigny,
Ead of all living civilians."
irthcr information as to Thibaut's life and work, see Baum*
'hibaul, BtdUer der Erinnemnt (1841): Kari Hagemann,
\ Leben H, F. J. Tkibatd, mit Correspomdens, in die Prenss.
Iff (1880) J Tcichmann, in Hollzendorfs RukUUxikoni
^ndsberg, m AUgfmeine Deutuke Btogropkie, vol. 37.
AW, or HsiPAW, one of the Northern Shan States of
] It is called by the Shans, and officially, Hsipaw, and
] quently Ong Pawng (the name of an old capiul). It
i , four states— Thibaw, the main state, and the sub^
! f Mdng L6ng, M5ng Tung and Thonz^ (or Hsumhsai).
sle state has an area of 5086 sq. m., and the population
i was 104,700. The main state lies on the geological
I lich runs east and west across the Shan States, from the
! at Kunl6ng and beyond to nearly the rim of the Shan
1 d at C6kleik. It is therefore broken up into a mass
( cry well-defined ridges and spurs, crossing and re-enter-
i he chief plain land is in the valley of the Nam Tu
( gi), near Thibaw town, and the valley or strath of the
] ; Kawng.Nawng Ping neighbourhood. Elsewhere the
^ arc insignificant. The hills on the MSng Tung border
I heir highest elevations in the peaks Loi Pan (6S48 ft.)
J Htan (6270 ft.).. To the north-west of Thibaw town,
4 Tawng Peng border; I.oi Lam rises to 6486 ft. The
y )i the Nam Tu marks the k>west point in the sute at
town, about 1400 ft., and rises on the east in Mdng
a plain level of about 2Soo ft., and on the west in
^ng to a confused mass of hills with an average height
4 ft., broken up by the Nam Yawn and Nam Kaw valleys,
y re about 3000 ft. above mean sea-levd.
hicf river is the Nam Tu or Myit-ng*. also frequently called
1 lassical name the Ddktawadi. The main stream rises in
1 reen-lrrawaddy watershed, and is enlarged by considciable
( ics. At Thibaw town it is 250 vds. wide and about 8 ft.
< th a fairly strong current. The Nam Tu is navigable onlv
i stretches, and between Thonri and Lawlcsawk (Yatsauk)
i through a gorge between cliffs 3000 to 4000 ft. high.
sorge of Hokttt (Ng6kteik) the Nam lltang and the Nam
itc to form the Nam KQt, which passes into the ground
atural bridge where the Mandalay-Kiinlflngrailway crosses
5e, and reappears to join the Nam Tu. The bed of the
at is about isoo ft. below the general level of the country,
found at various pkices in the state, but is not of very higfk
Salt-wells are worked by the inhabitants of Mawhkio
0) about 7 m. from Thibaw town. The average maximum
cure at the beginning of April is about 96*. and the minimum
THIELMANN— THIERRY
847
•boat the saJne pferi^ ^s . The n»i«fan avenges about 70 bi.
for the year* The chief crape are rice, cotton, scsaroum, tea in the
bUU, and lAoeo/, th6 leaf of a tree used (or the wrapper of the
Bunna.« or " green ** cheroot. Cotton doth was formerly much
more geneially manafactiired than it now b, and a ooone country
Daper is also made. Other industries are merely of article for
focal use. The government cart road to Lashio pamcs tlurough
the centre of the state, and from this various unmetalted roads
the Nam Tu and in the Mdog U^ng sutes. but both have bocn
mactically exhausted, and wijih^^ve to be dosed for many years,
rrevious to the annexation, and in a Ecncrsil way still, the state
is adnuaistered by the Misova, or chief, aided by a council of six
amah or ministers. , Under them are a wimbcr of ni-baiau, who
are in charge of circles and townships. Each n^Astag oas an
asiyin, or clerk, and each village has a neadman, or kiit-man. The
omalt supervise the administration of a certain number of districts.
The old system is now being asstmilotcd to that followed fin Barma.
TbechidSaoHUwBsforatimoiaEivland. (J-G.Sc.l
TBIELMAMir. JOHAHN ADOLF, Fkeibsu von (176$-
1824), Prussian cavaliy soldier, was bom at Prefdea. Entering
the Saxon cavaixy in X7S3, be saw service against the French
in the Revolutionary Waxs and in the Jena campaign. When,
after the disaster of Jena, Saaony allied hendf with her con-
queror, Tbielmann accompanied the S^azon contingent which
fought at the- siege of Danzig and at Friodland. In 1809, as
colonel of a Frec>Corpf , he opposed the advance oC the Austrians
into Saxony, and was rewarded for his services with the grade
of major-general, further promotion to lieutenant-general fol-
lowing in 181a As commander of the Saxon Heavy Cavalry
Brigade he took part in the advance on ^fo•eow two years
later, and hia conduct at Borodino attracted the attention of
Napoleon, who took Thlelmann into his own suite. His own
sovereign at the same time made him Ficiherr. In the war of
Liberation Thielmann took a prominent part; as governor of
Torgau, by his king's orders he at first observed Uie strictest
neutrality, but on receipt of an order to band over the fortress
to the French be resigned his oomraand and, accompanied by
his staff officer Aster, joined tb« allies. As a Russian general
be waa employed in reorganising the Sajnn army after Leijuigi
and in 181 4 he commanded the Saxon coips operating in tb«
Low Countries. Early in the foltowing year be became a
Ueutmant-genend in the Prussian service, and in command of
the 3rd army corps he took part in the Waterloo campaign.
From the fidd of Ligny he vetixed with the rest of BUlchei's
army on Wavre, and when the other corps marched towasda
Waterioo^ Thielmann covered this movement against Groodiy;
fitting the spirited action of Wavie Gune xS^xq)* He was
later a corps commander at Mttnster and at CobkDB» and at
the latter place be died in 1824.
See voD Hatel, Biagrapkisekt Skint its Generatt mn Tnidmama
(Beritn. 1828); von Holscndorff. Bf»trd§e war Bivgraphi* det
Ceaerals Pniktrrn v^n Tkidmatm (Dresden. 1830); von Pcter»»
dorf. General Jokaan AddJ Freikerr worn Tkieimaaa (Leiprig, 1894).
TBIEBRT, the natne of tsio Freadi historians, the btodiett
Angustin and Amfdte, both ot wbom, tbou^ tbdr Btexmry
and historical powers were far horn being e^al, displayed the
same devotion to htstoilcal study.
I. jAcouxs Nicolas Aocusixn Ttesuiy (i795*>M)> ^
dder and mors gifted, was boro at Blois on the xotb of May
1795. He had no advanuges of birth or fortune, but was
greatly distinguished at the Blois Gxammar School, and entered
the ^icoU Ht^mala sufirieme (x8r0* In 1813 he left it, and was
lent a5 a professor to COmpi^gne, but stayed there a very short-
time. His ardent and generous nature led him to embrace the
Ideas ol the French Revohition with enthusiasm, and he became
fired with Saint Simon's ideal sodeCy of the future. He became
(he secfvtaiy, and. as he would say hlmsdf, the " adopted son "
of (he famous visionary (1814-17); but, while most of Saint
Simon's followers turned (heir attention to the affairs of b'fe,
devoting themselves to (he problems, both theoretical and
practical, of political economy, Thierry tamed his to history.
His imagixaatioa had been powerfully impressed by leading
La Martyrs, fn whidi OiAteaubiiand had coBtiasled the twb
dvBiiatlons aiKl the two races from which the modem world
haa apruftg. His romantic ardour was later stiU further
noimshed 1^ the works of Sir Walter Seott, and thodgh he did
not himself actually write romances, his conception of fafstoiy
fully recognised the dcsmatlc dement. His main ideas on the
Germanic invasions, the Norman Conquest, the formation of
the Communes, the gradual ascent ol the nations towards free
g o v ernm ent aiid pailiameataxy institutions are alxouiy ol>>
servable in the articles contributed by him to the Cmsear
euTvptem (1817-20), and hter in his LcUrat star Vkut^in dt
Frauea (x83d). Fion Fkvrid he learnt to use the original
authorities; and by the aid of the Latfai chronicles and the
collection, as yet very ill undeistoed, of the Anglo-Saxon la«i,
he C BM poa e d Us Hidairs da la CoaqtOte da PAn^Uterreparks
Harmanda, the appearanoe of which nas giceted with great
enthusiasm (tSss). It was written in a style at onoe precise
ami picturesque, and was dominated by an idea, at once
generous and fadse, that of Angk>-Saxon b'betty redstmg the
invssMns of northem barbarians, and reviving, in spite ol
defeat, in the parliamentary monarchy. His artistic talent at
a smter makes the weaknesses and <tefidencies of his scholar*
ship less obvious. This woric, the preparation of whkh had
requited several years of hard work, cost Thleny his eye-
siglit; in t8i6 be was obliged to engage secretaries and in 1830
became quite blind. Notwithstanding, he continued^ to pio*
dace woxiu. In 1827 he republished his Lettres sur rhistoira
da Pfoma, with the addition of fifteen new ones, in which he
described some of the more striking episodes In the history
of the rise of the medieval communes. The duonldes of the
xith and tsth centuiiee and a few communal charters provided
him, without xtquiring a great amount of erudition, with
materials for s solid work. For this reason his work on the
communes has not become so out of date as his Norman Cwh
quest; but he was too apt to generalize from the facts furnished
by a few striking cases which occurred in a small portion of
Ffanoe, and helped to spread among the public, and even
among professional historians, mistaken ideas concerning one
of the most complex problems rdatixig to the socml origins of
Fruicep-
Thierry was ardent hi his appUuse of the July Revohition
and the triumph of liberal ideas; at this lime, too, his brother
KnvMbo was appointed prefect, and he went to live with- him
for four years. He now re-edited, under the title of Dix an$
denudes kisiariques, his first essays in the Censeur europten and
the CaurrierfraniOis (1834), and composed Ws Rieiis das lempt
mirniHgiens, in which he reproduced in a vivid and dramatic
form some of the most characteristic stories of Gregoiy of
Touts. These RkUi appeared first In the Renu dot deut
Mondes't when collected in volume form, they were preceded
by hmg and Interesting Considlrations sar l*kitlaire da Franca,
From the 7tb of May 1830^ Thierry had already been a member
of the Acaiimia da Imcripiimt H Bdla LeUrer, in 1841, on
the motion of Villemafn, the French Academy awarded him
the first Frix Cobert, whidi became a kind of literary inherit-
ance for him, being renewed in his favour fifteen yeats in
suoccasioli. Moreover, he had been allotted the task of pubBih-
Ing to the series of the Documents inMUs a selection of acts
bearing on the history of the Third Estate. By the aid of
sealous collaborators (raduding Bourqudot and Louandre) he
compiled, in four volumes, a valuable ReeueU da manumanSs
inidils da VkhUnrt du Tiers £tai (1850-70), which, however,
bear only on the northern part of France. The preface
appealed afterwards in a separate volume under the title of
Histaire dm Tiers tht. To Thierry belongs the credit for
Inaugurating in France the reaBy critical study of the communal
institutions, and we cannot make him re^wnsible for the
neglect into which it relapsed after his death. The hut yeait
of his life were clouded by domestic griefs and bv illness^ In
1844 he lost his wife, Julie de Qu^ngal, an iotdbgeat woman,
who had been to him a collaborator as capable as she was
devoted. The revolutioii of 1848 inflicted on him a find bioi^
848
THIERS, LOUIS ADOLEHE
by otettuming ihftt rCgime: of the Liberal bcurgwiiie the
triumph of which he had hailed and justified as the neccsNixy
outcome of the Whole couise of French hiatoiy. He began to
'distrust the rationalistic opinions which had hitherto estnmgod
him from the Church. When Catholic writers animadverted
on the " histoifcal errors " in his^wiitings he promised to correct
Ihem, and accordingly we find that in the final edition of his
Hisioire dc la ConquSie his severe judgments on the policy of the
court of Rome, together with some foults of detail, are elimi-
nated. Thou^ he did not renounce his Liberal friends, he
sought the conversation of enli^tened priests, and just bc^re
his death he seems to have been disposed to enter the pale of
the Church. He died in Paris on the asnd of May iBst, after
several yeius of suilcring cAdured with heroism.
IL AidDtE Simon DomKiQCE TkofSKY (S797--X873) was the
yoongcx brother of Augustin, and was bom on the 2nd August
1797. He began life as a journalist (after an essay, Ukd-bis
brother, at schoolmastering), was connected with the famous
xomantic harbinger the ir/^» «nd obtained a small government
clerkship. His first book was a brief history of Guicnne in t6es>
and three years later appeared the first vduine of the Hislmte
des Gaulois, which was received with much favour, and obtained
him, from the royalist premier Martignac, a histoiy professor-
i^bip at Besangon. He was, however, thought txw liberal for the
government of Charles X., 4nd his lectures weit stopped, with
the result of securing him, after the revolution, the important
post of prefect of the Haute-Sa6ne, which he held eight years.
Durii^ this time he published nothlAg. In. f $318 be was trans-
ferred to the couDcil of state as master of requests, which post
be held through the revolution of 1848 and the C0up d' AaV^tUl
i860, when he. was made senator-^a paid office,' it must be
remembered, and, in effect, a lucrative sinecure. He al$0
passed through all the ranks of the Legion of Honour, became
a member of the Academic des Inscriptions in 1841, and in 1862
received the honorary degree of D.C.L. at Oxford. He had,
except during the time of his prefecture, never intermitted his
literary work, being a constant contributor to the Rem^ des
deux mondes, his ailicles (usually worked up afterwards into
books) almost all dealing with Roman Gaul and its period.
The chief were the Histoire des Gaulois, 3 vols. (i8a8, 2834,
1845; the 8tb edition of vol. i. appeared in 1870)} HistHre
d€ la Caule sous V administration romaine (3 vols., 1840-47;
and ed. 187 1); Histoire. d'AUUa, d^sesJUset successeursjusqu*d
ViUiblissemetU des H^apois tn Europe (185$; 5th ed. in. 1874):
Tableau de r Empire romain (i86a; 5th ed, in i87r; now quite
out of date); lUtUs dc I'Jiistoke romaine au V* siiele: la lufte
eofUre les Barbares, and les luiles-religieuses (1860; and «d. in
6 vols. x88o). He died in Paris on the a7th o| March i873>
His SOU) Gilbert Auguatin Thierry (bom 1843), who b^gan a
literary career by artidcaon Les lUvphaioHS d'Angleterrg (1864)
and some Essais d^hist^ire religieuse (1867), aftennuds confined
himself to the writing of novels. (C B^^)
THIERS, LOUIS ADOiPHB (1797-1877), Freocb statesman
and historian, was bom. at Marseilles on the 16th of Apiil
1797. His family are somewhat grandiloquently spoken of .as
"doth merchanu riuned by the Revolution," but it seems
that at the actual time of his birth his father was a locksmith.
His mother bdongcd to the family of the Ch^niers, and he was
well educated, first at the lyo£e of Marsdlles, and then in the
faculty of law at Aix. Here he, began his lifelong friendship
with Mignet, and was called to the bar at the age of twenty-
three. He had, however, little taste for law and much for
literature; and he obtained an academic prize at Aiz for a
discourse on Vauvenargues. In the early autumn of 1821
Thiers went to Paris, and was quickly introduced as a contri-
butor to the ConstiUUionnd. In each of the yc^s immediately
following his arrival in Paris he collected and published a
^ his arlides, the first on the salon of 1832, the second
in the Pyrenees. He was put out of all need of
'he sing^ar benefaction of Colta, the well-known
ublishcr, who was part-proprietor of the Consli'
d made oy^ to Thiers, his .dividends, or part of
them. Meanwhile he became very w^ lUiown in Liberal
society, and he had begun the cdebrated Histoire de la rtvoiu-
iion franfflise, which founded his literary and helped his
poUtical fame. The first two volumes appeared In r8^, the
last two (of ten) in r827. * The hook brought him little profit
at first, but became immensely popular. The well-known
sentence of Carlyle, that it is *' as far as possible from meriting
its high reputation," is in strictness justified, for ail Thiera's
historical work is marked by extreme inaccuracy, by prejndice
which passes the limits of acddental unfairness, and by an
almost complete indifference to the merits as compared with
the successes of his heroes. But Carlyle himsdf admiu tliat
Thiers is " a brisk man in his way, and will tell you much if
you know nothing." Coming as the book did just when the
reaction against the rev6lution was about to turn into another
reaction in its favour, k was assured of sncceas.
•For a moment it seemed as if the author had definitely
chosen the lot of a literary man, not to say of a literacy hack.
He even planned an Histoire gin^ale. But the accessaon to
power of the Polignac mmistry in August 1829 dtanged hJs
projects, and at the beginning of the next year Thiers, with
Armand Cafvel, Mignet, and others started the Notional, a
new opposition newspaper. Thiers himself was one of the
souls of the actual revolution, being credited with ** overcoming
the scruple of Louis Philippe," perhaps no Herculean tasl^
At any rate he had his reward. He ranked as one of the
Radical supporters of the new dynasty, in opposition to the
party of Which his rival Guitot was the chief literary man,
and Guizot's patron, the due de Bro]|^Ie, the mahi pillar. At
first Thiers, though elected deputy for Aixj obtained only
snbotdinate places in the ministry of finance. After the over-
throw of his patron Laffitte, he became much less tadiod, and,
after the troubles of June r832, was appointed to the mintstty
of the interior. He repeatedly changed his portfolio, but re-
mained in office for four years, became president of the council
and in effect prime minister, and began his series of quarrels
and jealousies with'Guizot. At the time of his resignation in
iB$6 he was foreign minister, and, as usual, wished for a spirited
policy In Spain, which he coidd not cany out. He travelled
in Italy for some time, and it was not till 1838 that he began a
regular campaign of parliamentary opposition, which in March
1840 made him ptesident of the council and foreign minister
for the second time. But he held the position barely six months,
and, being unable to force on the king an anti-Englbh and
anti-Tnrkish policy, resigned on the 29th of October. He now
had little to do with poHtics for some years, and spent his time
on his Hisioire du Consulaf eS de PEmpire, the first volume of
which appeared in 184 5^ Thoogh he was still a member of the
chamber he spoke rarely, till after the beginning of 1846, when
he was evidently bidding once mart for power. Immediately
beforethe revolotfon of February he went to all but the greatest
lengths,' and when it broke out he and Odillon Barrot were
summoned by the king; but it was too late. Thiers was unable
to tovcm the forces he bad helped to gather, and he resigned.
Undfcr.the republic he took up the position of conservative
republiatn, which he ever afterwards okaintaiaed, and be
never took office. But the consistency of his conduct, especi-
ally !n voting foe Prince Louis NapcJeon as president, was
often and shatfrfy criUcixed, one of the criticisms leading to n
duel with a fellow-depnty, Biziow He was arrested at the cmip
fitat^ was sent to Maxas, and then escorted out of France.
But in the following summer be was aUowed to return. For the
next decade his histoiy was almost a blank, his time being
occupied for the most part on The Consulate and lie Empin^
It was not till 1863 that he r|^enteIed political life, being
elected by a Fnrisian constituency. For the seven years
following he was the chief speaker among the small band of
anti-Imperialists fo the French chamber, and was regarded
generally as the most formidable enemy of the empire. While
nominally protesting against its foreign enterprises, he per-
petually harped on French loss of prestige, and so contributed
move than any one else to stir vp the fatal spirit which bro^gbt
THIERS
«+9
on the war of 1870. Even when the LIbenMmperiallst
OUlvier mimstry was formed, he maintaiiied at first an anything
but benevolent neutrality,juul then an open opposition, and it
jft impossible to be sure whether mere " cannincis," or some-
thing better, kept him from joining the government of the
Nat^nal Defence, of which he was in a manner the author.
Neverthdeas the coOapad of the empire was a great oppor^
timity for Thiers, and it was worthily accepted. He undertook
in the latter part of September and the first three weeks of
October a circtdar tonr to the different courts of Europe in
the hope of obtaining some bitervention, or at least some good
offices. The mission was unsuccessful; but the negotiator
was on its conclusion immediately chaiged with another— that
of obtaining, if possible, an annistice directly from Prince
BtsDlarck. The annistice having been arranged, and the
opportunity having been thus obtained of electing a National
Assembly, Thiers was chosen deputy by more than twenty
constituendea (of which he preferred Paris), and was at once
elected by the Assembly itself practically president, nominally
€kefdu fouv0ir aOcuHf. He lost no time in choosing a coalition
cabinet, and then personally took up the negotiation of peace.
Probably no statesman has ever had a more disgusting task;
and the fact that he discharged it to the satisfaction of a vast
majority is the strongest testimony to Thiers'a merits. He
succeeded In convincing the deputies that the peace was neces-
nry, and ft was (Bfarch x, 2871) voted by more than five
toone.
Thiers hdd office for more than two yean after this event,
which shows the strength of the general conviction that he alone
could be trusted. He had at first to meet and crush at once
the mad enterprise of the Pars commune. Soon after this
was accomplished he became (August 30th) in naiM as w.l as
in fact president of the republic
His strong personal will and inflexible opinfons had much
to do with the resurrection of France; but the very same facts
made it inevitable that he should excite violent opposition.
He wis a confirmed protectionist, and free trade ideas had made
great way in France under the empire; he was an advocate
of long military service, and the devotees of la retancke were
an for the introduction of general and compulsory but short
service. Both his talenU and his temper made him utterly
indisposed to maintain the attitude supposed to be Incumbent
en a republican president; and his tongue was never a care-
fuHy go^med one. In January 1871 he formally tendered
his resignation; and theu^ It was refused, almost all patties
dislfted Urn, while his cUef supportets-tnen like R^musot,
BarthOeny Saint-HOaire and Jules Smon— were men rather
of the past than of the prefeenL
The year r873 was, as a parliamentary year in Fiance, occu-
pied to a great extent with attacks on Thiers. In the cariy
spring regulations were proposed, and on April 13th were carried,
which were intended to restrict the executive and especially
the pariiamentaiy powers of the president On the srth of the
tame month a contested election hi Paris, resulthig in the return
of the opposition candidate, M. Barodet, was regarded ais a
grave ^Ittster for the Thiers government, and that govenunent
was not much strengthened by a dissolution and reooosdlutioQ
of the cabinet on May t9th. Immediately afUrwards the
question was brought to a head by an hxterpeOation moved fay
the due de Biogiie. Hie prerident dedarsd that he should
take th» as a vote of want of confidence; and in the debates
which followed a vote of this character (though on a different
formal issue, and prcq^osed by M. Bmoul) was ctnicd by 16
votesinahobseof 704. Thiers at once redgned (May 34th).
He survived his fall four years, continuing to sit in the
Assembly, and, after the dissolutkm of r876, in the Chamber
of Deputies, and lometlnca, thooch nnly> speaking. He was
t \r\ on the ^t r t Vr* of this dissolutlMi, elected senator for
^dfoit, which his cisitions |iad saved for France; but he
pvrfened the lower house, where he sat as of old for Paris.
Ou May ifitb /B77» he was one of the " 363 " who voted want
of ir mf PU"*^ m the BiogUe ministry (thus paring his debts).
end be took co n sMemble part in oigudsfeg the subsequent
electoiml campaign. But he was not destined to ice iU snicestf,
being fataffy struck with apoplexy at St Germain'en>Laye oft
September 3rd. Thiers had long been matried, and Us wife
and sister>In-law, Mile Dosne, wete his oonstsat companions;
iynt he left no children, and had had only one— a daughter^**
who long predeceased him. He had been a member of the
Academy since r834. Hb personal appearance was remarkable,
and not imposing, for he was very short, with pkin features,
ungainly gestures and marawis, very near-sighted, and of dis-
agreeable voice; yet he became (after wisely giving up an
attempt at the ornate stjde of oratory) a very effective speaker
in a kind of conversational manner, and in the epigram of
debate he had no superior among the statesmen of his time
except Lord Beacon^eld.
Thiers was by far the most gifted and interesting of the eroup
of literary statesmen which formed a unique fcatore in the French
political history of the 19th ccatury. There are only two who are
at all comparable to him — Guicot and Lamartine; aad as a statea*
man be sunds far above both. Nor is this eminence merely due
to his great opportunity in 1870; for Guizot might under Louis
Phnippe have almost made himself a F^nch Waupole, at least a
French Palmerstort, and Lamartlne*B opportunities after 1848 were,
for a man of political gcmus, Uliautable. But both failed— Laour^
tine almost ludicrously — while Thiers in hard conditiona made a
striking if not a brilliant success- But he only showed well when
he was practically supreme. Even as the minister of a constitu-
tional monarch hts intolerance of interference or joint authority,
his temper at once impeiloa^ and fcitt^^g. tuS inveterate indtna-
tioa towards hrimt, that ia to aav, underhand rivalry and caballiajf
for power and pboe, showed thenuclves unfavourably; and his
constant tendency to inflame the aggressive and chauvinist spirit
of his country neglected fact, was not baaed on any tust estimate
ol the relative power and interests of France, and led his oountiy
more than oikc to the verge of a great calamity. In opposition,
both under Louis Philippe and under the empire, and even to some
extent in the last four years of his life, his worst Qualities were
always manifested. But with all these drawbacks he conouered
and will retain a place in what is peffhapa the highest, as it is cer*
tainly the sowlk^t, ckiss of statesmen^-the class of those to whom
their covntry has had recourse in a great disaster, who have shown
in bringing her through that disaster the utmost constancy, courage,
devotion and skilly and who have been rewarded by as much
success as the occasion permitted.
As a man of letters Thiers is very much smaller. He haa not
only the fault of diffuseness, which is common to so many of the
best-known historians of his century, but others as serious or more
so. The chaige of dishonesty is one sever to be lightly made
against men of such distinction as his, especially when tiidr evident
confidence in their own infallibility, their faculty of ingenious
casuistry, and the strength of will which makes them (unconsciously,
no doubt) close and keep closed the eyes of their mind to all incon-
venient faets and inferences, supply a more charitable explanation.
But it is certain that from Thiers's dealings with the men of the
fir^t revolution to has dealings with the battle of Waterloo* constant,
anoy and well-aupoorted protests against his unfairness were not
lackmg. Although nis search among documenu was jundoubtedly
wide, lU results ate by no means always accurate, and his admirem
themselves admit great inequalities of style in bim. These char-
acteristics reappear (accompaiued, however, by frequent touches
o( the epigrammatic power above mentioned, tsbich seems to have
come to Tnicrs more readily as an orator or a journalist than as an
historian) in his speeches, which after his death were collected in
many volumes by his widow. Sainte-Beuvc. whose notices of
Thiers are generally kindly, says of him. ** M. Thiers salt tout,
tcanche tout, parie de tout," and this < *
noss " (to use the word of a pdme minister of England oontempoiary
with this prime minister of France) are perhaps the chief pervading
features both of the statesman and the man of letters.
His histories, in many different editions, and his speedMs, as
above, are easily accesdble: his minor works aad iKwspapcr
articles have not, we believe, been collected in any forn. Sevoal
years after his death appealed Dmx opusaiUs (1891) and Utianget
tnidites (l8a>). white NoUs et somenin. 1 870-731 *^cre poblisbcd in
1901 by *' F. D.." his sster-in-law and constant companion, Mile
F^licie Dosne. Works on bIm. by M. Uva. M. de Mande, his
colleague and friend M. Jules Simon, and others, are numerous.
^ (G. Sa.)
TRIERS, a town of central France, capital of aa ainmdiase-
ment in the department cf Puy<d»>D6me, 14 m. £^N.£. of
Clennont-FetTaad, on the nilwny between that towa end St
fittenoe. Pop. (1006) town, i},6ot; conunune, IT>4<^* Tbiers
is most picturesquely Ousted 00 the tide of « h01 at the foot ol
850
THIERSCH— THIOPHEN
-vbicb the Dutolk tfapidiy deaceadi thiongh 4 nacrow valky Into
the Dore, a tiibtttaiy of the AlJier. The streets raing in steep
lows contain a iarge number of stone and wooden houses,
some of which date to the xsth century. A fine view of the
Phun of limagne and the D6me mountain is obtainable from
the temces* The church of St Gen^ was built in 575 hy
Avitus, bishop of Clermonti and rebuilt in the 12th century.
It has aome curious moiaic woric of the Merovingian period
and a fine tomb of the 13th oentuxy. The church of Le Moutier,
which formerly formed part of a Benedictine monastery, dates
chiefly from the xith century* Thiers is the seat of a sub-
prefect and has tribunab of first instance and of commerce, a
chamber of commerce, a board of trade arbitration, a com-
munal college^ a commercial and industrial school, and a branch
of the Bank of France. Its special industry is the manufac-
ture of cutlery, which employs some 12,000 hands in the town
and its vicinity. The manufacture of handles and buttons of
bone, pasteboard, stamping, hand-made and other pa^rnn and
madiinery are also carried on.
Thiers was sacked about 531 by the soldiers of Thierry, son
of Oovls. About the same period Gregory of Tours speaks of
a wooden chapel which may have occupied the site of the pre-
sent church of Le Moulier. The commercial importance of the
town was much increased in the z6th century when the manu-
facture of cutlery was introduced from the neighbouring town
of Chateldon.
THIERSCH, FRIEDRICH WILHELH (1764-1860), German
dassi^t scholar and educationist, was bom at Kirchschei-
dungen near Freiburg on the XJnstrut, on the t7th of June
1784. In 1809 he became profcissoc at the gymnasium at
Munich, and in 1826 professor of ancient literature in the
university of Landshul, transferred in that year to Munich.
He died at Munich on the 35th of February i860. Thiersch,
the " tutor of Bavaria " (praeceptor Bavariae), found an
extremely unsatisfactory system of education in existence.
There was a violent feud between the Protestant ** north "
and the Catholic "south" Germans; Thiersch's colleagues,
cbiefiy old monks, offered violent opposition to his reforms,
and an attempt was made upon his Ufc. His schemes, how-
ever, were ^carried out, and have remained the governing prin-
ciple of the educational institutions of Bavaria. Thiersch was
an ardent supporter of Greek independence. In 1832 he
visited Greece, and it is said that his influence had much to do
with securing the throne of the newly created kingdom for
Otto of Bavaria. He wrote a Greek grammar, a metrical
translation of Pindar, and an account of Greece iV£tai actud
de la Grice (1833).
Biography by fats son. H. W. J. Thiench (1866); see alw G. M.
Thomas, GedieMnissrede aitf FrvOrich fo« Thitrsek (1860): articles
by A- Baumeiater in Atttemeim DetOsche BiogropkU and O. Zdckler
fa Henog-Haiick's Raiateichpidie fir fnvleslamiueht neolctit,
xix. ; J. E. Sandys, History of CkusieafSckolarshtp» bL (1908).
THIETMAR Pieqiax or DnsMAs) OF MERSBBURG (97$*
X018), German chronicler, was a son of Siegfried, cosnt of
Walbeck, and was related to the family of the emperor Otto
the Great Bom on the 35th of July 975 he was educated at
Quedlinburg and at Magdebazg and became provost, of Wal-
beck in Z003 and bishop of Meneburg seven years biter. He
took some part in the political evtnty of the time; in 994 he
was a hostage in the hands of the Northmen, and he was not
anfamiliar with the actualities of war. He died on the ist of
December 1018.
Thietmar wrote a CkrOnkon in eight books, which deals with
ibe period between 908 and 1018. For the earlier part be used
Widukind's Res gistae Saxonicae, the AnnaU* QuedlinburteHS4s
and other sources: the latter part is the result of personal know-
ledge. It is rough in form and the author shows no power of
discrindnating between important and unimportant events; yet
the chronicle is an excellent authority for the history of Saaony
during the reigns of the emperors Otto 111. and Henry 11. No
kind of faiforraation is excluded, but the fonest deteilt refer to the
bishoprie of MersAiitrg and to the wars against the Wends and the
PokSb The original manuscript of the work is preserved at Dresden
-•d has been published in facsimile by L. Schmidt (Dresden. 100^).
as been edited by J. M. Uppenberg in Band III. of the
Mo u u mnlu C^rmamuu Milonco, Seriptores, and by F. Kiine <Haa-
over, 1889) • and has been translated into German by J. Laurent
(new ed. revised by W. Wattenbach. Leipag. 1892). See F. Kurxe.
Btsekof Thtelmar 9M Uwsttmrt tnid setne Ckronih (HaOe, 1890};
and W. Wattenbach. DntuOamU CttekiekUtudUm, BandTlI.
(Bertio, 1904).
THIMBLE, an implement for use in sewing, serving as a pro-
tective covering for the finger in pushing the needle through
the material worked upon. For ordinary purposes the thimble
is a bell-shaped cap reaching to the first jomt and is usually
worn on the middle finger. It is made of silver or other metal,
sometimes of horn, ivory or bone. The sail-maker's thimble
or " thummel " is a heavy ring, worn on the thumb, with a
disc attached which is the part used to press against the needle.
The O.E. tkymd, from which the word descends, is formed,
with the suffix -el, from tkitma, the thumb, the protective
covering having been formerly worn on that digit, llie thumb
by etymology means the " thick " finger, and is to be referred
to the root /am, to swell up, become thick, seen in LaL tumtre,
" tumid," &C. The term " thimble " is used of many mfrhaniral
appliances, especially of various forms of sleeve, bushing or
joining for the ends of pipes, or shaftings, or as covering for an
axle, && In nautical usage the " thimble " is a metal ring
concave on the outside in whkh a zope runs; it is a protection
against chafing*
THIOPHEN, C4H4S, a compound occurring in small quan-
tities in crude coal-tar benzene, from which it was first isolated
in 1883 by V. Meyer {Bcr., 1883, 16, p. 1465). The method
adopted by Meyer to recover the thiopben was as follows. Ten
volumes oi the purest coal-tar bensene were shaken for four
hours with one volume of sulphuric acid, the add layer was
removed and neutralized with lead carbonate, and the lead
thiopben sulphonate obtained was distilled with an equivalent
quantity of ammonium chloride. The distillate obtained was
diluted with one hundred volumes of ligroin (previously purified
by shaking with fuming sulphuric add) and then shaken for one
or two hours with sulphuric acid (using ten volumes of add to
one volume of the distillate), the add layer diluted with water,
neutralised by lead carbonate and the lead salt again distilled
with an equivalent quantity of ammonium chloride. The
distillate is finally rectified. It may be obtained in small
quantity by passing ethylene or acetylene into boiling sulphur;
by passing ethyl sulphide through a red-hot tube; t^ heating
crotonic add, butyric add or erythrite with phosphorus
pentasulphide; by heating succinic anhydride with phosphorus
pentasulphide or sodium succinate with phosphorus trisulphide
(J. Volbard and H. Erdmann, Ber., 1885, 18, p. 454); or by
heating sucdndiaidehyde with two parts of phosphorus tri-
sulphide (C. Harries, Ber., 1901, 34, p. 1496).
It is a oolouriess liquid having a faint smell resembling that
of bensene and boiliag at 84^ C. In its chief properties it very
much resembles bensene, bdag readily brominated.sulphonated,
and nitrated; also, the side chains in the alkyl thiophens are
readily oxidised to carbosyl groups. On passing its vapour
through a red-hot tube it yields di-thienyl, C»H«S» It is com-
pletely decomposed \fy iiydriodic add at 140* C. It condenses
with aldehydes (in chloroform solution) in the presence of
phosphorus pentoxide to give dithiSnyl hydrocarbons (A. Kahke,
Bar., X897, 30, p. 2037). It can be readily recognised by the
bhie colour produced when a trace of thiopben is added to
isatia dissolved in concentrated sulphuric add (the indopkam
reaction). The thiophen ketones may be prepared by the inter-
action of thiophen and its homologues with sdd chlorides in
the presence of anhydrous ahiminiuffl chloride. The thiophen
hoRudogues are best prepared by heating the x-4 diketones
with phosphorus pentasulphide, the diketones reacting in the
enoUc form:
Thiatenot, or ozymetbyl thiophene, is prepared by beating
laevulinic add with phosphorus pentasuJ^de (W. Rues and
C. Paal, Ber., 1886, 19, p. sss)* On this group see also V. Meyer,
DU Tkwpktng^pp*.
THIRLBY—THIRLWALL
851
TCRUT (or T aitLMM) , nOBAi («. Kso6-t57o), EacW
prafete, was bom tt Cunbridge and ms educated at THnity
HaD in tho univenity there, becomii^ n fdlow of Ida college.
Througfi the good offices of his friend, Thomas Cranmer, he was
introduced to the court of Hemy VIII., and he served this
kinf , one of whose chaplains he had become, in aevenl ways.
Among his nunerous public appointmcnu were those of dean
ol the chapel royal and member of the councO of the north.
In 1540 he was made bishop of Westminster, being the first
and only occupant of that see; in 1550, three yean after
Hemy Vm.^ death, he resigned the bishopric, which was
dissolved, and became bishop of Norwich. As a diplomatist
Thirlby had a kmg and varied experience; on several occasions
he was sent on embassies to the emperor Charles V., and he
helped to arrange the peace between England and France in
I5S9. He appears to have served Edward VI. loyally through-
out his abort reign, both at home and abroad, although it is
certain that he disliked the reUgious changes and he voted
against the act of oivKbrmiCy in 1549. He was thus more at
ease when Mary ascended the throne; Transbted hi 1554 to
the bishopric of Ely, he took part in the trial of Cranmer at
Oxford and in the consecration of Reginald Pole as archbishop of
Canterbury, but he himsdf did not take sevece measures sgainst
heretics. When Elizabeth became (jueen the bishop refused to
take the oath of supremacy; in other ways he showed himsdf
hostfle to the proposed rtligSous changes, snd in 1559 he was
deprived of his bishopric. For preacUng against the Innovations
he was arrested in rsfo, and he was in honourable confinement
ti Lambeth Pslaoe when he died on the a6th of August 1570.
THIRLWAU^ GOIIMOP (i797'>87S)t English bishop and
historian, was bora at Stepney, London, on the nth of January
1797. His family was of N<Mthumbrian extraction. He was
a p recoc i ous boy, learning Latin at three, reading Greek at four,
and writing sermons at seven. He went to the Charterhouse
school, where George Orote and Julius Hare were among hb
schoolfellows. He went up to Trinity College, Cambrid^, in
October 1614, and gained the Craven university scholarship
and the chancellor's dsssical medal. In October i8r8 he was
dected to a fdhmship, and went for a year's travel on the
Continent. At Rome he guned the friendship of Baron
(Christian C. J.) von Bunsen, which had a most important in>
fluence on his life. On his return, " distrust of his own re>
solutions and convictions " led him to abandon for the time his
intention of being a dergyman, and he settled down to the study
of the law, ** with a firm determination not to suffer it to engross
my time so as to prevent me from pursuing other branches of
knowledge." How little his heart was with it was shown by
the labour he soon undertook of translating and prefacing
Schleiermacher's essay on the Gospd of St Luke. He further
rendered two of Tieck's most recent NvodUn into Eni^ish. In
x8>7 he at length made up his mind to quit the law, and was
ordained deacon the same year.
Thirlwall now joined with Haxe hi transhting Niebuhr's
History of Rome; the first volume appeared in rSzS. The
transhtion was attacked in the Qwuierly as favourable to
scepticism, and the translators jointly replied. In xSji the
friends established the PhiMogical Hvstum, which lived through
only six numbers, though among ThirhraO's contributions was
his masterly paper on the irony of Sophodes— " the most ex-
(]uisite critidsm I ever read," says Sterling. On Hare*s de-
parture from Cambridge in 1832, lliirlwall became assistant
college tutor, which led him to take a memorable share in the
great controversy upon the admiason of Bissenteis which arose
in 1834. Thomas Ttirton, the regius professor of divinity
(afterwards dean of Westminster and bishop <rf Ely), had written
a pamphlet objecting to the admissioQ, on the ground of the
apprehended unsettlement of the religious opinions 01 young
churchmen. ThiriwaO replied by pointing out that no pre-
viskm for thedogical instruction was in fact made by the
colleges except compubory sttendance at chapd, and that this
was mischievoits. This attadt upon a time-hallowed piece of
college disdplioe brought upon Um a demand lor the rcaignaUon
of hii office as asdstaat tutor. He complied at once; his friends
generally thought that he ought to have tested the master's
power. The occurrence marked him out for promotion
by a Liberal Government, and in the autumn he received
from Lord Brougham as chancellor the living of Kirby-under-
Dale b Yorkshire. Though devoted to his paroclual duties,
he found time to begin his prindpal work, the History of
Greeu, This work was a commission from Lardner*s Cahiati
Cyclopaedia, and was originally intended to have been condensed
into two or three duodedmo volumes. The scale was enlarged,
but Thirlwall always fdt cramped. He seems a little bdow
his subject, and a little below hiniself . As compared with Grote's
history it lacks enthusiasm for a definite poUtiod idea] and is
written entirely from the standpoint of a scholar. It is in this
respect superior, and further shows in places a more impartial
treatment of the evidence, especial^ in respect of the aristo-
cratic and absolute governments of Greece. For these reasons
its popularity was not so immediate as that of Crete's work,
but within recent years Its substantial merits have been more
adequatdy recognised. A noble letter from Thirlwall to Grote,
and Crete's generous reply, are published in the life of the latter.
John Steriing pronounced Thirlwall " a writer as great as Thu-
cydides and Tadtus, and with far more knowledge than they."
The fiist volume wss published in 1835, the last in 1847.
In 1840 Thirlwall was raised to the see of St David's. The
promotion was entirely the act of Lord Melbourne, an amateur
in theok>gy, who had read Thirlwall's introduction to Schlder-
macher, and satisfied himself of the propriety of the appoint-
ment. " I don't intend to make a heterodox bishop if I know
it," he said. In most essential points he was a modd bishop,
and, he acquainted himself with Welsh, so as to preach and con-
duct service in that language. He was not greatly beloved by
his clergy, who fdt thdr intdlectual distance too great, and were
altematdy froxen by his tadtumity and appalled by his
sarcasm. The great monument of hb episcopate is the eleven
famous charges in which he from time to time reviewed the
position of the English Church with reference to whatever
might be the most pressing question of the day— addresses at
once judicial and statesmanlike, full of charitable wisdom and
massive sense. His endeavours to allay ecdoiastical panic,
and to promote Eberality of spirit, frequently required no
ordinary moral courage. He was one of the four prelates who
refused to inhibit Bishop Colenao from preaching in their
dioceses, and the only one who withheld his signature from the
addresses calling upon Oilenso to resign his see. He took the
liberal side in the questions of Maynooth, of the admission of
Jews to parliament, of the Gorham case, and of the educations!
consdence clause. He was the only bishop who voted for the
disestablishment of the Irish Churdi, though a scheme of con-
current endowment would have been much more agreeable to
him. He would have made an admirable successor to Howlqr
in the primacy, but such was the complexion of ecdesiastical
politics that the elevation of the most impartial prelate of his
day would have been resented as a piece of party spiriL
Thiriwall's private life was happy and busy. Though never
married, he was fond of children and of all weak things except
weak-minded dergymen. He had a very judicial mind, and
J. S.MOl said he was the best orator he hsd ever heard. During
his latter years he took great interest in the revision of the
authorized version of the Bible, and wss chairman of the re-
visers of the Old Testament. He resigned his ace in May 1874,
and retired to Bath, where he died on the S7th of July 1875.
He lies in Westminster Abbey in the same grave as Grote.
As sdwlar, critic and ccdeaastical sUtesman Thirlwall
stands very high. He was not a great original thinker; he
lacked the creative faculty and the creative impulse. His
character, with its mixture of greatness and gentlcnca, was
thus read by Carlyle* "A right solid, honest-hearted man,
fun of knowledge and sense, and, in spite of his po^tive temper,
almost timid.''
Thiriwall's History of Gfeec* remaint a standard book. His
JCflMMiu, Uttmry und Tktologicai, were edited by J. J. S. r erswm
(
852
THIRSK^THIRTY YEARST WAR
in thrte volumes (1B7777S), two of which arc occupied by fai»
charges. His 'Leliers, iMerary and Theological, with a connecting
memoir, were edited by I. J. S. Perownc and L. Stokes (iMi).
His LOIen to « Friend (Mifes Johnes of Dolaucotby) are a splendid
mottument to bis memory. They were otriginaUy published by
Dean Stanley, and there u a reviEcd and corrcctra edition. For
a general view of Thirlwall's life and character, see the Edinburtk
Rtfiew, vol. cxliii.; for a picture of him in his diocese. Temple
Bar, vol. bexvL
THIRSK. a market-town in the Thirsk and Malton parlia*
rocntarv division of the North Riding of Yorkshire, England,
32 m. N.W. by N. from York by the North-Eastern railway.
Pop. (1901) 3093. It lies in a fertile plain W. of the Hamblcton
Hills, on the Codbeck, a small tributary of the Swale. The
church of St Mary, entirely Perpendicular, with parvise, chancel,
nave, aisles, porch, and tower 80 ft. in height, is one of the most
beautiful churches in the Riding. The original work of oak
is especially noteworthy. The moat of the ancient castle built
by the Mowbrays about 980 remains. The principal modem
buildings are the assembly rooms, mechanics' institute, and
court-house. Standing in the fertile district of the Vale of
Mowbray, the town has an extensive agricultural trade. Agri-
cultural implements are largely manufactured. Iron-founding,
engineering, tanning and brick-making are carried on, and
there are large flour-mills.
At the time of the Domesday Survey, Thirsk CHcske) was a
manor of littTe importance belonging partly to the king and
partly to Hugh, son of Baldric. Soon afterwards it was granted
to Robert dc Mowbray, who often resided there, and is said to
have raised the castle round which the borough grew up. His
estates, being forfeited for treason against Wniiam Rufus,
were restored by Henry I. to Nigel de Albini, Robert's cousin,
who took the name of Mowbray. Roger, son of Nigel, took part
in the rebellion against Henry II. in ii74> and although he was
Ulowed to retain his estates, his castle at Thirsk was destroyed.
The manor remained in his family untU the death of John de
Mowbray, duke of Norfolk, without issue male in X475f &nd
after passing through several families was finally sold in 1733
to Ralph Bell, whos9 descendants thereafter held the manor.
Thirsk is first mentioned as a borough in a charter granted by
Roger dc Mowbray to Newburgh Priory in the reign of Hcniy II.
It was governed by a bailiff elected by the burgesses at the
court leet of the lord of the manor, and never received a charter
of incorporation. The burgesses were represented in parlia-
ment by two members ixk, 1395 and again from 1553-53 to 1832,
when by the Municipal Reform Act the number was reduced to
one. In 1885 the town was disfranchised. Roger de Mowbray
held a market by prescription in Thirsk in the X3th century,
and by Camden's time (c. 1586) it had become one of the best
markets in the North Riding. It is still held by the lord of the
See FtcfofM CouHly Hidory: Yprkskire; William Grainge. The
Vale of Mowbray: a historical and topographical account of Thirsk
a»d its ueighbourhcod (1859).
THIRTY YEARS' WAR (x6ift-x648)', the general name of a
series of wars in Germany which began formally with the claim
of Fr^rick the elector palatine to the throne of Bohemia and
ended with the treaty of Westphalia. It was primarily a
j^g,,, religious war and was waged with the bitterness
•»*• characteristic of such wars, l>ut at the same time
'^'^'O^ political and feudal quarrels were interwoven with
the religious question, with the consequence that the arim'cs,
considering themselves as their masters' retainers mther than
champions of a cause, plundered and burned cveorwhere,
imUtaiy violence being in no way restrained by expediency.
Xa a war based on the principle cujus regie ^us rdigia it
was vam to expect either the professional or the xutional type
«f *nay to dis|jay iu virtues.
fUty yean before the outbreak of the war the Convention
of PWBaa had compromised the bumiitg questions of the Re*
loiiilfttion, but had left other equally important points as to
*•.-; ^^ *-tixation of church lands and the consecration of
Siahops to the future. Each aoch caae^ then, came
before the normal governauHt inachiiie-*« Diet to 1
that even though at least hajif of the secular princes and 1
tmths of their subjects were Protestants, the votix^ majonty
was Catholic in beliefs ^d in vested interests. Moreover, tke
Jesuits had rallied and disdpUnod the forces of CaftboUdsBi,
while Protestantism, however firm its bold on the pe<^>les, had
at the courts of princes dissipated itself in doctrinal wimngk^
Thus, as it was the princes and the free cities, ai¥i by m awani
the mass of the people, that settled religious qucstioAS, j^^
the strongest side was that which represented con- -riafca-
servatism, peace and Catholicism.. Realizing this aarfia*
from the pr^iminaiy mutterings of tho storm, the 'l^f^ST^
Protestant princes formed a union, which was
promptly answered by the Catholic League. This gnnip was
headed by the wise and able Msximiiisn of Bavaria and mtp*
ported by his army, which he placed under a soldier of long
experience and coBq>icuous ability. Count Tilly.
The war arose in Bohemia, where the magnates, roused by
the systematic evasion of the guarantees t^ Protestants* refused
to elect the archduke Ferdinand to the vacant throne, BMavtes
offering it instead to Frederick, the elector palatine. m m v »
But the aggrandisement of this elector's power was ,"*''
entirely unacceptable to most of the Protestant princes — ^to
John George of Saxony above alL They declared thexsiselves
neutral, fxA Frederick found himself an isolated rebel against
the emperor Ferdinand, aitd little more than the noaotoal head
of an incoherent nobility in his new kingdom.
Even thus early the struggle showed itself in the double
a^)ect of a religious and a political war. Just as the Protestants
and their nominee found themselves looked upon askance by
the other Protestants, so the emperor hixnseif was unable to caU
upon Maximilian's Army of the League without promising
to aggrandize Bavaria. Indeed the emperor was at first —
before Frederick intervened— almost a mere archduke of Austria
waging a private war against his xteighbours. Only the in>
coherence of his enemies saved him. They ordered taxes and
levies of soldiers, but the taxes were not collected, and the
soldiers, unpaid and unfed, either dispersed to their homes
or plundered the country-side. The only coherent farce was
the mercenary corps of &nst von ^lansfeld, which, thrown out
of employment by the termination of a war in Italy, had entered
the service of the Union. Nevertheless, the B^mians were
conspicuously successful at the outset. Under Count Tburxk
they woo several engagements, and Ferdinand's army under
Cari Bonavcntura de Loagueval, Count Buquoi (1571-1621),
was driven back. Thum appeared before Vicima itsclL
Moravia and Silesia supported the Bohemians, and the Austrian
iu>bles attempted, in a stormy conference, to wrest from
Ferdinand not only religbus liberty but also political rights
that would have nude Austiia and Bohemia a bose oonfedcia-
tion of powerful nobles. Ferdinand firmly refused, though the
deputation threatened him to his face, and the tide ebbed as
rapidly as it had fbwed. One or two small miliUxy failaits,
and the enormous political blunder of brining in the electoc
palatine, sealed the fate of the Bohemian movement, for no
sooner had Frederick accepted the crown than MsTimilian let
loose the Army of the League. Spanish aid arrived. Spiiu>la
with ao,ooo men from the Low Countries and Franche Comt£
invaded the Palatinate, and Tilly, with no feats for the safety
of Bavaria, was able to combine with Buquoi against OHtme^r
the Bohemians, whose resistance was crushed at the rri*iS 1.
battle of the Weisser Berg near Prague (8/iS Noveml«r
1630}. With this the Bohemian war ended. Some of the
nobles were executed, and Frederick, the " Winter King,** was
put to the ban of the Empire.
The menace of Spinola's invasion broke up the feeble Pro-
testant Union. But the emperor's revenge alarmed the Union
princes. They too had, more or less latent, the tcadcocy to
separatism and they were Protcsunts, and neither in religioo nor
in politics could they suffer an all-powerful Ca th oli c cnperar.
Moreover, the alternative to a powerful emperor was a power 1 a
Bavaria, and this they uked almost as lit tle .
THIRTY YEARSr WAR
853
queen
Frtsk
There stSl remained Cor the armiec of Tilly and Buquot the
reduction of the smaller garrisons in Bohemia, and these when
6nally expelled tallied under Man&feid, who was joined by the
diafaajided soldiery of the Prateatant Union's short-iiv«d army.
Then there benn the woU-stntaKy *hat waa the disCui^iBhiiis
max k of the Thirty Yean' War. An array even of niffiaos could
be controlled, as Tilly controlled that of the League, if it were
_,- , paid. But Mansfeld, the servant of a shadow king,
2*JIi^ ^"^^^ "*** P*y* Therefore " he must of neccseity plunder
wtefe he wtaa. His movesneits woold be 1 ^
neither by political nor by military consideratiooa. As
his men had eaten up one part of the country they must
to another, if they w-ene not to die of starvation. They 01 .
• law of their own, quite Independent of the wishes of needs of
the sovereign whose interoBta they weie supposed to serve."
These movements were (or prefcfepoe made upon hostile terrUoryp
and Mansfeld was so far successful in them that the situation la
162 1 became distinctly unfavourable to the empefor. He had had
to recall Buqooi's army to Hungary to fight against Gabrid Bethlen,
the priiice oSf Transylvania, and in aa unsucoestful battle at Ncu»
hausel (July 10} Buouoi was killed. Tilly and the League Army
fought warily and did not risk a decision. Thus even the proffered
English mecliation In the German war might have been accepted
but for the fact that m the Lower Palatinate a corps of English
volnnteers, raised by Sir Hocace Vere for the service of the English
princess Eliubcth, the fair queea of Bohemia, found itself com*
pdlcd. for want of pay and rations, to live, as Mansfeld lived, on
the country of the nearest probable enemy — in their case the bishop
of Spire. This brought about a fresh intervention of Spfaiolas
aimy* whkh had hegu» to remm to the Low Countries to prose*
cute the interminable Dutch war. Moteover Mansfeld, having so
thoroi^hly eaten up the Palatinate that the magistrates of Frede-
rick's own towns begged Tilly to expc! his general, decamped into
Alsace, where he seized Hagenau and wintered in saiety.
Ihe winter of x6ai-2a passed in a seriea of negotiations which
failed because too mai^ interests, iaside and outside Germaay,
were bound up with Protestantism to allow the Catholics to speak
as c»nqucrors, and because the cause of Protestantism was too
much involved^ with the cause of the elector palatine to be taken
in hand with enef^y by the Protesunt princes. But Frederick
and Mansfeld found two allies. One was Christian of Brunswick,
the gallant young luught-errantk titular bishop of Halbcrstadt.
queen Elizabeth's champion, and withal, though he called himself
C^Ues Preund, der fJzlff* f<niMf,a plunderer of peasants
as well as of priests. The otlier waa the numave Geoi^e
Frederick of Baden-DurUch, reputed to be of all German
^~ ~, princes the mostskilful sequestrator of ecclesiastical lands.
mm wo. j^ ^pj^j jg2 j^ ^.|^.j^ yj^^ garrisoned the central fortresses
of the Palattnate, Mansfeld, Christian and George Frederick took
^ field against Tilly, who at once denunded assistance from
Spinola. The latter, though engaged with the Duteh. aenC a corps
under his subordinate Cordova. Before this amved Mansfeld and
the margrave of Baden had defeated Titty at XVieshxh, south of
Heidelberg (17/27 April 1622). Nevertheless Tilly's army was not
as easily dissolved as one of theirs, and sooa the aHias had to
•epamte to find food. Then Cordova came bp. and, Tilly aad the
Spaniards combined defeated George Frederick at Wintpfen on the
hfeckar fa6 ApriI/6 May). Following up this success, Cordova
chased Mansfeld back into Alsace, while Tilly w«nt north to oppose
Christian of Brunswick on the Main. On June 10/20 the latter^s
array was aUnost destroyed by the League Army at Hochit. Mansr
feld, and with him Frnlerick, had already set out from Alsace to
join Christian, but when that leader amved with only a handful
of beaten me.i, the war was practically at an end. Frederick
took Mansfeld and Cluristian back to Atxacc, and after dismissing
their troops from his employment, retired to Sedan. Henceforth
be was a picturesque but powerless exile, and his lands and hb
electoral dignity, forfeited by the ban, went to the prudent Maxi-
mtllan, who thus became elector of Bavaria. Finally Tilly con-
quered the Palatinate fortresses now guanled only by the English
volunteers.
The next act in the drama, hcnrever, had already begun ivith
the adventures of the outlaw azmy of Mansfeld and Chrisiian.
JfMsMtf ^''*' Hdchst, had it not been for them, the war might
sm4CM9' Have ended in compromise. James I. of England was
Owe/ busy aa always with mediatioB achcmea. Spain,
*y being then in close connexion wHh him, was working
•'*^ to prevent the transfer of the electorate to Maii-
miUan, and Uie Protestant princes of North Germany being
neutral, a dipk)matic struggle over the fate of the Palatinate,
with Tilly's and Cordova's . armies opposed in equilibrium,
might have ended in a new convention of Fassan that would
have regulated the present tnn&les and kft the future to
settle its own problems. The struggle would only have been
defeired, it is true, but meanwhile the North German Pro-
testants, now helplesp' in an uaaaned neuUolity, would have
tahen the hint ftom MaTJmJKan and oiganiaed themsdVcs and
their army. As it was, they remained powerjeaa and inacdve,
while Tidy's army, instead of being disbanded, was kept in
hand io deal with the adventuiers.
These, after eating up Alsace, moved on to Lorraine, whesBDpan
the French government ** warned them off." But ere k>ng ttiey
found a new employment. The Duuh were losing ground-M^Me
Spinola, who was besieging Bcrgen^p-Zooro, and the Statea
General invited Mansfeld to relieve it. Time was short and no
detour by the Lower Khine possible, and the adventurers therefore
moved straight across Liucemburg and the Spanish NetheHands to
the rescue. Cordova barred the route at Fleunis near the ^mbre,
but the desperate invaders, held together by the sheer ,. ^.^
force of character of their k:4dcrs, thrust nim out of ZH^m
their way (19/20 August 1622) and relieved Bergen-op- T^\Z
Zoom. But ere long, finding Dutch discipline intolerable, Ti5i^
they marched off to the rich country of East Friesland. ^^
'Their presence raised fresh anxieties for the neutral princes of
North Germany. In 1623 Mansfeld issued from his Frisian strong-
hold, and the threat of a visitation from his army induced the
princes of the Lower Saxon Circle to join him. Christian was
himself a member of the Circle, and although he resigned hb
buhopric, he ^vas taken, with many of his men, into the service
of his brother, the duke of Brunswick-WolfenbOttel; around the
mercenary nucleus rathered many thousands of volunteers, and
the towns and the nobtes' castles alike were alarmed at the progress
of the Catholics, who were reclaiming Protestant bishoprics. But
this movement was nipped in the bud by the misconduct of the
mercenaries. The authorities of the Circle ordered Christian to
depart. He returned to Holland, therefore, but Tilly started in
pursuit and caught him at Stadtlohn, where on 28 July/6 August
1623 his army was almost destroyed. Thereupon the Lower-SaMm
Circle, which, like the Bohemians, had ordered collectively taxes
and levies of troops that the members individually furnished
either not at all or unwillingly, disbanded their army to prevent
brigandage. Mansfeld. too, having eaten up East Friesland, returned
to Holland in 1624.
The only material bctor was now Tilly's ever-victorious
Army of the League, but for the present it was suspended
inactive in the midst of a spider's web of European Jp^niga
and German diplomacy. Spain and England had ls<««^
quarrelled. The latter became the aUy ol France, f««<'>^
over whose policy RidieUeu now nilcd, and the United Pio-
vinccs and (later) Denmark joined th«m. Thus the war was
extended beyond the boidcia of the Empiie, and the way opened
for ceaseleaa foreign intcrvendmuL FromUtebailkofSiatklohti
to the pitiful end twenty years later, the decision «f Gosiaki
quaxicls lay in the hands of foreign powers, and iar two ccntunes
after the treaty of Westjihalia the evil tradiUon was faithfully
ioUowed.
France was concerned chiefly with S^afai, whose ttilitMry
possessions all along her frontier suggested that a new AustrasiA,
more powerful than Chaxlea the Bald's, might arise. To Get-
many only subsidies were sent,, but in Italy the Valtelline, as
the connecting link between Spanish posaeftsions and Germany,
was mastered by a French expedition. James, in concert with
Fiance, renequipped Mantfcid and allowed him to raise an army
in Enj^nd, but Richelieu was uawiUing to allow Manafcld's
men to tiavecse France, and they ultimately went to the Low
Countries, where, being nw prcsscd^men for the moot part, and
having . neither pay (James having been afraid to summon
parliament) nor experience in plundering, they perished in the
winter of 1625. At the same time a Hugueiiot rising paralysed
Richelieu's foreign policy. Holland after the cc^pae Of
hfansfeld's expedition was anxious for her own safely owing to
the steady «ivancc -of Spinola. The only member .of the
alliance who intervened in Germany itself waa tmurvt^
Christian IV. of Denmark, who m duke of Holstein .iAm me
was a member of the Lower Saxon Circle, as king of ^^^^'^
Denmark was ahxioys to extend his influence over ^^^
the North Sea porU, and as Protestant dreaded the
rising power of the Cathoh'cs. Gustavus Adolphua of Sweden,
judging better than any of the difliculties of afiionting the
Empire and Spahi, contented himself for the present with
carrying on a war with Poland.
Christian IV. raised an army in his Own lands and in the Lower
Saxon Cireic in the spring of i6z$, Tilly at once adyanced to
noet him. Bat he had ooTy the Army of the LeaguOi Fenboaod^
85+
THIRTY YEARS' WAR
troops wfiiM t occujpud with rapdlinc a imr uirmuI off Gurid
fiethlen. llieo. bke a dtus ex matkima, WalleasteiQ, duke of
Friedland. came forward and offered to raise and maintain an army
in the emperor's service. It was an army like Mandcld's in that
it lived on the country, but its exactions weie systematic mnd the
mu^^, products economically used, so that it was possible to
^^~ teed 50,000 men where Mansfdd and his like had barely
^T_ — subsisted 20,000l This method, the high wages which
^~" he paid, and his own princdy habits and commanding
"^'^ personality gave it a oobesioa that neither a free com-
pany Aor an army of mere Lower Saxon contingents could ever hope
toattaia.
In 1635, in s^te oi Tm/s appeals, Wallcnstein did nothing but
levy contributions about Magdeburg and Halberstadt, keeping h'ls
new army well away from the risks of battle until he could trust
it to oonaucr. It was fortunate for Ferdinand that he did so.
Christian IV.. who had been joined by Mansfeld and Christian of
Brunswick, had in 1626, 60,000 men. Wallenstein and Tilly
together had only a very dight numerical superiority, and behind
them was nothing. Even the hereditary provinces of Austria were
threatening revolt owing to their havidg to maintain Maximilian's
troops (the new electcM- thus recouping nis expenses in the Pfelati-
nate war) and Gabriel Bcthlen was again in the fidd. But on the
other side the English subsidies f^ed, and the Protestant armies
soon began to suffer in consequence. Tilly opposed Christian IV..
Wallenstein Mansfdd. The latter, having stood still about Lflbeck
and in the outskirts of Brandenburg tiuthe food was exhausted,
advanced upon Wallcnstein, attacked him in an entrenched position
at the Bridge of Dessau and was thoroughly ddeated (15/2$ April
1626). ile then wandered across Germany into Silesia and joined
Bethlen. Wallenstein followed up, and by taking 'up
strong positions, compdled Mansfeld and Bethlen to
choose betm'een attacking him and starving. So. with>
out a battle, he brought about a truce, whereby Bethlen
was disarmed and Mansfeld was required to leave Hungary.
Mansfdd and Christian of Brunswickdied soon afterwards, the one in
Hungary, the other in Westphalia. King Christian. Idt alone and
unable without English subsidies to carry on the war methodically,
took the offensive, as Mansfdd had done, in order to live on the
Thuriopan couatrydde. But Tilly, with whom Wallenstein had
kft a part of his army, moved as 9uickly as the king, brousht him
to action at Lutter-«m-Barenberge m Brunswick and totally defeated
1^ (17/27 August).
Wxh tUs, armed opposition to TUly and Wallenstein in the
fidd pcacticaUy ceased until 1630L But there was enough
danger to prevent the d£sbandment of their armies, which con-
tinued to live on the country. In the intervening yean the
balance of forces, political and military, was materially altered.
France opposed ^paiit and the emperor in Italy with such
£av vigour as Huguenot ^outbreaks permitted, Fjjghnd
ls«>»_ <tuarreUcd with France, but yet like France sent
■*■■** subsidies to the North German Protestants. Gustavns
held his hand, while Christian slowly gave up fortress after
fortress to TiUy. Walleaatein, returning from the campaign
against Gabrid Bethlen, subdued Silesia, idwie a small part of
Mansfeld*s army had been left in 1626, and alterwardk drove
Christianas anny through Jutland (1627). But Wallenstein,
with his dreaaos of a united Germany free in conxience and
•baotutdy obedient to the emperor, drifted further and further
away from the League. Ferdinand thought that he could
fulfil the secular portioft of Wallcnstcm*s policy while giving
satisfaction to the bishops. The princes and bisbops of the
League continued to oppose any aggrandiaement oi tho em-
peror's power at their eipnwr and to insist upon the resumption
of chufch lands. In this equilibrium the North German Pro-
testant cities were strong enough to refuse to admit Wallen-
stcin*s gairismn. In 1628 Waltenstcsai, who had recdved the
liuchy of Mecklenburg on its rightful kird bctcg put to the ban
lor hisshai* in the Danbh war, began to occupy his new towns,
and afao to spread along the coasts, for hxs united Germany
eooM never be more than a dream umil the possifaility of
JhMk and Swedish invasions was removed. But the Hanae
towns rejected his overtures, and Strakund, scaMid-rate seaport
themjk it nus, absolutely refused to admit a gaixisaii of his
SiMtf ^"iM aoldkty. The result was the famous dcse
M^ «C Stfabond (Fehroary to August 1628), in whkh.
*** vrith some sli^t hdp from oversea, the citiaens cna-
MMk^ lidberto uaoaaqoerad WaUcnstctn army to retire.
I the result proved, a turning-point in German
r 9 paBcy 01 lestunng oracr had pnctiialy
nm'versal support. But the instrament of the restoration was
a plundering army. Even this might have been borne had
Wallenstein been able to give them, as he wished, not only
peace but religious freedom. But when Christian signed the
peace of LQbeck, and the Edict of Restitution (1629) gave back
one hundred and fifty northern ecdesiastical foundations to
the Catholics, men were convinced that one ruler i^s^mb
meant one rdigion. Rather than endure this the Mu^um
North Germans had called in Gustavus Adolphus, ^f
and, just as Gustavus landed, the resentment of the ^'***
princes of the League against WaQensteia's policy and Wallen*
stein's soldiers came to a head, and the emperor was forced to
dismiss him* His soldiers were taken over by TOly, and for
the moment he disappeared from the scene.
A thoroughly trained army, recruited from good yeomen
and good soldiers of fortune, paid good wages, and led by a
great captain, was a novelty in war that more than compensated
for Tilly's numerical superiority. Gustavus, however, after
landing at PcencmUnde in June, spent the rest of the year in
establishing himself firmly in Mecklenburg and Pomerania,
partly for military reasons, partly in view of a future Swedish
hegemony of the Baltic, and most of all in order to secure the
active sui^Mct of the more important Protestant princes, so as
to appear as an auxiliary ntber than a principal in the Geraaaa
conflict. First the old duke Bogidav of Pomerania, then Gcov^
William of Brandenburg joined him, very unwillingly. He was
soon afterwards allied with France, by the treaty of Banralde
(January 1631). John George of Saxony, stiU attempting to
stifle the war by his policy of neutrality, sent a last appeal to
Vienna, praying for the revocation of the Edict of Restitution.
Meanwhile Tilly had marched into north-eastern Germany.
On the 19/29 March 1651, the old general of the League
destroyed a Swedish garrison at New Brandenburg, and
although Gustavus concentrated upon him with a swiftness
that surprised the old-fashioned soldiers, TSly wasted no time
in manoeuvres but turned back to the Elbe, where his Ucutcxiant
Pappcnhdm was besieging Magdebuig. This dty had twice
defied Wallenstdn's attempts to introduce a garrison, and it
was now in arms against the League. But JohJa GeoKye, their
prince, had not yet dedded to join Gustavus. The latter, as
yet without active allies, thought it impossible to go forward
alone, and could only hope that his sudden and briffiant stona
(3/13 April) of Frankfurt-on-Oder' would bring back TCIy
from the Elbe. But the hope was vain. Tilly and sm^mt
Pappenheim pressed the siege of Magdeburg, and w ^*
althou^ the dtizens, directed by Swedish officers, *"*'
fought desperatdy the place was stormed, sacked and harai
on the ni^ of the loth of May 1631, amidst horrors that
ndther of the imperialist generals was able to check, or erca 10
mitigate. The Catholics rejoiced as though for another St
Bartholomew's day, the Protestants were paralysed, and c%-«a
Gustavus, accused on all hands of having aUowed the Magde-
burgers to perish without giving them a helping hand, aonow>
fully withdrew into Pomerania. But THIy, in spite of Papf!v!»-
hdm's remoostrances, turned westward against Hesse-Casd
and other' minor prindpalities whose rulers had declared for
Gustavus. The king of Sweden, thereupon, clearing nway the
remaining League garrisons, on the Oder, advanced to Wcrbcn
(at the junction of the Elbe and the Havd), where the arwiy
entrenched itsdf, and, in spite of sickness and famine, stoically
awaited the attack. The desired result was achieved. At the
end of July TSBy, icturning from the west before he had accom-
plished its redaction, made his appearance and was twice re^
Vo^std (tshs and iS^>S July), ksittg 6000 men oat of ar.oooL
Moreover, Ferdinand having in his m o m e nt of tiium ph latly
rejected John George's appeal against the Edict, SaJDomy took
op aites. Thercnpoo TiUy, turm'ng away fran Gastavcs*s
entrcnchmcms, in«*adcd Saxovy, bring reinfoiced em. rvrtr hv
»o.ooo men from Italy (the war there being left to the Sjpnm'ai iL) .
The elector at once made an alKaace with the Swedes.
*In whkrh he exacted fife for^Kfe and phnder lor
return far the danghwr at New
THIRTY VEARS^ WAR
855
Thtn Gustavus advanced in ettnetl. TiOy had taken no
measures to hold him off whHe the invasion of Saxony was in
Mauhai progress, and he crossed the Elbe at Wittenberg.
Araito«- x6,ooo Saxons joined the 36,000 Swedes at Dttben,
*** and some of the western Geiinans bad already come
in. TiUy had just captured Leipzig, and outside that place,
carried away by Fappenheim's entbusiasmf he gave battle
on the 7/17 September to the now superior allies. The first
battle of Breitenfeld (q.v.) was a triumphant success for Gus*
tavus and for the new Swedish system of war, such a battle as
no living soldier had seen. The raw Saxons, who were com-
manded by Amim, once Wallenstein's lieutenant, were routed
by TiU/s men without the least difficulty, and the balance of
numbers returned again to the imperialist side. But the
veterans of the League army were nevertheless driven off the
field in disorder, leaving 6000 dead. TiUy himself was thrice
wounded, and only the remnant of his own faithful Walloon
regiments remained with him and bore him from the field.
All Protestant Germany hailed GUstavus as the liberator.
Walknatdn, glad of the defeat of the Catholic army, proposed
to co-operate with the Swedes. John George, the Swedish
general Horn and the Swedish chancellor Oxenstiema united
in advising Gustavus to march straight upon Vienna.
Richelieu, who desired to bumble Ferdinand rather
than to disestablish the power of the Catholic princes,
was of the same mind. But Gustavus deliberately
chose to move into South Germany, there to relieve
the Protestants oppressed by Maximilian, to otganise
the cities and the princes in -a new and stronger ProtesUnt
Union, the Corpus Etangclicorum, and to place himself in a
country luU of resources whence he could strikeout against the
emperor, Tilly, and the Rhine Spaniards in turn. To the Saxons
he left the task of rousing the Bohemian Protestants, perhaps
with the idea of thoroughly committing them to the war upon
Ferdinand. The Swedish army pushed on through Halle,
Erfurt, Wiirxburg to Mains, where in the middle of the
" Pfaffengassc," the long lane of bishoprics and abbacies along
the Main and the Rhine, it wintered in luxury. The Palatinate
was roorganixcd under Swedish officials and the reformed religion
established again. In March 163 a the campaign was resumed.
Nuremberg and Donauwdrth welcomed Gustavus. Tilly's
army, rallied and rc-organixed for the defence of Bavaria,
awaited him on the Lech, but after a fierce battle the passage
was forced by the Swedes (4/14 April) and Tilly himself
was mortally wounded. Augsburg, Munich and all the towns
and open country south of the Danube were occupied without
resistance. At the same time John George's army entered
Prague without firing a shot.
The emperor had now either to submit or to reinstate Wallen-
stcin. Wallenstcin demanded as the price of his services the
reversal of the Edict, and power to dethrone every
" prince who adhered to the Swedes. His terms were
accepted, and in April 1632 he took the field as the
emperor's alter ego with a new army that his recruiters
had gathered in a few weeks. He soon expelled the
Saxons from Bohemia and offered John George
amnesty and the rescinding of the Edict as the basis of peace.
The elector, bound by his alliance with Gustavus, informed
the Swedish king of this offer, and a series of negotiations began
between the three leaders. But John George had too much in
common with each to follow either Wallenstein or Gustavus
unreservedly, and the war recommenced. Gustavus's first
danger was on the Rhine side, where Pappenhetm, aid^ by the
Spaniards, entered the field. But Richelieu, the half-b^rted
enemy of distant Catholic princes, was a vigorous enough op>
ponent of Spain on his own frontier, and Gustavus was free in
turn to meet Wallenstein's new army of 60,000, composed of the
men immortalized by Schiller's play, excellent in war and in
plundering, destitute of all home and national ties, and owning
aDegiance to iU general alone. WliOe Gustavus in Franconia
was endeavouring with little success to consolidate his Corpus
Bfong^korum Wallenstein came upon the scene. Gnstavns,
as toon aa Ut Rhine HeffhmrnH. ted rqonMd, «ffcfed tarn
batUe. But as in 16^5 WaUenstda would risk no batUo until
his army had gained confidence. He entrenched himseU neat
Fttrth, while GusUvns camped has army about Nuremberg
and a contast of endurance enaied, an whkh the Swedes, who,
although they had kamed to plunder ui Bavaria, were kept
rigidly in hand, fared worse. Wallenstein, aided by Us
superiority in irregulatf cavalry, was able to starre j^
for three days kwger than the king, and at last jtoM«#
GusUvus furiously attacked the entrendiments Mmr w
(batUe of the Alte Veste, 24 Augnst/3 September,' *••
163s) and was repulsed with heavy losses. Thereupon GosUvus
retired, endeavouring in vain t^ tempt Wallenstein out of his
stronghold by making his retreat openly and within striking
distance of the imperialists. WaJlensUin had other views than
simple miliUry success. Instead of following Gustavus, who
first retired north>>westwajd and then returned to the I>anube
at Ingolstadt, he marched into Saxony, his army plundering
and burning even more thoroughly than usual in oritr to force
the Saxona into peace. GosUvus followed with the swiftness
that was peculiar to the Swedish system, and his detachments
on the Main under Bemhard of Saxe-Weimar having secured
the road through Tburinpa, he concentrated at Erfurt when
WaUenstctn had scaicely naastercd Leipzig. But it was now
hte in the season, and Wallenstein, hoping to spin out the few
remaining weeks of the campaign in an entrenched position,
allowed Fappenheim, who had joined himi to retuni towards
the Weser country, where, as in many other districts, spasmodic
minor campaigns were waged by local forces and small detach^
mcnts from the lesser bodies. Within forty-eight hours Fappen-
heim was called back. GustAvus, without waiting for itwim
Amim's Saxons to join him, had suddenly moved for- • #
waird,' and on the 6/16 November the battle of **"^
Ltit2cn iq.v.) was fought, a battle as fierce even as Breitenfeld.
Gustavus and Pappeoheim were sbin, and Wallenstein's army*
yielding to Bemhard's last attack, retreated.
The fan of Gustavus practically determined the interventioa
of France, for Richelieu supported all electors. Catholic or
Protestant, against the central power at Vienna as part of his
anti-Spanish policy, and French assistance .was now indis-
pensable to the Protestants. For although Latzen was a Victory
and the Protestant circles formed the League of Heilbronn in
April 1633, the emperor was really in the ascendant. Johii
George of Saxony, uneasy both at the prospect of Lt^m
more foreign armies in Germany and at the expressed •/if«*'
intention of Bemhard to carve out a principality for *»*•* .
himself, needed but little inducement to make peace. But tho
tragedy of Latzen was soon to be followed by the tragedy of
Eger. Wallenstdh, gndually forming the resolve of forcing
peace on Germany with his army, relaxed his pressure on Saxony,
aaid drawing Arnim's army out of Silesia to protect Dresden.
he flung himself upon the Swedish garrisons in Silesia. Winning
a victory at Stdnau (October ix, 1633) and capturing one town
after another, he penetrated almost to the Baltic. But he was
recalled to the south-west before his operations had had any
effect. The Swedish nrmy, under Bemhard, Horn and Ban^,
had before the formation of the League of Heilbronn returned
to the Palatinate, and while Horn and Banf r operated againat
an imperial army under Aldringer in the Neckar country,
Bemhard took Regensburg from Maximilian's army. But it
was now late in the year and Wallenstein was hitent upon
peace. With this object be endeavoured to secure the higher
officers of the army, but these were gradually won over by
Spanish emissaries; the emperor, having decided to
continue the war in alliance with Spain, dismissed
his general for the second time. Wallenstein then
openly attempted to unite the Swedish, Saxon and
other Protestant armies with his own, so as to compel
all parties to make peace. But his army would not follow, the
coup d'itat failed, and Wallenstein was murdered at Eger
(is/zs February 1634).
All unity. Catholic or Protestant, died with him, and lor the
U
§5^
THIRTY YEARS* WAR
Mzt fdwteen ytan Gtfrmuir «» tiinply the battle-ground of
Ftench, Spuiih, Austiiaa and S««didi annics, whidi, having
leaned lit impunity and advantages of plondev in the school
of Manafeid and WaJlensteia, redaoed the coantxy to a. state
of nuKfy that no historian has been able to describe, save
by dftaiting the honors of one or otiier viOage among the
thousands that were rained, and by establishing the net result
that Germany in 1648 was woise off than England in 1485,
M much wone that while England was the healthier f<»r liaving
passed through the fever of the Wars of the Roses, Germany
remained for 150 years more in the stlUneas of ekhaustioo.
SooceM was fv the present with the emperor and Spun. Gellas.
now appointed to WaUcnsteia's place, was Aldringer's oompanion
(rota boyhood, whereas Bernharo. the Rupert of the German war»
disagreed with Horn. Under the leadership nominally of the king
of tiunniy, Ferdinand's heir, but really of Gallas, the army re-
captured Regeasbiirg and Dooauwdrth, and when the l^iaaish
t^^fMnal Infante joined them with iS^ooo men on his way from
Italy to t^ Netherlands, they were invmciblc. Bemhard attacked
_ them in an entrenched poution at NOrdlingcn (27 August/
^ fff_. 6 September 16^) and was beaten with a Iom of
y *'*'* ' ijfiao men to aooo of thede ffndwm. Nficdliogen was to
■^■•■' the Swedes what Malplaouet was seventy-five yean later
to the Dutch. The model army 01 Gustavus penshed there, and
for the rest of the war a Swedish army, except for some advantages
of organisation and technical form, was intnnsicany no better than
another. Gallas reconquered the towns in southern Fnmoonia.
John George, having obtained bom Fetdinand a oompcomise on
the question of the Edict — its complete revocation Wallcnstein's
death and Bemhard's defeat had made impossible — agreed to the
peace of Prague (20/30 May 1655), wherein all that
was Pkotestant in 1627 was to remain so, or if once
resumed by the Roman Church to be letumed to the
Lutherans. A certain number of princes followed John George's
example on the same terms, but those who were excepted by name
fram the amnesty and those who had to gain or to regain the lands
lost before 1627 continued the war. Tlwre was now no ideal, no
sfcjectivc, common even to two or thne parties. The Catholic
claims were settled by compromise. The oowcr of the central
authority, save in to far as the army could without starvation
snake itself succesMvely fdt at one place and another, had long
disappeared. Gustavus's Corpia BpoMgdicorum as a
institution was moribund since Ndrdlingcn, and RicheUcn and the
Spaniards stepped forward as the protagonists, the League of
Heilbronn and the emperor respectively being the puppets.
The centre of gravity was now the Rhine valley, the highroad
be t we eu Spanish Italy and the Spanish Netherlands. Richelieu
bad, as tks price of his assistance after Nordlingen, taken over
the Alsatian fortresses held by Bemhard, and in May. just before
the treaty of Prague was signed, he declared war on Spain. The
FtemJi army numbered 130,000 men in 16^5. and 200,000 in
. thie year after. One army assembled in Upper Aisacc
^C^^T* for the attack of the Spaniards in Fraachc Comtc;
'•^2^ another occupied Lorraine, which had been conquered
"'■■^ in 1633; a corps under Henri de Rohan was despatched
from the same quarter across Switzerland, doubfing itself from
sotdicKB of fortane met with en rtmie, to expd the enemy from the
Valtelline, and 90 to cut the route to the Netherlands. Another
force, co-operating with the duke of Savoy, was to attack th.;
Milanese. Bemhard was to operate in the Rhme and Main country,
French garrisons holding the places of Alsace. Having thus
ananged to isolate the Spanish Netherlands, Richdieu sent has
mam amy, about 30,000 soong, thither to join Frederick Henry
of Orange and so to crush the Cardinal Infante. This was strategy
on a scale hitherto unknown in the war. Tilly, Wallcnstcin and
Gustavus had made war in the midst of pohtical and leligious
tranfaies that hiaag over a confused country. They had thecefore
made war as they oould, not as they wished^- Richdieu bad unified
France under the angle authority of the king, and his strategy.
like his polky. was masterful and dear. But the event proved
that his scheme was too comprehensive. To seise and to hold
with an unshakeaUe grip the nedc of the Spanish power when
CoUas and the imperimists woe at hand was a great undertaking
m hsdf and absorbed large forces. But not content with this
Rkbaieu moposed to strike at each of the two halves of his enemy's
Rosier at the same time as he separated them. His forces were not
^^ Mffident for these tasks and he was therefore compdlcd
^M^fc taeke them out. both in Italy and the Netherlands, by
ZI^^i VQffking with allies whose interests were not his. The
Sitt^K^^^^"'^ *^ ^^ Meuse won a victory at Avins. somhof
^^^ liny, and af tcrwaids joined Frederick Hemy in the siege
^^ tf liaestrlekt. But the Brabanteis and Fkmiags bad
of warfare parted so far from their former asso-
"Vaal that the inroad of Frederick Henry's army
those rare outbursts of a momentary *' ""-^i** *
fironi time to time in the wars of the »7th and
''effect of it was that Frederick Heniy wuhdrew
to his own coantiy, and in I6s6 the Fnapch nmtlwm aray ted
to face the whole of the Caidinal lolante's forces. In Italy
the Franco-Piedmontese army achieved practically nothing, tlie
gathering of the French contingent and its passage of the Alps
In the Valtcliine Rohan onndoftrri a mm-
which.even tiKday is quoted as a nmdel
consuming
cessf ul mo«
of its kind.'
In Alsace and Lorraine, besides the Spai
duke of Lorraine was in the fidd against the
the dispossessed
rench. Neither
side was strong enough to pnvail oompletdy. Bemhard n
a desultory campaign in Germany, and then, when swppftrs gave
out and Gallas advanced, joined the French. Towards the end
of the year his army was taken into the French service, be liimsdf
remaining tn command and rccerving vague promises of n future
duchy of Alsace;. Galbs's army from Frankfurt •on-Main pushed far
into Lorraine, but it was late in the season and snnt of food com*
pdled it to retreat. In eastern Germany the consequences of the
peace of Prague were that Saxony, Brandenburg and other states,
signatories to the treaty, were iiio fade the enemies of those who
continued the war. Thus John George turned his arms against the
Swedes in his neighbourhood. But their commander Banir was as
superior in generalship as he was inferior in numbers, and held the
field until the renewal of Cu&tavus's truce with Poland, which
expired in this year, set free a fn^h and uncorrapted Swedish
corps that had been held ready for eventualities in that oooatry .
This corps, under Torstenason. joined him in October, and on the
1st of November they won an action at Domitz on the Elbe.
Thus Richelieu's great scheme was only very partially executed.
The battle of Avins and Rohan's Valtdlinc campaign, the only
important military events of the year, took place outside Germany ;
within Gormany men were chiefly occupied in considcfing whether to
accept the terms of the peace of Prague. But the land had no
rest, for the armies were not disbanded.
In 1636 the movements foreshadowed hi 163^ were carried out
with energy. John George, aided by an impeiialist army, captured
Magdeburg, drove back Ban£r to Luncburg, and extended his right
wing (imporialists) through Mecklenburv imo Pomerania, where,
however, a Swedish force under the cMcr Wrangcl chccixd its
progres s . The Saxons then passed over the Elbe at ^TangermOnde
and joined the imperialistB, tlueateidng to interpose bnwuiu
Ban£r and the BaltK. But Ban^ was too qukk for them. He
destroyed an isolated brigade of imperialists at Periebers. and
before the Brandenburg contingent could join John George. bron(;ht
on a gcTferal action at Wtttstock (24 September /4 October 1636).
The doctor had 30^000 men against 22.000 and sought ^.^-^^
to attack both in (root and rear. But while his \f^Z^Z^
cntreikchntents defied the frontal atuck Bancr threw ••"»■«■•
most of bis army upon the enveloping force and crushed it. The
Swedes lost 5000 Idlled and wounded, the combined army it. 000
killed and wounded and 8000 prisoners. The prestige of so fariiliant
a vkrtory repaired even Ndrdlingcn. and many North Gcnnan
prirxxs who were about to make peace took fresh heart.
In the west, though there were no such battles as Wittstoc^,
the campaign of i6j6 was one of the most remarkable oC the
whole war. The Cardinal Infante was not only relieved by the
retreat of the Dutch, but also reinforced by a fxcsh mny*
under a famous cavalry officer, Johann von AVccrt. He pR>-
pared, therefore, to invade France from the north-west. Even
though the army that had fought at Avins and Maestricht re-
turned by sea from Holland, the French were too much scattered
to offer an effective resistance, and Prince Thomas of Savoy-
Carignan and Johann von Weert, the Cardinal Infante's
generals, took Corbie, La Capelle,and some other places, passed
the Somme and advanced pn Compiigne. For a Baoment Pans
was terror-stricken, but the Cardinal Infante, by jniasiae
ordering Prince Thomas not to go too far in case •"=*'»«.
he were needed to rrpd a Dutch inroad hito Bdgitim,
missed his opportunity. Louts XIIL and Richelieu lumedthe
Parisians from panic to enthioiasm. The burgheis aimed and
drilled, the worknrien hiboured unceasingly at the dilapidated
walls, and the old Hugoenot marshal, Jacques Nompait, due
de La Force (d. 1642), standing on the steps of the H*lel de
Vine, raised men for the regular army by the hundred. Ifooey,
too, was willingly given, and some i»,ooo volunteers w«rt to
Gompidgne, whither Gaston from Orieans, LongneviDe frotn
Normandy, and Cond^, from Fninche Coral*, brou^ kirics
and reinforcements. TTms the army at Compi^gne was soon
*See ShadsreH. Movniain Warfare; and Hardy de Krini,
BataiUes frau^aises, vol. iii.. for details.
* Composed partly of Bavarians, who -lad fought thek way
fram the Danube to the VVcser. partly of Cokigne troops who had
joioed the Bavarians agaiost the Protectants of aoith-wcat Germany.
THIRTY YEARS! WAR
857
^0^000 Unog, TW tmy. of LomiM vader Dok* ScnlHtrd
tad Loab de Nogaret, Cardiiial de La Valette (d. K639). placed
Itself at C^inal to prevent any junction between Prince Tbomaa
and tbe army of Gallaa. But Gaston of Orleana, t^ kiaf'i
licitteaant at Compi^gac^ waa no more c nt e nwisi ag aa a de-
fender of tlie co^ntiy than be bad been as a lebel and Con-
spirator, and tbe anny itself was only balf mobile owin^ to its
rawness and its '* trained-band " character, and tbe Spaniacda
and Bavarians retieed unmo kat ed t» oppose Frederick Henry
in tbe Low Countries. Tbey left a garrison in tbe little fortress
of Corbie, which Monsieur's army recaptured In November.
The gaUantxy of the defenders, which bore heavily on the towns-
peopfeb was aUo3red with a singular trait of professioaalism.
The tine had come for the CanUnal Infante to distribute hb
forces in winter quarters, and the garrison of Corbie, it is saiid^
surrendered in good time* in order not to be omitted la the
allotment of oomfortable billets in Belgium.
During the episode of Cbfble another rtorm bar
froeticr of France: The prince of Cond6. govern
had in the spring entered Franche Cornt^ and be
the inlubctaats as well as the Spaniali 1
opposed him, and his mrmy altimstely w
of Gaston. Bitt. ahhoueh Duke Chari«
in repossessing himself of Lonraine, Galli
imperialist army* stood stfll in Lower /
summer. At first he had to await the coming
oommsadcr, Ferdinand's aon. but afterwards, wrte
ments f fom the defending armies had gone to C(
bimscU missed his opportunity. It was not until
he joined the d«ke of Lorraine, and later still w1
inroad into Burgundy. He took a few small tc
and tiM entrenchmenu of Bemhard's army there
his offensive dwindled down to an attempt to es
in whiter quarters in Burgundy, an attempt of 1
dcfeaee of the little town of St Tcan-de-Losne 1
about the abandonment. Ctaarles IV., hosfevcr, c
war in Lorraine with some
W^ta
fWwit
bmia a Spanish anny invaded Languedoc. but was br
standstill in front 01 the rocky fortress of Leucate an
with heavy tosses by the French relieving army under *.
due d*HaIhiin. In Italy nothing was done. In the Va
local reeiments raised Vy Rohan mutinied for want <
ftn md to retire to France. On the Low Countr
In Italy the duke of Savoy with hb own anny and a Frendi
nnolBr Criqui advanced to the Tkino, and an action in which
both sidee lost seversd thousand men was fought at
Tomavento a few miles from the future battlefieM of
Magenta, to which in its details this affair bears a singular
ice (June 22, 1656). But thevictory of the French was nulli-
icd by the refusal of Victor Amadeus, for polrtical reasons, to advance
on Kfilan. and Rohan, who had come down from the Valtelltne to
oo-operate. hastily drew back into his stronghold. On the edges
of the western Pyrenees a few towns were talvn and reuken.
Tbe campaign of 1617, on the French and Spanish ride, was not
productive of any mark«i advantage to cither party. From Cala-
ted
the
nd
ier
the cardinal de La Valette captured C&tcau Cambrisis, ies
and Maubeuge. The deaths of Ferdinand II., the la of
HeMe<Cassd, the duke of Savoy and tbe duke of Mar ich
occ w ir ed almost simultaneously, affected the political 1 m»
of the war but little. Tbe balance, such as it was. however, was
unfavourable to France, for the duchess of Mantua went over to
tbe imperialists and the duchess of Savoy was opposed by the
princes of her house. On the other hand, Ferdinand III., in spite
oC Spain, had to concede more power to the electors as the price
of the imperial dignity.
On the Rhine and in the adjacent countries Johann von Weert,
retaming from Belgium with his Bavarians, captured Chren-
^_ brritstein. the citadel of Coblenz. and expeHed small
French detachments from the electorate of Trier, whose
ruler, the archbishop, had been put to the ban by the
._.. Then, passing into the Main vaHey, he took Hanau.
The main imperialist army, still under Oallas, had departed from
Alsace to the east in order to repair the disaster of AVittstock,
and Charles of Lorraine, with bis own small force and a detach-
ment under Count Mercy left by Gallas, was defeated by Bemhard
on the Sadne in June, after whfch Bemhard advanced vigorously
acainst Ficcolonuni, the inperiaKst commander in Alsace, ^and
crossed the Rhine at Rheinau. But soon Piccolomini atas joined
by Johann von Wccrt, and Bemhard retired again.
* For the first time in the history of w e s t ern Europe Cossacks
appeared on the Rhine. Th^ march through Germany was
markni by extxaocdinary atrociKiea. They dkl not remain kmg at
the front, for thdr insubordination and misconduct were so flagnnt
that even Gallas found them intolerable and dismissed them.
In the aorth-aasl. the aSeet ii WIttatock pavved bM transient.
Tbe widow of the laadgrava of Hesae-Caasel, after an attempt at
^—'--^ — ,gjl 1^ ^1^ treaiy of Pvague. In 1638 Banir after
and Tokgaa found himself the target of several
^ Bavarians under iSOta, who had remained on the
vhcn their oomradea •» a.
passed into Belgium hi 1635, tbe beaten army of Witt^ mZhZ»
stock, and m potentiai Brandenburg contingent. The lolfl!^
SaaBtta-dsd no more than defend thcv own country, but ^^HT^
the unperialista and Botvaiians uniting under General qI^^!^
Gelesn maiMmramd Ban6r out of his strongholdB on the ""*'^*
Elbe. He retreated on the Oder, bat there ffoundi not the expected
issislinra of Wrangel'a Pomeranian army, but GaUaa wiub tba
"''■'** * Mt to cat
Dehiding
^llfttCQ OOCUK*
wards, joined Wnuigel,and estafafisbed himsrlf for a time in Pome*
But Gallas ruined his army by exporing it to an open
in this desolate oountry, and ac hut retired to the Elbe
jnia, by the death of the ohl duke Bogtshv, became a bone
of contention between rival daimants. and in the prevailing equifi*
bciam of greater pomem tta fate remained unsettled, whUe a feeble
■tanoa 01 wrangei a romeianian army, out ^janaa
in imperial army which had htwried over from the w
tha asmdea. Banfer **^P^do^]r by a stmtageim
Una with an appfarsnre 01 recneat into Poland, he ton
amall war slowly oons ut ned what Wallcnstein and Guatavus, Gallas
and Wmngd had spasad.
In 1638 tbe Fraach operatfons in Italy, Belgium and Spaia
wr-- *- ** '-• seasfid. In Italy Crfaui was killed in an
" ^ 'le Spanish c ' *
Sesia and (
[arch, and the Spanidi commander in the
moed to the Sesia and took VercelC. In
I Thomas and Piccolomini rnwlsed in turn
:h. In tbe south Cond£ led from Bayonoe
was to dictate terms at Madrid, bat tha
hough invested by land and sea, checked
lag army arrived and drove Condi in din-
angiy was King Louis at this b,^^.
utenam-general, the brother of 2K
ras condemned for high treason. tV**_
»t in Alsace. Tbeie Rkhelieu J™ CL^
wasmorethaneverdctcrmincdtostrikeat tbe Spanish TSTL
power, and tbsre too was Benahard, vAio hoped that ^■^'
Alsace was to be hb fature principality, aad under whom served
the eurvivocs of Bvekenldd and NOndlingen, now in Fresch pay
under the name of the ** Weimar Army." After the rakl mto
sooth Germany Benriiard had wintered about Basle, and began
opssatfons hy taking a few tosms in the Black Potest. He then
iMcd
besi^ed Rhcinfelden. Johann von Wccrt, however, fell upon him
by surprise and dsove him away (Febraary sSth). Rohan \
amoanc the dead oa the French ride. Bat Bemhard reassemt _
hbadvaatatersand iannted them to return and beat the imperialists
at once. The oatcooie was the battle of Rbeiafeklen, hi which the
mdoabtabb Weest; who had terrified Paris in 1636, Was taken
nrisoaer and hb army disripated (Maich 3rd). Alcbaagh the
Bavarians in the Weser country hurried south to oppaae him,
Bemhaid took Rhdnfebkn and Freiburg- Lastly he Invested
Breisach— the town that, scarcely known to-day, was then the
" Key of Alsace." C«u's Bavarians and Charles of Loitaine's
nnay hastened thither, bat Bcrahard beat them in turn at Wittea-
weiber (August oth) and Thana (October I5th)» aad received the
surrender at Brebach, sriiea the garriiDn had eaten the cats* dogs
and rata hi the place, on the 17th of December.
In tha coorae of ligll peace negotbriona were carried on at
Cologne aad Hamburg, bat the war still dragged on. In the 'east,
i630i>Maa with Banb-'s pursuit of the retreating Gallas. ,
Thanks to hb skill tha Swedbh star waa again in the
ascendant. Banb cnsssed the Elbe, captured HaMe aad ,
Frribarg. Inflkted a severe defeat oa the imperiilists at .
Cbeamits (April 14, 1638), aad then after ovorranning '
western Saxony advanced fatto Bohemia, judging rightly that Bem-
hard was too much o o cw pie d with his proepeotive duchy to co-
operate with him in tha soath*west. Ferdband III. sent his
brother, the archduke Leopold William, to take command of
Gallas's army aad sent all availabb reinforcemeats to Bohcmb.
But Baab* contented Mawdf, after an onsacoessful attempt upon
Prague, with thoroughly eating up the country and, as winter came
on. ne retired into the baaoa mountains. The mher Swedbh trsopa
ovenaa Brandenburg and fomented a revolt in Silesia.
In 1639, as before, Richelieu's attacks oa Spain, other than
those diiected upon Alsace and Baden, were unsuccessful. In the
north the French devoted tbb year, as they had devoted 1637
and i6tB, to a methodical conquest of walled towns in p^^f^
view of a future /reoKbe dt fer. The two objecrives ^^ g^^^
sebcted. Headhi and Thtenvilb, were far apart, aad "'"•
a covering army to protect both sieges against Piecofomhrf
was Dostcd midway between them. Piccolomini, by a forced
marcn from Li*ge and Huy through the Ardennes, fluag himself
upon the besiefen of Thkmville before their " drenmvaUatbn **
was completed, and being greatly superior in numbers he afanost
annihilated them {June 7, 1639) before the covering or reacning
army had even passed the Are onne. Then, however, PtCcOloflriaii
whose trdops had bought the victory dearly, stood still for a flm«>
858
THIRTY YEARS' WAR
and HodiB, bMieieil with modi poaip by Rkhdiea's MpMv.
La MeiUeraye, w u ie uJ eie J oa the a^th of inne. On the vde 01
the Pyrenees Condft ai ontal •honed hinaeU both unhicky and
fatcapable. In Italy Caidinal de La Valette died, after aUowing
Prinoe Thomas to wm over Savoy to the empcrar's aide and seeing
every French pom eaont Caaale. Chivajso and the citadel of Tinia
taken by Thomas and Lnaaei.
H^ iuooesnr was the ducd'Harooort, called by his men ** Cadet*
la-Pl^ *' 00 aooonnt of his eanings, but a bold and exceedingly
coo^Ment soldier. Under him snved Turenne. hitherto known
only as a younger brother of the duke of Bouillon. Harooort
reviewed hm army for the fixat time late in October. Theday after
the raview he ad^^uwed f lom Carisnano to revictnal Casale, detach-
ingTumnae as flank-guard to hold off Prince Thomas on the skle
of Turin* The e nte r p i i se was entirely successful, but Thomas and
off the Trench on the return march.
Lcganes bamt a defile on the ChieriCarignano raad (whence the
acdon is oslled the RamU dlr Qumn) while Tho
^ Thomas lay in wait to
But Tttseane and the flank-guard sharply repulsed the
' * ~ dsaie '
the northc
ncince, and by hard fighting the French returned
(Noven *
In
bard waa carried off by a fever )ast as he was
preparing to fight his way to a junction with Ban£r. Nevenhdess
,^^. . he was fortunate in the opportunity of his death, for
"f rf:^ hb dream of a duchy of Alsace had already brought
^^^^ him into conflict with Ridwtieu, and their conflict oouU
only have ended m one way. Manhal Gotturiantat
once took steps to secure his army ^ for the service of
France, and Richelieu's officers were placed in charge of
the fortresses he had conquered. At the sane time the
bog negotiations betwee n the landgravine of Hesse-Cassd and the
vafwus powen ended in her allying herself with France and rsiMag
an army in return for a subridy. Another event of importance in
this year was the episode of the Spanish fleet in the Downs. Now
that the land route waa imperilled the aea eonununicatioos of
Spain and Bdgium were broiq^ht into use. A squadnm sailed
from Spain for the Netherlands, and, though it evaded the now
powerf Id French navy, it was driiven into English teiwitorial waters
by the Dutch. Charles I. of England offered Fcamx free aooem
to the victim if France would restore the elector palatine, and
— offered Sfain protection if die would furnish him with
wJ7-ra funds for bis army. Richdicu in reply encoumged the
jTji growing opposition to Chariea at home, and the Dutch,
ootttemptuona of his neutiality, sailed in awl destvoycd
the fleet at anchor.
In 1640 the French still hept up their four wan in Belgium.
Germany, Italy and ^lain. But the Belgian and Spanidi frontiers
were no kmger directly attacked. On the side of Languedoc there
was no further danger, for the foolish impodtioo of strict military
forma, and equally foolish threats to punish those who did not
appear at the rendesvoas, caused the Catalans» who were already
dciendiim themadves against the French both eftciendv and
vigorously, to turn their arms against the old enemy Castile. In
December 1640 Portugal declaiml herself independent under a
king of the house of Braganaa. In the Low Countries Loaii Xlll.
hionelf presided over the siege of the important iortrem of Aires,
which surrendered on the 8th of August.
In Italy, however, Cadet-la-Perle kcnt the moral aaoeod a nqr he
had won in the brave action of the JcmIs ds Qumts. In April
with lObOon men he advanced from Carignan against the aoipoo
Spaniands who were hrsirging Casale and attadted their line of
Cm^m circttmwaiUtioa boldly and openly on the 29th of April.
^^j^^ HehimseUonhoraelmckledhisstQKmenovcrthe parapet.
Turenne spread out his cavalry in one thin Ime and,
thus overlapping Lei^ncs's cavalry on both flanks and aiding hb
charges with the fire of hb diamouoted dnwoons, drove it away.
The dpanish infantry rearguard was cut ofTaml destroyed, and at
the end of the day naif oTLeganes'a army waa killed or captive.
After this, Haroourt orompdy turned upon Prinoe Thoasas, and
then followed one 01 the moot remarkable fp is o d fs in military
history. Thomas, himself defending Turin, was besieging the
French who still hdd the dtadd, while Havoourt, at once besKging
the town and attempting to relieve the dudd, had, externally.
to protect himsdf against Laganea's army which was reorganised
and reinforced from Napbs and the Papal Sutea. For long it
seemed as though the latter, master of the open country. wouM
surve the smaU array of Haroourt into submission. But Hancourt's
courage and the disunion of hb opponents neutraliaed thb advan-
tage. Theifgenerd attack of the nth of July on the French lines
was made not simultaneoudy but succ cisi v d y, and Haroourt
repulsed each in turn, with heavv losms. Soon aftcfwaada the
French reodved fresh troops ana a large oonvoy. The dtadd
waa relieved and the town surrendered soon afterwards. Leganaa
•ttivad to Mibn, Prinoe Thomaa was allowed to take hb few remain-
ing tioopB to Ivren, and recogniaed the dochem's regency.
othcn who dedred its aervioes, noubly the Winter
- intended to ally himself with Spam and so to
jsioo of the Pkbtinate. The war had indeed
far siaoe the days of the Protestant Union I
^PotnstaUing 01
ICbt*8 son, who
^wp dm remcc
In Caflmaay Ban«r*acoiimc wM ttmnondly checkad. The Mcb-
duke disfedged him from hb few reauunii« poau in Bohemia, and
when at bst Bemhard's ofd army, under the due de Longuevilk.
crossed the Rhine at Bacharach and joined Ban^ in «^.
Thuringia, the Auotrians hdd them m check in the sZe**
broken country about Saalfeld until the country would {%nA%€
longer support the combined army. The Wei
army then reured to the Rhine valley and Banfa- to Waldeck.
and. in the hope of detaching both George of Lanebuig and the
landgmvine of Hesse-Cassd from the Swedish alliance, the imperial
geoenl wasted their territories, ignoring Ban£r. After the depar-
ture of the Lflneburgers and Hesdans, recalled for home deknce.
the Swedish general could only watch for hb opportunity.
Thb came in the winter months of 1640-41. Negoiiations for
De were constantly in progrem, but no result aeened to come
of them. The Diet was asaemhied i
army scattered over north-weatem
at Regensbttig. the imperial
, Germany. Baafr suddenly
niov«d south headiag for Ratisbon, for the defence of which tlie
archduke's and all available troop»— even Piccolomini's from the
upper Rhin e were hurried up by the em p eror. The Weimar
Army under Guttriant joined the Swedes an roirfc and the com-
bined army mached tha objective. But a thaw hindered them and
gave the emperor time to coocentnta hb forces, and after a variety
of minor operations Ban£r*s army found itsdf again in possession
of Hesse, Laneburg, Brunswick^ Ac Guibriama army, hom-eMcr,
had again separated from him m order to live, and in VUy waa
at Bamberg--evea an army ot 18,000 could hardly keep ^__, ^
the field at thU staae of the war. On the aoth of May S?!l1
Bao&. worn out by Tatigue, died, and after some intrigues ^,.,7^
and partid mutiaiaa, Toratenssoa succeeded to tha
command. The last fortified place held by the Austrbna in Lower
Saxony, WoIfenbOttd, was now besicsed by Torstenaioo's Sweden
and Utfuuas and Cufiviant's French ana Weimaiianah and the
archduke and Piocolomini advancing to iu relid were«kfenied
outside the walb on the 29th of June. The war had now i«ccdcd
far from Abace, which waa firm^ hdd by France, and no tonger
threatened even by Charles of Lorraine, who had laade hb mmx
with Loub XIII. in the ^?|ring, and whose army had '
Gu^briant into Germany. The losses of the "
bOttel caused some of tndr princes to accept the peace of Pragne.
but. on the other hand, the new eleaor of Brandenbuig (Frr^rick
Willbm. the Great Elector) gave up tbe Auatrian allbnce and
Turenne's^diacontented brother, the semi-independent
" rebels. Spaa
led to nothi
Uapsed. Charles of Lorraine having joi
regained fortresses were reoccupied try the
. Spanaarda and
led to nothug lunhcr
Lorraine hav*
neutralised hb dominions.
In 1641 Harcourt thoroughly established hb podtion, without
much fighting.^ in Piedmont. In Spain the Catalan .and Portu-
guese insurrections continued and the French occupied Baicekma,
but underwent a serious reverse at Tarragona. In the north La
MeiUeraye captured and hdd some of the Artob towna, but waa
driven out 01 the open country by the superior army of the
Cardinal Infante. A formkiable conspicscy against Kichelieu
brought about a civil war in which the king's troops gT^j,-,
were defeated at La Marfee^ near Sedan (the lortrem of
Turenne's discontented brother, the semi '
duke of Bouilbn), by a mixed army of
Imperialists Quly 6th). This, however,
and the conspiracy collapsed. Chariea cl
the rebds, his newly regained
French.
In December 164I there began at Mflnster and .Osaabruck ia
WcstphaGa the peace n^otbtnns which, sfter e«ht more yean
of spasmodic fighting, were to dose thb ruinous war.
In 1642 Torstensson, having cleared up the war for a i"nm Ti it
in the north-west, turned upon Silcda, defeated an imperialist
corps at Schweidnitt and took aome fortresses, but drew back
when the archduke aad Piccolomini came up with the main Austrian
army. In October, however, he was joined by freih troc^ia frooi
the north-east, crossed the ^Elbe and besieged Leipdg. The
imperblist army, which was joined by the Saxons when nMmwa*
their country was again the theatre of war, marched to the g^g^m
rescue^ But Torstensson defeated them with enormoua ^M^tt mi
loss ia the second battle of Brdtenfdd * (November 2, irTiasM
1642). But. although the Austrians feared aaadvanceon ^^^
Vieniu itsdf, the victore waited for the fall of Ldpdg
and then took up winter quarters. Gu^briant had throoghoot the
year operated independently of the Swcdea. The Bavarians had
advanced into^the lower Rhine region in order to support, in concert
attacked
up, at HuUt
between Konpen and Crddd (January 1 7th), whereuoon the Ba\^-
rians took shelter under the guns of the fortrem <^ jQlich.
On the northern frontier of Fiance Haroourt, the fariffiant com*
mander df the Italian army, failed to pre\'ent the Spaniards from
capturing Lens and La Baisfe. and Cuidie. with another army
farther east at Le Cfttekt. was ddcated and routed at Honneroun
(May a6th), mving only aooo of hb 9000 man. Bnt Fraaciaoo de
*The emperor executed all the officers and cvtiy tenth man
of the n^giment in which the panic began.
THIRTT -YEARS' WAR
859
Richdieu crushed the oonnncy of Cinq
Mais by caecutinc itt kadcfi, and Manhal de U Moctc-Houdcn'
court held Cauloma •ad defeatfed Legaoez at Lerida (October 7th).
Before the next campaign opened Louis and Richelieu were
dead. One of the last acts of the king wss to designate the
young due d'Enghien, son of the inrspahle Cotnd6, as general
of Us noftbem amy. Haicourt had stnmgdy iaifed» Gtt4-
briant was far away, and the lesc of the FiRnch maiahsis were
n* am c'P^^^^ b^^ incapable of commanding an anny.
Yet it was no small matter to put in their place a
' youth of twenty-anc, who might prove not merely
iaeKperienced but alio incompetent. But EngUm's victory
was destined 'to be the beginning for the French army of
A long hegemony of military Europe.
Mek> hsd selected tha Meiise route for hk advance m^ Vam.
On it he would meet only the places of "RoaoL and Rcthae;
these mastered, he woold dSscend upon Paris by the open lands
between the Mame and the Oise^ He began by « feint against
Landredcs, and under cover of this secxeUy maaed his Sambre
and Aidennes coips on the MenSe, while Enghien, having the
safety of Landiedes in mind, moved to St Quentln. There,
however, the jroung general leanied at the same moment that
Lonis XIIL was dead and that the Spaniards had invested
Rocroi With the resohitloa and swiftness which was to muk
his whole career, he marched at once to offer them battle.
Enghien's more experienced counsellon, the generals of the old
school, were for delay. To risk the only French army at such
a moment would, they said, be madness, and even the fiery
Gassion asked, " What will become of us if we are beaten?*'
But Enghien replied, " That will not concern me, for I shall be
dead," and his perspnality overcame the fears of the 3oubteh.
The battle took place on the 19th of May 1643, in a plain before
amia$9i Roa<pi, without any oMdied tacticat advantage of
9ta9k ground In faviouf of cither aide; Mcto'a cavaky
was rooted, and neariy all the infantry, i8|Ooo men of the
best legimeBts in the Spanish anny, the old Low Countries
IcrrJM, witb their general the Conde d^Fuentes,* a vetcaran of
fifty years' servioe, In Cheir midst, stood their grpund and were
enwihilsind, 8500 wtse deed and 7000 prisooeia. Twohondicd
•ad sixty xoloun and standards went to guce HUm OaiM.
But even Rocroi, under the existing oooditiona of uvfare,
was' decisive ealbr in so far as, by the destniction of Spain's
toperiority in Belginm, It sa^ France from further innads
from tlie north. Enghien indeed followed up the dibiia of
Meto'a aimy beyond the Sambre, but oa the Rhine Go6briant
had marched away fkom the region of Cokcne into WOrtteBbefg,
and thcce was noithing to prevent the in^perialists in the nertb^
west from joining Mckv The thorough establishment of the
Ffvttch on the Rhine and the need of co-opeiatjng with tJie
Swedes was considered by the young general to be more am^
poctant than fighting Melo in front of Bmaseb, and in spite of
j^waftf the pfotests of the Regent and If asarin, he decided
•/rMM> to attack Thionville. Taking a leaf out of Mdo's
**^ book, he threatened Bmssels in order to draw all the
defenden thither, and then suddenly turned eastward. Enghien
arrived on June 18th, a cocps fmm Champagne had already
reached the place oa the r^h, and oa the 8th of August
Thionville surreodered. The small focticsa of Sierck followed
suit (Sepfember 6th).
Gu^briant meanwhile had attemotcd without suoteas to cow
the French and Protestant posts in Warttembertagainct the united
forces of hit oM opponents from the k>«er Rhine (Natifeldt'a
Bavariaas) and a ucsh Bavarian anny oader Mercy* and had
rtcimd Into Ahaoe. Thither Englueo, before dispcraing hb anny
Into ftst4|ttarteni in October, sent nim a cerpo under josias Hantaan
to enable him to reemai the Rhine and to aeiae wiateM|uartccB la
Gennany le as to spare Abaee. Guttriant dkl so, bat he was
" r iie um i i.d te the siege of Roctwdl, a town at the
^-PwfA Bernard Fontaine deFougerolles, a noble of PlnuicheCdmt&
of the Neelar, and Rantaso, taUng ef$tt the eommaad, elloiwid
Umself to besofprised in the act of disporaing into wiaterquafteia
l)y Chartas of Lonalae (who had andn chaaged aides and now
commaaded his own, HatsfeMt's and Mercy's armies*). At Tutt-
lingen on the headwaters of the Danube, Raataau was tafaea
prisoner with the giuater part of his army of is^ooo saen
(November 94th), and the lesthorriedly feU bode faito Alsace.
In the east the campaign had as usual turned more upon aub-
statence than upon ariutary operstioos. Torttenssoo, by bis halt
before LeiDrig after Breiteiifsid, had given the emneror-. .
a whole mnter In which to aisemble a new army. The lTl*'*^-^
herediUfy pui v h mse , as the devastations of war ap-^^^^L^
praachod their own borden, willingly supplied a force of
11,000 man, which under PlooolofBiuii manoeuvred for a while- to
the west of Dresden. But Piocolorafari was replaced by GalUs,
who, though cherishbig vislonaiy schemes of uniting Hatsfekk's
troops and^(jAts*s C o te gne Bavarian»Nocth German army with his
own for a dedaive blow, had in fact to fall back through Bohemia.
The Swedes folhnired. Taking the small towns and avoidbig the
large pboes, Torrtensioa swejpt through Bohemia and Moravia,
his steps dogged through the devasutcd OMintiy by (^llas, umil
he reached Brilna. Thence, however, he auddenty retreated to the
shofus of the Baltfe. Christian of Denourk had declared war 00
Sweden, and threatened to imlate the Swedish forces in (Germany.
ToTitenssoQ, therefore, wintered in Holstein, («allaa, unable to follow
him through districts already eaten up, in Saxony. In Italy and
Spain there was no event of any importance.
In 1644 Gestoo of (Means, with La Melllemye and Gaaskm
under him, began the conquest of the Dunkirk region, capturing
Gravdines hi July. Metol having no army to oppose -^ .^^
them, remained inactive la Italy Prince Thomss andl^^^^T.
Marshal Pleasis-PraaUa undotook notUng serkwis. while Tl^'^^T '
fai Spain La Motte-Houdencouft hiet Lerida, and was^TTLT^
Impnsooed by Masarin in consequence. But the Rhine ^^*
campaign is memorable for the firit appearance of Tdrenne at the
head oian army, and for the terrible battle of Freiburg.
The momentary combination of forces on the otber sMe that
had ruined Gu^briant's expedition soon broke up. Hatxfeldt was
called by the emperor to jom Gallas, Charhs of Lorraine wandered
with hb m er c en a ries to the Low Countries, and Mercy's Bavarians
slone were left to oppose Turenne, who apent the first momhs of
the year in restoring dbelpline and oon6denoe in the shaloen Weimar
Araiy. But Mercy was still considerably superior in strength, and,
repulsing Turenne's firat inroad into the Bbck Forest, oesiegeo
Freiburg. Turenne made one cautious attempt at relief, then
waited ror reinforoementa. Tlieae came In the shape of Ei^ien'a
army, and Enehien as a prince of the blood took over the supreme
command. But both armies together numbered hardly 17,000
men when Enghien and Turenne united at Bretaach on the end of
August. On the 3Ri, akhoiu^ Frnburg had meantime am
they crooaed the Rhine and attacked Mercy'a po^tfen.
which was of great natural and artificial strength, in
front and flank. Three ae|»rate battles, which cost the
Bavarians one-third of their force and the French no
IcM than half of thehs, ended ia Mercv'a retreat (see Faxieuac)
on the 10th of AugusL Enghien did not follow him Into the
mountains, but having assurea himself that he need not fear inter-
ference, he proceeded to the methodical conquest of the middle
Rhine lortresam (Philippsbttrg, Heidelberg, Mannheim, Maias, &c).
his own srmy to the moselle, leaving Tui
and the Weimar Army at Spire.
In the east, or rather in the north, a desultory campaign was
carried 00 during 1644 between Toritennoir and the younger
Wrangd. on the one side, the Danes and Galbw on the other, and
ia the end Gallas retreated to Austrian tcrritoiy, so completely
demoralised that for want of sopervisioo his army dwindled 00
the way from ao,ooo men to 200a Tontensson followed him.
having little to fear from the Danes. Meanwhile the prince of
Trsnsyhrania, (jeorge Rafctesy, playing the part of Gabcic) Bethlen
lecesHr, made war upon the emperor, iriw not being able
. account to send fresh troops agaiiist Torsteaason,
called upon HatxCekIt, as above mentioned, to reform the Buuhmi
wrecks of Gallas's army on the nucleus of his own. B is tw h
Maximilian of Bavaria sent most of hia own troops under
Wecrt on the same errand— hence Merc/s defeat at FreiboiT. But
Torstcnsson pressed on by Egcr, Piben and Budweis towards Vienna,
and 00 the S4 Febniary/6 March 1645 he inflicted a crushwg defeat
on (^Otx, Weert and Hatzfeklt at Jankau near Tabor. C^Otx was
kilted and half of his army dead or captive. In his extremity
Ferdinand offered part of Bohemia and Silcsta to Maxhnilian m
return for soktiers. But the Bavarian ruler had no aokliera to give,
for Turenne was advancing again from the Rhine.
At the end of March the Wdmar Army was at Dorlach, on the
6th of April at Pforiheim. Thence it marched to Heilbronn, and
Rothenburg-on-Tauber, when Turenne resolved to go northward
in search <M supplies and recruiu in the territories 01 his ally and
•The three '
strong.
\ hardly nmre than 95,000
86o
THIRTY YiEARS* WAR
cousin the kndgravlBe of HeMa^Coanl. But At ihU |X>int the
army, headed by Bernhard't old oolond*. demaoded to be put
Into rest -quarters, and Tureune aliowmg them to diapeneasthey
withcd, waf surpriacd by Mercy and Weert — who iMought his
oouragei if nothtag else, back from the field of Jai»kau--«nd loet
two-tmraa of his forces. But Turenne instead of retreating to
Tuima^'a ^^ Rhine insuUed himaelf in the laodgiavine'a oouatry,
Anmv where he collected reinforoements of Hessians andSwedes.
Ar^r* while Enghicn hurried up from the Moselle and cniased
the Rhine to repair the disaster. The " Army of Weimar " and
the " Army of France " joined forces, as in 16441 almost under
the eyes of the enemy. Ei^hien at once pushed forward from
Lndcnburg, by Heidelberg, Wunpfen, Rottenourg and Dinkelsbtihl.
But from day to day the balance leaned more and more on the
Bavarian skle, for Torstensson, after threatening Vienna (April),
had drawn off into Moravia without waiting for the dilatory Rak&csy .
and the emperor was able to ffive Maximilian an Austrian corps
Jo be added to Mercy's army. Mercy therefore, after manoeuvring
or a time on Enghien's left flank, placed himself in a strong position
at Allerheim near Nftrdlingen. directly barring the way to the
Danube. The second battle of NOrdttngen (August \, 16411) was
_^^ as desperately fought as the first, and had not Mercy
ZStSif ^'^^ ^^^^ •* *^* crisis of the day Enghien would prob-
fSlZSL ''^y l*^ve been disastrously defeated. A» it was, the
m!g, young duke was vktorious, but he had only 1500 infantry
*^ left in rank and file out of 7000 at the end. Soon after-
wards Enghien fell ill, and his army returned to Prance. Turenne,
left with a few thousand men only, attempted in vain to hold his
ground in Germany and had to make a hasty retreat before the
archduke Leopold William, who had meantime made peace with
R.ik6cz^. and. leaving Torstensson's ' successor Wrangel unais-
tiirhed in his Silesian cantonments, brought Gallas's and Hatx-
fcldt's troops to aid Weert's. Turenne wintered around Philipps-
hurg, almost the only remaining conquest of these two brilliant
but costly campaigns. But before he settkxl down into winter
quarters he sent a corps to the Moselle, which dislodged the
rrifton of Trier and restored the elector in his arch-
I Flanders Gaston of Orleans conquered a nuipbcr of
icrialist garrison of Trier and restored the elector in his arch
loprioi In Flanders Gaston of Orleans conquered a number ol
fortresses, and his army united with that of the Dutch. But the
>hopno»
tresses, i ,
allies sejnrated again almost at once, each to underukethe
which suited its own purposes best.
From Silesia Wrangel passed into Bohemia, where he remained
antil the forces employed against Rak6csy and Turenne could send
help to the imperialists opposed to him. He then drew away into
He«ic * to support the lanugraviae of CUssel against the landgrave
of Darmstadt, the archduke Leopold William and the Bavarians
following suit.
The campaign of 1646 in Hesse up to August was as usual
tineventlul, each army being chieAy coaceraed vith its food.
9ut At hist the arthduke retired a little, leaving Turenne and
Wranfel tnc to join their forces. Turenne had no intention
tf repeating the experiences of Freiburg and Ni>rdUngen. War
had by n«w settled dowa into the groove whence it di4
2^J^* net issue till 1793. It was more profitable to attain the
small objects that were sought by manoeuvre than
by battle, and the Choice ol neans practically lay between
aameuviing the enemy's anny into poor disirkta and ao
breaking it up by starvation, and poshing oneS own army into
ricb districts it>prdl(ss oC the enemy's anny. The usual
practice was the lii^t method. Tuoenne chose the second.
Delayed at the opening of the year by ordeis from Maiaxin
to stand stiU—the elector of Bavaria bad opened negotiations
in order to gain tunc for the aichduLe Leopold William to march
into the w«st~-Turenna found it impossible to readi Hesse by
the sbMt and direct route, and kt therefore made a rapid and
secret march down the Rhine as far as Wcad, whence, aocsing
tm^ppo«ed, be joined Wnngcl on the tipper Lahn (.\ugnst xoth).
The united armies were only 19.000 strong. Then the im-
patialatt. fearing to be henunnd in and starved betw«en Turenne
and the RhiM-, fell bade to Folda, leaving the Mmiich road
dcAT. The inierior of Bavaria had not been fought over for
ekv«n yean^ and was thua almost the on^ prckspetoas land in
dcsolntad Gennaay. Taitnae and Wrangel marehed atrai^t
forward Ml a bread front. On the amd of September, far ahead
of t)h( puisuen, for whom, they left nothing to eat, they reached'
^ saffcring from gont
^ Atired after the uasacctsslul V
I Ccv<se of Saxony, seeing that
laamiaof
L
IMMteM
•ahecoal
cooldc
and wora out by ^ tam-
raid.
ho oo M try was niiilg
'MthMistwe^dcven
a tsaoa wkh Wsaagel
Avgaborg, and for the rest of the year they devastated thp
country about Munich in order to force MnrimiKan to make
terms. An armistice was concluded in the winter, Maximifian
having been finaUy brought to consent bjr u ill-judged attempt
of the emperor (who feared that Bavaria would go the way ol
Brandenbuis tnd Saxony) to seduce his army. The French
and Swedes wintered in southern WOrttemberg.
In Flanders, Gaston of Orleans and En^ien took Dunkirk and
other fortresses. In Italy^ where the Tuscan fortresses were
attacked, the French and Ptince Thomas their ally were
completely checked at first, until Maaarin sent a fresh ~ ^
eorps thither and restored the balance. In Catakmia tt^T^!^
Haioourt underwent a serious reverse in front of Lerida
at the hands of hb old opponent Lcgane2, and Maaarin seat
Enghien, now l*rince of CondCj^o replace him.
1647 was a barren year. The Low Countries Spaniards, con-
cluding a truce with the Dutch, threw their whde foroe upon
France, but this attack dissi(>ated itself in sic^. In Italy Plessis-
Praslin won an unprofitable victory over the viceroy of the Milanese
on the Oglio (July 4th). In Spam Cottd6, resuming the siere of
Lerida, was repalsed with even more k»e than Haroourt had been
the year before, and had to retire upon the 'mere appearance of a
lelieviiur army. In Germany Turenne and Wrangel parted com-
pany. The latter returned to Hesse, whence he raided into
Bohemia, but was driven back by the imperialists under tiuar
new general, Melander-Holaapfd. As tbe few obtainable aopply
areas gave out one by one, the Swedes gradually retired almoat
to the coast, but the imperialists did not follow, swerving into
Hesse instead to finish tne quarrel of the landgravine am the
landgrave. Turenne meanwhxre had had to send all the Frendi
troops to Luxemburg to help in the defence of northern France
agaiiist the Spaniard. The Weimar Army bad refused to foUow
him to the Meuse, and mutinied for iu arrears of pay. Turenne,
however, promptly seized the ringleaders and after a sharp fiight
disarmed the rest. Thus ignominbusly Bemhard's oM army
vanished from the scene.
In the autumn the elector of Bavaria was reoondled.to the
emperor and his army reentered the field. Turenae was therefore
sent back to Germany to assist the Swedes. But winter came on
before aoy further inroads could be made into south Gcmianj.
The campaign of X64S brought the decision at last T^oenne
and Wrangel, having refitted their forces and snited in Hesse
as in X646, steadily drove back the impexialista ami Bavarians,
whose 30,000 combatants wtto accompanied by a faoide of
nearly 150,000 hangenH>n-inen, isomcn and chfl diui to the
Danube. For a moment, at NOidlingen, the FnaA and the
Swedes separated^ but they soon reunited, montd on to and
beyond the Danube,and at Zosmanhansen (Mjqt X7th) catch-
ing the enemy in tho act of manoeuvxing, they d e OJ P j Fe d his
rear-guard, Melander being amoa^ the dead. The b^^ «r
victon advanced as far as the Inn, but Picadomini, Mmmm m
veoiganiaing the debris of the Austio-Bavariui army, ^"""^
checked their fuither progress and e^cn drove them back to dm
line of the Isar. Meantime, however, the 9wediih genenl
K9mgsamrck, gathertng all the acattcred fonxs of km aida m
Saxony and Siksia, had entered Bohemia and via I
Prague. This caused the vecaU of '
INirenne «mI Wrangel hnrested Munich,
the French to retire foto Soabia so as not to <
peace negotiatfons at the critkal moaMnt, and Wrai^ I
suit. Before Kteigaaaick was in a positioB to amaall
news came of peace.
Meanwhile in Artob GondS had icpobed the Shiaaish in-
vasion by his bfilient vfctory of LeB (August 5th>, whkhw^a
second RocroL After the thankagivii« scfvioe for tl« ticMey
at NOtre Dame. Maaarin anesied the leaden of the PatliMcM
of l^rii, and In n lew hoan the streets woe banicaded aftd a
dvil war in progress. This was the Fronde CfJt.), udick wcM
on lor another devca ymn.
AimnuTms.-& R. Caidinti, Thirty Y^mif V«r; A. fiiiit.
GsKft. dcs J afg |7 j^ '^»%^''""'% .^«^.^--^ I 'J"
M3&a6n): Hon. £. Ned. Gma^ Jd0i Ifa^f * V^S
assia, Cnnaius, Acs vols. ia. and a. af Oinwas's siihs:
I r i n n f a . Sdtandnu Amm sm j wji r . Kntm Lmm^OmamiBn^
iis»^ yigiinnrsiiliii Bmm Mm^ finl^ii M Sw
A4di^{IBnmki,MMD. <PF.A^
• • ••
THBTLB— THOKOLY
86 1
; ft Maiek «s gBDenOy employed^ ci visiK appttcttioB.
beios given to «lmMt any herbaceous plant that is of a spiny
chsiacter. More strictly, it is appUed t9 the species <i CarAnit,
These aie ComposiU herbs with i^eiy S|hi^ leaves^ and similar
bracts sunoundUng a head of purpljsh-white» tubular, five-paited
floweti seated on a pitted and hairy receptacle. The anthen
have appendaCM both at the apex and at the base, and the
style has a ring ol hairs at the point of bifurcation oif the two
sligmas^ The fruit is surmounted by a tuft of silky*white
hairs. The species, chiefly natives of Europe and Western
Asia, are nuneraus, and some are of great beauty, thongh, not
uruaturally, looked on with disfavour by the laimcr. The
blessed thistle is CarduMS btmdiaus; Lady's thistle, the leaves
of which are spotted with white, is C mariamis. The common
C. iMuolahtt seems to be the most soitable prototype for the
ScoU thistle, though that booaur^ia^also^ conferred on an
allied plant On^pordou acciOkimnt the oouon thistle, remattable
for its ODveong of white down, a doubtful native, and on other
species. The carline thistle is Carlina vulgaris, a member oC
the same family as is also the sow-thistle, Sonchus oUraceus.
The great objection to thistles from an agricultursl point of
view resides in the freedom with which they produce seed, and
in the vigour of their underground growth, which makes their
uprooting a matter of difficulty. Partial uprooting may. Indeed,
in the case of the perennial species, increase the mischief, for
each fragment left behind may grow into a distinct plant.
Annual species might be kept in check woe they cut down
before the flowers appear, but unless all the cultivators in a
particular district co-operate the efforts of individuab are of
little avail The Artichoke (^.v.), Cynara scriynnu^ and Cardoon
(9.t.) are very near allies of the thistles. The Saflbwer, CorMo-
mttf, another thistle, yields a serviceable dye; the Burdock,
Arciium Icffa, a member of the same family, has an edible
root; and numerous allied species have medicinal properties.
THISTLBWOOD. ABtHQR (x 770-1820), the principal insti-
gator of the Cato Street conspiracy, a plot formed to murder
many British ministers In 1820. A son of William Thistlevood,
and bom at Tupholme in Lincolnshire, young Thistlewood passed
bis early years in a desultory fashion; he became a soldier and
visited France and America, imbibing republican opinions
abroad and running into debt at home. Then taking up his
residence in London he joined the Spencean Society, a revolu-
tionary body; associated himself with James Watson (d. 1S38)
and other sgiutois; and in December 18x6 helped to arrange
a meeting in ^m Fields, London, which was to be followed by the
•eixore of the Tower of London and the Bank of England, and
by a genera] revolution. The proposed rising was a dismal
laOure, but the Habeas Corpus Aa was suspended and Thistle^
wood and Watson were seised, although upon being tried they
were acquitted. Becoming more violent Thistlewood fotmed
other plots, talked of murdering the prince of Wales, and was
sentenced to a year's imprisonnient for challenging the home
secretory. Lord Sldmouth, to a duel After his release in May
18x9, having broken away from Henry Hunt and the more
moderate refomiefs, he prepared a new and comprdiensive
plot. On the sard of February 1820, at a time of great distress
nnd during the unrest cauaed by the death of George HI., the
cabinet ministeBi had amn^ed to dine at the earl of Harrowby's
bouse in Grosvenor Square. Thntlewood knew of the diimer.
With some associates he hired a room in the neighbouring Cato
Street, collected ams and made ready to fall upon Harrowby's
guests. However the authorities had been informed of the plot,
probably by one of the conspiratoct named George Edwards;
ofiioers appeared upon the scene ,and arrested some of the
consplmtors; and although Jhlstlewood escaped in tlie con«
fusion he was seised on' the following day. Tried for high
treason, Thistlewood and four others were s entenced to death,
nnd were hanged on the 1st of May i8ao.
See Sir S. Walpole, History vf Engfond (1890), voL L
TKOk0LT» m RB (EMtncB\ Pnorce (1657^705), Hungarian
•totesman, was bom at Kfamark on the asth of September
S6S7. He lest both parents whUe still • child. In 1670,
ierfng fram the dangers of Upper Hungary, where the Protes-
tants an(l Imperialists were constantly in arms against each
other, he took refuge with his kinsman Michad Tddd, the chief
aunister of Michael Apafy, prince of Transylvania. Here he
caihe into contact with the Magyar refugees, who had great
hopes of the high-bom, high-gifted youth who was also a
fellow auffever» a large portion of his immense estates having
been ooniiscated by the emperar. The discontent reached its
hei^ when' Leopold (Feb. 27, 1673) suspended the Hun*
garian constitution, ^>pointed Johan Caspar Ampringen
dictator, deprived 450 Protestant clergy of their Uvings and
oondenned 67 more to the galleys. Enoowaged by ptemises
of help from Louis XIV., the Magyaa now. rose fro Ubotoh
d jusiUia, and chose the youthful Thokoly aa their leader.
The war began in 1679. Upper Hungary and the mining towna
were soon in ThSkdly's possessbn. In x68i, reinforced by
xopooo Tmnsylvainans and a Turkish army under the pasha of
Nagyvirad, he compelled the emperor to grant an armistice.
On the 15th of June 1682 he married Helen Zrinyi, the widow
of Prince Frauds Rik6czyL Tbakdly's distrust of the emperor
now induced Um to turn for help to the sultan, who leoognised
him ss prince of Upper Hungary on condition that he paid an
anuual tribute of 40,000 florins. In the course df the same year
Thakfily captured fortress after fortress £rom the cmperoc and
ert ended his dominions to the Waag. He refused, Imwevcr, the
Utle of king offered to him by the Turks. At the two Diets
held by Um, at Kasia and TAlya, in 1683, tiie estates, thon^
not nnlnflunioed by his personal charm, showed some want of
confidence in him, fearing lest he might sacrifice the natfoxial
independence to the Tiu^jsfa alltance. They refused therefore
to graiA him either subsidies or a lesd» en mour, and he had to
take what he wanted by force. ThfikAly materially assisted
the Turks hi the Vienna campaign of 1685, and shared the fate
of the ^gantic T\irkish army. The grand vizier nevertheless
hud the blame of the failure on Thfikttly, who thereupon hastened
to Adrianopie to defend hunself before the sultan. Shortly
afterwards, perceiving that the Turkish cause waa now lost,
he sought the mediation of Sobicski to reconcile him with the
emperor, offering to lay down his arms if Leopold would confirm
the rcligioua n^As of the Magyar ProtestanU and giant him,
Th<MDBly, the thirteen north-eastern counties of Hungary with
the title of prince. Leopokl refused these terms and demanded
an unconditional surrender. ThttkBly then renewed the war.
But the ratnpaigpt of i6S$ wss a series bl disasters, and when
he sought hdp from the Turks at Nagyvirad they seized and
sent him in chains to Belgrade, possibly because of his previous
negotiations with Leopold, whereupon most of his foOowea
made their peace with the emperor. In 1686 ThOkOly waa
released from his dungeon and sent with a small army into
Transylvania, but both this expedition and a similar one in
x688 ended in failure. The Turks then again grew suspicious
of him and imprisoned hun a second time. In 1690, however,
the Turks despatched him into Ttansylvania a third time with
x6,ooo men, and in September be routed the united forces of
General Hdster and Michad Tddd at Zemest. After this
great vktory Th6k5ly was elected prince of Transylvania by the
Kefeszt^3rmez Diet, but could only maintain hn position
against the imperial armies with the utmost difficulty. In
169X be quitted Transylvania altogether. He led the Turkish
cavalry at the battle of Slankamen, and fax fact served valiantly
but vainly against Austria during the remainder of the war,
especially di<tlnguinlwng himself at Zenta. He was ezdudnd
by name from the amnoty promised to the Hungarian tebds
by the peace of Katfowlts (Jan. 26, 1699). After one more
nnsoccessful attempt, m 1700, to recover his principality, he
settled down at GahiU with his wife. From the sultan he
received Urge estates and the title of count of Widdln. He was
buried In the great Armenian cemetery at Nicomedia, but in
the course of 1906 his relics were transferred to Hungary.
^
862
THOLOBATE— THOMAR
Bmme Cmmi reefed/ (Loodoo. 169$): C w mip m niw mt «f UiAiad
TeUki (Hung.), ed. by S. Gefgely (Bii^pest. 1909-1906). (R. N. B.)
THOLOBATB (Gr. 6l&Xor, a circular ftmctnre, dome, and
^dotf, a base), the architectural term given to the cyttndrical
drum on which a dome is raised. In the earlier Byaantine
churches, the dome rested direct on the pendentives and the
windows were pierced in the dome itself; in later examples,
between the pendentive and the dome an intervening circular
wall was built, in which the windows were pierced, and this is
the type which was universally employed by the architects of
the Renaissance, of whose works the best-known examples are
those of St Peter at Rome, St Paul's in London, and the churches
of the Invalides, the Val de Grace and the Sorbonne in Paris.
THOLOB {%iso%), the term given in Greek architecture to
a circular building, with or without a peristyle; the earliest
examples are those of the beehive tombs at Mycenae and in
other parts of Greece, which were covered by domes built in
horieontal courses of masonry. The Tholoe at Epidavrus,
built by Polydeitus {e. 400 B.C.), and the Tholos at Oljrmpia,
known as the Philippeion, are the most remarkable examples,
and in both cases were covered with a sbping rod and not with
a dome.
THOLUCK, FRIBDRICH AUGUST aOTTRBU (x799~i^7)»
German Protestant divine, was bom at Bresbui, on the 30th of
March 1799. He received his education at the gymnasium and
university of his native town, and early distinguished himself by
great versatility of mind and power of acquiring languages. A
love of Oriental hmguages and literature led him to exchange the
university of Breslau for that of Berlin, that he might study to
greater advantage, and there he was received into the house of the
Orientalist Heinrich Friedrich von Dies (17 5^x8x7). He was
introduced to pietistic circles in Berlin, and came specially under
the influence of Baron Hans Ernst von Kottwitz (x757~xa43),
who beoune his ** spiritual kther," and of the historian Neander.
Before deciding on the career of theological professor, he had in
view that of a missionary in the East. Meanwhile be was feeling
the influence to a certain degree of the romantic school, and of
Schleiecmacher and Hegel too, though he never sounded the
depths of their systems. At length, in his twenty-first year,
he finally decided to adopt the academical calling. In xSsz
he was PriMtdtutU and in 1835 became professor extxaordi-
naiius of theology in Berlin, though he was at the same time
active in the wock of home and foreign missions. He lectured
on the Old and New Testaments, theok>gy, apologetics and the
history of the church m the i8th century. In x83i appeared
his first woriL, Si^smus, she tkeosopkia Ptrsarum Pfmlkeistka;
foUowing the same line of study he published BlUUnsammluHg
aus der mcrgenlindiscken Mysiik (1835) and Sptadcim Trim-
UUslfkndesspdUren Orients (1626). His well-known essay on the
luiture and moral influence of heathenism (1822) was puUisbed
by Neander, with high commendation, in his DenkufUrdigkcUem;
and his Coaunentary on the Epistle to the Romans (X834) secured
him a foremost place amongst the most suggestive, iif not the
most accurate. Biblical interpreters of that time. Another
work, which was soon translated into all the principal European
buiguages, Dis wahre Wake des Zweiflers (xSaj; 9th cd., with the
title Die Lekre won der SUnde und dtm Vers9lmer, 1870), the out-
come of his own religious history, procured for him the position
which he ever after held of the modem Pietistic apologist of
Evangelical Christianity. In 1825, with the aid of the Prussian
government, he visited the libraries of England and Holland,
and on his return was appointed (in 1826) professor ordinarius of
tbeok>gy at Halle, the centre of German rationalism, where he
afterwards became preacher and member of the supreme consis-
torial council. Here he made it his aim to oombme in a higher
unity the learning and to some extent the rationalism of J. S.
Sen^ with the devout and active pietism of A. H. Francke;
and, in spite of the opposition of the theological faculty of the
university, he succeeded in changing the character of iu theology.
This he effected partly by his lectures, particularly his exegetical
f^uraeS) but, above all, by his personal influence upon the
-^ents, and, after 1833, by his preaching. His theological
poiitioa was that of a mfld and laife-hearted orthodoxy, vAiich
laid nwre stress upon Christian experience than upon rigid
do gm a fir belief. On the two great questions of miracles and
inspi r ation he made great concessions to modem criticism and
philosophy. The battle of his Iif e was on behalf of personal
religious experience, in opposition to the externality of ratioiial-
ism, orthodoxy or saczamentaiianism. Karl Schwarz happily
remarks that, as the English apologisU of the z8th oentoxy were
themselves infected with the poison of the deists whom they
endeavoured to refute, so Tboluck absorbed some of the heresica
of the ratlonalisu whom he txied to overthrew. He was alao
one of the prominent members of the Evangelical Alhanoe, and
few men were more widely known or move beloved throughout
the Protestant churches of Europe and Amerin than he. He
died at Halle on the xoth of June 1877. As a preacher, Thohicfc
ranked among the foremost of his time. As a teacher, he showed
remarkable sympathy and won gseat success. As a tlMaker he
can hardly be said to have been endowed with great creative
power.
his commentaries (on JRomana, the Gt»pA of John, the
ekristlicker
ofJ.U. D.
ie,aiid his
ertvangeU'
% valuable
dktdte des
c indicated
a his essay
rckfisdicme
c;yktopddie,
uerariscker
-1886): A.
ne author'*
^rinncrung
|«f (1885).
krneueOem
krneuesten
JmversiHes,
AUgemtine
After
Re
THOMA, HANS (1839- ). German painter, was bom at
Bemau in the Black Forest. Having started life as a painter
of clock-faces, he entered in X859 the Carlsruhe academy, where
he studied under Schirmer and Des Coudres. He subsequently
studied and worked, with but indifferent success, in Diisseldoxf.
Paris, luly, Munich and Frankfort, until his reputation became
firmly established as the result of an exhibition of some thirty
of his paintings in Munich. In spite of his studies under varioua
masters, his art has little in common with modem ideas, and b
formed partly by his early impressions of the simple idyllic life
of his native district, partly by his sympathy with the early
German masters— particularly with Altdoder and Cranach.
In his love of the details of nature, in his precise (thoi^ by no
means faultless) drawing of outline, and in his predilection for
local colouring, he has distinct affinities with the pre-Raphaditea.
Afany of his pictures have found their way into two private
collections in Liverpool A portrait of the artist, and two
subject pictures, " The Guardian of the Vslley " and " Spring
Idyll," are at the Dresden Gallery; " Eve in Paradise " and
" The Open Valley " at the Frankfort Museum. Other impor-
tant pictures of his are " Paradise," " Christ and Nicodemua,"
" The FUght into Egypt," " Charon," " Pieti," " Adam and
Eve," "Solitude," "Tritons," besides many landscapes and
portraits. He has also produced numerous lithographs and pen
drawings, and some decorative mural paintings, notably in a
caf6 at Frankfort, and in the music room of Mr Pringsheifflcr'a
house in Munich.
THOMAR* a town of central Portugal, in the distxxct of
Santarem; on the river Nabio, a tributary of the Zesete, 4 m.
from Paialvo railway station, which is 89 n. NJ£. of Lisboa
THOMAS, ST— THOMAS A KEMPIS
863
by the main fine to Opoito. Pop. (1900), 6SS8.
caBUnu ennplct of the beat Portngueu aichitectiue from the
isth ccntarr to the 17th. The rained cestle of the Knights
Templar, givoi to that oeder in 1159, is said tooocupy the site
of the aadeat Nabaatia. On the suppicnion of the Temphus,
who had done good servke against the lioors^ King .Pinis of
Portugal feoaded the Older of Christ in 13x4. The convent
palace of the Knights of Christ inchides a chnrcb and doister
dating from the xsth oentuiy, two cloisters and a chaptcr-hooae
added in the xsth centuiy by Prince Henry the Navigator, a
very ine x6th oentniy church built m the Manodliaw or Manue-
HMSlyfe by Joio do Caatilho, to ivhkh the older church aenred
as a chanod, and other buildings cmcted later. The convent
contains Flemish and Portuguese paintings of the i6th centaxy,
of theao-calfed ^ Gito Vasco " school. Its aqueduct, 3 m. h»g,
was built iS9S*x6i$. Other interesting buikiiags are the
churches of SaoU Maria do Olival, rebuflt hi the Gothic style
in 1450 on the site of an older Templar foundation; Sio Joio
Baptista, abo Gothic, built in 1490, but with Manodlian addi-
tions; MosM Senhoia da Con^ei^, Ronalmance of 1579; and
the palace of Prince Heniy the Navigator, Kstored in the iMh
oenluiy by Queen Catherine, widow of John IIL
THOMAS, ST, one of the twelve apostlea. The synopticsl
Gospels give only his name, asaoriating him In their lisU with
Matthew (Matt. s. 3; Marii iii. t8; Luke vL 1$); in AcU i 13 he
is coupled with PhXp. In the Gospel of John (id. 16; xiv. 5;
n. 34 seq.; zxi. 2) he appears in a characteristic Ught, full of
personal devotion and ready to die with his Master, but slow to
grasp the true significance of the personality of Jesus, and
incredulous of the resurrection till direct evidence convinces
htm of its truth and at the same time of the Divinity of his
risen Lord. John translates the Aramaic name or surname
Thomas by the Greek equivalent Didymua (twin). Tradition
has it that he was the twin brother of a sister Lysias (bis parents
bdag Diophaacs and Rhoa, and his birtbpbce Antioch; ** XII.
Apost. Patriae," In CAtmi. Pasck. K. 142), or of a bixAher Eliecer
(Hm». Ct«m, iL i), or, according to the Syiiac Acta Thomas
<ed. Wright, Eitg. tram. pp. 1 5$, 180), of Jesus Himself. The last
form of the tradition seems to be derived from the name Judas
Thooaa, which he bears in Edessene legend (cf. Eusebhis, H. E.
L 13, 10), and implies the ideotUkatlon of Thomas with Judas,
the brother of the Lord. The most andent tradition makes
Thomas the evangelist of Furthia (Eus. H.B. lU. r, x); and at
Edessa, which claimed to possess his bones, it was rehted that
their missionaiy Addai {Dccttim «f Addai, ed. Phillips, 1876,
p. 5), whom Eusebius calb Thaddaeus {H.E. L ^3), was sent to
them by him. Later tradition, originating with the ifdis
Thomas, and accepted by cathdic teachers from (he middle of
the 4th centuxy, makes him pfoceed to India and there suffer
martyrdom, lite Indian king Gundaphar of the Acta », however,
certainly identical with the historical Gondophares, whose
dynasty was Parthian, though his reafan hiduded regions
loosely iccfconed to India. The Parthian and Indian missions
of Thomas may perhaps therefore be regarded as derived from a
single tndKion, but it b very doubtful whether it is based oq
any historical facta. The oldest extant tradition Is that St
Thomas did not suffer martyrdom at all (Heradeon ap. Clem.
Alex. Sirtm. iv. 9). The best investigation of the traditions
connecting St Thomas with India is that by W. R. Phih'pps
{Indian Antiquary, 1903, mriL x-15, X45-160). The ingenious
conjectures of von Gutachmid (JV. Rkein. Mus. xtt. i6x seq.) and
Sylvain LM {Joum. asiatique^ X897, p. 27 seq.) are greatly
weakened by the fact that they do not start fh>m a consideration
of the names in their original Syriac form. Bhshop Medlycott's
India and the Apostle Thomas (r905) is wholly uncritical
The ifcia Thomoi. very impericctiy puhlwhed by Thilo (1833)
and Ttschendorf (18^1). have been edited in Greek by Bonnet
(Ldpxig. 1883, 2nd ed.. with new matter. 1901). and in thie original
SlTfiaC. with an EoglMi tTanibtion. by W. Wright {Apocryphal
A€t$^ 2 vohL, London. 167 ■)• See alto Upriu*. Die apeerypktm
AMdmk.. iL(3ad. cd.)4ajr4>S (Bnin»wkfc) ;F C. Burkitt in /eora.
T/««l- SL 1 .280 aeq.. ti. 94. The Acta are Mid by Phociut to be
hot this wdbowa peiaonage Is to be thought of as a eoOeetor of
GoostK Acu of Apottle^" rather than as the first author. ^la
ftpitc 01 extensive Catholic revision, the " Acts of Thomas " form one
of the rooct Interesting monuments of Syriac Gnosticism. Internal
evidence assigns them with gmt probability to the school of Barde-
mnes. and the very ancient allegorical hyma about the soul which is
preserved in the Syriac test (p. 274 seq.. Eag. trans., 0.238 aeq.) ispen-
ha^ by Bardcsane* himaeU Ccf. N&ldeke in Z.DMJu,, 1871, p. 676).
This hymn was translated into the Greek Acta, along with the rest
of the work (Bonnet, pp. 210-924. AnaL boOand. jo. 1^164).
ranarfcable pieces in Syriac literature, and has
of the mptttot r6r tiwtrtSiiuf of
beapait
the GoostK Leucius Chariniis,
Itboneofthei
been edited 1
(Cambridge. 1^7).
Burkitt*s for/y j
i metrical English version bgiven in F. C.
"^nstianity, p. 318 seq. (London, 1904).
(F. C. B.)
" Christians of St Thomas " is a name often applied to the mem*
hers of the andent Christian churches of southern India, which
cUim him as their hot founder, and honour aa their second
founder a certain bishop named Thomas, who is said to have
come with some prcsbyteis from Jerusalem to Malabar m
AJD. 345«^ According to their tradition, St Thomaa went from
Malabar to MyUpur, now ^ suburb of Madras, whet^ the shiine
of his martyrdom, rebuilt by the Portuguese in XS47, stffl stands
on Mt St Thomas, and where n miracubua cross is shown
with a Pahlavi hiscriptk>n which maybe aa old aa the end of the
7ih century. We know from Cosmas Indioopleustea that there
were Christian churches of Persian (East-Syrian) origin, and
doubtless of Nestorian creed, in Ce^n, In Malabar, and at
Caliaaa (north of Bombay) before the middle of the 6th ceutuxy,
and even then St Thomas, the reputed apostle of Persia, may
have been their special saint. The ancient churches of southern
India never diod out or wholly kat their sense of connexion
with their mother church, for we find them sending deputies
in X400 to the Nestorian patriarch Simeon, who fom£hed them
with bishops (Aascmani, Bib. or. iii. x, 590 seq.). Hard pressed
by the Moslems, they welcomed the apinoach of the Portuguese,
but proved by no meaaa tractable to efforU to bring them within
the Roman obedience. At length a formal union with Rome
was carried through in the synod of Diamper (1599). Syriac
was to rcmam the ecckshutical hmguage, but the service books
were corrected and purified from enor. A century and a half
of foreign Jesuit rule followed, but the love of Independence
was not lost. A great schism took pkce hi 1653, and of 300,000
Chxistians of St Thomas only 400 remained loyal to Rome,
though many of their churchca were soon won back by the
Carmditea. Those who renmined independent fell under the
influence of the Jacobite Mar Gregorius, styled patriarch of
Jefusalem* who reached Malabar in 1665 as an emissary from
Ignathis, patxmrch of Antk>ch. From his tune the independent
Christians have been Jacobites, the counter-efforts of the Kesto-
nans under Mar Gabriel, bishop of Aaerhaijan, having apparently
come to notMng after Us death m 1730. Sfaice the visit of
Claudius Buchanan, whoae CkHstian Researches in Asia {i%i\)
excited great interest, much has been done for the Christians
of South India by English missionaiy effort, and Anglicans
have cultivated friendly relations with the clergy of the inde-
pendent narive church, while discouraging dependence on the
JaooUte patriaxch of Antioch.
A valuable though tedious and Hi-arranged history of the Christians
of St Thomas is that by W. Germann. Dm Kircke der Thomaukristen,
(Glltersk)h, 1877). See also La Craae, ffiifewe dm ekfistianism
das Jndes (The Hague. 17S4): Alearas de MencaeL Hisleria etdesiae
malabaritaa (Latia by F. RauUn, Rosms, 1745) (especially for the
synod of Diamper) ; Paulinus a S. Barthoioinaeo, India arieutaiis
ckristianaUto, Rome, X794) ; George Miloe Rae, The Syrian Church
In India (Edinburgh and London, 1893).
THOMAS i KEMPIS (c. i38<>-i47t)> the name by which th«
Augustinian canon and writer Thomas Hammericen (Hammer-
chen. Malleolus) is commonly^ known. He was bom in 1379
or X380 m the town of Kempeii, lying about 15 miles north-wesi
of DOsMldocf, in one of the maqy patches of tenitoiy betwee»
■See the Aeteh In Syilae of the history of the church of Malabar
priitttd and craaslaied by Land. Anetd. Syr. L 14 seq. It was sent
loSchaaf at Leideo in X730 by Mar Gabriel, the last Nestorian bkbop
ia Malabar (see Gcnnaaa. p. 543).
866
THOMAS, G L. A.— THOMAS, G. H.
Bsmtrdia Oflnetto bjT. Maniabaiid A. Randegger), wliidiiits
produoedatDnuyLsiieonUieadthof Much X8S3. TWoyeait
hUs it was ghrea (in Gemun) at Cologne and Hambiug, aad in
1690 (in Fraack) ai Caveat Gaidm. On tke rttb of Apvfl iS8s
Rosa produced at Dnixy Laae Thomas's fourth and bat oftcra,
Nadeskda (Ifbtetto by Jufian Stttigi8)i a Geraun vcnioii of
which was give& at Bteslau in xSga A fifth opera, The GMen
. Wtb (libretto by F. CoMer and B. C. Stephenson), slighter
than its predeceaaoiBt was produced (after the oomposfo's death)
at Liverpool, FeU X5» a^ *t the Lyrk Theatre, London, Mar. x r,
X893. Besides these dramatic worka Thomas's chief compoal-
tions were a psahn, ** Oat of the Deep," for soprano sdh> and
chorus (London, 1878); a choral ode, " The Sun Wonhlppers "
(Norwich, x88i), and a suite de ballet for orchestra (C^ambixdge,
X887). A canUta, The Swan and the Skylark^ was found in
pianoforte score among his MSS. after his death: it was orches-
trated by C. Villiers Stanford, and produced at the Binningham
Festival of 1894. His minor compositions include over xoo
songs and duets. . In 1891 Thomas became cagaged to be
married; shortly afterwards he showed signs of mental disease,
and his career came to a tragic end on the 20th of March 1892.
He was buried in Finchley cemetery. Coring Thomas occupies
a distinct place among English composers of the xQth centuiy.
His music, which shows traces of his early French training,
reveals a great talent for dramatic composition and a real gift
of refined and beautiful melody. Personally the ^lost amiable
of men, he was most critical of his own work, never attempting
anything for which he felt he was unfitted, and constantly
revising and rewriting his compositions. (W. B. S.*)
THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISB (x8xz-x896), French
musical composer, was bom at Metz on the 5th of August x8ix.
He studied at the Paris Conservatoire, and won the Grand Prix
de Rome in 183a. Five years later (in 1837) his first opera.
La Double ichdle, was produced at the Opira Comique. For
the next five-and-twenty yeam Thomas's productivity was
bces&ant, and most of his operaric works bebnging to this
period enjoyed an ephemeral poptdarity. A few of these are
still occasionally heard 00 the continent, such as Le Catd (1849),
Le Songe d'une nuU (TOS (1850), Psychi (1857). The overture to
Haymoni (185 1) has remamed popular. So far the composer's
operatic career had not been marked by any ovcrwheknlog
success. He occupied a place among the recognized purveyors
of opebd in {he French capital, but could scarcely claim to
having achieved European renown. The production of Mignon
at the Opin, Comicfue in x866, however, at once raised Ambroise
Thomas to the position of one of the foremost French composers.
Goethe's touching tale had very happily inspired the musician;
Mme daXii Mari£, the original interpreter of the title-r6Ie.
had moddQed her conception of the part upon the well-known
pictuxe by Aiy Scheffer, and Mignon at ofice took the fancy of
the public, its success behig repeated all over the contment
It has since remained one of the most popular operas belonging
to the second half of the t9th century. Thomas now attempted
to turn Shakespeare'^ Hamlet to operatic account His opera
of that name was produced with success at the Paris Op^ra in
1868, where it enjoyed a long vogue. If the music is scarcely
adequate to the subject, h nevertheless contains some of the
composer's best work. The scene of the esplanade is genuinely
dr&matic, the part of Ophelia is poetically conceived, and the
ballet music is very briDiant. Ambroise Hiomas's last opera,
FroHftHse de Rimini, was given at the Op6ca in r883, but has
not maintained Itsdf hi the riperteire. Seven years later La
Tempite, a ballet founded on Shakespeare's play, was produced
at the same theatre. Ambroise Thomas succeeded Auber as
director of the Paris Conservatoire b 1871. His music fe often
distinguished by refined touches which reveal a sensitive mind,
and there is a distinct element of poetry in his Mignon and
Hamlet, two operas that should suflSce to keep the composer's
memory green for some time to oome. He died on the xsth of
February t896. (A. He.)
^OMAS, OBOROB (e. 1756-1803), British miKtary adventurer
idia. Thomas ws bom d poor parentage in Ifdand in
1756, deserted fiom the Btitish Navy In Madru, and made his
way north to Delhi, where he took service under the begora
Sisffini of Saxdhana. Suppbmted ih her favour by a Frendtmao,
he tiaasfencd ids allegisace to Appa Rao, a Mahratta chief tain,
and subsequently set up an bid^>endent kingdom of his own
fak Hariana with his capital at HansL Thomas was a man of
great penonal strength and daring, and coBSfderable militarf
genius, la the turmoil of falling kingdoms in the India of that
day hk swotd was always at the service of the highest bidder;
but he had the virtues of his profession — he never betrayed an
employer, was kind and generaus to Ms soldiers, and was always
itady to succour a woman in d&ties^. He cherished dreams
of oonquering the Punjab, and fought one of his best campaigns
agafanst the Sikh chiefs; but he was finally defeated and captured
by Siadbia's army under General Penron (q.9.). His iron
constitutkMi was broken by exposure and excessive drinking,
and be died on his way down the Ganges on the aiad of August
x8m.
See Fcancklln, MSHofy Uemoirt of UrGtorgt Thomas (1803);
Comptoo, MHUtt^ Adotntmrs of Hindeuiem (iSgia)'
TH0HA4, OWRGB HBNRY (18x6-1870), American genetnl,
was bom in Southampton county, Virginia, on the 3rst of July
x8x6. Graduating from West Point in 1840, he served as an
artilleKy subaltern in the war against the Semfausle Indiana
in Florida <x84x), and in the Mexican War at the baUles of
Fort Brown, Resaca de la Paima, Monterey and Bucna Vista,
receiving three brevets for distinguished ipdlantiy in action.
From X85X to X854 he was an instructor at West Point. In
X855 he was appointed by Jefferson Davis, then secretary of
war, a major of the and Cavalry. His regimental superiors
were A. S. Johnston, R E. Lee and Hardee. All three resigned
at the outbreak of the Civil War and Thomas was long in ctoubt
as to his duty. He finally decided to adhere to the United
States. He was promoted in rapid succession to be lieutenant-
colonel and colonel in the regular army, and brigadier-general
of volunteers. In command of an independent force in eastern
Kentucky, on the X9th of January 1863, he attacked the Con-
federate General ZoDicoffer at Mill Springs, and completely
routed him, gaining by vigorous attack and relentless pursuit
the fitst important Union victoiy in the West He served
under Buell and was offered, but refused, the chief command
hi the anxious days before the battle of Perryville. Under
Roseenns be was engaged at Stone River and was in charge
of the most important part of the manoeuvring from Decherd
to Chattanooga. At the battle of Chickamauga (^.t.) on ^e
xoth of Sqitember 1863 he achieved great distinction, his
firmness on that disastrous field, where he gained the name of
** The Rock of Chickamauga," being all that saved a tcrriUe
defeat from becoming a hopeless rout. He succeeded Rose-
enns in command of the Army of the Cumberiand shortly before
the great victory of Chattanooga {q.9.), th which Thomas and
his army played a most oonspicuous part, his divisions under
Sheridan, Wood and Baird carrying Missionary Ridge in superb
style. In Sherman's advance through Georgia in the spring of
X864, the Army of the Cumberiand numbered over 60,000 men
present for duty. Thomas handled these with great skiU hi
all the engagements and flanking movements from Chattanooga
to Atlanta. When J. B. Hood broke away from Atlanta in the
autumn of 1864, menaced Sherman's long line of communica-
tions and endeavouxod to force Sherman to follow him, Sherman
determined to abandon his communications and march to thn
sea, leaving to Thomas the difficult task of dealing with Hood.
Thomas hastened bade with a oompantivdy small forces
Fscmg with Hood to reach Nashville, where he was to noeive
reinfoitemeots. At the battle of Franklin on the 30th of
November 1864, a hrge part of Thomas's fbrce^ under comm a n d
of Schofield, diecked Hood long enough to cover the oonccnf ra-
tion at KashvQle (7.0.). Here Thomas had to otgsmce his
force, which was dmwn from ail parts of the West and induded
many young iroopa and even qbartcnnastee's craploy^B. He
declined to attack until his army was ready and the tee which
covered the ground had melted sufilcisntly to enable -his men
THOMAS, L— THOMAS, T.
867
to nMie. The whole of the Notth, end even Gencnl Giant
himsBlf, vere impatient of the delay. General Logan was sent
with an order to sapenede Thomas, and soon afterwards Grant
bft the Amy of the Potomac to take command in person. Before
either arrived Thomas made hb attack (December I5tb-x6th,
1864) and inflicted on Hood the most crushing defeat sustained
in the open field by any army on either side in the whole war.
Hood's army wis completely ruined and never again ai^ieared
on the field. For this brilliant victory Thomas was made a
major-general in the regular army and received the thanks of
Congress. After the termination of the Civil War he commanded
military departments in Kentucky and Tennessee until 1869,
when he was ordered to command the divison of the Padfic
with headquarters at San Frandsoo. He died there of apopitxy,
while writing an answer to an article criticizing his militaiy
career, on the 38th of March xSya
Thomas was beloved by his soldiers, for whom he always had
a fatherly solicitude. He was a man of solid rather than
brilliant attainments; he remained in the army all his life, and
never had any ambitions outside of it; the nickname of '* Stow
Ttot Thomas " given him by the cadets at West Point character-
ized him physically and mentally; his mind acted deliberately,
and his temperaoieot was somewhat sluggish; but his judgment
was accurate, his knowledge of his profession was complete
in every detail, and when he had fimdly grasped a problem,
and the time anived for action, he struck his blow with extra-
ordinary vigour and rapidity. The only two battles in which
he was in chief command— Mill Springs and Nashville, one at
the banning and the other near the end of the war — were signal
viaories, without defect and above criticism. His service during
the intervening three yean of almost incessant conflict and
manfcavring was marked by loyal obedience to his superiors,
skilful command of his subordinates, and successful accomplish-
ment of every task entrusted to him.
THOMAS, ISAIAH (i 749-1 831), American printer, was bom
in Boston, Massachuaetti, on the 19th of January 1749. He was
apprenticed in 1755 to Zechariah Fowle, a Boston printer,
with whom, after working as a printer in HaHfaz, Portsmouth,
New Hampshire^ and Charleston, South Carolina, he formed
a partncnhip in 177a He issued in Boston the MassaekuseUt
Spy three times each week, then (under his sole ownerdiip)
aa a semi-weekly, and beginning in r77i, as a weekly which soon
espon t ed the Whig cause and which the government tried to
nppreas. On the i6ih of April 1775 (three days before the
battle of Concord, in which he took part) he took his prfcsscs
and tjrpes from Boston and set them up at Worcester, where he
was postmaster for a time; here he published and sold books
and buOt a paper-mill and bindery, and he continued the
paper until about i8o» except in 1776-1778 and in x786-r788.
The Spy supported Washington and the Federalist party.
In Boston Thomas published, in 1774, the RvytU American
Ua jim t u, which was continued for a short time by Joseph
Greenleaf, and which contained many engravings by Paul
Revere; and in 1775-1803 the Ifiw Emffand Almanac, continued
until 1819 by his son. He set up printing houses and book
stores in various pans of the country, and in Boston with
Ebeneser T. Andrews, published the MauackuseUs Maitmntt
a monthly, Irem 1789 to 1793. At Walpole, New Hampshire.
be publisiied the Farmer* s Unseum. About 1802 he gave over
to hn eon, Isaiah Thomas, junr., his business at Worcester
-including the control of the Spy. Thomas founded in 181 2 the
American Antiquarian Society. He died in Worcester on the
4th of April .1S31.
His History fif Printing in America, vith a Biotrapky ef Printert,
and an Aumtnt of Nevnpaprrs <3 vols.. 1810; and ed.. 1874. with a
catalofiue of Aaficrican pubTications previous to 1776 and a memoir
of liaiah Thomas, bv hit grauidsoo B. F. Thomas) is an important
work, accurate and tiiorough.
TH0HA8» PfRRB (1634*1608), sicnr du Foss^, French
scholar and author, was the son of a master of accounu at
Rouen. He was sent as a chOd to be educated at Port Royal,
and there he received his final bent towards the life of a ledose.
and even of a hermit, wUch drew him to csUbUsh himsdf m
the neighbourhood of Port Royal des Champs. In x66i he came
to Paris, and in 1666 was arrested along with I. L. Le Maistn
(de Sacy). and after a month in the Bastille was exiled to his
esute of F0S86. He later made yeariy visiu to Paris. Apart
from his collaboration with de Sacy, Thomas wrote some
hagiographic works and left Mfmoires (1697-1698 and again
1876-1879)1 which are highly praised by Su Beave as being a
remarkable mirror of the life at Port RoysL
THOMAS. SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885), British inventor,
was bom on the x6th of April 1850 at Canonbury, I/mdon.
His father, a Welshman, was in the dvfl service, and his mother
was the daughter of the Rev. James GHchrist. His father's
death leaving his family with a considerably reduced iacone,
he gave up his original idea of becoming a doctor and obtained
an appointment as a police court clerk, which he held till May
1879. During these twelve years, besides the work of a busy
police court, which brought him into intinutte contact with
social problems, he found time to study chemistry, and attended
lectures at the Birkbeck Institute. He set himself to solve
the problem of eliminating phosphorus from iron by means of
the Bessemer converter, and by the end of 1875 wss convinced
that he. had discovered a method. He communicated his theory
to his cousin, P. C. Gilchrist, who was chemist to iron works
in Wales, And experiments were made, which proved satis^
factory. Edward Martin, manager of the Blaenavon Works,
gave facilities for conducting the experiments on a larger scale
and undertook to help in taking out a patent. In March 1878,
the first public announcement of the discovery was made at
the meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute, but without attract-
ing mudi attention; and in September a paper was written
by Thomas and Gilchrist on the V Elimination of Phosphorus
in the Bessemer Converter " for the autumn meeting of this
institute, but was not read till May 1879. Thomas, however,
made the acquaintance of E. W. Richards, the manager of
Bolckow Vaui^an & Co.'s works at Qeveland, Yorkshire, whom
he interested in the process, and from this time the success of
the invention was assured and domestic and foreign patents
were taken out. The " basic jnocess " invented by Thomas was
especially valuable on the continent of Europe, where the
proportion of phosphoric iron is much larger than in England,
and both in Belgium and in Germany the name of the inventor
became more widely known than in his own country. InAnwrica,
although noo'pbosphoiic iron large^ predominates, an immense
interest was taken in the inventtoiL But Thomas had been
overworking for years, and his lungv became affected. A long
sea voyage and a residence in Egypt proved umivailiag to restore
his hMlth and he died in Paris on the ist of February 2885.
He had what W. £. Gladstone, in a review of the Memoirs
published in i89r, described as an " enthusiasm of buosanity,"
and he left bis fortune to be used for the promotion of philanr
thropic work. A police court mission was endowed in his
memory.
See Memoirt and Lettert tf Sidney Cikhrist Thomas (1891),. ed.
by R. W. Bumie.
THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905), American *muaiciaa,
was born in Eaens, Germany, on the nth of October 1835. His
eariy musical training was received chiefly from his iath». At
the age of five he made his first public appearance as a violinist.
In 1845 he was taken to America by his parents; aitd became
fiist violia in the orchestra that aocompanied Jenny lind in
1850, Sontag in 1853 and Grisi and Mario in 1854. In x86a he
began to organise his own orchestra, and from 1864 to 1878
were periormed a series of symphony conceru inaugurated ky
him in Irving Hall, which were icgarded as one of the great
musical Institutiooa of New York City. His " sanuncr ni^t "
concerts begun in 1866 in Toiace Garden were continued in
Central Park. From 1855 to x868 he took part in a series of
chamber music conceru in JNew York. In the latter year his
orchestra made its first tour, and continued to give coocrrts
in various American cities until it was disbs nd rd In 1888. To
Theodore Thomas is laifely 4oe tha populsxisatiock of Wagner's
868
THOMAS, W.>-THOMASVILLE
works in Amcnca, and it was he who fooodcd the Wagner ui^oo
hi 187a. During most of the seasons from 1877 to 1891 be was
oondnctor of the New York Philharmonic Society, and from
i86a to Z89X, of the Brooklyn Philharmonic Society. He was
director of the Cincinnati CoUegeof Music (X878-X879), condoctor
of the American Opera Company (1886-1887), and for more than
thirty years (X873-1904) the conductor of the biennial May
festivals at QndnnatL In 1891 he removed to Chicago, and
became the conductor of the Chicago Orchestra; in 1893 he was
musical director of the Columbian Espocition. He (fied an the
4th of January 1905.
, THOHAS, WILUAH (d. 1554), Eiiglish soldier and writer,
was probably a native of Radnoishixe and was educated at
Oxford. In 1544 he went to Italy, where he spent the greater
part of the next five years, and in April 1550, soon after his
tttum to Engbuid, he was nuide one oi the derks of the privy
cbundl; he also taught the science of politics to the young king
Edwaid VI., for whose instruction he wiote some treatises and
soitae " eqmmoBplaces of state." Being a strong Protestant he
took part in the rising against Queen Mary led by Sir Thomas
Wyat in X554, being captured and thrown into the Tower of
London. Having whilst in prison tried to commit suicide and
been tortured on the rack in the hope of incriminating the
princess Elizabeth, he was fonnd guilty and was hanged at
Tyburn on the 18th of May 1554.
During his reudeoce at Bokigna Thomas, who was a very learned
manr wrote // PelUerwo intlest^ published in 1553. This it a valuable
and interesting detence of Henry VIII. by a contemporary and it
originated in a discussioa between the author and vxctie. Italian
gentlemen. He aim prepared an Eagfish verdon of this work, but
this was not published during his ufetimew As The Pilfinm: a
diahgup of the Uft and aOioiu ef King Henry VJIJ., it was edited
with notes by J. A. Froude and appeared in 1861. It had pre-
viously been edited by A. D'Aubant, who had added to it the rix
treatises written for Edwaid VI. and had called the whole The
Works of WiUmm Thomas (1774). Of his other writings perhaps
the most ii^porunt is The Histone of ItuUe (15^), and hisPrincsAo/
Rades of the Italiqn Grammar with a Dictumane for tite better Mnaer."
standing ofBouace, Petrarcha and Dante (1550, 1560, 1563 and 1567)
may also be mentioned. This was the first work of its kind in Ene-
Ush. Thomas made an English translation of Jesaiat BarbaitHi
account of his voyages^ Barbaro being a Venetian traveller who died
in 1494. With an introduction by Lord Stanley of Alderley this
was published by the Hakluyt Society in a volume of Travds to
Tana and Persia (London, 1873). See John Strype. EedeHastUai
Mimorials (Oxford, i8aa).
Thomas has a namesake, William Thomas (16x5-1689), bishop
Of St David's from X677 to X683 and bishop of Worcester from
X683 to X689. He was one of the blshbps who refused to uke
the oaths of aDegiance to William and Mary in 1689 and was
Suspended, but in the midst of the dispute he died on the 25th
of June 1689 (see NoNjtTitoss). The bishop's grandson was
William Thomas (1670-X738), the Worceiftershire antiquary.
TH0MASIU8, CHRISTIAN (i65s-x728>, German jurist and
publicist, was bom at Leipzig on the xst of January X655, and
was educated by his father, Jakob Thomasius (x62a-t684), at
that lime head master of the Thomasschule. Through his
father's lectures Christian came under the influence of the
political philosophy of Hugo Grotius and Samuel Pufendorf,
and continued the study of law at Prankfort-on'Oder. In
1684 he commenced the career of professor of natural law at
Leipzig, and soon attracted attention by his abilities, but
particularly by his daring attack upon traditional prejudices,
in theology and jurisprudence. In 1687 he made the daring
innovation of lecturing in (Serman instead of Latin^ and in the
(bUowtng year published a monthly periodical {SckenJtafte
und erUstkafte, vernUnflige und einfSltigt Cedanken Uber dUrkand
lustige stnd nUtslkhe BlUkif und Fragen) in which be ridiculed
the pedantic weaknesses of the learned, taking the side of the
Pietists in thefr controversy with the orthodox, and defending
mixed marriages of Lutherans and Calvinists. In consequence
of these and other views, he was denounced from the pulpits,
forbidden to lecture or to write (May 10, 1690), and his arrest
was ordered. The latter he escaped by flight to Beriln, ahd the
elector Frederick- III. oflered him a refuge in Halle, with a
salary (tf 500 talers and the permission to lectine. He took part
in foundmg the wuversity of Halle (1694), whese he I
second and then first professor of low and rector of the tuuvenity.
He was one of the most esteemed imiveisity tcachen and inifai*
ential writers of his day. He died, after a successful and
honourable career, on the a3rd oi Se|>tember 1728.
Though not a profound and systematic phaosophicat tlunker,
Thomasius prepared the way for great reforms in phikMOphy. and.
above all, in law, literature, social life and theology. It was Ids
mission to introduce a rational, common-sense point of view, and to
bring the high matters of divine and human sciences into dose
and living contact with the everyday world. He thus created an
epoch in German literature, phiosophy and law, and Spittksr opens
with him the modem period of fmrwastinil histieiy. He made it
one of the ainu of his Ufe to free poUtica and iurispnidence from the
control of theology, and fought bravely and consistently for free-
dom of thought and speech on religious matters. He is often spokea
of in German works as the authoM' of the " territorial system," or
Erastian theory of ecclesiastical government. Bot he taught that
the state nuy interfere wth legal or public duties only, and not with
moral or private ones. He would not have even atheists punished,
though they should be expelled the country, and be came forward as
an earnest opponent of the prosecution 01 witches and of the use
of torture In theok)^ he was not a naturalist or a deist, but a
believer in the necessity of revealed religioo /or salvation. H«
came strongly under the influence of the ptetists, particulariy
of Spener, and there was a mystic vein in his thought; but other
elements of ha nature were too powerful to allow aim to attadi
himself wholly to that party.
Thomasius a most popular and influential German publications
were his periodical already referred to (1688-1689): EuUeitung snr
Vemunfluhre (1691, 5th ed. 17I9); Vemunftige Cedanken iter
eUerhand ausertesew und jnriitisehe Udnid (I730>I7SI); tfulsrir der
WeisheU und Torheil (3 vols., 1^3); Kwu Lekrsitse ton 4bm LnsUr
der Zauberei mil dem Hexenprouss (170a) ; Weiten Erldulenauem der
neneren Wissenschrft anderer Cedanken kennen in lemen (17x1).
See Luden, ChrisHan Thomasivs nach seinen Schicksalen smd
Sekriften (1805): R Deraburg, Thomasius und die SUIhmg der
Unioersitdi Halle (1869); B. A. Wasner. Thomotim, «m Bei^ng anr
WUrdigung seiner Verdtenste { 1 87a) ; Nkoladooi* CkrisOan Thomasiau.
Ein Beitrag war CeschichU der AufUdrung (Berfin, 1888); and E.
Landsberg, Zur Biographic von Christian Thomasius (1894).
THOMASOH. OBOROB (d. x666), English book and tiMt
collector, was a London bookseller, whose life contains few items
of interest save the fact that he was concerned in a loyalist
plot in X65X. He is famous, however, as the man who bioughi
together the great collection of books and tracts published during
the tune of the CiVQ War and the Cominon wealth; this vaa
fomierly called the '* King's Pampfakto," but is now known as
the *' Thomason CoUection." Duxing the years |uat before the
outbreak of war a great number of irritings covering cvexy i4iase
of the questions in dilute between Idng and people were issued,
and in 1^41 Thomason began to collect these. Working diU-
gently at his task fto about twenty years, he possessed nearly
93,000 separate publications in i66a, and having arranged than
in chronological order he had them bound in X983 volunaes.
After many vidssitudes the cdlection was bought in X761 from
his descendants by George III., who presented it to the British
Museum, where it xiow is (see NEWSVAVEas). Thomason died
m London in April (1666).
THOHASVILLB, a dty and the county-^eat of Thomas
county, (jeorgia, UJSA., about 300 a. S.W. of Savannah. Popw
(iQoo), 5322, ofwhom 3396 were negroes; (19x0), 6737. Thomaa-
ville is served by the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic, the
Atlantic Oiast line and the Florida Central railways. The city
is attractively situated (about 250 ft. above the sea) on a high
plateau, is surrounded by pine forests, and is a well*known winter
resort. There are fine drives in the vicinity. Thomasville ba« a
dty hospital, a public libraiy (1876) and a good public school.
system, and is the seat of Young's College (for girls), which was
founded by £. Remer Young, a wealthy planter of Thomas
county, was incorporated in 1869 and was opened in X871, and
of the Vashti Industrial school (X903) for girls, maintain»l by
iht Women's home mission sodety of the Methodist Episcopal
Church, South. The dty has a large trade in himber, especfaHy
yellow pine; other products of the region an ootton, su8sr<ane,
tobacco, mdons, fruiu and vegetables. The municipality owns
and operates the water*works and electric-lighting plant; the
water supply Is obtained in part from artesiah wells xgoo ft.
THOMOND, EARL AND MAHQUESS-^THOMPSQN, SIR H. 869
deep. Thoinasvi]k«asiettkd«boutiS7S, vttiaoorpontedas
a town in iSji, And was chartered as a city in i8Sg.
THOMOND, EARL AND MARQUESS OF. Irish titles borne
by the great family of O'Brien, the earldom from 1543. to 1741
and the marquessate from 1800 to 1855. Thomond, or TUaidh-
•Muini was one of the three principalities of Munster, forming
the northern part of the province. Its earls were descended
from Turlough O'Briea (c. 1009-10S6), king of Munster,
and through him from the celebrated king of Ireland, Brian
Boroiroiie. Turlough 's descendants, Conchobhar O'Brien (id.
1267) and Brian Ruadh O'Brien (d. 12 j6), kings of Thomond,
were both typical Irish chieftains. Conchobbar's Lpmb and
%Sigy with a crown are still to be seen in the ruined abbey
of CoTComroe, Co. Clare. His descendant Conor O'Brien
(d. 1539), prince of Thomond, took part in the feud between the
great families of Fitzgerald and Butler and was the last inde*
pendent prince of Thomond. It is inteeesting to learn that in
>S54i ^'hen he was in some straits, be wrote to the emperor
Charles V. offering to submit to his authority. Conor's brother,
Ikfurrough O'Brien (d. X55i),prioceof Thomond, the succeeding
chief of the race, gave up his " captainship, title, superiority
and coxmtry" to Henry VIII. in 1543, when he was created
carl of Thomond. By special arrangement the earldom dc^
scended, not to his son Dcrmod, but to his nephew, Donough,
who became the 2nd earl. Dermod, however, inherited the
barony of Inchiquin, which was conferred vpoci his father at
the same time as the earldom.
Conor O'Brien, the 3rd earl (c. X534-C. X582), was for some
years at the outset of his career, harassed by the attacks of his
discontented kinsmen. Then in his turn he rose against the
English, but was defeated and fled to France; in xsyr, however,
be was pardoned and formally surrendered his lands to Eliza-
beth. One of his younger sons was Daniel O'Brien (c. 1577-
c. 1664) who, after loyally serving Charles L and Charles 11.,
was created Viscount Clare in 1663. His grandson Daniel,
the 3rd viscount id. i6qi) served James II. in Ireland, being
outlawed and deprived of his estates by the English parliament
The three succeeding viscounts Clare all distinguished them-
selves in the service of France. Daniel, the 4th viscount, was
mortally wounded at the battle of Marsagfia in 1693; his broths
Charles, the sth viscount (d. 1706), was killed at the battle of
Ramillies; and' the latter's son Charles, the 6th viscount (1699-
1761) after a brilliant military career, was made a maisJial of
France in 1757.., When Charles, the 7th viscount, died in 1774
the title became extinct.
Donough O'Brien, the 4th earl (d. 1624), called the " great
eari,** was the son and successor of the 3rd earl. He served
England well in her warfare with the rebellious Irish during tbr
closing year of Elizabeth's reign aivd was made president of
Munster in 1605. He had two sons, Henry, the 5th earl,
(d. 1639) and Barnabas, the 6th earl (d. 1657). During the
Irish rebellion of r 640-41 Barnabas showed a prudent neutrality,
and then joined Charles I. at Oxford, where in 1645 he was
created marquess of Billing, but the patent never passed the
great seal and the title was never a^umed. The succeeding
earls were Bamabas's son Henry (c, i62i'r69r) and Henry's
grandson Henry (1688-1741) who was created an English peer
as Viscount Tadcaster. When he ^ed the earldom of Thomond
became extinct.
The estates of thetarldom descended to the last eart's nephew,
Percy Wyndham {c. 17x3-1774), a younger son of Sir William
Wyndham, Bart. He took the additional name of O'Brien and
was created earl of Thomond in 1756, When he died unniarrie4
the title again became extinct.
In 1800 Murrough O'Brien, 5th earl of Inchiquin ((.'1724'-'
1808), was created marquess of Thomond. He was succeeded
by his nephew William {c. 1765-1846) who was created a British
peer as Baron Tadcaster in 1826. His brother James, the 3rd
marquess (c. 1 768- 1855), was an officer in the navy and became ai^
admiral in 1853. When he died the marquessate became extinct.
See Toha O'Doooghue, Hislorical Memoirs cfAt (/Brwu (Dublin,
t86o).
THOMPSON. PRAN€I8 ({860-1007). En^sh poet, was bom
at Ashton, Lancashire, in i860. His father, a doctcr, became a
convert to Roman Catholicism, following his brother Edward
Healy Thompson, a friend of Manning. The boy was accord*
ingly educated at Ushaw College, near Durham, and subse"
quently studied medicine at Owens College, Manchester; bur
he took no real interest in the profession of a doctor and was benC
on literary piDduction. A period of friendlessness and failure
(from the point oit view of " practical life") foUowed, in which
he became a solitary creature who yet turned his visions of
beauty into vnrecognized verse. It was not till 1893 lhat»
after some five obscure. years, in which he was brought to the
lowest depths of destitution and ill bcaltb, his poetic geniut
became known to the public. Through his sending a poem to
the magaaine MvrU En^Iandt he was sought out by Mr and
Mrs Wilfrid Meynell and rescued from the verge of starvation
and self-destruction, and. these friends of his own com*
munion, recognizing the value of his ^'ork, gave him a
home and procured the pubhcation <^ his first vohunc ai,
JPvems (1893). His debt to Mrs Meynell was repaid by
some of his finest verse. .The volume quickly attracted
the attention of sympathetic critics,, in the Si Jctrus's.
C<aetU and other quarters, and Coventiy Patmore wrote a
eulogistic notice in the FortnighUy JRaiew (Jan. 1894). An
ardent Koman Catholic, much of Francis Thompson's verse,
reminded the critics of Crashaw, but the beauty and splendid
though often strange inventiveness of his diction were .imme-
diately recognized as giving him a place by himself among
contemporary poets, recalling Keats. and Shelley rather than any
of his own day. Persistent iU. health limited his literary output,
but Sister Songs (1895) and New Poems (1897) coofon^ed the
opinion formed of his remarkable gilts. But his health waa
hopelessly broken down by tubercuk)sis. Cared for by the
friends already mentioned, he lived a frail existence, chiefly at
the Capuchin monastery at Tanlasapt, and later at Storrington;
and on the 13th of Kovember 1907 he died in London. He bad
done a little prose journalism, and in 1905 published a treatise
on Hetltk and Holiness^ dealing with the aKclic life; but it is
with his three volumes of poems that his name will be connected.
Among his work there is a certain amotmt which can justly be
called eccentric or unusual, especially in his usage of poetically
compoimded neologisms; but nothing can be purer or more
simply beautiful than ** llie Daisy," nothing more intimate and
reverent than his poems about children, or more magnificent
than " The Hound of Heaven." For glory of inspiration and
natural magnificence of utterance he is unique aax>ng the poets
of his time. <H. Cn.)
THOMPSON, SIR HENRY.' Bast. (1820-1904), English
surgeon^ was l)orn at Framlingham, Suffolk, on the 6th of
August 1820. His father wished him to enter business, but
circumstances ultimately enabled him to follow bis own desire
of becoming a physician, and i^ 1848 he entered the medical,
school of University College, London. There he had a brilliant
career, and obtained his degree at London University la 1851,
with the highest honours in anatomy and surgeiy. In 1851
he married Ml^ Kate Loder, a talented pianist, who, though
stricken with paralysis soon afterwards, was always a devoted
helpmate to him. In. 1853 he was appointed assistant surgeon
at University College Hospital, becoming full surgeon in 1863,
professor o^ clinical surgery in 1866, and consulting surgeon in
1874* In 1884 he became piofessor of surijery apd pathology
in the RoyaJl College of Surgeons, which in 185s had awarded
him the Jack^onian prize for an essay on t^ Palkology end
Trcaimait of Stricture of the UreOtra^ and again in i860 for another
on the Hcdth and Morbid Anatomy of tke Prostctt Cland.
These two memoirs indicate the department of medical practice
to which he devoted his main attention^ Specializing in the
surgery of the genito-urinary tract, and in particular in that
of the bladder, he went to Paris to study under Civiale, who Ia
the first quarter of the S9th century proved that it is possibly
to crush a stone within the human bladder, and after his retorv
he soon acquired a high reputation as a akilful operator iii that
870
THOMPSON, SIR J. S.— THOMPSON, T. P
dass of dtsctse. Td 1863, when the king of tlie Belgians was
suffering from stone, he was called to Bruascb to consult in the
case, and after some difficulties was allowed to perform the
operation of Uthotrity: this was quite successful, and in recogni-
tion of his skill Thompson was appointed surgeon-extraotdioary
to the king, an appointment which was continued by Leopold II.
Nearly ten years kter he carried out a similar operation on the
emperor Napoleon, who, however, died four days after the second
crushing, not from the surgical interference, as was proved by
the post-mortem examination, but from uraemic poisoning.
Besides devising various operative improvements in the treat-
pnent of the disorders which were his speciality, Sir Henry
Thompson wrote various books and papers dealing with them,
including CUnual Lecturts on Diseases of the Urinary OrganSf
Practical Lithotomy and Uthotrity^ Tumourt of the Btaddett
Suprapubic Lothotomy^ and Preventive Treatment of Catcidous
Disease. Among other books of a medical character that came
from his pen were Food and Feeding, and Diet in Relation to
Age and Activity, both of which passed through a number of
editions. In 1874 he took a foremost part in founding the
Cremation Society of England, of which he was the first president;
and not only was he active in urging the advantages of crema-
tion as a means of disposing of the body after death, but also
did much towards the removal of the legal restrictions by which
it was at first sought to prevent its practice in England. On
various occasions he denounced the slackness and inefficiency
of the methods of death<ertification prevalent in Great Britain,
and in 1892 his agitation was instrumental in procuring the
appointmmt of a select committee to inquire into the matter;
its report, published in the following year, In great ineasure
confirmed his criticisms and approved the remedies he suggested.
But medicine and hygiene by no means exhaust the list of Sir
Henry Thompson's activities. In art be was an accomplished
sketcher and, moreover, an amateur of painting whose pictures
were hung at the Royal Academy and the Paris Salon. About
1870 he began to get together his famous collection of china, in
particular of old blue and white Nanking; thb in time became
so large that he could no longer find room for it, and most
of it was sold. A catalogue of it, illustrated by himself and
Mr James Whistler, was published in 1878. In his famous
" octaves " he may be said to have elevated the giving of dinner
parties into a fine art. The number of courses and of guests
was alike eight, and both were selected with the utmost care
and discrimination to promote the "feast of reason and the
flow of soul." In literature, in addition to more serious works,
he produced two novels— <:*arfey Kingston's Aunt (1885) and
All But <x886)— which met with considerable success. In
sdence he became a devotee of astronomy, and for a time
maintained a private observatory in his house at Molesey. He
further did much to promote astronomical study in Great
Britain by presenting Greenwich Observatory with some of
the finest instruments now among its equipment, his gifts includ-
ing a photoheliograph of 9-in. aperture; a 30-in. reflecting
telescope, and a large refraaing telescope having an object-glass
of 26-in. diameter and a focal length of 22) ft. The offer
of the last instrument was made in 1894. Its manufacture was
undertaken by Sir Howard Grubb of Dublin, and its erection
was completed in 1897. It added greatly to the instrumental
resources of Greenwich, especially for photographic work,
and its importance may be gauged from the fact that both in
aperture and focal length it is double the size of any instrument
possessed by the observatory at the time it was put in place.
That Sir Henry Thompson, who was knighted in 1867, received
a baronetcy in 1899 was probably not unconnected with the
presentation of this telescope to the national observatory.
Thompson died on the i8th of April 1904. His family consisted
of an only son, Herbert, a barrister and well-khown egyptologist,
who succeeded to the baronetcy, and two daughters, of whom
the elder (author of a valuable Handbook to the Public Picture
Galleries of Europe, first published in 1877), married Archdeacbn
Watkins of Durham, and the younger married the Rev. H. dc
"^-ndole.
THOMPSON, SIR JOHN SPARROW (1844-1894), Canadian
jurist and statesman, was born at Halifax, Nova Scotia, on the
xoih of November 1844, of Irish descent. At fifteen he entered a
lawyer's office, and in 1865 was called to the provincial bar.
In 1871 he incurred much odium by leaving the Methodist
Church, in which he had been prominent, and becoming a
Roman Catholic, a change dictated solely by religious motives.
In 1877 he was elected to the local legislature for Antigonish
as a Conservative, and in 1878 became attortaey-general. In
May 1882 he became premier, but in June was defeated at the
general election, though retaining his own seat, and in July was
made a judge of the provincial Supreme Court. In September
1885, he was appointed minister of justice in the Federal cabinet,
and soon after was elected member for Antigonish. In 1886
he successfully defended in the Federal parliament the hanging
of Louis Riel iq.v.), which had greatly angered the French
Roman Catholics; in 1 887-1888, together with Mr Joseph Cham-
berlain and Sir Charles Tupper, he arranged a Fisheries Treaty
with the American commissioners, which was afterwar<te
thrown out by the United States Senate. During the following
years he defended the government with great skill in various
politico-religious disputes, and In November 1892 succeeded
Sir John Abbott as premier of Canada. The length of time
during which the Conservatives had held office had gathered
around many parasites, and Thompson was compelled to face
charges, some of them true, against prominent Conservatives.
He promptly announced his intention to " lop the mouldering
branches away," and would probably have reorganized his
party, but on the 12th of December 1894 he dropped dead
at Windsor Castle, a few minutes after having been sworn in
by Queen Victoria as a member of the privy council.
Though a quiet man who did not advertise, few Canadian
statesmen have done so much honest and soUd work. In 1892
he finished the codification of the Canadian criminal code; in
1893 his firmness and knowledge as British arbitrator at Paris
on the Bering Sea dispute between Great Britain and the United
States were of great service.
His Life has been written by J. C. Hopkins (Toronto. 1895).
THOHPSON, LAUNT (1833-1894), American sculptor, was
bom at Abbeyleix, Ireknd, on the 8th of February 1833. In
1847 he emigrated to the United States, and settled with his
mother at Albany, New York. After studying anatomy in the
office of a physician, Dr Armsby, he spent m'ne years in the
studio of the sculptor, E. D. Palmer. In 1857 he opened a
studio in New York, and in 1862 became a National Academician.
He visited Rome in 1868-1869, and from 1875 to 1887 was again
in Italy, living for most of the time at Florence. Re died at
Middletown, New York, on the 26tb of September 1894. Among
his important works are : " Napoleon the First," at the MetropoU-
tan Museum, New York; " Abraham Pierson," first president of
Yale University, New' Haven, Connecticut; an equestrian statue
of General A. £. Bumside, Providence, Rhode Island; " General
Winficld Scott," Soldiers* Home, Washington, D.C.; "Admiral
S. F. Du Pont " (Washington, D.C.); " General John Sedgwick "
(West Point, N.Y.); a medallion portrait of General John A.
Dix; and portrait busts of James Gordon Bennett* W^ilUam
Cullen Bryant, S. F. B. Morse, Edwin Booth as Hamlet,
Stephen H. Tyng and Robert B. Mintum.
THOMPSON, THOMAS PERONKET (1785-1869), English
political writer and mathematician, was born at Hull in 1783.
He was educated at the Hull grammar school, and in October
(1798) entered Queens' College, Cambridge. He entered the
navy as midshipman in the " Isis " in 1803, but in 1806 ex-
changed to the army. Through his acquaintance with William
Wilberforce, he was appointed governor of Sierra Leone in x8o8,
but was recalled on account of his hostility to the slave trade.
In 181 2 he returned to his military duties, and, after serving
in the sooth of France, was in 1815 attached as Arabic interpreter
to an expedition against the Wahabees of the Persian Gulf, with
Whom he negotiated a treaty (dated Jan. 1820) in which the slave
trade was for the first time declared piracy. He was promoted
major in 1825, lieutenant-colonel in 1829 and major-general in
THOMPSON, W. H.~THOMSON, J.
871
18^ He c»taKd p T ifa m cp t as menber lior HuU ((8ss-iSa7)«
tad aftefwuds Ml for BndCotd (i847^i8sat t8s7<-i8s9)* He
took • psoounent ptrt in tht oanAMM asiuiioii* iiis Cokckitm
^ IA« Cant liOiif (i8»7) being by far Uie most effective pamphlet
publiahed on th» nibjcct. In 1839 ha became the proprielor
of tlM Wttimkukr Rnim, to which he eontnbnted a Jan
mimber of axticka» Npublished in 1843 in ax vohwwa, vndcr the
title JSaw«u«i» PafifJcMf cmiOiken. HJaaaathematioalpuhficn-
Ikns wefe of n aonewhat eooentik kind. He published n
Tktcry tf PanUdt (1844)1 «nd was sIm the author of (kemdry
wVtaol Amomt, m which he endeavoHred to " get rid " of
axioma and poatnbtea. Hia new Theory ^ Jtat InkmaticH
(fSSo) waa, however, a eontiibution of peat valoe to the
adenceef nuwcal acoustics, and went through many editfaoa.
It may be said to liave fonned the basia of the tonic sol4a
system of minic. He died at BlacUteath, near London, on
the 7tli of September 1869.'
See Cobael C W* ThompMn'a mcoMir in the Proc, Roy. Snr.
Ua69).
taoanOH, VXLUAM HBPirOBTH (i8io^t886), EogUtb
dasskisi scholar and master of Trinity College, Cambridge,
wiabomat YoriLonthef7thof Marchigia Re waa privately
edneated bclbre entering the university. In 1834 he became a
fellow of Trinity, in 1853 professor of Greek (to which a canoniy
in Ely Cathedral waa then for the first time attached), and in
t886Bsaster of his college. With the ejcceptlon of the year i8j6,
when he acted as headmaster of a newly established school in
Leicester, his life was divided between Cambridge and Ely.
He died at the raastcr's lodge on the ist of October 1886.
Thompson proved a worthy sacoeasor to Whewell; the twenty
years of his uasterahip were years of progress, and he himself
took an actfve part m the abortion of tesu and the reform of
univcrrity studies and of the coDege sUtute& As a scholar he
devoted his sttentkMi aimoat entirely to Plato; and his Fkaednts
(f868) and G&rpat (r87r), with especially valuable introdoctSoaa,
atfO remain the sUndard English editions of these two diafeguea.
He also edited (1856) from the author'a MSS. Ledwes ea the
History of AnektU PkHnopky by Wlffiam Archer Butler (i8r4'
1848; lecturer on moral phikisopfay at Trinity College, Dublin),
the value of which was greatly enhanced by Thompson's notes.
See article bjrT.W.Chrk in ZKef.JVal.Biof.: and J. E. Sandys,
Autary af Ctaanal Sekatankip' {190$), voL lii.
WlHUUiv OBfHUIt (t830-x89C), Icelandic poet and man
Of letters, was bom in r8ao. He Came fai r837 to the university
of Copenhagen, where he first studied law and phikdogy, bat
later, philosophy and aesthetics. He became an enthusiasttc
ioAower ct the Pan-Scandinavian movement, although this was
not generaBy fsTOured by his oountrymen. After some years
of foreign travel, in 1848 he entered the Danish diplomatic
servke, and remained in it tUl i8si, when he returned to Copen-
hagen, where he became the chief of one of the departments
of the Danish foreign office. He retired hi t866, and then
went back to Iceland, where he passed the rest of his life, active
m the politks and the literature of his native island. He died
in 1896. He Is the best ballad poet Iceland hss produced.
ICs poems are unaffected and mostly free from riietoric, the
besetting sin of Icelandic poets. His subjects are principally
taken from Icelandic or Scandinavian history and mytlM^ogy.
He is very unlike most of his contemporaries, both in style end
thought: he b Icelaodk to the core, and on that account b per-
haps the modem Icelandic poet most appreciated by foreigners
BesMies hb poems (two separate coUcctkms, Reykjavik, x88o,
and Copenhagen, 189s). he b the author of numerous criticsl
and hbtorical essays in Icelandic and Damsh, and some larger
weeks in Danish, of which hb disserUtion on Lord Byron
(Copenhagen, 1845) deserves to be mentwned. GrUnur Tbomsen
was a warm admirer of Greek Btenture, and translated a great
number ofpoems from that la nguage into Icefandic. (S. Bt.)
TROHt&f, HANS PVm JORQBH JUUUg (1B36-1909),
Danbh chemist, was bore In Copenhagen on the T6th of February
iB76, and spent hb life in that dty. From 1847 to 1856 he
wss engaged in teaching diemistry at the Bolytechnic, of which
from 1883 to 189s he acted as director, and from 1856 to i8fi6
he waa on the staff of the military high achooL *In 1866 he waa
appointed professor of ehemistiy at the university, and rStained
thst chak until hb retirement from active work in 1891. Hb
name b famous for hb resea^jches in thennochemistzy, and,
esperially between 1869 and 1883, he carried out a great number
of detemiinatMns of the heat evolved or absorbed in chemica]
reactions, such as the formation of aalta, oxidation and reduction,
aad the oombustion of organic compounds. Hb collected
results were published in i88a-i886 in four volumes under the
title Tkermockemisehe Untenucktmgm, and abo a risimi in
English under the title Therwuckemial^y in X90& In 1857 he
established in Ospenhsgen a process for manufacturing Soda
from cryolite, obtafaed from the west coast of Greenland. He
died on the 13th of February 1909. Hb brother, Carl August
Thomson (1834^x894), was lecturer on technical chembtry at
the CopeaJttgen Polytechnie, and a second brother, Thmnaa
Gottfried Thomson (i84t*i9oi), was assistant in the chemical
laboratory at the oniverrity till 1884, when be abandoned sdenoe
for theology, aubsequently beoomiQg minister at Norap and
Randeis.
THOMSOII. SIR CHARIB WTVtLUI (1830-1882), Scottldi
naturalist, was bom at Bonsyde, Linlithgowshire, on the 5th
of March 1830, and waa educated at Edinburgh University.
In 1850 he was appointed lecturer m, and in 1851 profesaor of,
botany at Aberdeen, and in 1853 he became professor of natural
hbtory in Queen's College, Cork. A year later he was nominated
to the chair of mineralogy and geology at Queen's College,
Belfast, and in i860 was transferred to the chair of natursl
history in the same institution. In x868 he assumed the duties
of professor of botsny at the Royal CoDege of Science, Dublin,
and finaBy in 1870 he received the natural hbtoiy chair at
Edinburgh. He will be spedaily remembered as a student of
the bkilogical conditions of the depths of the sea. Being inter-
ested in crfnokb, and stimulated hy the results of the drcdgingi
of Michael San (1805-1869) in the deep sea off the Norwegian
coasts, he succeeded, along with Dr W. B. Carpenter, in obtaining
the loan of H.M.S. " Lightning " and " Porcupfaie," for successive
deep-sea dredging expeditions in the summers of t868 and 1869.
It waa thus shown that anunal Hfe exists in abmHiaace down to
depths of 650 fathoms, that all iavertebrste groups are repre-
sented (laigdy by Tertbry forms previously bdieved to be
exUnct), and, moreover, that deep-sea temperatures are by 00
means so constant ss was supposed, but vary considenbly, and
indicate an oceanic circulation. The results of these expedilbns
were described in The Dtplks cf Ike Sea, which he publbhed in
1873. The remarkable results gained for hydrography as weO as
soology, in sasodatlon with the pracrical needs of ocean tele-
graphy, soon led to the granting of H.M.S. " Challenger"
for a circumnavigating expedition, aik! Thomson sailed at the
end of 1873 as dfaector of the scientific staff, the cruise lasting
three years and a half (see Chaclenoek Exfeditton). On
hb return he received many academic honours, and was knighted.
In 1877 he published two volumes {The Voyage of the Challenger
in the Athnlk), of a prriiminary account of the results of the
voyage, meanwhile carrying on hb administmtive labours In
connexion with the <fispoaition of the special collections and the
publication ot the monographs dealing with them. Hb health,
never robust, was meanwhile giving way; from 1879 he ceased
to perform the duties of hb chair, and he died at Bonsyde on
the 10th of March 188s.
See oUtuary notke in Proc. See. Edin. (1883); also Tbomaoa
aad Uwxar,Eepm1eefthe YoyateefHM^"ChaUengtr''iEaaimgjk,
IMS).
f, ^AMB (r7oo-r748), English poet, author of
The Seasons, was bom at Ednam, in Roxburghshire, on the nth
of September 1 70&-^be third son and fourth child of Thomss
Thomson, minbter of that place. Hb mother, Beatrix, was the
daughter of Mr Trotter of Fogo, whose wife, Margaret, was one
of the Homes 6f Bassenden. About 1701 Thomas Thomson
removed to SOuthdean near Jedburgh. Here James was
educated at first by Robert Riccaltoun, to whose verses 00
872
THOMSON, J.
Winter he oned the'saggestito of his own poem. In 171a
lie attended a Khool at Jedburgh, held in the aisle of the parish
churdh. He learnt there sothe Latin, but with difficulty, and
the earliest recorded utterance of the future poet was " Confound
the building of Babd." He fc{pgan very soon lo write verses,
and we are. told that every January he destroyed almost all
the productions of the preceding year.* And this was just as
well, for the little that has escaped the fire contains no promise
of hb future powers. In 1715 he went to the university of
Edinburgh. It is said that as soon as the servant who brought
him thither had quitted him, he returned full speed to bis
father's bouse, declaring that he could read just as well
at home; he went back, however, and had not been long
■t coUege before he lost his father, who .died, according
to one remarkable but highly improbable story, in the
attempt to lay. a ghost. The incident should have left
moce impression than we can trace upon the mind of the
poet, at this date nervous and afraid of the cUrk; but in his
Winter he writes of all such stories with a quiet contempt for
"superstitious horror." He made friends at the university
with David Mallock, who afterwards called himself Mallet, and
with Patrick Murdoch; his'futuxe bio(p:q>her. bi 1719 ^^
became a divinity student, and one of his exercises so enchanted
a certain Auditor Benson, that he urged Thomson to go to
London and there make himself a reputation as a preacher.
It was partly with this object that. Thomson kft Edinburgh
without a degree in March 1725. His mother saw him embark,
and they never met again; she died on the loth of May of that
year. There is sufficient evidence that on his arrival in London he
was not in the extreme destitution which Dr Johnson attributes
to him; and in July 1725 we find him engaged, as a make-shift,
in teaching " Lord Binning's son to read." This son was the
grandson of Lady Grizel Baillie, a somewhat distant connexioQ
of Thomson's mother. She was the daughter of Sir Patrick
Home, whom, after the defeat of Aigyil, she fed in his conceal*
ment near his own castle; she was also, like other Scottish
ladies, a writer of pretty ballads. This heroine and poetess is
6iq>posed to have encouraged Thomson to come to England,
and it is certain that she procured him a tcnq>orary home.
But he had other friends, especially Duncan Forbes of CuUoden,
by whom be was recommended to the duke of Argyll, the earl
of Burlington, Sir Robert Walpole, Arbuthnot, Pope and Gay.
Some introductions to the literary world he may have owed to
Mallet, then tutor in the family of the duke of Montrose.
Thomson's Winkr appeared in March 1726, It was warmly
praised by Aaron Hill, a man of various interests and projects,
and in his day a sort of literaiy oracle. It was dedicated to Sir
Spencer Compton, the Speaker, who rewarded the poet, to bis
great disgust, with a bare twenty guineas. By the nth of
June z 737 a second edition was called /or« Meanwhile Thomson
was residing at Mr Watts's academy in Tower Street as tutor
to Lord George Graham, second son of the duke of Montrose,
and previously a pupil of Mallet. Summer appeared in 1727.
Jt was dedicated in prose, a compliment afterwards versified,
to Bubb Dodingtoo. In the same year Thomson published his
Poem to the Memory of Sir Isaac Newtom, with a fulsome
dedication to Sir Robert Walpole, which was afterwards
omitted, qnd the verses themselves remodelled when the poet
began to inveigh against the ministry as he did in Briiannia,
published in 1729. Spring appeared in 1728, published by
Andrew Millar, a man who, according to Johnson, dealt hand-
somely by authors and "raised the price of lilerafure." It
was dedicated to the countess of Hertford, afterwards duchess
of Somerset, a bdy devoted to letters and the patroness of the
unhappy Savage. In 1729 Thomson produced S«pkimsha,
a. tragedy now only remembered by the line " Sophonisba,
Sophoni^, b," and the parody " O Jemmy Thomson, Jemmy
Thomson, O," which caused him to remodel the unhappy verse
in the form, "O Sophonisba, I am wholly thine." A poem,
Aooaymous but unquestionably Thomson's, to the memory
9l Coogreve who had died in January 1729, appeared in that
year, la 1730 Autumn, was fim published in a collected edition
of The Seasons. It was dedicated to'Ilie Speaker, Omlow. la
this year, at the suggestion 6f Rundle, bishop o^ Derry, one of
his patrons; he accompanied the son of Sfar Chsries Talbot,
solidtor-general, upon his travels. In the course of these he
projected his Liberty as "a poetical landscape of countries,
mixed with mocal observations on their government and people.*'
In December 1731 he returned with hn pupil to London. He
probably lived with his patrons the Talfoots, leisturely mediuting
his new poem» the first part of which did not appear tmtil the
close <^ 1734 or the beginning oi I75S- But meanwhile his
pupil died, and in the opening lines of Liberty Thooisoa pays a
tribute to his memory. Two months after Ins son's dcaOh Sir
Charles Talbot became chancellor and gave Thomson a. sinecure
in the court of chancery. About this time the poet worked for
the relief of Dennis, now old and in extreme poverty, and
induced even Pope to give a half^ontctnptuous support to
the bitter critic of the i^u^e of the Lock* Liberty was ooopleted
in five parts hi 1736. The poem was a failnre; its execution
did not correspond with its design; in a sense indeed it is a
survey of countries and might hKVe auUdpated Gdldsinith's
TrweUer. It was not, however, the poem which readets were
expecting from the author of The Sta9onirt'vtho had taken them
from the town to the country, and from social and poUtkal
satire to the world of nature. . It is in the main a set of weari-
some declamations put in the mouUi of the goddess, and Johnson
rightly enough remarks that "an enumeration of examples
to prove a position «(hich nobody denied as it was from the
beginttiag superfluous, must quickly grow disgustmg/' The
truth is that Thomson's poetical gift was for many yeaxs
perverted by the seal of partisanship,
. He was established in May 1 736 in a small house at Richmond,
but his patron died in February X737 and he los( his sinecure;
he then " whips and spurs " to finJsh his tragedy Agamewmom,
which appeared in April 173$, not before he had been arrested
for a debt of £70, from which, according to a story which has
been discredited on quite insufficient grounds, Quin reUev«d
him in the most generous and tactful manner. Quin, it is said,
visited him in the sponging-house and " balanced accounts
with him " by insisting on his accepting a hundred pounds as
a return for the pleasure which the actor had received from the
poet's works. The incident took place probably a tittle before
the production of Agamemnon^ in which Quin played the leading
parL The play is of course modelled opon Aoschyie and
owes whatever of dignity it possesses to that fact; the part of
Cassandra, for instance, retains something of its original force,
pathos and tenor. But most of the other characters exist only
for the purpose of political innuendo. AgnmemnoQ is too long
absent at Troy, as George is too long absent in Germany; the
arts of Aegisthus are the arts of Walpole; the declamations
of Arcus.are the declamations of Wyndham or Pulteney; Mdis-
ander, consoling himself with the muses <m his island in Cyclades,
is BoUngbroke ip exile. Thomson about this time was intxxMiaced
to L3fttelton, and by him. to the prince of Wales, and to one or
the other of these, when he was questioned as to the state of
his affairs, hejnade answer that they were " in a more poetical
posture than formerly." Agamemnon was put upon the stage
soon after the passing of Walpole's bill for licensing pU>'s, and
its obvious bias fixed the attention of the censorship and caused
Thomson's next venture, Edward and JEleanora, which has the
same covert aim, to be proscribed. The fact has very generally
escaped notice that, like its predecessor, it follows a Greek
original, the Akestis of Euripides. It has also, what Agamtmrnvm
has not, some little place in the> history of literature^ for it
suggested something to Lessing for Nathan der If' me, arid to
Scott for the Talisman. The rejection of the play was defended
by one of the ministry on the ground that Thomson had taken
a Liberty which was not agreeable tp Britannia in any Soasom,
These circumstances sufficiently account for the poet's next
experiment, a preface to Milton^ Areofagitiea. He joined
Mallet in composing the masque of Alfred, represented at
Dieveden on the Thames before the prince of Waks. on th« tst
of August 1740. There can be little question that " Rufe
THOMSON, J.
873
BfkttuiU,'* a song b thb dnma, WIS fhe production of Thomson.
The music of the song, as of the whole ma&qoie, was composed
by Arne. In 1744 Thomson was appointed surveyor-genml of
the Leeward Islands by Lyttelton with an income of £500 a
>«af ; but his patron fell into disfavour with the prince of Wales,
and in oonseqoence Thomson lost, at the dme of r747i the
pension be received from that quarter. For a while, however,
he was in flourishing drcoffistances, and whilst completing at
his leisure Tlu CstlU «/ Indolence produced Tanei^ed and Sigis-
MU9ida at Drary Lane in 1745. The story is found in GU
Blati and is ultimately to be traced to The Decamven. It
owes much to Le Sage in language, plot and sentfanent, and the
conflia of emotion, in depicting which Thomson had some little
skill, is here efleclively exhibited. He was assisted herein
by his own experience. The "Amanda" iAThe Seasons is a
Miss Elizabeth Young, a lady of Scottish parentage, whose
mother was ambitious for her and forbade her to marry the
poet, anticipating that she would be reduced to singing his
ballads in the strsets. The lost yean of his life were saddened
by this disappointment.
lHhs Castle df IndoUneOt after a gestation of fifteen years,
appeared in >tay 1748. It is in the Spenserian stanza with
the Spenserian archaism, and is the first and last long effort
of Thomson in rhyme. It is not impossible that his general
choice of blank verse was partly due to the fact that he had not
the southron's ear and took many years to acquire it. The
great and varied interest of the poem m^ht wdl rescue it from
the neglect into which even The Seasons has fallen. It was
worthy of an age which was fertile in character^etches, and
like GayV Wekome to Pope anticipates Goldsmith's Retaliation
in the Ufcliie presentation of a noteworthy circle, lliere is In
it the same strain of gentle burlesque which appears in Shen-
stone's SckoolmistresSf whilst the tone and diction of the poem
harmonize with the hazy landscape, the pleasant land of drowsy-
head, in which it Is set. It is the last work by Thomson which
appeared in his lifetime. In walking from London to his house
at Richmond be became heated and took a boat at Hammer-
smith; he thus caught a chill with fatal consequences and died
on the a 7th of August 1748. He was buried in Ridmiond
churchyard. His tragedy Coriolanus was acted for the first
time in January 1749. In itself a feeble performance, it is
noteworthy for the prologue which his friend Lyttelton wrote
for fit| two lines of which —
" He loved his friends— forgive the gushrog tearl
Alas! I feci I am 00 actor here "•—
were ledtcd by Quin with no simulated emotion.
It may be questioned whether Thomson himself ever quite
reaUaed the distinctive significance of his own achievement
ki Tke Seasons, or the place which critidsm assigns him as
the pioneer of a special b'tciaty movement and the precursor
of Cowper and Wordsworth. His avowed preference was for
great and worthy themes of which the world of nature was but
one. Both the choice and the treatment of his next great
subject. Liberty, indicate that he was imperfectly conscious
of the gift that was in him, and might have neglected it
but that his readers were wiser than himself. He has many
audacities and many fcUdtics of expression, and enriched the
vocabulary even of the poets who have disparaged him. Yet it is
difficult to believe that he was not the better for that training
in refinement of style which he partly owed to Pope, who almost
unquestionably contributed some passages to The Seasons.
And, except in Tke Castle of Indolence, there is much that is
conventbnal, much that is even vicious or vulgar In taste when
Thomson's muse deals with that human life which must be the
background of descriptive as of all other poetry; for example,
his bumpkin who chases the rainbow is as unreal a being as
Akensldc's more sentimental rustic who has "the form of
beauty smiling at his heart." But if Thomson sometimes lacks
the true vision for things human, he retains it always for things
mute and material, and whilst the critical estimate of his powera
and Influence will vary from age to age, all wbo have read him
wilt concur in tha colloquial judgxnent which only candour
could have extorted from the prejudice of Dr Johnson—
« Thomson had as much of the poet about him as most writers.
Everything appeared to him through the medium of his
favourite pursuit. He could not have viewed those two candles
burning but with a poetical eye."
For the day of Thomson's birth see the Aldine edition of his
poems (1897). la the same volume (pp. 189 acq.) is discussed
the question of Pope's contributioos to The Seasons. These Pope,
if the handwritiag be bis, made in an interleaved edition of Tke
Seasons dated I7J)3, and they wen for the most port adopted by
Thomson in the edition of 1744. The writer seldom makes move
than verbal changes in passages of pore description, but sometimes
strikingly enhances the scenes in whKh human character comes into
play, adding, for example, the comparison, in Auluntn, of the fair
Lavinia to a myrtle in the Apennines, of which the first suggestion
can be found in Tke Rape v *ke Lock. But whcteas many years
ago the opinion of experts at the British Museum pronounced the
handwriting of these notes to be P(^'s beyond a doubt, their
SDcceasors at the present day are equally positive that it is not.
Some account should be taken of the cramping of the hand, due
to writing OA a curved surface, and of the letters at Blenheim
(see PaU Mail Uagaxine for August 1894), which bear a greater
resjemblance to the disputed handwriting than any specimens in the
British Museum.
The first collected editions of Tke Seasons bear dates 1730, 1738,
17^, X746. Lyttelton tampered both with Tke Seasons and with
Liberty m editions after his friend's death. Among the numerous
lives of the poet may be mentioned those by his friend Patrick
Murdoch, by Ur Johnson in Laes of Ike Poets, by Sir Harris Nkolas
(Aid. ed., iteo), by M. Moccl, James Tkomson, sa vie et ses oMores
(Puis, 1894). and James Tkomso^ in the English Men of LiCitem
Scries, by G. C Macaulay (i9pji). See also Dr C. Schmcding's
Jacc^ TMmson, ein vergessener DuMer des acktseknlen Jabrhunderls;
C. Macaulay (i9pji). See also Dr C. Schmcding's
.rucw * nvm»vH, ctn vcrgessener vuMer des acktseknlen Jabrhunderls;
the life prefixed to the Aldine edition of his works in 1897 ; and an
eiccUcnt edition of Tke Seasons in the Clarendon Press Scries by
J. Logie Robertson. (P^ C. Ta)
THOMSON, JAMES (1834-1882), British poet, best known by
his signature " B.V.", was bom at Port-Glasgow, in Renfrew-
shire, on the 23rd of November 1834, the eldest child of a mate
In the merchant shipping service. His mother was a deeply
religious woman of the Irvingitc sect. On her death, James,
then in his seventh year, was procured admission into the
C!aledonian Orphan Asylum. In 1850 be entered the model
school of the Military Asylum, Chelsea, from wMch he wrtit
out into the world as an assistant army schoolmaster. At the
garrison at Balllnccllig, near Cork, he encountered the one brief
happiness of his life: he fell passionately in love with, and was
in turn as ardently loved by, the daughter of the armourer-
sergeant of a regiment in the garrison, a girl of very exceptional
beauty and cultivated mind. Two years later he suddenly re-
ceived news of her fatal illness and death. Hie blow prostrated
him in mind and body. Henceforth his life was one of gloom«
disappointment, misery and poverty, rarely alleviated by
episodes of somewhat brighter fortune. While in Ireland he
had made the acquaintance of Charles Bradlaugh, then a soldier
stationed at Ballincollig, and it was under his auspices (as editor
of the London Investigator) that Thomson first appealed to the
public as an author, though actually his earliest publication was
in Taifs Edinburgh Magazine for July 1858, under the signature
"Crepusculus." In x86o was esfabHshcd the paper with which
Biadlaugfa was so long identified, the National Reformer, and
it was here, among other productions by James Thomson, that
appeared (1863) the poiKnerful and sonorous verses "To our
Ladies of Death," and (1874) Ins chief work, the sombre and
ima^natfve City of Dreadfnl Nigkt. In October 1862 Thomson
was dismissed the army, in company with other tcacheis, for
some slight breach of discipline. Through Bradlaugh, with
whom for some subsequent years he lived, he gained employment
as a sofidtor's derk. From x866 to the end of his life, except
for two short absences from England, Thomsqn lived in a single
room, first in Plmlico and then in Bkiomsbury. He contracted
habits of intemperance, aggravated by his pessimistic turn of
mind to dipsomania, which made a successful career impossible
for him. In 1869 he enjoyed what has been described as his
"only repuUble appearance in respectable literary sodcty,"in
the acceptance of his long poem, " Sunday up the River," for
Fraser*s Magaiine, on the advicSf it is said, of Chaiics Ringsley.
874
THOMSON, J.
In 1873 Tbomson went to Uw wesieni sUtes oC America,
as the agent of the shareholders in what he ascertained to be a
fraudulent silver mine; and the following year he received a
commission from the New York World to go to Spain as its
special correspondent with the CarlisU. During the two months
of his stay in that distracted country he saw little real fighting,
and was himself prostrated by a sunstroke. On his return to
England he continued to write in the Sccidarisi and the Naiumal
Reformur, onder the initials " B.V."' In 1875 he severed his
connexion with the NalianaL Rtftnmtr, owing Co a disagreement
with its editor; henceforth his chief source of income (1875-1881)
was from the monthly periodical known as Cop^s Tobacco Plant,
Chiefly through the exertions of his friend and admirer, Bertram
DobeU, Thomson's best-known book, Tko CUy ef Drtadftd Nigki,
and oUur Poems, was published in April 1880, and at once
attracted wide attention; it was succeeded in the autumn by
Vane's Story, and other Poems, and in the following year by
Essays and Phantasies. All his best work waa produced between
1855 and 1875 (" The Doom of a City," 1857; " Our Ladies of
Death." 1861; Weddah and Om-el-Bonain; "The Naked God-
dess," 1866-1867; The City of Dreadful Night, 1870-1874). He
died at University College Hospital, in Gower Street, on the
yd of June i88a, and was buried at Highgate cemetery, in
the same grave, in UAConsecratcd ground, as his friend Austin
Hdyoake.
To the productions of James Thomson already mentioned may
be added the posthumous volume entitled A Voice from the NUe,
and other Poems (1884), to which was prefixed a memoir by
Bertram DobeD. This volume contained much that is interest-
ing, but nothing to increase Thomson's reputation. If an
attempt be made to point to the most apparent literary rdstion*
ahip of the author of The City of Dreadful Night, one might
venture the suggestion that James Thomson was a younger
brother of De Quincey. If he has distinct affinity to any
writer it is to the author of Suspiria de profundis\ if we k>ok
further afidd, we might perhaps discern shadowy prototypes in
Leopardi, Heine and Baudelaire. But, after all, Thomson holds
so unique a place as a poet that the effort at classification may
well be dispensed witL His was no literary pessimism, no
fTyiwM^ gloom. The poem " Insomnia " b a distinct chapter of
biography; and in " Mater Tcnebrarum " and elsewhere among
his writings passages of seLf-rcVclation are frequent. Tlie merits
of Thomson's poetry are its imaginative power, its sombre
intensity, its sonorous music; to these characteristics may be
added, in his lighter pieces, a Heine-like admixture of strange
ffricty, pathos and caustic irony. Mudi the same may be saud
of his b»t prose. His faults are a monotony of q>ithet, the not
infrequent use of mere rhetoric and verbiage, and perhaps a
prevailing ladc of the sense of form; besides an occasional
vulgar recklessness of expression, as in parts of Vano*s Story and
in some of his prose writings.
See the Life, by H. S. Salt (1905 edition).
JAMES (1823-1892), British physicist and
I bom in Belfast on the 16th of Febnuuy 182a, and,
like his younger brother, Lovd Kelvin, at an unusually early age
began to attend the classes at Glasgow University, where his
father had been appointed professor of mathematics in 1832.
After his gradaation he decided to study civil engineering, and
for that purpose became a pupil in several engineering offices
and works successively; but 3i-health obliged him to leave them
all, and he had finally to accept the fact that an occupation
tevolvilic physical exertion was out of the question. Acooid-
iBgly, from aboot 1843, he devoted himself to theoretical work
ipd lo mfrhinical invention. To this period belong his wcll-
J^Mm icseardMS in thermodynamics, which enabled him to
indki by the applicalion ol Carnot's theorem that the tempera-
|4f the faeeaing point of substances which expand on solidi-
I pMitt be lowered by the application of pressure, the reverse
I ths laae with substances which oontiact on solidiiicalion;
yafKRi: " Bysdie.** aa the c o ma o u ly used Oiristan
Thonsoa's favowite writer; and " Vanolii,'* an
and he waa abla 10 calcnlau the aaMiimt by which a 1
pressure lowers the freexing-poiot of water, a snhataacr which
ripands on solidificatioii. JJis resulu were experimentally
verified in the physical laboratories of Glasgow Uaiveoity ooder
Lord Kelvin's direoion, and weie afterwards applied to give
the explanation of regeUuion. Jn 1861 he ettondrd them in a
paper 00 crystallixatioo and liquefaction as infhienoed by sticaMS
lending to change of form in the aystals, and in other studies
on the change of state he 000 tinned Thonas Andicws's work
on the continuity of the liquid and gaaeiHis stales of malter,
constructing a thennodynamic model in throe diMftinm to
show the relations of pressure^ volume aad trByctatmc for a
substance like carbonic add. With regard lo his iavcntioos,
he devised a clever feathering mffhapism for the paddVn of
steamboats when only a boy of sixteen, and later tnned his
attention to water engines. In 1850 he patented his " vortex
water-wheel," and during the next three or four yean canied
on inquiries into the properties of ** whirling fluids," which
resulted in improved forms of blowiag-f ans and water-turfaiaes
(see Hydkaducs). Settling in Belfast in 1851, he was selected
to be the resident engineer to the Belfast Water Conamissiaiwfs
in 1853, A'^ ^our years later became professor of dvil engjnming
and surveying In (Queen's College, Belfast. Theace he removed
in 1S73 to Glasgow as successor lo Maoquocn Bankinr in the
chair of engineering in the university, and retained this posilion
until 1889, when the failure .of his eyesight compelled hina to
resign. He died on the 8th of May 189a at Glasgow. His
contributions to geological science included studies of the
parallel roads of Glen Roy and of the prismatic jointing of basalt,
as seen at the Giant's Causeway. In 1876 aad folbwiac years
he studied the origin of windings of rivers in alluvial plains mod
made many experiments with the aid of artifidal.stnaaas; and
the currents of atmoyheric circulatioa affimled ham the Boatcrial
for the Bakerian lecture of 1892.
THOHSOK. JOHN (1778-1840), Scottish landscape paiatei^
Thomson of Duddinigston, as he Is commonly style d w as
bom on the ist of September 1778 at Dailly, Ayishire. His
father, grandfather aad great-grandfather were ddgymcn of
the Church of Scothnd. He studied for the same vocation
in the university of Edinburgh; and, residing with his ddcr
brother, Thomas Thomson, afterwards celebrated as an anti-
quarian and feudal lawyer, he made the acquaintanoe of Fxancb
Jeffrey and other young members of the Scottish bar afterwards
notable. During the recess he sketched in the country, and,
while attending his final college BCiiinn, he studied art for a
month under Alexander Kasmyth. After his father^ death
he became in 1800, his successor as minister of Dailly; and ia
1805 he was translated to the parish of Duddii^ston, dose to
Edinburgh. He continued, however, to practise ait as an
amateur, apparently without any dctrimeni to his pastoral
duties. Thomson's popularity as a painter incicased with
his increasing artistic skill; and, having mastered his initial
scruples against receiving artistic fees, on being oficaed £15
for a landscape— reassured by *' Grecian " Williaias's stout
assertion that the work was " worth thrice the amooni "—the
minister of Duddingston began to dispose of the productions
of his brush in the usual manner. In 1830 he was made an
honorary member of the Royal Scottish Academy. Thomaoa
was also aa accomplished periormer on violin and flute, an
exaa and wcU-read student of ph>'sical science, and one of the
writers on optics in the eariy numbers of the Bdinbmrgh Retino,
He enjoyed a singularly wide and eminent cirdc of friends,
including, among artists. Turner and Wilkie, and among men of
letters, Wilson and Scott— the hitter of whom desired that
Thomson, Instead of Turner, should have illustrated the collected
edition of his works. He died at Duddingston on the a 7th
of Oaober 1840 (not the 2otb, as stated by some authorities).
Thomson was twice married, and his second wife, the widow
of Mr Dalrymple of Cicland, was herself also a skilful amauv
artist.
Thomoa m (aitly ftfxcfleoted ia the Soottlrfi Natiaaal CaBery:
and the " AberUdy Bay " of that mllwtinn. with the aoft a^aity «f
THOMSON, J.— THOMSON, T.
875
Itadoaded fray tky* moil Its tm whkh leaps and falls aiptin in waves
W smrUiiig and of ahoffamed silver, M (t to raok aowog the triiunpht
o( bootUfib art.
THOHSOH, JOSEPH (1858-1895), Scottish explorer in Africa,
was bom on the X4th of February 1858 at Penpont, Dumfries-
shire, being the fifth son of William Thomson, originally a working
stonemason, who had attained the position of a master builder.
In x868 his father removed to Galclawbridge, where he rented
ft farm and a quarry. Joseph Thomson was soon attracted by
the geological formation and historical associations of Nichsdalc.
For a short time he worked in his father's quarry. In 1875 he
went to Edinburgh Unlverrfty, where he paid particular attention
to geotogy and botany, and after completing his course in 1878
he was appointed geologist and naturalist to the Royal Geo-
graphical Society's expedition to East Central Africa under
Keith Johnston. The latter died at Bchobeho, between the
coast and the north end of Lake Nyasa, on the aSth of June
1879, and Thomson then took command. Though only twenty-
one hb coolness and tact were remarkable, and he successfully
conducted the expedition across the desolate region of Uheh2 and
Ubena to the north end of Lake Nyasa, and then by a hitherto
i]ncx[^red track to Lake Tanganyika, where he investigated
the moot question of the Lukuga outlet. From Tanganyika
he started to teach the Congo, but troubles with hb carriers,
who dreaded the iK'arlikc Warua, obliged him to retrace his
steps. Going round the south end of Tanganyika he discovered
Lake Rukwa, whence he marched via Tabora to the coast at
Bagamoyo, reaching London in August x88o. In the following
year he published an account of his travels under the title
To Ike Central African Lakes and Sack. About this time the
sultan of 2^nzibar, being anxious to develop certain supposed
coal beds on the river Rovuma, was advised tn obtain independent
expert opinion as to thrir value. Application was made to
Thomson, who undertook to survey them, and started from
Miktndani, on the 17th of July 1881. The coal, however, turned
out to be merely bituminous shale, and Thomson, on his return
to Zanzibar, had to endure much delay and vexation through
the suhan's chagrin. For a considerable time the explorer
had directed his attention to Masailand, a region of East
Africa occupied by a powerful tribe of warriors who had a
reputation for savagery and intractability somewhat greater
than their actions warranted. Through their territory ran
the shortest route from the sea to the headwaters of the Nile.
In 1882 the Royal Geographical Society took up the question,
and requested Thomson to report on the practicability of taking
a caravan through the Masai country, which no European had
yet been able to penetrate beyond Mt Kilimanjaro. By
undaunted courage and great resourcefulness he succeeded in
crossing the Njiri desert and exploring the eastern rift-vallcy.
Thence he went with a picked company through Laikipia
to Mt Kenya and Lake Baringo, afterwards traversing the
unknown region lying between Baringo and Victoria Nyanza,
reached on the roth of December 1883. On his way back he visited
Mt Elgon and discovered there a series of wonderful caves.
The account of this adventurous journey appeared in 1884,
under the title of Throuth ifasdUandt and it is a classic in modem
travel. The hardships and anxieties attendant on such a career
began to tell upon Thomson's exceptionally hardy constitution,
but in 1885 he undertook an expedition to Sokolo for the National
African (afterwards the Royal Niger) Company, and succeeded
in obtaining the signatures of the suluns of Sokoto and Gando
to treaties with which he had been entrusted by the company,
treaties which did much to secure Britbh interests in Nigeria.
In x888, by way of recreation, he travelled through southern
Morocco and explored a portion of the Atlas range, and published
the results In the following year, tmdcr the title Tratels in the
Atias and Soutkem Morocco. In 1890 he entered the service
of the British South Africa Company and in that and the
folbwing year, starting from Quilimane he traversed the region
between lakes Nyasa and Bangwetilu and the Zambezi. It was
a period of gixat tension between the Pbrtuguese and the
British, and Thomson's party on leaving the Portuguese frontier
was fired on by the Portuguese who, too late, realized that they
had allowed a treaty-making envoy to paw through their
territory in the guise of a peaceful trader. Thomson concluded
treaties with native potentates which gave to the Chartered
Company political, trading and mining rights over a large part
of the district since known as North-East Rhodesia. This
journey, In which he covered nearly a thousand miles oi
hitherto unexplored country, proved disastrous to a constitution
already undermined. In 1893 he visited South Africa in search
of health, but unavailingly. He died in London on the and
of August 1895. The accounts of his travels not recorded in
the books mentioned were published in magaiines or in the
Proceedintt of the Royal Geographical Society. Thomson was
the last, as he was one of the most successful, of the great
geographical pioneers in Africa. He had an extraordinarily
keen topographical instinct which enabled him to comprehend
at a glance the natural featurca of the countries be traversed.
To undaunted courage and promptness of decision he added
a forbearing and patient disposition. " Joseph Thomscn,"
wrote Sir ClemenU Markham, "bad the high and glorious
dtstinctioo of never having caused the death of a native. This
is a proof of very rare qualities in the leader of an expedilioo,
and places him in the very first rank of explorers."
Becidei the aeoouDts of his own travels Thomson wrote, in
collaboration with Miss E. Harris Smith. Ulu (London. 1886}, a
novel based 00 his insight into the working of the African mind,
Mungo Park and Ike Niier (London, 1890). a sound critical biography
and many magazine articles on African politics.
See Jostpk Tkomsom, African Exptorer (London, 1896). a bio*
Eftphy by his brother, the Rev. J. B. Thomson, which contains «
I of the published writingi of the explorer.
THOMSON. THOMAS (i771*i85>). Scottish cfacnist. was
bom at Ciieff, Perthshire, on the 12th of April 1773. He was
educated at the universities of St Andrews and Edinburgh,
and after taking the degree of M.D. at the latter place in 1790
established himself thm as a teacher of chemistry. From
1 796 to xSoo he waasub-editorof the Encyclopaedia Briiannicat in
succession to his elder brother, Jaiixs Tkosison (i768>i8s5), who
filled that position in 1795-1796, and who in 1805 was ordained
to the parish of Eodes, Berwickshire; and the chemical and
mineralogical articles which he contributed to the supplement
to the third edition formed the basis of his System of Chemistry,
the first editkm of which was published in i8oa and tbe aeviDth
in 1831. At first this work was merely a compilation, but in
the later editkms many of his original resulu were incorpoiated;
the third edition (1807) is noteworthy as containing the first
detailed account of the atomic theory, communicated to him
by John Dalton himself. In 181 x he left Edinburgh, and after
a visit to Sweden went to London, where in 1813 he began to
edit the Annals of Pkilosopky, a monthly scientific journa!
which in 1827 was merged in the Philosophical Magazine. Ir
1817 he became lecturer In chemistry at Glasgow University.
and in the following year was appointed to the rej^us professor-
ship. This chair he retained until his death, which happened
on the 2nd of July 1852 at Kilmun, Argylcshire; but from 1841
he was assisted by his nephew and son-in-law Robert Ditndas
Thomson (1810-1864), who subsequently became medical
officer of health for St Marylebonc, London, and after 1846 he
ceased active work altogether. He was a most energetic pro-
fessor, and, according to his colleague, but no relation. Lord
Kelvin (Sir William Thomson), founded the first chemical
laboratory for students at a time when practical work was
scarcely recognized as a necessary part of chemical education.
He did much to spread a knowledge of Dalton's atomic theory,
and carried out many experiments in its support, but his strong
predilections in favour of Prout*s hypothesis tended to vitiate
his results, many of which were sharuly criticized by J. J. Ber-
zclius and other chemists. In addition to various textbooks he
published a History c/CArmij/ry (1830- 1831) which has provided
material for many chemical biographers, but which, although it
reads very plausibly, cannot be regarded as an authority of
unimpeachable accuracy. His eldest son, TnouAS Thomson
(1817-1878) graduated as M.D. at Glasgow In 1839, accompanied
876
THOMSON, W.— THORBECKE
Sir J. D. Hooker oo his tnvth in Sikklm in 1850, andcolkbonted
witlk him in publahing his Phn indka in 185s and in iSs4
«u appointed supcriDtcndent of the botanic gardens at Cal-
catta, also acting as professor of botany at the Calcutta medical
coUcgc
THOHSOil. WILUAM (1819-1890), English divine, archbishop
of York, was born on the tith of February 1819 at Whitehaven,
Cumberland. He was educated at Shrewsbuiy and at Queenlt
College; Oxford, of which he became a scholar. He took his
B^. degree in 1840, and was soon afterwards made fellow of his
college. He was ordained in 1842, and worked as a curate at
Coddesdon. In 1847 he was made tutor of his college, and in
i8s3 be ddivered the Bampton lectures, his subject being
'*The Atoning Work of Christ viewed in Relation to some
Andent Theories." These thoughtful and learned lectures
estaiUished fab repuution and did much to dear the ground for
subsequent discussions on the sobjecL Thomson's activity
was not confined to theology. He was made fcUow of the Royal
and the Royal Geographical Socieiies. He also wrote a very
popular Outiiru of the Laws pf Tborngkl. He sided with the party
at Oxford which favoured university reform, but this did not
prevent him from being appointed provost of his college in 1855.
In 1858 he was made preadier at Lincoln's Inn and there
preached some striking sermons, a volume of which he published
in 1861. In the same year he edited Aids io Faith, a volume
written in opposition to Essays and Revietcs, the progressive
sentiments of which had stirred up a great storm in the Church
of England. In December i86x he was rewarded with the see
of Gloucester and Bristol, and within a twelvemonth he was
elevated to the archiepiscopal see of York. In this position his
moderste orthodoxy M him to join Archbidiop Taat in support-
ing the Public Worship Regulation Act, and, as president of
the northern convocation, he came frequently into sharp
coHiwon with the lower house of that body. But if he thus
iDcuned the hostility of the High Church party among the
clergy, he was admired by the laity for his strong sense, his dear
and forcible reasoning, and his wide knowledge, and he remained
to the last a power in the north of Eni^and. In hb later years
he published an address read before the members of the Edin<
borgh Philosophiral Institution (186S), one on Desigm im Natmn,
for the Christian Evidence Society, which reached a fifth edition,
mzioas charges and putoral addresses, and he was one of the
projectors of Tkt Speaker's Ccmmmlary, for which he wrote the
" Introdnction to the Synoptic Gospels." He died on the ssth
of December 189QL
See the Qmartaiy Rmem (April iSgoi}.
THOR, one of the chief deities of the heathen Scandinavians.
He B represented as a cuddle-aged man of enormous strength,
q«i<^ to anger, but beoex-olent towards mankind. To the
harmful race of giants (demons), on the other hand, he was an
implacable foe, and many stories are told in the poetic and prose
Eddos of the destruction which he brou^t upon them at various
times with his hammer. On the whole hb figure b sonaewhat
secondary in the ii\)'thoIogy to that of Odin, who b represented
as lus father. But there b no doubt that in Icdand he was
worshipped more than any other god, and the same seems to
ha>T been the case in Norway — indeed, perhaps, in all nOTthem
countries— except among' the royal families^ Even in the great
temple at Upsala his figure b said to have occupied the chief
place. There b evidence that a corresponding dcaty named
Thunor or Thonar was worshipped in England and on the
Continent, but litile information b obtainable regarding him,
except that he was identified with the Roman Jupiter. Hb
name b idenlicai wish the Teutonic word for thujidcr, and even
in Sweden the association of Thor with the thunder seems not
to ha^ been forgotten. Outside the Teutonic area he has dose
affinities not only with Jupiter or Zeus, but stiU more with the
Lithuanian god Fterkunas. whose name (which likewbe means
" thunder **) appears to be connected with tJ&at of Thor*s mother
(Rftg>-n^ The Varangian god Pienm was probably Tfaor him-
adf under a SlaToaic name (Rnssaa ptrmm^ ** thunderbolt ^.
See H. Petencn, Ow AwinotnMt daM3MMbr ag i
I (Copenhwen, 187^ For other t t U mten see TeDitMOC
: Rdtiicmjadfim)' CH. M. C.)
Peoples:
TBORAZ (Gr. Aupol, breastplate, also the part of the body
covered by it), the anatomical term for the chest, that part of
the body which contains the heart and lungs (see Akatomy:
Superficial and Artistic, and Skeleton: Axial). For the
surgery of the thorax reference may be made to the headings
Heakt, Lung and REsnaxTOKY Svstejc.
THORBECKB. JAM RUDOLF (1798-1872), Dutdi statesman,
was bom at Zwolle, in the provinoe of Ovei^jssel, on the 14th of
January 1798. Thorbecke was of German extraction, lus grand-
father, Hdnrich Thorbecke, having settled in Ovcrijsd towards
the end of the 17th centmy. Little b known of his youth,
beyond the fact that he was sent in the year of Waterloo to
Amsterdam for hb education. For two yean he stayed with a
Lutheran clergyman of the name of Sartorius, whilst attending
the lectures of the Athenaeum lilustre. In 1817 he cmnBicxKcd
hb studies at Leiden University, fvoving a brilliant scholax, and
twice obtaining a gold medal for hb prize essays. Is 1820 he
obtained the degrees of LiLD. and LLJD. In the foBowing
years Thorbecke undertook a journey of research aiid study
io Germany, staying at most of her faaMms nmvers«Jcs, and
making the acquaintance of hb best-knows oontaaiMirzries in
the fatherland. At Giessen he lectured as as cztxaoedinary
professor, and at Gdttingcn, in 1824, published his treatise,
Ueber das Wcsen dcr Gesckickle, After hb return to Amsterdam
in 1824 Thorbecke wrote hb first political wodi of any tii^>or-
tance, Bedcnkingcn aangacadt ktt Rukt en dm Stoat C Objec-
tions ancnt Law and the State "), which by its done icnsoning
and its legal acumen at once drew attention to the youcg
barrbter, and procured him in 1825 a chair as proCesBor in Ghent
University. Here he wrote' two pamphlets of an edncatiooaJ
character before 1830. The Belgian revolt of that year foccrd
Thorbecke to rc»gn hb position at Ghent, and he SHbaequcntiy
went to Leiden. He did not approve of the Belgian movement^
otor of the part th;U Europe played in it, and published his views
in three pamphlets, which appeared in the years iSjo nnd 1S51.
In iSjt he was appointed professor of juri^rodencc and political
science at Lcidoa Univosity. In that capacity, and, before
hb appointment at Leiden, as a lecturer on political science;
history and economics at Amsterdam, he gained great repara-
tion as a political reformer, partiailaily after the pnblicatian
of hb standard work, Aanteekenittgoi op de Cramimtl (" Annota-
tions on the Constitution," 1830; 2nd cd., AmsterdaB, 1841-
1843), which became the textbook and the grou n d nosk ior
the new reform party in Holland, as whose lender ThwLe cL e
was definitely recognized. Thorbecke*s poUtical career nxuil
hb death, which occurred at the Hague on the 4th of Jane i57?»
b sketched uiKler Holland: History. Tterbecke's f^*-**^
in the Dutch legislature wese puhlbhed at Dcvcntcr in six
volumes (1867-1870), to* which should be added a m li ecti on of
hb unpublished speeches, printed at Groningen in 1900^ Tbe
first edition of hb Hisiorisckc ScketstM (" Historical Essays *')
was issued in i860, the second in 187s. At Anstodaa thest
appeared in 1873 a highly interesting Cwrri/— it in with hb
academy fiaend and lifdong political advasary Grocn van
Prinstcrer (;.r.), which, although dating hack In tfe cs^^
'thirties, throws much light 00 their sub scquc i a. rdstioas acd
the poUtical c%-cms that followed 184&. Of DnAch sLa:essc<n
during the Kapoleonic period, Thorbecb adiuiieJ Fakk and
Van Hogcndorp most, whose principles he stio«« to ocnlair.
Of Van H<«endoip's Essays ^nA Sptttkes/uiAtcA, he pdbhshcd
a standard edilkm, which b stiU ia^sXj valned. TWcbecke s
speeches form a remarkable foniinTtttion of Van Hngi uA. t^\
orations, not only in their style, but also in their txain of thev^t.
Thorbecke*s funeral furnished the orrasin n ibr an impns:qg
nalional demonstratioa, which showed how decp^ be was
rr\-ered by all dasses of hb coontryracn. In s8^ a static cl
Thorbecke was naTciied m one of the sqnaics of AmoaenlnB.
IVirbecke's g^u and public aerdos as a saaAcaaaa h*v«
THOREAU
877
ben as fiiOf Roogmsed u hk political feaoa hn been. As an
orator and writer his style was dear and fordble. His Tcry
dogmatism brought him many enemies, but at times, especially
when be went in advance of his time, be was a much mis-
understood man. These misunderstandings, frequently wilful,
extended often beyond the domain of pure potitica. Thus,
by his enemies, Thorbecke was often held up to scorn as a pure
materialist and no friend of the fine arts, because at a sitting
of the sutes-general in 1863 he had said that it is not the duty of
the state, nor in the true interest of art itself, for the government
to " protect " art, since all state-aided art must be artificial, like
any forced plant. This was popularly condensed into the aphor-
ism, yet current in HoUand, that " Art is not the businem of the
government," and Thorbec^ was condemned as the author of
it. Again, his adversaries used to call him a dangerous dema-
gogue. As a matter of fact, there was no more ardent royalist
than Thorbecke. He believed in constitutional monarchy, as
oflFcring the best guarantees both for sovereign and people, and
he was bitterly opposed to all forms of state socialism. Long
before his death he realised that he had outlived his own prin-
ciples, and many of his former admirers had commenced to dub
him a " rank conservative," whose political aims and reforms
were no longer adequate. But Thorbecke's life-work will
endure, and the Dutch constitution of 1887 practically embodied
his principles, as laid down in the constitution of 1848. The
former is the outcome of the latter and could not have been
made without it.
The best biographical sketch of Thorbecke we owe to the late
Professor Buys, his principal scholar and devoted friend, whose
biogiaphy appoucd in 1876 at Tid. Another biogmphy which
deserves mention was iasura in the same year at the Hoffuc, from
the pen of Dr J. A. Levy, an Amsterdam Iaw>'er. (H. Tl)
TBORBA0, HBHRT DAVID (18x7-1862), American recluse,
naturalist and writer, was bom at Concord, Massachusetts, on
the 1 2th of July 18x7. To Thoreau tMs Concord country
contained idl of beauty and even grandeur that was necessary
to the worshipper of nature: he once journeyed to Canada; he
went west on one occanon; he sailed and explored a few rivers;
for the rest, he haunted Concord and its neighbourhood as
fatthfuQy as the stork does its ancestral nest. John Thoreau,
his father, who married the daughter of a New England clergy-
man, was the son of a John Thoreau of the isle of Jersey, who,
in Boston, maiTied a Scottish lady of the name of Burns. This
last-named John was the son of Philippe Thoreau and his wife
Marie le Gallais, persons of pure French blood, settled at St
Heher, in Jersey. From his New England Puritan mother, from
hb Scottish grandmother, from his Jersey-American grandfather
and from his remoter French ancestry Thoreau inherited dis-
tinctive traits: the Saxon element perhaps predominated, but
the " hauntings of Cdtism " were prevalent and potent. The
stock of the Thoreaus was a robust one; and in Concord the
family, though never wealthy nor officially influential, was ever
held in peculiar respect. As a boy, Henry drove his mother's
cow to the pastures, and thus early became enamoured of certain
aspects of nature and of certain delighu of solitude. At school
and at Harvard University he in nowise distinguished hhnself,
though he was an intelligently receptive student; he became,
however, proficient enough- in Greek, Latin, and the more
general acquirements to enable him to act for a time as a master.
But long before this he had become apprenticed to the learning
of nature in preference to that of man: when only twelve years
of age he had made collections for Agassis, who had then Just
arrived in America, and already the meadows and the hedges
and the stream-sides had become cabinets of rare knowledge
to him. On the desertion of schoolmastering as a profession,
Tliorcau became a lecturer and author, thou^ it was the bbour
of his hands which mainly supported him through many years
of his life: professionally he was a surveyor. In the effort to
reduce the practice of economy to a fine art he arrived at the
conviction that the less labour a man did, over and above the
positive demands of necessity, the better for him and for the
community at large; he would have had the order of the week
revcraed-Taix days of rest for one of labour. It wasin 1845 he
made the now famous experiment of Walden. Desirous of
proving to himself and others that man could be as independent
of this kind as the ncst-building bird, Thoreau retired to a hut
of his own construction on the pine-slope over against the shores
of Walden Pond~a hut which he built, furnished and kept
in order entirely by the labour of his own hands. During
the two years of his residence in Walden woods he lived by the
exetdse of a little surveying, a little job-work and the tillage
of a few acres of ground which produced him his beans and
potatoes. His absolute independence was as little gained as if
he had camped out in Hyde Park; relatively he lived the life of
a reduse. He read oonsiderably, wrote abundantly, thought
actively if not widely, and came to know beasts, birds and fishes
with an intimacy more extraordinary than was the case with St
Francis of AssisL Birds came at his call, and forgot their heredi-
taiy fear of man; beasts lipped and caressed him; the very'
fish in lake and stream would glide, unfeaif ul, between his handSb
This exquisite familiarity with bird and beast wou\d make us
love the memory of Thoneau if his egotism were triply as arro-
gant, if his often mraningkw paradoxes were even more absurd,
if his sympathies were even less humanitarian than we know
them to have been. His WaU^, the record of this fasdaating
two years' experience, must always remain a productton of
great interest and considerable psychological value. Some
years before Tlioreatt took to Walden woods he made the chief
friendship of his life, that with EmerMm. He became one of
the famous drde of the tranicendentalists, always keenly
preserving his own individuality amongst such more or less
potent natures as Emerson, Hawthorne and Margaret Fuller.
From Emerson he gained more than from any man, alive or dead;
and, though the older philosopher both enjoyed and learned
from the association with the younger, it cannot be said that the
gain was equal There was nothinig dectrical in Thoreau's
intercourse with his fellow men; he gave off no spiritual sparks.
He absocbcd intensely, but when called upon to illuminate in
turn was found wanting. It is with a sense of relief that we read
of his having really been stirred into active enthusiasm anent
the wnogs done the ill-fated John Brown. With children he was
affectionate and gentle, with old people and strangers considerate.
In a word, he loved his kind as animals, but did not seem to
find them aa interesting as those furred and feathered. In
1847 Thoreau left Walden Lake abruptly, and for a time occu-
pied himself with lead-pendl making, the parental trade. He
never married, thus further fulfilling his policy of what one of
his cssayist-biographera has termed " indulgence in fine renounce;
ments." At the comparatively early age of forty-five he died,
on the 6th of May x86s. His gra>-e is in the Sleepy Hollow
cemetery at Concord, beside those of Hawthorne and Emerson.
Thoreau's fame will rest on Walden; or, Life in Ike Woods
(Boston, 1854) «ad the Bxcwtions (Boston, 1863), though he wrote
nothing which is not deserving of notice. Up till his thirtieth
year he dabbled in verse, but he had little ear for metrical music,
and he lacked the spiritual impulsiveness of the true poet. His
weakness as a philosopher is his tendency to base the laws of the
universe on the expcrience-bom, thou(^timxluced Convictions
of one man— hiaisdf. H» weakness as a writer is the too
frequent striving after antithesis and paradox. If he had had
all his own ori^nality without the itch of appearing original,
he would have made his fascination irresistible. As it is,
Thoreau holda a unique place. He was a naturalist, but abso-
lutdy devoid of the pedantry of science; a keen observer, but
no retailer of disjointed facfS. He thus holds sway over two^
domains: hie had the adherence of the k>vers of fact and of the
children of fancy. He must always be read, whether lovingly
or interestedly, for he has all the variable charm, the strange
satuniinity, the contradictions^ austerities and dehghtfal
surprises, of Nature herself.
After Tbcrcau's death were also published: TU Maine Woodt
(Boston. i86a); Cape Cod (Boston. 1865); A Yankee in Canada
(Boston. 186$. InthtAttaniieMoniUy, in t863.appeaf«d "Walking/*
" Autonm Twu * and " Wild Apples "; in 1863, ** Night and
U
878
THORFINN— THORIUM
Mooolight." The sundard editions of his works are The Writtnis
of Henry David TkcreaUf Riverside edition (il vols., Boston, 1894-
1895). and Manuscript edition (12 vols., ibid.. 1907).
See also W. E. Channing. Tkoreau: The Poet Naturalist (Boston,
1873) ; R. W. Emerson, an introductory note to Excursions (Boston,
1863); F. B. Sanborn, Henry David Thoreau (Boston, 1882), in the
*• American Men of Letters Series " ; H. S. Salt, Life of Henry David
Thoreau (London, 1890): Some Unpublished Letters of H. D. and
Sophia B. Thoreau (Jamaica, New York, 1890) ; J. Russell Lowell, My
Study Windows; K. L. Stevenson, Familiar Studies in Men and
Boohs; and F. H. AUen, Bibliography ofiH, D, Thoreau (Boston,
I9O8). * iTJ J ^^ g^^
THORFINN KARLSEFNI, or EiOtLSETMB p^. 1002-1007),
Scandinavian explorer, leader of the chief medieval expedition
for American colonisation. Thorfinn belonged to a leading Ice<
landic family and had great success in trading voyages. In
xooa he came to Greenland, married Gudrid, widow of Red
Eric's son Thorstein, and put himself at the head of a great
expedition now undertaken from Ericsfiord for the further
exploration and settlement of the western Vinland (south
Nova Scotia?) lately discovered by Leif Ericsson {g.v.). Three
vessels took part in the venture, with 160 men and some women,
including Gudrid, and Freydis, a natural daughter of Red Eric.
They first sailed north-west to the Vesterbygd on " Western
Settlement " of Greenland, thence to Bear Island, and thence
away to the south till they reached a country they named
Hdluland (some part of I^brador?) from its great flat sbbs
of stone {hcUur), Two days* sail farther southward brought
them to a thickly-wooded Umd they called Marhland (f .e. Wood-
land, our Newfoundland?). Two days after this they sighted
land to the right hand, and cartoe to a cape, where they found the
keel of a ship — perhaps a rdic of some earlier, possibly Scandi-
navian explorer—and which they called therefore Kialames
(Keelness; Cape Breton, or some adjacent point?); the long
bleak sandy shores of this coast they called the Wonderstrands
(on the east coast of Cape Breton Island?). After passing
the Wonderstrands and reaching a coast indented with bays,
Thorfinn put two fleet Gael runners ashore, with orders to
explore southwards (see Leit Ericsson): they returned with
grapes and wild wheat, proofs that the Northmen were not
far from Vinland. The fleet now stood in to a bay called by
the explorers Streamfiord or Firth of Currents, and wintered there
(1003-1004), suffering some privations, and apparently getting
no more news of the fruitful country desired. Thorfinn's son
Snorri was born this first autumn in the new world. Next spring
nine of the party, headed by the chief malcontent Thorhall, Red
Eric's huntsman, sailed off northward, intending to come to
Vinland by rounding Keelness and thence working round west
(and south). Adverse weather drove them to Ireland, where
they were enslaved. Meanwhile Thorfinn, with the rest of the
venturers, sailed south " for a long time," till they reached
a spot they called Hop, at the mouth of a river which flows from
a lake into the sea (several estuaries near the southern extremity
of Nova Scotia would do equally well here). Here they lound
the " self-sown " wheatfields and vines of Leif's Vinland, and
here accordingly they settled and built their huts above the lake
( 1 004-1005). After a fortnight natives, swarthy and ill-looking,
with ugly hair, great eyes and broad cheeks (Beothuk or Micmac
Indians?) appeared with many skin canoes; in the spring follow-
ing these Skraelings came back and bartered with their visitors.
Terrified by a bull belonging to the latter they fled, and after
three weeks returned to fight. They were beaten off, but the
Northmen narrowly escaped destruction, and two of their number
(one a leading settler) were slain. The colony at Hop was there-
fore abandoned and the whole force returned to Streamfiord.
Thence Thorfinn reviuted Hop, staying two months; and also
made a voyage northward in search of Thorhall, rounding
Keelness and sailing westward (along the north coast of Cape
Bret<m Island?), and apparently southward also, till they came to
the mouth of a river flowing from east to west. Here Thorvald
Ericsson was killed by a (Skracling?) arrow, and the expedition
came back to Streamfiord where they passed the next winter
(xoo5-too6). Internal dissensions now broke out, mainly about
Ifct womea of the colony, and in the next summer (1006) the
entire project of Vinland settlement was abandoned and the
fleet sailed to Markland. Two Skraeling children were captured
here and the expedition divided, Thorfinn making Greenland
and Ericsfiord in safety with his own vend, while the other was
lost in the Irish Sea, only half the crew escaping to Ireland in
the ship's boat.
It may be noticed that the FkUey Book narrative gives a
somewhat different but much slighter account of Thorfinn's
expedition, making both Thorvald Ericsson and Freydis under-
take separate Vinland ventures— one before, the other after,
Karlsefni's enterprise— Thorvald being killed on his (as in
Red Eric Saga, but with divergent details), and Freydis on
her committing atrocities upon her comrades, the Icelanders
Helgi and Finnbogi, which are- unnoticed in Red Eric. The
latter, however, in its mention of the domestic broils which
arose over the women of the colony in its third winter, points
to something which may have been the germ of the highly
elaborated Freydis story in Flatey,
On Flaley Book, Red Eric Sa^ and the whole bibliograpliy for
the Vinland voyages, including that of Thorfinn, ate Leif Ericsson
and Vinland. tne six Vinland voyages of Flatey, we may repeat.
Red Eric reduces to three, wholly omitting the alleged voyage of
Biami Heriulfsaon, and grouping those of Thorvald EricsGon and
Freydis with Thorfinn I^rlsefni s in one great cokmizing venture.
(C. R. B.)
THORIANITE, a rare mineral, discovered by W. D. Holland,
and found in the gem-gravels of Ceylon, where it occurs as small,,
heavy, black, cubic crystals, usually much water-worn. It
was so named by W. R. Dunstan, on accoimt of its high percent-
age of thorium (about 70% ThOs); it also contains the oxides
of uranium, lanthanum, ceriimi and didymium. Hdium a
present, and the mineral is slightly less radio-active than pitch-
blende. It has been examined for new dements. Miss Evans
iJoum. Chem, Soc., 190S, 93, p. 666) obtained what is possibly
a new element, whilst M. Ogawa (Journ. Coll. Sci. Tokyo, 190S,
vol. as) found indications of three new spedes: one idiich he
called nipponium, with an equivalent weight of about 50 and
atomic weight 100; the second with an equivalent of aboat
16-7; whilst the third yielded a radio-active oxide.
THORITE, a rare mineral consisting of thorium sHicate,
crystallizing in the tetragonal system and isomorphous with
zircon. The theoretical formula, ThSiO^, reqtiires 81*5 % of
thoria, but analyses show only 50-70%, there being also some
uranium, cerium, &c The mineral is almost always altered by
hydration and is then optically isotropic and amorphous.
Owing to differences in composition 9iid to alteration, the
specific gravity varies from 4-4 to 5*4. The colour is usually
light brown, but in the variety known as "orangite" it is
orange-yellow. The mineral occurs as isolated crystals and
small masses in the augite-syenite near Brevik in South Norway;
also at Arendal, and in the gem-gravels of Ceylon. If found in
larger amount it would be an important source of thoria for
incandescent gas mantles. OL. J. S.)
THORIUM (symbol Th, atomic weight 332*4^ [0»x6D, a
metallic chenucal element. It belongs to the group of metals
whose oxides are generally denominated "rare earths," and
its history is bound up in the history of the group, which is
especially interesting from the fact that it supplies the material
for the manufacture of the mantles used in incandescent gas-
lighting, and also that the radio-active subsUnces are almost
invariably associated with these oxides. The name ikorui
(after the Scandinavian god Thor) was first given in 18x5 by
Berzelius to a supposed new earth which he had extracted from
several rare Swedish minerals. This " new earth " turned oat
to be nothing more nor less than a basis yttrium phosi^atc.
In 1828 he gave the name thoria to an earth which he extracted
from a mineral found at Leron. This mineral is the modem
thorite. Thorium has proved to be very widely, although
extremely sparingly, distributed: pyrochlor, orangite, monaate,
euxenite, gadolonite, orthile, and in fact most of the rare
minerals of this type conUin it (see B. Szilard, Le Radiitm, 190Q,
fii P' ^3i)' The extraction of thorium salts from these minerals
is a matter of much tedium. Metallic thorium is obtained by
THORN
879
heating potassittm thorium ditoride or the tetnchloride nith
sodiam (see W. von Bolton, R. J. Meyer and H. Karttens,
Irnvn. Ckem. Soc., 1909, vol. 96). It forms microscopic hex-
agonal plates having a silver-white streak. •^It is vety heavy,
its density being about 11; it inflames when heated In air and
is not attacked by alkalis; it readily dissolves in nitric add
and aqua regia, but with difficulty in hydrochloric add.
In its salts, thorium is tetravaient, and in the periodic
dassificatioti it occurs in the same sub-group as titanium,
cerium and arconium.
TTtarium dioxide or ikoria, ThO^, tt the most important compound,
being manufactured commercially in comparatively large quantities
from monazitc nnds, with a view to its utilisatioa for eas mantles
(see LiCBTfNC, Gas). It is an amorphous white powder; but it
may also be obtained in crystals isomorphous with cassiterite by
heating the amorphous form with borax to a very high temperature.
An onde ThiOi is formed by heating the oxalate.
Tkoriwm ftuoride, ThFi. is obtained as a heavy white inscJuble
'tt by dissolving the hydrate in hydrofluoric add and cvapprat-
ing. By predpitatii^ a thorium salt with a fluoride, a gelatinous
h^^drate, ThF4'4HtO, is obtained. Add potas&ium fluoride pre-
cipitates KtThFf4ThF4-M]0 from a solution of thorium chlonde.
Potassium Uiorofluoride, KcThF*-4H^. is a heavy black powder
formed by boiling the hydroxide with potassium fluoride aad
hydrofluoric add. Thorium chloride, ThCU, is obtained as white
snining crystab by heating a mixture of carbon and thoria in a
cnirrent of chlorine. Basterville (Joum. Amer. Ckem. Soc., 1904,
26, p. 922) divided the product into three fractions according to
their volatility. He concluded that the first conuinod the chloride
of hertdimmt having an atomic weight of 2ia, the ftcond contained
thorium chloride, and the third the chloride of carolinium, having
an atomic wdsht of 255*6. E. Chauvenet (Compt. rend,, 1908,
147, p. 1046) obtains it fc^ heating thoria in a current of carbonyl
chlonde. Thorinm dilonde leadily dcliqueaoes on exposure and
forma double salts with alkaline chlorides.
Thorium sul^hale, Th(S04)i. is obtained by dissolving theoxlde
in sulphuric acid. It forms several crystalline hydrates. Evapora-
tion of a solution at ordinary tempcmtuRS grves colourless mono-
clinic prisms of Th(S04)r9HiOi which is isomorphous with uranium
sulphate, U(S0«).-9}U0. Above 43* Th(S0«),-4H:0 is deposited.
B. Roozcboom (Zeil, pkys. Chem., 1890, 5, p. 198) has described
several other hydrates. Thorium sulphate forms double salts with
fhe alkaline sulphates. Thorium nitrate, Th(N03)4>12HiO, forms
white detiqaeacent tables very soluble in water. It forms double
■alts such as MgTh(NOt)r8HiO. which are isomorphous with the
conesponding cerium compounds. Thorium sulphide, ThSi, u
obtained by burning the metal in sulphur. It cannot be produced
by prediMtation.
The atomic wdght has been variously given. Berselius found
335*5; Ddafontaine. 229*7; Clevc, 232-6 by analyses of the sulphate,
and 232-3 by analv-ses of the oxalate. Kruss and Kilson derived
the value 2307 (H«i) from analyses of the carefully purified
sulphate.
For the so^alled " distntcgretion of the thorium atom " and the
relation of this element to the general subject of radio-active
emanations, see Radio-Activity.
' A number of salts of thorium have been prepared for therapeutic
use, including the hydroxide, nitrate, salicybte. oleate and lactate.
The oleate has been used in chronic eciema and psorbsis and locally
in caoccr. Inhalations of thorium emanations produced from
thorium nitrate through a wash-bottle inhaler are said to have a
bactericidal action in diseases of the lungs. F. Soddy has used
them in phthisis, and Louisa Chesney speaks favourably of the
emanations in chronic and acute laiyngitis and in tuberculous
laryngeal ulcerations.
THORN (Polish Torun), a fortress town of Germany, in the
Prussian province of West Prussia, situated on the right bank
of the Vistula, near the point where the river enters Prussian
territory, 85 m. by rail N.E. of Posen, 92 m. S. of Danzig and
12 m. from the Russian frontier at Alexandrovo. Pop. (1895),
30,314; (1906), 43,435- Its position as a bridge head commanding
the passage of the Vistula makes it a point of strategic impor-
tance; it was strongly fortified in x8i8, and in 1878 was converted
into a fortress of the first class. The defensive works consist
of a drcle of outlying forts, about 3} m. from the centre of the
town— eight on the right and five on the left bank of the river.
The " old town," founded in 1231, and the " new town,** founded
thirty-three years later, were united in X454> and both retain
a number of quaint buildings dating from the 15th and i6th
centuries, when Thorn was a flourishing member of the Hanseatfc
League. The town-hall of the 14th and x6th centuries, the
churches of St John of the Virgin, and of St James (all of the I
I3th>x4th centorics), the ruined castle of the Teutonic order (a
tower, the so-called " Dansker "), and a leaning tower, the sole
remnant of the old environing walls, are among the moat inter-
estittg of the andent edifices. Among modem buildings may
be mentioned the Arttuhof, containing concert and assembly
halls, the new garrison church (1897), and the monument etccted
in 1853 to Copernicus, who was a native of Thom. The andent
wooden bridge, now homed d«wn, at one time the only pcnnanent
bridge across the lower Vistula, has been succeeded by a massive
iron railway viadua, 3300 ft. long. Thora carries on an active
trade in grain, timber, wine, groceries and minerals, and has
ironworka, saw-mills, and various other manufactures. It is
famous for ita Pfeferkucken, a kind of gingerbread. Part of
the trade is carried on by passenger and caigq, vessels on the
Vistula, which ply aa far as Warsaw.
Thom, founded in 1231 by the Teutonic order as an outpost
against the Poles, was colonized mainly fiom Westphalia. Hie
first peace of Thora, between the order and the Poles, was
concluded in 14x1. In 1454 the townspeople revolted from the
knights of the older, destroyed their castle, and attached them*
selves to the king of Poland. This resulted in a war, which
was terminated in 1466 by the second peace of Thora. La the
X5th and x6th centuries Thora was a Hanae town of importance,
and received the titles of " Queen of the Vistula " and " the
beautiftil." It embraced the Reformation in 1557, and in
1645 it was the scene of a coUoqttium charHatimim, or discussion
betwixt the doctors of the rival creeds, which, however, resulted
in no agreement. In 1724 a riot between the Protestant and
Roman Catholic inhabitants was seised upon by the Polish
king as a pretext for beheading the burgomaster and nine other
leading Protestant dtisens, an act of oppressioi^ which is known
as the *' blood-bath of Thora.'' The second partition of Poland
(X793) conferred Thora upon Prussia; by the treaty of Tilsit
it was assigned to the duchy of Warsaw; but since the congress
of ^Vienna (18x5) it has again been Prussian. '
See Wernicke, CeschichU Thorns (Thom, 1839-1842); Hobuif,
Die BeUterungen der Stadt und Festung Thom (Thoni, l8w) ; and
Steinbredit. Vie Baukunst des deutschcn Ritterorden^ in rrmusem
(Xtt part, Berlin, 1884); Uebrick, Thom (Danzig, 1903)./
THORN (O. Eng. ^om^ cf. Du. doom^ (Ser. Dorn^ &c), in botany,
a hard pointed structure, also terxned a ** spine," generally
representing a small branch, as in hawthora, where a norxnal
branch arising in the axil of a leaf is replaced by a sharply pointed
thom; accessory buds on each aide of the thora and developed
in the same leaf -axil will grow in the next season into ordinary
branches. The similarly developed thorns of the honey-locust
{CMiUckia) are branched. In other cases, as the sloe or the
wild pear, branches become spiny at the apex tapering into a
stiff leafless point. On a cultivated tree these branches dis-
appear owing to thdr more vigorous growth. Leaves may be
modified into spines, as in barberry, the leaves of which show
every gradation between a leaf with a spiny-toothed edge and
those which have been reduced to simple or multiple spines.
In some spedes of Astragalms the petiole of the piimately com-
pound leaf persbu after the fall of the IcafleU as a sharp spine.
In the false acacia (Robinia) the stipules are represented by
spines.
The reduction of the leaf-surface, of which the spinous habit
is often an expression, is associated with growth in d^ or exposed
windy places. Thus, in the gorw, a characteristic pbnt of
exposed localities such as open commons, the smaller branches,
instead of being leaf -bearing shoots, are reduced to slender green
spines, while the leaves on the main shoots are also more or less
spinous in character. As the giving off of water from its surface
is one of the chief funcrions of a leaf, this process is thus reduced
to a minimum in situations where water is scarce or would be
liable to be given off too rapidly. An extreme case is afforded by
the cacti and cactus-like euphorbias, which are a characteristic
type of desert vegetation where water is extremely scarce.
The whole plant is reduced to a simple or branching succulent,
leafless, columnar or flattened stem, the branches of which
are represented by small dusten of thorns. Incidentally the
88o
THORNABY-ON-TEES— THORNHILL
thorns protect the plant ufaich beus them faom the attacks of
animals seeking food.
Prickles axe structures of less importance from the morpho*
logical point of view, being mere 5apcr5cxal outgrowths which
may occur anywfacze on stem or kaf , or even fruit.
THORNABT-(HI-TBES. a municipal borough in the North
Riding of Yorkshire, England, 3 m. S.W. of Middlesbrough, on
the North-Eastem railway. Fop. (1901), i6,os4- It lies
opposite Stockton<<Mi-Tecs, with which it is connected by a
bridge, on the river Tees. There are blast furnaces, iron
foundries, engineering works, iron ship-building yards, extensive
saw-mtUs, flour-mills and a manufactory of " blue and white "
pottery. The town was formeriy known as South Stockton,
and is still inciiided in the pazhainentary borough of Stockton
(it is within the Cleveland division of the county), but was
incorporated as n separate municipal borough in 1892. It is
vnder n mayor, 6 akicrmcn and 18 coondlloB. Area, 1927
THlMUKi a market town in the Doncaster parliamentary
division of the West Riding of YoAsbire, ro m. N.E. of Doncaster
by the North-Eastem railway, served abo by a branch of the
Great Central railway. Flop. (1901) 3818. It lies near the
river Don, in a low, flat district, which was fonneriy a marshy
waste, resembling the fens of the eastern counties. Hatfield
Chase, a portion of this tract south of Thome, was partly drained
by the Dutch engineer Vermuyden in the r7th century, and there
were in the district numerous Dutdi settlers. The Chase is
grnerally considered 'to have been the socnc of the battle <rf
Heathfidd in 633, when King Edwin of Northumbria fell before
the heathen King Penda of Mcrcia. The Levels, as this district
is generally nained, are of remarkable fcrtiUly, and Thoine,
having water communicalioQ with Goole and the Uumber, b
consequently an agricnltural centre of in^nrtance; while some
barge-building and a trade in peat fibre are also carried on.
The church of St Nicholas is a fine building of various periods
from the rzth century.
THORNHILU SIR JAMBS (i676-r734), English historical
painter, was bom at Mdcombe Regis, Dorset, in r676, of an
oncia&t but impoverished county family. His faiho' died
while he was young, but he was be&iendcd by his maternal
unde, the cdebiatcd Dr Sydenham, and apprenticed to Thomas
Highmore, serjeant-painter to King William III., a connexion
of the Thomhill family. Little is known regarding his cariy
career. About 171 5 he visited Holland, Flandeis and France;
and, having obtained the patronage of Queen Anne, he was in
>7>9~t7'o aHxiinted her serjeant-painter in succession to High-
more, and was ordered to decorate the interior of the <lome of
St Paul's with a series of eight designs, in chiaroscuro heightened
with gdd, iilustrati^^ of the life of that apostle — ^a commission
for which Louis Laguerre had previously been selected by the
commissioneis for the repair of the calhedraL He also designed
and decorated the saloon and hall of JJoor Park, Herts, and
painted the great hall at Bknhdm, the princesses* apartments at
Hampton Court, the hall and staircase of the South Sea Company,
the chapd at Wimpole, the staircase at Easton-Ncston, North-
amptonshire, and the hall at Greenwich Hospital, usually
considered his most important and successful work, upon whkh
he was engaged from 1708 to 1727. Among his easd pictures
are the altar-pieces of AXk Souls and Queen's College chapels.
Oxford, and thai in Meioombe Regs church; and he executed
such portrait subjects as that of Sir Isaac Newton, in Trinity
CoHcge, Cambridge, and the pkture of the House of Commons
in r73o, in the {UMwrminn of the eari otHaniwicfce, in which he
was assoted by Hogarth, who married Jane, his only daughter.
Be alsD prodnce d n few etchim? in a sfi^t and sketchy but
cfljbdxve manner, and rrrmtcd careful fuU-siae copies of
i cartnonSk which mam bdong to the Rn))-al Academy.
: X73t he drnr up a proposal for the establishment of a
I the arts, and his scheme had the support of
r HalTfai, but goveznmeikt declined to fcnifsh
Thomhill then opened a drawing-school in
ftfe James Sucet, Covcnt Gaidea, whcie instxiictioa
continued to be given till the time of his death. He 1
a considerable fortune by his art, and was enabled to repnrrhay
his family estate of Thomhill, Dorsetshire. In 17x5 he was
knighted by Gcotge L, and In 1719 he represented Mdcombe
Regis in parliament, a borough for -miach Sir Chiistinphfr Wren
had previously been member. Having been removed from his
oflke by some court intr^;ue, and sufloing from broken health
and repeated attacks of gout, he retired to his cxmntry seat,
where he died on the 4th of May 1734. His son James, also
an artist, succeeded his father as serjeant-painter to Qccm^ IL
aiul was appointed " painter to the navy.'*
The hifih ooatempocary estimate of Sir James Thomlnll^s works
has not wnce been confirmed; in sfste of Dr Young, " bxe times **
domat
"CndcTstaod
How Raphad's pencQ lives in TbomhiD s baads."
He ts weak in drawiiig--iiideed, vhen deafing with cecapEcatcd
figures he was assisted by Thomas Gibsoo; and. ign rml of the
great monumental art of Italy, he famed himself upas ibe lower
-ofur
THORHHILU an urban district in the Morley parfiamentary
division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, Engbnd, a m. S. of
Dewsbury, on the Great Northem, Lancashire k. Yorkshire, and
London & North-Westem railways. Pop. (1901), 10,390. The
church of St Michad has a modem nave, but the chancd with
aisles are of good Decontedworis, and the tower is Perpendicular.
There are interesting monuments of the ancient faauhr of
SavOe, the site of whose mansion, Thomhill HaD, may be traced
near the church. The cast window of the dmrdi contains fine
fragments of stained ^ass of the 15th vmtaty. The large
industrial population is employed in the wnoBen mSs and
manufactures of shoddy, carpets, ftc, widch are nmnerocs
in this locality.
THORNHim a village of the parish d Morton, Kithsdale,
Dumfriesshire, Scotland, r4 m. NJ4.W. of Dumfries by the
Glasgow & South- Western railway. -Pop. (tgoi), 113 2. It
is beautifully situated in the midst of trec^ciad hiDs aisd
watered by the bountiful Nith and soch streasBS ^ the
Carron. Cample and Crichope. Morton parish chvch lies ic
the village, and among other buik!ings are the Ebrary ard
the natural history museum, in the grounds of mhich there
is a statue of Richard Cameron, the covenanter (16S0). Ttx
weekly sales of livestock are important, and an agricultural
show h held e\-cTy September. Three irJies NJf.W. star is
Drumlanrig Castle, a seat of the dcke of Bocdeuch. It is buZt
of red sandstone in the forai of a boUow square, and has 145 ft.
of outer walls, vhich are snrmountcd with tvrets, ard
capped and spired at the angles. The cas'.Ie wis begun in 16-1
and finished in 16S9, and cost the first dike of QueccsbcxTy sn
iounense sum. He is beiie\-ed to have spent but a single cirht
under its roof. The fourth duke of Qoern^teiry. Oid "* Q.r
incurred the wrath of Robert Bums and Wordmrth by kis
wanton destruction of the nu^ificcnt vrods. On the death ci
" Old Q." without issue in iSio. Heniy, third duke of Bocciccc^,
succfedcd to the dukedom of QoeeiBbexry, and the property
has since been adcQuatdy cared for. Trees. pbMed oa the
most cxtensi>7 scale, ha\-e repaired the ranges of the torr-.-
onTjer; the gardens ha\Te been bid out with exqcisiie taste; ard
the vast po^c)-. intersected by the Xiih. is one of thcfiacsi p^rks
in Scoiljind. The ruins of Tibber*s Castle, dismactlcd in 1311
by Robert Bruce, stand in the grounds, about i m. bczc
the ducal mansion. Two miles and a half K^.EL of
Thomhill is four.d another rained fcrrress^ that of Mc-^:c:«
Castle, ioterestisg as the residesce of Th.-rr-n Rai>dc?p^. e:Lri
of Moray, regent during the early years of the mrnrr/.T cf
David IL, aijd as bdorgxg afterwards to a brarsch of the
DocgSases, who derived from it the tiiie cf carL Aboct s ^-
souih-east of Thomhill shards the ridned castle cf Qos^ wr:i,
cnce a stronshckJ of the KirkpaJricks. It w»s Sir Rog^^ cf t>At
! uk who helped " mak sikker " the death of Jolm, ** Red **
j Comyn, of Baderx^rh {iiz6\ la Ccect^ra pansh '^pofk ir-f^
ocra- cairss, tu3;uli ard a s^tcae drde, besides Rc—s- rrd
ipRhistooc ici^ins. Two m;r<eral well» g^ l^ pSace the
THORNTON, H.— THORPE, B.
88i
pmmtae of some de^kee of popuUr favour, likely to be eohanced
by the romantic beauty of its surroundings.
f TBORIITOK, HENRT (i 760-1815), English banker and
economist, was bom on the xoth of March 1760. In 1 784 be
became a member of the banking firm of Downie, Free &
Thornton, with which he was associated till his death on the
i6th of January 18x5. In 1783 be was elected member of
parliament for Southwark, a constituency which be represented
for the rest of his life. Although an indifferent speaker, he soon
acquired a high reputation as an authority on financial matters.
Ttds reputation he confirmed by An Inquiry itOo Ike Nature and
Effects of the Paper Currency of Emgland (1803), defending the
legislature in suspending cash payments. He strongly supported
the income tax on its original imposition in X798, but was
in favour of a graduated system, and indeed paid his own income
tax " on the scale of Jiis ideal, not his legal debt.*' He was
one of the founders of the Sierra Leone Company (see Siersa
Leone) and iu rhnirman until the cok>ny was taken over by
the English government.
THORNTOH. WILLIAM THOMAS (X813-X880), English
economist, was bom at Bumham, Buckinghamshire, on the
X4th of February X813. In 1836 he obtained a clerkship in
the London house of the East India Company. In X858 he
became secretary for public works in the India office, a post
which he heM till hh death. He was created a CJB. in 1873.
His works include Over-population and its Remedy (1846), in
which he put forward a plan for colonizing Irish wastes by
Irish peasants; A Flea for Peasant Proprietors (1848), in which
his views were developed in greater detail; On Labour (1869);
and Old-fashioned Ethics and Commonsense Metaphysics, a
volume of essays, published in 1873. ^
THORKTCROFT. WILLIAM HAMO (1850^ ), British
sculptor. A pupil of his father, Thomas Tbomycxoft, and of
the Royal Academy schools, he was still a student when he was
called upon to assist his father in carrying out the important
fountain in Park Lane, London. He accordingly returned i^
187 1 to England from Italy, where he was studying, and modelled
the figures of Shakespeare, Fame and Clio, which were rendered
in marble and in bronze. In the following year he exhibited
at the Royal -Academy "Professor Sharpley," in marble, for
the memorial in University College; and "Mrs Mordant," a
relief— a form of art to which he has since devoted much atten-
tion. The " Fame,** already mentioned, was shown in 1873.
Believing that the pendulum had overshot its swing from
conventional dassicality towards pictorial realism, he turned
from the "fleshy'* school towards the Greek, whiOe realizing
the artistic necessity for modem feeling. In 1875 his " Warrior
Bearing a Wounded Youth from the Field of BatUe " gained the
gold medal at the Royal Academy schools, and lyhen exhibited
in 1876 it divided public attention with the "Tennyson" of
Woolner and " Wellington monument " sculptures of Alfred
Stevens, now in St Paul's Cathedral Then followed the dramatic
" Lot's Wife," in marble (1878), and " Artemis " (x88o), which for
grace, elegance and purity of taste the sculptor never surpassed.
He was thereupon elected an associate of the Royal Academy,
and more than justified the selection by his "Teucer" of the
following year, a bronze figure of extraordinary distinction
which, bought for the Chantrey collection, is now in the National
(Tate) Gallery of British Art. It is simple and severe, classic
yet instinct with life and noble in form; and in it he touched
the high-water mark of his career. Turning to the ideal, in
works entirely modem in motive and treatment, Hamo Thorny^
croft produced " The Mower " (X884) and " A Sower " (x886);
the " Stanley Memorial " in the old church at Holyhead par-
takes of the same character. Among the sculptor's principal
statues are " The Bishop of Carlisle " (1895; Carlisle Cathedral),
"General Charles Gordon" (Trafalgar Square, London),
" OUver CromweU " (Westminster), " Dean Colet " (a bronze
group — early Italianate in feelini^-outside St Paul's School,
Hammersmith), "King Alfred" (a colossal memorial for
Winchester), the " Gladstone Monument " (in the Strand,
London) and " Dr MandcU Creightoo, Bishop of London"
(bronze, erected in St Paul's Cathedral). Mr Thoraycfof t's other
memorials, such as the " Qutea Victoria Memorial " (Karachi),
the "War Memorial" (at Durban) and the "Armstrong
Memorial " (at Newcastle), are well known, and his portrait
statuary and medallions are numerous. He was elected a full
academician in x888, and an honorary member of the Royal
Academy of Munich. He was awarded a medal of honour at
the Paris Exhibition, X900.
See M. H. Spielmann. BriUih Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day
(London, 1901). (M. H. S.)
THbRODDSEN, J6lf pOR BABSOV (18x^x868), Icelandic'
poet and iMvelist, was bom in X819 at Reykh61ar in western
Iceland. He studied law at the university of Copenhagen,'
entered the Danish army as volunteer in x 848 in the war against
the insurgents of Schleswig and Holstein, who were aided by
Prussia and the other German States. He went back to Iceland
in x8so, became sheriff {sSslunm^ur) of BarOastrandars^la,
and later in Borgarf jarSars^sIa, where he died in x868. He is
the fiirst novel writer of Iceland. J6nas Hallgrimsson had led
the way by his short stories, but the earliest veritable Icelandic
novel was J6n Th6roddsen's Piltur og stiUka (" Lad and Lass "),
a charming picture of Icelandic country life. Still better is
Maliur og hona (" Man and Wife "), published after his death
by the Icelandic Literary Society. lie had a great fimd of
delicate humour, and his novels are so essentially Icelandic in
their character, and so true in their descriptions, that he is
justly considered by most of his countrymen not only as the
father of the Icelandic novel, but as the best novelist Iceland
has produced. His poems, mostly satirical, are deservedly
popular; he follows J6nas Hallgrimsson closely in his style»
although he caxmot reach him in lyrical genius. (S. Bl.)
THOROtON, ROBERT (1623-X678), English antiquary;
belonged to an old Nottinghamshire family, which took its
name from Thoroton, near Newark. He resided mainly at
another village in the same neighbourhood. Car Colston, where
he practised as a physician and where he Uved the life of a
country gentleman. He took very little part in the Civil War,
although his sympathies were with the royalists, but as a
magistrate he was very active in taking proceedings against the
Quakers. In 1667 Thoroton, aided by a band of helpers, began
to work upon his elaborate Antiquities of NoUtnghamshire,
This was published in London in X677; it was dedicated to
Gilbert Sheldon, archbishop of Canterbury, and was illustrated
by engravings by W. Hollar.
In 1797 a new edition of the Antiquiiies was published bv John
Throsby (1740-1803). who added an additionaf volume, fn 1897
the Thoroton Society was founded in honour of the antiquaiian,
its object being to promote the study of the history and antiquitiei
of Noctioghainwire. Under its auspices annual volumes of Transac-
tions and leveral volumes of Records have been published and much
valuable work has been done. A brass tablet to the memory of
Thoroton has been placed in Car Colston church. See J. T. Godfrey,
Robert Thoroton, Pkysidan and Antiquary (1690).
IHORPB, BRirJAMIll (X783-X870), English Anglo-Saxon
scholar, was bom in 1783. After studying for four years at
Copenhagen University, under the Danish philologist Rasmus
Christian Rask, he setumed to England in r830, and in X831
published an English version of Csdmon's metrical paraphrase
of portions of the Holy Scriptures, which at once established his
reputation as an Anglo-Saxon scholar. In x 834 he published
Analecta AngloSaxonicOt which was for many years the standard
textbook of Anglo-Saxon in English, but his best-known work
is a Northern Mythology in three volumes (x^sO. His was the
first complete good translation of the elder Edda (x866). His
other works include Ancient Lams and Institutes of England
(1840), an English translation of the laws enacted under the
Anglo-Saxon kings; The Holy Gospels* iu Anglo-Saxon (1842);
Codex Exoniensis (X842), a collecrion of Anglo-Saxon poetry
with En^ish translation; an English translation of Dr Lappen-
burg's History of England under the Anglo-Saxon Kings (x845)S
Anglo-Saxon Poems of Beovulf (1855), a translation; an edition
for the " Rolls " series of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (1861); and
Diplomatarium Anglicum aen saxonici {iB6^)t a collection of
882
THORPE, J.— THOU, J. A. DE
early English charteTS. Thorpe died at Chiswick on the 19th
of July 1870. The value of his work was recognized by the
grant to him, in 1835, of a civil list pension.
THORPE [or Thorp], JOHN {fi. x570-x6z8), English architect
Little is known of his life, and his work is dubiously inferred,
rather than accurately known, from a folio of drawings in the
Soane Museum, to which Horace Walpole called attention, in
1780, in his Anecdotes oj Painting', but how far these were his
own is uncertain. He was engaged on a number of Important
English houses of his time, and several, such as Longlcat, have
been attributed to him on grounds which cannot be sustained.
He was probably the designer of Kirby Hall, Northamptonshire;
the original Longford Castle, Wiltshire; and the original Holland
House, Kensington; and he is said to have been engaged on
Rushton Hall, Northamptonshire, and Audley End, Essex (with
Bernard Janssens).
. See J. A. Gotch, Ardntecture of the Renaissance in. England
<i89i-»894)-
THORWALDSEK^ BERTBL (1770-1844)1 Danish sculptor,
the son of an Icelander who had settled in Denmark, and there
carried on the trade of a wood-carver, was bom in Copenhagen
on the 19th of November 1770. While very young he leamt
to assist his father; at the age of deven he entered the Copen-
hagen school of art, and soon began to show his exceptional
talents. In 1792 he won the highest prize, the travelling student-
ship, and in 1796 he started for Italy in a Danish man-of-war.
On the 8th of March 1797 he arrived in Rome, where Canova
was at the height of his popularity. Thorwaldscn's first success
was the model for a statue of Jason, which was highly praised
by Canova, and he received the commission to execute it in
marble from Thomas Hope, a wealthy English art-patron. From
that lime Thorwaldsen's success was assured, and he did not
leave Italy for twenty-three years. In 1819 he returned to Dcn-
mark» where he was commissioned to make the colossal series
of statue? of Christ and the twelve apostles which are now in the
Fruenkirche in Copenhagen. These were executed after his
return to Rome, and were not completed till 1838, when Thor-
waldsen again returned to Denmark. He died suddenly in the
Copenhagen theatre on the 24th of March 2844 and bequeathed
a great part of his fortune for the building and endowment of a
museum in Copenhagen, and also left to fill it all his collection
of works of art and the models for all his sculpture— a very
large collection, exhibited to the greatest possible advantage.
Tbonraldsea is buried in the courtyard of this museum, under
a bed of roses, by his own special wish..
On the whole Thorwaldsen was the most successful of aU the
imitaton of classical sculpture, and many of his statues of pagan
deities are modelled with much of the antique feeling for breadth
and purity of design. His attempts at Christian sculpture,
such as the tomb of Pius VII. in St Peter's and the " Christ and
Apostles " at Copenhagen, are kss successful, and were not in
accordance with the sculptor's real sympathies, which were
purely dassic. Thorwaldsen worked sometimes with fe\'erish
eagerness; at other times he was idle for many months together.
A great number of his best works exist in private collections
in England. His not very successful statue of Lord Byron, after
being ref osed a place in Westminster Abbey, was finally de-
posited in the library of Trinity CoUege, Cambridge. The most
widely popular among Thorwaldsen's works have been some of
his ba»-relicfs, such as the " Night ** and the " Morning," which
he is said to have modelled in one day.
See Eugene Plon. Tlwtpaldstu, sa m, &c. (Faxis« 1880) ; Andersen,
f . TkofwaUstn (Berlin. 1845): Killcnip. ThnwaUsen's Arbeitru, &c
(Copenhagen, 1852): Thieie.- Thprmaldstn's Ltben (Leipiip. l85>-
|8a6): C A. R«Menbefg. Tkontaidseu , . , mit 146 Abinldmng«*
(1896: " KAmtkennonogittphien." No. 16): S. Trier» Thomtidseu
(190s); A. Wilde, Enndrimgtr om Jtrickom og ThfrvaUun (1S84).
TBOTH. the Greek nanae of the Egyptian god of letters*
lAventka and wisdom («.<. Thowt, Z^mty), the mouthpiece
and itcoidtt of the gods, and arbiter of their disputes. Thoth
h found on the earliest monuments symbolized by an iIhs Ubis
— i>is#irit, still not uncommon in Nubia), which bird was
1 16 him. In the Pyxamid tesu Thoth is already cksely
associated with the Osiris myth, having aided the god by iSi
sdence and knowledge of magic, and demonstrated the justice
of bis claims in the contest with Set. Thoth presided over
writing, measuring and calculation, and is prominent in the
scene of the weighing of the soul. He was often ideatiAcd with
the moon as a divider of time, and in this connexion, during
the New Empire, the ape first appears as his sacred animals
Thoth was identified by the Greeks with Hermes, and Hermes
Trismegi&tus (g.v.) is a late development of the Egyptian god.
Geographically the worship of Thoth in Lower £g>pt centred
ia the HermopoL'te nome, contiguous to the Busirite and
Mendesian nomes. This was the district andently called Zfnet,
and the god's name Z|hc/y means simply " him of Z^j4" But
Hermopolis Magna in Upper Egypt, now Eshmunain, was a dty
of greater political importance than Hermopolis in Lower Egypt.
See E. A. W. Budge, The Cods of the Egyptians; and speciaHy
Egypt '.Ancient, ^Raigion. (F. Ll. G.)
THOU, JACQUES AUOUSTE'DE iTtoUANUsl (1553-1617),
French historian, was the graxulson of Augustin de Thou,
president of the parlement of Paris (d. 1544). younger son
of Chiistophe de Thou, " first president " of the same parle-
ment, who began to collect a number of books and notes for a
history of France which he was never to write (d. 1582), and
nephew of Nicolas.de Thou, who was bishop of Chartres (157J-
'X598). In these family surroundings he imbibed a love of letters,
a firm and orthodox, though enlightened and tolerant piety,
and an attachment to the traditional power of the Crown. At
the age of seventeen he began his studies in law, first at Oricans,
later at Bourges, where he made the acquaintance of Hotman,
and finally at. Valence, where he had Cujas for his masto* and
Scaliger as a friend. He was at first intended for the Church;
he received the minor orders, and on the appointment of his
unde Nicolas to the episcopate succeeded him as a can<m of
Notre-Dame. But his tasies led him in a differ^t Erection;
not content with a knowledge of books, he wished to know the
world and men. During a period of ten years he sdzed every
opportimity for profitable travcL In X573 he accompanied
Paul de Foix on an embassy, which enabled him to visit most of
the Italian courts; he formed a friendship with Amaud d'Ossal
(afterwards bishop of Rcnncs and Bayeux and cardinal, d. 1604),
who was secretary to the ambassador. In the foOowing year
he formed part of the brilliant cortige which brou^ King
Henry III. back to France, after his flight from his Polish king-
dom. He also visited several i>arts of France, and at Bordeaux met
Montaigne. On the death, however,, of h^ dder brother Jean
(April 5, 1579), who was maUre des requHes to the paiiement,
his idations prevailed on him to leave the Church, and he entered
the parlement and married (15S8). In the same year be was
appointed conseilUr d^itat. He served faithfully both the
effeminate, bigoted and crud Henry HI. and Henry IV., a sceptic
and given to love-intrigues, because they were both the repre-
sentatives of legitimate authority. He succeeded his unde
Augustin as prisident a morlier (1595), and used his new autbttity
in the interests of rdig^ous peace, negotiating, on the one hand,
the Edict of Nantes with the Protestants, while in the name of the
prindpals of the GaUican Church he opposed the rcoogmtion
of the Coundl of Trent. This attitude caposed him to the
animosity of the League party and of the Holy See, and to their
persecution when the first edition d his histmy appeared.
This history was the work of his whole life. In a letter of the
31st of March r6xi addressed to the president Jeannia, he
himsdf describes his long labours in preparation of it. His
materials for writing it were drawn from his rich library, which
he established in the Rue des Poitevins in the >-car isS;, with the
two brothers, Pierre and Jacques Dupuy, as librazians. His
object was to produce a purdy sdentific and unbiassed wtxk,
and for this reason he wrote it in Latin, giving it as title HisUria
smi tempens. The first 18 books, embracing the period from
1545-1560, a(^)eared in 1604 (i vol. (<Alo), and the work was at
once attacked by those whom the author himself caDs '<es eweUuM
d Us fcctieux. The second part, dealing with the first wars of
religion (1560-1572), was put on the Index lihmnm fnUbiianm
THOUARS— THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS
883
(Nov. 9, 1609). Tlie third part (up to Z574)» and the fourth
{np to 1584), which appeared in. 1607 and 1608, caused a similar
outcry, in spite of de Thou's efforts to remain just and
impartiaL He carried his scruples to the point of forbid-
ding any translation of his book into French, because in the
process there might, to use his own words, "be committed
great faults and errors against the intention of the author ";
this, however, did not prevent the Jesuit Father Machault
from acctising him of being "a false Catholic, and worse
than an open heretic" (1614); de Thou, we may say, was
a member of the third order of St Francis. As an answer
to his detractors, he wrote his Mhnoires, which are a useful
complement to the. History of his own Times, After the death
of Henry IV., de Thou met with another disappointment; the
queen-regent refused him the position of first president of
the parlement, appointing him instead as a member of the
ConscU d€s finances intended to take the place of Sully. This
was to him a distinct downfall; he continued, however, to serve
under Marie de Medicis, and took part in the negotiations of the
treaties concluded at Ste Menehould (1614) and Loudun (x6i6).
He died at Paris on the 7th of May 16x7.
Three vears after the death of de Thou, Fiem Dupay and Nicolai
Ri|;auU brought out, with pt. v., the first cbmpletc edition of the
Htstoria sui lem^is, comprising 138 books; they appended to it
the Mimoires, abo given in Latin (1620). A hundred years later,
an Englishman, Samuel Buckley, publisned a critical edition, the
material (or which had been collected in France itself by Thomas
Carte (I733)* De Thou was treated as a classic, an honour which
he deserved. His history is a model of exact research, drawn from
the best sources, and presented in a style both elegant and animated ;
unfortunately, even for the men of the Renaissance, Latin was a
dead language; it was impossible for de Thou, for example, to find
exact equivalents for technical terras of geography or of administra-
tion. As the reasons which had led dc Thou to forbid the transla-
tion of his monumental history disappeared with his death, there
soon arose a denre to make it accessible to a wider public. It
was translated first into German. A Protestant pastor, G. Boule,
who was afterwards converted to Catholidsm. translated it into
French, but could not find a publisher. Tne first translation
printed was that of Pierre Du Ryer (16S7), but it is mediocre and
incomplete. In the following century the abbd Prfivost, who was
a conscientious collaborator with the Benedictines of Saiot-Maur
before he became the author of the more profane work Maiion
Lescaut, was in treaty with a Dutch publisher for a translation
which was to consist ci ten volumes; only the first volume appeared
(i733)- But competition, perhaps of an unfair character, sprang
up. A group of translators, who had the good fortune of being
able to avail themselves of Buckley's fine edition, succeeded in
bringing out all at the same time a translation in uxtccn volumes
(Oe Thou. Histoire universeUe, Fr. trans, by Le Beau, Le
Mascrier, the Abb^ Des Fontaines, 1734). As to the Mhnoires
they had already been translated by Le Petit and Des Ifs (1711):
in this form they have been reprinted in the collections of Petitot,
Michaud and Buchon. To de Thou we also owe certain other
works: a treatise De re accipitraria (1784), a Life, in Latin, of
Papyre Masson, some Poemaia sacra, &c.
For his life may be consulted the recollections of him collected
/ the brothers Dupuy {Thp4ina, sive Excerpia J, A. Thttani p«r
. P. P., 1669; reprinted in the edition of 1733). and the bi(^raphies
-' J. A. M. Collinson {The Life of Thuanus. 1807), and Duntrer,
, *e Thou's Lehen, 1837). Finally, see Henry Harrisse. Le Prisident
de Thou et ses descendants, lew ctiibre hiMtoth^que, leurs armoiries
et la traduction franfaiu de J, A. Thuani Histortarum sui Temporis
Ui<\ (1905). (C. B,*)
THOUARS, a town of western France, in the department of
Deux-S^vres, on the right bank of the Thouet, 34 m. S. by W.
of Saumtir on the railway to Bordeaux. Pop. (1906), 5321.
A massive stronghold built in the first half of the 17th century
by the La Trcmoille family, and now used as a prison, stands on
a rocky eminence overlooking the river, towards which it has
a frontage of nearly 400 ft. The adjoining Sainte-Chapelle
dating from the early years of the 16th century is in the
Gothic style with Renaissance details, and was built by Gabrielle
de Bourbon, wife of Louis II. of La Trcmoille. The church
of St M6dard, rebuilt in the 15th century, preserves a doorway
of a previous Romanesque building. That of St Laon (12th
and 15th centuries) was former^ attached to an abbey, the
buildings (17th century) of which serve as town-hall. It
has a fine square tower in the Romanesque style and con-
tains the sculptured tomb of the abbot Nicholas. Remains of
%
the lamparts of the town dating from the X3th century
and flanked by huge towers are still to be seen, and a bridge
of the same period crosses the Thouet. The manufacture
of furniture and wooden shoes, and the preparation of
veterinary medicine and lime, are carried on. Wine, livestock
and agricultural produce are the chief articles of trade.
Thouars, which probably existed in the Gallo-Roman period,
became in the 9th century the seat of powerful viscounts, who
in later times were zealoiis supporters of the fnglish. In 1372
the latter were expelled from the town by Bertrand du Guesclin.
In 1563 Charles IX. created Louis IH., the head of the family
of La Tr€moille, duke of Thouaxs. In 1793 the Vendeanstook
the town by assault.
THOURSr, JACQ0ES GUILLAUMB (X746-X794), French
revolutionist, was bom at Pont r£v£que. He was the son of a
notary, and became an avocat at the parlement of Rouen.
In X 789 he was elected deputy to the sUtes-general by the third
estate of Rouen, and in the Constituent Assembly his eloquence
gained him great influence. Like so many lawyers of his time,
he was violently opposed to the dergy, and strongly supported
the secularization of church property. He also obtained the
suppression of the religious orders and of all ecclesiastical
privileges, and actively contributed to the change of the judiciary
and administrative system. He was one of the promoters
of the decree of X790 by which France was divided into depart-
ments, and was four times president of the Constituent Assembly.
After its dissolution he be<^e president of the court of cassation.
He was included in the proscription of the Girondists, whose
political opinions he shared, and was executed in Paris. Besides
his speeches and reports he wrote an Abrigi des rttoiutions de
Vancien goudemement fran^is and Tableau chronotogique de
rhistoire ancienne et moderne.
His brother^ Michel Augt7Stin Thoitret (i748-x8xo)^ a
physician, was a keen opponent of the ideas of Mesmer and a
promoter of vaccination in France.
See F. Aulard, Les Orateurs de rassemhUe consiitnanie (2nd ed.,
Paris, 1905); E. Carette and A. Sanson, Thouret . . . sa fie, ses
auvres (1890).
THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS. The Thousand and One
Nights, commonly known in English as The Arabian Nights'
Entertainments^ is a collection of talcs written in Arabic, which
first became generally known in Eturope in the early part of
the x8th centuxy through the French translation by Antoine
Galland, and rapidly attained universal popularity. In the
Journal asiatique for 1827, p. 253, von Hammer (J. von Hammer*
Purgstall) drew attention to a passage in the Golden Meadows
of Mas'Qdl (ed. Barbier de Meynard, iv. 89 seq*.), written in a.d.
943, in which certain stories current among the old Arabs are
compared with " the books which have reached us in translations
from Persian, Indian and Greek, such as the book of HesSr
AfsdnCf a title which, translated from Persian into Arabic,
means 'the thousand tales.' Tliis book is popularly called
The Thousand and One Nights, and contains the story of the king
and his vizier and of his daughter Shlrazfid and her slave girl
DinSzfld. Other books of the same kind are the book of Perta
and Simds, containing stories of Indian kings and viziers, the
book of Sindibid, &c." Von Hammer concluded that the
Thousand and One Nights were of Persian or Indian origin.
Against this conclusion Silvcstre De Sacy protested in a memoir
(Affm. de Vacad. des inscr., 1833, x. 30seq.), demonstrating that
the character of the book we know is genuinely Arabian, and
that it must have been written in Egypt at a comparatively
recent date. Von Hammer in reply adduced, in Joum. as.
(1839), ii. 175 seq., a passage in the Fihrist (aj>. 987), which is
to the following effect: —
" The ancient Persians were the first to invent talcs and TMkkt
books of them, and some of their tales were put in the mouths ol
animab. The Ash^hanians, or third dynasty of Persian kings,
and after them the ^oftnians, had a special part in the development
of this literature, which found Arabic translators, and was taken
up by accomplished Arabic literati, who edited it and imitated it.
The earliest book of the kind was the Hesttr afsdne or Thonuud
Tales, which had the following origin. A certain Persian king «a^
884
THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS
ftccustomed to kill his mvH on the morning after thp consummation
of the marriage. Bat once he married a clever princess called
ShahraiAd. who spent the marriage night in telling a story which
in the morning reached a point so interesting that the king spared
her. and asked next nicht for the scqueL This went on for a
thousand nights till Shahrazftd had a son. and ventured to tell
the kins of her device. He admired her intelligence, loved her, and
spared her life. In all this the princess was assisted by the Idag's
stewardess Din&cftd. This book is said to ha\-e been written lor
the princess Hom&i (MSS. yomini), daughter of Bahman. ... It
contains nearly two hundred stories, one story often occupying
•evenl nights. I have reputedly seen the complete book, but it
is really a meagre and uninteresting prodwrtion" (Fikrist, ed.
FlUjpcl. p. 304).
Persian tradition (in FirdousX) makes Princess Qomli the
daughter and wife of Bahman Ardashir, s.e. Aitaxeraes I.
Longimanus. She is depicted as a great builder, a kind of Persian
Semiramis^and is a half-mythical personage already mentioned
in the A\*esta, but her legeiKl seems to be founded on the history
of Atossa and of Parysatis. FirdousI says that she was also
caOcd Shahraxid (Mohl v. 11). This name and that of Dlnizid
both occur in what MasHSdl tells of her. According to him,
ShahraxSd was |ilomii*s mother (u. 129), a Jewess (iL 123).
Bahman had married a Jewess (L ix8)» who was instrumental
in delivering her nation from captivity. In iL 133 this Jewish
maiden who did her pcopk this service is called Dinizld, but
** the accounts." sa)"* our author, " vary.** Plainly she is the
Esther of Jewish story. Tabarl (i. 688) caUs Esther the mother
of Bahman» and, like FirdousI, gives to Qomii the name of
Shahraild. The story of Esther and that of the original Nigkts
ha\-e in fact one main fuiture in common. In the fotmcr the
king is offended with his wife, and di\'XMrccs her; in the Arabiam
Niskis he finds her unfaithful, and kitts her. But both stories
aj:Tee that thereafter a new wife was broo^t to him every ni^t,
and on the morrow passed into the second house of the women
(&thcrV or was slain {Xiskts). At length Esther or ?>hahTarid
wins his hifart anvl becomes queen. Tht issue in the Jewish
story is that Esther saves her people; in the Nigkis the gainers
are " the dAu^hien of the Moslems.** but the old story had, of
course, some other word than ** Moslems.** Esther's foster-
father becomes ^ixicr. and Shahraaid^ father is also viiier.
Shahraiid's pl^n is helped fomard in the ffigkts by Dlnixid,
who is. accorvltng to Mas''\kil, her slav« giil, or, accordinK to
other MSS.. her aurse« and. acoNding to the Fikrisi^ the king's
stewardess^ The bst account comes nearest to Estlaer it 15,
where Esther gains the favour of the kiag^ chambftiain, keeper
<tf the wvtmtm. It is also to be noted that Ahasocrus is read to
at Rijcht « h<n he cannot sleep (Esther ^ x). And it is just poa-
sibic that i: is wxvth notice that, though tha name of Ahasaens
c«rre5pond> to Xences. Joaephus identifies hia with Artaxencs L
Nov it may be taken as admitted that the book of Esther
waa written in Fttsia, or by one who had Kvcd in ftista, and
not earlier tkin the «d ccntunr B.C: if now there is teal weight
in the poiRcit of contact b ttwem this story and the Anbum
m^itt — and the points of difference cannot be held to o atme^^
the resecetMincca between two kyenis. each of whkb is
sarihr so far teaoved fra* the hypoclKCical canma
the iaferesKe is UB^ottaat for bath stocks. On the
il appears that (at least m part) the book of Esther draws an
a ^nun sonrce: on the other hand, it bfrmaf^ probable that
the A*q:Ats are oUer than tha SftsSasaa pcnod. 10 which Lane
^ «n^ Rfcn Kheaa.
It is a pMca aC food ioftwa that Mas^tfl and the FArsst
gjivenstbainfofvatMn died above. For in gcncnl the Moslems,
tham^ vesy- feud of stotses« are ashaaacd to icngeiBe Ihcas as
abfBCta of BimKf camnHjr. in fact, the next aifBiMa ti Ae
4Y^te is foawi «^ after a k(ee of thfce cc^twes. Ma^fxi.
4t»rnfcMig the capitU'^of Cgvpt. quotes bob a work d Iba Sa\i
(c Jl». i2jn\ whn afun ckcsan cUer aat&or iAl-l^octobT . wbo.
" ^ aC a Wwk aii£r at the oaan nf tbe cah?^ Al-Amk
it)a)k. saya "* a^ is toll about it lesndhles the roanaee
of the Hetdr Afsdne is certain, for the greater part of tbe stories
are of Arabian origin, and the whole is so thorotighly Mahom-
medan that even the princes of remote ages who are introdaced
speak and act as Ikloslems. It might be conceived that this
is dtie to a gradual process of modernization by successive
generations of story-tellers. But against thb notion, which
has been entertained by some scholars, Lane has remarked with
justice that, much as MSS. of the Nights differ from one another
in points of language and style, in the ordttr of the tales, and the
division into nights, they are all so much at mie in rwrntiah
that they must be regarded as derived from a sin^ ociginaL
There is no trace of a recension of the text that can be looked
on as standing nearer to the Ifodr i4/tAie. And the whole local
colour of the work, in point of dialect and also as regards the
manners and customs described, dearly beloogs to EcnA as
it a-as from the X4th to the i6tli century. Some points* as
De Sacy and Lane have shown, forbid us to pbce the book earlier
than the second half of the istli century. GaOand's MS. copy,
again, was in existence in 1548. Lane accordingly dates tbe
wo^ from the dose of the 15th century or the beginning of the
x6th, but this date appears to be too late. For MruT-MaVism,
an Egyptian historian who died in 1470, writing of ^amdi, a
famous highwayman of Bagdad in the lotb century, resaifca
that he is pcobably the figure who ised to be popclaxly yokm
of as Ahmad al-Danaf (ed. Juynboll iL J05). Now in tbe .V^Als
Ahmad al-Danaf really pbys a part cocre^nnding to that of
the historical Qamdi, being now a robber (Lane iL 404> and
again a captain of the guard (Lane iL 249). It woold seem tbat
Abul-Mablsin had read or heard the stodcs in the NigHx^
and was thus led to compare the historical witb the fctiiiwa
character. And, if this be so, tbe if tglCs must have been
composed vtry soon after iasO'^
No doubt tbe Nigkts have bonowed mncb froaa tbe Hait
AfsAnfy and it is not improbable that even in the oeigiaai Arabic
tracsbtion of that work smne of the Fexsian stories were replaced
by Arab ones. But that our Ni^ts <£ffer very mack froB tbe
Htxir Afsdmt is further manifest fraas tbe ciionastance tbai,
even of those stories in the if ifkfr whack are nat Arabon ca
^ms^'n, some are borrowed from books mmtiu n td by Mas'aii
as distinct from the 0<s£r AjsSme, Thus the story of the klr:^
and hb son and tbe damsd and the seven ririeis (Laae. ck.
xxi. note 51) is in fact a vcrsioB of tbe B^ok «/ SnttAfii.*
while tbe story of JaETld and his son aztd the viskr Sfci'^rrin
(M'Na^ten iv. 366 seq.; cL Laae uL 550} oone^nDds to tbe
book of Fena ami Simis*
Not a few of the tales are mmastakaWy of laiSsa ar ^rnaa
origin, and in these poetical pmsagts are mdy isserted. fca
other stories the scene lies in f^rsia or Icr.£a. ard the sccrae is
foreign, but tbe treatment thoroaghhr AKabna and Mihnmme -
dan. Sometimes, indeed, traces of Inrfsin migin are pereaur 8 If ,
even in stories in wbif^ Hir9a al-Rxshid fguzcs aad the accse
is Bagdad or Ba^ra.* Bat most of the txlesw a. sdhstanoc aad
form alike, are Arabba, and so many of them have the czpctxl
of tbe caliphs as tbe scene of actkn that it may be fiiLastd tkaa
:he autbor csed as oee of has sources a book af taks ttkas. frees
the era of Bagdxd's prospesitr.
The late date of tbe .Y:;fax appears 6ees sncky iiwrliiin 111 1
la tbe stccy of the sen traasSocmed st9 fisk— white. Wwry
Tcjkrworred acconSsg as they war Moslems^ Chnstaos.. Jie^
or M.tgr.iTrs ylamt L 99^ — the fast three coloas ase those «f
* The Vrpoeaes of graxfsa! aad c om g fece aaoder aL as^ai is afan
c^tMsrri tS rSt tact i\ar. tbe cdter rsaaacts asexl by CuresK srm-
uCcn sadt as xiaoBt of 'Aatar azd cf Saf tvcaji thdr ari||«u2
tocal coloas- tkrcvtyh al w^Lotzs «c bafaage and scrie.
* I^ S«Tac 5£»fMia» the Geeek j^pm^po. and tae Snna Smw
«f ^'!« Eo^jprar Woe
I ■ r^ Sky a^d Lxse acppos that 4e eriraaf rxdb af t%e Asbic
ttaa^cacs cf the Hratr A*samr was Hr rtnuoM .T<i;«n. ? jC
sue MSS ci Mas^S akea»iy bcvv rw r^Bso^<atf Cnr J^«-
v^ach is ajs^ :be aaae fnva by Mk^pisL. B»i^ - p h r.i.» perrurs
laras err-* "* a ^rrr grvatc nuixber,'* aad Pjcscier ^« gu- . ^-
p^ 4 has shown ziar toot b
»>idBkpi^l»m%
THRACE
88s
the turbans which, !n 1301; Mahommed b. KakW of Egypt
commanded his Moslem, Christian and Jewish subjects respec-
tively to wear.* Again, in the story of the humpbad^. whose
scene is laid in the 9th century, the talkative barber says, " this
is the year 653 " (= a.d. 1255; Lane, i. 332, writes 263, but sec
his note), and mentions the caliph MosUn$ir (d. 1242), who is
Incorrealy called son of Mosta^.' In the same story several
places in Cairo are mentioned which did not exist till long alter
the 9th century (see Lane i. 379).* The very rare edition of the
first 200 nights published at Calcutta in 1814 speaks of cannon,
which are hrst mentioned in Egypt in 1383; and all editions
sometimes speak of coffee, which was discovered towards
the end of the 14th century, but not generally used till 200
years later. In this and other points, e.g. in the mention of a
mosque foimded in 1501 (Lane iiL 608), we detect the hand
of later interpolators, but the extent of such interpolations
can hardly perhaps be determined even by a collation of all
copies. For the nature and causes of the variations between
different copies the reader may consult Lane, iii. (^78, who
explains how transpositions actually arise by transcribers
trying to make up a complete set of the tales from several
imperfect copies.
Many of the tales in the Ni^ have «n historical basis, as
Lane has shown in his notes. Other cases in point might be
added: thus the chronicle of Ibn al^jaosl (d. aj>. xsoo)
contains a narrative of l^amar, slave prl of Shaghb, the mother
of Moqtadir, which is the source of the tale in Lane i. 310 scq.,
and of another to be found in M'Naghten iv. 557 seq.; the hitter
is the better story, but departs so far from the original that
the author must have had no more than a general rccoQoction
of the narrative he drew on.* There are other cases in the
NigMts of two tales which are only variations of a single theme,
or even in certain parts agree almost word for word. Some tales
axe mere compounds of different stories put together without
any art, but these perhaps are, as Lane conjectures, later
additions to the book; yet the collector himself was no great
literary artist. We must picture him as a profesaonal story-
teller equipped with a mass of miscellaneous reading, a fluent
power of narration, and a ready faculty for quoting, or at a
push improvising, verses. His stories became popular, and were
written down as he told them— hardly written by himself,
else we should not have so many variations in the text, and such
insertions of "the narrator says," "my noble sirs," and the
like. The frequent coarseness of tone is proper to the condition
of Egyptian society under the Mameluke sultans, and would
not have been tolerated in Bagdad in the age to which so many
of the tales refer. Yet with all their faulu the NigfUs have
beauties enough to deserve their popularity, and to us their
merit is enhanced by the pleasure we feel in being^tiansported
into so entirely novel a state of society^
The ThouMnd and Ons Nights became known in Europe through
A. Galland's French vernon (la vob. xamow Piris, 1704-1713);
the pubUcation was an event in Utecaiy history, the iofluenoe
of which can be traced far and wide. This txanslation. however,
left much to be desired in point of accuxacy, and especially failed
to reprodtice the coloar of the ordinal with the exactness which
those who do not read meicly for amusement must desire. It was
with a special view to the remedying of these defects that E. W.
Lane prwluccd in 1840 his admirably accuxate, if somewhat stilted,
translation, enriched with most valuable notes and a discussion 01
the origin of the work (new edition, with some additional notes,
3 vols. 8vo, London, 1559). Lane's tiaaslation omits the talcs
which be donned uninteresting or unfit for a European public Sir
Richard Burton's uncxpurgated Ensitsh transla t ion, with elaborate
notes, was issued in 10 vols., 1885-1886, with six supplementary vols.,
1887-188S. A new French version (1899 seq.T was undertaken
by J. C. Mardrus. Of the Arabic text of the NigfUs the principal
ediuoos are— (1) M'Naghten's edition (4 vols. 8^ Calcutta,
1839-1842); (a) the Breslau edition (xa vols., lano, 1835-1843),
the first 8 vols, by Habicbt. the rest by Fleischer (compare as to
the defects of Habicht's ^ork, Fleischer, Z)« gfossis Hahitktianis,
* Qoatremtre, Sidtans Mamilctuf, ii. 2, p. 177 seq .
* Lane, L 34a. artutiarily writes " Montafir for "**
* See also £itii. Review Ouly 1886), p. 191 atq.
«See De Goeje in Cids (1876), iL 397-4"-
Leipzig, 1836)
See the Bimogroi
(3) the first BQUq editMn (4 .vols,,
, „ 1862-1863).
ara6e« (1901), vol iv., by V. Chauvin,
(M. J. DE G.)
THRACE, a name which was ai^lied at various periods
to areas of different extent. For the purposes of this article
it will be taken in its most restricted sense, as signifjdng the
Roman province which was so called after the district that
intervened between the river later (Danube) and the Haerous
Mountains (Balkan) had been formed into the separate provinces
of Moesia, and the repon between the rivers Strymon and Ncstus,
which included Philippi, had been added to Macedonia. The
boundaries of this were— towards the N. the Haemus, on the £.
the Euxine Sea, on the S. the Fropontis, the Hellespont and
the Aegean, and towards the W. the Nestus. The most dis-
tinguishing features of the country were the chain of Rhodope
(Despoto-dagh) and the river Hebrua (Maritxa). The former
separates at its northernmost point from the Haemus, at right
angles, and runs southward at first, nearly parallel to the Nestus,
until it approaches the sea, when it takes an easterly direction
(See Virg. Gtorg. iii. 351). Several of the summits cf this chain
are over 7000 ft. m heighL The Hebnis, together with its
tributaries which flow into it from the north, east and west,
drains almost the whole of Thrace. It starts from near the
point of junction of Haemus and Rhodope, and at first takes
an easterly dircctiooi the chief town which lies on its banks
in the earlier part of its course being Philippopolis; but when
it teaches the still more important dty of Hadrianx^lis it
makes a sharp bend towards the south, and enters the tea neariy
opposite the island of Samothrace. The greater part of the
country is hilly and irregular, though there axe considerable
plains; but besides Rhodope two other tolerably definite chains
intersea it, one of which descends from Haemus to Adrianople,
while the other follows the coast of the Euzine at no great
distance inland. One district in the extxtmc north-west of
Thrace lay beyond the watershed separating the streams that
flow into the Aegean from those that reach the Panube: this
was the territory of Sardica, the modem Sophia. In the later
Roman period two main lines of road passed through the country
One of these skirted the southern coast, being a continuation
of the Via Egnatia, which ran from Dynhachium to Thessakmica,
thus connecting the Adriatic and the Aegean; it became of the
first importance after the foundation of Constantinople, because
it was the direct line of commimication between that dty and
Rome. The other followed a north-westerly course through
the interior, from Constantino^ by Hadriancqwlis and Philip-
popolis to the Haemus, and thence by Naisaus (Nish) through
Moesia in the direction of Pannonia, taking the same route by
which the railway now runs from Constantinople to Belgrade.
The climate of Tluace was regarded by the Greeks as very severe,
and that country was spoken of as the home of the north wind,
Boreas. The coast in the direction of the Euxine also was
greatly feared by sailors, as the harbours were few and the sea
proverbially tempestuous; but the southern shore was more
attractive to navigators, and here we find the Greek colonies
of Abdera and Mesarabria on the Aegean, Perinthus on the
•Propontis, and, the most famous of all, Byzantium, at the
meeting-point of that sea and the Bosporus. Another place
which proved attractive to colonists of that race waa the curious
narrow strip of ground, called the Thradan Chersonese, that
intervened between the Hellespont and the Bay of Melas, which
penetrates far into the knd on its northern side. Among the
dties that occupied it the moat important were Scstos and
Callipolis (Gallipoli). In order to prevent the incmsioBs of the
Thradans, a wall was built across iu isthmus, which was leas
than 5 m. in breadth. The north-eastern portion of the
Aegean, owing to its proximity to the coast of Thrace, was known
as the Thradan Sea, and in this were situated the islands of
Thasos, Samothrace and Imbros.
History. — The most striking archaeological monuments of
the prehistoric period are the sepulchral mounds, which are
found by thousands in various parts of the country, especially ic
the neighbourhood of the ancient towns. As Roman implements^
886
THRALI^-THRASEA PAETUS
and ornaments luLve been foimd in some of them, it Is plain
that this mode of burial continued to be practised until a
late period. The country was overrun several times by Darius
and his generals, and the Thradan Greeks contributed X2o
ships to the armament of Xerxes (Herod. viL 185). The most
powerful Thradan tribe was that of the Odrysae, whose king,
Teres, in the middle of the 5th century B.C. extended his
dominion so as to include the greater part of Thrace. During the
Peloponnesian War his son Sitalces was an ally of some impor-
. tance to the Athenians, because he kept in check the Klacedonian
monarch, who opposed the interests of the Athenians in the
Chalddic peninsula. Again, in the time of Philip of Macedon
we find Cersobleptes, who niled the south-eastern portion of
the country, exercising an important influence on the policy
of Athens. During the early period of the Roman Empire the
Thradan kings were allowed to maintain an independent sove-
reignty, whUe acknowledging the -suzerainty of Rome, and it
was not until the reign of Vespasian that the country was reduced
to the form of a province (Kalopathakas, De Thraeiat prarincia
romanat 1894; Mommsien, Raman Prcmnces, Eng. trans., x886).
«From its outlying position in the northern part of the Balkan
peninsula it was much exposed to the inroads of b&^buian
invaders. It was overrun by the Goths on several occasions,
and subsequently by the Huns; but its proximity to Constanti-
nople caused its fortunes to be closely connected with those of
that dty, from the time when it became the capital of the Eastern
.Empire. In the course of the middle ages the northern parts of
Huace and some other districts of that country were occupied by
a Bulgarian population; and in r36i the Turks made themsdves
masters of Adrianopk, which for a time became the Turkish
capital. When Constantinople fell in 1453 the whole country
passed into the hands of the Turks, and in their possession it
remained until 1878, when, in accordance with the provisions
of the Treaty of Berlin, the northern portion of it was placed
under a separate administration, widi the title of Eastern
Rumelia; this province has now become, to all intents and
purposes, a part of the prindpality of Bulgaria. The population
is composed of Turks, Greeks and Bulgarians. (H. F. T.)
Ancknl PeopUs.—The name " Thradans," from' bdng vaed
both ethnically and geographically, has led to confusion. There
were the true indigenous Thradans and alsa Cdtic tribes such
as the Treres in the eariy period, the Getae and Trausi later, and
the Gallic Scordisd in Roman days. These were the ** red "
Thradans of Greek writers, and they differed not merdy in
physique and complexion, but also in thdr customs and reli^on
from the native Thradans (Herod, v. 14). The native Thradans
were inferior in morals, allowing their girls complete licence
till marriage. The chief native ddties were Dionysus, Ares
and B^idis (Artemis), but many <^ these tribes had Cdtic chiefs,
who traced their descent from and worahii^ied a god called
Hermes by the Greeks, but possibly Odin. The substantial
features of the andent Dionysiac rites, indading a ritual play
by "goat-men" carrying a wooden phallus, may still be
seen at Bizye, the old residence of the Thradan kings (see R. M.
Dawkins in HeUsnk Jpmnudy 1906, p. xqi). The true Thradans
were part of that dark-complexioned, long-skulled race, which
had been in the Balkan peninsula from the Stone Age, dosdy
akin to the Pelassians (9.V.), the aborigines of Greece, to the
ligurians, the aborigines of Italy, and to the Iberians. The
name ** Uyrian " (see Illtua) was applied to all the tribes of
this stock who dwdt iicst of the northern extensions of the
Fiadtts range and in what was termed Upper Macedonia in later
tiBCi, and who extended right up to the head of the Adriatic.
]» Ilomttlw name llacedonia is not yet known, and the term
" I to all the tribes dweffing from Pieria to the
I difference between aboriginal
t was an Illyrian tribe Brygi,
\ii tlie latter had passed into Asia
\ them Pniygia, whence some
eof the Mjrrians (regarded
1 into what was later
Ivtth the Marsans were the
Dardanii, of Trojan fame, who had a dty Dardania or Dardanus.
In Strabo*s time a tribe called Dardanii, then reckoned lUyrian,
living next the Thradan Bessi (in whose land was the oldest
orade of Dionysus), were probably as much Thradan as Hlyxiaa.
All the Thradan and lUyrian tribes tattooed, thus being dis-
tinguished from the Celtic tribes who had conquered many ol
them. The Thradans differed only dialectically from the lUyrians
(Strabo), thdr tongue bdng dosdy allied to Greek. The
Thracians of the region from Olympus to the Pangaean district,
usually regarded as rude tribes, had from a very early time worked
the gold and silver of that region, had begtm to strike coins
almost as early as the Greeks, and displayed on them much artisd
skill and originality of types. The most famous were the Bisaltae
the Orresdi, Odomantes and Edom. Alexander I. of Macedor
on his conquest of the Bisaltae adopted the native coinage,
merely placing on it his own name (see, further, Numismatics:
Creek, §§ Tkracc and Macedonia). They were famous for
their skill in mudc and literature. Orpheus, Liniis, Tharoyris
and Eumolpus were theirs, and in later days the Dardanii were
noted for their love qf music as well as (or thdr undeaniiness.
See Herodotus v. 3-8; H. Kiepert. Lehrhuch der aUm Geogmpiae
(Berlin. 1878); A. Bou6. La Tmrmie d'Emrope (4 vols.. Paris, 1840);
G. Finlay, History of Greece, vols. L-iv. (Oxford. 1877): W. Rifdge-
way, Early Age of Greece, L 351 seq. (Cambridge, 1902); Tomas-
chek. Die alten Tkraker (i893-i895):.Hnier von Gaertringen. D€
Craecorumfalmlis ad Tkraus pertmektibus (1886). (WT Rx.)
IHRALU a slave, a captive or bondman, a term especially
applied to the serfs (Lat. servi) of the early northern Teutonic
peoples. It only occurs in Old English as a word borrowed from
the Norse, the proper term in Old English being " theow "
(>eiw); the led. >rae// (Dan. trad, Swed. traf) is probably
represented by OV H. Gcr. drcpl, /ri^tZ, trikU, a slave, and
would therefore be derived from the toot meaning *' to run,"
seen .in O. Eng. ^ae^n, (joth. tkagjant cf. Gr. rplxsv; Skeat
{Etym. Diet., 189S) compares the " trochilus " (Gr. rpoxOw),
the small bird that according to Herodotus waits or aUends
on the crocodile and incks insects out of his teeth.
THRASBA PAETUS. PUBUDS CLODIUS. Roman senator
and Stoic philosopher, lived during the rdgn of Nero. He
was the husband of Arria the daughter of Arria (^.r.), father-in-
law of Hdvidius Priscus, and a friend and kiatman of the poet
Persius. He was bom at Patavium, and belonged to a dis-
tinguished and wealthy family. The circumstances under which
he came to settle in Rome are imknown. At first he was treated
with great consideration by Nero, probably owing to the influence
of Seneca, and became consul in aj>. 56 and one of the keepers
of the Sibylline books. In 57 he supported in the senate the
cause of the Cilidan envo>'s, who came to Rome to accuse thdr
late governor, Cossutianus Capito, of extortion. In 59 Thrasea
first openly showed his disgust at the behaviour of Nero and the
obsequiousness of the senate by retiring without voting alter
the emperor's letter justif>ing the murder .of Agrippina had
been read. In 6a he prervented the execution of the praetor
Antistius, who had written a libd upon the emperor, and per-
suaded the senate to pass a milder sentence. Noo showed his
displeasure by refusing to xecdve Thrasea when the senate
went in a body to offer its congratulations on the birth of a
princess. From this time (63) tin his death in 66 Thrasea
retired into private life and did not enter the aenate-bcuse
again. But his death had been decided upon. The simplidty
of his life and hSs adherence to Stoic prindples woe looked
upon as a reproach to the frivolity and debaucheries of Nero,
who *' at last yearned to put Xutue itself to death in the persons
of Thrasea and Soranus " (Tadtus). Cossutianus Capiio, the
son-in-law of TigelUnus, who had never fbigiven ThDraaen for
securing his condemnation, and £|xins MarxxBus undertock
to conduct the prosecution. Various duuges were brought
against him. and the senate, awed by the presence of laxse bodies
of troops, had no alternative hut to ooademn Mm to death.
When the news was brou^ to Thrasea at Ms iMiae, where he
was entertaining a iramber of friends, he retired to his chamber,
and had the veins of both his aims opened. The &arra.tivt «
THRASHING
887
of Tadtnft breaks off at the moment wlien Thnsea was about to
address Demetrius, the Cynic philosopher, with whom he had
previously on the fatal day held a conversation on the nature
of the aouL Thrasea was the subject of a panegyric by Arulenus
Rusticus, one of the tribunes, who had offered to put his veto
on the decree of the senate, but Thiasea refused to allow him
to throw his life away uselessly* Thrasea's own model of life
and conduct was Cato of Utica, on whom he had written a
panegyric, one of Plutarch's chief authorities in his biography
of Cato.
See Tsdttts, Annals (ed. Fnmeaux), xiii. 49, xiv. 12. 4B, xv.30-92,
jcvL 3i'35, containiag a full account of his trial aad eondemoatioa,
HiU. ii. 91, iv. 5; Dio Cassius Ui. 15, but. 26; Juvenal v. 36;
W. A. Schmidt. CesckickU der Denk- vnd Gtavbtnsfreikeit (Bcrnn.
1847); Merivale. Hist, of the Romans under the Empire, ch. 53;
F. Hervche. Zwet Charotterbilder, on Diogenes of Sinope and Psetus
(Loiceme, 1B65): monographs by A. S. Hoitsema (Groniagen,
1853); and G. Joachim (Labr, 18^}; tee aUo Pauly-WiB»wa*s
Xealencydopddie der dassiscben AUertumswissenxhaft (1900), iv.
pt.i.
IHRASHINO. or Theeseinc (from "to thrash," 0. Eng.
kerscant d. Ger. drescken, Du. dorscken, &c.), the process by
which the grain or seed of culrivated plants is separated from
the husk or pod which contains it.
Historicai.—li is probable that in the earliest times the Uttlo
grain that was raised was shelled by hand, but as the quantity
increased doubtless the grain was beaten out with a stick or
the sheaf beaten upon the ground. An improvement on this,
as the quantity further increased, was the practice of the andent
Egyptians and Israelites of spreading out the loosened sheaves
on a circular enclosure of' bard ground 50 to 100 ft. in diameter,
and driving oxen, sheep or other animals round and round
over it so as to tread out the grain. This enclosure was placed
on an elevated piece of ground so that when the straw was
removed the wind blew away the chaff and left the com. This
method, however, damaged part of the grain, and as civilization
advanced it was partially superseded by the thrashing sledge—
the ckaratt of Egypt and the marai of the Hebrews— « heavy
frame mounted with three or more rollers, sometimes spiked,
which revolved as it was drawn over the spread out corn by
two oxen. A common sledge with a ridged or grooved bottom
was also used. Similar methods to these were used by the
Greeks and are still employed in backward countries. In Italy
a Upering toller fastened to an upright shaft in the centre of
the thrashing floor and pulled round from the outer end by oxen
b still in vogue and would seem to be a descandant of the Roman
Itibutum or roller sledge.
Doubtless the 0ail was evolved from the cariy method of using
the stick. It seems to have been the thrashina implement in general
use in all Northern European countries, and was the chief means
of thrashing grain as late as i860. It was known to the Japanese
from the earliest times, and was probably used in conjunction with
the stripper, an implement fashioned veiy much like a large comb,
with the teeth maide of ha^ wood ano pointing upwards. The
straw after being rea(>ed was brought to this and combed throuah
by hand, the heads being drawn offand afterwards thrashed on tne
thrashing floor by the flail. At the present day just such an
implement, known as a " heckle." b used for combing the bolls
or heads off flax or for straightening the fibre in the after
treatment.
The flail consisted of two pieces of wood, the handstaff or hdve
and the beater, fastened together looselv at one end by a thong of
raw hide or edskin. which made a very durable join. The handstaff
is a light rod of ash about 5 ft. long, slightly incceanng in girth at
the farther end to allow for the hole for the thong to bind it to the
beater. The length of the handstaff enabled the operator to sttnd
in an upright position while working. The beater is a wooden
rod about 30 in. long, made of ash, though a more compact wood
such as thorn is less likely to split. This also has a hole at one end
for the thong to bind it to the handstaff. The shape of the beater
was cylindrical, of about 1 1 in. diameter and constructed so that
the cage of the grain of the wood received the force of the blow;
30 to 40 blows or strokes per minute was the average spted.
After the grain had been beaten out by the flafl or ground out
by other means the straw was carefully raked away and the com
and chaff collected to be separated by winnowing when there m-as
• wind blowing. This consiitted of tossing the mixture of com
azKl chaff into tne air so that the wind carried away the chaff while
the grata fell back on the thrashing floor. The best grain fell
nearest while the lightest grain was carried some distance before
falling, thus a very fOttgh-and*feady^ giading of the ^grain '
It was also performed when there was 00 wind by Canaiag
while pouring the mixture fiom a vesaeL Later on a fanning or
winnowing Bull waa invented. All ancient bams were constmcted
with large doors giving on to the thrashing floor and opening in the
d ir e ct ion of the prevailing winds so that the wind could blow
ri|ht throufl^ the bara and across the thrashing floor for the purpose
of winnowing the com. The flail is still in use for special purposes
such as flower seeds aad also where the quantity grown is so small
as to render it not worth while to ute a thrashing mill.
With regard to the amount of grain thrashed in a day by the
flail, a fair average quantity was 8 bushels of wheat* 30 bushels of
oats, 16 bushels 01 barley, so bushels of beans. 8 bushda of rye and
ao bufiheb of buckwheat.
There seem to have been many attempts to devise some form oC
power«driven machinery for thrashing. In I7^ Michael Menzies,
a Scotaman, obtained a patent for a power-dnven machine. This
was a contrivance arranged to drive a large number of flails operated
by water power, but though worked for a time it was not particularly
Buccessfuf. The first p^ractical effort leading in the right direction
was made by a Scottish farmer named Lwkie about 17^8. He
invented what was described as a " rotary machine consulting of
a set of cross arms attached to a horisontal shaft and enclosed in
a cylindrical case." This machine did not work very well, but it
demonstrated the superiority of the rotary motion and pointed
out the lines on wUch thrashing machines should be constmcted.
The first reallv successful thrashing machine — the type which is
embodied in mooem thrashers — was mvented by another Scotsman
named Andrew Mcikle in 1786 In this the loosened sheaves were
fed, cars first, from a feeding board between two fluted revolving
rollcn fo the beating cylinder. This cylinder or " drum " was
armed with four iron-shod beaters or spars of wood parallel to its
axle, and these striking the ears of com as they protruded from the
rollers knocked out the grain. The dmm revolved at aoo to 250
revolutions per minute and carried the loose grain aad straw on to
a concave sieve beneath another revolving dram or rake with pegs
which mbbed the straw on to the concave and caused the grain
and chaff to fall throtwfa. Another revolving rake tossed the straw
out of the machine. The straw thus passing under one peg dmm
and over the next was subjected to a thorough robbing and tossing
which separated the grain and chaff from it. These fell on to the
floor beneath, ready for winnowing.
A later development of the beater-dmm was to fix iron pegs on
the framework, and thus was evolved the Scottish " pes-miU,*'
winch remained the standard type for neariy a hundred yesn
and i» found at neariv every farmstead in Scotland as a fixed
machine in the bam to the present day, though in many cases unused
«nce the advent of the portable thrasher. Further, it is the type
adopted in America, aad all "separators" in use on the great
wheat lands of " the West " are sunply modifications of the peg-
mill principle. In Great Britain, however, a reversion has been
made to the beating or robbing principle, where the arms of the
" dram " rob the straw against an endrding concave framework
and thus sbdl the grain out, and the portable thrashing machines
now taken from farm to farm are all constructed on tins principle.
It was not till about 1800 that a machine for winnowing was invented
to work as part of Meikle's p^-drum thrssher. ana this made a
complete aepaiaior or thrasher which thrashed, cleaned and delivered
the grain at one operation. Still, these machines were stationary,
being generally built up in homesteads and operated by water
power, and the unthrashed com had to be brought to them. Port-
able thrashing machines operated by horse power were used to a
small extent, out the work was very hard on the horses and took
them away when their services were otherwise required on the
farm. Wlien steam was developed as a motive power the portable
thrashing machine became more general.
When Meikle had brought together the peg-dram and concave
he had solved the diffictilty of mechanical thradiing. The develop-
ment of the machine to the efficiency of the modem thrasher was
very gradual, and was in the direction of greater speed to the dram
and more beaters on it. and improved arrangements to ensure a
clean sample of grain. It is generally supposed that each part
was invented and perfected singly, but in reality the early experi-
menters had tried to make a complete separating machine. In fact
they covered the whole ground in theory before any main features
were made practical.
The Modem Thrashing Machine. — The present-day thrashing
machine embodies the main features of Meikle's machine and
will thrash up to x6 quarters of oats per hour, depending on
the size of the same. There are no fluted rollcis at the feed,
the sheaves are fed straight to the dmm; but as the working
of these high-speed drams was attended with considerable
risk, the Threshing Machine Act 1878 now provides for some
sort of guard or safety feed.
In the most modem thrashing machine the ordinary routine
is as follows: The loosened sheaf is fed in at the feed mouth
imder the drum guard and passes between the drum beaters
888
THRASHING
and the concave; most of the com falls through the concave on to
the corn and chaff receiving board, but some of the com and chaff
remain among the straw; as the " cavings " (the short broken
straw and leaf) need to be separated from the straw it is given a
thorough tossing up on the shakers, which have an upwards and
onwards peristaltic action, and deliver the straw at the end of the
machine. The com, chaff and cavings fall on to a reciprocating
board or " upper shoe/' which carries them back to the middle
, Roury
, Grain panace.
T, Clasnbed grain.
Fig. I. — The internal construction and arrangement of the " Rus-
ton '* doi>l>lr i rank Anishing Thrashing Machine. (Ruston, Proctor
& Co., Lincoln.)
A. Com (cod oncning. O, Grain passage.
B. Thrashing drum. P, Spout.
CC. Straw shaker*. O, *^
D. Collecting board of top shoe. R.
F.fe. Caving nddle. T,
FF, Drcssang riddles. U. Rotary tcreca brush.
C. Grain snout. \', Dust spout.
H, IjkTge blower.^ W, Grain ddixTry to
1, Shut off lid. X. Dust,
jj. FJcxator. 2, Cavings deKvecy.
KT Smuttcr. V, Chaff ddiwry or chaff coDec>
L, Cirrrier. tor may be fitted here to
MM, Riddle. deli\Tr chaff upon cither
N» Second bbwtr. side of machine, as desired.
of the machine, where they meet the com that fdl through the
cxMtcave. The upper shoe passes the caxHngs, &C., over the end
into a " K>wer sh<*e/* which thoroughly sif is the com and duff
fT»m the caN-ing*. The cavinirs are then carried along to the
outside of the machine and emezse at an opening beneath the
point where the s4raw passes out. The com and dt^S fall
through the lowxr shc« or ca\-ing riddle on to a receiving board
machine in a roughly dressed condition. The elevator 6^2. rs
the com into the awner or " hummeller, " which is fitted ^.z
helical blades to mb off the awns or beards which may still adjicr:
to the grain. From here the grain falls on to a second scr.9
of sieves, where it meets the blast of air from the second fan, wL-
blows and sifts the light and coarse fordgn matttf from iL
grain, delivering this d£bris on the first com and <±^'
receiving board to imdergo separation again along with ti^
just fallen from the concave. The com falls from the sie^
of this second dresser into a lotary screen where separatk^
are made producing the clean sample and the tail com, wLc:
are delivmd at separate openings below. There are m.^:.
ficatioas on the machine described— such as single fan-b^
instead of double, &c — but the general principles are the saii:^
The concave which surrounds the drum is made adjustaik.
so that it can be regulated according to the nature of the czof
to be thrashed. An ordinary machine will thrash all vsaL
farm crops, but great care bias to be taken in adjusting tie
concave or the seed will be injured. Clover, however, is tw>:r
— ■ ♦.-
Fig. y. — ^Thiadung Machine widi fan-blast atraw^ciacloer.
(Qa>-ton & Shuttlevorth, I incoln )
passed throu^ a marhiiMt of this desciiptkxu to free the seed
from the haidm and af towards to rub the seed dear frooB the
chaff, but special madiinr% to thradi it all in one opexa'Jca
are made.
The diva is earned on the main diaft and all other fmHe}-}
take their moiioa from it directly or indirectly. Sometires
the main shaft is kngthcned to accommodate another ptl-y
and so drive a chaff-cutter behmd and chaff op the straw as z
lea^rcs the thresher. In some districts an ekralor is drx^z
bdiind to stack the straw. Oihets use a trasser, whkh li-s
the straw into large bundles before ddhrering it for ^•ri -r
Amtriam Madnma. — In American machin es the strsv.
cavings, ftc^ are cau^t in a blast at the rear csnd of the c^^zthjt
and blown op ia a light iron pipe of abcst xS is. dlar:r.i:r
oa to the top of the stack, and the gmn is delivered loose a: ibe
side through a spotst into a box wa^xi. As the parraest K?
thrashisg is per bcshel the pnin is us^Lilly pisse-i il:rr»|i i
5<^'-rc|5S4eri2;g wei^iuag apfuxatus.. so iki: irrinte aorc-^v a
kept of the bcshels thrashed. Ia Great Briiiir: 7^}-irrr: ^ rer
c-^irter of S bcsheis. aad as the saciise oc.:\Trs <.rLo ^-: .
Aey
ais' sacks 1^ n«::4:^Har:d-;c:.iT Tyagit is acoTTCed. Oa .
i thr wiar^rtf% seL-:eedess are aoccccd. a w^ach the db^^«s rr;
se«^ iksTwa ce to a ltstt'"":? "wt^ w*i:i cirrics thott xirrr- -r-
' the . vcHx^ g ksves tc cxi ^Ijc Ictv^ aii :.i'. tz liva l^tfar i: .. -it
THRASYBULUS— THREB RIVERS
889
dnim, 10 thtt while numy moie bnsbds of grain are passed per
day through an American machine than is done in Great Britain,
only about half the men are required at the wotk.
Tkmsking Work.'-Tht minimum number of hands required
in Great Britahi are: An engine-driver, a feeder, a saclunan,
and ten other men to handle the sheaves, straw, chaff, gram,
&c., while half as many more may be needed where the grain
has to be carted, as when the thtasUng is done in the field m
harvest time. An 8-h.p. steam engine b the usual motive
power, but the development of the ofl engine has provided
a very satisfactory substitute. The engine is usually of the
" traction" type, so that it can move the thrashing machine
or " bam work" (as it is sometimes called) and elevator from
place to place. The usual quantities thrashed with a " double
blast finidking machine," as described, in the United Kingdom
are, with a $ ft. wide drum, from 60 to 80 bushels per hour of
wheat, and one-third to one-half more of oats and barley.
Somctunes the straw is stacked loose, while aometimes it is tied
up with twine by a tier exactly like that on a " string binder "
and then stacked up. Where all the straw b used at the farm for
fodder, Ac.« the fixed thrashing machine set up in the bam b the
roost convenient. The sheafed com has to be carried to it, but,
on the other hand, everything a under cover, the work can be done
on a wet day, and all the ^tiducts of thrashing in the shape of
grain, straw, cavinga, chaff, Ac, are kept dry. In the great com
dbtricts, however, the portable thrasher is mott convenient; it is
set aktogaade the stack and only the grain and chaff aie carried
undercover, while the thrashed straw, ftc. n rcstacked up on the spot
as the work goes on. The fanner finds the coal and the men
and hofMS to cart water to the engine and com to the bam and pays
the proprietor of the thrashing outfit, who finds all the other men,
about the following rates: wheat. xa. lod., oau and barley, is. 6d.
per quarter. (P. McC.)
THRASTBUUIB, an Athenian general, whose public career
began In 41X b.c, when by hb resolute behaviour he frustrated
the oUgarchk rising in Samos (see Peloponnesian Was), and
secured the Athetiian armament to the cause of democracy.
Elected general by the troops, he effected the recall of
Alcibiades and aasbted him in the ensuing naval campaigns.
By hb brave defence at Cynossema (411) he won the battle
for Athens, and m 410 contributed towards the brilliant vktoiy
of Cydcus. In 406 he fought at Arginusae as a simple ship's
captain, but after the engagement was commissioned with
Tbenmenes iq.v.) to rescue some drowning crews. In the
sulMcquent inquiry Thrasybulus successfully disclaimed respon-
sibility for the failure.
In 404, when exiled by the Thirty Tyrants for hb services
to the democracy, he retired to Thebes and there prepared for
a desperate attempt to recover hb country. Late in the year,
with seventy men, he seized Phyle, a bill fort on Mt Panes.
A force sent by the Thirty was repulsed and routed by a surprise
attack. Thrasybulus now gained the Peineus, 1000 strong,
and successfully held the steep hill of Munychia against the
oligarchs' full force. After thb repulse the Thirty gave way to a
proviawnal govemmeot of moderate oligarchs. Meanwhile a
Spartan fleet, which the Utter had summoned, blockaded the
Peiraeus, but king Pausanias, commanding the land forces,
after some skirmbbes effected a general lecondUatloo by
which the democracy was restored (October 403). Thrasybulus
was now the hero of the people; but a deifree by which he
secured the franchise for all hb foOowen, including many
slaves, was rescinded as OlegaL
In 595 Thrasybulus induced Athens to |oin the Theban league
against Sparta, but did not himself take the field till 389, when
be led a new fleet of 40 ships against the Spartans at Rhodes.
Sailing first to the Bosporus he effected a democratic revolution
at Byzantium and renewed the cora-toU. Afur a successful
descent on Lesbos and the renewal of the 5% import tax at
Thasos and Clazomenae he sailed south in quest of further
contributioos, but met hb death in a night surprise by the
people of A^pendus. By hb exactions he had forfeited the
confidence both of the allies and of Athens; but after his death
the ill-feeling subsided, and he was ever remembered as one
of the saviouxs of hb country.
See ThncydMes, vSi. rS-toS: Xenophon. Hetttmea; Lysiaa.
c Erat9Stk. sS-^> sod e, BripcL 5, 8; and CmU, atk. sL
Diodorus »ii.. aiv., Justin v. 9, to, and Nepoe depend almoat
wholly on Xenophon. Corpus wscr. aU. iL i lb and t4b.
(M.O.B.C.)
THRA8TMBDES, of Paros, a Greek sculptor. Formeriy he
was regarded as a pupil of Pheidias, because be set up in the
temple of Asdepius at Epidaurus a seated statue of that
deity made of ivory and gold, which was evidently a copy of
the Zeus of Pheidjas. But an inscription recently found at
Epidaurus proves that the temple and the statue belong to
the fourth century. (See Epidaitkus.)
THREAD (O. Eng. W^M, literally, that which b twbted,
^owoa, to twbt, to throw, cf. " throwster," a silk-windcr, Ger.
drekatf to twist, turn, Du. draad, Ger. Draht, thread, wire),
a thin or fine cord of two or more yams of fibrous substance,
such as cotton, silk, wool or flax, tightly twbted together
(see Spinning and Cotton and Cotton Manupacture).
Thread, idiether as sUk or cotton thread, b particularly useid
for sewing, but it b also used in weaving. Lisle thread, a hard-
twbted linen thread, originaDy made at Lille in France, b
specially used In the manufacture of stockings (see Hosiery).
Apart from the figurative sense of that which runs through the
course of a subject, narrative or speech, as a connecting thought,
idea or purpose, the term b also applied specifically to the spiral
p art of a screw {q.v.).
TBRBAT, a menace or intimidation. At common law the
employment of threats or other forms of intimidation to induce
a person to enter into a contract wiU give the right to sue
for its recision or avoidance, or to plead the special form of
intimidation in answer to any action brought, or to sue for
damages occasioned by entering Into the contract. (See such
headings as Coercion; Contract; Extortion, &c.)
In crimuial law the sending of threatening letters (or causing
them to be received), demanding with menaces and without
reasonable cause money or other valuable thing, b a felony.
So b the sending a letter threatening to bum or destroy any
house, bam or other building or to kOI or maim cattle. It b
also a felony^ to threaten to acctise a person of a crime for the
purpose of extorting money, or merely to demand money or
other property, without having any claim to it, by means of a
threat.
THREB BODIES, PROBLEM OP, the problem of determining
the motion of three bodies moving under no influence but that
of their mutual gravitation. No general solution of this problem
b possible. As practically attacked it consbts in the problem
of determining the perturbations or dbturbances in the motion
of one of the bodies around the principal or central body, pro-
duced by the attraction of the third. Examples are the motwn
of the moon around the earth as dbturbed by the action of the
sun, and of one planet around the sun as dbturbed by the action
of another planeL
THREB RIVERS, or Troxs RiviiRES, a city and port of entry
of (^ebec, Canada, and capital of St Maurice county,
situated at the confluence of the rivers St Maurice and St
Lawrence. The St Maurice flows in from the north, and, being
divided at Its mouth by two islands, the channeb give the town
its name. It b on the line of the Canadian Pacific railway,
78 m. S.W. of Quebec and 93 ro. N.E. of Montreal. Founded
in 1634 by Champlain, Three Rivers b one of the oldest towns
in Quebec. It b the centre of a large lumber trade, which b
carried on along the St Maurice and its tributaries. Some
miles from the dty are the St Maurice forges, where iron wares were
manufactured as eariy as the X7th century. Other industries
are fumiture- and cabinet-making, boot and shoe making, and
those carried on in the brass and lead foundries, saw-mills, and
carriage factories. The city b the seat of a Roman Catholic
bishopric A large trade b carried on in lumber, gnun, cattle,
&c., which are shipped to South America, the West Indies,
Great Britain and the United States, and a great development
has been caused by the utilization of the water-power of the
St Maurice at Shawanegan, Grand Mer£ and other falls* for the
manufacture of wood pulp. As a result, the population, long
890
THRJBNODY— THROAT
ttationary or aUghUy dacHtiing, increased from 8334 (1891)
to 998X (1901), and 12,730 (1906). The city was almost
destroyed by fire on the S3rd of June 1908, but it was quickly
rebuilt
THRBNODT* a lament written m verae, a dirge, a funeral ode
composed in honour of a dead personage, llie word is an
adaptation of the Greek 9pijv^(o, a funeral dirge, from Ofojifotf
lamentation, wailing, Ofiko/ioi, I czy aloud, and ^5i^, a song,
ode, ^Swf, to sing.
TORESHOLD, the door-sill, the piece of stone or wood which
is placed at the bottom of a door, gate, or entrance to a house
or other building. The word is used in psychology as the equiva-
lent of Ger. SchweUe and of tat. /('men, »'.£. the lowest limit of
sensation, the point at which the intensity of sensation becomes
just noticeable. Etymologically threshold (0. Eng. liersceld,
M. Eng. brcswold) has usually been divided " thresh," i^. thrash,
beat, and woU, wold, wood; the word meaning the pieces of
wood beaten or trampled by the feet. The termination, as
is shown by the Old English form, has probably no connexion
with waid, but is merely a suffix, as in O. H. Ger. driscHfiif
threshold. The first part is certainly " thrash," beat; some have
supposed that in early times the entrance to a house was used
as a threshing-floor.
THRIFT, economy in personal or domestic expenditure,
the habit and practice of saving, careful or frugal management
in money matters. The word, which is borrowed from Scan-
dinavian languages, meant the condition of one who thrives or
prospers (M. Eng. /Aritvn, Icel. tkri/at to clutch, seize, Norw.
trivot seize). There are several species of plants, such as the
sea-pink, Armtria marilima, or March rosemary iSlaike) which
from their vigorous growth are often termed " thrift."
THRINO, EDWARD (1821-1887), English schoolmaster,
was the son of John Gale Dalton Thring, rector of Alford,
Somerset, and was bom on the 19th of November 1821. His
elder brother was Henry, afterwards Lord, Thring (1818-1907)
the distinguished Parliamentary counsel (1868-1886), who was
made a peer in 18S6. Edward was educated first at lUninster
grammar school and afterwards at Eton, where he became
head of the school, and Captain of Montem in 1841, the last
occasion on which that ancient festival was celebrated. He
then entered King's College, Cambridge, won the Porson Prize
for Greek Verse, and was elected fellow. At that time King's College
scholars retained the privilege of proceeding to a degree without
examination, but Thring thought the mainteiumce of this
usage inexpedient in the interests of learning aiKl wholly
indefensible in principle, and his vigorous protests against it
aroused lively academic controversy, and became effective in
xSsr, when it was abolished. On leaving the imiversity in
1846 he was ordained, and served for a short time as curate in
Gloucester. Here he took remarkable interest in the elementary
school of the parish, and ever afterwards attributed much of
his professional success and hb insight into educational
principles and methods to the experience he had acquired in
imparting the humble rudiments of learning to the children of
the poor. After an interval of two or three years, spent partly
in private tuition and partly as curate at Cookham Deay, be
married in 1853 a daughter of Cari Koch, commissioner of
customs at Boim, and was dected to the mastership of Upping-
ham School, a post which be retained until his death in 1887.
That school had been founded in 1584, was slenderiy endowed,
poorly housed, and little known. Thring found only twenty-five
boys in it, but he succeeded in raising it, both in numbers and
repute, to a position in the first rank among English public
schools. He had a strong conviction that there should be a limit
to the number of pupib entrusted to the care of one head master,
and he fliid jliat Rmit at 300^ although, owing to the iiKreasing
K^bbol, be was under strong tempUtion to
i hf pttie he surrounded himself with a loyal
'' IttMliey for the building and equipment of a
\ CJhipd^ besides cla^-rooms and eleven
(.dbtmcttve features of his plans
Lrtieng sense of the need for a
closer study of the chaiacteristics of individual boys than is
generally found possible in large public schools; (2) his resolute
adherence to the discipline of the ancient languages, in
coimexion with English, as the sUple of a liberal education; (3)
his careful provision of a great variety of additional employments
and interests, in studies and in games, to suit the aptitudes of
different pupils; (4) the value he attached to the aesthetic side
of school training, as evinced in the encouragement he gave
to music and to drawing and to the artistic decoration of the
schoolrooms; and above aU (5) his rebellion against mere routine,
and his constant insistence on the moral purpose of a school as
a training-ground for character, rather than as a place solely. *
concerning itself with the acquisition of knowledge. Th9
vigour and intrepidity of his character were conspicuouslyif'
shown in 1875, when an outbreak of fever made Uppingham for
a time untenable, and when, at a few days' notice, be took
a disused hotel and some boarding-houses at fiorth, on the
Cardiganshire coast, and transported the whole 300 boys, w iih
30 masters and their households, to it as to a city of refuge.
Here the school was carried on with undiminished and even fresh
zest and efficiency for fourteen months, during which needful
sanitary measures were taken in the town.
Unlike Arnold, with whose moral earnestness and lofty edu-
cational aims he was in strong sympathy, he took little or no
part in outside controversies, political or ecclesiastical. All the
activity of his life centred round the school. His was the fii^
public school to establish a gymnasium, and the first to found a
town mission in a district of South London, with a view to inteirsl
the boys in an effort to improve the social condition of the poor.
He took the first step in 1869 in the formation of the Head
Masters' Conference, an institution which has ever since done
much to suggest improvements in method and to citltivate a
sense of corporate life and mutual helpfulness among the teachers
in the great schools. And in 1887 he took the. bold and unpre-
cedented step of inviting the Association of Head Mistresses to
Uppingham, and giving to them a sympathetic addresa. He
also formed an association in Uppingham, with lectures, cookery
classes, concerts, and other aids to the intellectual and social
improvement of the residents of the little town. He gave
valuable evidence before the Schools Inquiry Commission of
Lord Taunton in 1866, but it was very characteristic of him that
he dreaded the intrusion of public authority, whether that of
royal commissioners or of the legislature, into the domain of the
school, wherein he thought it indispensable that the liberty and
personal inventiveness and enthusiasm of teachers should have
full scope and be hindered by no official regulations.
His contribution^ to literature were not numerous, but were aO
closely connected with his work as a Khoolmaster. They were:
Thoughts on Life Science (1869). written under the aasumcd name
of Benjamin Place; Educution and School (1864); The Theory and
Practice 0/ Teaching (1883); Vtpimtham School Sermons (1858);
The Child's Grammar (1852); The PrinciUes 0/ Grammar (186S);
Exercises in Grammaiical Analysis (1868); School Songs (185S);
Borth LyricSt poems and trandations (1887); and a volume of
MisceUaneons Addresses, puh\i^he6 after his doith in 1887.
The fullest account ot his life is that written by G. R. Parian
(1808), containing copious extracts from his diary and letters^
and attractive picture of Thring't active life, and an affectionate
and yet discriminating estimate of his character. Other particulars
may oe found in the chapter devoted to his biography in Sir Joaiiua
Fitch's Edmcational Aims and M^kods, and in Edward Tirtng.
Teacher and Poet, by Canon H. D. Rawnsley. 0- G. F.)
THROAT (O. Eng. ^olu, ^ole or >roto, possibly from l^idian,
to press, whence threat, or, with loss of initial j, connected
with strut, to swell), the term applied to the front external
part of the neck from below the chin to the collar-bone in human
and animal anatomy, and to the internal parts, which include
the gullet, viz. the fauces, pharyxu and oesophagus, and the wind-
pipe, viz. the larynx and trachea (see Phakynx, Aumentaxt
Canal, and Respolatory System: Awaiomyi and for diseases
see PHAKYKcms, Lakyncitis, DiPiinizuA, ToNsiuns and
Obsophacus).
THROCKMORTON— THRONE
891
tnoCKMOBtOlt (or Tbhogmobton), FRAVCIS USSA"
1 584), EngUth conspirator, was the son of Sir John Throckmorton
of Feckei^iam in Warwickshirey and bis wife Margery Putten-
ham. Sir John had been concerned in Wyat's rebdUon against
Queen Blaxy Tudof , but was afterwards known as a sympathiser
with the Roman Catholic party in the reign of Queen Eliza-
beth, and in 1580 was removed front his office of chief justice
of Chester for irregularities in his office, but probably because
he was suspected of dislo3ralty by the government. Francis
was educated at Hart Hall, Oxford, which he entered in 1572.
, In 1576 he was enrolled in the Inner Temple. At Oxford he
^iiad come under the influence of the Roman Catholics, whose
^^wer was stiU great in the university, and must have heard
%f Edmund Campian (q.v.) who had left shortly before he him-
self entered the university. When Campian and Parsons came
to England in 1580 to conduct the Jesuit propaganda against
Queen Elizabeth, Frands Throckmorton was one of a society
of membexs of the Inner Temple who united to hide and help
them. In that year he went abroad, first to join his brother
Thomas, iriio was engaged with the exiled Roman Catholics
in Paris, and then to travel in Italy and Spain. While abroad
he consorted with exiled papists, and was undoubtedly engaged
in treasonable intrigues. In 1583 he returned to act as the
confidential agent of an elaborate conspiracy which had for its
object the invasion of England by a French force under command
of the duke of Guise, or by Spaniards and Italians sent by
Philip n. for the purpose of releasing the imprisoned Mary
Queen of Scots and restoring the authority of the pope. Throck-
morton possessed, or occupied, a house on Paul's wharf, London,
which served as a meeting-place for the conspirators. Many
plots were being carried on alongside of the chief one, and the
suspicions of the government were aroused. Throckmorton's
constant visits to the Spanish ambassador, Bernardino de
Mendoza, attracted attention, and he was arrested in October
1585. He was ciphering a letter to Queen Mary when the
constables came upon him suddenly, but he found time to send
a casket of compromising papers t^ a trustworthy maidservant
to Mendoxa, and a card in dpher in which he promised to reveal
nothing. As he refused to confess when brought before the
councfl, he was put on the rack in the Tower. He resisted a
first application of the torture, but his strength and courage
failed when he was threatened with a second, and he made a
full confession. At a later period he retracted and asserted
that hb avowals were false and had been extorted from him
by pain, or had been put in his mouth by the exammers. His
confession agreed, however, fully with what is known from other
sources of the plot, and there can be" no doubt that when his
house was searched the constables found lists of his confederates,
plans of harbours meant for use by foreign invaders, treatises
in defence of the title of the Queen of Scots to the throne of
England, and "infamous libels on Queen Elizabeth printed
beyond seas/' His trial, which in the circumstances was a
mere formality, took place on the 2rst of May 1584, and he
was executed at Tyburn on the roth of July. The arrest and
confession of Throckmorton were events of great importance.
They terrified the conspirators, who fled abroad in large numbers,
and led to the expulsion of the Spanish ambassador and so to
war with Spain.
THROCKMORTON (or Thkocmorton), SIR HICHOLAS
(151501571), English diplomatist and politician, was the
fourth of eight sons of Sir Geotge Throckmorton of Congleton in
Warwickshire, and uncle of the conspirator Francis Throck-
morton (see above). He was brought up in the household of
Catherine Parr, the last wife of Henry VI U. In his youth he
was favourable to the reformers in religion. He sat in par-
liament from IS4S to >S67- During the reign of Edward \J.
he was in high favour with the regents. In 1547 he was present
at the battle of Pinkie during the invasion of Scotland. When
on the death of Edward VI. an attempt was made to place
Lady Jane Grey on the throne, he contrived to appear as the
friend of both parties, and secured the favour of Queen Mary
Tudor. He was, however, suspected of complicity in Wyat's
rebellion bx 1554, and was brought to trial at the GuOdhall on
the X7th of April of that year. By eloquence, readiness of wit,
and adroit flattery of the jttiy he contrived to secure his
acquittal in the face of the open hostility of the judge— a unique
achievement at a time when the condemnation of prisoners
whom the authorities wished to convict was a mere matter of
course. The jurymen were fined and sent to prison, and Throck-
morton was detained in the Tower till the following year. There
was some talk of bringing him to trial again, but he made his
peace, and was employed by Queen Mary. After the accession
of El^beth he rose rapidly into favour. He became chamber-
lain of the exchequer, and from May 1559 to April 1564 he was
ambassador in France. During the latter part of this period
he was associated with Sir Thomas Smith, whose function was at
least partly to watch and check bis fellow-ambassador. It
was in these years that Hirockmorton became acquainted with
Mary Queen of Scots. He had to conduct the delicate nego-
tiations which accompanied her return to Scotland, and though
he was a supporter of the reformers on political grounds, he
became her personal friend and was always willing to do her
service. As ambassador in France he exerted himself to induce
Elizabeth to aid the Huguenots, and took a part in the war of
religion. He was taken prisoner by the Catholic leader, the
duke of Guise. After his return to England he was sent as
Embassador to Scotland in May 1565. The mission entrusted to
him was to prevent Queen Mary's marriage with Damley, which
however he was unable to do. After the murder of Damley he
was again sent to Scotland in June x 567 on a still more hopeless
mission than the first. He was instructed to persuade the
Scottish barons who had just imprisoned the queen to restore her
to her authority. His known friendship for Queen Mary and his
constant support of her claim to be recognized as Elizabeth's
successor, made him a very unwelcome representative of
England in that crisis. Moreover, the queen of England in-
creased his difficulties by making him the bearer of offensive
messages to the barons, and by contradictory instructions.
He cannot have undertaken his task with mudi zeal, for his
own opinion was that Elizabeth would consult her Interests
best by supporting the barons. In Edinburgh Throdcmorton
could effect little, but he exerted himself to secure the personal
safety of the queeiL He offended his mistress by showing his
instructions to the Scottish barons, and was recalled in August.
In 1569 he fcU imder suspicion during the duke of Norfolk's
conspiracy m favour of Mary, and was imprisoned for a time
at Windsor, but was not further proceeded against. He died on
the X2th of February 1571. Sir Nicholas married Anne Carew,
and his daughter Elizabeth became the wife of Sir Walter
Raleigh.
THRONE, a rojral, viceregal, or episcopal chair of state stand-
ing upon a dais or platform. Formcriy the platform, with the
steps leading up to it, was comprised in the significance of the
word — hence the familiar expression to " mount the throne."
The ceremonial induction of a sovereign into his throne is one
of the usual solemnities of a coronation, while enthronizatlon
of the bishop in his cathedral is the final observance in the making
of a diocesan. The throne, which is of immemorial antiquity,
is the universal ancestor of all chairs, which were for long symbols
of authority and rule. In early da>'s and in Oriental countries
thrones were of barbaric magnificence. Solomon's was of
ivory " overlaid with the best gold." There were two figures
of lions at the sides, with two other lions on each of the six
steps. The remains of a throne in rock<rystal were found in
the ruins of Sennacherib's palace. The Persian throne made for
Abbas the Great was of white marble. This monarch appears
to have had a nice taste in thrones, for in 1605 he presented one
to the Russian tsar Boris which is covered with sheets of gold
and decorated with preck>us stones and pearls. Tsar Michael
Feodorovitch, grandfather of Peter the Great, outdid even this
magnificence, for his " golden throne " is set with eight thousand
turquoises, fifteen hundred rubies, four great amethysts and
two large topazes. One of the glories of Delhi, until It was
sacked by Nadir Shah, was the ** peacock throne," the value
892
THRUM-EYED— THRUSH
of which was estimated, perhaps with some Eastern exuberance,
at twelve millions sterling. It was ascended by silver steps and
stood on golden feet set with jewels. It obtained its name from
the two open peacocks* tails composed of magnificent diamonds,
rubies, and other stones which formed part of its appurtenances.
Apparently it was made for Shah Jahan by the French designer
of the Taj MahaL According to that veracious chronicler,
Sir John Mandeville, the seven steps of the throne of Prester
John were respectively of onyx, crystal, green jasper, amethyst,
sardonyx, cornelian and chrysolite. They were bordered with
gold and set with pearls. Ilie throne itself was of gold enriched
with jewels. Ranjit Singh's golden throne — it is of wood
covered with plates of gold — ^is in the possession of the British
Crown. European thrones were usually more modest in concep-
tion and less barbaric in execution than those, real or legendary,
of the East. The medieval emperors of Byzantium had, how-
ever, imbibed a good deal of the Orient, and their famous
throne, which is supposed to have been imitated from, as well
as named after, that of Solomon, was guarded by golden lions,
which rose to their feet and roared when some artful mechanism
was set in motion. An exceedingly ancient chair of state is the
so-called throne of Dagobert (see Chair). The most recent
writers on this remarkable relic suggest that it is a bronze copy
of Dagobert's golden throne. However that may be, there
can be no doubt that it possesses at least one illustrious modern
association, for Napoleon sat in it when he distributed the
first decorations of the Legion of Honour in his camp at Boulogne
in 1804. The throne which Napoleon had made for himself
was a heavy gilded chair with an abundance of Egyptian orna-
ment, lions' heads and imperial eagles. One of the many
curiosities of a conclave for the electing of a Pope is that every
cardinal present occupies a throne, since, during the vacancy of
the Holy See, each member of the Sacred College is a potential
sovereign. When the election has taken place the canopy of
every throne is lowered, with the exception of that occupied
by the new pontiff. The palaces of the great Roman nobles
contained — and still in some cases contain — a throne for use
in the event of a visit from the pope. The papal throne itself
is an antique bronze chair which stands in St Peter's. Embassies
frequently contain a throne for the use of the sovereign in whose
territory the building technically stands. No ancient throne-
chair pertains to the British monarchy; the coronation chair
is not, properly speaking, a throne, since it is used only during
a portion of the coronation ceremonies. The actual throne of
Great Britain is the oaken Gothic chair in the House of Lords
occupied by the sovereign at the opening and prorogation of
parliament.
THRUM-ETED, a botanical term for flowers which occur in
two forms, one of which shows the stamens in the mouth pf the
coroUa, as in the primrose, contrasted with pin-eyed (g.v.).
THRUSH (A. S. prysce, Iccl. prdstr, Norw. Trast, O. H. Ger.
Drosce, whence the mod. Ger. Drossd, to be compared with
the analogous English form Throstle,* now almost obsolete,
both being apparently diminutives), the name that in England
seems to have been common to two species of birds, the
first now generally distinguished as the song-thrush, but
known in many districts its the mavis,' the second called the
mistletoe-thrush, but having many other local designations, of
which more presently.
The former of these is one of the finest songsters in Europe,
breast, hopping over the grass for a few yards, then pftwSng to
detea the movement of a worm, and vigorously seixing the
same a moment after, is one of the most familiar sights. Hardly
less well-known is the singular nest built by this bird — a deep
cup, lined with a thin but stiff coating of fragments of rotten
wood, ingeniously spread, and plasteied so as lo present a
smooth interior — in which its sea-green eggs spotted with black
are laid. An early breeder, it builds nest after nest during the
season, and there can be few birds moie prolific. Its ravages
on ripening fruiu, especially strawberries and gooseberries,
exdte the enmity of th^ imprudent gardener who leaves his
crops unprotected by nets, but he would do well to sUy the
hand of revenge, for no bird can or does destroy so many snails,
as is testified to the curious observer on inspection of the stones
that it selects against which to dash its capturesr— stones that
are besmeared with the slime of the victims and bestrewn with
the fragments of their shattered shells. Nearly all the young
thrushes reared in the British Islands— and this expression
includes the storm-swept isles of the Outer Hebrides, though
not. those of Shetland— seem to emigrate as soon as they are
fit to journey, and at a later period they arc followed by tnosi
of their parents, so that many parts of the kingdom are abso-
lutely bereft of this species from October to the end of January.
On the continent of Europe the autumnal influx of the birds
bred in the North is regarded with much interest, for they are
easily ensnared and justly esteemed for the table, while their
numbers make their appearance in certain districts a matter of
great importance.
The second species to which the name applies is distinguished
as the mistletoe-thrush, or, by corrupt abbreviation, the missel-
thrush.' It is known also in many districts as the " storm-cock,"
from its habit of singing in squally weather that silences almcst
all other birds, and " holm-(t.c. holly-) thrush" ; while the harsh
cries it utters when angry or alarmed have given it other local
names, as " screech," " shrite" and " skrike," all traceable lo
the Anglo-Saxon Scric.* This is a larger species than the last,
of paler tints, and conspicuous in flight by the white patches on
its outer tail-feathers. Of bold disposition, and fearless of the
sleety storms of spring, as of predatory birds, the cock will take
his stand on a tall tree, " like an enchanter calling up the gale "
(as Knapp happily wrote), and thence with loud voice proclaim
in wild and discontinuous notes the fervour of his love for his
mate; nor docs that love cease when the breeding-season is
past, since this species is one of those that appear to pair ica
life, and even when, later in the year, it gathers in small flocks,
husband and wife may be seen in close company. In defence
of nest and offspring, toof-fcw birds are more resolute, and the
daw, pie or jay that approaches with an ill intent spccdDy
receives treatment that causes a rapid retreat, while even the
marauding cat finds the precincts of the " master of the coppice."
(Pen y Uwyn), as the Welsh name this thrush, unsuitable far
its stealthy operations. The coimexion of this bird with the
mistletoe, which is as old as the days of Aristotle, is no figment,
as some have tried to maintain. Not only is it exceedingly
fond of the luscious viscid berries, but it seems to be almost the
only bird that will touch them.
The thrushes form a distinct famOy, Turdidae, of the Oscines
division of perching birds, and are now divided into five sub-
families: (i) Turdinae, or true thrushes and their imroediaie
allies, the ousel iq.v.), the fieldfare {q.v.), the redwing (^.r.), the
rock-thrushes {MonticoUi), the wheatcars, stonechats, whiochats
(see Wheatear), the redstarts {q.v.), robins (see Redbreast), and
'There is no doubt of the bird taking Us name from the |.*ant
istletoc {Viicum album), about the speMine of which there can be
no uncertainty — A. S. AfisUltan, the final syllable originally signify-
ing " twig," and surviving in the modem " tine," as of a fork or
of a deer's antter.
' It seems quite possible that the word shrike, though now
commonly accepted as the equivalent in an ornithological sense.
of Lanius, may have been originally applied to the mistletoe-thrush.
In several of the Anglo-Saxon VoccbaUneM dating from the Sth
to the nth centuiy. as printed by Thomas Wrieht, the word Scrk,
which can be hardly anything else than the oarly form of "shrike.*^
is glossed Turdus,
THUCYDIDES
893
hedge-tpanx>w5<aee Sparrow). In these, u opposed to the warblcra,
th« young are spotted. (2) Myiodcctinae, a small group, chiefly
South American, with strong bnstlesrounf^ the gape. (3) S^Ivunae
(see Warblers). (4) PoUoptilinae or gnat-catchers cTKorth and
South America, is) Miminae or mocldng-birds (0.9.). The so-
called " babbling-tnrushes " which occur throughout the Old
World are usually referred to a distinct family, the Timeliidae,
characterized by strong bills and feet, and short, rounded and in-
curved wings. The " ant thrushes " bdoog to a different family
Csee PlTTAJ! CA. N.)
THUCYDIDES (OooKuSI^Tf),^ Athenian hifttorian. Materials
for his biography ate scanty, and the facts are of interest chiefly
as aids to the appreciation of his life's labour, the History of the
Peloponrusian War. The older view that he was probably bom
in or about 471 B.C., is based on a passage of Aulus Gellius, who
says that in 431 Hellanicus "seems to have been" sixty-five
yean of age, Hettxlotus fifty-three and Thucydides forty
iff act. att. XV. 33). The authority for this sUtement was
Pamphila, a woman of Greek extraction, who compiled bio-
graphical and historical notices in the reign of Nero. The value
of her testimony is, however, negligible, and modem criticism
inclines to a later date, about 460^ (seeBusolt, Gr. Ctsch. iii.i
pt. 3, p. 631). Thucydides' father Olorus, a citizen of Athens,
belonged to a family which derived wealth and influence from
the possession of gold-mines at Scapt2 HylC, on the Thradan
coast opposite Thiuos, and was a relative of his elder namesake,
the Thradan prince, whose daughter Hegesipylc married the
great Miltiades, so that Cimon, son of Miltiades, was possibly
a connenon of Thucydides (sec Busolt, ibid., p. 618). It was in
the vault of the Cimonian family at Athens, and near the remains
of Cimon's sister Elpinice, that Plutarch saw the grave of
Thucydides. Thus the fortune of birth secured three signal
advantages to the future historian: he was rich; he had two
homes— one at Athens, the other in Thrace — no small aid to a
a>mprehensive study of the conditions under which the Pelo>
ponnesian War was waged; and his famOy connexions were
likely to bring him from bis early years into personal intercourse
with the men who were shaping the history of his time.
The development of Athens during the middle of the 5th
century was, in itself, the best education which such a mind as
that of Thucydides could have received. The expansion and
consdidation of Athenian power was completed, and the inner
resources of the dty were being api^ed to the embellishment
and ennoblement of Athenian life (see CncoN; Pericles).
Yet the History tcUs us nothing of the literature, the art or the
social life under whose influences its author bad grown up.
The " Funeral Oration " contains, indeed, his general testimony
to the value and the charm of those influences. But he leaves
tts to supply all examples and details for ourselves. Beyond
a passing reference to public " festivals," and to " beautiful
surroundings in private life," he makes no attempt to define
those " recreations for the spirit " which the Athenian genius
had provided in such abundance. He alludes to the newly-
built Parthenon only as containing the treasury; to the statue
of Athena Parthenos which it enshrined, only on account of
the gold which, at extreme need, could be detached from the
image; to the Propylaea and other buildings with which Athens
bad been adorned under Peridca, only as wodis which had re-
duced the surplus of funds availabk for the war. He makes no
reference to Aeschylus, Sophodes, Euripides, Aristophanes; the
architect Ictinus; the sculptor Pheidias; the physician Hippo-
crates; the pbilosopheis Anaxagoras and Socrates. Herodotus,
if he had dealt with this period, wtndd have found countless
occasions for invaluable digressions on men and manners, on
letters and art; and we might almost be tempted to ask
vhether his more genial, if laxer, method docs not indeed
correspond better with a liberal conception of the htstorian^
office. No one can do full justice to Thucydides, or appre-
ciate the true completeness of his work, who has not faced
this question, and found the answer to it.
It would be a hasty judgment which inferred from the omis-
* Christ {Gnck, i$r grieck. LiO.) gives the date of birth as " about
4SS."
sbns ol the History that its author's interests were exdusivdy
political. Thucydides was not writing the histoiy of a period.
His subject was an event^the Pdoponnesian War— a war, as
he bdieved, of unequalled importance, alike in its direct results
and in its political significance for all time. To his task, thus
defined, he brought an intense concentration of all his faculties.
He worked with a constant desire to make each successive
inddent of the war as dear as possible. To take only two
insunces: there is nothing in literature more graphic than his
description of the plague at Athens, or fthan the whole narrative
of the Sicilian expedition. But the same temper made him
resolute in exduding irrdevant topics. The social life of the
time, the literature and the art did not bdong to his subject
The biogmphy which bears the name of Marcdlinus states
that Thucydides was -the disciple of Anaxagoras in philosophy
and of Antiphon in rhetoric. There is no evidence to confirm
this tiaditbn. But Thucydides and Antiphon at least belong
to the same rhetorical school and represent the same eariy
stage of Attic prose. Both writers used woids of an antique or
decidedly poetical cast; both point verbal contrasts by insisting
on the precise difference between terms of similar import; and
both use metaphors somewhat bolder than were congenial to
Greek prose in its riper age. The differences, on the other hand,
between the style of Thucydides and that of Antiphon arise
chiefly from two general causes. First, Antiphon wrote for
hearers, Thucydides for leaden; the latter, consequently, can
use a degree of condensation and a freedom in the arrangement
of words which would have been hardly possible for the former.
Again, the thought of Thucydides is often more complex than
any which Antiphon undertook to interpret; and the greater
intricacy of the historian's style exhibits the endeavour to express
each thought.* Few things in the history of literary prose are
more interesting than to watch that vigorous mind in its struggle
to mould a language of magnificent but immature capabilities.
The obscurity with which Thucydides has sometimes been
reproached often arises from the very dearaess with which a
complex kiea is present to his mind, and his strenuous effort
to present it in its entirety. He never sacrifices thou^t to
language, but he will sometimes sacrifice language to thought.
A student may always be consoled by the reflecUon that he is
not engaged in imravelling a mere rhetorical tangle. Eveiy
light on the sense will be a light on the words; and when, as is
not sddom the case, Thucydides comes victoriously out of
this struggle of thou^t and Unguage, having achieved perfect
expression of his meaning in a sufiidently lucid form, then his
style rises into an intellectual brilliancy— thoroughly manly,
and also penetrated with intense feeling~-which nothing in
Greek prose literature surpasses.
The uncertainty as to the date of Thucydides' birth renders
futile any discussion of the fact that before 431 h« took no
prominent part in Athenian politics. If he was bora in 455, the
fact needs no explanation; if in 471. it is possible that his
opportonities were modified by the necessity of frequent visits
to Thrace, where the management of such an important property
as the gold-mines must have daimed his presence. The manner
in which he refers to his personal influence in that region is such
as to suggest that he had sometimes resided there (iv. 105, x).
He was at Athens ih the spring of 430, when the plague
broke out. If his account of the symptoms has not enabled
physkians to agree on a diagnosis of the malady, it Is at least
singularly full and vivid. He had himsdf been attacked by the
pUgue; and, as he briefly adds, " he had seen others suffer."
The tenor of his namtive would warrant the inference that he
had been one of a few who ivcre active in ministciHng to the
sufferers.
The turning-point in the life of Thucydides came in the winter
of 4>4* He was then forty seven (or, according to Busolt, about
thirty-six), and for the first time he is found holding an official
position. He was one of two generals entrusted with the com*
mand of the regions towards Thrace (rd lirl 8p^«ifs), a phrase
which denotes the whole Thradan seaboard from Macedonia
* See Jebb's AtUc Orators, i. 35.
894
THUCYDIDES
eastward to the vicinity of the Thracian Chersonese, though
often used with more special reference to the Chalcidic penin-
sula. His colleague in the command was Eucles. About the
end of November 434 Eudes was in Amphipolis, the stronghold
of Athenian power in the north-west. To guard it with all
possible vigilance was a matter of peculiar urgency at that
momenL The ablest of Spartan leaders, Brasidas iq.v.)^ was in
the Chalddic peninsula, where be had already gained rapid
success; and part of the population between that peninsula
and Amphipolis was known to be disaffected to Athens. Under
such circumstances we might have expected that Thucydides,
who had seven ships of war with him, would have been ready to
co-operate with Eucles. It appears, however, that, with his
ships, he was at the island of Thasos when Brasidas suddenly
appeared before Amphipolis. Eucles sent in all haste for Thucy-
dides, who arrived with his ships from Thasos just in time to
beat off the enemy from Eion at the mouth of the Strymon, but
not in time to save Amphipolis. The profound vexation and
dismay felt at Athens foimd expression in the punishment of
Thucydides, who was exiled. Cleon is said to have been the prime
mover in his condemnation; and this is likely enough.
From 423 to 404 Thucydides lived on his property in Thrace,
but much of his time appears to have been spent in travel.
He visited the countries of the Pdoponnesian allies — ^recom-
mended to them by his quality as an exile from Athens; and he
thus enjoyed the rare advantage of contemplating the war from
various points of view. He speaks of the increased Idsure
which his banishment secured to his study of events. He refers
partly, doubtless, to detachment from Athenian politics, partly
also, we may suppose, to the opportunity of vfeiting places
signalized by recent events and of examining thdr topography.
The local knowledge which is often apparent in his Sicilian books
may have been acquired at this period. The mind of Thucy-
dides was naturally judicial, and his impartiality — which seems
almost superhuman by contrast with Xenophon's Hdknica —
was in some degree a result of temperament. But it cannot
be doubted that the evenness with which he holds the scales
was greatly assisted by his experience during these years of
exile..
His' own words make it dear that he returned to Athens, at
least for a time, in 404, though the precise date is uncertain.
The older view (cf. Classen) was that he returned some six
months after Athens surrendered to L3rsander. More probably
he was recalled by the special resolution carried by Oenobius
prior to the acceptance of Lysander's terms (Busolt, ibid., p. 628).
He remained at Athens only a short time, and retired to his
property in Thrace, where he lived till his death, working at his
History. The preponderance of testimony cerUinly goes to
show Uiat he died in Thrace, and by violence. It would seem
that, when he wrote chapter 116 of his third book, he was
ignorant of an eruption of Etna which took place in 396. There
is, indeed, strong reason for thinking that he did not live later
than 399. His remains were brought to Athens and laid in the
vault of Cimon's family, where Plutarch {Cimon, 4) saw their
resting-place. The abruptness with which the History breaks
off agrees with the stoiy of a sudden death. The historian's
daughter is said to have saved the unfinished work and to have
placed it in the hands of an editor. This editor, according to
one account, was Xenophon, to whom Diogenes LaMius (ii. 6,
13) assigns the credit of having " brou^t the work into reputa-
into two parties, dther actively hdping one of the two combatants
or medicating such action. Nor was the movement confined wichia
even the widest limit* oC^ Hellas; the " barbarian " world also was
affected by it— the non-HdIenk: populations of Thrace. Macedonia,
Epinis, Sicily and, finally, the Persian kingdom itself. The aim
of Thucydides was to preserve an accurate recixd of this war. not
only in view of the intrinsic interest and importance of the facts,
but also in order that these facts might be permanent sources of
political teaching to posterity. His hope was, as he says, that his
History would be found profitable by those who desire an exact
knowledee of the past as a key to the future, whkJi in all proba-
bility will repeat or resemble the past. The woHc is meant to be
a possession for ever, not the rhetorical triumph of an hour." As
this context shows, the oft-quoted phrase, " a possession for iever.**
had, in its author's meaning, a more definite import than any mere
anticipation of abiding fame for his History. It referred to tJ^
permanent value of the lessons whkh his History conuined.
Thucydides sunds alone among the men of his own days, and has
no superior of any age, in the width of mental gnsp whkh could
seize the general significance of particular events. The poUt^al
education of mankind began in Greece, and in the time of ThiKry-
dides their political life was still young. Thucydides knew only
the small city<ommonwealth on Uie one hand, and on the other
the vast barbaric kingdom; and yet, as has been well said of hira.
" there is hardly a problem in the science of government which
the statesman will not find, if not solved, at any rate handled, in
the pages of thb universal master." *
Such being the spirit in which he approached his task, it is
interesting to inquire what were the points which he himself con-
sidered to be distinctive in his method of executing it. ^^^ ^
His Greek predecessors in the recording of events nad """**■
been, he concaved, of two classes. First, there were *"■•'■•
the epic poets, with Homer at their head, whose charactcristk
tendency, in the eyes of Thucydides, is to exaggerate the greatness
or splendour of things past. Secondly, there were the Ionian prose
writers whom he calls " chroniclera (see Logogkaphi). whose
general object was to diffuse a knowledge of legends preserved by
oral tradition and of written documents — usually lists o£ officials
or genealogies — [>rescrved in public archives; and they published
their materials as they found them, without criticism. JhucydkJcs
describes thdr work by the word (vrrtfflyoi, but his own by
Cvyypd^t* — the difference betWTcn the terms answering to that
between compilation of a somewhat mechanical kind and historical
composition in a higher sense. The vice of the "chroniclers,"
in his view, is that they cared only for popularity, and took no paiits
to make their narratives trustworthy. Herodotus was presumably
rerarded by him as in the same general category.
In contrast with these predecessors Thucydides has subjected
his materials to the most searching scrutiny. The ruling principle
of his work has been strict adherence to carefully ^^
verified facts. "As to the deeds done in the ^"ar, jE'"'^
I have not thought myself at liberty to record them on rZardldtm.
hearsay from the first informant or on arbitrary con- ^^
jecture. My account rests dther on personal knowledge or on
the closest possible scrutiny of each statement made by others.
The process of research was laborious, because conflicting accounts
were given by those who had witnessed the several events, as
partiality swayed or memory served them."
It might be supposed that the speeches whkJi Thucy-dides has
introduced into his History conflict with this standard of scientific
accuracy; it is, therefore, well to consider thdr nature _j^
and purpose rather dosdy. The speeches constitute 1 ?..^,.
between a fourth and a fifth part of the History. If **'••«»«•
they were eliminated, an admirable narrative would indeed remain,
with a few comments, usually brief, on the more striking characters
and events. But we should lose all the most vivid light on the inner
workings of the Greek political mind, on the motives of the actors
and the arguments which they used — in a word, on the whole play
of contemporary feeling and opinion. To the speeches is due in
no small measure the imperishable intellectual interest of the
History, since it is chiefly by the speeches that the facts of the
Peloponnesaa War are so lit up with keen thought as to become
illustrations of general laws, and to acquire a permanent suggestive-
ness for the student of politics. When Herodotus made his persons
hold conversations or deliver speeches, he was following tnc pre-
cedent of epic poetry; his tone is usually colloquial rather than
rhetorical; he is merely making thought and motive vivid in the
way natural to a simple age. Thucydides is the real founder of
the tradition by which historians were so long held to be warranted
in introducing set speeches of thdr own composition. His own
account of his practk» is given in the following words: *' As to
the speeches made on the eve of the war, or in its course, I have
found it difficult to retain a memory of the precise words which
I had heard spoken : and so it was with those who brought me reports
* Freeman, Historical Essays, 2nd series, vol. iii, ; on the genera]
questions of the structure of the work and the view of the war
whwh it represttits see PKLOroiiiiE9tMi Wah; and Cm^cS;
Anaent History, % Authoritiey,
THUCYDroES
89s
Bot I bave awds tlM pefMat ny what it ■ee m td to roe mou op-
pofftuoe ffir them to lay ia view of each lituatioa; at the tame time
I have adheted as doaely as possible to the general sense of what
was actually said."' So far as the language of the speeches is
concerned, then, Thucydides plainly avows that it ia mainly or
whoUy his own* As a general rule, there is Uttle attempt to mark
different styles. The case of Pericles, whom Thumidcs must
have repeatedly heard, is probably an exception; the Thu(^didean
speeches of Perides offer several examples of that bold imagery
which Aristotle and Plutarch agree ia ascribing to him, while the
*' Funeral Oration," especially, lias a certain majesty of rhythm,
a certain unbn of impetuous movement with lof tv grandeur, which
the historian has given to no other speaker. Such strongly marked
charaaeristics as the curt bluntness of the Sparun epbor Sthene>
laidas, or the insolent vehemence of Aldbiades, are also indicated.
But the dramatic truth of the speeches generally resides in the
matter, not in the fonn. Ia legaid to those speeches whkh were
delivered at Athens before his banishment m 434— •«! seven
such speeches are contained in the /fuIory—Thucydidea could
rdy cither on his own recoUectioa or on the sources accessible to
a resident cttixen. In these cases there is good reason to believe
that he has lepioduoed the substance of what was actually said.
In other cases he had to trust to more or less imperfec t reporu of
the " general sense "; and in some instances, no doubt, the speech
represents simjrfy his own conception of what it would have been
" most opportune " to say. The most evident of such instances
occur in the addresses of leaders to thdr troops. The historian's
aim in these military harangue»-^wfaicb are usually short— is to
bring out the points of a strategical situation; a modem writer
would have attained the object bycommenu prefixed or subjoined
to bis account of the battle. The comparative indifference of
Thucydides to dramatic verisimilitude in these railitaxy orations
b curiously shown by the fact that the speech of the general on
the one side is sometimes as distiiurtly a reiply to the speech of the
general on the other as if they had been delivered in odnte. We
may be sure, however, that, wherever Thucydides had any authentic
clue to the actual tenor of a speech, he preferred to follow that
clue rather than to draw on his own invention. ^
Why, however, did he not content himself with simply statmg,
in his own person, the arguments and opinions which he conceived
^ ^ ■ ■> to have been prevalent? The question must be viewed
JJvJ*'^ from the sUodpoint of a Greek in the 5th century B.C.
^^* Epic poetry had then for many generations exercised
a powerful influence over the Greek mind. Homer had
accustomed Greeks to look for two elements in any complete
expression of human eneri^;y — first, an account of a man's deeds,
then an image of his mind in the report of his words. The Homeric
heroes are exhibited both in action and in speech. Further, the
contcmpofaiy readers of Thucydides were men habituated to a
civic lite in which public speech pbycd an aO-lmportant part.
Every adult dticen of a Greek democracy was a member 01 the
assembly which debated and decided great issiAs. The law courts,
the festivals, the drama, the market-place itself, ministered to the
Greek love of animated descriptk>n. Tp a Greek of that age a
written history of political events would have seemed strangely
insipki if speech " m the fixat person " had been absent from it,
especially it it did not offer some mirror of those debates which were
inseparably associated with the central interests and the decisive
moments of political life. In making historical persons say what
they might have said, Thucydides confined that oratorical licence
to the purpose which is its best justification: with him it is strictly
dramatic, an aid to the complete pcescntmcnt of action, by the
vivid expression of ideas and arguments which were really current
at the time. Among bter historians who continued the practice,
Polytnus. Sallust and Tacitus most resemble Thucydides in thb
particular; while in the Bysantinc historians, as in some modems
who followed classical precedent, the speeches were usually mete
occasions for rhetorical display. Botta's Hittory ef Italy from
1780 to 1814 affords one of the latest examples of the practice,
which was peculiariv suited to the Italian gemus.
The pccscat division oi the Histon into eight books b one which
might well have proceeded from the author himself, as being a
.^ natural and convenient disposition of the contents.
rrfr *^ The first book, after a general introduction, sets forth
*•*•*" the causes of the Peloponn'»ian War. The first nine
yean of the war are contained in the second, third and
fourth books— three years in each. The fifth book contains the.
tenth year, folbwcd by the interval of the " insecure peace." The
Sicilian expedition fills the nxth and seventh books The eighth
books opens that last chapter of the stniggle which is known as the
" Docelean " or " Ionian '* War, and breUcs off abniptly^in the
middle of a sentence. Indeed — in the year 41 1.
The principal reason against believing that the division into
eight books was made by Thucydides himself b the fact that a
nil, w different division, into thirteen books, was also current
gZg '" antiquity, as aiipcus from Marccllinus (§ 58). It b
^*V^ very impfobable—indeed hardly conceivable — that this
shouU have been the case if the citht-book division
had come down from the hand of the author. Wc may infer, then.
tnat me mvision 01 me -mwK inco oKnt dooks wbs moDouoea a
Alexandria— perhaps in the 3rd or and century B.C. That divisioi
was already familiar to the grammarians of the Augustan agi
Dionysius of Halicamassus, who recognizes it, has also anothc
&
that the divbion of the yntk into eight books was mtrodaped at
division
tan age.
Dionysius of Halicamassus, who recognizes it, has also another
mode <if indicating portions of the work, viz. by sUckomtlria, or
the number of lines which they contained. Thus, in the MS.
which he used^ the first 87 chapters of book i. contained about
3000 lines (eouivalent to about 1700 lines in Bokker's stereotyped
8vo text). (On the order of composition, see Peloponnbsian
Wak, lid nUL'^ and Gksbcb: Aneieni History, | Authorities).
The divinon of the war by lummen and winters (carA 9kpoi ml
Xsmmm) — the end of the winter heing considered as the end of the
year — b perhaps the only one which Thucydides him- ^_^ ,^
self used, for there is no indication that he made any y? ^^
divison of the History into books. Hb " summer £.'1. "^
includes spring and autumn and extends, generally "**■
speakini^, from march or the beginning of April to the end of October.
Hb "wmter" — November to February inclusive — means practi-
cally the period during which military operations, by land and sea.
are wholly or partly suspended. When he speaks of *' summer "
and " winter *' as answenng r e s pec ti vely to " half " the year (v. ao,
* the phrase b not to be pressed : it means merely that he divides
year into these two ports. The mode of reckoning is essentially
a rough one, and b not to be viewed as if the commencement of
summer or of winter could be precisely fixed to constant dates.
For dironok»y, besides the festivals, he uses the Athenian list of
archons, the Spartan Ibt of ephon and the Aigive Ibt of priestesses
of Heia.
There is no reference to the History of ThuQrdides in the extant
Greek writers of the 4th century B.C.; but Ludan has preserved a
traditbn of the enthusaam with which it was studied Dy Demos-
thenes. The great orator b sakl to have copied it out eight times,
or even to have learat it by heart. The Alexandrian critics acknow-
ledged Thucydides as a great master of Attic. Sallust, Corodius
Nepos, Ckero and Quintubn are amone the Roman writers whose
admiration for him can be traced in their work, or has been ex-
pressly recorded. The most elaborate ancient criticbm on the
diction and compos i tion of Thucydides b conuioed in three essays
by Dionysius of Halicamassus.
Among the best MSS. of Thocydides, the Codex vaticanus 126
(nth century) represents a recension made in the Alexandrian or
Roman age. In the first ax books the number of mcc ^c.
passages m which the Vaticanus alone has prc-scrved *"**•
a true readinff b comparatively small ; in book vii. it is somewhat
larger; in book viii. it b so lai^e that here the Vaticanus, as com-
pared with the other MSS., acquires the character of a revised text.
Other Important MSS. are the Pabtinus 352 (itth century); the
Cassebnus (a.d. 1253); the Augustanus monacensb 430 (a.d. 1301).
A collation, m books L, ii., of two Cambridge MSS. of the isth century
(Nn. 3, 18; Kk. 5. 19) has been published by Shilkrto. Several
Parisian MS& (H. C. A. F.). and a Venetian MSS. cV.) colbtcd by
Arnold, also deserve mention. The Aldinc edition was published
in i^. It was formerly supposed that there had been two
Jnntme editions. Shilleto, in the " Notice " prefixed to book i.,
first pointed out that the only Juntine edition was that of 1526.
and that the belkf in an earlier luntine, of 1506, arose merely
from the accidental omission of the word viccsimo in tlie Latin
version of the imprint. Some papyrus fragments were published
in GrenfeU and Hunt's Oxyrkynckua papyri (1908). v>.. which
also contains an anonymous commentary (pub. ist century) 00
ThuclL
The most generally useful edition b Classen's, in the Wcidmann
Series (1862-1878; new ed. by Steup, 1883-1892); each book can be
obtained separately. Arnold's edition (1848^1851) contains much
that b still valttabW. For books i. and Ii. Shilleto's edition (1872-
1876) furnishes a commentary which, though not full, deals admir-
ably with many difficult points. Among other important complete
editions, it is enough to name those of Dukcr, Bekker, Gocllcr.
Poppo and KrOger. For editions of separate books and selections
(up to 189s) see J. B. Mayor's Gmide to tkt Choiee of Classical Books.
Special mention may be made of those by £. C. Marchant. Later
cditbns of the text are by H. Stuart Jones (1900- looi), in the Oxford
Scriptorum ciossicorum hiHiolheca, and C. Hude ( * Teubncr Scries."
1901; ed. minor, 1903). Bent's lexicon to Thucydides (1841) n
wdl executed. Jowctt's tnnsbtion (1883) b supplemented by
a volume of notes. Dale's version (Bohn) also deserves mention
for its fidelity, as Crawley's (1876) for its vigour. Hellcnica (1880)
contains an essay on " The Speeches of Thucydides," which has been
transbted into German (see Eduard Meyer. Forsefntnren tur alien
Ccsckickte, Bd. ii. pp. 309-436). The best due to Thucydkkan
bibliography is ia Engelmann's Scripiores t^aeci (1680), supple-
mented by the articles by G. Meyer, in Bui>ian's Jahresbrrtckt,
(1895) Ixxix.. (1897) bcxxviii. Busolt. Criechiicke Ccsckkkte, iil.
6i6h593, is invaluable. For the life of Thucydides. U. von Wilamo-
witz-Modhmdodf. " Die Thukydides-Legende." Hermes, (1878) xu.,
is all important. All works on ancient Greek History contain
discussions of Thucydides. and an interesting; criticism is that of
J. B. Bury, Ancient Creek Historians (1909). F. M. Cornford*
896
THUGS— THUGUT, BARON
Thucydides mytkistoricus (1907), sought to prove that the History
b really only an historical tragedy, t^ a dramatixed version of the
facts, but this view has not been adopted. (R. C. J.; J. M. M.)
THUGS. That ihe Sanskrit root slhag (Pali, {kah), to cover,
to conceal, was mainly applied to fraudulent concealment, ap-
pears from the noun slhagGf a cheat, which has retained this
signification in the modem vernaculars, in all of which it has
assumed the form ihag (commonly written ikug)^ with a
specific meaning. The Thugs were a well-organized confede-
racy of professional assassins, who in gangs of whom xo to 200
travelled in various guises through India, wormed themselves
into the confidence of wayfarers of the wealthier class, and, when
a favourable opportunity occurred, strangled them by throwing
a handkerchief or noose immd their necks, and then plundered
and buried them. All this was done according to certain ancient
and rigidly prescribed forms and after the performance of special
religious rites, in which the consecration of the pickaxe and the
sacrifice of sugar formed a prominent part. From their using
the noose as an instrument of murder they were also frequently
called Phansigars, or " noose-operators." Though they them-
selves trace their origin, to seven Mahommedan tribes, Hindus
appear to have been associated with them at an early period;
at any rate, their religious creed and practices as stanch wor-
shippers of Kali (Devi, Durga), the Hindu goddess of destruction,
had certainly no flavour of Islam in them. Assassination for
gain was with them a religious duty, and was considered a holy
and honourable profession. They had, in fact, no idea of doing
wrong, and their moral feelings did not come into play. The will
of the goddess by whose command and in whose honour they
followed their calling was revealed to them through a very
complicated system of omens. In obedience to these they often
travelled hundreds of miles in company with, or in the wake of,
their intended victims before a safe opportunity presented itself
for executing their design; and, when the deed was done, rites
were performed in honour of that tutelary deity, and a goodly
portion of the spoil was set apart for her. The fraternity
possessed also a jargon of their own {Raman), as well as certain
signs by which its members recognized each other in the remotest
parts of India. Even those who from age or infirmities could no
longer take an active part in the operations continued to aid the
cause as watchers, spies, or dressers of food. It was owing to
their thorough organization, the secrecy and security with which
they went to work, but chiefly to the religious garb in which they
shrouded their murders, that they could, unmolested by Hindu
or Mahommedan rulers, recognized as a regular profession and
paying taxes as such, continue for centuries to practise their
craft. Both the fractions into which they were divided by the
Nerbudda river laid claim to antiquity: while the northern,
however, did not trace their origin further back than the period
of the early Mahommedan kings of Delhi, the southern fraction
not only claimed an earlier and purer descent, but adhered also
with greater strictness to the rules of their profession.
The eariiest authenticated mention of the Thugs is found in the
following passage of Ziau-d din Bami's History of Firoz Shah
(written about 1356): "In the reign of that sultan," that is,
about 1290, " some Thugs were taken in Delhi, and a man belong-
ing to that fraternity was the means of about a thousand being
captured. But not one d these dfil the sultan have killed. He
co-operation of a number of native states, succeeded in completely
grappling with the evil, so that up to October 1835 no fewer than
1562 Thugs had been committed, of which number 382 were
hanged and 986 transported or imprisoned for life. According
to the Thuggee and Dacoily Report for iSjg, the number of
registered Punjabi and Hindustani Thugs then still amounted to
344; but all of these had already been registered as sucb before
1852, and the whole fraternity may now be considered as cxtincL
The Thuggee and Dacoity department continued to exist until
1904, though its operations hsid long been confined to the sup-
pression of organized robbery in native states. Its place is now
taken by the Central Criminal Intelligence department.
Full particulars concerning the system of Thagi are riven by
Dr Sherwood, " On the Murderers called Phansigars," and J. Shake-
spear, " Observations regarding Bradhcks and Thees " (both treat-
ises in vol. xiii. (1820), of the Asiatic Researches) {Vi. N. Slecman,
Ramasuana, or a Vocabulary of the Language used by the Thugs, tn'tib
an Introduction and Appendix (Calcutta, 1836) ; the Edinburgh Retie9
ior Januanr 1837; E. Thornton, Illustralions of the History and
Practices of the Thugs (London, 1837); Meadows Taylor, Confessions
of a Thug (London, 1839; new ed. 1879); Major Slceman, Re pvrt
on the Depredations committed by the Thug Gangs (Calcutta, 1840);
J. Hutton, Popular Account of the Thugs and Dacoils (Lor.don.
1857). (R- R.)
THUGUT, JOHANH AHADEUS FRANCIS DE PAULA* Baron
(i 736-1818), Austrian diplomatist, was bom at Linz on the 24ih
of May 1736. His origin and name have been the subject of
legends more or less malicious and probably the inventions of
enemies. It has been said that the correct form of his name xvas
Thunichtgut, or Thenitguet (do no good), and was altered to
Thugut (do good) by Maria Theresa. Tunicotta has bem
given as a variation. But Thugut was the name of his great-
grandfather, who belonged to Budweiss in southern Bohemia.
He was the legitimate son of Johann Thugut, an army paymaster,
who married Eva Maria Mdsbauer, daughter of a miller near
Vienna. The paymaster, who died about 1760, left his widow
and children in distress, and Maria Theresa took charge of them.
Johann Amadeus was sent to the school of Oriental languages.
He entered the Austrian foreign oflice as an interpreter and niras
appointed dragoman to the embassy at Constantinople. In 1769
he was appointed charge d'affaires, and in that capacity secured
a grant of money and a promise of the territory of Little
Wallachia from the Turks during the negotiations connected
with the first partition of Poland (see Poland: History). In 1 771
he was appointed internuncio at Constantinople and was actively
engaged, under the direction of Prince Kaunitz, in all the
diplomacy of Austria in Turkey and Poland until he secured
the cession of the Bukovina on the 7th of May 1775. During
these years Thugut was engaged in a mean intrigue. His salary
as dragoman was small, and his needs great. He therefore
agreed to receive a pension of 13,000 livres, a brevet of lieutenant-
coloifel, and a promise of a safe refuge in case of necessity from
the king of France, Louis XV. The condition on which the
pension was granted was that he took advantage of his position
as an Austrian ofiicial to render secret services to France The
only excuses to be made for him are that such hidden arrange-
ments were not uncommon before and in his time, and that as a
matter of fact he never did render France any real service, or
betray his masters at Vienna. Vet the terror of discovery
disturbed him at several periods of his life, and when Louis XV.
in 1774 he showed a strong disposition to take refuge in
ice, and would have done so if Louis XVI. would have given
a promise of employment. His pension was continued. It
js to be tolerably certain that at a later period he made a clean
st to the emperor Francis U. His services a t Constantinople
i approved by Prince Kaunitz (g.v.), who may possibly have
k informed of the arrangement with the French secret diplo-
ic fund. It is never safe to decide whether these treasons
J single or double. When Thugut was appointed internuncio
^as also ennobled, being raised to the Ritlerstand. After 177$
ravelled in France and Italy, partly on diplomatic service.
778 he was the agent through whom Maria Theresa entered
direct negotiations with Frederick the Great, in order to
the Bavarian War. In 1780 he was Austrian envoy in
THUIN— THULE
897
Wanav, but in X7S3 he applied for leave and satisfied his
batikering after France by Uving for four years in Paris. It
was in this time that bis savings, made during his years ol
service at CoDstantinopIe, by means which would probably not
bear investigation, were invested in France. Tbiigut became
acquainted with many of the leaders in the Revolution. From
1787 to 1789 he was minister at Naples, and showed great lact in
managing the queen, Maria Carolina, a daughter of Maria Theresa.
In 1790 he was sent by the emperor Joseph II. to Bucharest,
nominally as commissioner with the hospodar of WaUachia, but
in reality m order that he might open negotiations for peace with
the Turks. Until 1792 be was much in France and Belgium*
partly as a diplomatic agent, but largely because he was anxious
to rescue his investments, vriiich were ultimately lost. His
personal grievances may have had some share in creating the
hatred of the Revolution and the Jacobins, for which he was
afterwards famous. In 1792 he was associated with Mercy
Argenteau, formerly Austrian ambassador in France, as. diplo-
matic agent at the headquarters of the allied anny. The
mismanagement of the invasion of France excited his anger. He
came back to Vienna to report the facts to Francis II., to whom
be presented a statement on the a7th of December. On the
19th of Janoary 1793 he was appointed armie diplomat at head-
quarters, largely, it is said, by the intrigues of Philip Cobenzl and
Spielmann, who wished to have him out of the way. But he
never went, for at this time Russia and Prussia annexed large
parts of Poland. Austria, entangled in the war with France,
was left empty-handed (see Poland : History). The emperor, dis-
satisfied with the ministers who had not prevented this mis-
fortune, dismissed them, and after some delay Thugut was named
"director of the foreign affairs of Austria" on the a 5th of
March 1793. When Prince Kaunitz died in the following year
Thugut was appointed to " discharge the duties of the office of
house, court, and state chancellor." His promotion to the
foremost place in the Austrian administration met with much
opposition, and is known to have been largely due to the empress
Maria Theresa of Naples. The Austrian government was by
tradition very aristocratic. The empress Maria Theresa, mother
of Francis II., though ^e valued the services of Thugut, had
consented with reluctance to make him commander of the order
of St Stephen, and had only yielded to the urgent requests of
Kaunita and of her son Joseph II. She thought the promotion
excessive for a man of his plebeian origin. The nobles, who
thought tha( the great offices of state should go to themselves,
were of the same opinion. Thugut, who had a large fund of
vanity, resented their insolence, and did nothing to dbarm their
hostility. He was unmarried, and he avoided all society. In
the discharge of his duties he took counsel with nobody. All the
confidential work of his department was done by himself with
the help of two clerks he could trust, and he took all important
papers directly to the emperor, keeping no copies in his own office.
He had his own experience to teach him bow easy it was to bribe
the officials of Austria. The nobles, who regarded themselves
with good cause as the supporters of the Crown, and who expected
to be consulted, resented his indifference and secrecy as the
arrogance of an upstart. They were his constant enemies and
critics. A few of them who admired his abilities supported him
on personal grounds, but with these exceptions Thugut had no
friends in Austria. Out of it, be was commonly regarded as the
representative of aU that was most unscrupulous and self-seeking
in the methods of the Austrian govenunent. He had inherited
from bia master Prince Kaunitx the firm conviction that Prussia
was the worst enemy of Austria. From him, too, he had learnt
that the first duty of an Austrian minister was to be an increaser
of the empire, even at the expense of allies, and that excuses for
annexation were to be made when tbey could not be found. His
hiitred of France, and of the Revolution, was no doubt sincere.
But while prepare d to defend Europe from French aggression,
it was with the implied intention that Austria should be rewarded
for her exertions by increases of territory, and should be made the
absohite mistress of Germany. The history of his policy from
1793 to 1800 u the bittory of Europe. The conflicting objects
which he kept before him, resistance to French aggression on the
west, and to Russian and Prussian aggressions on the east, and
the pursuit of more territory for Austria, compelled him to divide
his exertions and his forces. Thus in 1793-94 he recalled
troops from the west to participate in a partition of Poland,
thereby taking pressure off France, and doing much to smooth
the way for her subsequent viaories. Some of his actions
cannot be described as other than criminal. He was certainly
re^Mnsible for the murderous attack on the French envoys at
Rastadt in April 1799. He may have intended that tbey should
only be robbed, but he must be held responsible for the acts of his
agents. So again be has to answer for the perverse policy of
Aiutria in 1799 when Suvarov (^.v.) and the Russians were
recalled from northern Italy for no visible reason except that
Austria should be left in sole possession of the dominions of the
king of Sardinia, with a good excuse for keeping them. The
correspondence of Joseph de Maistre shows how bitterly the
continental allies of Austria resented her selfishness, and how
firmly they were persuaded that she was fighting for her own
hand. That Thugut believed that he was doing his duty, and
that be was carrying on the traditional policy of Austria, may
be true. Yet his methods were so extreme, and his attitude so
provocative as to justify the judgment passed on him by Kaunitz
— ^namely, that he required the control of a strong hand if good
results were to be obtained from his ability. After the defeats
of Austria in Italy in 1796-^7 and the peace of Campo Formic,
it became a fixed object with the French, and with a growing
party in Austria who held him responsible for the disasters of
the war, to secure the removal of Thugut. He found no support,
except from the British government, which considered him as a
sure ally and had great influence at Vienna as paymaster of
subsidies. The death of the empress Catherine of Russia
deprived him of a friend at court. During the rampaigns of
1799 and x8oo Thugut was the advocate of war " to the knife.'*
At the end he was kept in office only by tbe vigorous support of
England. The battle of Hohenllnden on the 3Td of December
x8oo made his position untenable. He retired from public life,
and left Vienna for Pressburg on the 27th of March x8ox. At
a later period he returned to Vienna and lived quietly on a
pension of 7000 florins till his death on the 28th of May x8x8. In
personal appearance Thugut is described as looking like '*a
faunish Mephistopheles," a favourite of Loub XI., an lulian
tyrant of the worst type, and by the prince de Ligne as what
Henry IV. of France would have been if he had been king of the
Jews, and if his mouth had worn a constant expression of deri-
sion, hate and malignity. The only known portrait of him
appears to bear out these unpleasant descriptions.
See A. von Vivenot. Thutul uni setn pUilisck^t System, a tnon;
defence of his policy in I793'i794 (Vienna, 1870): and QueiUn s.
GesckickU d. deutsthm Kauerpoiitih (ktterrficks wdhrend d. frames.
Rnolutions-Krieg (Vienaa.1873-1885).
THUIK, a (own of Belgium, in that part of the province of
Hainaut called " entre Sambre et Meuse." Pop. (1904). 6198.
It is situated on the Sambre about 9 m. S.W. of Charleroi. The
old pari of the town, which dates back to the xoth century,
occupies a narrow promontory between the Sambre and a small
stream called the BiesmeUe. The ruined tower called after him
is all that remains of the fortress constructed by Bishop Notger
of Li£ge. It was successfully defended against the Normans
and long afterwards against the French imder Marshal de Lorgcs
in 1654. Although the town itself reuins something of its
medieval appearance it is the centre of a great manufacturing
and mining district, the banks of the Sambre being lined with
factories and coal-yards.
THULB, the Greek and Roman name for the most northerly
known land in the north Atlantic The first to use the name was
the Greek navigator Pytbeas (about 300 b.c. probably). He
calls it the most northerly of the British Isles and says that be
reached it after six days' sail from BriUin: it was inhabited, but
produced little; com grew there sparingly and ripened ill; in
summer the nights were long and bright. This account of hia
travels is lost save for fragments, and the few surviving fragments
898 THUMMEL, M. A. VON— THUN-HOHENSTEIN
* ove which is Sigriswil), and Merligen, while above the lake,
T its east end, are the wooded heights of St Beatenbefg,
1 known to summer visitors. The first steamer was placed
the lake in 1835. (W. A. B. C.)
rHUNBERG. KARL PETER 0743-i838)> Swedish naturalist,
I born at Jdnk5ping on the nth of November 1743, and
amc a pupil of Linnaeus at the university of Upsala. After •
duating in medicine there in 1770 he obtained an appoint-
nt as surgeon in the Dutch East India Company, and sailed
the Cape of Good Hope in 1771. He spent three years there.
I then went to Japan, where he remained till 1778, engaged
naking collections of plants. On his return in 1779 he visited
gland, and made the acquaintance of Sir Joseph Banks.
1 781 he was appointed demonstrator of botany at Upsala.
I he succeeded the younger Linnaeus as professor of botany
1784. He published his Flora japonica in 1784, and in 1788
began to publish his travels. He completed his Prodomus
ntarum in 1800, his Icones plantarum japonicarum in 1805,
i his Flora capensis in 1813. He published numerous
moirs in the transactions of many Swedish and other scientific
ieties, of sixty-six of which he was an honorary member,
died near Upsala on the 8th of August 1828. A genus of
pical plants {Tkunbergla), of the natural order Acanthaceae,
ich are cultivated as evergreen climbers, is named after
1.
rHUNDBR, the noise which accompanies or follows a flash
lightning, due to the disturbance of air by a discharge of
ctricity (see Lightning; Atmospheric Electricity and
;:txorolocy). The Old English word is bunor , also the name
the Scandinavian god Thor (^.v.), which is cognate w^ith Dutch
ider, German Donner. The root is than," Indo-European tan-,
Latin tonare, tonitru. This root is apparently another form
Stan-, as in Skr. slan, to sound, thunder, Gr. orlMay, to
>an, Eng. "stun."
THUN-HOHENSTEIN. The family of Thun-Hohcnstein,
; of the wealthiest of the Austrian nobility, which has for
re than 200 years settled at Tetschen, in Bohemia, has given
eral distinguished members to the Austrian public service,
the three sons of Count Franx, the eldest, Fkieomcb (1810-
h), entered the diplomatic service; after holding other posts
was in 1850 appointed president of the restored German Diet
Frankfort, where he represented the anti-Prussian policy of
iwarzenberg, and often came into conflict with Bismarck,
was Prussian envoy. He was afterwards ambassad<ff
Berlin and St Petersburg. After his retirement from the
blic service in 1863 he supported in the Bohemian Landtag
1 the Austrian Reichsrat the federal policy of his brother Leo.
1879 he was made hereditary member of the Upper House.
this position he was on his death, on the 24th of September
Si, succeeded by his eldest son Franz Anton (b. 1847).
ce the rest of his family, he belonged to the Federalist party.
1 his appointment in 1889 as governor of Bohemia was th«
jse of grave dissatisfaction to the German Austrians. He
>k a leading part in the negotiation of 1890 for the Bohemlin
tlement, but the elections of 1891, in which the young Czechs
io were opposed to the feudal party gained a decisive victor)-,
ide his position a very difficult one. Contrary to expectation.
showed great energy in suppressing disorder; bui after the
>clamation of a state of siege his position became untenable,
d in 189s he had to resign. On the resignation of Badeni in
^ he was made minister president, an office which he held
■ little more than a year, for, though he succeeded in bringing
a conclusion the negotiations with Hungary, the support he
ve to the Czechs and Slovenians increased the opposition of
i Germans to such a degree that parliamentary government
came impossible, and at the end of 1899 he was dismissed.
The tbiid son of Count Franz, Leopold or Leo (1811-18S8).
18 one of the leading Austrian statesmen. After studying at the
iversity of Prague he travelled through Europe, and among
lier countries he visited England, where he became acquainted
th James Hope (afterwards Hope-Scott) and other leaders
the TiBCtarian party. He was much affected by che romantic
I
THURET, G. A.— THURGAU
899
moveuMiit and the mtrtmoDUiie revival, and after hit leturn
home interested himself greatly in the revival of Csech language
and literature and the growth of the Bohemian national feeling.
He formed a personal friendship with Palacky and others of
the Czech leaders; he helped in the foundattoo of schools in
which Czech should be taught, and set himself to acquire some
knowledge of the language. He was also interested in prison
reform, on which he wrote, and other philanthropic work. After
serving under Stadton in Galida, he was in 1848, after the out-
break of the revolution, appointed president of the adminbtra-
tion and acting Stadthalicr in Bohemia. He had scarcely
entered on his duties when the rebellion of June broke out in
Prague. In order to avoid bloodshed, he went down to the in-
surgents on the barricade, but was seised by them, imprisoned,
and for some time his life was in danger. On his release he
vigorously supported Windischgriltz, who was in command of
the troops, in the restoration of order, but thereby lost his
popularity and was superseded. He still defended the Bohemian
national movement, and in one of his writings laid down the
principle that nationality was one of the interests outside the
control of the state. Notwithstanding this, in 1849 he accepted
the office of minister of religion and education, which he held in
i860 under the autocratic and centralizing administration of
Schwarzenberg and Bach. At first he threw himself with great
energy into the task of building up an adequate system of schools.
He summoned experienced teachers, Protestant as well as
Catholic, from Germany, established middle and higher schools
in all paru of the empire, auperaeded the antiquated textbooks
and methods of instruction, and encouraged the formation of
learned societies and the growth of a professional spirit and
independence among the teachers. It is noticeable that at this
time he inabted on the use of German in all schools of higher
education. As minister of religion he was to a certain extent
responsible for the concordat which again subjected the schools
to the control of the Church: to a certain extent he thereby
undid some of his work for the eztenskm of education, and it was
of him that Grillparsar said, *M have to announce a suicide.
The minister of religion has murdered the minister of education."
Bnt during his administration the influence of the church over
the schools was really much less thao» by the thieory of the con-
cordat, It would hav^appeared to be. The crisis of 1860, by
which the office he held was abolished, was the end of hia official
career; for the rest of his life he was very prominent as the
leader of the Federalist party in Bohemia. His high social
position, his influence at court, his character, aa well as his
undoubted abilities and learning, not often in Austtin found in a
man of his rank, gave him great influence. He supported the
claims of Bohemia to a lull autonomy; he strongly attacked
both the February constitution and the Ausilekk with Hungary;
what he desired was a common parliament for the whole empire
based on a settlement with each one of the territories. With
the old Caechs he refused to recognise the constitution of 1867;
he helped to draft the declaration of 1868 and the fundamental
articles of 1871, and took a leading part in the negotiations
during the ministry of Potocki and Hohenwart. In order to
found a strong Conservative party he established a paper, the
VaJerhndt which was the organ of the Clerical and Federalist
party. It is needless to say that he protested against the
ecclesiastical legislation of 1867 and 1873* He married in 1847
the coTfntess Clim-Martinic, but there was im> issue of the
marriage. He died in Vienna on the 17th of December 1888.
See the very full article by Frankfurter in the AUfememe dnascke
BiotrapkU, which superKdes hu eariier biogrsphy. (J* W. Ha.) •
THURBT, GUSTAVE ADOIPHB (181 7-1 87 5), French botanist,
was bom in Paris on the 3jrd of May 1817. He came of an old
Huguenot family, which had sought refuge for a time in Holland
after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. A trace of
Dutch influence still persists in the pronunciation of the family
name in which the final t is sounded. Thuret's mother
was brought up in England; En^ish was the first language that
he learnt, and he appears to have retained strong sympathies
with Great Britain throughout life. As a young man he studied
foe the law; In his leisure time he was an ardent musician, and
it was from a musical friend, de Villers, that be received, in 1837,
his first initiation into botany. Beginning simply as a coUectorf
he soon came under the influence of Joseph Decaisne (1809-1882),
whose pupil he became. It was Decaisne who first encouraged
him to undertake those algok>gical studies which were to become
the chief work of his life. Thuret twice visited Constantinople
in company with the French ambassador, M. de Pontois, and
was for a time attach^ to the French embassy there. His
diplomatic career, though of short duration, gave him a valuable
opportunity of studying the Oriental flora. After Uavelling in
Syria and Egypt in the autumn of 1841, he returned to France.
Giving up his intention of entering the civil service, he retired
to his father's country house at Rentllly, and thenceforth devoted
himself to scientific research. He had already, in 1840, published
his first scientific paper, " Notes sur I'aoth^e de Chara et les
animalcules qu'elle renferme," in which he first accurately
described the organs of motion of the " animalcules " or sperm>
atozoids of these plants. He continued his studies of the zoos*
pores and male cells of Algae and other Cryptogams, and our
exact knowledge of these remarkable uMtile stages in vegetable
life is largely due to hia labours. He spent a great part of his
time, up to 1857* on the Atlantic coast of France, assiduously
observing the niaiine Algae in their natural habitat and at all
seasons. In conjunction with his friend £douard Bomet,
he became the recognized authority on this important group
of plants, of which the two colleagues acquired an uoTivaUcd
knowledge. Their work, while remarkable for taxonomic
accuracy, was more especially concentrated on the natural
history, development and modes of reproduction of the
plants investigated. The discovery of sexiial reproduction in
seaweeds is almoat wholly the work of these two men. The
researches on the fecundation of the Fucaccae were published
by Thuret in 1853 and r855; the complicated and difficult
question of the sexual reproduction in Floridae was solved by
the joint work of Thuret and Bomet (1867). These great dis^
coveric»— o£ far-reaching biological significance— stand out as
the chief, but every group of marine Algae was elucidated by
the researches of Thuret and his colleague. There it few
scientific authors whose work has so completely stood the
test of subsequent investigation and criticism, lliuret's style
in expounding his results was singularly clear and concise; he
was a man of wide education, and possessed the power of express-
ing his ideas with literary akiU. Unfortunately, much of his
best work remained unpublished during his hfe. A portion
of the material accumulated by himself and his colleague was
embodied in two magnificent works published after his death —
the NoUs alfohgfqms (i876>x88o), and the still finer £iuda
pMyc^giques ( 1878). These volumes, as well as earlier memoirs,
are illustrated by drawings of unequalled accuracy and beauty
from the hand of the artist Riocreux, whom Thuret employed.
In 1857 Thuret removed to Antibcs <m the Mediterranean coast,
where, on a once barren promontory, he established a botanic
gardra which became famous throughout the scientific world.
Since his death the Antibes establishment has been placed at
the disposal of botanical workers as an institute for research.
Thuret died suddenly, while on a visit td Nice, on the loth of
^lay 1875, when he bad scarcely completed his fifty^eighth year.
He was a man <^ considerable wealth, whor devoted his money
as freely *as his time and labour to the advancement of science,
but his high reputation rests on the brilliancy of his personal
investigations.
The best and fullest acooont of Thuret's career is that by his
friend and fellow ivorker Bomet, published in the Amatgs des
sciences naturelUs for 1876. An English notice of his life, by
Professor \V. G. Farlow, will be found in the Joumai tf Botany
for the same year. (D. H. S.)
THUROAU (Fr. Tkurgorie), one of the cantons of north-
eastern Switzerland, bordering on the Lake of Constance and the
Rhine as it issues from that bke. Its total area is 390*4 sq. m.,
of which 336>9sq. m. are reckoned as " productive " (forests cover-
ing 693 sq. ra. and vineyards 4*4 s<l* n>-)i oi the " unproductive "
900
THURIBLB
portion most (sol sq. m.) consists of the cantonal share of the
Lake of Constance. The canton is partly made up of the cen-
tral portion of the valley of the Thur (which rises in the
Toggenbarg), with its affluent the Murg, and partly of the
level stretch along the west shore of the Lake of Constance and
left bank of the Rhine. Low ranges of wooded hills separate
the lake from the Thur valley and the latter from that of the
Murg, as well as from the cantons of Zurich and of St Gall,
the highest point in the canton being situated at its southern
extremity, and forming the northern slope (3371 ft.) of the
HSmli (3727 ft.), itself wholly in Zurich. The small outlying
district of Horn is an " enclave " in the canton of St Gall, because
it was acquired in 1463 by the bishop of Constance, who incor-
porated it with the bailiwick of Arbon, the fate of which it has
followed. In 1798 the lower portion of the Stammheim. glen
was given to Zurich, as well as the Diessenhofen region to Schaff-
hausen, but the latter region came back to Thurgau in x8oo.
The main railway line from Winterthur to Romanshom (with
a branch to St Gall) runs right through the canton, while on its
north edge is the direct line along the left bank of the Rhine
from Constance to Schafthausen. A network of well-made
roads traverses the canton in every direction, some of them being
now served by public motor cars. It is a prosperous region,
the population being mainly engaged in agriculture, and in
cotton-spinning, which is often combined with it at home. The
orchards are so splendid that Thurgau has been called " the
garden of Helvetia." The vineyards produce a number of
highly esteemed wines (the best known is the red Bachtobler),
which are said to retain their strength for eight or ten years,
this being attributed to the influence of the east wind to which
the vines are much exposed. In 1900 the population was 1x3,331,
of whom 110,845 were German-speaking, 1867 Italian-speaking
and 332 French-speaking, while there were 77.aio Protestants,
35,834 Romanists and 113 Jews. Its capital is Frauenfeld
(q.v.), while other important places are Arbon (pop. 5677),
Kreuzllngen (4732), practically a suburb of Constance, and
Romanshorn (g.v.), the chief port of the canton on the Lake of
Constance. Till 1814 it was in the diocese of Constance, and
since 1828 in that of Basel. The canton is divided into eight
administrative districts, which comprise 3X3 communes. In
1869 the very advanced existing constitution was adopted,
by which the " initiative " (or right of 3500 electors to compel
the cantonal assembly to take any subject into consideration),
and the " obligatory referendum," taking pbce twice a year
(by which all laws passed by the cantonal assembly, and all
financial resolutions involving a capital expenditure of 50,000
francs or an axmual one of 10,000, must be submitted to a popular
vote), were introduced. The cantonal government consists
of a legislative assembly or Grossvat (one member to every
250 electors, or fraction over 125) and a Regierungstat or execu-
tive council of fivfe members, both elected directly by the people
and holding office for three years; 5000 electors can at any
time call for a popular vote on the question of the dismissal
of either one or the other. Further, to show the very democratic
character of the (1869) constitution, it may be added that
members of both houses of the Federal assembly are in Thurgau
elected direct by the l)eople, and hold office for three years.
The " communes " in Thurgau are of no less than eleven or twelve
varieties. The division of the lands, &c., of the old *', burgher
communes " between them and the new communes, consisting
of all residents (with whom political power rests), was carried
out (1872) in all the 3X3 communes; but there are stiU 38 gilds
or corporations with special rights over certain forests, &c.
The Thurgau originally tooic in all the country, roughly
speaking, between the Reuss, the Lake of Lucerne, the R^ine
and the Lake of Constance; but many smaller districts
(ZUrichgau, Toggenburg, Appenzell, St GaU) were gradually
carved out of it, and the county was reduced to about
the 8120 of the present canton when in 1364 it passed
by the gift of the last count of Kyburg to his nephew
Rudolph of Habsborg, chosen emperor in 1273. In 14x5
the count. Duke Frederick of Aistria (a Hababurg), was
put under the ban of the empire by the emperor Slgismond for
having aided Pope John XXIIL to escape from Constance,
and the county was overrun, Sigismund in 14x7 mortgaging
to the city of Constance the appellate jurisdiction in all civil
and criminal matters (" Landgericht " and " Blutbann ") arising
within the county, which he bad declared to be forfeited in
consequence of Frederick's conduct. In 1460 some of the
Confederates, now becoming very eager for conquests, overran
and seized the county. Winterthur was saved, but in 1461
Frederick's son, Duke Sigismund, had perforce to cede the
county to the Confederates. Henceforth it was ruled as a
"subject district" by seven members of the League — Bern
occupied in the west, not being admitted to a share in the govern-
ment till 171 3, after one of the wars of religion. It was only
in 1499 that the Confederation (then consisting of ten members)
obtained from the emperor (the daims of Constance being passed
over in silence) the supreme jurisdiction, through the mediation
of the duke of Milan, but there were still 103 minor jurisdictions
belonging to various lords spiritual (particularly the bishop
of Constance, the abbot of St GaU and the abbot of Reichcnau)
and temporal, which went on till 1798 and greiUly limited the
power of the Confederates. Thurgau had hoped, but in vain,
to be admitted in X499 a full member of the Confederation.
At the time of the Reformation many of the inhabitants
became Protestants, and bitter qnarrels ensued between tbe
Protestant and Catholic (the latter having a large majority)
members of the Confederation who had rights over Thurgau,
with regard to the toleration of the new doctrines in the ** subject
districts " such as Thurgau. By the first peace of Kappel
(i 539) the majority in each " commune " was to settle the religion
of that "commune," but by the second (i 531, after Zwingli*s
death) both religions were to be allowed side by side in each
"commune." Thurgau thus became a "canton of parity,"
as it is to this day. Its rulers, however^ continued to watch
each other very closely, and Kilian Kessehing, one of the chief
military commanders in Thurgau, was in 1633, on suspidon
of having connived at the advance ctf the Swedes through
Thurgau on Constance.seizedby tbeCatholiccantonsandseverely
punished. In 1798 Thurgau became free, and was one of the
nineteen cantons of the Hdvetic republic, being formally received
(like the other " subject lands ") as a luU member of the Swiss
Confederation in 1803 by the Act of Mediation. It was one of
the very first cantons to revise, in X830, after the July revohition
in Paris, its constitution in a very liberal sense, and in 183 x
proposed a revision of the Federal Pact of 18x5. This failed,
but the new Federal constitutions of X848 (of which one of the
two drafters was Kern of Thurgau) and 1874 were approved by
vexy large majorities. In 1848 almost all of the convents in
the canton were suppressed, one only (that of theDomiu'can
nuns at St Katharinenthal) surviving till extinguished in 1869
by the new cantonal constitution, which also forbade the erection
of any new religious houses. In 1849 the cantonal constitution
was revised and the veto introduced, by which the people might
reject a bill passed by the cantonal assembly. The castle
(modem) of Arenenberg, above the western arm of tbe Lake of
Constance, belonged to the Napoleonic family from 18x7 to
X843, and was repurchased by them in X85S. It contains many
relics of Napoleon III., whose widow, the ex-empress Eug^iue,
in 1906 presented it (with provision for axmual masses in the
chapel) to the canton of Thuipiu, which has converted it into
an agricultural college.
AVTHOnnfEa,—Beilra£e(Tkurg.)tur vaUritnd. CfseAteAle(pubIialied
by the Cantonal Hist. See.: from X86i); J. Habcrlin, Ceuk, d. KanL
rAKrfa«./7p^-/&fp(i873) ;and D€rKanLThirffM,2g4Q-t^(iB76) ;
H. Hasenfratz, Die Lavdgrafschafl vor der Knetution ton tygS
(Frauenfeld, 1908): K. Kuhn, Thvrgmia sacra (3 vols, in 5 parts,
1 869-1883): J. A. Pupikofer. Dtr Kankm Tkttrgau (St Galland
Bern, 1835); and Cexhichte des Tkurgans (to 1830; 2nd ed., 3 vols.,
1884-X880): J. R. Rahn, Die miUdalU KunskUnkmSler d. Cant,
Thurgau (1899) ; " Thurgauische.Rechtsqudlen," in the Zeitschriftf.
sckweit. Reckl (1852). vol. 1. (W. A. B. C")
THURIBLE (Ut. thuribuLum or iurilndum, Una or hts, incense,
Gr. 9u6t, from Ovkuf, to offer a burnt sacrifice, cf. Skr. Mfima
and Lat. fumus, amoke), the ocdedastical term foi a censer,* a
THURII— THURINGIA
901
portable vesvl in whkh bunung incenae {q.9.) c«n be carried.
The censer, to use the more general term, is a vessel which con-
tains burning charcoal on which the aromatic substances to be
burned are sprinkled. The early Jewish portable censer would
aeera to have been a bowl with a handle, resembling a ladle.
A similar form was used by the ancient Egyptians Jong prior
to the Jewish use. Thece are very numerous representations
on the monuments; in some the censer appears as a small cup
or bowl held by a human hand to which a long handle is attached
on which is a small box to hold the incense. The Greek and
Roman censers i&ufuar^puv and turibulum or Uiuribulum) are
of quite different shape. They are small portable braziers
(focuti) of bronze or sometimes of silver and of highly ornate
design. One type took the form of a candelabrum with a small
flat brazier on the top. They were carried in processions and
were lifted by cords. Terra cotu censers have also been found
of a similar shape. The censers or thuribles in Christian usage
have been specially adapted to be swung, though there are
in existence many early specimens of heavy weight and made
of gold or silver which were obviously not meant to be used
in this way and have handles and not chains. The thurible, the
proper ecclesiastical term for the vessel in the Western Church,
is usually spherical in form, though often square or polygonal,
containing a small receptacle for the charcoal and covered by
a perforated lid; it is carried and swung by three chains, a fourth
being attached to the lid, thus allowing it to be raised at intervals
for the volume of smoke to be increased. The early thuribles
were usually simple in design; but in the medieval period an
architectural form was given to the lids by ornamenting them
with towers, battlements and traceries, varying according to
the prevalent Gothic style of the period. A censer lid with a
late Saxon tower upon it, now in ttiie British Museum, dates
from the 12 th century or earlier.
THURII, or Thurium, a city of Magna Graeda on the Gulf
of Tarentum, near the site of the older Sybaris (q.v,). It owed
its origin to an attempt made in 453 B.C. by Sybarite exiles and
their descendants to repeople their old home. The new settle-
ment was crushed by Crotona, but the Athenians lent aid to
the fugitives and in 443 Pericles sent out to Thurii a mixed body
of colonists from various parts of Greece, among whom were
Herodotus and the orator Lysias. The pretensions of the
Sybarite colonists led to dissensions and ultimately to their
expulsion; peace was made with Crotona, and also, after a period
of war, with Tarentum, and Thurii rose rapidly in power and
drew settlers from all parts of Greece, especially from Pelopon-
nesus, so that the tic to Athens was not always acknowledged.
The oracle of Delphi determined that the city had no founder
but Apollo, and in the Athenian War in Sicily Thurii was at first
neutral, though it finally helped the Athenians. Thurii had a
democratic constitutioD and good laws, and, though we hear
little of its history till in 390 it received a severe defeat from the
rising power of die Lucanians, many beautiful coins testify to
the wealth and splendour of its days of prosperity. In the 4th
century it continued to decline, and at length called in the help
of the Romans against the Lucanians, and then in 282 against
Tarentum. Thenceforward its position was dependent, and
in the Second Punic War, after several vicissitudes, it was de-
populated and plundered by Hannibal (204). In 194 a Roman
colony was founded, with Latin rights, known for a time as
Copiae, but afterwards by the old name of Thurii. It continued
to be a pUice <d some importance, the sitaation being favourable
and the region fertile, and does not seem to have been wholly
abandoned till the middle ages. The site of the original Greek
city is not accurately known, though that of the Roman town^
which probably though not certainly occupied the same site, is
fixed by invgnifirant niins as being 4 m. to the east of Terranova
di Sibui, and as occupying an area some 4 ni. in circuit. The
tombs found in 2879-1880 (see Sybasxs) lie a little to the cast
of the site.
SBbF^LeoatTOMat, Im Gnnde^ice I ^17 (PaxutiSSi). (X* As.)
THUHIIIOIA (Gennan TkUrinitn), an historical division of
Oetmany, but now a territorial term without political signifiuouice.
It strictly designates only that district in upper Saxony that
is bounded by the Werra, the Haxz Mountains, the Saale and
the Thuringian Forest; in common parlance, however, it is
frequently used as equivalent to the Thuringian states, t.e. the
group of small duchies and principalities lying between Prussia,
Hesse-Nassau, Bavaria and the kingdom of Saxony. Such
Thuringian states are Saxe-Wcimai-£isenach, Saxe-Coburg-
Gotha, Saxe-Mciningen, Saxe-Altenburg, Schwarzburg-Rudol-
stadt, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, and the two principalities
of Reuss, all of which are separately described. Besides these,
the term Thurin^ also, of course, includes the various "ex-
claves" of Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria and Bohemia which lie
embedded among them.
The Thuringians are first mentioned by Vegetius Renatus
about A.D. 420 when they occupied the district between the
Hara Mountains and the Thuringian Forest. They were probably
descended from the Hermunduri, a Suevic people referred to
by Tacitus as living in this region during the 1st century. They
were tributary to Attila the Hun, under whom they served at
the battle of CbAlons in 451. They were governed by kings,
whose realm in the early 6th century touched both the Danube
and the lower Elbe. At this time King Basin divided Thuringia
among his three sons. The eldest, Hermannfried, eventually
obtained sole possession by the help of Theuderich I., king of
Austrasia, but having refused to pay the price he had promised
for this assistance, was defeated by Theuderich in a scries of
battles and murdered by him in 531. The northern portion
of the kingdom was given to the Saxons who had joined him
against Hermannfried; the southern part was added to Austrasia;
and the name of Thuringia was confined to the district bounded
by the Hars Mountains, the Werra, the Thuringian Forest and
the Saale. It remained under the direct rule of the Prankish
kings until 634, when Radulf was appointed duke of the Thiur"
ingians by King Dagobert I. Radulf made himself practically
independent of the Franks, in spite of an attack made on him
by Sigebert III., king of Austrasia. About this time the con-
version of the Thuringians to Christianity was begun by British
missionaries and continued by St Boxuface, who founded a
bishopric at Erfurt. They were again reduced to dependence
on the Franks by Charles Martcl, who abolished the office of
duke and divided the country among Prankish counts. About
804 Charlemagne, in order to defend the line of the Saale against
the Slavs, founded the Thuringian mark, which soon became
practically coextensive with the former duchy. In 849 King
Louis the German recognized Thakulf as duke {dux Sorahici
limitis\ and some of his successors bore the title of margrave until
the death of Burkhard in 908, when the country was seized by
Otto the Illustrious, duke of Saxony. Thuringia was retain^
by Otto's son and successor, Henry I. the Fowler, in spite of the
Of^position of the German king, Conrad I., and ceased for a time
to enjoy a separate poliiical existence. It appears to have been
United with Meissen for Qome time, and this was certainly the
case from 1046 to 1067, when both countries were ruled by
William and Otto, counts of Weimar. During the xith century
the Thuringians refused to pay tithes to Siegfried, archbishop
of Mainz, and this was probably one reason why they joined this
rising of the Saxons against the emperor Henry IV. in 1073.
About this time a new dominion was founded by Louis the
BeardcL, who by purchase, gift or marriage obtained several
counties in Thuringia. These passed on his death in 1056 to
his son Louis the Springer (d. 1x23), who took part in the Saxon
risings against the emperors Henry IV. and Henry V., built
the castle of the Wartburg near Eisenach, which was the residence
of his family for nearly 200 years, and founded the monastery
of Reinhardsbrunn, where as a monk he passed his hist days.
His son Louis was appointed landgrave of Thuringia in X130
by the emperor Lothair II.; by his marriage with Hedwig of
Gudensberg in X137 he obtained a large part of Hesse. He was
succeeded in X140 by his son Louis 11. the Hard, who married
Judith, a sister of the emperor Frederick I., and on his behalf
took a leading part in the opposition to his powerful neighbour
He&iy the Lion, duke of Saxony. In 1x72 he was succeeded
902
THURINGIAN FOREST— THURLOfi
by his son Louis III. the Pious. He acquired the Saxon palatini
ate in 1179, on the death of Adalbert, count of Sommerschen-
bui*g, went to Italy to assist Frederick I. in 11 57, Joined in the
war against Henry the Lion in xi8o, and distinguished himself
at the siege of Acre in the Third Crusade, on the return from
which he died at Cyprus in 1190. He was succeeded by his
brother Hermann I., during whose reign Thuringia suffered
greatly from the ravages of the adherents of Philip, duke of
Swabia, and also from those of his rival Otto of Brunswick.
The next landgrave (12 17-1227) was his son Louis IV. the Saint,
who married St Elizabeth, daughter of Andrew 11., king of
Hungary, and acted as guardian for his kinsman Henry III.
the Illustrious, margrave of Meissen. This Louis, who is cele-
brated in story, destroyed many robber-castles in Thuringia and
died at Otranto while accompanying the emperor Frederick IL
on crusade. The next ruler was Henry Kaspe, who made
himself regent on behalf of his nephew Hermann II. from 1227
to 1238 and in 1241 succeeded his former ward as landgrave.
Henry was appointed regent for King Conrad IV., but he soon
transferred his allegiance from the emperor to Pope Innocent IV.,
and in 1246 was chosen German king at Beitshochhcim. He
defeated Conrad near Frankfort in. August 1246, but died in
the following year at the Wartburg, when the male line of th^
family became extinct.
• In 1242 Thuringia had been promised by Frederick II. to
Henry III. the Illustrious, margrave of Meissen, a maternal
grandson of the landgrave Hermann I. Henry, however, found
himself obliged to defend his title against Sophia, wife of
Henry II., duke of Brabant, who was a daughter of the land-
grave Louis IV., and it was not till 1263 that an arrangement was
made by which Thuringia and the Saxon palatinate fell to Henry.
Two years later Henry apportioned Thuringia to his son Albert
. the Degenerate, who sold it in 1293 to the German king Adolph
of Nassau for 12,000 marks of silver. Albert's sons Frederick
the Undaunted and Dietrich contested this transaction, and the
attempts of Adolph and his successor Albert I. to enforce it led
to the infliction of great hardships upon ' the Thuringians.
Frederick defeated Albert decisively and in 1314 was formally
invested with Thuringia by the emperor Henry VII. His son
Frederick II. the Grave (13 23-1349) consolidated the power
of his dynasty against rebellious vassals and the neighbouring
counts of Weimar and Schwarzburg. His son Frederick III.
the Strong ( 1 349-1381) and his grandson Balthasar (1381-1406)
further extended their dominion by marriage and conquest,
and the latter of these founded the university at Erfurt (1392).
Balthasar*s son, Frederick the Peaceful, became landgrave
in 1406 but left the government largely to his father-in-law
Canther, count of Schwarzburg. He died childless in 1440,
and Thuringia then passed to the electoral dynasty of Saxony.
After a joint rule by Frederick II. and his brother William, the
latter in 1445 became sole landgrave as William III. and died
without sons in 148a. In 1485 his nephews and heirs Albert
and Ernest made a division of their lands, and Thuringia was
given to the Ernestine branch of the family of Wettin, with
which its subsequent history is identified (see Saxony).
Bibliography.— F. Wachter, TkHrtngtsche und Ohersdchsische
Cesehichtc bis sum Anfalte Thiiringens an die Markgrafen von Meissen
(Leiozig, 1826): T. Knochenhauer, Geschickte fkuringens in der
karciingisihen und sdduixhen Zeit (Gotha, 1863). and Geschickte
Thiiringens zur Zeit des erslen Lanigrafenhauses (Gotha, ,1871);
H. Gcbhardt. ThUringiscke KirchengeschichU (Gotha, 1879-^882)
"ited
854- _:. . .
episUdaria kistoriae Tnuringiatt published ^by . O. ^ Dobeneckcr,
Th&ringiscke Ceschichtsquellen, edited by F. X. Wcgelc ancf R. von
Liliencron (Jena, 1 854-1 859); and kegesta difAcnu^ica necnon
epistolaria kistoriae Tnuringiae, "^
vols. L and ii. (Jena, 1896-1900). I*
THURINGIAN FOREST {ThUringenpald), i range of hills in
Germany, extending in an irregular line from the neighbour-
hood of Eisenach in the N.W. to the Lobensteiner Kulm on
the Bavarian frontier on the S.E. On the S.E. it is con-
tinued directly by the Frankenwald Mountains to the
Fichtelgebirge, whUe on the N.E. it approaches the Harz
"" fountains, and thus takes its place in the great Sudetic chain
central Germany. The length of the Thuringian chain is
70 m., and its breadth varies from 6 to aa in. It nowhere rises
into peaks, and only a few of its rounded summits reach 3000 ft.;
the successive hills form a continuous comb; the north-west
slopes are prcdpitous and seamed with winding gorges. This
range encloses many charming valleys and glens; the most
prominent feature of its scenery is formed by the forests, chiefly
of pines and firs. The north-west part of the system is the
loftier and the more densely wooded as well as the more beauti-
ful; the highest summits here are the Grosser Beerbcrg (3225 ft.),
Schneckopf (3203) and the Finsterberg (3104), ail in the duchy
of Gotha. The south-east part of the Thuringian Forest is the
more populous and industrial; the chief summits are the Kiefcrle
(2848 ft.), the Blessberg (2834 ft.), the Wurzelberg (2841 ft.) and
the Wetzstein (2575 ft.). The crest of the Thuringian Forest, from
the Werra to the Saale, is traversed by the Rennsteig or Rain-
steig, a broad path of unknown antiquity, peihaps referred to
in a letter of Pope Gregory III. dated 738. The name means
probably " frontier-path *'; and the path marks in fact the
boundary between Thuringia and Fcanconia. It may be also
regarded as part of the boundary line between north and south
Germany, for dialect, customs, local names and costume are
different on the two sides. The rocks are largely volcanic, the
stratificatk)n being complex. The mineral resources have been
nearly exhausted, but the district is an important centre of small
industries tgi^ssware, earthenware, meeischaum^ware, iron
castings and toys being among its principal products) and a
favourite resort for tourists.
See Regel, nitringent ein landeskundlicher Cnmdriss (Jeiu,
1897): Trinius, TkUringer Wanderbuch (8 vols., Minden. 1896-1902):
PrOscholdt, " Der ThUringer Wald und seine n&chste Umgcbung.'*
in Forschungen zur deutschen Landes- und Volkskunde, vol. v. (Stuct>
gart, 1891): Walther, Ceoio^scke Ileimatskunde von Tkuringru
(Jena. 1906) ; and Meyer's Reisebuch, " Thuringen ". (i8th ed.,
Leipzig, 1906).
THURLE8, ' a market town of Co. 'Tipperary, Ireland,
pleasantly situated on the Suir, and on the main line of the
Great Southern & Western railway, 87 m. S.W. of Dublin^
Pop. (1901), 44 IX. Thurles is the seat of the Roman Catholic
archdiocese of Cashd; and the cathedral of St Patrick is a
beautiful building. The town is the seat of other important
Catholic establishments, including an Utsidine convent; a
Presentation convent; St Patrick's Catholic College (1829) for
ecclesiastical students, where was held in 1850 the synod of
Thurles; and an establishment of Christian Brothers, who devote
themselves to the instruction of boys on the Lancasterian method.
The town has a considerable agricultural and retail trade, and
there is a monthly horse fair largely attended by English and
continental buyers. Thurles is governed by an urban district
council.
Originally the town was called Durlas O'Fogarty. Id the
TOth century it was the scene of a defeat of the Irish by the
Danes. A preceptory was founded here by the KnighU Templars,
who possessed themselves of a castle, of which there are remains,
erected early in the 13th century. A castle was subsequently
erected by James Butler, first lord palatine of Tipperary. of
which the keep colla{>sed in x868. There were several other
strongholds in the vicinity. South-west of the town, at a distance
of 3 1 m., stands the Cistercian abbey of Holy Cross, one of the
finest ruins in Ireland. It was founded by Donncll O'Brien,
king of Thomond (i 168-1x94) ; and owes its foundation and name
to the presentation to his family of a portion of the true Cross,
which attracted numerous pilgrims. The shrine of this relic
is in the Ursuh'ne convent at Blackrock, Co. Cork. The
ruins, beautifully placed on the bank of the river, embody a.
cruciform church, transitional Norman in style, and exhibiting
the carving of the period in its highest development. There
is a fine Perpendicular tomb in the choir. A large portion
remains of the adjoim'ng buildixtgs, including chapter-house,
sacristy, cloisters and dormitory.
THURLOE, JOHN (1616-1668). English politician, son of
Thomas Thurloe, rector of Abbot's Roding in Essex, was baptized
on the X2th of June 1616. He studied law, entered the service
THURLOW, 1ST BARON
903
of Oliver St John, through whose interest he was appointed a
secretary to the parliamentary commissioners at Uxbridgc in
January 1645. He was admitted to Lincoln's Inn in 1647, and
in. March 1648 he received the appointment of receiver of the
cursitor's fines, worth £350 a year. He took no part in the
subsequent historical events or in the king's. death. In March
1651 he attended St John and Sir Walter Strickland as secretary
in their mission to Holland, and on the agth of March 1652 he
was appointed secretary to the council of state, being apparently
also elected a member thereof about the same time. His duties
included the control of the intelligence department and of the
posts, and his perfect system of collecting information and success
in discovering the plans of the enemies of the administration
astonished his contemporaries. By his means, it was said,
" Cromwell carried the secrets of all the princes of Europe at
his ^dle." On the loth of February 1654 he was made a
bencher of Lincoln's Inn. In the parliaments of 1654 and of
1656 he represented Ely; he was appointed a member of Crom-
well's second council in 1657; was elected a governor of the
Charterhouse in the same year; and in 1658 became chancellor
of Glasgow University. Thurioe was attached to Cromwell as
a man and admired him as a ruler, and Cromwell probably placed
more confidence in the secretary than in any one of those who
surrounded him. Thurloc, however, by no means directed'
Cromwell's policy. He was in favour of the protector's a^ump-
tion of the ro3ral title, and was opposed to the military party
who obtained the ascendancy. After Oliver's death he sup-
ported Richard Cromwell's succession and took a prominent
part in the administration, sitting in the parliament of Janiury
•1659 as member for Cambridge University. Attacked by the
republicans on the ground of arbitrary imprisonments and
transportations during the Protectorate, he succeeded in vindicat-
ing his conduct; but the breach between the army and the
parliament, and the ascendancy obtained by the former, caused
his own as wcU as Richard's downfall. Nevertheless, being
indispensable, he was reappointed secretary of state on the
37th of February 1660. He appears to have steadily resisted
the Restoration, and his promises of support to Hyde in April
inspired little confidence. On the 15th of May 1660 he was
arrested on the charge of high treason, but was set free on the
39th of June, subject to the obligation of attending the secretaries
of state •* for the service of the state whenever they should
require." He subsequently wrote several papers on the subject
of foreign affairs for Clarendon's information. He died on the
iist of February 1668 at his chambers in Lincoln's Inn, and is
buried under the chapel there. Thurioe was twice married,
and by his second wife Anne, daughter of Sir John Lytooteof
East Moulsey in Surrey, he had four sons and two daughters.
Hb extensive correspondence, the or^nals of which arc in the
Bodleian Library at Oxford and the Bntish Museum {Add. MSS.
4156, 4157, 4158), is one of the chief sources of information for the
penod. A portion was published with a memoir by T. Birch
m 1743. and other correspondence is printed in R. Vaughan*8 Pro-
lectorate 0/ Otiver CronmeU (1836). See also Di* Politik des Pro-
teciort divtr Cromwell in dtr Auffassunt und Tkatigktit . . . des
Staalssecreldrs John Thurioe. by Sigismund, Frcihcrr von Bishoffs-
hausen (1899); Ene. Hist. Review, xiii. 537 (Thurloc and the post
office); Notes and Queries, nth aeries, vol. viii. p. 83 (account ol his
death): A LeUer to a Friend . . . on the Publication of Tkurloe's
State Papers (174^) ; Clarendon • History of the Rebtiiion : Gardiocr's
History of the CommompeaUk,
THURIdOW. EDWARD THURLOW, isT Bason (1731-1806),
English lord chancellor, was bom at Bracon Ash, in the county
of Norfolk, on the 9th of December 1731. He was the eldest
son of the Rev. Thomas Thurlow. He was educated at a private
school and at the grammar school of Canterbury, where he was
considered a bold, refractory, clever boy. In 1748 Thurlow
entered Caius College, Cambridge, but an act of insubordination
necessitated his leaving Cambridge without a degree (i750-
He was for some time articled to a solicitor in Lincoln*s Inn
along with the poet Cowper, but in 1754 was called to the bar
at the Inner Temple, and subsequently went on the western
circuit— at first with little success. > But in the case of Luke
JtobinsoH v. Thg Eari of Wincbdsta (1758) Thurbw came into
collision with Sir Fletcher Norton, afterwards ist Baron Grantley
(17x6-1789), then the terror of solicitors and the tyrant of the
bar, and put down his arrogance with dignity and success. From
this time his practice increased rapidly. In 1761 he was made
a king's counsel, through the influence of the duchess of (^eens-
betry. In 1763 he was elected a bencher of the Inner Temple.
Thurlow now with some hesitation entered himself into the
ranks of the Tory party. In 1768 he became member for Tam-
worth. In 1769 the Douglas peerage case came on for hearing
in the House of Lords, and Thurlow, who had drawn the plead'
ings some years before (Notes and Queries; 3rd scries, vol. iit.
p. 122), led for the appellant in a speech of great analytic power.
In 1770, as a recognition of his defence in the previous January
of the expulsion of Wilkes, Thurlow was made solicitor-general
on the resignation of Dunning, and in the following year, after
he had enhanced his reputation with the government by attack-
ing the rights of juries in cases of libd {Rex v. Miller, 20 St.
Tr. 870-896) and the liberty of the press (16 Parly. Hist.
1 144), was raised to the attorney-generalship. Thuriow's
public life was as factious as his youth had been daring. His
hatred of the American colonists, and his imprudent assertion
that as attorney-general he might set aside by scire facias as
forfeited every charter in America (debate on the American
Prohibitory Bill, 18 P.H. 999); his speech in aggravation of
punishment In the case of Home Tooke (20 St. Tr. 777-783),
when he argued that the prisoner ought to be pilloried, because
imprisonment was no penalty to a man of sedentary habits
and a fine would be paid by seditious subscription; and his
opposition to all interference with the slave trade— -are character-
istic. In 1778 Thurlow became lord chancellor and Baton
Thurlow of Ashfield, and took his seat in the House of Lords,
where he soon acquired an almost dicUtorial power. He
opposed the economical and constitutional reforms proposed
by Burke and Dunning. Under. Rockingham he dung to the
chancellorship, while conducting hintself like a leader of the
opposition. To the short-lived ministiy of Shelbume he gave
consistent support. Under the coalition of Fox and North (April
to December 1783) the great seal was placed in commission,
and Lord Loughborough was made first commissioner. But
Thurlow, acting as the king's adviser, and in acccordancc with
his wishes, harassed the new ministry, and ultimately secured
the rejection of Fox^s India Bill (24 P.ff. 226). The coalition
was at once dissolved. Pitt accepted office, and Thurlow again
became lord chancellor (Dec. 23, 1783). At first he supported
the government, but soon his overbearing temper asserted itself.
Imprudently rel>ing on the friendship of the king, and actuated
by scarcely disguised enmity to Pitt, Thiirlow passed rapidly
from occasional acts of hostility to secret disaffection, and finally
to open revolt. He delivered himself strongly against a bill,
introduced without his privity, for the restoration to the heirs
of attainted owners of estates forfeited in the Jacobite rebellion
of 1 745. Partly to please the king and queen, partly from dislike
to Burke, and partly perhaps from a real belief in the ground-
lessness of the accusation, he supported Warren Hastings on
every occ2ision " with indecorous violence." His negotiations
with the Whig? during the discussion of the Regency Bill
(i78&-Feb. 19, 1789) were designed to secure his seat on the
woolsack in the event of Fox being called to power. The climax
was reached in 1792, when he attacked Pitt's bill " to establish
a sinking fund for the redemption of the national debt," not on
account of the economic objections to which it was liable, but
on the trivial ground that it was an unconstitutional attempt
to bind further parliaments. The bill was carried, but only by
a narrow majority, and Pitt, feeling that co-operation with such
a colleague was impossible, insisted successfully on his dismissal
(June IS, 1792). The ex-choncellor, who had a few days before
been created Baron Thurlow of Thurlow, with remainder to his
brothei-s and their male descendants, now reUred into private life,
and, with the exception of a futile intrigue, under the auspices
of the prince of Wales, for the formation of a ministry from
which Pitt and Fox should be excluded,' and in which the earl of
Moira should be premier and Thurlow chancellor (1797), finally
90+
THURMAN—THURSTAN
abandoned hope of office. In 1795 he opposed the Treason and
Sedition bills without success. In i8ox he spoke on behalf of
Horne Tooke— now bis friend — when a bill was introduced to
render a priest in orders ineligible for a seat in the House of
Commons. His last recorded appearance in the House of Lords
was in 1802. He now spent his time between bis villa at
Dulwich and various seaside resorts. He died at Brighton on
the 1 2th of September x8o6, and was buried in the Temple
church. Thurlow was never married, but left three natural
daughters, for whom he made a handsome provision. The title
descended to his nephew, son of the bishop of Durham.
'. Lord Thuriow was a master of a coarse caustic wit, which habitu-
ally in his private and too frcqucntlv in his public life displayed
itself in profanity. He was a good classical scholar and made
occasional translations in vene from Homer and Euripides. His
judicial and his ecclesiastical patronage were wisely exenciscil; he
was the patron of Dr Johnson and of Crabbc, and was the first to
detect the great Icj^al merits of Eldon. Thurlow's personal ap-
pearance was striking. His dark complexion, harsh but regular
features, severe and dignified demeanour, piercing black eyes and
bushy eyebrows, doubtless contributed to his professional and
political eminence and provoked the sarcasm of Fox that he looked
wiser than any man ever was. ^ Yet he was far^ from being an
impostor. By intense though irregular application he haa ac-
quired a wide if not a profound knowledge of laW. Clear-headed,
self-confident and fluent, able at once to reason temperately and
to assert strongly, capable of grasping, rapidly assimilating, and
forcibly reproducing minute and complicated details, he possessed
all the qualities which command success. His speeches in the trial
of the duchess of Kingston for bigamy (20 St. Tr. 355-65 1 ) are vigorous
and eflFcctJve, while his famous opening in the Douglas peerage case
and his argument for the Crown in CampbM v. //a//. (20 SU Tr,
^12-^16) show that he might have rendered high service to the
judiaal literature of his countr]^ had he relied more upon his own
mdustry and less upon the learning of Hargrave and Kenyon.
See Lord Campbell's Lives of the CkanceUors, vii. 153-333! Fosi^s
Judges of England, viii. 374-^85; Public Characters 0?.^; Notes
and Queries, 2nd scries, vol. iii. p. 483: 3rd series, vol. iii. p. 122;
Reports of his decisions by Brown. Dickens and Vescy Qun.);
Brougham's Statesmen of the Time of George III. (A. W. R.)
THURNAN. ALLEN GRANBERY (1813-1895). American
jurist and statesman, was bom at Lynchburg, Virginia, on the
X3th of November 1813. In 1819 he removed with his parents
to Chillicothe, Ohio, where he attended the local academy for
two years, studied law in the office of his uncle, William Allen ,^
and in 1835 was admitted to the bar, becoming his uncle's law
partner. He began to take an active part in politics in 1844,
and in 1845-1847 was a Democratic representative in Congress,
where he advocated the Wilmot Proviso. From 1851 to Feb-
ruary 1856 he was an associate justice of the state supreme
court, and from December 1854 was chief justice. He was
Democratic candidate for governor of Ohio in 1867, and was
defeated by Rutherford B. Hayes by a majority of less than
3000 votes; but the Democrats gained a majority in both branches
of the state legislature, and Thurman was elected to the United
States Senate, where he served from 1869 until 1881 — during
the 46th Congress (1879-1881) as president pro tempore. Here
he became the recognized Democratic leader and in 1 879-1 881
was chairman of the judiciary committee. He contested the
constitutionality of the Civil Rights Bill, opposed the resump-
tion of specie payments, advocated the payment of the public
debt in silver and supported the Bland-Allison Act. He intro-
duced the Thurman BUI, for which he was chiefly responsible,
which became law in May 1878, and readjusted the government's
relations with the bond-aided Pacific railways. Thurman was
a member of the Electoral Commission of 1877, and was one of
the American delegates to the international monetary con-
ference at Paris in 1881. In 1876, 1880 and 1884 he was a
candidate for the presidential nomination, and in 1888 was
nominated for vice-president on the ticket with Grover Cleve-
land, but was defeated in the election. He died at Columbus,
Ohio, on the 12th of December 1895.
THURSDAY ISLAND, one of the smallest of the Prince of
Wales group, N. of Cape York, in the Torres Strait, attached
' William Allen (1806- 1879). a native of North Carolina, removed
m 1822 to Chillicothe. Ohio, was admitted to the bar in 1827. was
» neprcsentative in Congress In 1833-1835, served in the United
" Senate in 1837-1849, and was governor of Ohk> in 1874-1875-
to Somerset county, Queensland, Australia. Pop. (1901), T534.
It has an excellent harbour. Port Kennedy, and is a port of
call for mail steamers and the centre of the b£che-de-mer and
peari fisheries of the Torres Strait. It b a fortified coaling
station for the British navy. The neighbouring Friday Island
is the quarantine and leper station for Queensland.
THURSO, a municipal and police burgh, and seaport of
Caithness, Scotland. Pop. (i 901), 3723. It is situated at the
mouth of the Thurso, on Thurso Bay, 21 ra. N.W. of Wick, and
319 m. N. of Edinburgh by the North British and Highland
railways, the most northerly town in Scotland. Coaches run
daily to Mey and Wick and every day a mail-car goes to Tongue,
in Sutherlandshire, about 40 m. west.
In Macdonald Square, laid out with ornamental walks, there
is a statue of Sir John Sinclair. A promenade along the sands
was opened in 1882. The town-hall contains a public library
and museum, which possesses the geological and botanical
specimens of Robert Dick (1811-1866), the "Thurso baker,"
as well as a large collection of northern birds. In the neighbour-
hood are quarries for Caithness flags, which are cut and dressed
in the town. They constitute the leading export, but the trade
of the port is hindered by the inconvenience of the harbour.
There is, however, communication daily from Scrabster pier,
2 m. north-west, with Scapa and Stromncss in Pomona
(Orkneys), calling at Hoxa; once a week with Wick, Aberdeen
and Leith; and occasionally in summer v^ith LiverpooL To
the east is Thurso Castle, the residence of the Ulbster branch
of the Slnclairs, and near it is Harold's Tower,, btiilt over
the grave of Earl Harold, once owner of half of Caithness,
and half of the Orkneys and Shetland*, who fell in battle with
Earl Harold the Wicked in 1190. About three-quarters of
a mile west sund the ruins of the bishop's palace, which was
destroyed by fire in 1222. Thurso was the centre of the Norse
power on the mainland when at its height under' Thorfihn
(1014), and afterwards till the battle of Largs (1263). Count
Modach, nephew of King Duncan, quartered his army for
a time at 'Thurso and despoiled it till he was surprised and
slain by Thorfinn in X040. In the time of Malcolm II. Earl
Erlend resided in the town. In 1633 it was created a burgh
of barony, and was the seat of the sheriff courts of the county
till they were removed to Wick in 1828.
THURSTAN, or Turstin (d. X140), archbishop of York, was
the son of a certain Anger, or Auger, prebendary of St Paul's,
London, and a brother of Audoen (d. 1139), bishop of Evnux.
He himself was a prebendary of St Paul's, and was also a derk
in the service of William II. and then of Henry I., who secured
his election as archbishop of York in August 1114. He now
entered upon the great controversy which occupied him during
a large part of his subsequent life and made him for several
years an exile from England. Archbishop Ralph of Canter-
bury refused to consecrate him unless he made a profession of
obedience to the southern sec; this Tliuistan refused and
asked the king for permission to go to Rome to consult Pope
Paschal II. Henry I. declined to allow him to make the journey,
while Paschal declared against Archbishop Ralph. At the
Council of Salisbury in 1 116 the English king ordered Thurstan
to submit, but instead he resigned his archbishopric, although
this did not take effect. The new pope, Gelasius II., and also
his successor, Calixtus II., espoused the cause of the stubborn
archbishop, and in October 1119, in spite of promises made to
Henry I., he was consecrated by Calixtus at Reims. Enraged
at this the king refused to allow him to enter England, and he
remained for some time in the company of the pope. At length,
however, his friends succeeded in reconciling him with Hcniy,
and. after serving the king in Normandy, he was recalled to
England, which he entered early in 1x21. Refusing to recognixe
the new archbishop of Canterbury, WiUiam of Corbeil, as bis
superior, Thurstan took no part in his consecratioo, and on two
occasions both archbishops carried their complaints in person to
Rome. In X138 he made a truce at Roxburgh between Engbnd
and Scotland, and took active part in gathering together the
army which defeated the Scots at the Battle of the Staodard
THYLACINE— THYROSTRACA
905
fai August 1138. Early in 1140 he entered the order «f the
Guniacs at Pontefract and here he died on the 6th of February
X140. Thurslan was generous to the churches of his diocese
and was the founder of several religious houses.
See his life in the Fasti tboraunus, edited by J. Raine (1863).
THYLACINE {Tkylacinus cynocepkdus). The only known
Eving species of thk genus, though smaller than a common
wolf, is the largest predaceous manupial existing. It Is con<
fined to the island of Tasmania, although fragments of bones and
teeth found in caves afford evidence that a dosdy allied species
once inhabited the Australian mainland. The general coknir
of the thyladne is grey-brownt but it has a series of transverse
btack bands on the hinder part of the back and loins, whence
the name of " tiger " frequently applied to ft by the colonists.
It is also called " wolf," and sometimes, though less appropriately,
" hyena." Owing to the havoc it commits among the sheep-
folds, it has been nearly exterminated in all the more settled
parts of Tasmania, but still finds shelter in the more moun>
tainous regions of the island. The female produces four young
at a time. (See Mabsupiaua.)
THYME. *The genus Tkymu (nat. ord. Labiatae) comprises
a number of fragrant aromatic undezshruba, with very small
leaves and whorls of small purple honey-bearing flowers in the
axils of the leaves or at the ends of the branches. The common
garden thyme, a native of the Mediterranean region, is Tkymm
wigaris: the wild thyme of English banks is T. serpyUum.
Marjoram {Origanum^ is also doscly allied. All these plants are
remarkable for their essential oil, to which their fragrance is due^
From this oil is produced by distillation the sob^ance known
as thymol.
THYHOU C.oHiiO or C«H,(OH) (CH,) (COIt) [x :3:6l, a
methyliaopropylphenol isomeric with carvacrol (f.«.), is an
aromatic substance found with the hydrocarbons cymene,
CioHi«, and thymene, CioHi«, in ofl of thyme (from Thymus
vulgaris) and in other essential oils, eg. Carum coptkum, from
which it may be extracted by shaking with potassium hydroxide,
filtering and precipitating the phenol with hydrochloric add.
It can be prepared from dlbrom-menthone (obtained by
brominating menlhone in chloroform solution) by diminating
two molecules of faydrobromic add. Thymol crystallizes in
large colourless plates, which melt at 44" and boil at 230*
On distillation with phosphorus sulphide it gives cymene.
Thymol has a strong odour of thyme and a pungent taste, and is
fredy soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform or olive oil, but almost
insoluble in cold water. It is a more powerful antiseptic than
carbolic acid, but its insolubility prevents its bdng used for the
same purposes. A saturated solution (1 in 1000 01 warm water},
thymol gauze and an ointment are used. Externally it is anti-
parasitic, and is used in certain staaes of ecaema and psoriasb, and
the alcoholic solution has been used in ringworm; internally it has
been employed as an intestinal antiseptic in typhoid fever. Its
chief use IS as an anthdmintic to destroy the AnkylesUma dwdenale.
Thymol may colour the urine green. Thymol iodide, official in
the United States, is a compound of iodine and thymol ; it is also
known a» aristol or annidalm. It was introduced as a substitute
for iodoform and is stated to be less toxic ClyuHkymolin is a
proprietary preparation, used in the treatment of catarrhal condi-
tions of mucous membranes, while a mixture of naphthalene,
camphor and thymol is sold under the name of thymolin.r
THYROID (Or. ^poci%, shield-shaped, from BofiAt, a
large oblong shield, shaped like a door, Mpo, and cDoi, form),
in anatomy, a term applied (i) to the largest of the cartilages of
the larynx (seo-RsSPtBATOEY Systeji), (3) to one of two arteries
which lie near the thyroid cartilage and gland (see Akteues),
and (3) to a vascular ductless gland, whidh rests on the larynx
and upper part of the trachea (see Dvcrzxss Glamds). The
thyroid ^and is used in medidne in two forms. Tkyroideum
siccum is a Ught dull brown powder, prepared by drying the
thyroid gland of a sheep. Its chief constituent is a protdd
known as thyreoglobuiin, the active prindple of which contains
93% of iodine and 0^5% of phosphoixis, and is known as
iodotbyiin or thyroiodin. The dried gland easily beoomcs
damp and deteriorates. Liquor thyroiiei is a |rink turbid
nquld made by macerating the fresh gland of a sheep with
glycerin and phenoL
Thyroid gland admioiitered to man increases the pulse rete.
causes increased and enfeebled cardiac beat and leads to increased
metabolism, conaoqucntly excess of urea, uric acid and phosphates
are excreted in the urine; it therefore reduces the body weight.
Glycosuria develops from the inability of the body to ingest glucose.
Ovctdoses of thyroid cause rapid pulse, headache and vomiting,
together with diarrhoea and pruritus, emaciation and weakness.
These symptoms are known as tkyraidisnu
Thyroid gland was introduced for the treatment of patients
sufferuig from goitre, myxoedema and cretinism, in which diseases
it has been remarkably successful, cretins growing raoidlv under
the thyroid treatment and devdoping intelligence. It has also
been used in dwarfism, excessive obesity, psoriasis and sderoderma.
When used in obesity an excess of nitroeenous food should be
taken to balance the dotruction of proteia. In certain forms of
insanity, meUncholia and climacteric insanities it has given good
results. Full doses of thyroid are valuable in the prevention and
relief of eclampsia. It should not be given to patients suffering
from exophthalmic goitre, for which an anti>thvrokl serum (aat^
thyreoidin of Moebios), which is the scrum of thyroidectomiaed
1_ has i)een introduced.
' Rodagcn is a white powder consisting of the dried milk of Hiyrai-
dectomued goats, mixed with 50 % of milk sugar. In exophthalmic
goitre this preparation causes a reduction of the swelling and of
the pulse rate, and an increase of body wc^ht. •
THYB08TRACA. an order of Crustacea, comprising bamadeSi
acorn sheUs and some allied degenerate parasites. The embryos
are free-swimming, active forms, but in adult life the animab
are fixed head downwards, and are very degenerate. The
body is indistinctly segmented, and is enveloped in a fold of
the integument, usually with calcareous plates. The anterior
antennae are fused with the anchoring attachment, whilst the
posterior pair is vestigial, and the appendages of the mouth and
body present various degrees of degeneration and specialization.
In most cases the adults are hermaphrodite, but unisexual
forms also occur, whilst the hermaphrodite adults may carry
with them minute " complementary " males. In strong con-
trast with the condition^ most Crustacea, the spermatozoa
are mobile. As shown by Burmeister in his historical review
(1834), these animals, comprised by Linnaeus in the genus
lApaSt first received a more comprehensive title from Cuvier,
who called them Cirrhopoda, a word strictly meaning tawny-
footed. Lamarck in 1809 altered this into the hybrid form
Cirrhipoda, meaning curl-footed, which was subsequently
improved mto Cirripedia or Cirrbipedia. So long as the group
was hdd to be a subordinate member of the Entonuwtraca, thb
term, thoo^ not the earliest, was generally accepted. The
name Thyrostraca, meaning doorahdls or valve-ahdls, is pre-
ferred as agreeing in termination with the titles of the other two
divisions, the Malacostraca and Entomostraca. The group may
conveniently be arranged in two prindpal sectionsr- the Genuina
with dirhifonn feet) and the Anomala without them.
TInrostmea gea«Ma.~It b with these that Darwin's classical
treatises {Bay Soc. and PalaeotU, Soc, 1851-1854) are almost
exclusively concerned. Therdn an order Tboradca comprehends
the pedunculare Lspadidae, together with the opcfcuhte and
sessile Ralanidar and Verruddae: a single species without ctrrhi
constitutes the order Apoda, and a sinale species with only thrre
pairs of cirrfai the order Abdomiaalia. Within the last Kochlorins
(Noll, 1872) with two species, and LilhoglypUs (Aurivillius, 1893)
with three species, have since been included. But H. J. Hansen
(Dm Cirriptiisn dtr FlamkUm^Expeditwm, 1899) sutes that Cryflo-
pkiains miuuius, for which the order Abdominalia was founded,
has. like Akippe and other Genuma, its drrhi on the thorax, not,
as Darwin wroiigly supposed, on the abdomen. In place, therefore,
of the Abdominalia, it will be right to accept the family Crypto-
phialklae, v. Martens, side by side with the Lithoglyptklae of
Aurivillius and the Akippidae of Gentaecker. These, with Darwin's
three families abov« mentioned, eomi^e the section of genuine
cirripedes now existing. Gnivd submitted to the Linnaean Socasty
a rearrangement of the Lepadidae. unfortunarely using for die first
of his new families the preoccupied name An a s pi d ae It is con-
fusing, but not uainstructive, to find that within the Bahmfal group
such generic titles as SUpkanoUpas and Platylepas have been
coined. The vernacular name barnacle, trsceabie to the fable of
pedunculate cirripedes hatchiiw out into bernide fsere, has also
been tzansfemd to the sessile drripedes^ which are popularly
known as acorn baraadea. A complete list of all the recent
spedes of Thynx^aca in both sections, down to the year
1897. «»s published by Wdtoer (Arch. Naiurg., 1898. | 63. pt. I
pp. iiT-tSo). For fossif spedes. Woodward's C o img u e 0/ Brii,
JPoss. CnuL (1877), pp. 137-144. should be oonsaiind* Hoek
9o6
THYROSTRACA
(" Challenger •* Reports, " Cirripedia/' 1883, viil 8-1 1), gives a brief
eeological summary down to 1882. In that year J. M. Clarlw
\Amer. Joum. Set. and Arts, jrd aeries, vol. xxiv., p. 55) added
a new species to Plumtdites (Banande, 1872), remarking that the
species m question, P. devonkus, " is interesting in being the first
representative of fossil barnacles from *the Devonian, Barrande's
species of Pinmtdites and Anatifopsis, as well as the Turriiepis of
Woodward, being from the Upner and Lower Silurian, and Plumu-
lites jamesi (Hall and Whitf., Pal. Ohio, vol. il) from the Hudson
River sroup." Since Plumulites appears to be a synonym of Turri'
Upas [not Turriiepis), the ^edes Turrilepas wngktii (Woodward,
1865), from the upper Silurian of Dudley, did not long enjoy an
isolated eminence as the oldest known cirripedc. As pointed out
by Dr Bather (Geol. Mag. i^\, decade 4, voL viii. p. 521), palae-
ontologists themselves have m this branch not very closely foUowed
the progress of their own science, since Dr Ruedemann, in regard
to his new PoUicipes siluricus, 1901, spwaks of " the enormous gap
existing between the appearance of this Lower Siluric type and the
next Upper TriassK (Rhaetic) representatives of the genera PoUicipes
and Scalpellum." Many species of Scalpellum from the Wcniock
shale of Gotland were described in 18^2 by C. W. S. Aurivillius,
who at the same time founded the species PoUicipes signatus on an
almost perfect specimen from the Lower Ludbw 01^ Wisby in Sweden.
Aurivillius considered that PoUicipes signatus showed a closer
approach to the JSalanidae than any other of the Lcpadidae, but
he. too, in ignorance of the Devonian Protobalanus (Wbitf.)r dis-
coursed needlessly about the gap in the dbtribution. Dr Bather
justifiably anticipates further dfiscoveries, but if, already in Silurian
as in modem times, the members of these families had to pass
through nauplius and cypris stages to maturity, there is one '* enor-
mous gap " between them and the common ancestor of the crustacean
class that will not be easily filled.
To later phylogenetic links an
addition ia ottereid by Dr Wood-
ward {Ced. Mag., 1901, p. 145),
who transfers his Pyrgoma cre-
laceum, 1865, to a new genus
Brackylepas (fig. i), and a new
family Brachylepadidac, intermedi-
ate between the Rhaetic PoUicipes
and th^ modern Balanus. Among
other fossil genera of recent insti-
tution, Archaeolepas, Lepidocdeus,
Fig. I.— BrachyUpascretacea Squama, StramerUum can only be
(Woodward), from Margate -"^tjoned^as^ ^mce^^^^^
since Weltner's catak>K:ue, may be
noticed KdeoUpas willeyi, from the Loyalty Islands (Stabbing, in
Willey's Zool. Results (iQOo) pt. v., p. 677. This was found in
a Turbo shell, occupied also by a Ptagurid, and coated with
Actimans. The cirripede, which has an
elastic peduncle, a crested capitulum, but
no valves, and the first cirrhi longer than
the rest, should stand neaLvEremolepas, the
name given by Weltner in place of the
preoccupied Cymnolepas (Aurivillius). In
the genus Scalpdlum, S. gitanteum, Gruvet
(Trans. Linn. Soc., 1901) aisputes with .S.
steamsii (fig. 2), Pilsbury, 1890. whkh shall
be accounted the greater. The latter is
threatened with a new generic name (Chun,
Aus den Tiefen des WeUmeeres, 1900,
The hoiuontal distribution of barnacles
over all seas ia fully explained by Darwin.
The bathymetric range of sessile as well as
pedunculate forms down to such depths as
twelve or eighteen thousand feet— Verruca
guadranguiaru, Hoelc, 1900 fathoms; 5m/-
peUum repum, Ws^ville Thomson, 2850
t?.^ - c I* r; — »»thoma — IS a more recent discovery. Gruvel
Fig. 2.—ScaipeUum f Contribution d fHude des Cirrkipides, 1894)
steamsu. found that the species frequenting sea sur-
face or diallow water, notwithstanding their
feeble powers of viuon, cannot live long
when entirely debarred from light It must, therefore, be supposed
that abyssal fomis have gradually acquired such tolerance of dark-
ness as makes their health independent of the sun. Among other
singularities of habitat, not the least curious is the freedom with
which some small species, especially in the genus Dichdaspis, occupy
the very jaws of larve crustaceans. It is generally stated that
cirripedes are confined to salt water, and, generally speaking, that
IS true. But PlatyUpas bissexlobata (De Blainville). from the west
coast of Africa, is sometimes found oitirely buried, except its
operculum, in the skin of the manatee. Now, since it seems this
ifonatus senogaknsis ascends rivers, we may infer that its parasite
travels with it. Studer (Crustacea of the Gazette, 1882) records
Balanus ampkUrUe (Darwin?) from roots and stems d mangroves
in the Coogo, where, he says, " it follows tfie mangroves as Tar as
""retadon extends along the stream, to six sea-miles from the
mouth." Darwin notes B. mprnisus as quite tolerant of water
not saline. Why the Thyrostraca. so hardy, so widely diM>ersed and
multitudinous, and with a history so prolonged, should not have
made more extended and more independent incursmns into fresh
water remains a problem. Though the OmithoUpas australis
(Targioni Tozzetti, 1872), found on the tail feathers of a bird, repre-
sents only the cypris-larva of a cirripede, it still shows one of the
many facilities for dispersion whkn these creatures enjoy. A
striking instance of their abundance is cited by Aurivillius (1894)
from a report by Captain G. C. Eckman, who late in the summer
observed great masses of Lepeu fauicularis forming broad belli in
the North Sea. Aurivillius himself examined a humpback whale
which had as many as fifty specimens of Coronula diadema on
each side of its head. He believes that the cetacean approaichcs
not only rocks, but ships, in the hope of freeing itself from its bdgcrs.
Yet the fact that the long, soft Conchoderma auritum stands exposed
on the Coronula^ sometimes ten on one, indkates that the whale
can have little chance of evkting its tenants, even at the expense
of rubbing off the eighteen flattened horns of its own skin embedded
in cavities round the domed base of the Coronula shdl. The
fecundity in the genus Lepas has struck many observers. Hock
J" Challenger " Reports, " Curipedia," 1884. vol. x.) notes that, whOe
tn Scalpellum the number of eggs may be less than a hundred, " in
Lepas anatifera it amounts, on the contrary, to many thousands
and tens of thousands." In the same treatise Dr Hoelc has useful
chapters on the anatomyr development and sexes c^ the frroup,
with references to the important researches unce Darwin by Krohn,
CTlaus, Kossmann and others. Francis Darwin, in the life of his
father (1888, iii. 2). says, " Krohn stated that the structures
described by my father as ovaries were in reality salivary glands,
also that the oviduct runs down to the orifice described in the Uono-
graph of the Cirripedia as the auditory meatus." Hoek. however,
observes that the interpretation^ of the glands as salivary is not
eiven by Krohn as his own opinion, but only quoted from Cuvier.
Hoek himself proposes to call them pancreatk giands.
On the absorbing question of the cfevclopment. T. T. Groom (PhiL
Trans., 189^, vol. clxxxv.) supplies a full bibliography, beginning
with the pioneers Slabber (1778; properly 1769) and J. Vaughan
Thomson (1830). Groom's monograph was aJmost immediately
supplemented by Chun's chapters on the same subject (Biblitaheca
Zoology, 1895, Heft 19. Licierung 2), to whkh an important di»>
cussion is contributed by H. J. Hansen (Die Cirripedien der Plankton-
Exp., 1899). He insists on the value of tlie upper lip or labrum for
Seneric distinction, and as an aid in affiliating larval forms of
ifferent stages to their several species. He cites Groom's evidence
that larvae obtained from the tgg readily go through one moult in
the aquarium, and the known fact that the last larval stage is
marked by a longitudinal series of six pairs of immovable spines
or processes. He considers, then, that by a judicious comparison of
larval forms with these two easily determinable sta^;es the poverty
of existing information on the Mibjcct may be gradually, if labori-
ously, diminished. The large and peculiar Architoea gig^ of
Dohm must, he thinks, belong to the Lcpadidae as a larva in the
last stage, but not, as v. Willemoes Suhm supposed, to Lepas
australis, or even to the genus Lepas at all.
Thyrostraca anomala. — This section comprises Darwin's Apoda,
the footless, Lilljeborg's Suctoria, called by Fritz M Oiler the Khizo-
cephala or rootlet-headed, and the group to which Lacaze-Duthicrs
Sve the alternative names Ascotnoracida, sac-bodied or Rhizo-
oracida, rootlet-bodied. For the present these names may be
dispensed with in favour of their couivalents, the three families
Proteolcpadidac, Sacculinidae and Lauridae. The first is still
limited to the single genus and species Proteolepas bivincta (Darwin),
parasitic within the sac of another cirripede. Nothing is certainly
known of its development, except that the ova are extremely
small, but H. J. Hansen (Die Cirripedien der Plankton-Exp., 1B99,
p. 53) arKucs that various nauplii of a type not previously described
may probably be referred to this group or family. The second
family, discussed by Delage. Giard, Kossmann and others, has no
dearth of genera and species, though about several of them the in-
formation is scanty. Almost all of them are parasitk on other
crustaceans. Sphaerothylaeus pdycarpus (Sluitcr, 1884) has an
ascidian for its host. Sarcotaces (Olsson, 1872) has two species
parasitk: in fishes. But these exceptional and dubious forms do
not obtain nutiimtot by sending rootlets in a rhizocephalous
manner into their patrons. The family Pdtqgastridae is sometimes
separated from the Sacculinidae, and sometimes made to do du^
for both, the latter course being improper, since SaccuUna (j.
Vaughan Thompson. 1836) is not, as has been supposed, preoccupied,
and must, therefore, take precedence of Pellogaster (Rathke, 1843X
In the same family stands the genus S^flon, noted by Krfiyer with-
out a name in 1842, named by him without a descriptbn in 183^
described by Mkhael Sars in 1869, and published by G. O. Sars m
1870. Hoek (" Challenger " Reports, 1888, vol. xxiv. app. A) will
orientate the English reader on this genus. For the complkated
parasitism of isopods and Sacculinidae on the same hosts Giard aad
Bonnier (Bopyriens, 1887, p. 197) should be consulted.
The remaining family may. till further knowledge, be allowed to
cover four retnaricable species, three of them resident on Anthozoa,
one on aA echinoderm. „Only the first, the celebrated *'
THYRSUS— THYSANOPTERA
907
girardiae (Lacaae-Duthkra, 1865), ■cmb inch rootleto into itt host as
would justify the term Rhiaothoracida. The small sinuous seg-
mented body is enclosed, except Cor one snuU opening, in an
enonnous sac-like carapace, between the lamellae of which arp
protruded from the body the ovary and "liver, both brge,
Bifurcate and ramified. It is this sac'like and not valvular cara-
pace, therefore, that justifies the term Ascothoracida. But Synagota
mira, Norman, 1888 iBril. Assoc. Report for 1887), has the body
covered by two nearw circular valves instead ot a sac. Petrarca
bathyactidts, G. H. Fowler iQuarL Joum. Uic. ScL, 1889. vol.
XXX. pt. ia. p. 115). has a bilobed carapace, ventnlly open;
DoudroiosUr asloricola, Kvipon/iuh {Biologisckes CM<ra/Mai/, 1891 ,
X. 707), is a multilobular sac, with apparently indistinct
segmentation of the body proper on the dorsal side, for this
highly problcmatk group the original authorities sboakl by all
means be consulted. The student may then be asked to compare
the account of Synagota mira both with the figure of the cypris-
stage of Dondroputcr asterkola and with the figure of the "indeter-
minate animal found on Gerardia. about which Lacaze-Duthiers
asks, " Is it the cypris-stage of Laura?" {Mim. Acad. Set.,
1883, xliL 160. pi. I. fig. 103). .S. mtra was found, like Laura
g/erardiat (fig. 3). in the Meditenapeaa, and found like it attached
Fic.
3. — A, Laura gtrardiaai 6, Carapace slit open to
show tbe body proper.
to an antipatharian. Its tax pairs of limbs are not like the bare
and simpte feet of the Laura, but two-branched and setose as in the
ordinary cj^ris-sta^ of the cirripcdc. Tbe conclusion, therefore,
»as, seems at least
. L.Jscase>puthiers
. miVo is either
the cypris-stage of Laura gitrardiaa or of some congeneric species.
In Lacase-Dutnlers's highly-daborated memoir it should be noticed
that he uses the term '^ drrbcs " rather misleadingly, not for
cirrhiform feet, but as the equivalent of setae. Also fie gives two
different reckonings of the segmentation, counting firat eleven
body sesments without the caudal furca (p. 40), and then the
caudal furca as itself tbe eleventh t«ment (p. 41). Of Pttrarca
the devek>pment is not yet known. The points of agreement and
difference oetween it and Laura are carefully drawn out in the
essay by Dr G. H. Fowler, who inclines to favour a ck>se relation-
ship between the Thyrostraca and Ostracoda. To tbe extreme
development of the carapace in Laura, as compared with the
segmented body, it woukl be difficult to find among crustaceans
any analogy more striking than that of the great ovanal expansions
in Sicotkoe astaci, the littK copepod parasite of the common lobster.
The compactness of the class Crustacea is generally admitted; of
tbe precise affinities of its subdivisions there is still much to learn.
(T. R. R. S.)
THYRSUS (the latinued fonn of Ot.Bvfioot, t stem or
italk) the wanid or staff of Dionystis (Bacchus), the Bacchants
and Maenads and tbe votaries taking paxt in his orgiastic rites.
As commonly represented on the monuments it was a straight
staff terminating in a pine cone, a ribbon or fillet being attached
to the head below it. Another form terminated in a bunch of
grapes and vine leaves, or ivy-berries and leaves. The pine-
cone or bunch of leaves was sometimes supposed to «ovcr the
head of a spear, and the thyrsus was termed 9opa6XorYxot (see
DioKYSUs and Mysteky).
THTSAMOPTBRA (eimos, a fringe, and rrtfi^, ■ wing), a
term used in aoekigical cUasification for a smaD order of the
class Hexapoda iq.v.). The minute insects included in it, which
liaunt blossoms and leaves, are fairly well known to gardeners
by the name Thrips, a generic term used by linnaem lor the
four species of the group which he had examined and relegated
to the order Hcmiptcra. Hie term Thysanoptera was first
used by the Irish entomologist A. H. Haliday (1836), who made
a careful study of the British species and recognised that their
structural peculiarities required ordinal separation. H. Bur-
mcister in 1838 also considered that these insecu should form
a distinct order, for which be
proposed the name Physopoda,
with ref erenceto the bladder-like
outgrowths (fig. 3) on the feet.
Since then various authors have
incorporated the Thysanoptera
with one of the large orders,
some, following Liimaeus, re-
garding them as Hcmiptera,
others gioaping with them the
Orthoptera or " fteudoneurop- (TiieiifcMtnti)asimhb««Jde«will «iur
tcra." But an recent students H. Uirf. it^mtpmptk j^ S!fT^
agree with HaUday and Bur- JSSSfflT •»* "• -^ •** *^
meister in allowing thcThysnn- Fig. i .—Limotkrips detUUomu,
optera to rank as a distinct '«*>*»«• £«">!»•
order, showing affinities on the one hand with the Corrodentia
(book-lice and biting lice) and on the other with the Hemipiera
(cicada, bags, &c.).
CAoroderr.— The Thysanoptera, small insects with firmly
chitinized cuticle, are recognized by the combination of im-
perfectly suctorial jaws— the mandibles acting as piercers and
maxillae retaining their palps
(see fig. a)-^wi t h the presence
of two pairs of excessively nar-
row wings (fig. x), which are
partly or comfdletely surrounded
by elongate delicate bristles
forming a fringe. Other im-
portant structural features are
mentioned below. lo their
life-hisiory the Thysanoptera
belong to the Exopterygote
division of the Hexapoda Xq.v.).
The newly hatchedinsect closely
resembles the parent, and the
wing-nidiments appear exter-
nally on the second and third
thoracic segments; but before
the final moult the n3rmph
remains quiescent, taking no
food. Its condition thus recalls
the pupal instar of the higher
(Endopterygote) Hexapoda;
and the Thysanoptera, though
few in number, are seen to be
of great interest to tbe student,
exhibiting at once a transition,
between the biting and the (After n. MpA.)
suctorial mouth, and the pas- , FiC- a-Head of AtoUnhrips
..— . *^™ " i^^rA»t». " fr> l<^v^3 face view, showing eyes,
sage from mcompletc to l^seso/fcelcraancf jaws.
" complete " mcUmorphosis. «, Clypeus.
S»n««««.-Thel«di.»«ully *• M«|br.».b«w«ndyp«.«Kl
quadrangular in form with small . Labrum
but prominent compound eyes J Mandible
;(fig.3).whosefacetsare relatively ' u„pahedijiercer(?mnertebeol
Urge and convex; three ocelfi JjJt ma&la).
may also be present on the f Maxilla,
vertex. The feelers are msertcd -y |j, _^|_
close together (fisf. 2) on the f Secind maxillae, forming la-
extreme front of the head; they * y^^^^ •
exceed the head in length, but • Labial palp,
they are composed of only from '' "'"^ v^v-
six to nine segments, which are beaet with prominent spines, some
of the latter appearing to be organs of special sense. The mouth.
appearing l „ ^
with its jaws, forms a conical outgrowth which projects backwards,
so that its apex lies beneath the prothorax. The labrum (fig. 2 c),
which encloses the cone in front, is irrwubrly triangubr in shape.
Bchinil the mouth tbe two maxillae of the second pair are intimately
9o8
THYSANOPTERA
associated to form the labiam (fig;, a h), whoae appendicular nature
is shown only by a median furrow and by short, cylindrical pal|>s
(tig. 2 i) with two or four segments. The maxillae of the first pair
(fig- 3 j) enclose the mouth at either side. They are broad at the
base, but taper towards the tip a—* *— '' ^ -"'*- "
three segments. Within the m
(fig. 2 dj, while a single piercer i
on the left side. The nature of i
puted. H. Uzd, with the majoi
organs as mandibles and the un
man and W. E. Hinds believe th
lobes of the maxillae, and the i
the right mandible being absen
unpairad piercer is attached dire
He therefore regards it as the ii
comparing it with the remarl
book-louse (sec Copcognatha in
piercers, connected by muscles
attached directly to the head
withdrawn, are regarded by Bon
Turning to the thorax we fim
b distinct and free, with a wid
and metathorax are rather i
remarkable in this order is the si
more than two tarsal segments, a
in in<
absen
spines
is cup
a deli
trudoc
bloodv . ,
bladder— acting aa a sucker — the insect-
obtains firm hold on any surface which
the foot touches. The narrow, ddicate.
Fig. X. — Foot of young fringed wings have already been de-
Trickothript (under sur- scribed; each wing may be surrounded
face). by a nervure and traversed by two
A, With " bladder," b, longitudinal nervures, or the ncrvuration
protruded; B,retracted» may be altogether degenerated. A fair
a, Clawa. number dS species are wingless (fig. ^ ),
either in one or both sexes, and the
occurrence of winged females with wingless males is noteworthy.
Ten s^ments arc recognisable in the abdomen, which is dongated
and tapers at the h inder end. I n two of the three families of Thysan-
optera the female has a conspicuous ovi-
positor (fie. 4) with serrate processes,
projecting from the ventral surface of the
abdomen between the dghth and ninth
segments. The number of spiracles is
greatly reduced; in the adult a pair is
present on the meaothorax, sometimes
also a pair on the metathorax, and there
is always a pair on the first and another
pair on the dghth abdominal segment.
> These spiracles, according to Hinds, are
remarkable honeycomb-like structures, and
perforations to the trach^ tubes have not
been demonstrated. The internal structure
^^of the Thysanoptera has been studied by
/Ah-n It j» ^^K. Jordan. They possess a long, tubular
vtn VZ!n»:.^u^ guUct and a highly concentrated nervous
^rvi^T^'s^s^ -rr^L^i^b s^^^JhS^s^^.
pus.
(After H.Dxd.)
rgang^ioUj there are two thoracic ganglia
U ./» Ai^^^:».i and a single abdominal nerve-mass which
^min;. « situatodTfar forward. In this condensa-
segments. - . . ...
tf, Anterior; . ^ _
terior process of !
ovipositor.
h nns. ^^'^ ^ ^® nervous system and in the
of presence of four Malpighian (excretory)
tub« the Thysanopten resemble the
Hemiptera.
Development and HabUs. — Many species of Thysanoptera are
known to be habitually parthenogenetic. The eggs are laid on the
food-plant, those females possessed of an ovipositor cutting through
the epidermis and placing their eggs singly within the plant-tissues ;
a single female may take five or six weeks to deposit all her eggs.
The young insect resembles its parent in most points, but the head
is disproportionatdy large; the anterior abdominal qiiracles are on
the second segment instead of on the first, and the foot has only
a single se^enL At first Che eyes consist of a few distinct facets
on either side of the head ; they increase in number as growth pro-
ceeds, and become aggregated to form the curious compound eye
of the adult. From two to four moults occur, after which the " pro-
nymph " stage is reached, which in the insect u moderately active
and possesses wing-rudiments reaching to the second abdominal
segment. After another moult the insect passes into the passive
nymphal or " pupal " stage, during which it takes no food and
rests in some saue hiding-place, such as the soil at the base
*ood-plant or the hollow of a leaf-stalk. During this stafje
'e draws away from the im^nal cuticle which la
^neath, ulttmatdy becoming separated as a thin
can be
oms of
ti!<sue9,
he sap
left in
^ that
c prob-
In any
jrevent
\ of the
»f corn.
leaves.
»rity of
quently
ionally,
3-caIled
records
e food-
species.
in&ects
id only
ly on a
winter
ndition.
terns of
BTound.
Iian six
rcessive
int.
robably
outside
e order
igoccne
town as
:^ra are
ir-e been
writers
icr into
s cylin-
bas the
legment
^ve at
g from
f three,
lilies of
ine seg-
p, have
kwards
ips Icti-
pe.
rhysan-
M 1836-
ariy all
uomical
and the
)6. vol.,
dso be
ofrapki*
tnguagc
mogr^pk
., 1903.
.A.C.)
THYSANURA— TIAN-SHAN
909
TBTIAinilU, tlie name applied by P. A. LatreiUe to tlie
primitive wingless insects known as springtails and bristletails.
Sir J. Lubbock (Lord Avebury) separated tbe springtails as a
distinct order, the CoUembola, aiid by many students this
separation has been maintained. It is better, on the whole, to
regard the Thysanura and Collembola as suborders of a single
order, the Aptera (9.9.). The Thysanura are recognizable by
their elongate feelers and tail-processes {cerci). Campcdea
(q.v.) Mackiiis and LepisMa — to which belongs the ''silver-
fish " (^.r.)— are the best known genera. (See also Hexapooa
and Aptera.)
THTSSAGETABl an ancient tribe described by Herodotus
(iv. 32, 123) as occupying a district to the north-east of Scythia
separated from the Budini by a desert seven days' journey
broad— perhaps the Voguls. From their land four rivers
flowed into the Maeotis, but as one of them, the Oanis, is almost
certainly the Volga, there must be som6 mistake about this.
They seem to have held the southern end of the Urals about
Ufa and Orenburg. (E. H. M.)
TIAII-4HA1I, or Celestial Mountains, one of the roost
extensive mountain systems of Asia. In the widest accepta*
tion, the system extends from the E. edge (in about 67* E.) of
the Aral-Caspian depression in the W. to the great bend of the
Hwang-ho (about 103** £.) in the £. The Chinese geographers,
however, appear to have confined the term to that part of the
system which falls between the conspicuous mountain-knot of
Khan-tcngri (80* 11' E. and 42* i^' N.) and the Otun-koza or
Barkul depression in 92^-93^ £., where the northern ranges of the
system abut upon the Ek-ta^ Altai; and this conception and
limitation of the term are more or less accepted by some Euro-
pean geographers, e.g. Dr Max Fricdrichsen and G. £. Grum-
Grshimailo. On the other hand P. P. Scmcnov (or Semyonov),
one of the eariiest scientific explorers of the system, applies the
name to the ranges which lie immediately west of Khan-tengri,
including Khan-tengri itself. The Tarbagatai Mountains and
their north-western continuation, the Chinghi2-tau» arc some-
times considered to belong orographically to the Altai system;
but there are good reasons for regarding them as an independent
range. Excluding these mountains, the northernmost member
of the Tian-shan system is the Dzungarian Ala-tau in 45"-
45° 30' N. The southernmost range is the Trans>Alai, or
rather its W.S.W. prolongation, Peter the Great Mountains
in Karatcghin (Bokhara), though some geographers {e.g.
Max Friedrichsen) assign both the Alai and the Trans-Alai
Mountains to the Pamirs.
Cctural Oroa/rapkictd Dtscribtiam, — ^The Tian-shan consists almost
everywhere at " sheaves " 01 paxaild ranges, having their strike
predominantly east and wc»t, with deflexions to the W.S.W.,
west of Khan-tcngri and to the E.S.E., cast of 93* E.. thus
describing as it were a wide flattened arc open to the south. The
principal constituent ranges are accompanied by another set of
ranges which break away from the main axes in a westerly or even in a
north-wcsteriy direction. In the east, where the system is narrowest,
the predominant feature, at least as far west as 87* E., the longitude
of the Bagrash-kul, is the Pe-&han swelling, with its flanking ranges,
the Choi-ugh on the north and the Kuruk-ueh on the south. North
of the Choi-ugh and west of Barkul and tbe depresBon of Otun-kota
(alt. 3390 ft.) the principal constituent ranges are the Bogdo-ob,
continued west and north-west in the Ircn-khabirga, the Taiki
Mountains and the Boro-khoro, flanking in succession the great
doprcsuon of Dzungaria on the south. South of this last line of
elevations comes the deprc«uon of Kulja or Hi, cutting deep and far
into the outer edge 01 the great pbteau of central Asu. This
afcatn is bordered on the south t>y another scries of ranges, the Narat
Mountatni and the T6murUk*tau. The last bifurcates into the
Trans-iti Ata-uu and the Kunghci Ala-tau, sktrtine the north shore
of Lake Issyk-kul. The west continuation of the Kunghei Ala-tau
is the Alexander ranee, which in its turn bifurcates into the Talas-tau
and the Kara-tau, this last stretching far out into the desert beside
the Syr-darya. South of Lake Issyk-kul, whkh appears to be a
hollow of tectonic origin, runs the Tcrskei Ala-tau, leparating the
take from the high vauley of the Karyn. On the south side of the
Naryn valley comes the Kokshal-tau, called also in part the Boz-
adyr. striking south-west from the Khan-tengri knot and terminating
in rfie Tcfck-tau (40* 30' N. and 74'-76* E.), at which point the
•yttem again bifurcates, the Ferghana Mountains running away from
it towards the north-west until it. or rather its prolongation the
Uzun-tau, strikes against the Talas-tau. From this latter point,
again, the Chotkal-tau strikes away to the south-west, screening the
XXVI 15*
valley of Ferghana against the Aralo-Caspian desert. The other
arm of the bifuication, situated farther south, and beginning at
the Terek-tau, is doubJe: it consistt of the Alai and Trans-Alai
ranges, continued westwards in the Karatcghin. Zarafshan, Hissar
and Turkestan ranges, though orographically the Trans-Alai ought
probably to be described as the bofder-ridge of the Pamir plateau.
Thus the Tian-shan is as a whole narrowest in the east and spreads
out fan-like in the west.
KktM'Imtn and the Central Tian^shan.-^Tht peak of Khan-tengri.
which acconling to Max Friedrichsen's observations is not so high
as had generally been supposed, being 33.800 ft. instead of 34.000 ft.,
stands, not on the main watershed of the central Tian-shan, but on a
spur which projects from the watershed towards the south-west.
The loftiest summit on the actual watorvliod, according to G. Mera-
bacher, b a peak to which he has given the name of Nicholas Mikhail-
ovkh; its altitude he puU at 30,670 ft. But the general altitude of
the crest of the watershed he estimates at about 16,500 fti, and it is
overtopped by peaks (e.g. Dr von Almasy's peak Edward VII.)
rising 3000-3500 ft. higher.
Cloaely connected with the Khan-tengri knot are the Khalyk-tau
on the east, and on the west three diverging lines of elevation,
namely the Teiskei Ala-tau or Kirghis Ala-tau, overhanging the
south Aon of Issyk-kul; the Kokshal-tau, stretching away south-
west as far as the Terea Mounuins between Kashgar and Ferghana;
and, intermediate between these two, the successive ranges of the
Sary-jas, Kulu-tau, and Ak-shiryak. The snowy chain <M Khalyk-
uo is highest in the north and west and sinks gradually towards the
south and east. The highest parts of the range have generally
an east-west strike and the range itself is contmucd east in the
Kokteke (12.300 ft.), with the Kui-kuleh pass at an altitude of
iLSoofe.
From Issyk-kul there is a sharp rise of 6000-9000 ft. to the snowi>
capped ridge of the Terskei Ala-tau, the peaks of whkh ascend to
15.000-16,500 ft. and even reach 18,000 ft. At this part the system
as a wbt^ has a breadth of 150 m. The Terskei Ala-tau forms a
sharply accentuated, continuous, snow-clad range. According to
I. V. Mushketov it is continued westwards in the Son-kul (alt. 9.S00
ft.) of Baron Kaulbars. the Kara-koi. and the Suzamir-tau. until
it abuts upon the Tatas-tau. Tbe country immediately south of
the Tersket Ala-tau consists " of broad, shallow basins running cast
and west in en eckeUm pattern, and lying at ro.ooo ft. Between
them and bordering them run from five to seven ridges as broad
as the basins and rising by ccntte slopes to 13,000-16,000 ft. The
ridges rise by lonff. gentle slopes to flat summits, where often for
many miles the sky-line is an almost straight crest, from which
the rounded slopes of pure white snowficlds descend towards the
basins. The crest line is notched by high passes only 1000-3000 ft.
below the top of the crest. Oftener the summit of the ridge is
broken into individual mountains, broadly flat-topped and of nearly
equal elevation. . . . (Since late Tertiary times) erosion has had
but little effect in altering the country from the state to which it
was brought by the uplirting and warping of the old peneplain.
The result of these geological changes is that, although the internal
structure of the Tian-shan region is highly mountainous, its external
appearance, or in other words its geographical aspect, is that of a
plateau." * The passes over the Terskei Ala-tau and the plateau
country to the south lie at great altitudes— at 13,560 ft. in the Kulu-
tau ; at 13,800 in the Bedel pass. 13.400 in the Kubcrgcnty. at 13.600
in the Terekty, and at 14.440 in the Jan-art mss— allin the Kokshal-
tau; the Terek pass at 13,800 ft., and the Turogurt at 12,730 ft.,
both in the Terek range; the Barskoun at 13,000 ft., the Suka or
Sauka at 11.650 ft., and the Jauku at 14.000 ft. in the Terskei Ala-
tau; and the Tex at 1 1,800 and the Akbcl at 12,000 ft., both in the
Sary-jas; while the pass of Muz-art. on the east shoulder of the
Khan-tcngri, necessitates a climb of 12,000 ft. or more. The snow-
line on the Terskei Ala-tau runs at 11,500 ft. The summits
of the Kulu-tau or Kyulyu-tau reach 13,700 to 14.7^ ft.;
those of the Ak-skiryak 15,000-16.000 ft., overtopping by some
2000-3000 ft, the plateau or highland region which forms the water-
parting between the Tarim basin on tne east and the Syr-darya
catchment area on the west. The Kokshal-tau. which consists
of several parallel ranges, is truly alpine in character and bears targe
glaciers, which send out polyp-like arms into U-shaped valk^ys,
behind which the mountain peaks tower up Into sharp-cut, angular
" matterhoms." The loftiest rangje is that to the north, which
exceeds 16.000 ft., and the altitude increases generally from west to
cast as far as the Bcdcl pass in 78* 30' E.. where the road crosses
from Ak-su and Uch-Turfan to the valley of the Naryn and Ferghana.
At its south-western extremity the Kokshal-tau metves in the
Kokiya Mountains (1 6.000-1 8,0oo ft.), which at their other end are
met by the Alai Mountains and the Terek-tau.
Eastern and^ Northern rian-skau. — ^The mutual relations and
exact orographical connexions of sc\Trat of the ranges east and north
of the Knan-tcngri group are not yet elucidated. The region east
of the Barkul-Hami route was in part cxptored in the closing years
of the 19th century, by P. K. Kotfov, V. A. Obruchev, the brothers
G. E. and M. E. Grshimaito. V. I. Roborovsky and Sven Hedin.
Tbe system is known there locally as the Barkul Mountains and the
' Ellsworth Huntington, in Ceog. Joum. (1905), pp. ag NQg
910
TIAN-SHAN
Kftrlyk-iaKh.* which stretch from W.N.W. to E.S.E. Ita middle
parts are snow-clad, the snow Iving down to 12,000 ft. on the
north side, while the peaks reach altitudes of 14,000-15,000 ft.,
but so far as is known the range is not crossed by any pass except in
the cast, where there are passcsat 9600 ft. and 10,600 ft. (Belu-daban).
Towards the cast, the Karlyk-tagh radiates outwards, at the same
time decreasing in altitude, though it rises again in the rocky Emir-
tagh. From the Karlyk-tagh a stony desert slopes south to the
Cnol-tagh. The ChoVtagh marks the northern escarpment, as
the Kuruk-tagh, farther south, marks the southern escarpment, of the
Et Pe-shan swelling of the desert of Gobi. These two ranges
cribed under Gobi) are apparently eastern prolongations, the
ler of the Khaidyk-tash or Khaidu-tagh, ana the latter of the
Kok-tekc Mountains, wfaicli enclose on north and south respectively
the Yulduz valley and the Lake.of Bagrash-kul. Thus the Kuruk-
Ugh are linked, by the Kok-teke, on to the Khalyk-tau of the Khan-
tengri group. The Khaidyk-tau, which are crossed by the passes
of Tash-againyn (7610 ft.) and Kotyl (9900 ft.), are not improbably
connected orographtcally with the Trans-lU Ala-tau, or its twin
parallel range, the Kunghei Ala-tau, in the west, in that they are
an eastern prolongation of the latter. The Narat*tau appear to
form a diagonal (E.N.E. to W.S.W.) link between the Khaidyk-
tau and the Khalyk-tau and are crossed by passes which V. I.
Roborovsky estimates at 10.800 ft. (Sary-tyur) and 11,800 ft.
(Mukhurdai). The Jambi Mss in this same range lies at an
altitude of 1 1,415 ft. and the Dundeh-keldeh pass at 1 1,710 ft.
At the west end of the Barkul range is the gap of Otunkoca
(2^90 ft.), by which the Harai-Barkul caravan road crosses into the
valfey of Dzungaria, and at Unimchi (87''3o' E.),over 200 m. farther
west, is a similar gap (2800 ft.) which facilitates communication
between the oasis of Turfan and Dzungaria. Between these two
gaps stretches the snow-clad range of tne Bojsdo-ola, which runs
at an average altitude of some 13,000 ft., and nscs to an altitude of
17,000-18,000 ft. in the conspicuous double peak of Turpanat-tagh
or Topotar-auUe, a mountain which the Mongols regard with
religious veneration. On the north side of this range the snow-line
runs at an altitude of 9500 ft. At the foot of the same slopes
lies the broad, deep valley of Drungaria (2500-1000 ft.). On
the south the Bogdo-oia is flanked by the nearly parallel range of
the JaigOa, a range which, in contrast to most of the Tian-shan
ranges, carries no perpetual snow. But its altitude does not exceed
10,000 ft., and its steep rocky slopes meet in a sharp, denticulated
crest. West of the Urumchi gap, the Bogdo-ola is continued in the
double range of the Iren-khabirga Mounuins (11.500 ft.), whkh
curve to the north-west and finaUy, under the name of the Talkt
Mountains, merge into the Boro-khoro range. The Iren-khabirga.
like the B<^o-ola and the Tcrskei Ala-tau. are capped with
perpetual snow. They culminate in the peak of Dds-megen-ora
at an altitude of 20,000 ft. The more southerly of the twin ranges,
the Avral-tau, in which is the Arystan-daban pass at an altitude
df 10,800 ft., terminates in 82* E., over arainst the confluence of the
Kash and the Kunghez (Ili) rivers. Tne Boro-khoro Mountains,
with an average elevation of at least 11,500 ft., have all the
characteristics of a border-ridge. This range, the slopes of which
are clothed with Coniferae between the altitudes of 6000 and
9000 ft., separates the valley of Kulia (Hi) on the south from the
depressions of Zairam-nor (6820 ft.) and Ebi-nor (670 ft.) in the
valley of the Borotala on the north, the said valley opening out
eastwards into the wider valley of Dzungaria. The oasses in the
Boro-khoro lie at lower altitudes than u usual in the Tian-shan
On its nortnem side the valley of Borotala is skirted by the im-
portant orographic system of the Dzungarian Ala-Uu, the northern-
most member of the Tian-shan. Its constituent ranges run from
E.N.E. to W.S.W., though some of them have a W.N.W. and E.S.E.
strilae. The two principal series of parallel ranges possess no common
names, but are made up as follows: The northern series (going from
east to west) of the Baskan-tau, Sarkan-tau, Karazryk-tau. Btonyn-
tau, and Koranyn-Uu. running at an average elevation of 11,000-
13,000 ft., and the southern aenes of the Urtak-saryk. Bejin-tau and
Kok-su (Semenov's Labazy chain), at altitudes of 12,000-14,000 ft.
Western and Southern Ttan-shan.— On the north side of the Issyk-
kul, and separated from the Tcrskei Ala-Uu by that lake, are the
twin ranges of the^Trans-Ili Ala-Uu and Kunghei Ala-Uu, parallel
to one another and also to the lake and to the Terskei Ala-tau.
The two chains are connected by the lofty transverse ridge^of
Almaty, Almata or Almatinka. The more northerly range, the Trans-
lU Ala-Uu, swings away to the north-west, and is continued in
the echeloned ranges of Kandyk-Uu, Kulja-bashi, Khan-Uu and
the Chu-Ili Mountains, the general altitudes of which lie between
4000 ft. and 9000 ft. These latter ranges separate the Muyun-
kum desert on the west from the Balkash deserts on the cast. The
Trans- Hi itself culminates in Mt Talgar at an altitude of i4.9?o ft.
The Kunghei Ala-tau rises nearly 8000 ft. above the Issyk-kul and
lifts iu summits higher than 13,000 ft. The passes across the twin
' It may however eventually turn out that these ranges, together
''« Mechin-ola, farther to the north-east and intimately con-
'th the Karlyk-uu, belong to the Alui system.
ranga lie at 8000-11/100 ft. (Almaty pais) in the Tran»>lfi Ala-
uu and at 9000-10,88^ ft. (Kurmenty pass) in the Kunghei Ala-
Uu. This last is continued without a break past the western end
of Issyk-kul, being directly prolonged by the Alexander Mounuins.
although parted from them oy the goige of Buam or Bom, through
which the Issyk-kul probably once drained. On neither of th<ae
ranges are there any true glaciers.
The Alexander MounUins terminate over against the town of
Aulie-ata (71* 20' E.) at the relatively low altitude of 2460 ft.,
though farther east they rise to 13,000-14.000 ft., and evtn reach
15,350 ft. in Mt Semenov. On the north their declivities arc steep
and rugged. They arc crossed by passesat 65^50-1 1 . 825ft. (Shamsi).
From the middle of the Alexander range, in about 74* E., a chain
known as the Talas-tau breaks away from its south flank in a W.S.\V.
direction, and from near the western extremity of this btter two
parallel ranges, the Chotkal or Chatkal (14,000 ft.), and the Ala-
Uu, break away in a south-westerly direction, and running parallel
to one another and to the river Naryn, or upper Syr-dao'a.
terminate at right angles to the middle Syr-darya, after it has
made its sweeping turn to the north-west. The Talas-tau, some-
times known as the Uruk-tau, while the name of Ala-Uu is also
extended to cover it, has an average cfevation of i^/)oo-i5.ooo ft.,
but lifts its snow-capped summits to 15.750 ft.; it is crossed by
passes at 8000-10.650 ft.
From near the west end of the Alexander range, in about 71* E.,
the Kara-Uu stretches some 270 m. to the north-west, between the
Syr-darya and the Chu. It belongs to the later series of trans\-erse
upheavals, and consists almost entirely of sedimentary rocks. It
is not clear, however, whether orographically it is connected with the
Alexander range or with the Tauis-tau. Its average elevation is
5000 ft., but in places it reaches up to ;rooo-8ooo ft. In the same
north-westerly to south-easterly, direction and belonging to the
same scries ot later transverse upheavals are the Ferghana Moun-
uins. which shut in the pbin of Ferghana on the north-east, thus
running athwart the radiating ranges of the central Tian-shan.
The Ferghana Mounuins, which arc cleft by the Nao'n (upper
Syr-darya) civer, have a mean altitude of ioj)oo ft., but atuin
elevations of 12.7^0 ft. (Suyuk) and are crossed by the Terek pass
(distinct from the Terek pass in the Terek Mounuins) at an altitude
of 9140 ft.
On the south the Fcqghana valley b fenocd in by the lofty range
of the Alai. backed by the parallel range of the Trans-Alai. Both
ranges abut at their eastern or E.N.E. extremity upon the Pamir
plateau, and both extend in their respective continuations a long
way out into the desert. The Alai is a well-defined ridge with
steep slopes, and both it and the Terek-Uu, which prolongs it towards
the Kokshal-tau. are flanked next the Ferghana valley by what
appear to be the old uplifted strata both of tne old Palaeozoic scries
01 metamorphic limestones and of the newer Tertiary series of softer
conglomerates and sandstones. The general altitude of both ranges
is 16,000-19,000 ft., but the Trans-Alai culminates in peak Kauf-
mann (23,000 ft.). The Trans-Alai is a true border ranee, the ascent
to it from the Pamir plateau (13.000 ft.) on the south-east being
gentle and relatively short, while both it and the Alai tower up
steeply to a height <A 1 1 .000-14,000 ft. above the valley of the Alai.
This valley, which runs up at its eastern end to the Muz-ugh-tau.
is about 7^ m. long and is continued towards the south-west oy the
valley of Karatcghin. Iu breadth varies from 3 to 12 ra. and iu
altitude decreases from io,«oo ft. in the north-east to 8200 ft. in the
south-west. It is drained by the Kyzyl-su, which, under the name
of Vakhish, finally enters the Amu-darya. The Alai valley is in ill
repute because of the enormous masses of snow whkh fall in it in
the winter. Despite that it is an imporunt highway of communica-
tion between Bokhara and the Pamirs on the one hand and Kashgar
and Ferahana on the other. The principal passes over it into the
valley of Ferghana are TaMyk. 11,605 ft.; Jiptyk, 13,605 ft.;
Saryk-mogal, 14.110 ftr; Tenghiz-bai, 12,630 ft.; and Kara-kasyk.
14,(05 ft. The first-named has been made practicable for artillery
and wheekd carriages. The Pamir plateau is reached by means ol
the Kyzylart pass at an altitude of 14,015 ft.
The Alai Mounuins are continued westwards in the radiating
ranges of the Karateghin Mountains, Zarafshan Mounuins, the
Hissar Mountains and the Turkestan ranee, which reach altitudes of
18,500-22.000 .ft., though peak Baba in tne Zarafshan range reaches
nearly 20,000 ft. The Trans-Alai are continued in the Peter the
Great range, which culminates in the Sandal group at close upon
25.000 ft. (see further Bokhara). The passes across these ranges
are as a rule diflicult and lie at altitudes of some 10.000-13.000 ft.
The last outlying range of the Tian-shan system in this direction is
the Nura-tau. which, like the Kara-Uu farther north, belongs to the
more recent series of upheavals having a W.N.W to E.S.E. axis. It
rises abruptly from the desert and lifts its snowy peaks to altitudes
of 15.000-16,000 ft., separating the rixtrr Syr-darya from the river
Zarafshan. The passes over it lie at altitudes of 10,000-13.000 ft.
ClaeiatioH. — In the central and western paru of the Tian-shan
there exist numerous indkations of former glaciation on an extensive
scale, e.fi. in the Sary-jas, the Terskei Ala-Uu, Khan-tengri, Alai,
Trans-Alai, Terek range, Trans-Ili Ala-Uu, Kung^hei Ala-tau. Kok-
shal-uu. Dzungarian Ala-uu, Alexander MounUuu and Talaa-tau.
TIARA
9"
Indeed, tlie cviJanwt. t» far u tliesr have been exaauned* appear
to warrant the conclusion that the region of the western Tian-shan,
from Lake Issyk-kul southwards, was in great part the scene of
probably five successive glacial periods, each being less severe than
the period which immediately preceded it. At the preseat day four
or Ave large glacier* etream down the shoulders and embed them*
selves in the hollow flanks of Khan-tengri— the Scmenov at altitudes
of 12,410-11,100 ft., the Mushketov at 11,910-10,920 ft., the
Inyichik at ir.^20-10,890 ft., and the Kaindy at 10,810-10,040 ft.
The Inyichik glader is computed to have a length of about 45 m.
Glaciera occur also on Manas mount to the ebuth of the town of
Aulie-ata. In the Alai region there arc other extensive glaciers, e.g.
the Fcdchcnko and Shurovsky glaciers south of peak Kaulfmann.
Generally speaking, the snow-line runs at 11,500-12,800 ft. above
sea-level, and all ranges the peaks of whk:h shoot up above 12,000 ft.
are snow<lad. and all ranges whk:h arc snow-clad rice to higher
altitudes than ii,^ ft A feature gcnerallv characteristk of the
Tian-shan as a whole is that the absolute elevation of the ranges
increases gradually from north to south, and from the centre decreases
towards both the cast and the west. At the same time the relative
altitudes, or the heights of the mountain ranges above the valleys
which flank them, decrease from north to south. For instance, in
the Dzungarian Ala-tau, the valleys going south lie successively at
altitudes of 4^00 ft. in the Borotala. at 5600 ft. in the Urtaksar^k
and at 6820 beside the Zairam-nor. Again, while the Hi (Kulia)
valk^y lies at 1300 ft, the Issyk-kul has an altitude of 5300 It.,
the Koshkar basin. In which the river Chu has its source, reaches
6070 ft., the Son-kul valley 9430 ft., the Ak-sai valley, farther cast.
10,000 to XI, 1^0 ft. and the Chatyr-kul on the north side of the
Terek Mountains xi,2oo ft In the elevated regions of this part of
the system, between the Kokshal-tau and the Pamir plateau, the
snow-line runs .it a higher level than is usual elsewhere, namely at
12,500 ft and even at 13,000-13.800 ft on the Kokiya Mountains.
Climatic Conditions. — ^As a rule on all the Tian-shan ranges the
ascent from the north is steep and from the south relatively gentle.
But the deep lateral indentations {e.g. Kulja) provide a more or less
easy access up to the loftier tablelands and plateaus of the interior.
Bruadlj^ speaking, the climate on the north and west of the main
ranges is both milder and moister than on the south and east, and
accordingly the precipitation in the former is relatively heavier,
namely 10 to 20 in. annually. It used to be supposed that
the Tian-shan confronted the basin of the Tarim with a steep,
wall-like versant But this is not the case. G. Merabacher.
speaking of the slopes of the Khalyk-tau and other neighbouring
ranges of the centru Tian-shan, says that " nearly everywhere the
Tian-shan slopes away gradually towards the^high plain at its
southern base, in places. . .subMding gradually in ranges of trans-
verse spurs, whose cape-like ends project far into the desert, or in
other places in the step-like tailing ofl of longitudinal ranges In
some places limestones appear as projections from the range; at
others conglomerates and Tertiary clay marls form the outermost
fold."^ On the north versant of the ranges the rainfall increases
from the foot of the mountains upwards, and at 0000-10.000 ft
the vegetation becomes luxuriant. According to P. P. Semenov,
the following vegetable cones may be distinguished on the
northern slopes: altitudes of 52^-157;} ft are steppe lands, of
iS7$'iyo ft* are the zone of ci
35-1575 ft
ultivation.
_^.^ ^^ _ . 4300-«ioo ft the zone
of coniferous trees, 8100-9500 ft alpine pastures. 9^500-11,900 ft.,
the higher alpine rcgions. and above the last limit is the region
of perpetual snow, "nie south versant, on the other hand, is barren
and desolate below the 10,000 ft limit and above that it is dotted
with scanty patches of grass and bush vcgeution. Its general aspect
is that of rugged slopes of bare rock, seamed with the beds o( dry
torrenU choked with gravel (sec further Turkestan, West).
RohUs. — The traditional routes between China on the one side
and West Turkestan and Persia on the other have from time imme-
morial crossed the Tian-shan system at some half a dozen points.
After traversing the desert of Gobi from Sa<hou to Hami, the great
northern route crossed over into the Drungarian valley either by
the Otun-koza depression or by the gap at Urumchi, or else it
proceeded over the Muz-art pass on the east side of Khan-tengri or
over the Bedel pass in the Kokshal-tau and so down into the valley
of Kulja.* The shortest route, though not the easiest, between
Kashgar and East Turkestan in the east and Ferghana and West
Turkestan in the west is over the Tciek pass or the pass at the head
of the Alai valley, a dangerous route in winter by reason of the vast
quantity of snow whkh osualty aocnmulates there.
BiuiocRArnT. — Dr Max Friedrichsen and Dr G. Merzbacher
have both published good monographs on the central Tian-shan.
the former '* Morphologie des Ticn-schan," in Zeiixhrifl der Ceseit-
sekafi far Erdkunde *u Berlin (1899) and *' Forschungsreise in den
aentralen Tii^n-schan." in Miiteilunten der f/tog. GestUsckafl in Hum-
burg (1904) : %nd the latter in Vu Ctntral TtaH-shan Ifountains (Lon-
don. 190%). See also G. Brpchercl's " In Asia Centrale." in BotUnino
delta Socut^ Geog. Italiana (1904) ; P. P. Semenov (or Semyonov), in
PeUrmcnns Mitteilung/en (Gotha. 1858) and in Zeitsckrift der GeseU-
schafijOr Erdkunde zu Berlin (1869); N. A. Sycvertsov (Sewertzow).
* G. Merzbacher. The Central Tian-shan Mountains, pp. 139-140
(^joadoa, 1905).
*' Erfonchonc das ThianachangebirgsBystems, 1867.** in Peiermann*
MiUeilungent Er^ntungshejte .13 and 43 (1875): 1 V. Mushketov,
" Short Report oT a Geological Journey in Turkestan " (in Russian),
in Zapiski of Russ. Geog. Soc., 3nd series, vol. xx. (St Petersburg,
1877). and Ceologieal and OrographiaU Description of Turkestan,
1874-1880 (in Russ.: St PetersbJrg, 1886): S. D. Romanovsky,
Maierialkn Mur Morphologie von Turkestan (1 880, &c.) ; I. V. Ignatvev
and A. M. Krasnov, in Izvestia of the Russ. Geog. Soc. (1887):
A. M. Krasnov, in Zapiski of the same society (1888); Dr von
Almasy, in MitUikmum der k. k. cesterreichisckeu Geog. CeselUchaft
(Vienna, 1901) ; Baron A. von Kaulbars, " Materialien zur Kenntniss
dcs Thkn-flchan." in Itoeslia of Russ. Geog. Soc. (1874); J. W.
Regel. Reisebri^e aus Turkestan (Moscow, 1876): and G. E.
and M. £. Gnim-Grshimailo, Alomg the E. Tian-skan (in Russian;
Sc Pctersbun , 1896) ; V. A. Obruchev. in Inestia of Rusa. Geog. Soc.
(1895): G. Saint-Yves, on the " Terskei Ala-tau." in Annates de
fiographie (1898); E. Huntington. " The Mountains of Turkestan,"
in Geog. Joum. (London. 1905) ; and P. K. Kozlov. " Account of
Roborovsky'a Tibetan Expedition," in laestia of Rusa. Geog. Soc
(i»97). U.tTBe.)
TIARA (Gr. nAfia), alio called regnwrn, triregnum and corona,
the pijaX crown, a bee-hive shaped, somewhat baling head-
covering, ornamented with three crowns (whence triregnum or
"triple crown")* It has no sacral character, being solely the
ensign of sovereign power (cf. Innocent III. Serm. vii. in S.
Sihest: ** Pontifex romanus in signum imperii utitui regno"),
and is therefore never worn at liturgical functions, when the pope
alwayi wears the mitre. The tiara is first mentioned, under the
name of eamdaucum, in the Vita of Pope Constantine (d. 7x5),
and next under the name of piteus pkrygius or phrygium, or
the CcHstitutuM ConsUxntini, the so-called " Donation of Con-
suntine." In the 9th century it appears in the 9th Ordo of
MabilloD in connexion with the description of the consecration of
the pope. On papal coins it first apfiears on those of Sergius HI.
(d. 911) and then on those of Benedict VII. (d. 983). At
Dia«a by Falter loMpb Ikwia. S./.
Figore to illustrate the development of the Ttaxa.
this period it was, according to the Ordo above mentioned, a
sort of cap of white stuff, and helmet-shaped. Before the 9th
century the tlam was certainly without any crown; any such
ornament would not have been in keeping with the circum-
stances of the time, and seems also to be excluded by the terms
of the Canstitutum Conslantini. It b quite uncertain when the
crown was fiist added. It is true that MabiUon's 9th Or^o calls
this head-gear regmtm, but it appears to know 'nothing of a
crown. The papal coins and a few pictures of the loth and nth
centuries leave it doubtful whether the ornamental band at
the lower edge of the tiara is intended to represent a crown or
merely a decorative orphrey {aunfrisium). At the beginning of
the isth century, however, the papal tiara was already decorated
with a circlet, as the Ordo of Benedict (c. X140) and statements
made by Brano of Segni and Suger, abbot of St Denys, prove; but
it is only in representations of the tiara dating from the late 13th
century that the circlet appears as a regular spiked crown. The
two pendants at the back of the tiara {caudaey infulae) are like-
wise only tnceable to this period. The second circlet was
added by Boniface VIII., as is proved by three statues executed
during his lifetime (one in the Lateran church and two in the
crypt of St Peter's). Perhaps this was due only to the pope's
love of display, but possibly the two crowns were intended to
symboUae Boniface's views as to the twofold nature of the
papal authority. In the inventory of the papal treasury made
in 1316 the tiara is described as having three crowns; the
third must therefore have been added under Benedict XI.
or Clement V. The monumental eflSgy of Benedict XI. In S.
Domenico at Perugia still has a tiara with one circlet in the
antique fashion of the X3th century; that of John XXII. showed
only two crowns. The earliest monumental effigy of a pope
giving an example of a triple-crowned tiara is now, therdforc,
913
TIARET--TIBBU
Uiat of BeBe<£ct XII. (d. 1342)* of whidi the head is preserved
in the museum at Avignon, while an effigy of the same pope in
the crypt of St Peter's at Rome has a tiara with only two crowns.
Since Benedict XII. the trip]e<rowned tiara has appeared
regularly on the monuments' of the popes. The crowns are
essentially uniform, though the ornament varies (feaves or
spikes).
Outside Rome it was still a considerable time before the triple-
crowned tiara ap(>eared in representations of the popes, and as Utc
as the isth century they are sometimes picturea with the ungle-
crowned tiara. The reason for the addition of the third crown b
unknown. The symbolism now \attached to the triple crown
(authority over heaven, earth and bell, or the temporal power and
the powers of binding and loosing) is certainly not the original
explanation.
Several baseless hypotheses have been advanced aa to the origin
of the papal tiara. In all probability the c a md auc itm, the oldest
form of the tiara, came into use under the Greek and Syrian popes
of the 7th, or the beginning of the 8th century, perhaps even under
Pope Constantine himself. The prototype of the camelaucMm must
undoubtedly be sought at Constantinopla in the head-ornament
forming part of the Byzantine court costume. CJ' Baa.)
TIARBT (roAerl), a town of Algeria, in the Tell Atlas, depart-
ment of Oran, 122 m. S.E. of Mostaganem by rail. It occupies
an important strategic position on a pass through the mountains
at an elevation of 3552 ft. Pop. (1906), 5778* of whom 3433
were Europeans. The Wadi Tiaret flows through the town in
a series of cascades. The upper town, the residential quarter,
is on the right bank of this stream. The citadel occupies a
separate hill on the other side of the wadi. The chief business
centre is the lower town where are also the principal public
buildings. On another hill opposite the citadel is the native
town.
The citadel occupies the site of a Roman station believed to
be that of Tingurtia. Tiaret (Berber for " station ") was a
town of note at the time of the Arab invasion of North Africa
in the 7 th century and is stated by Ibn Khaldun to have o£fered
a stubborn resistance to Sidi-Okba. In 761 it was taken by
Abdurrahman ibn Rostem, the founder of the dynasty of the
Beni Rust&m (Rostem). Their empire, which during the reign
of Abdurrahman(76i>784) and hb son Abdul Wahab (784-823)
extended over the greater part of the modem Algeria, was known
as the Ibadite Empire from Abdallah ibn Ibad, the founder of
the heretical sect to which Abdurrahman belonged. The
Ibadites represented the moderate section of the Kharijites
(see Mahommsoan Reugion). Seven princes of the Rustamite
house sacceeded Abdul Wahab at Tiaret, but in 909 the dynasty
was overthrown by the Fatimite general al Shi'L Two years
later Tiaret was captured by Massala ibn Habbus of the Miknasa
dynasty of Morocco, and af Ur his death in 934 two other princes
of the same house maintained their independence, but in 933
the Fatimites again gained the mastery. The IbaditeSi after
being expelled from the Tell, took refuge in Wargla. They
were driven thence in the ixth century and migrated to Mzab,
where their descendants still profess the Ibadite doctrines (see
MzABiTEs). After its second capture by the Fatimites, Tiaret
ceased to be the capital of a separate state. For a long period
it was included in the sultanate of Tlemcen, and in the x6th
century fell to the Turks. It was one of the chief towns
of Abd el Kader, but was occupied by the French in 1843.
At Takdempt, 6 m. west of Tiaret, Abd el Kader had his
principal arsenal. About a mile from Takdempt are ruins of
a town supposed to be the remains of the Ibadite capital.
Eighteen mUes S.S.W. of Tiaret are the sepulchral monuments
known as the Jedors (see Algeria: % Archaeology).
TIBBU, or Tebu (" Men of Tu," i.e. " of the rocks "), a nomad
negro-Berber race of the eastern Sahara, their territory being
conterminous westward with that of the Tuareg Berbers.
Roughly, their domain is some 200,000 sq. m. Their western-
most settlements are the oases of Agram, Kawar and Jebftdo,
their northernmost the district of Catron ((^trQn) within the
n frontier, while south and south-east they merge gradually
negroid populations of Kanem, Bomu (Chad basin),
and north-west Darfur. But the bulk of the nation is
concentrated in the region of Tibesti or Ttt, hence their name.
There are two main divisions — the northern Teda, or less negroid
Tibbtt, and the southern Daza, or more negroid Tlbbu. Some-
what more distantly connected with the same family are the
Baele of the eastern and south-eastern oases and the Zoghiwa
(Zaghwa) of Darfur. The TSbbu are variously estimated »s
numbering from 60,000 to 100,000, but their districts are w
little known that Uiese figures are npt to be relied on.
The Tlbbu ai« usually identified with the Gararoantes of Herodo-
tus (iv. 183), whose capital was Garama (Idrisi's Gcrma) in Phazania
(Fezzan), and of whom Ptolemy already spoke doubtfully as Ethio-
pians (Negroes ?): 'OrrcM* M koI a^wr 4Ji| itfiXXor AlBUtwu* (i. 8).
But Leo Africanus transfers them to the Berber connexion, whov
fifth great division he deals with under the names of Gumcri (Gara-
mantes?) and Bardaei or Bardoa, that is, the Teda of the Bardai
oasis, Tibe&ti.^ Lastly Hcinrich Barth on linguistic grounds
grouped them with the Kanuri of BomU| who arc undoubtedly
negroes; and since his time (1852-1853) theTibbu have been rt:earded
by most ethnologists as a negroid people' Gustav Nacbtig^, who
studied them carefully (1870-1873), although his own inferences
are somewhat vague, supplies sufficient evidence for a solution of
this difficult ethnolc^ical problem. There can be little doubt that
the Teda, or true Tibbu, probably identical with the Tedamansii,
a branch of the Garamantes, placed by Ptolemv south of the Saroa-
mycii in Tripolitana,' physically resemble their western Tuareg
neighbours. They are a pure homogeneous race, who have for
ages undergone no perceptible change in their rockv homes, and
are still dbtinguished by the regular features, long black rin^^Icty
hair, haughty oearing and fierce expression cx>mmon to so many
of the Berber peoples. Mostly of middle size, they are finely pro-
portioned, except the somewliat too small hands and feet, with
lighter complexion than that of the southern Daza, and no trace
01 the flat nose, thick tumid lips, or other marked characteristics
of the true negro. " Their women arc charming whQe stilt in the
bloom of youth " (Keane's Rectus^ xxii. 429). But there has
been a jgeneral dbplacement of the race southwards; and, while
a few hngcr in the northern Gatron and Kufara districts, large
numbers have since medieval times penetrated into the Kancra,
Bomu. Wadai and Darfur regions of central Sudan. Here they have
everywhere merged in the natives, so that in the Daza, Kancmbu.
Kanuri, Baele and ZoghSwa groups the Tibbu race presents all the
shades of tranation between the true negro and the true
Berber.
The same transitjonal stages are observed in the Tibbu forms of
qieech, which constitute a wide-spread linguistic familjr, whose most
archaic and purest branch is the Tcdaga of Tibesti (NachtiK.-!!).
Through the southern Dazaea the Tedaga merges in the more highly
developed and more recent Kanem. Bornu (Kanuri), Ennedi (Bade)
and Darfur (ZoghSwa) dialects, which, owing to the absence of
grammatical gender and some other structural features, are usually
classed as negro languages. But a negro toneue could not have
arisen among the people of Hamitic speech of the Tibesti uplands,
and the explanation ot this linguistic difficulty is obviously the same
as that of the physical puzzle. The negro aibnities of the southern
members of the group have arisen through assimilation with the
original and now partly displaced negro idioms of central Sudan.
There remains the final difficulty that Tedaga itself has nothing
in common with the Berber or any Hamitic tongue. If, therefore,
it is neither Hamitic nor negro, the only two stock languages recog-
nized by Lepsius in Africa, how is it to be placed? Le;>Mus s
generalization, inconsistent as it is with the conditions occurring in
other parts of the continent, must be rejected. Room having thus
been found for other linguistic families, the Tedaga of Tibesti may
be explained as an independent evolution from a primeval Tibbu-
Berber germ, analogous to other linguistic evolutions in other isolated
or inaccessible highland regions, such as the Caucasus, the Pyrenees
and the Anahuac table-land. The common germ has long since
Eirished, or can no longer be detected, and the Tibbu and Berber
nguages stand side by side as fundamentally distinct, while the
two races remain physically one. The Tibbu are therefore a Berber
people, who in their secluded homes have had time to evolve an
independent form of speech, which southwards has become largely
assimilated to the Sudanese negro dialects.
Lying on the tract of the great caravan ronte between Fezaan
and Lake Chad, the Tibbu have always been a predatory race,
levying blackmail on the convoys passing through their territory,
maintaining inter-tribal feuds and carxying on constant
1 See Vater, MitkradaUs, ii. p. 45 of Beriin ed. 1812, and Nachtigal.
Sdkara und Sudan (1881), ii. 189.
* " UrsprOnelich ein Negervolk," Lepsius, Nvbische Grammatik
(^iHUUun() (Berlin. 1880).
* The original inhabitants of the Kufara (Kofra) oases were Teda,
some of whom survive in a settlement south of Jebel Nari. ^lux
the beginning of the 18th century they have been replaced dsewfacre
in Kufara by the Zwiya Arabs from the Leshkcneh oases.
TIBER— TIBERIUS
913
Welfare with the sonoanding Btrbrr and Sudanese popnlatiooB.
The tribal organiaatioB embraces dardai or headmen, maina or
nobles, and the common folk, while the unwritten law of custom
rules supreme over all daaaet. Their customs are partly negroid,
partly Arab. They scar their faces like the negroes and wear
the veil like the Tuareg.
See G. F. Lyon, NofraHm ef Traads «(• NcHktm i4/Hka (London,
i8ai): Gusuv Nachtisal, Sahara %nd Svdan (BcHin and Leipsig,
1879-1889) ; Gerhard »aWi%,Qiurdwch Africa (1874-1875).
TIBER (anc Tiberis', ItaL Ttvtre), a liver of central Italy.
It traverses the Tuscan Apeniunes--in which it rises at a
point some i3 m. N. of Pieve San Stefano, 4r6o ft. above sea-
level— in a series of picturesque ravines, akizts the west foot of
the Sabine Mountains in a broad shaUow valley, then crosses
the Roman Campagna, cutting its way through Rome, and
finally enters the Tyrrhenian (Mediterranean) Sea by two anns at
Ostia and Fiumicino, the latter artifidaL Its prhidpal tribu*
taries are the P<glia, the Nera and the Anio or Teverone, and
it is generally navigable by boats up to the confluence of the
Nera, a distance of 104 ra., though, owing to the rapidity of
the current, there is very little navigation above Rome. The
total length of the river is 240 m., cnC which ai m. lie between
Rome and the sea. This latter poruon of the river's course -is
tortuous, but in spite of this, and although the depth varies
from only 7 to 30 ft, and in places at low water does not
exceed 4 ft., it is nevertheless navigated by vessels up to 180
tons burden and proposals have been made to embank and
dredge it so as to increase this depth to 8 ft. at least, or to build
a ship canal up to Rome. The area of the Tiber basin is 6845
. sq. m. The stream is heavily charged with sediment, and from
that circumstance got its ancient epithet of fiamu (tawny).
It does not, however, form a delta proportionate to the volume
of Its water, owing to a strong sea current flowing northwards
close to the shore, to the sudden sinking of the sea to a great
depth immediately off the mouth of the river, and possibly also
to the pczinanent subsidence of the Italian coast &om the Tiber
mouth southwards to Terradna. Still it has advanced at each
mouth about 2 m. since Roman times, while the effect of the sedi«
ment it brings down is seen on the north-west almost asfiffas Palo
(anc Al$ium)t and on the south-east beyond Tor Patemo (see
LAunENTiNA Via) in the gradual advance of the ooasL The rate
of advance at Fiumicino is estimated at 13 ft. per annum. From
Rome to the sea the fall is only 6*5.: 1000. The arm which
reaches the sea at Fiumidno is a canal, dug by Claudius and
improved by Trajan (see Poktus), which partially silted up
in the middle ages, and was reopened for nav^ation by Paul V.
in 161 3, t\ m. long, 80-130 fL wide, and with n *"«"*»"""* dq>th
of 5 ft The lower course of the Tiber has been from the earliest
ages subject to frequent and severe inundations; of more recent
ones, those of 1598, 1870 and 1900 have been especially destruc*
tlve, but since the year 1876 the miuidpality of Rom^ assisted
by the Italian (jovemment, has taken steps to check, and
possibly to prevent these calamities within the dty by
constructing embankments of stone, resting on fsksonn, for a
total distance (counting in both sides of the river) of 6 miles.
The flood of 1900 carried away about i m.of the new embank*
ment on the right bank of the right arm <^posite the island
owing to the faulty planning of the course of the river at
that point, which threw the whole of the water into the right
arm, and except m flood time, left the left arm dty-na fault
which has since been corrected.
In the prehistoric period the mouth ot the Tiber nsst have been
•icuated at the point where the hills which follow it on each ride
cease, about is m. below Rome. On the right bank they are of
pliocene gravel, on the left of tufa; and on the btter, on a cliff
above the river (the ancient Fm/m mjw) stood Ficana (marked by
the farmhouse 01 Dnuronoello), which is said to have owed its origin
to Ancut Martius. Beyond these hills the low coast belt formed
by the solid matter brought down by the ri\*er begins: and on
each side of the mouth in the flat ground were salt marehes (see
Ostia, Postus). The flood of 1900. when the river both above
and below Rome extended over the whole width of its valley, from
hill to hill, and over most of the low ground at its mouth, gave aa
idea of the oonditioos which must have existed in prehistoric days.
IIBBRIAS. a town on the western shore of the sea of Galilee
(to which it gives its modem Arsbic name, Ba\fr TubariyOt t.«.
Sea of Tiberias). It has a population of about 4000, more than
haU of whom are Jews (principally Polish tnunigrants). It
stands in a fertile hut fever-stricken strip of plain between the
Galilee hills and the aearshore. It is the seat of a kaimmaVam or
sub-governor, subordinate to the governor of 'Akka. There are
Latin and Greek hospices here, as well as an important mission,
with hospital and schooJs, tinder the United Free Churdi of
Scothud. The pre>Herodian history of the dty is not certain.
There is a rabbinical tradition that it stands on the rite of a city
called Rakka, but this is wholly unaginary. Josephus (AnL
xviiL a, 3) describes the buiMing of Tiberias by Herod Antipas
near a village called Eminaus, where are hot springs. This is
probably the Hammathof Jos. xix. 35. The probability is that
Herod built an entirdy new dty; in fact, the circumstance that
it was necessary to disturb an andent graveyard proves that
there were here no buUdings previously. The graveyard was
probably the cemetery of Hammath. Owing to this necessity
Herod had a difficulty in peopling his dty, and, indeed, was
compelled to use force (Jos. Ant., he. cU.) to cause any but the
dregs of the populace to incur defilement by living in a place
thus ttndean. On this account Tiberias was long regarded with
aversion by Jews, but after the fall of Jerusalem it was
settled by them and rose to be the chief centre o£ tabbinic
Ifaming.
The building of the dty falls between A.D. 16 and aj>. 32.
It was named in honour of the emperor Tiberius, and rapidly
increased injuzury and art, on entirely Greek models. Pro-
bably because it was so completdy exotic in character it is
passed over in almost total silence In the Gospeb-'the dty
(as opposed to the lake) is mentioned but once, ss thephux from
which came boats with sight-seeis to the scene of the feeding
the five thousand, John vi 33. There is no reason to suppose
that Christ ever virited it. The dty surrendered to Vespasian,
who restored it to Agrippa. It now became a famous rabbmic
school Here lived Rabbi Judah haV^sdteh, editor of the
Uisknah; here was edited the Jerusalem Talmud, and here are
the tombft of Rabbi Aqiba and Maimonides. Christianity never
succeeded in establishing itself here in the Bysantine period,
though there was a bish^ric of Tibeijas, and a church built by
Constantino, In 637 the Arabs captured the town. The
crusaders under Tancred retook it, but lost it to Saladin in 1187.
In the 16th century the city was rebuilt by Joseph ben Ardut,
subvented by Dofia Grada and Sultan Suleiman. An attempt
was made to introduce the silk industry. In the x8th century
it was fortified and occupied by the famous independent sheikh
Dhahir d-Amir.
Tiberias is notoriously dirty and proverbial for its fleas,
whose king is said by the Arabs to bold his court here. Moat
of the town was ruined by the earthquake of 1837. The most
interesting buildings are the ruins of a fortress, perhaps Hoodiaiv
south of the town, and an andent synagogue on the searcoast.
The hot springs mentioned by Josephus (and also by Pliny)
are about half an hour's journey to the south. (R. A. & M.)
TIBERIUS [TiBEiTUS Claudius Nsxo] (4a b.c.-ajx. 37)1
Roman emperor, was bom on the z6th of November, 43 B.a His
father, who bore the same name, was an officer of Julius Caesar,
who afterwards proposed to confer honours on the assassins, then
joined Mark Antony's brother in his mad attack on Octavias,
tofk. refuge with Mark Antony, and returned to Rome when the
general amnesty was prodaimed in 39 BX: Livia, the mother
of Tiberius, was also of the Claudian family, out of which her
father had passed by adoption mto that of the UviiDrusL Early
in 2!& Livia was amicably ceded to OcUvian (the future Augustus),
and three months after her new marriage Drusus, brother to
Tiberius, was bom. Livia had no children by Augustus, and
therefore devoted all her remarkable gifts to the advancement
of her sons. Tiberius passed throu|^ the list of state offices
in the usual princdy fashion, bepniing with the quaestoohip
at the age of eighteen, and attaining the consuhite for thej*
time at twenty-nine. From the great capadty for dvfl | "
914
TIBERIUS
which he displayed as emperor it may be inferred that he applied
himself with determination to learn the business of govern-
ment.
But from 32 to 6 B.C. and again fronS a.d. 4 to 10 by far the
greater part of Tibeiius's time was spent in the camp. His first
service was as legionary txibime in one of the desperate and
arduous wars which led to peace in the Spanish peninsula
through the decimation, or rather the extermination, of the
rebellious tribes. In 30 b.c Augustus sent Tiberius with an
army to seat Tigranes of Armenia on the throne as a Roman
vassaL When Tiberius 2^>proached the frontier of Armenia, he
found its throne vacant through the assassination of the king,
and Tigranes stepped into his place without a blow being struck.
Tiberius crowned Tigranes king with his own hand. Then the
Parthian monarch grew alarmed, and surrendered " the spoik and
the standards of three Roman armies." The senate ordered a
thanksgiving such as was usually celebrated in honour of a great
victory. The following 3rear was passed by Tiberius as governor
of Transalpine Gaid. In the next year (15) he was despatched
to aid his brother Drususin subjugating the Raeti and Vinddtci,
peoples dwelling in the mountainous region whence the Rhine,
Rhone and Danube take their risc.^ Drusus attacked from the
eastern side, while Tiberius operated from the upper waters
of the Rhine, and by stem measures the mountaineers were
reduced to a state of quietude, and could no longer cut com-
munications between northern Italy and Gaul, nor prosecute
their raids in both countries. In 12 B.C. Agrippa, the great
general of Augustus, died at the age of fifty-one, leaving Julia,
the emperor's only child, a widow. Agrippina, .daughter of
Agrippa by an earlier marriage, was wife of Tiberius, and had
borne him a son, Drusus, afterwards father of Germanicus.
Livia, with great difficulty, prevailed upon Augustus to repbce
Agrippa by Tiberius, who was compelled to exchange Agrippina
for Julia, to his bitter grief. During the year of mourm'ng for
Agrippa, which delayed his new marriage, Tiberius was occupied
with a victorious campaign against the Pannonlans, followed by
successful expeditions in the three succeeding summers. For
his victories in the Danube regions, the emperor conferred on
him the distinctions which flowed from a military triumph in
republican times (now first separated from the actual triumph),
and he enjoyed the ** ovation " or lesser form of triumphal entry
into the capital On the death of Drusus in the autumn of 9 b.c.
Tiberius, whose reputation had hitherto been eclipsed by that
of his brother, stepped into the position of the first soldier of the
empire. The army, if it did not warmly admire Tiberius,
entertained a lojral confidence in a leader who, as Velleius (the
historian who served under him) tells us, always made the safety
of his soldiers his first care. In the campaign of the year after
Drusu8*s death Hberius traversed all Germany between the
Rhine and the Elbe, and met with slight opposition. But It
would be too much to believe the statement of Velleitis that
"he reduced Germany almost to the position of a tributary
province." He was rewarded with the full triumph, the military
title of "imperator," and his second consulship, though tkw
opposition of the powerful Sugambri had l)een only broken by
an act of treachery, the guUt of which should perhaps be laid
at the door of Augustus. In 7 B.a there was another but
insignificant campaign In Germany. Next year Augustus
bestowed on his stepson the tribuiudan authority for five years.
Tiberius was thus in the most formal manner associated with
the emperor in the conduct of the government on the dvil side;
but Tadtus {^nn. in. 56) goes too far when he says that this
promotion marked him out as the heir to the throne.
Tiberius now suddenly begged permission to retire to Rhodes
and devote himself to study. He seems to have declined abso-
lutely at the time to sUte his reasons for this course, but be
obstinately adhered to it, In spite of the tears of Livia and
the lamentations of Augustus to the senate that his son had
betrayed him. The departure from Italy was as secret as it
«M.w K« made. Years afterwards, when Tiberius broke silence
motives, he declared that he had retired in order
* Horace, Oics^ iv. 14.
to allow the yooog princes, Gaius and Ludos, sons of Agrippa
and Julia, a free course. There was perhaps a portion of the
truth wrapped up in this declaration. Like Agrippa, who retired
to Mytilene to avoid the young MazoeUus, Tiberius had dearly
no taste to become the servant of the two children whom Augustus
had adopted in their infancy and evidently destined to be joint
emperors after his death. But it may well be believed that
Tiberius, unlike Agrippa, had no burning ambition to see himself
in the place destined for his stepsons; and it may have been in
his eyes one of the attractions of exile that it released him from
the obligation to aid in carrying out the far-reaching designs
which Livia cherished for his sake. But the contemporaries
of Tiberius were no doubt right in believing that the scandal of
Julia's life did more than all else to render his position at Rome
intolerable. His conduct .to her from first to last gives a strong
impression of his dignity and self-respect. When at length the
emperor's eyes were opened, and he inflicted severe punishment
upon his daughter, her husband, now divorced by the emperor's
act, made earnest intercession for her, and did what he could to
alleviate her sxiffering. At Rhodes Tiberius lived simply,
passing his time mainly in the company of Greek professors,
with whom he assodatei on pretty equal terms. He acquired
considerable profidency in the studies of the day, among which
was astrology. But his attempts at composition/ whether in
prose or verse, were laboured and obscure. After five yean'
absence from Rome, he b^ged for leave to return; but the boon
was angrily refused, and Livia with difficulty got her son made
nominally a legate of Augustus, so as in some degree to veil his
disgrace. The next two yeara were spent in solitude and gloom.
Then, on the intercession of Gaius, Augustus allowed Tiberius .
to come back to Rome, but on the express understanding that
he was to hold aloof from all public functions— «n understanding
which he thoroughly carried out.
He had scarcdy returned before death removed (aj>. 2)
Ludus, the younger of the two princes, and a year and a half
later Gaius also died. The emperor was thus left with only one
male descendant, Agrippa Postumus, yotmgest son of Julia,
and still a boy. Four months after Gaius's death Augustus
adopted Agrippa and at the same time Tiberius. The emperor
now indicat^ dearly his expectation that Tiberius would be
his prindpal successor. The two essential ingredients in the
imperial authority — ^the proconsulare imperium and the iribuni-
cia potesUu — were conferred on Tiberius, and not on Agrippa,
who was too young to receive them. Tiberius' career as a general
now began anew. In two or three safe rather than brilliant
campaigns he strengthened the Roman hold on Germany, and
established the winter camps of the legions in the interior, away
from the Rhine.
In A.O. 5 it became necessary to attack the formidable con-
federacy built up by Maroboduus, with its centre In Bohemia.
At the most critical moment, when Fannonia and Dalmatia broke
out into insurrection, and an unparallded disaster seemed to
be impending, Maroboduus accepted zn honourable peace. The
four serious campaigns which the war cost displayed Tiberius
at his best as a generaL When he was about to celebrate
his well-won triumphs, the terrible catastrophe to Vans and
his legions (a.d. 9) turned the rejoidng into lasting sorrow, and
produced a profound change in the Roman policy towards
Germany. Although Tiberius with his nephew and adopted son
Germanicus made in aj>. 9 and xo two more marches into the
interior of Germany, the Romans never again attempted to
bound their domain by the Elbe, but dung to the neighbourhood
of the Rhine. Tiberius was thus robbed in great part of the
fruit of his campaigns; but nothing can deprive him of the credit
of being a chief founder of the imperial system in the lands of
Europe. From the beginning of i z , when he cdcbrated a magni-
ficent triumph, to the time of the emperot's death in 14 Tiberius
remained almost entirely in Italy, and held rather the position
of joint emperor than that of expectant heir. Agrippa
Postumus had proved his incapadty beyond hope, and had
been banished to a desolate island. In all probability
Tiberius was not present when Augustus died, although Livia
TIBERIUS
9»5
spttad reports (eagerly amplified by VeUefas) of an affectionate
interview and a lingering farewell.
Tiberios ascended the throne at the age of fifty-six. What
struck his contemporaries most was his absolute impenetrability.
All his feelings, desires, passions and ambitions were locked
behind an impassal>lc barrier, and had to be interpreted by the
very uncertain light of his external acts. It is recorded of him
that only once did he as commander take counsel with his officers
concerning militaiy operations, and that was when the destruc-
tion of Varus's legions had made it imperatively necessary
not lightly to risk the.k»s of a single soldier. The penalty of
his inscrutability was widespread dislike and suspicion. But
behind his defences there lay an intellect of high power, cold,
clear and penetrating all disguises. Few have ever possessed such
mental vision, and he was probably never deceived either about
the weaknesses of others or about his own. For the littleness
and servility of public life in regions below the court he enter-
tained a stnmg contempt. It is a question whether he ever liked
or was liked by a single being; but he did his duty by those with
whom he was connected after a thorough though stem and
unlovable fashion. As a general he commanded the full confi-
dence of his' soldiers, though he was a severe disciplinarian;
yet the men of his own legions greeted his accession to the
throne with a mutiny. Tiberius proved himself capable in
every department of the state more by virtue of industry and
ai^Ucation than by genius. His mind moved so slowly and he
was accustomed to deliberate so long that men sometimes made
the mistake of deeming him a wavercr. He was in reality one
of the most tenacious of men. Wlien he had once formed an
aim he could wait patiently for years till the favourable moment
enabled him to achieve it, and if compelled to yield ground
he never failed to recover it in the end. The key to much of his
character lies in the observation that he had in early life set
before himself a certain ideal of what a Roman in high position
ought to be, and to this id^ he rigidly adhered. He practised
sternness, silence, simplidty of life and frugality as he deemed
that they had been practised by the Fabridi, the Curii and the
FabiL That Tiberius's character was stained by vice before
he became emperor, no one who fairly weighs the records can be-
lieve. The persuasion entertained by many at the end of his
life that he had been always a monster of wickedness, but
had succeeded in concealing the fact till he became emperor, has
slightly discoloured the narratives we possess of his earlier years.
The change which came over him in the last years of his life
seems to have been due to a kind of constitutional clouding
of the spirits, which made him what the elder Pliny calb him,
" the gloomiest of mankind," and disposed him to brood over
mysteries and superstitions. As this gloom deepened his will
grew weaker, his power tended to fall into the hands of tmworthy
instruments, tenors dosed in aroimd his mind, and his naturally
dear vision was perturbed.
The change of masters had been antidpated by the Roman
world with apprehension, but it was smoothly accomplished.
Tiberius was already invested with the necessary powers, and
it may even be that the senate was not permitted the satisfaction
of giving a formal sanction to his accession. Agrippa Postumus
was put to death, but Livia may be reasonably regarded as the
insti^tor of this crime. Livia indeed expected to share the
impnial authority with her son. At first Tiberius allowed some
recognition to the claim; but he soon shook himself free, and
later became estranged from his mother and held no cooununi-
cation with her for years before her death. The history of
Tiberius's relations with other members of his family is hudly
less miserable. Perhaps with any other commander than Ger-
manicus the dangerous mutiny of the troops on the Rhine which
broke out soon after Tiberius's accession would have ended in
a march of the discontented legions upon the capital. The
perilous episode of Arminius caused the recall of Germanicus
and his de^>atch to the East on an honourable but comparatively
inactive mission. The pride and passion of Agripfnna, the grand-
daughter of Augusttis and wife of Germanicus, tended to open a
breach between the husband and the emperor, la. Im Eastern
command Germanicus found himself perpetually watched and
even violently opposed by Piso, the governor of Syria, who was
suspected to have rocdved secret orders from Tiberius. When
Germanicus died at Antioch in a.d. 19, the popuUce of Rome
combined with Agrippina in demanding vengeance upon Piso;
and the emperor was forced to disown him. The insinuation,
conveyed by Tadtus, that Piso poisoned Germanicus on orders
from Tiberius, will not stand criticism. The death of Germanicus
was followed four^ears later by that of the emperor's son Drusus.
These two princes had been firm friends, and Livilla, the wife of
Drusus, was sister to Gennanicus. Years afterwards it was
found that Drusus had fallen a victim to the treachery of his wife
livilla, who had joined her ambition to that of the emperor's
minister of State Sejanus. When Drusus died, Tiberius nomi-
nated two of Agrippina's sons as his heirs. But Sejanus had
grown strong by nursing the emperor's suspicions and dislike
for the household of Germanicus, and the mother and the princes
were imprisoned on a charge of crime. In his memoirs of his
own life Tiberius dedared that he killed Sejanus because he had
discovered that he entertained a mad rage against the sons of
Germanicus. But the destruction of Sejanus did not save
Agrippina and her two children. The third son Gaius Caesar
(Caligula), lived to become emperor when Tiberius died in 37.
Throughout his reign Tiberius strove earnestly to do his duty
to the empire at large; his guiding priadple was to maintain
with an almost superstitious reverence the constitutional forms
which had been constructed by Augustus. Only two changes
of moment were introduced. The imperial guard, hitherto only
seen near the dty in snuUl detachments, was by the advice of
Sejanus encamped permanently in full force close to the walls.
By this measure the turbulence of the populace was kept in
check. The officer in conunand of the guard became at once
the most important of the emperor's lieutenants. The other
change was the practically complete abolition of the old comitia.
But the senate was treated with an almost hypocritical defer-
ence, and a pedantically precise compliance with the old republi-
can forms was observed towards the senatorial magistrates.
The care expended by Tiberius on the provinces was unremitting.
His favourite maxim was that a good shepherd should shear the
flock and not flay it. When he died he left the subject peoples
of the empire in a condition of prosperity such as they had never
known before and never knew again. Soldiers, governors and
officiaJs of all kinds were kept in wholesome dread of vengeance
if they oppressed those beneath them or encouraged irregularity
of any kind. Strict economy permitted light taxation and
enabled the emperor to show generosity in periods of exceptional
distress. Public security both in Italy and abroad was main-
tained by a strong hand, and commerce was stimulated by the
improvement of communications. Jurisdiction both within and
without the capital was on the whole exercised with steadiness
and equity, and the laws of the empire were at many points
improved. The social and moral reforms of Augustus were
upheld and carried further. Such risings against the emperor*^
authority as occurred within the Roman domain were put down
with no great difficulty. The foreign or rather the frontier
policy was a policy of peace, and it was pursued with consider-
able success. With few exceptions the duties of the Roman
forces on the borders were confined to watching the peoples
on the other side while they destroyed each other. On the
Rhine, at least, masterly inactivity achieved tranquilh'ty which
lasted for a long period.
The disrepute which attaches to the reign of Tiberius has
come noainly from three or four sources^from the lamentable
story of the imperial household, from the tales of hideous de-
bauchery practised in deep retirement at Capreae during the
last eleven years of the emperor's life, from the tyranny whidi
Sejanus was permitted to wield in his master's name, and from the
poUtical prosecutions and executions which Tiberius encouraged,
more by silent compliance than by open incitement. The
stones of immorality are recorded chiefly by Suetonius, wha Ji^
evidently used a pmsoned source, possibly the men * -*^>-
younger Agrippina, the mother of Nero. Tib#
9i6
TIBESTI— TIBET
shroud hiiiiaelf in mystery, and such stories are probably the
result of unfriendly attempts to penetrate the darkness. If
history ventures to doubt the blackness of Theodora, that of
Tiberius grows continually lighter under the investigations of
criticism. Suetonius makes the emperor's condition to have
been one of mania, issuing frequently in the abandonment of
all moral restraint. But in that case the authority of Tiberius,
which was as firmly upheld during the years spent at Capreae
as it had been earlier, must have fallen to pieces and come to an
end. With respect to Sejanus, it is impossible to acquit Tiberius
of blame. If he was deceived in his favourite he must have been
willing to be deceived. He conferred on Sejanus a position as
great as had been held by Agrippa during the reign of Augustus,
and the minister was actually, and all but formally, joint
emperor. Of the administrative ability of Sejanus there can be
no question; but the charm and secret of his power lay in the
use he made of those apprehensions of personal danger which
seem never to have been absent from his master's mind. Hie
gtowth of " deUtion," the darkest shadow that lies on the reign,
was mainly a consequence of the supremacy and tht: arts of
Sejanus. Historians of Rome in andent times remembered
Tiberius chiefly as the sovereign imder whose rule prosecutions for
treason on slight pretexts first became rife, and the hateful race
of informers was first allowed to fatten on the gains of judicial
murder. Augustus had allowed considerable licence of speech
and writing against himself, and had made no attempt to set up
a doctrine of constructive treason. But the history of the state
trials of Tiberius's reign shows conclusively that the straining
of the law proceeded in the first instance from the eager flattery
of the senate, was in the earlier days checked and controlled
to a great extent by the emperor, and was by him acquiesced in
at the end of his reign, with a sort of contemptuous indifference,
till he developed, under the influence of his fears, a readiness to
shed blood.
The principal authorities for the reign of llberiut are Tacitus and
Suetomus. The Annals of Tacitus were not published till nearly
eighty years after the death of Tiberius. He rarely quotes an
authority by name. In all probability he drew most largely from
other historians who had preceded him : to some extent he availed
himself of oral tradition; and of archives and original records
he made some, but comparatively little, use. In his history of
Tiberius two influences were at work« in almost equal strength: on
the one hand he strives continually after fairness; on the other
the bias of a man steeped in senatorial traditions forbids him to
attain it. No historian more frequently refutes himself. Suetonius
was a biographer rather than an historian, and the ancient bio-
ffrapher was even less given to exhaustive inquiry than the ancient
historian; moreover Suetomus was not gifted with great critical
faculty, though he told the truth so far aa he could see iL His
Ltves of the Twelve Caesars was written nearly at the time when
Tacitus was composing the Annals, but was published a little later.
Velleius Psterculus is by far the oldest authority for any part of
Tiberius's life. He had been an ofiicer under Tiberius, and he
eulogizes his old general enthusiastically — feeling it necessary,
however, to do less than justice to the achievements of Germanicus.
To Velleius all defenders of Tiberius have eagerly apjiealed. In
truth it is his silence alone which affords any external aid in repdling
the charees of Tacitus and Suetonius, and the fact that Velldus
published his work in the lifetime of his master deprives that sOence
of its value. The eulogy of Sejanus which is linked with that of
Tiberius must needs shake faith in the scrupulousness of the author.
It is stm doubtful whether Dio Cassius (whose Uistiary ended with
the year 329) in his narrative of the reign of Tiberius is to anv great
extent independent of Tacitus. In recent times a considcraUe
mass of inscriptions has added to our knowledge of the administra-
tion of this emperor. The chief account of 'nberius in English is
that contained in Dean Merivale's Jlistory ef Uu Bemans under
the Empire. Professor E. S. Beesly has wntten an interectiag
defence of him in his Catiline, Clodius and Tiberius (1878). The best
recent history of this period is Hermann Schiller's GeukiekSe der
rdmiscken KaiserteU (Gotha, 1883). Much historical information
is given in the editions of the AimaU of Tacitus, of which the best
in English is that of Fumenux (Oxford, 1884); Freytag. Tiberius
and Tacitus (Berlin, 1870) (following Stahr, Ttberius, Berlin, 1863),
exposes the inconsistencies of Tacitus' account Many mono-
graphs have since appeared, written on rimilar lines, among which
may be mentioned ihne, Zitr Ekrenrettung des Kaisers Tiberius
(Strassbuiv, 1892) ; C»enti]e^'/fM^eral«re Tileria secondo la mcdema
critica storua (1887); J. C. Tarver. Tiberius the Tyrant (1902}. The
Erinciples of the imperial administration of the provinces by Tiberius
ave Deen treated by Momrasen in the fifth volume of his History
of Rome, translated into English by W. P. Dickson (1686).
d. S. R.)
TIBBSn, a mountainous and little known region of the central
Sahara, inhabited by the Tibbu (g.r.>. The country was partly
explored in 1870 by Gustav Nachtigal; it had not been again
visited by Europeans up to 1910, though French officers had
reached Borku on its southern borders. By the Anglo-French
declaration of the 2zst of March 1899 Tibad was included in
the French sphere of influence in North Africa.
TIBET, or Thibet, a country of central Asia. It is the highest
country in the world, comprising table-lands averaging over
16,500 ft. above the sea, the valleys being at 12,000 to
17,400 ft., the peaks at 20,000 to 24,600 ft., and the passes at
16,000 to 19,000 ft. It is bounded on the N. by Turkestan, on the
E. by China, on the W. by Kashmir and Ladak, and on the S. by
India, Nepal and Bhutan. It has an area of over 1,000,000
sq. m., and an estimated population of about 3,000,000, being
very sparsely inhabited.
Origin oj Name. — ^The Tibetans call their country Bod, whidi
TIBET
917
watd In coOoquial pronaudationis a^ilrated into Bkdd or BM,
and in the modern Lhasa dialect is curtailed into Bkd. Hence
the country is known to Indians as Bhdtt and the inhabitants
as Bkdt-uu, This territory came to be known to Europeans as
" Tibet " evidently because the great plateau with its uplands
bordering the frontiers of China, Mongolia and Kashmir, through
which travellers communicated with this country, is called by
the natives T9-bkSt (written stod-hod) or " High Bod " or " Tibet,"
which designation in the loose orthography of travellen
assumed a variety of forms. Thus in Chinese annals are found
Tu^bal (5th century, a.d.), Tu-po-U, Tie-bu-te, Tu-ho4e (xoth
and nth centuries) and at the present day Tu-fan (fan, as
Bushell shows, being the same Chinese character which had
formerly the sound of ^>; in Mongolian, Tubet, TobM; in
Arabic, Tubbet\ Istakhri {c. 590), Tobbat; Rabbi Benjamin
(1x65), Tkiba-, J. de Piano Carpini (1247), Thabet; Rubruquis
(1253), Marco Polo (1298), Tebtt; Ibn BatuU (x34o)» Tkabati
Urn Haukal (976), Al Bimni (1020), Odoric of Pordenone
(c. 1328), Orario deUa Penna (1730), TibH, which is the form now
generally adopted. The inhabitants of Tibet call themselves
Bod-pa (pronounced usually Bha-pa), or "people of Bod."
Other Tibetan epithets for the country sometimes used by
flowery native writers are " The Icy Land " {Gangs-€'<m) and the
" Country of the Red Faces " {Gdong-mor-gyi yuf). The Chinese
name for central Tibet is Wti-Ts'ang, which is a transcription of
the Tibetan designation of the two provinces t) and Tsang
(spelt dbu^glsang) that constitute central Tibet. Among the
Mongols, Tibetans are called Tangutu and the country Barontata
or the " right side," in contradistinction to DzinUda or " left
aide," which was their own name for Monflolia itself.
C€9gr»ph:(. — Phyiically Tibet may be divided into two parts, the
take regioH in the west and north-west, and the rncr region, which
spreads out on three sides of the former on the east, south, and west.
The lake region extends from the Pangong t'ao (t'ao - lake) in Ladak,
near the aoarce of the Indus, to the sources of the Salween, the
Mekong and the Yangt«e< This regk>n is called the Chang^t'ang
(.Byang tang) or " Northern Plateau " by the people of Tibet. It
is some 700 m. broad, and covers an area about equal to that of
France. From its great distance from the ocean it is extremely
arid, and possesses no river outlet. The moontain ranges are
spread out, rounded, disconnected, separated by flat valleys ida*
tivcly of little depth. The country is dotted over with large and
small lakes, generally salt or alkalme, and intersected bv streams,
and the soil is bog]^ and covered %rith tussocks of grass, thus resem-
bling the Siberian tundra and the Pamirs. Its average altitude is
over 16,000 ft., the northern portion of it being the highest. Salt
and fresh- water lakes are intermingled. The lakes are generally
without outlet, or have only a smalieffluent. The deposits consist
of soda, potash, borax and common salt. This last is frequently
found piled high and split into blocks apparently of artificial forma-
tion, but probably the result of the action of wind and intense cold.
The loftiest lake so far as observed is Hospa t'so, near the LingsU
pUin on the Kashmir frontier; Its altitude is nven as 17,930 ft.
The lake region is noted for a vast number of not springs, which
are widely mstributed between the Himalayas and 34* N., but are
most numerous to the west of Tcngri Nor (^north-west of Lhasa). So
intense is the cold in Tibet that tnese spnngs are tomctimes repre-
sented by columns of ice, the nearly boiling water having frosen in the
act of ejection. The southern cortton, from Lake Pangong to Tengri
Nor. is inhabited by pastoral tribes of Tibetans, and possesses a
few hamlets, such as Ombo. Rudok and Senia jong. The river
region comprises the upper courses of the Brahmaputra (Yam
Tsanepo), the Salween (? Cyama nyu! chu), the Yangtsze (Ore chu),
the Mekong (Nya-lung chu). and the Yellow River (^la chu). Amidst
the mountains there are many narrow valleys, partially cultivated
from an altitude of X2/)oo ft. downwards, with here and there
fine forests covering the mountain sides. Villages of high stone-
built houses are to be found wherever the valley bottoms open out
enough to afford a little space for agriculture. The northern portion
of Tibet is an arid and wind-swept desert: but in the southern
portion the valleys of Lhasa, Shigatse, Gyantse and the Brahma-
putra are covered with good soil and groves of trees, well irrigated,
and richly cultivated.
The valley of the Brahmaputra (q.v.), or Yaru Tsang-po or
nmply Tsang-po — the river has also various local names — is the
great arterial valley of southern Tibet. On the south it is bounded
by the Himalayas, on the north by a mountain-system still more
vast. This mountain-system was only vaguely known, in fact its
existence throughout its length was only suspected, until Sven
Hedin. during his journeys in 1906-IQ08, crossed it at several points.
He found the system to form the chief physioRraphical feature of
•outhera Tibet, and stated it to be " 00 the whole the most maasivp
nnoe 00 the crast of the earth, its vnngt height above the eea>
level being greater than that of the Himalayas. Its peaks are 4000
to 5000 feet k>wcr than Mount Everest, but its pastes avenge 3000
feet higher than the Himalayan pasaee." Its extreme breadth is
about lao ra. in the central part, its northern limit being marked
by the chain of lakes running N.W. and S.E. between 30* and 33* N.,
beyond which the mountains of central Tibet are much lower.
The system at no point narrows to a single range ; generally there are
three or four across its bfeadth. As a whole the s^era forms the
watershed between rivers flowing to the Indian Ocean — the Indus
and its tributaries. Brahmaputra and its tribuurihs, and Salween—
and the streams flowing into the undrained salt lakes to the north.
The principal ranges in the system are the Nien-chen-tang-la, called
Kanchung-gangri in the west, the Tain>-Gangri»Lapchung range,
the very krfty Hlunpo-Gangn range, the Dingla range, &. The
whole system had been marked by inference on some mans before
Hedin's discoveries, and named Cangri; Hedin proposed lor it the
name of Trans-Himalaya.
(koUgy and Mifurol liVaUb.— Uttle is known of the geological
structure of the central regwns of Tibet. The observations of
Strachey, Godwin-Austen and of Griesbach and other rnembere
of the Geological Survey of India only extend to the southern
edge or rim of the great phteau, where vast alluvial deposits in
horirontal strata have been furrowed into deep ravines, while
Russian explorers have but superficially examined the mountain
regions of the northand north-east, and the Britbh mission to Lhasa in
1904 affoixled observations merely along the trade-route to that city.
The general structure of the trans-Himalayan chains appears to
indicate that the main axis of upheaval of tne whole vast mass of
the Tibetan highlands is to be found on two approximately parallel
lines, represented the one by the Kuen-lun and the o'tner by a
line sHitch is more or less coincident with the watershed between
India and the central lake region, extending from Lake Pangong to
Teagri Nor, the plateau enclosed between the two being wrinkled
by minor folds, of which the relative elevation is comparatively
bw, averaging from 1000 to 1500 ft. The strike of these folds is
usually east and west and roughly parallel to the axes of ekvatioa
of the plateau. A remarkable economic feature is the almost
distribution of gold throughout Tibet. The gold-digging
is refcfred to in somewhat mythical terms by Herodotus. £very
river which rises in Tibet washes down sands impregnated with
gold, and it has been proved that this gold is not the product of
mtervenine strau, but must have existed primarily in the crystalline
rocks of the main axes of upheaval. In western Tibet the gold
mines of Jalung have been worked since 1875. They have been
visited bv native explorers of the Indian Survey, who reported that
much gold was produced and remitted twice a year under a Chinese
guard to Peking. The Tibetan diggera collected together at the
mines chiefly during the winter, when the frost assisted to bind the
looee alluvial soil and render excavation easy. These mines are
within 300 m, of the Ladak frontier, near the sources of the Indus,
at an devation which cannot be less than 15,000 ft. above sea-level.
They are worked in crude desultory fashion and are sometime*
abandoned owing to the exorbitant imposts levied on gold production
by Chinese and Tibetan officials. Between the Ladak frontier
and Lhasa the plateau region teems with evidences of abandoned
mines. These mines are excavations in the alluvial soil, never
more than from ao to 30 ft. deep.
The researches of Prjevalsky demonstrate that gold is plentiful
in northern and eastern Tibet. Here Tungus diggers were encoun-
tered who had extracted handfuls of gold in small nuggets from a
stream bed at a depth which they stated to be no greater than a ft.
Another scientific explorer, W. Mesny , has observed similar evidences
of the existence of gold at comparatively shallow depths in Koko
Nor region, and recwds that he has seen nuggets, " varying from the
siae ofa pea to that of a hazel-nut." in esstem Tibet. The gold
was almost pure and neriectly malleable. The Cork goldfidds,
which are visible from Koko Nor, are reported to have yielded to
China considerable quantities of eokl as lately as 1888. They are
now deserted. Prjevalsky, indeed, predicts of northern Tibet that
it will prove a " second California in course of time. But little
«>ld at present finds its way across the Tibetan passes to India; and
Uie export to China has diminished of late yeais.
Iron is found in eastern Tibet in the form of pyrites, and is rudely
emelted fecally. Salt and borax exist in abundance in the western
lake regions. The exportation of borax to India is only limited by
the comparadvely small demand. Lapis-lazuli and mercury are
among the minor mineral products of the country.
Qs'ws/f.— The climate of Tibet varies so greatly over the enormous
area and different altitudes of the country that no two travellen
agree precisely in their records. Tibet is affected by the south-west
monsoon, just as the Pamirs are affected, but in wying degrees
according to geographical position. In western Tibet, bordering
the Kashmir uontier, the climate differs little from that of Ladak.
Intense dryness pervades the atmosphere during nine months ol
the year; but little snow falls, and the western passes are so little
subject to intermittent falls of fresh snow as frequent^ ta JT
traversable during the whole year round (see LaoAXH). Lc
turss are prevalent throughout theee western regioafctJ
9i8
TIBET
deeolatlon is onrdieved by the ezishMice of trees or vegetation of
any sise, and where the wind swee^ unchecked across vast expanses
of arid plain. * All the western r^ion b but slightly affected by the
monsoon. The central lake region, extending from the Kuen<Iun
to the Himalaya, is also characterised by extreme dryness in autumn,
winter and spring, with an abundance of rain in summer, whilst the
eastern mountain region, extending to China south of the Dang U
(whkh, with an altitude of about 30,ooo ft, stretchies from 90* to 97*
E^ along.the parallel ct 33* N., and arrests the monsoon currents),
is subject to much the same dimatk: influences as the eastern Hima-
laya. The southern slopes of the Dang la are deluged with rain, hail
and snow throughout the year. Northern Tibet is an. arid waste,
subject to intense heat in summer and intense cold in winter. In
March snow still lies deep in the Tsaidam passes, while Wellby found
the heat oppressive in June at 16,060 ft. elevation on the plateau
sooth of the Kuen-lun, and a temperate climate prevailing about the
•ounces of the Dre chu (Yangtsae) in August. ,
All travellers testify to the perpetual wind currents from the
west, which sweep across the salt bogs of Tsaidam (9500 ft-) and
through the higher valleys df eastern Tibet. Wind is a prevailing
feature throughout Tibet at certain seasons of the year, as it is in
the Pamirs, m Turkestan, in western Afgham'stan and in Per^
The climate of southern Tibet is. however, subject to considerable
modifications from that. of the northern and central regions, owing
doubtless to its ge(^;raphical connexion with northern India. Here,
at an elevation of 15,000 ft., about the great Lake Dangn, we hear
of well-built villages and of richly cultivated fiekls of bariey, indicat-
ing a condition of climate analogous to that which prevails in the
districts south of Lhasa, and in contrast to the steriOty of the lake
region generally and the nomadic character of its population.
N^em travellers bear witness ^to a gradual p r ogi css of desiccation
in the Tibetan uplands. Everywhere there are sign* of the diminu-
tion of the lakes and the recession of the water line— a phenomenon
that has also been observed in the Pamirs. There are still enormous
glaciers about the head of the Brahmaputra, but the glacial epoch of
the Chang-t'ang highlands has paaseci away, though comparatively
recentlyr
fZora.— Our knowledge of the flora of northern and central Tibet
has been cbnsidcrably increased by the collections of Prjevalsky.
Wellby, Bower, Thorold, Littledale and the Lhasa Mission, and that
of eastern Hbet by RockhiU. The former and other collections have
been described in W. B. Hcmslcy's The Flora of Tibet or Hith Asia,
Western and southern Tibetan flora were partially explored pre-
viously to the advent of these travellers. Professor Maximowicx
concludes from an analysis of th« Prjevalsky collection that the
flora <^ Tibet b extremely ancient, and that it is chiefly composed
of immigrants from the Himalaya and Mongc^ia. ' There is also a
large percentage of endemk: species. Chinese and European plants
followed in the process of immigration. Those species whu:h are
distinctive of the eastern border ridges are found to reach the
plateau, but do not spread westwards, so that a botanic separation
or distinction is found to exist between the true plateau (tf Tibet
in the west and the afpine tracts of the east. Thiselton-Dycr classes
the flora of Tibet on the whole as belonging to the Arctk-Alpine
section of the great northern division, but conuining a purely
endemic element. Two typical species are Lychnis apetala, which
extends to Spitsbergen, and the well-known edelweiss. A single
fern specimen obtamed by Littledale {Polypodium hastatum) is
indicative of eastern China. Of the forty or fifty genera obuined
by Littledale in central Tibet a large proportion are British, includ-
ing many of the most characteristic mountain forms. In the
higher regions of northern and western Tibet the conditions under
which v^etation exists are extreme^ Here there >are no trees, no
shrubs, nor any plants above a foot hi^h. Wellby says he saw
nothing higher than an onion. The peculiar form of tussocky erass
whkh prevails in the Pamirs is the characteristic feature of the
Tibetan Chang-t'ang of the T^idam plains and of the bogs north-east
of Lhasa. Of grasses indeed there are many forms, some peculiar to
Tibet, but no trees or shrubs at any devation higher than 1 5,000 ft.,
except in the Kharo Pasa of central Tibet, where Waddell bas
recorded trees (? Hi^phae sp.) about 20 ft. high at an elevation of
16,300 ft. A flowenng plant (Saussurea tridaelyla) was discovered
by Bower at an elevation of zo.ooo ft. In south-eastern Tibet,
where Himalayan conditions of citmate prevail, we have a completely
different class of flora. Of the flora of Tibet Rockhill writes: " In
the ' hot lands ' {Tsa-rong) in southern and south-eastern Tibet,
extending even to Batang, peaches, apricots, apples, plums, grapes,
Water-mdons, &c.. and even pomegranates, are raised ; most of Tibet
only produces a few ^rieties of vegetables, such as poutocs, turnips,
beans, cabbages, onions. Ac. The principal cereals raised are barley
and buckwheat, wheat in small quantities, and a little oats. A few
localities in the extreme southern portions of the country, and around
Lhasa possibly, are said to produce a non-mutinous variety of rice.
A variety of mountain bamboo is found in southern and parts of
eastern Tibet, and is much used for basket work. Tibet produces a
<«-^ number of medicinal plahts much prized by the medkral
'on in China and Mongolia, among others the Cordyceps
the Coptis teeta. Wall., and Piehorhita huwoa, Royle, &c.
a also found in great quantities in eastern Tibet and Amdo;
it is laifdy csported for Em^pflui uaa, bat does not appear to be
used medfetnally in the country. The trees most common!/ found
are the plane, l>op]ar, maple, walnut, oak, the Cupresstu /mneMs^
and various varieties of the genera Pinus, Abies and Larix. Some
valuable plants are obtained in the mounuins of south and south-
western Tibet, yiddinc; the excellent yellow and red colours used to
dye the native doths.'^ Waddell gives a list of 164 species of plants
collected by him at Lhasa, sevoal odng new species.
Fauna. — The fauna of Tibet has been by no means exfaaustivdy
investigated, especially the rodents and smaller species of animals.
Among domesticated animals are to be found the horse, mule,
donkey, cattle, sheep and goats, dogs, fowls and pigs, ducks and
geese. Probably po country in the Worid, excepting peiliaps inner
Africa, so abounds in wild animals as the cold solitudes of the nor-
thep plateau. Here are to be found vak, wild asses (hyang), several
m the north-eastern districts), leopards, otter, wolves, wild cats^
foxes, marmots, squirrels, monkeys and wild dogs. To this list
must be added the curious sloth-bear Aduropus meUtnokueus. a
rare eastern species, and the so^alled " unicorn " antdopea, the
" tftkyin " (Budorcastaxicohr), alsoan eastern Indo-Malayan species.
Birds arc fairly numerous, and include manyvaricti^of water-fowL
several of whkh (Anser indicus, the bar-headed goose, for insuncc)
breed in Tibet,, while othen are only found as birds of passage, f n
eastern Tibet, on the Chinese border, varieties of the pheasant tribe
abound, some of which are rare. Among them are the '* white "
pheasant, the Ceriomis temrninckH, two kinds of eared pheasant and
Anderson's pheasant. The Tibetan sand-grouse is peculiar to the
country, and the snow-partridge (Lerva ntvicola) and the snow<ock
(TetraogaUus tibetanus) are' occasionally met jrith in the uplands,
while the ordinary ps^dge {Perdix Judgsomi) ia common in the
ravines on the plateau.
Feo^.—Tht Tibetan race, which probably belongs to the
Turko-Mongol stock, ia divided between the nomadic tent-
dwelling Tibetans of the lake region and tnnaition zone between
it and the river region, and the settled sedentary population of
the valleys. The tent-dwelling Tibetans, called Dokpa or
Dnipa (spdt kbrog-pa), or " Steppe-dwellexs," are generally of
a more Mong<rfized type than the people of the lowlands. The
males measure about 5 ft. 5 in., except in eastern Tibet, where
5 ft. 9 in. is a common stature; the females are appreciably less.
The head is meaatl-cephalic, verging on bracfaycephalic in the
case of many Of the Dokpa; the hair is black aqd somewhat
wavy; the eyes are usually of a dear brown, in some cases even
hotel; the cheek-bones are high, but not so high as with the
Mongols; the nose is thick, sometimes depressed at the root, in
other cases prominent, even aquiline, though the nostrils are
broad. The teeth are strong but irregular; the ears, with toler-
ably large lobes, stand out from the head, but to a Ie» degree
than with the Mongols. The mouth is broad, the lips not full,
and, among the people of the lower altitudes, deddedly thin.
The beard is sparse, and, with the exception of the moustache,
which is sometimes worn, especially in central Tibet, it is plucked
out with tweezers. The shoulders are broad, the anns round;
the legs are not well developed, the calf is especially small. The
foot is somewhat small but broad, the hand coarse. The women
are usually stouter than the men. The colour of the skin of the
Tibetans is a light brown, sometimes so light as to show ruddy
cheeks in children; where exposed to the weather it becomes a
dark brown. Their voices are full, deep and powerful. They
can endure exposure without much apparent inconvenience; and
though the nature of the food they use is such that they cannot
stand absolute privation for any considerable length of time, they
can exist for long periods on starvation rations, if eked out with
weak soup or buttered tea, which is drunk at frequent intervals.
The sedentary population of Tibet has to a greater or less
d^ree the same physical traits as the Dokpa, but as one
approaches China, India or the border lands generally, one
observes that the admixture of foreign blood has considerably
modified the primitive type. Among the customs of the
Tibetans, perhaps the most peculiar is polyandry, the brothers in
a family having one wife in common. Monogamy, however, seems
to be the rule among the pastoral tribes, and polygamy is not
unknown in Tibet, espedally in the eastern parts of the country.
Their religion is described under Lamaxsu.
a. A. W.; T.'H. H.*i
TIBET
919
lofffiMf*.— The Un g uag e of Tibet bean no tpedal aanie. it it
merely known as ** The Speech of Bod or Tibet," namely, Boi^kad
(pronotinoed Bk&-kd), while tbe vernacular ia called fal-tkad or
'^vulgar speech," in contradistinction to the fjc-sa or " polite
respectful speech " of the educated classes, and the ch'os-skad or
*' book bnguage," the titmry style is which the scriptures and
other dasaical works are written. .
It is not a unifomi speech, but oompriaes several dialects which
have been classed by Jaeachke into tnree groups, namely (O the
central or the dialectpof Lhasa and the central provinces of U and
Tsang (including Spiti) which is the Ungua franca of the whole
country. (2) the western dialects of Ladak, LAhul, Baltistan and
Purig, and*(t) the ^eastern dialects of the province of Khama. In
addition to these, however, are many sub-dUilects of Tibetan spoken
in the frontier Himalayan districts and states outside Tibet, namely,
In Kunawar and Bashahr, Garhwal, Kumaon, Nepal including
especially the Serpa and Murmi of eastern Nepal, Sikkim (where
the dialect is called D&njong-k&), Bhutan (Lho-kft or Duk-kft), all
of which are affiliated to a central group of dialects. Farther east
the Takpa of Tawang in the eastern Assam Himalayas appears to
form a transition between the central and the Sifan group of dialects
on the Chinese frontier, which includes the Minyak, Sunepan, Lifan
and Tochu dialects. On the north bordering on Turkestan the
dialect of the nomadic Hor-pa tribes is much mixed with Turkic
ingredients. The number of speakers of Tibetan dialects is probably
not far short of eight millions.
Linguistically, Tibetan is allied to the Burmese languages, and
forms with the latter a family of the scxaHed Turano-Scythian
slock called *• Tibeto-Burman '' (tf.s.). the unity of which family
was first recognixed by Brian Hodgson in 1828, and indeed
several of the dialects of Tibetan are still only known through
the copious vocabularies collected by him. The little that
was known of the Tibetan lan^age before Hodgson's time
was mainly derived from the writings of the Romish friars who
mided for several years in Lhasa in the first half of the
1 8th century.^ The first serious European student of Tibetan
was Caoma de KorOs (1784-1842). an indefatigable Hungarian,
who devoted his life to the study of this language and the ancient
Buddhist records enshrined in its unknown literature. For this
purpose he resided like a monk for several years among the UUnas
at the monasteries of Zangla and Pukdal in Zanskar and latteriy
at Kaflkim in upper Bashahr, enjoying the assistance of learned
limas. His Tibetan-Engfisk Dictionory, and pioneer Tibdan Gram-
mat, both published in 1834, opened to ETuropeans the way to
acquire a knowledge of the Tibetan langnago as found in the ancient
classics.* The next great advance in the study of the Tibetan
language we owe to trie labours of H. A. Jeaschke of the Moravian
mission which was tetablished in Ladak in iSsjr. Thb scholarly
linguist, equipped with modern methods of scientific research, did not
confine himseli to the cUssical period like Csoma, but extended his
* The Capuchin friars who were settled in Lhasa for a quarter of a
century from 1719 studied the language; two of them, Francisco
Orazio della Penna, well known from his accurste description of
Tibet, and Cassian di Macerata sent home materials which were
utilized by the Augustine friar Aug. Ant. Georgi of Rimini (1711-
1797) io his AlpkaSetum tib^anum (Rome, 1762, 4to), a ponacrous
and confused compilation, which may be still referred to, but with
great caution. The Tibetan characters were drawn by Delia Penna
and engraved by Ant. Fontarita in 1738. In 1820 Abel R^usat
published his RechtrcJUs sur Us iangues tartares, a chapter of which
was devoted to Tibetan.
' The firs^ Hbetan dictionary for Europeans was a DiOumary
of tiu Bkolanta or Bhutan Language, pubUshed at Serampur near
Calcutta in 1828. It was, however, crude and unedited and con-
tained many serious mistakes, having been taken from the MS.
notes of an unknown Italian priest Tnow believed to be Father
Juvenal of Agra, who had been stationed near the frontier of Bhutan),
whose MS. was translated into English by Fr. Chr. G. Schroeter
and published without supervision by any Tibetan scholar; and
Csoma was unaware' of its ezistetrce when compiling his dictionary.
At St Petersburg J. J. Schmidt published his Crammatik aer
tibftiscken Spracke m 1839 and his Tibetuck-deutukcs Wdrterbwk
in 1 841, but neither of these works justified the great pretensions of
the author, whose access to Mongolian sources had enabled him to
enrich the results of his labours with a certain amount of information
unknown to his predecessors. In France, P. E. Foucaux published
in 1847 a translation from the Rgya tcher rot-pa, the Tibetan version
of the Lalita Vistara, and in 1858 a Grammaire tkibHaine; while
Ant. Schicfner had begun at St Petersburg in 1849 his series of
translations and researches. His Tibetiscke Studien (1851-T868) is
a valuable collection of documents and observations. In 1861
I^psius published his paper Vehfr ckinesiscke und tibttiscke Lautver-
kaltniss^: and after 1864 Lfon Fccr brought out in Puis many
translations of texts from Tibetan Buddhist literature. In 1828-
1849 the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal published com-
parative vocabularies of spoken and written Tibetan by Brian H.
licxlgson. and granunatical notices of Tibetan (accorxling to Csoma's
grammar).
iavesijg»tiona to the ksniage as a whde, and provided Europeana
for the first time with the means of making a practical study of
modern Tibetan and the speech of the people His Tibetan-En^isk
Dictionary and Tibetan Grammar are moods of sctentific prcasiao
and important sources of our knowledge of the structure and devebp-
ment of the language, and the former is not superseded ^
Chandn Das's Dictionary.*
The language was first reduced to writing with the asastance
of Indian Buddhist monks in the middle of the 7th century a.d. by
Thonmi, a Tibetan layman. The letters, which are a ^
form of the Indian Sanskrit characters of that period, * ■■■■■»
follow the same arrangement as their Sanskritic prototype. The
consonants, 30 in number, which are deemed to possess an inherent
sound a, are the foltowing: ka, k'a, gq, npt, ia, la,ja, nya, la, t'a, ia,
na, pa, p'a, ba, ma, tsa, ts*a, d», wo, M'a, Ma, 'Aa, ya, ra, la, s'a, sa, ka, a;
the so-called Sanskrit oerebrsJa are represented by the letters ta,
fa, da, na, s'a, turned the other way. Ya, when combined as second
consonant with k-, p-, m-, is written under the first letter. Ra, when
combined as second letter with k-, t-, p-, is written under the first,
and when combined with another consonant as first letter over the
second. The vowels are a, i, u, «, o, which are not distinguished
as kmg or short in writing, except in loan wmds transcribed from the
Sanslmt, Ac, though they are so In the vernaculars in the case of
words altered by phonetic detrition. By means of ^glutlnation, that
M, by adding to the bases fom-words as prefixes, suflbses or infinsL
the Tibetan language has developed a considerable grammatical
system and » now agglutinating rather than isolating. Aggtomera-
tions of consonants are often met with as initials, giving the appear-
ance of telescoped words — an appearance which hiitorial etymmogy
often confirms. Many of these initial consonants are silent in tne
dialects of the central provinces, or have been resolved into a simpler
one of another character. The language is much ruled by laws of
euphony, which have been strictly formulated by native gram-
marians. Among the initials, five. via. g, d, b, m, *k, are regardied as
prefixes, and are called so for all purposes, though th^ belong
sometimes to the stem. As a rule none ot these letters can be placed
before any of the same organic class. Pbst-positions, paotba and
ma, are required by the noun (substantive or adjective) that b to
be ringled outi po or bo (maac.) and mo (fern.) are used for dis-
tinction of gender or for emphasis. The cases of nouns are indicated
by suffixes, which vary their initials according to the final cf the
nouns. The plural is denoted when rcauired by adding one of
several words of plurality. When several words are connected in
a s entence they seldom require more than one case element, and that
comes last. There are personal, demonstrative, interrogative and
reflexive pronouns, as well as an indefinite article, whkh is also the
numeral lor " one. The personal pronouns are repbced by various
terms of respect when speaking to or before superiors, and there are
many words besides which are only emi^oyed in ceremonial language.
* Jaeschke from i860 to 1867 made several important omimunica-
tions, diiefly with reference to the phonetics and the dialectical
pronunciation, to the academies of Berlin and St Petersburg, and in
the Journal of the Astatic Society of Bengal. In 1868 at Kyelang
he published by lithography A Skort Practktd Grammar of tk*
Tibetan Language, nritk spectai reference to tke spoken dialects, and
the foQowinjr year a Romaniaed Tibetan and Englisk DicHonary.
He also published in 1 871-1876 at Gnadau in Prussia by the same
process a Tibetan and German dictionary. Afterwards he prepared
tor the English Government a Tibetan-En^isk Dictionary, witk
special reference to tke prevailing dialects, in 1 881. Dr H. Wenzel,
one of his pupils, edited in 1883 from his MS. a Simpl^ied Tibdan
Grammar. Major Th. H. Lewin with the help of a Stkkimese lama
compiled A Manual of Tibetan, or rather a series of colloquial
phrases in the Skkimese dialect, in 1879. In '^94.^'' (^nnam
Sandberg compiled a useful Handbook &f Colloquial Tibetan. Pkrt
Desgodins in 1899 issued from Hong-Kong a large Tibeto-Latin-
French dictionary, Dictionnaire ikibitain-taHn'^atifais. In 1890
Captain H. Ramsay published at Lahore his useful Practical
Dictionary of Western Tibet. In 1902 was brought out at Cakutta
Sarat Chandra Das's Tibetan Englisk Dictionary vitk Sanskrit syno^
nyms, a massive volume compiled with the aid' of Tibetan lamas
and edited by Graham Sandberg and the Moravian missionary A. W.
Heyde The Tibetan Manual by V. C. Henderson (1903) is a uaeful
work, and so is. the Manual of CoOoguial Tibetan by C. A. BeB
(Calcutta, 1905). which has full English-Tibetan vocabularies,
graduated exercises and examples in the Lhasa dialect of tOKlay.
An interesting and important analysis of many of the dialects and
of the generalstructure of the language has been made by Dr G. A.
Grienon, with the collaboration of £>r S. Koaow, in his Ldnguistie
Survey of India (1908). As regard^ native philology, the most
ancient work extant is a grammar of the Tibetan tongue preaerved
in the Bstan-hgyur (mdo cxxiv.). This collection also coBtainB
other works of the same kind, dktionaries by later writers, transla-
tions of many Sanskrit works on grammar, vocabulary, ftc.. and
bilingual dictionaries, Sanskrit and Tibetan. As separate publica-
tions there are several vocabularies of Chinese and Tibetan ; Monpol
and Tibetan; Chinese. Manchu. Mongol, Oel6t, Tibetan and
Turkish ; Tibetan, Sanskrit, Manchu, Mongol and Chimst
920
TIBET
The verb, which a properly a Idnd of noun or participle, has no
dement of person, and denotes the conditions of tense and mood by
an external and internal inflexion, or the addition of auxiliary verbs
apd suffixes when the stem is not susceptible of inflexion, so that
instead of saying " I go," a Tibetan says " my going." The conditbns
which approximate most closely to our present, perfect, future
and imperative are marked either by aspiration of the initial or by
one of the five prefix consonants according to the rules of euphony,
and the wh<rfe looks like a former system thrown into confusion
and disorder by phonetic decay. As* to the internal vowel,
a or e in the present tends to become o in the imperative, the
e changing to a in the past and future; • and « are less liable to
change. A final s is also occasionally added. Only a limited
number of verbs are capable of four chanffes; some cannot assume
more than three, some two, and many only one. This deficiency is
made up by the addition of auxiliaries or suffixes. There are no
numeral auxiliaries or segre^atives used in counting, as in many
langua^ of eastern Asia, thoueh words expressive of a
collective or integral are often used after the tens, sometimes after
a smaller number. A good deal of new research on the grammar
is to be found in Grierson's Linguistic Survey of India, part III.,
1908. In scientific and astrological works, the numerals, as in
^nskrit, are expressed by symbolical words. In the order of the
sentence the suDstantive precedes the adjective and the verb stands
last ; the object and the adverb precede the verb, and the genitive
brecedes the noun on which it depends — this contrasts with the order
m the isolating Chinese, where the order is subject, verb, object. An
active <m- causal verb reauires before it the instrumental instead
of the nominative case, wnich goes only before a neuter or intransi-
tive verb. The chief differences between the classical language of
the Tibetan translators of the 9th century and the vernacular, as
well as the language of native words, existed in vocabulary, phrase-
^ogy and grammatical structure, and arose from the influence of
the translated texts.
The Tibetan language, presenting such marked differences between
its written and spoken forms, has a great interest for phiblogists,
on account of its bearing on the history of^ the mono-
^^■^' svllabic languages of eastern Asia, with their so-called
" isolation ' or absence of form-words and consequently of gram-
matical forms. Is the Tibetan a monosyllabic language passing to
agglutination, or the re\'erse? The question has turned mainly
upon the elucidation of the phenomenon of the silent letters, gene-
rally prefixed, which differentiate the spelling of many words from
their pronunciation, in the central dialect or current speech of
Lhasa. R£musat rather dubiously suggested, while Schmidt and
Schiefner maintained, that the silent letters were a device of gram-
marians to distinguish in writing words which were not distinguished
in speech; But this convenient opinion was not sufficient for a
^neral explanation, bein^ supported by only a few cases. Among
tnese are — (a) the addition of silent lettera to foreign words in
anaksgy with older terms of the language (e.g. the Persian ladjik was
transcribed sta^tig or " tiger-leopardj' because the foreign term
left untouched would have been meamngless for Tibetan readers) ;
(b) the addition for the sake of uniformity of prefixed letters to words
etymologicallv deprived of them; (c) the probable addition of letters
by the Buddnist teachers from India to TibeUn words in order to
make them more similar to Sanskrit expressions ^or instance rje-
for " king." written in imitation of raja, though the original word
was je or she, as is shown by cognate languages). On the other hand,
while phonetically the above explanation was not inconsistent
with such cases as rka dkah, bkah, hska, and nea, mea, ngag,
sfiro^. Inga, ngad and brtse, hrdxun. dbyar, &c.. where the
it^icwed letters are pronounced in full and the others are left
aside, it failed to explain other cases, such as dgra, mgron, spyod.
spyan, sbrang, sbrul^ bkra, k'ri, krad, k'rims, k'rus, &c., pronounced
^, don, tod, or hood, len, daag, 4^, fa, t'i, tad or teh, t im, tu, &c.,
and many others, where the spoken forms are obviously the
alteration by wear and tear of sounds originally similar to the
written forms. Csoma dc K6r08, who was acquainted with the
somewhat archaic sounds of Ladak. was able to point to only
a few letters as silent. Foucaux, in his Grammaire (1858).
quoted a fragment from a native work on grammar several
centuries old, in which the pronunciation of the supposed silent
letters is carefully described. Since then the problem has
been disentangled ; and now minor points only remain to ^ be
cleared up. Jaeschke devoted special attention to the dialectical
wunds, and showed in several papers and by the comparative
ble prefixed to his dictionary that in the western and eastern
^ecu these sounds correspond more or less ck}sely to the written
TS-
leschke first noted the existence of tones in Tibetan, and these
: been found by Professor Cbnrady to have developed on the
^ same lines as in Chinese. Thus intran»tive bases seem
to have begun only with soft consonants, and it is
jbtful whether the parent tongue possessed hard consonants at
.; while transitive bases were formal by hardening of the initial
-onsonants and at the same time pronouncing the words in a higher
'~~^ and these two latter changes are supposed to have been
^ by a prefix to the base-word. Many of these old soft
initial consonants which an now haidened in the modem dialects
are preserved in classical Tibetan, i^. in Tibetan of the 7th to the
9th century a.d. The old language seems to have pronounced
prefixes extensively which in modern pronunciation in cxntral
Tibet are largely lost, whilst the soft initials have become aspi-
rated or hardened and tones have developed, and in the west
and east, where prefixes and soft initials have been preserved, there
are no tones. Thus the valuable testimony of these dialects may be
added to the evidence furnished by foreign transcriptions of Tibetan
words, loan words in conterminous languages, and words d[ cbnunon
descent in kindred tongues. And the whole shows plainly that the
written forms of words which are not of later remodelling are really
the representatives of the pronunciation of the language as it waa
spoken at the time of the transcription.
The concurrence of the evidence indicated above enables us to
form the following outline of the evolution of Tibetan. In the 9th
century, as shown by the bilingual Tibeto-Chinese edict at Lhasa,
there was relativdy little difference between the q)oken and the
written language. Soon afterwards, when the language was
extended to the western valleys, many of the prefixed and most of
the important consonants vanished from the spoken words. The
ya-tag and ra-4ag, or y and r subscript, and the * after vowels and
consonanU, were still in force. The next change took place in the
central provinces; the ra-tan were altered into cerebral dentals,
and the ya-tags became I. Later on the saperscribed letters and
finals d and s disappeared, except in the east and west. It was at
this st^ that the language spread in Lahul and Spiti, where the
superscribed letters were silent, the d and f finals were hardly heard,
and as, os, us were at, oi, «i. The words introduced frmn Tibet
into the border languages at that time differ greatly from those
introduced at an earlier period. The other changes are more recent
and restricted to the provinces of U and Tsang. The vowel sounds
ai, oi, ui have become i, d, u; and o, 0, u before the finals d and ■
are now S, 6, i2. The mediae have become aspirate tenues with a
low intonation, which also marks the words having a simple initial
consonant; while the former aspirates and the complex initials
simplified in speech are uttered with a high tone, or, as the Tibetans
say, " with a woman's voice," shrill and rapidly. An inhabitant
of Lhasa, for exam]?le, finds the distinction between s" and s', or
between s and s, not in the consonant, but in the tone, pronouncing <*
and X with a high note and s' and s with a low one. The introduction
of the important compeiisation of tones to balance phonetic losses
liad begun several centuries before, as appears from a Tibetan MS.
(No. 4626 St Petersburg) partly published by Jaeschke (Monaisber.
Akad. Berl.^ 1867). A few instances will serve to iUustrate what
has been said. In the bilingual inscriptions, Tibetan and Chinese,
set up at Lhasa in 82a, and published by Bushell tn.i88o. we remark
that the silent letters were pronounced : Tib. spudgyal, now Pffgyal,
is rendered suk-pol-ye in Chinese symbols; kkri, now ft, is ltieh4i;
kbroHg is puk4ung; snyan is skek-njoik and su-njok; srong is su-iun,
su-lung and si4ung. These transcriptions show by their variety
that they were made from the spoken and not f ronk the written forms,
and, considering the limited capacities of Chinese orthoepy, were
the nearest attempt at rendering the Tibetan sounds. Spra or spreu
(a monkey), now altered into deu at Lhasa, fat in Lahul, Spiti and
TsSng, is still more recognizable in the Gyarung skeffri ana in the
following degenerated (orm^—skreu in Ladak, streu-go in Khama and
in cognate languages, soba in Limbu, sakeu in Lepcha, mnai in
Tablung Nara, sibek in Abor Miri, sktbe in Sibsagar Miri. sarrka in
Kol, sara in Kuri, &c. GVo£-ma (ant), now altered into tiie spoken
foma, is still Ayoma in Bhutan, ana, without the suffix, korok in
its cognates in Murmi tkobo, Sibsagar Miri tub, &c Bya (bird),
spoken cka, is still Pye in Gyarung. Brjod (to speak), pronounced
jod, is cognate to tne Burmese fyauktso, the Garo brot, ftc. The
word for ' cowries " u *g!rou- in irritten, rum- in spoken Tibetan,
and grxoa in written Burmese: iiop (to learn), sj^oken lop, is stop ia
Melam. " Moon " is tlava m written and dawa in spoken language,
in which -m is a suffix ; the word itself is zfo-, cognate to the Mongol
ssara, Sokpa sara, Gyarung l-siie, Vayu ckeie, &c. The common
spoken word for " head " is go, written mgo, to which the Manipuri
moko and the Mishmi mkura are related. Sometimes the written
forms correspond to double words which have disappeared. For
instance, gye (eight), which is written brgyad and still spoken vrgycd
in Balti in the west and Khams in the east, is gySd in Ladak, Lahul.
Tsang and 0. The same word does not appear elsewhere: but we
find its two parts separately, such as Gurung pre, Murml pre, Taks>>a
phre and Takpa gyet, Serpa gye, Garo cket, &c. Hto (horse) is reduced
to ta in speech, but we find ri, rkyi, roh in Sokpa. Horpa, Tochu,
Minyak, and td, tah, teh, fay in Lhopa. Serpa. Murmi, Kami. Takpa.
&c.. both with the same meaning. Such are the various pieces of
evidence obtained from an endless number of instances. The cases
referred to above do not, owing to the difference of the causes, yield
to any explanation of this kmoT And it must be admitted that there
are also many cases, some of them caused by irregularities of writing,
modification of spelline by decay, and by a probable use of pre>
fixes still unascertaiaea, which aiso resist explanation, though the
TIBET
921
•oeomt jMt giveii mmndm good whatever solutioB the queelion of
prefijtM nay Roeive in future.
IdttrMHM.^'The feligious litentuie. which is very considerable,
ie refened to under Lamaicm. The iion>religiotts Uteratuie of Tibet
is not ctteoiive. probably owing to the printiiw being in the hands of
the priests. One of the most popular and widely circulated books b
called Tht Hundred TJmuoHd .SMfS e/ Ou V*uerabU Milampa,
Their author MUaraspa (unless the work should be attributed to
his disciples)i often cadled Mila. was a Buddhist ascetic of the nth
century, who, during the intervals o( meditation travelled through
the southern part of middle 'Hbet as a mendicant friar, instructing
the people by Ms im^visations in poetry and song, prosel^ntring.
refuting and convertta|( beietics, and working maniiokl miracles.
His l^ends are not without wit and pQeticaf merit. An equally
Kpular book is the Lem Sengs of Ts'angs-dbyangs rgyamts'o, attrv-
ted to tlw dissipated young Dalai lima who was deposed In 1701
(aee Lhasa). There are a number of poems written in an elevated
style, also diamatic works chiefly of the character of mystery plays,
and cdleaions of fairy Ules and fables. The Kesar EpU, whKh
has been translated by A. H. Francke under the title of the Ktar
Soca. is a widely known tale of a heroic warrior king of northern Asia
named Kesar (believed by some to be a transcription of " Ccar ")•
but it is not found as a printed book. Several collections of folk
songs have also been published by A. Francke from Ladak. A kme
story book; called the .DJtiuic yt iSgnaigs gyi gsungs f), and regarded
aa the national epic in Khim, has been partly seen by De^godins
and Baber. It is in prose; but the dialogue, interspersed with
is metrical, and is much more extensive than the prose framework.
Refi^ous discussions and philosophical dissertations alternate with
oonuc episodes. It includes three divisions—the Djtuug kng,
which describes the invasion of part of Tibet by the Djiuns or
Moso; the Hor ling, which recounu the conquest of the Hor (Turk
tribes) by the Tibetans, and conveys much historical information
in a Ule of magic and marvel ; and the Diia ting (Chinese division),
which narrates a contest of unknown date between the Tibetans
and the Chinese. This work has apparemly never been published,
and even the manuscripts of the three divisions cannot, says Baber,
be obtained in a complete form. But every Tibetan, or at least
every native of Kh&m, who possesses any education, is able to recite
or to chant iSassages of great length. Another Tibetan epic in
Khaur. the Cyaldrung, praises Dagyolong, a famous warrior who
subdued the savage men of Khfim. Dramatic works exist, as also
a version of the Ramaycna in the first vohmoe of the Bstodts'ogi of
the Bstan-kgyur.
WriUng.—V/r\iing was not introduced until the 7th century.
Notched sticks (Aktng-ckram) and knotted «ords were in current use.
but the latter contrivance is only faintly alluded to in the Tibetan
ncords. while of the other there are numerous examples. No
mention is anywhere made of a hieroglyphtcal writing, but on the
eastern frontier the medicine-men or lombc of the Moso have a
peculiar pictorial writing, which is known in Europe from two
published MSS. (in Joum. Roy, Asiatic Soc., 188$, vol. xvii.)-, though
apparently now confined solely to purposes of witchcraft, it perhaps
contains survivals of a former extensive system superseded by tne
alphabetic writing introduced from India. According to tradition
— a traditbn of which the details arc still open to criticism — the
alphabet was introduced from India by Tonmi, a lay Tibetan minister
who was sent to India in 612 by King Srone-btsan to study the
Sanskrit language and Duddn'ist liteiature. Tonmi introduced the
modified Sanskntic " writing in thirty characters " (already detailed
under Language and six of which do not exist in Sanskrit) in two
•tylcs— the "thick letters" or "letters with heads" {u-ch'en),
now commonly used in printed books, and the half-cursive " cornered
letters,'* so called from their less regular heads. The former
are tn&ditionally said to have been derived from the Landza
character. The Landza of Nepal, however, is certainly not the origin
<^ the Tibetan letter, but rattier an ornamental drvelopment of the
parent letter. The close resemblance of the Tibetan characters
^' with heads " to the Gupta inscriptions of Allahabad shows them
to have been derived from the monumental writing of the period;
and various arguments appear to show that the other Tibetan
letters came from the same Indian character in the style in which
it was used in common life. The Tibetan half<ur&tve was further
developed into the more current " headless " {u-med) characters, of
which there are levcral styles. The ancient manuscripts discovered
by Dr M. Aurel Stein in Khotan seem to include very eariy, if not
the earliest known, Tibetan documents. (L. A. W.: T. db L.)
Politkai Divisicns. — ^Tibetans divide their country into five
provinces: (i) Amdo, which comprises that part of the Chinese
province of Kansuh which is inhabited by Tibetans, and Koko
Nor region, extending southwards to the Yellow river and west-
wards as far as the Tsaidam. Amdo is inhabited in its eastern
p*rt by Tibetans, called Rongwa or " ravine-folk," who are
agriculturists, and in the western by pastoral tribes, collec-
tively called Panaka or the Three Panakas. (2) Khatns or
Khamda^ which includes all eastern Tibet between the Chinese
proviacts of Szecbiiea and Yunnan, and the district of Lhoroog
joag, which fortns the eastern border of the Lhasa-governed
territory. This province is divided into the five Horba tribes, the
eighteen Nyarong states in the valley of the upper Yalting, and
the districts of Litang, Batang, Derge, Gartok Chiamdo and
Draya. In Khamdo, but subject to the direct rule of Lhasa,
are several small districts, the principal are Nyarong, Tsarong,
and Mar Kbams or " Lower Khamdo." Most of these districts
are governed by diba or chiefs, whOe a few have kings or tyaipo,
the most powerful of the latter being the king of Dergfi, famous
for its Inlaid metal and leather work, and of ChagIa, or, as it is
better known, Tachienlu, as it is called by the Chinese or the
Dartsemdo of the Tibetans, the headquarters of the tea trade
with Chma. Khamdo fe under the direct rule of the Chinese
provindal authorities of Szechuen. Some of its rulers send also
tribute missions to Peking. For convenience of classification
we may include in Khamdo a long strip of country extending
along the northern border of the Lhasa territory of Lfaorong
jong and Larego as far as Tengri Nor, and bounded to the north
by the Dang-U mountains, which is designated by Tibetans as
Gyade or " the Chinese province." This strip of country has its
own native chiefs, but is under the control of a high Manchu
officer stationed at Lhasa, known colIoquiaUy as the " super-
intendent of savage tribes." (3) The third political division of
Tibet is V (written Dbus), meaning " Central." It includes
Lhasa and a large number of outljring districts in south-eastern
Tibet, such as Po, Pemakoicben, Zayul. The pastoral or Dokpa
tribes, north and north-east of Tengri Nor, are also imder its
rule. (4) The fourth division of Tibet, called Tsang^ includes
all south-west Tibet from the Lhasa or Central province to the
Indian frontier as far as Lake Manasarowar. (s) The fifth divi-
sion, called Ntfi (Mngab-ris) by the Tibetans or Hindish by the
IndUns, who call the inhabitants Hdniyas, comprises the whole
country around the sources and along the upper course of the
Indus and the Sutlej, and also all north-western Tibet generally,
as far as Ladak and the border of Kashmir. Tsang and Nari are
under the rule of Lhasa, all the high civil and military authorities
in these provinces holding their offices from it. These five
provinces, however, do not include the elevated Steppes of
Tsaidam (extending between the Kuen-lun and the Altyn Tagh
or Nan Shan ranges), inhabited by a mixed race of marauding
people, Tunguts and Mongols. Yet Tsaidam is geographically
but a northern extension of the great Tibetan plateau, and in
most of its essential physical features it is more closely alKed
to the Chang-t'ang of the south than to the great sandy
depressioiis of CUiinese Turkestan or Mongolia on the north.
Cmerafneii/.— Though the whole of Tibet is under the suzerainty
of China, the government of the coimtry b divided into two
distinct administrations, the one under the rule of the Dalai
lama ot Lhasa, the other under local kings or chiefs, and com-
prising a ntunber of ecclesiastical fiefs. Both are directed and
controlled by the high Chinese officials residing at Lhasa, Sining
Fu, and the capital of the Chinese province of Szechuen. North-
eastern Tibet or Amdo, and also a portion of Khamdo, are under
the supervision of a high official (Manchu) residing at Sining Fu
in Kansuh, whose title is Imperial Controller-General of Koko Nor.
The native chiefs of the Panaka and other Tibetan tribes of this
region are styled pdmbo (" official " or " headman ") by both the
natives and the Chinese. The region under the supervision of
the imperial controller includes all the countries north of the
upper course of the Dre chu (Yangtsze-klang). The people pay
a small poU-taz to China, and are exempted from any other
impost; they also pay a soiall tax in kind, shecD, butter, &c., to
their chiefs. The province of Klumdo, including all eastern
Tibet, is governed by local chiefs, styled gyaipo, ** king," and
dlba, "chief," succession to the chieftainship being usually
assured to the eldest son not a lama. Each chief appoints a
certain number of civil and military officers to assist in the govern-
ment of the country, and each village has its headman or best,
also an hereditary office. None of these officials receive salaries;
they are only exempt from taxation, and some have grants of
land made to them. The only tax paid to China is a so<alled
" horsc-iax ^of about s± for each family. Once in every five
922
TIBET
yean the chiefs send a tribute mission to the capital of Sxechuen,
and once every ten yean to Peking, but the tribute sent is purely
nominal. The Chinese maintain a few small military posts with
from six or eight to twenty men stationed in them ; they are under
the orders of a colonel residing at Tachienlu. There are also a
few lama chiefs.
The part of Tibet under the rule of Lhasa, by far the largest
and wealthiest, includes the central province of t), Tsang. Nari
and a number of large outlyirxg districts in southern and even in
eastern Tibet . The central government of this part of the country
is at Lhasa; the nominal head is the Dalai lama or grand lama.
The Tashi lama or head of the monastery of TashiUiunpo near
Shigatse .is inferior to the Dalai lama in secular authority, of
which, indeed, he has little— much less than formerly — but he is
considered by some of his worshippers actually superior to him
in religious rank. The person neat in consideration to the two
great lamas is the regent, who is an ecclesiastic appointed during
the minority of each Dalai lama. Under him are four ministers
of state (ska- pi or kat^in), who divide among themselves, under
the immediate supervision of the two imperial Chinese residents
(or amban), the management of all secular afifairs of the country.
There is also a Tsong-du or National Assembly, divided into a
greater assembly, including all government officials, and called
together only to decide on matters of supreme importance, and a
lesser assembly, consisting of certain high officials of Lhasa,
noblemen, and delegates from the monasteries of Debung, Sera
and Galdan, and fairly constantly in session. The Tsong-du
discusses all matters of importance, e^>edally relating to foreign
policy, and its decisions are final. The army is under the command
of the senior Chinese ambau, a Tibetan generalissimo or mag-piu,
and six Tibetan generals {dak-pdu or de-pdn). The military duties
of the generals arc slight, but their political status is high.
Under the doM-pdH are six rupdm or colonels, and a number of
subordinate officers. The regular army consists (in theory) of
6000 men, on active service for three years, and at home on half-
pay for three years. After the six years they pass into the
reserve or militia (yttiwiag). The taxes paid to the Lhasa govern-
ment are mostly in kind, sheep, ponies, meal, butter, wool,
native cloth, &c., and the coin paid is said to be about 130,000
ounces of silver a year. Chandra Das stales that the crown
revenues of Lhasa amount to about 2,000,000 rupees annually.
All high Tibetan officials, whether ecclesiastics or laymen, are
appointed subject to confirmation by the Chinese government.
The administrative subdivisions of the Lhasa country, of which
there are fif ly-four, are called j^iif, or '* prefecture," each of which
is under the rule of two jong-pon^ the one a lama, the other a
layman. They coUect all taxes* are responsible for the levy of
troops, the courier service, corv£es, &c.. and exercise judicial
functions, corresponding directly with Lhasa. There are 123
sub-prefectures under jang-nyer. Under them are village head-
men or lf^>i)n. headmen or wu-pdn, and elders or gyan^po. . All
are appointed for indefinite periods by the prefects.
tndMstrirs amd Tntdt, — The industries are confined to the manu-
fjcture cl woollvn cioth of various degrees of fineness and colour,
and calkd tmk, tirmo and iosM, to that of small rugs, pottery of an
iaferiur Quality, utcnstU ol copper and iron, some of which sliow
con»tdcraole artistic skill in design, and to such other small trades
as are necessary to supply the Hmited wants of the people. The
best artisans are Neoaiese and Chinese, the former being the b»t
workers in metal and oycrs.
The great trade routes are, first, that which, startii^ from Chei«-t u.
the capital of the Chinese prox^nce of Szechuen. passes by way
« ^_^ of Tachtenlu or Dartscdo. Litang. Batang. Chtamdo.
1"^, ^^ Lare^ Lhasa. Gyantse. Shigatse. lettcbes the Ncpalese
II ■■■■■•«« iivjotitt at Nieiam and goes thence to Katmandu.
This route is called Cya4am, " the China road " tor " high road ") ;
the great bulk of Tibetan ira\-e) goes o\xr it. Minor nxul& go froot
Sitting Fu in the Chinese prox-ince of Kansuh \ U Tsaidim and the
Tang la pass to Nagchuka and Lhasa. This nmd, called the Chang
loi or '' northern road.'* was much irnd by traders tilt the middle
p( the tqih CCtttur\<. when the Mabamnwdan rebeUMas in oortb-
wwtcffi Cittna procticalty dosed it. AsMMher road starts from
^iMan in northwrstetw Siechueii. ami. hv wav of the souices
of the YcMow Ri%te. Joim the C\-a4am at Chiimdo; it is little used.
as k MMts lhrcN«b the cwatxy of the «^ manodii« Colok.
^K« >u«u from Tftchkidk. «ttd by cbe imlky of
the Yalungand the Daechu ruos to-Yckundo.aad cheneeto Chiamdo.
From this point it leads to Riwoche, and then through Gyade or
Chinese province to Nagchuka and Lhasa. An important trade
road starts from LikiangTu in Yunnan, and by way of Chung-tien
(Guiedam of the French missionaries) joins the Gyalam at Batang.
The most direct route from India to Lhasa, and that rooct fre-
Jiuented by the traders of Lhasa, is by the Chumbi Valley, and was
ollowed by the Britidi Mission. It crosses the HimaJayas by the
Tane Pass ( I $.300 ft. ). and thence proceeds via Gyantse ( t3.aooft.) and
the Kharo Pass (16,500 (t.), Yamdok Lake (1^.000) to the Tsaag-po
(la.ioo ft.), and crossing the river winds up alongthe Kyi Cfau. on
Which Lhasa stands, 33 m. from die Tsang-po. The total distance
from Siliguri railway sutkm is 357 m. From Katmandu, the capital
of Nepal, a difficult mountain route runs by Kirong to the No la
(16.600 ft.), descending from which pass it strikes the Tsanepo
about midway between Lhasa and Lake Manasarowar. Farther
west Tibet may be reached from Kumaon by one of a group of
(of which the best known is the Milam) leading to Lake Manaaa
The lake becomes a sort of obligatory point on all routes to Tibet
which lie between Ladak and Nepal. The Shipki road from Simla,
which strikes the Sutlej at Totltng (where there is a bridge), leads up
to Manasarowar, coinciding with the great high-road iCkaur' — ^^
S
after passing Totling. The remarkable area of gold-mining iodustry
which lies to the north-east of Gartok is kcached by another route
from Leh, which, crossing the Chang la close to Ldi. passes by Rudok
at the eastern extremity of Lake Pangong in a south-easterly
direction, running north of the great mountain masses which crowd
round the Indus sources. It continues through the central take
district' to Tengri Nor and Lhasa. The principal trade with China
is carried on over the Lhasa-Tachienlu road.
According to a summary furnished by Lieut.-Colonel Waddell
(Lhasa and its Mysteries), the chief imports from China are silk,
carpets, porcelain and tea-bricks. Froip Mongolia come leather,
saddlery, sheep and horses, with coral, amber and small diamonds
from European sources; from Khara perfumes, fruits, furs and inlaid
metal saddlery; from Stkkim and Bhutan rice, musk, sugar-baOs
and tobacco; from Nepal broadcknh, indigo, brasswork. coral,
pearis, sugar, spices, drugs and Indian manufactures: from Ladak
saffron, dried traits and articles from India. In the market at
Lhasa opium sells for its weight in silver. The exports from Tibet
are stiver, gold. salt. wool, woollen cloth, rugs. furs, drugs, musk.
By the Nepal. Kumaon and Ladak routes go borax, gold and ponies.
Patna in Bengal is the chief market for the Nepal trade; Diwang^xri
and Udalgurilor Assam, and Darjeeling and Kalimpong for Sikkim
and Chumbi. One of the most universal artkdes of consomption
in Tibet is the Chinese brick-tea, which even passes as currency.
The tea imported from Saechuen is for the most part of very inferior
quality, estimated at 35% tea-leaves and 65% twigs and other
material. It u compre»ed into large bricks, and costs two-thirds of
a penny per pound. Efforts have been made by the planters of tbe
Duars to prepare Indian brick-tea for the Tibetan market, wlncli
is calculated to consume some 1 1.000,000 lb yeariy.
Money, — It b curious that Tibet, though usii^ couwd money.
seems never, strictly speaking, to have had a coinage of its own.
Till nearly the end of the i8th century the onnage had for a loog
time been deri\^ from Nepal. That valley prior to the Gurkba
domination (176S) was under three natK-e dynasties (at Bfaatgaon.
Patau and Katmandu), and these struck silver mohnrs. as tbey
were called, of the nominal value of half a rupee. The coins were
at first not struck specially for Tibetan use. but were so afterwards.
These htter bore (obverse) a Nepakse emblem surrounded by eight
fleurons containing the eight sacred Buddhist jewels, and (rever&e>
an etght-petalled flower surrounded by eight fleimms cost-
taining the names of the eight jeweb in Titietan characten. Ingots
of Chinese sil\-er srere sent from Lhasa with a small proportion of
gold dust, and an equal weight in mohors was returned, leaving to
the Nepal rajahs, between eold dust and alky. a. good profit. The
quality of these coins (weigihirw about 81 grams tro>') was low. and
at last deteriorated so much that the Tibetans de s e st ed the Nepal
mints. The Gurichas, after beconui^ masters of Nepod. wrre
anxious to renew the profitable traffic in coin, and in this view se=tt
a deputation to Lhasa with a quantity of coin ro be put in drcadatioo.
But the Gurkhas were mistrusted and their coin refused. A ooiaa^
was then issued (it wouM appear once only) in Tibet lor donesrx:
use. modelled on an old Kathmandu pattern and struck by Nepalese
artists. The Gurkhas, however, in 1788 and foUowiag years con-
tinued to strike coins of progressively debased quafity, wbick were
Did N'epaiese 1 '
rude imitations of the old . .
to force this curreocy on the Taietana, eventually _ __
de^rture of the latter from old usage a pcetext for war and iw^^aaoo.
This brought the intervention of the Chinese, who drove the Gcrkbas
out of Tibet (iTQf^. and then began ro strike silver coins lor Lh>«>
use, bearing Chinese and Tibetan characters. For in ai ik .il
these Tibeto-Chifiese coins (of wbidh H*i fwpee. aad vk
are known as naiJasg. Lr. m^ikysMg, " cadi **) are cut into abqi^oc
parts by the guidance of the figures on thesa. Large hasps of
Chinese sii\-er. scamped with the imperial seal, are tho wstd. Fkt
of late years there kas been an enormous ialivK ef Aaghi iui lan
mpQOi so that these ha\e becone practically the fi iim j of the
TIBET
923
cow Hi y. even to the frontier of Oitna. and ate now counted. Imtcnd
of being valued as bullion. They are called PUtug fsaio.
((orei|n coins), from the Hindi tankd, a rupee.
IVetgkts and Measurts. — ^The weights and measures in use are
practically those of China : the dry measures, the most commonly
employed, are the ^« or to of about four pints and the behai of
twenty bo; the capacity of the bo varies according to localities.
The most commonly used measures of length are the span (mto),
the cubit iknt), and the arm's-length or fathom {dompa).
Exploration.— Ttbti was long a terra incognita to Europeans.
It is difficult of access on all sides, and everywhere difficult to
traverse. Its great elevation causes the climate to be rather
arctic than tropical, so that there is no gradual blending of the
climates and physical conditions of India and Tibet, such as
would tend to promote intercourse between the inhabitants of
these neighbouring regions; on the contrary, there are sharp
lines of demarcation, in a mountain barrier which is scalable
at only a few points, and in the sodal aspects and conditions of
life on either side. No great armies have ever crossed Tibet to in-
vade India; even those of Jenghiz Khan took the circuitous route
via Bokhara and Afghanistan, not the direct route from Mon-
golia across Tibet. Added to this was the religious exclusive-
ness of the Tibetans themselves. Thus it was no eaoy matter for
the early European travellers to find their way into and explore
Tibet. Friar Odoric of Pordenone is supposed to have reached
Lhasa c. 1338, travelling from Cathay; bnt this visit b doubtful.
On the strength of certain statements in the narrative of Pemdo
Mendes Pinto, some authorities hold that he may have visited
Lhasa in the course of his journeys in the middle of the i6tb
century. The Jesuit Antonio Andrada, a native of Portugal
(1580-1634), travelling from India, appears to have entered
Tibet on the^rest, in the Manasarowar Lake region, and made his
way across to Tangut and north-western China; in 1661 the
Jesuit fathers Johann Grueber (an Austrian) and Albert D 'Orville
(a Belgian) travelled from Peking via Tangut to Lhasa, and thence
through Nepal to India. The extracts from Grucber's narrative,
given by Athanasius Kircher in his China iUustrata (Amsterdam,
1O67), are accompanied by a good drawing of Potala. During
the first half of the 18th century various Capuchin friars appear
to have passed freely between Calcutta and Lhasa (1708) by
way of Nepal. They even founded a mission in Lhasa, which,
after failing at first, was more firmly established in 171 5 and
lasted till 1733-
In 17 16 two Jesuits, P. Ipolito Desideri, of Pistoia, and P.
Freyre, a Portuguese, reached Lhasa by way <rf Kashmir, Ladak,
and the enormous journey from Ladak by the holy lakes and
the valley of the Tsangpo. Desideri remained at Lhasa till
April 1721, witnessing the capture of Lhasa successively by
Dzungar and Chinese. Of the moderation of the latter, and their
abstinence from all outrage or plunder, he speaks highly. His
departure was due to controversies between the Jesuits and
Capuchins at Rome, which caused an order to be issued for his
retirement from Tibet. An interesting letter from him, dated the
loth of April, 1 7 16, is printed in the Lcttres fdifiantes, rec. xv.,
and he left a large MS. volume of his obeervalions. The next
European visitor was Samuel Van de Puttc, of Flushing, an LL.D.
of Leiden, whose thirst for travel carried him through India to
Lhasa (1730), where he is said to have resided a long time, to
have acquired the language, and to have become intimate with
some of the lamas. After travelling from Lhasa to Peking with a
Jama mission he returned, again by Lhasa, to India, and was an
eyewitness of the sack of Delhi by Nadir Shah in 1737. Un-
happily he ordered his papers to be burnt after his death, and the
knowledge that such a traveller must have accumulated died with
him. In 1745 the Capuchin mission finally collapsed after a
revival had been attempted in 1 741 by a party under Orazio dcUa
Penna, of which Ca&siano BcUgatti was chronicler. We possess
lome of the results collected by this mission in an excellent short
treatise on Tibet by P. Orazio himself, as wcU as in the Atpka-
betmm Tibetanum of the Augustine monk A. Gcorgi (Rome, 1 762).
Some fifty volumes, the relics of the mission library, were in 1847
recovered from Lhasa by Brian Hodgson, through the courtesy
of the Dalai lanu himself, and were transmitted as an offering
to Pope Pius XX. The fir>t Eo^Ii&hman to enter Tibet was
George Bogle, a writer of the East India Company, in 1774, on an
embassy from Warren Hastings to the Tashi lama of Shigatse.
In 1783 Lieut. Samuel Turner was despatched on a mission
stmflar to that of Bogie, and reached Shigatse. In x8ii-i8is
the first English visit to Lhasa occurred. The traveller was
Thomas Manning, a Cambridge man of Caius College, who had
been long devoted to Chinese studies, the " friend M." of Charles
Lamb, from whom " Elia " professes to have got that translation
of a Chinese MS. which furnished the dissertation on roast pig.
After residing some years at Canton, Manning went to Calcutta,
bent on reaching the interior of China through Tibet, since from
the seaboard it was scaled. He actually did reach Lhasa, stayed
there about five months, and had several interviews with the
Dalai lama, but was compelled to return to India. He never
published anything regarding his jotirney, and its occurrence was
known to few, when his narrative was printed, through the zeal
of Mr (afterwards Sir) C. Markham, in 1876. The account, though
containing some passages of great interest, is disappointing.
Manning was the only Englishman known to have reached the
sacred city without the aid of an army. But the Abb6 Hue states
that WiDiam Moorcroft, an EngUshnian who made a journey into
Tibet in the neighbourhood of Lake Manasarowar in 181 2, and
another into Kashgar in 1824, lived in Lhasa for twelve years
disguised as a Mussulman. He was supposed to have tfied on the
Afghan frontier in 1835 on his second journey; but if Hue's story
is true he reached Lhasa in 1826, and did not leave it till 1838,
being assassinated on his homeward journey, when maps and
drawings were fotmd on him, and his identity was for the first
time suspected by the Tibetans. During the 19th century
Europeans were systematically prevented from entering the
country or speedily expelled if fotmd in it. In 1844-1846 the
French missionaries, Evariste R^gisHuc and Joseph (}abet,made
their way to Lhasa from China. They travelled from China the
route followed by Grueber and by Van de Putte, via Siningfu, and
reached Lhasa on the 29th of January 1846. On the 15th of
March they were sent off under escort by the rugged road to
Szechuen. Hue's book, Soutenirt d*un voyage^ &c., is one of the
most delightful books of travel. Hue was, indeed, not only with-
out science, perhaps without accurate knowledge of any kind,
but also without that geographical sense which sometimes
enables a traveOer to bring back valtiable contributions to
geographical knowledge though unable to make instrumental
observations. He was, however, amazingly clever as a
narrator and sketcher of character. It was Ke-shen, a well-
known Chinese statesman, who was disgraced for making
peace with the English at Canton in 164 1, and was then on a
special deputation to Lhasa, who ostensbly expeOed them. The
Tibetan regent, with his enlightened and kindly spirit, is painted
by Hue in most attractive colours, and Markham expressed the
opinion that the native authorities were then willing to receive
strangers, while the jealousy that excluded them was Chinese
only. The brothers Henry and Richard Strachey visited
Manasarowar Lake in 1846 and 1848 respectively. In 1866 the
Abb^ Desgodins travelled through portions of eastern Tibet
and reached Chiamdo (in Khflm), but was prevented from
approaching any closer to Lhasa.
Beginning In 1863 a number of native Indian explorers were
sent by the government of India into Tibet, for the purpose of
surveying the country and collecting information ra«Scas(-
about its inhabitants. These men were speciaMy Servk»
trained at Dehra Dun in the work of surveying, and '^•'
entered Tibet with a strong wooden box with a specially concealed
secret drawer for holding observing instruments, a prayer wheel
with rolls of blank paper instead of prayers in the barrel on which
observations might be noted, and lamaic rosaries by the beads
of which each hundred paces might be counted. As may be
imagined, they carried their Hves in their hands in case of dis-
covery. The best known of these men were Pundit Nain Singh,
Pundit Krishna, originally known as A.-K. (from the fir?l and
hst letters of his name transposed) and Ugyen Gyatso, or U.-G.
Nain Singh reached Lhasa in the course of two remarkable
journeys. In the first, after an ineffectual attempt by Nepal, he
924
TIBET
travelled by the Manasarowar L.ake, and the road thence east-
ward, parallel to the course of the Tsan^, reaching Lhasa on
the loth of January 1866, and leaving it on the 21st of April
1867. On the second journey (1874) he started from LacUk,
crossing the vast and elevated plateau by the Tengri Nor and
other great lakes, and again reaching Lhasa on the z8th of
November. Nain Singh gave an account of his journeys, and of
his residence there, which, though brief, is full of intelligence and
interest. This enterprising and deserving man, on the cbmple-.
tion of his journey in 1875, was rewarded by the Indian govern-
ment with a pension and grant of land, and afterwards received
the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society and the
Companionship of the Star of India. He died early in 1882.
In 1878 A.-K also revisited Lhasa, stayed a year, and after-
wards continued into Tsaidam, not returning to India till 1882.
Lama Ugyen Gyatso, a semi-Tibetan, who was originally a
teacher of Tibetan in a Darjeeling school, was trained by the
Indian Survey Department as a surveyor, and being deputed to
take tribute from his monastery to Tashilhunpo, he secured
permission in 1879 from the Tashilhunpo authorities for Sarat
Chandra Das, Bengali schoolmaster at Darjeeling, to visit that
monastery, where his name was entered as a student. This
was the opportunity for a series of valuable exploratory journeys
through the Tibetan provinces adjoining the Indian and Nepalese
frontiers, which added greatly to our stock of information about
Lhasa and the districts surrounding that city. In their first
journey the travellers set out from Jongri in Sikkim, and travers-
ing the north-east comer of Nepal, crossed into Tibet by the
Chatang la, and travelled northwards to Shigatse and Tashil-
hunpo. They returned by much the same way to near Rhamba
jong, and re-entered Sikkim by the Donkya pass. The journey
was fruitful of information and valuable for mapping. Ugyen
Gyatso undertook another journey in 1883 to complete and
extend his former surveys. Travelling by way of Khamba
jong directly to Gyantse and Shigatse, he turned eastwards at
the latter town, finished the survey of the Yamdok t'so, and
crossed the Himalaya into the valley of the Lobtatsangpo or
Upper Manas river. At Shakhang jong he was arrested, and
his true character discovered. He managed, nevertheless, to
extricate himself, and turning north-eastwards he passed through
Chetang, and reached Lhasa by way of Samye monastery. From
this city he started for Darjeeling, which he reached on December
1 5th, 1 883. Chandra Das made a second journey in 1 88x , with the
intention of reaching Lhasa. He travelled by way of Tashilhunpo,
lay dangerously ill for some time at Samding monastery, duly
reached Lhasa, where he visited the Dalai Lama, but owing to
small-pox in tlK city could remain there only a fortnight, though
he made full use of thb time. During a journey home occupying
nearly half a year he collected much further valuable information.
Sarat Chandra Das's reports of his two journeys were published
by the Indian government, but for political reasons were until
1890 kept strictly confidential. In 1899 they were edited by the
Royal Geographical Society and in 1902 published. They
contain valuable information on the superstitions, ethnology and
religion of Tibet. Chandra Das also brought back from his
journeys a large number of interesting books in Tibetan and
Sanskrit, the roost valuable of which have been edited and
published by him, some with the assbtance of Ugyen Gyatso and
other lamas.
The Russian explorer Prjevalsky, although he was not, strictly
speaking, an explorer of Tibet, did much incidentally towards
determining the conformation of its north-eastern
gSlonn ***^ eastern mountain systems. His third journey
into Central Asian wilds, which lasted from March
1879 to October 1880. included the sources of the Hwaxig Ho, or
Yellow river, till then unmapped and unknown. His fourth
journey, between November 1883 and October 1885, covered
much of northern Tibet, and established the true character of
Tsaidam. It was when setting out in 1888 to make an attempt
loreac^ •'^ -••^--'^-died.
A^ Ih, V. I. RoborovsU, with several
mAt irestem ran^ of the Ruen-lun, and
crossed aouthwarda into Tibet, trtdng' the cotine of the KiriA
river to the north-western plains of the central phiteaa. The
distingiiuhing feature of these explorations, led by Russian
officers, is their high scientific value and the contributions they
have offered to the botany, natural history, geology and meteor*
ology of the regions under investigation in addition to the actual
geographical daU attained. The Knen-lun is known in their
writings as the Russian Range.
In x888 Mr W. W. Rockhill, an American possessing the unique
qualifications for Tibetan exploration of a profound knowledge
of the language and history of the country, coupled ypr.nr.jioe^
with the instincts and training of a scientific explorer, tin isu-
left the lamasery of Kumbum in north-western '^s^ '^'-
Kansuh with three Chinese servants and a small"*'*
caravan, proceeded round the north shore of Koko Nor, crossed
eastern Tsaidam, and explored some of the rivers and lakes
directly south of that region. Leaving Barong Tsaidam, he
travelled south by way of the sources of the Yellow river, till he
reached the Dre chu (upper Yangtsze-kiang), which he crossed
to the north of the important trading centre of Yekunda Frqm
this point he followed the valley of the Dre chu till about l&l.
30* 31', when he passed into the basin of the Yalung river,
traversed the Horba states and finally reached Tachienlu by
the Gi la and the valley of the Darchu. ^
In 1891 Mr Rockhill, starting again from Kumbum with three
Chinese, passed south of Koko Nor through the country of the
pastoral Panaka Tibetans, and by a very difficult pass (Vahon
jamkar la) entered again the basin of the Tsaidam. He then
turned west, followed the base of the south Tsaidam range as far
as the Naichi Gol, where he entered the southern mountainous
region forming the northern borderland of Tibet. From this
point the traveller folk>wed a general south-westerly direction
around the heads of all the feeders of the upper Dre chu, and
thence into the lake region of northern central Tibet, crossing
Bonvalot's route south of the Chi-chang t'so and that oif Bower a
few days farther south. Near the Namru t'so his farther progress
south was arrested and he was compelled to take an easterly
course. After making a long d£tour north, often crossing the
roads previously travdled by Bonvalot and Bower, and passing
by Riwoche, he came to Chiamdo and Tachienlu. The results
of Mr Rockhill's two journeys were important and valuable^
Messrs A. D. Carey and A. Dalgleish in 1885-1887 made a
protracted journey from Ladak, in the course of which they
crossed the Aksai Chin, reached Khotan, entered the ^,o,cmnr
Tarim basin, and subsequently made their way east- mmdA. IM^
ward and then southward across the Altyn Tagh and^ y ^ff-
other ranges to the Tsaidam region. Finally a great *
drctiit was made to the north and west, across the Homboldt
range, and by Hami, Ummchi, and Yarkand to Ladak again.
Bonvalot, accompanied by Father Dedeken of the Belgian
Catholic Mission and Prince Henri d'Orl£ans, left CharkhUk,
south-west of the Lob Nor, in November 1889, and oUvM
taking a very nearly due southerly course, reached on tembc
the 13th of February 1890 the eastern end of the **•• '"^
Tengri Nor. Then pushing on southwards, he crossed the Niea-
chen-tang-la and entered the Dam district near the Lhasa-Siiuiig
high road. Here the party was stopped by Tibetan authorities
and forced to take the tea route through Chinese Tibet (Gyade)
by way of Batasumdo, Chebotenchin, Riwoche, Chiamdo to
Chiangka, near the upper Yangtse-kiang, whence they p r oceeded
to Tachienlu by Batang and Litang. Bonvalot netted sone
extinct volcanoes in the northern Tibet desert.
Accompanied by Dr W. G. Thorold, of the India Medical
Service, and a native sub-surveyor. Captain Hamilton' Bower,
I.S.C., set out from Leh on the ist of June 1891. and
crossed the Lanak la and the Ladak frontier on the
3rd of July. From this point the party took a
general easterly direction past the Mangtza t*so, Horpa t'so,
Charol t'so, and around the northern end of the Ara t'so, all
important lakes, at an average altitude of about 16,500 fl.
From the Ani t'so the travellers took a south-easterly dircctioa
TIBET
925
■cross the great northern plateau or Changtang UU they reached
the south-east side of the Caring t'so, in about 31" 30' N. and
ig" zo' E. At this point Bower was stopped by some of the head-
men of the Tibetan pastoral tribes (here under the rule of Lhasa),
and obliged to make a long circuit to the north well out of Lhasa
territory, and then eastward — till he struck the road to Chiamdo
through Gyade or Chinese Tibet. Crossing the Sining- Lhasa road
a little south of the Dang la range, and about two days' journey
north of Nagchuka, CapUin Bower crossed the Su chu, and follow-
ing a course parallel to the Giama-nu chu» he made his way to
Riwoche and thence to Chiamdo, from which town he followed
the Lhasa-Tachienlu high road to the latter town, which he reached
on the loth of February 1892. The results of Captain Bower's
journey were all of first-class importance.
Miss Annie R. Taylor, an Englishwoman of the China Inland
Mission, started from Tao-chow (Kansuh) in September 1892,
miuA»K. accompanied only by five Asiatics. Passing by the
Tviar^ famous lamasery of Labraaig, south of the Yellow
'*•'• river, she crossed that river and traversed the
southern part of the country inhabited by the predatory Tibetan
tribes called Golok. Thence, after crossing the upper Yalung,
which flows by the town of Kanze, she pursued her journey to the
upper course of the Yangtse-kiang (Dre chu), crossing that river
somewhere near where A.-K. had crossed it in 1881 and Rockhill
in 1889, and then came to the town of Gyc-Yekundo. From this
point she seems to have followed the Chiamdo road to near that
town, when she turned westwards and continued in that direction
till she came on the high road from Lhasa to Sining Fu somewhere
north of Nagchuka, Here, like all other European travellers
who have tried to reach Lhasa from the north, she was stopped
by the Lhasan authorities. She appears to have followed about
the same route on her way back to China, for she again went to
Yekundo and thence by the high road, followed previously by
A.-iL and Rockhill, to Tachienlu in Sae-c^'uen, where she arrived
on the 12th of April 1893.
In 1893 MM J. L. Dutreuflde Rhins and Femand Grenard, both
Frei^hmen, left Cherchen, with Lhasa as their objective. After
crossing the Kara muren davan in the Arka Tagh, they
Oi^nmM^ entered the lake region of north Tibet and foUowed a
^S^mmrt, K*"^^** southerly direction across low ranges of hills
IMI-KM. and by numerous small lakes till they arrived in
32' 30' N., where they changed direction to east-
south-east, passing to the north of the Cfaargut and Zilling lakes.
The travellers were able to push on as far as the north-eastern
bank of the great Tengri Nor, which they reached on the 30th
of November 1893. Here they were finally stopped by the
TibeUns, and after a delay of six weeks passed in vain attempts
to obtain permission to go to Lhasa, they were only allowed to
proceed to Nagchuka on the Sining-Lhasa road, and to continue
by the Gyade route to Yekundo, near the upper Dre chu, and
thence to Sining in Kansuh. From Nagchuka the travellers
foUowed a heretofore unexplored road through the Gyade
country, crossing RockhiU's route in the Pere-Sang)i districts
near Tashiling (their Tachi gomba). The road foUowed by them
to Yekundo is called by Tibetans the Upper road (gong Ittm)^ aikl
bad apparently been foUowed previously by Miss Ta)dor.
Reaching Yekundo (or Giergundo) on the 3ist of May 1894, the
travellers started for the Koko Nor and Sining on the xst of
June; but the party was attacked near Tungbumdo (Tumbumdo
of previous travellers), and Dutreuil de Rhins was killed on the
Sth of June. M Grenard after a few days resumed his march,
passed east of the Noring t'so, the eastern extremity of Tosu Nor,
and thence by the south-east comer of Koko Nor to the town of
Sining Fu in Kansuh. The results of this expbration were a large
number of maps and a report of great scientific importance.
Mr Littledale, an Englishman, accompanied by his wife, left
KhoUtt in the eariy part of 1895* anid travelling thence to
5ir<toM|vff.Cherchen, he turned southwards, and foDowing up
LJHMalv. the course of the Cherchen darya to a point near its
'***' source, he continued in that direction between 87* and
8g" E. acmas the northern plateau of Tibet till he reached the
2iUing (or Caring) t*S0b Pursuing, amid great difficulties, bis
southeriy course, he finally reached the western bank of Tengri
Nor. Pushing rapidly on in the direction of Lhasa, when not over
so m. away from the city (camp, 30^ 12' 12' N.) be was finally
Slopped by the Lhasan autiiorities and obliged, in great part on
account of the severe illness of Mrs Littledsle, to give up the
attempt to reach Sikkim, and to take a direct trail to Ladak. In
the latter part ol this remarkable journey lattledale's route lay
parallel but to the south of the routes followed previously by
Nain Sing, and more recently by Bower. Passing by Rudok,
the party re-entered Ladak at the village of Shushal on the 27tb of
October 1895. ^nd Leh on the 2nd of November. Mr Littledale
surveyed about 1700 m. of country between Cherchen and
Shushal, and brought back a valuable collection of plants, which,
added to those collected by other travellers in this part of Tibet,
enabled botanists considerably to extend their scanty knowledge
of this region.
Accompanied by Lieut. N. Malcolm of the 93rd High-
landers, Captain Wellby, oi the British army, left Leh on the
4th of May 1896. The travellers were compelled to
enter Tibet by way of the Lighten t'so in 35' N. ^fjf^
From this point they turned due east and continued, ibhT^'
with the usual incidents experienced by all travellers
in those regiona— cold, storms, lack of food and of grass, loss of
ponies and pack animals, &c. — until they reached the northern
branch of the Dre chu, the Chumar. Passing into the valley of
the Nomoron 0>1, soutJi of the Tsaidam, they made their way by
Barong Tsaidam bo Donkyr and Sining Fu by the high road along
the northern shore of the Koko Nor.
Captain Deasy, of the British army, Idt Leh on the 97tb of
May 1896, and crossing the Lanak la, passed by the Mangtza t'ao,
north of the Horpa t'so, to Yeshil kuL Thence he
endeavoured to proceed due east, but was obliged JTJIJJJ^
by the nature of the country to turn south, crossing isgHT
Bower's route on the west side of the Aru t'so. He
finally completed a valuable survey of an important part ol
western Tibet.
In 1898 a Dutch miasionaxy in China named Rijnhart started
with his wile from the vicinity of Koko Nor, with the intention d
reaching Lhasa, but at the upper Mekong, to the A9»*ari
east>north-east of the city, he was murdered, and '*^
hia wife reached the Chinese province of Sze-chHien with great
difficulty alone.
In 1896 Sven Hedin, a Swede (1865- ), left Kopa, a point
about too m. south of Cherchen, and after crossing the Arka Tagh
took an easterly course between that range and the ^ m^mm.
western continuation of the Kokoshili range till he uS-Sff'
entered the valley of the most northerly feedersof the
Dre chu, when he pasMd into the valley of the Naichi Col and
entered the Tsaidanu His careful observations concerning the
meteorology of this region are of great value, and his surveys be-
tween Kopa and the Naichi Gol were in a country not previously
explored. During his second and more important journey in
Central Asia (1899-1902), Sven Hedin left Charkhlik, on the edge
ol the Taklamakan desert, in May 1901, intending to cross Tibet
in a diagoiud direction to the sources of the Indus. He made
crossings of the lofty Arka Tagh and other parallel ranges to the
south (nmning east and west). On his final penetration south-
ward, arriving within fourteen days of Lhasa, he left the bulk
of his caravan and pushed rapidly on towards that city, but was
stopped when about five days from it (Aug. 5, 1901). Rejoin-
ing his caravan he tnmed westward, and passing through
the country previously traversed by Bower ajMi Littledale he
reached Leh on the aoth of December 1901. His careful
and detailed maps, lake soundings, hydrographic, geological,
meteorological and other investigations gave him the highest
rank among modem explorers.
On a third journey (1906-1908) he travelled by way of Turkish
Armenia, Persia, Bahichistan and India, and entered Tibet by
way of the Aksai Chin. Proceeding south-east, or diagonally
across the country, be traversed 840 m. of unknown country,
investigating the lake Ngangon t'so or Ngantse t'so, which had
hitherto beoi only hypothetically mapped, and marched thenee
926
TIBET
over the watershed between this and the Tsangpo. This water-
shed was found to lie much farther north than had been supposed,
and to-consbt of very lofty mountains, in complicated ranges,
from which large tributaries descend to the Tsangpo (Brahma-
putra). After a journey of half a year Hedin reached Shigatse;
on leaving it he turned north again, intending to explore the large
sacred lake Dangra-yumso, west of Ngantse t'so, but when within
sight of it he was prevented by Tibetans from approaching it.
He now followed a devious route to Lake Manasarowar, entering
Nepal for a short distance from Tradum, discovering the main
source of the Brahmaputra in a great mass of glaciers called Kubi-
gangri, in the northernmost chain of the Himalaya. He next
investigated the sources of the Sutlej, made hydrographic investi-
gations of the Manasarowar lakes, with the neighbouring under-
ground waterways, and proceeded thence to Gartok. He con-
firmed the existence, long suspected, of a lofty mountain chain
extending right across the country from the lake Tengri Nor (i.e.
about go" E.) to the district north of Gartok (about 8i* E.). He
returned to Ladak in 1908. He was created a K.C.LE. in
1 9 10.
In May 1900 Rozlov, in command of the Russian Geographical
Society's expedition to Central Asia and Tibet, left Barong
Tsaidam, and travelling southwards, came to the Dre
CmfUia chu (his Ndu chu, or Blue river), at about the
p. IT. ATMfor. same point as Rockhill in 1889. Assisted by the
IM0-/90I. jjI^j ^ijjgf Q^ Nyamtso, he crossed the river and
reached Yekundo (his Jarku Lomba). One stage beyond
this place he left the route followed by former travellers and
pushed northwards to near the town of Chiamdo, where after a
sharp fight with the natives he turned eastwards. The winter
was passed In the valley of the Ra chu, a tributary of the Chiam-
do chu (his Dza chu), and excursions were made as far as Derge
droncher. In the spring of 1901 the expedition resumed its
march eastwards around the Dre chu and the Ja chu (Yalung
river), followed up the left bank of the latter and got back to
Russian Lelu (Oring t'so) on the 30th of May 190X.
In 1905 Captain C G. Rawling and Lieut. A. J. G. Har-
greaves of the Somerset Light Infantry, starting from Leh as
Caftalma a base, carried out careful survey work (their chief
a. Rmwttag, object being to extend that of Captain Deasy) in the
''^' territory lying east of the British frontier, 1^. about
80" to 83* E., and 34° N.
The British armed mission of 1904 performed a brilliant feat
of marching' and reached Lhasa, whose m3rsterics were thus
unveiled, but this exploit belongs to the section dealing with
history, below. (T. H. H.*;L. A. W.;0. J.R.H.)
History. — Previous to the 7th century A.a there was no
indigenous recorded history of the country, the people being
steeped in barbarism and devoid of any written language. The
little that is known of this prehistoric period is gathered from the
legends and the more trustworthy sidelights of contemporary
Chinese records.
From the zith century B.C. the Chinese used to call by the
name of Kiang (or Shepherds) the tribes (about 150 in ntunber)
of nomads and shepherds in Koko Nor and the north-east oip
present Tibet; but their knowledge continued to be confined to
the border tribes until the sixth century of our era. In the annals
of the T'ang dynasty it is said that the population of the country
originated from the Bat-Kian or Fah Kiang; and, as the infoi'-
nation collected in the first part of the notice concerning Tu-bat,
Afterwards Tu-ban, the modem Tu-fan, dates partly (as is proved
by internal evidence) from a time anterior to the T'ang dynasty
iA.D. 618), some degree of reliance may be placed on it. There
we are told that FannI, a scion of the southern Liang dynasty of
the Tu-bat family (which flourished from 307 to 41 5 at Uan-chow
in Kansuh), who had submitted to the northern Liang dynasty,
fled in 433 with all his people from his governorship of Lin-sung
(in Kan-chow) westwards across the Yellow river, and founded
bayond Tsih-shih (" heapy stones '0 a sUte amidst the Kiang
UOimf Wth a territory extending over a thousand lu By his
llMMAiBi lalt he was soon enabled to establish his sway over
ifft"^ His original state was apparently situated
pper course of the Yalung river, an afllucnt of the
he exertions of Prinsep. Csoma de KfirOs, Emil Schla^-
ndra Das, Rockhili. Huth. WaddeU and others, wc
y copies of lists of kings, forming the dynasties of
the legendary beginnings between the $tli and 2nd
down to the end of the monarchy in 914. But the
gences which they show (except as to later times and
tUnes) make their unauthentic character plain. As one
s accompanied by a commentarv, it is the easiest to
squires only' to be supf^mentea here and there from
■» and from the ChineM sources, translated bv Bushpll
1. The first king. Gnya-khri btsan-po, is said to have
1 son of King Prasenajit of Kosala. and was bom «iih
iwn eyes. He fled north of the Himab^-as into the
, where he was elected king by the twelve chiefs of
southern and central Tibet. He took up his residence
ing country south of Lhasa. This Varlun^ uhich
name from the Yalung of the state of Fanni Tu-bat.
vhich flows into the Yaro-tsangpo (Brahmaputra)
I and his six sHCcessors are known as the seven cdesti^l
ext series consisu of six longs known as the earthly
ey were followed b)r dght terrestrial UL This three-
m is apparently an imitation or a debased form of the
id of heavenly, earthly and human rulers, whkh vas
Persia and China, and from the latter country into
ribet — the relative number of kings being akeied in
ed countries to suit local convenience and the snoaQ
ruth which they contain. Whilst giving an Arvan
leir first kings, the ancient Tibetans assigned to their
divine origin, and called them Ikaww, " goddesa."
itic habiu of the race are manifested in the names ctf
(s, which were formed by a combination of those of
, the mother's generally preceding that of the father
Ss were foUowed by four rulers simply called btsan
rs a break in the lineal descent, and the long next
Si) may be the Tatar Fanni Tu-bat. but vaom. probably
successor. His name was Lha-tho thori gnyan-tsan.
lyan-tsan of Lha-tho thori. according to the custocs
St of calling great personages after the name of their
Lha-tho means " hcaf)s of stones," and therefofe
>c a translation of Tsih-shih, " heapy stones," the
tioncd in connexion with the foundation of a state by
t. It was during his reij^n that the first Buddhist
eputed to have reached Tibet, probaUy from NepaL
of his three, immediate successors. Tne fourth was
g btsan, who died in 6^ During his reign the THxtaos
ir first knowledge 01 arithmetic and medicine from
[irospcrity and pastoral wealth of the country were so
the king built iiis palace with cement moistened with
he cow and the yaic." To the same Idm; is attributed
y of the inexhaustible salt mine calked Chang-p-
iig-gi-tsa'«'a B " northern salt"), which still supphcs
portion of Tibet. The reign of his illustrious soo.
im-po. opened up a new era; he introduced Buddhism
i writing from India, and was the founder (in 639) of
erwards Lha-sa. He was greatly helped in his prose-
I two wives, one a Nepal princess, daughter of King
the other an imperial daughter of China ; afterwards,
lildless, he took two more princesses from the Ru->'oog
ler " 6) and MOn (gcneraf appellative for the nations
*t and the Indian plains) countries. As a cooqarrar
his sway from the still unsubdued Kiang tribes o£ the
ak in the west, and in the south he carried his po«-er
al to the Indian side of the Himabyas. How far
lis dominion at first extended is not loiown; but in
nd the country of the Brahmans rebelled, and the
, the third successor of Srong tsan gam-po. was kilkd
•ting to restore his po\**er. It is rather curious that
id Of this Tibetan rule in India, except in the Chinese
; it is mentioned until the end of the monarchy in the
. as extending over Bengal to the sea — the Bay of
\ called the Tibetan Sea. J. R. Logan has found
md linguistic evidence of this domination, which was left
the Indian histories. Mang-srong mang tsan. the
ind successor of Srong tsan gam-po, cominuing the
his father, subdued the Tukuhun Tatars around the
663, and attacked the Chinese; after some adverse
ittcr took their revenge and penetrated as far as Lhasa.
burnt the ro>al pakure (Vumbu-lagang). Khri Ide
oesag-ts'oms. the grandson of Mang-srong and secxmd
from him. promoted the spread of Buddhism and
his son. langts'a Lhapon. who^was famous for the
person, the hand of the accomplished princess Kyim-
ter, otherwise htnz-chu. of the Chinese emperor lu>*-
, But the lady arrived after the death of her brtrcMbed.
I hesitation became the bride of the father. She gave
TIBET
937
birth in 730 to Khri vong Ide tsan, in the Buddhiit annab the
mo«t iUuiCrious monarch of his country, because of the strenuous
ctforu he made in Uvoyr of that religion dttrinc his reign of forty-
Mx yean (743-789). His son and successor Muni tsan>po, being
determined to raise all his subjects to the same level, enacted that
there should be no distinction between jpoor and rich, bumble and
frtMU He compelled the wealthy to snare their riches with the
indigent and helpless and to make them their equals in respect of
all the comrorts and conditions of life. He repeated this experi*
ment- three times; but each time he found that they all returned
to their former ooodition, the rich becoming still richer and the
poor still poorer. The sagte attributed this cutious phenomenon
to Che good and evil acts of their former fives. Nothing of impor-
tance occurred during the following reigns, until that of Kalpacben,
who won glory by his care for the translations of the Buddhist
scriptures which he caused to be completed, or rewritten more
accurately when required. In this reign a severe struggle feooh
place with China, peace being concluded in 02 1 at Cfc'ans'ngan
and ratified at Lhasa the following year by the erection of biungual
tablets, which still exist. Ralpachen was assassinated by the
partisans of Lao^-dharma and the country fell into disorder.
Lang-dharma instituted a violent persecution of Buddhism; but
he was soon assassinated in his turn and the fcmgdora (fivided into
a western and an eastern part by his two sons. The partition
did not, however, prevent intemeane wars. The history tor some
time now becomes rather intricate and requires some attention.
Pkl K'or tsan, the second weatem king, after a reign of thirteen
years, died leaving two sons, Thi Tashi Tsegpa-pal and Thi Kyida
Nyimagon. The latter went to Nan (Mngari) and founded the
capiul Puiang; he left three sons, of whom the ddest declared
himself king of Mang-yul, the second seised IHirans, and the
youngest, Detsud-gan, became king of the province of Sousng-shung
(the modem GugM). The revival of Buddhism began with the
two sons of the last-named, the elder of whom became a monk.
The younger, KhorrC, inherited his father's throne, and was folloued
in his authority by twenty successors^ Tashi Tsegpa also had
three sona— Pklde. Hodde and Kjode. The descendants of the
first made themselves masters of Gung-t'ang, Lugyalwa, Chyipa,
Lhatse, Langlung and Taakor, where they severally rukd as petty
chiefs. The descendanta of Kyide spread themselves over the Mu,
Jang, Tanag, Yarulag and Gyakae districts, where they also ruled
as petty pnnces. Hodde left four aona— Phabdcse, Thide, Thich-
ung and Gnagpa. The first and fourth became masters of Tsan-
grong, the second took poaaessioa of Amdo and Tsongkha. the third
became long of U (or the central I .ha wan province), and
the capital to Yariung, south of Lhasa. He was followed on his
throne from son to son by devcn successor*. History is slent as
to the £ate of the eastern king, the ether son of Lang^dharma,
and his successors, but the geognphical names of the chieftainships
enumerated above make it cwar that the western Idngdom had
extended its power to the east. Chronology is defideot for all that
period. While the dynasty of Khorr6 in Shanff-ahung and that of
Thich'ung in U weie running, another authority, destined to
beex»me the superior of both, had arisen in Tibet. Khorrfi left his
throne to his son Lhade, who was himself succeeded by his three
, the youngest of whom invited the celebrated Indian Buddhist,
Atisha. to leave his monastery Vikrtmashila for Tibet, where he
settled in the great laroaserai of Thoding in Nari. Besides refigious
books and teaMihings, he introduced in 1026 the method of com-
puting time by cycles of rixty years, " obtained from the Indian
province of Shambala." He was the first of the several chief prsnts
whose authority became paramount in the country. The kings
of U greatly patronised them, as for instance in the case of the
celebrated Sakya PandiU by the seventh of these kings. PandiU,
at the special request of Kuyuk. the successor of Ogdai. paid a visit
to his court in 1246-1248. Five years afterwards KobUt Khan
conquered all the east of Tibet; and, after he had ascended the
throne of China, the Mongol emperor invited to his court Pha^spa
Lodoi Gyaltshan, the nephew oTthe same Pauidita. He remained
twelve years with the emperor, and at his request framed for the
Mongol language an alphabet imitated from the Tibetan, which,
however, did not prove satisfactory, and disappeared after eighty
live years without having been very lari^y used. In return for
fiis services, Kublai invested Pham>a with sovereign power over
(i) Tibet proper, compriang the thirteen districU oTU and Tsang,
(2) Khim and (3) Amdo. From this time the Sakya-pa lamas
became the aniversal mkn of Tibet, and
nominally, under twenty-one succcsave lamas duriiw seventy years
(1270-1340). Their name was derived from the Sakya monastery,
which was their cradle and abode, and their authority for temporal
inatteri was exercised by specially appointed regents. When the
power of the Sakya beran to wane, that of the rival monasteries of
Duping. Phagdub and Tshal increased laigely, and their respective
influence and authority overbalanced that of the successors of
Fhagna. It was at this troubled epoch that Chyang Chub Gyalt*
ahan. better known as Phannodu from the name of his native town,
appeared on the scene. He subdued Tibet proper and Khim. for
the continued possession of which he was, however, compelled to
6ght for several years; but he succeeded in the long run, and with
the approval of the court of Peldng esublished a dynasty whkh
furnished twelve rulers in succession. When the Mongol dynasty
of China passed away, the Mings confirmed and enlat]^ tm
dominkm of the Tibetan rulers, recognizing at the same tune the
chief, lamas of the eight principal monasteries of the country.
Peace and prosperity gradually weakened the benign rule of the
kings of this dynasty, and during the reign of the last but one
internecine war was rife between the chiefs and nobles of U and
Tsane. This state of things, occurring just as the last rulers of
the Ming dynasty of China were struggling against the encroachments
of the Manchus. their future successors, favoured the interference
of a Khoshot Mongol prince, Tensir To, called in the Tibetan
sources king of Koko Nor. The Mongols were interested in the
religion of the lamas, especially since 1576, when Altan. khalcan
of the Tomeda, and his cousin summooed the chief lama of the
most important monastery to visit him. This lama was Sodnam
rGyamtso, the third successor of (jedundub, the founder of the
Tasfailhunpo monastery in 1447. who had been elected to the more
important abbotship of Galdan near Lhasa, and was thus the first
of the great, afterwards Dalai, lamas. The immediate successor of
Oduodub, who ruled from 1475 to 1541, had appointed a special
officer styled (Upa to control the civil administration of the country.
To Sodnam rGyamtso the Mongol khans gave the title of Vajra
Dalai Lama in 1576, and this is the fint use of the widely known
title of Dalai Lama. . During the minority of the fifth (really the
third) Dalai Lama, when the Mon;{ol king Tengir To, under the
pretext of supporting the' religion, intervened in the affairs of the
country, the Pan-chen Lo-sangCh'o-kyi Gyal-ts'ang lama obtained
the withdrawal of the invaders by the payment of a heavy war
indemnity, and then applied for help to the first Manchu emperor
of Cluna. who had just ascended the throne. This step enraged
the Mongols, and caused the advance of Gushri Khan, son and
successor of Tengir To. who invaded Tibet, dethroned all the petty
princes, including the king of Tsang, and, after having subjugated
the whole of the country, made the fifth Dalai lama supreme
monarch of all Tibet, in i&is. The Chinese government in 1653
confirmed the Dalai Lama in his authority, ami he paid a visit to
the emperor at Peking. The Mongol Khoshotes in 1706 and the
Sungars in 171J interfered again in the succession of the Dalai
lama, but the Chinese army finally conquered the country in 1720,
and the present system of government was established. It is
probable that the isolatioo of Tibet was inspired ori^nally by the
Chinese, with the idea of creating a buffer state agamst European
aggression from this direction.
In X872-X873 some attempt was made by Indian officials to
open up trade with Tibet; fttither attempts followed in 18841 ud
in x886 a mission was -otganized to proceed to Lhasa.
The Chinese, however, although they had at first n^^y^j.
gnmted a passport to this mission, later objected to j
its advance, and it was abandoned. The Tibetans i
assumed this to show England's weakness; they
invaded Sikkim, and in x888 it was nccessaxy to send a force
under (jcneral Graham to expd them. In 1890 a treaty was
conduded, and tra^ regulations under this treaty in X895; bat
the negotiations were carried on with the Chinese authorities,
and the lamas, considering themselves to have received insufficient
recognition, repudiated them and offered farther insults. A
new development presently appeared in the situation. A lama,
a Mongolian Boriat by birth and a Russian subject, whose
Russiaziized name was Doxjiev, had come to Lhasa about- x88o.
When subsequenUy visiting Russia, he appears to have drawn
the attention of the authorities towards llbet as a field for their
statecraft, and he established himself as the unofficial represen-
tative of Russia in Lhasa. He obtained a commanding iiiiSuence
over the Dalai Lama, impressed upon him the dangers which
threatened Tibet from England, and suggested the diesffability
of securing Russian protection and even the posubHity of con-
verting the tsar and his empire to Buddhism. The Dalai Lama
assented, and was even prepared to visit St Petersburg, but was
checked by the Tsong-da (assembly). He therefore sent a
representative of high rank, who had audience of the tsar, and
returned with proposals for a treaty and for the residence of a
Russian royal prince in Lhasa in order to promote friendly
relations. But both the Chinese authorities in Lhasa and thfe
Tsong-da were averse from any sach proceedings. The Dalai
Lama, inspired by Dorjtev, now took steps to bring on a crisis by
provoking En^and. He felt sure of Russian support. Russian
arms had been imported into Lhasa. It was suspected, although
denied, that a treaty was in draft under which Russia should
assume the suzerainty of Tibet. A further encroachment on
TIBETO-BURMAN LANGUAGES
CPtr
Si**
&^ -
I J'
;. . 1 ** ^aa made by Tibetans, and various
;. ^ -ijf^ CuRon, now decided that strong
- »*'. »>e (home government at first assented
. , >iotntl (afterwards Sir) F. E. Young-
^ vt i>» negotiate at Khambajong, to the
•• Mvf. The mission arrived at this point
^o, Aod iKre it remained till the nth of
^''•**^'>»^ Tibetan representatives appeared,
• "W * %fttr carried on were abortive. On the
.*. .-*»., Jk? British government authorized the
» ^.""variH Mailey, and an advance to Gyantse in
. . >«n>«» rations, with the difficult attendant
^- *<.r<r uodertaken. Colonel Younghusband
. -v nt»sk>n, and the troops were commanded
.. . &^^it>QAkl. The Jelep pass was crossed and
• iKxi^ Vibeleflectedon theijthof December.
.. »v^ ^;is made to Tuna, where part of the
. * "^miered. A further advance being made
^ >H March IQ04, the first hostile encounter
-'•*. w>htn ihc Tibetans (the aggressors) were
^•♦w tvirther fighting en route the expedition
- ^v: Cy anise on the 1 2th of AprU ; here some of
^ f, - * ^ "^^^ subsequently beleaguered, and the most
",. ^•' * *^"^** P**«. In fact the advance to Lhasa,
•"^^ ^ "•'•*'"'«^of theGyantseiwi«(fort)onthe 6th of
** r» " * '••-••tMralivcly little opposition, and the capital
' „,»'-* ' ^ ^'^^^ August. The Dalai Lama had fled with
• • ^ tu..v /»! ;his account, and in spite of the attempts of
J*^ .«>.>. - "KwiiMfs to bring about a settlement, there was
•*■ ^.J. '**''«t ^^> the attitude of the lamas, but finally a
^-^ ^.vv *A» concluded on the 7th of September. The
!/''.„, ...*.oaa were—the Sikkim frontier violated by
• f
^<i-
^<<^
^^''
r^'"
1;.-
-** ^o be respected; marts were to be established
.*"' "*\ yyantse, Garlok and Yatung; Tibet was to
: H ot £500,000 (subsequently reduced to one-third
r*\ • ' \'^ ^ foreign power was to receive any concession
<*' ,v' "^^ ' ""T;* ^^ niercantile, or to concern itself with the
,^ ,.,, s** l^ country. The expedition left Lhasa on the
^ . ^ vjKv«»Nrr and reached India again at the close of the
s'"^ • '**^'" "J^ J?* ^'^^y ^^ slightly modified later in
>.'•*•* .^ -^ ^' *"• ^»*"« the adhesion of China to thtf treaty was
r'\ *• k"* *«teement of the ayth of April 1906.
r* "^ * '^'^'' "^^jn convention of 1907 determined the foHow-
,..-»" ^''^ ^*Jl. y^^P*^^ ^ Tibet— the recognition of the
^' ..' *^^^ China and the territorial and administrative
. • ■• , S Vh« country; that no official representative at Lhasa
» - V AiH^ntcd either by England or by Russia, and that
*>' ^^..vv>*'^^ 'Of railways, mines, &c., should be sought by
t- " ^ K^**'' ^^ annex to the convention provided that, except
^ "^' ^.^^ment between England and Russia, no scientific
>• .:-<S* »bowla be allowed to enter the country for three
••■••''ii^iaary 1908 the final instalment of the Tibetan indemnity
* gk ^^* Grtat Britain, and the Chumbi valley was evacuated.
•^" CSkfe^ Lama was now summoned to Peking, where he obtained
"^ ^<iUl authority to resume his administration in place of
^ .iJvi*iv>nal governors appointed as a result of the British
"^ " ^ He retained in office the high officials then appointed,
"^J^ixlonf^l all Tibetans who had assisted the mission. But in
i'blnfse troops were sent to operate on the Sze-ch'uen
lied
hat
his
Ity.
no,
the
:ish
to
the
its
rity
of the frontier states of Nepal, Bhutan tnd Sikkim must be
respected. To the Dalai Lama, who bad aiimpied 10 obiain
British intervention at Peking, it was made dear that be person-
ally had no claim to this, as the British govemmeni could only
recognize the dc facto government in Tibet.
AuTHoarriES.— Besides the records of the earlier exploi«r». the
followins works may be consulted: Clementa Markham, Ttbtt
(I . Tkt Land of
M *tk Umndta
«* !«, vol. jii.;
" : Soc. (1891);
J* G. Bonvalot,
5 W);H.Bo»eT.
G ibet (Cakmu.
I* ttmber 1893);
Ci mard, MtuKm
X ittledale. Ret
G' mat, voL xii ;
T . Deaay. Cfoj
J* London, ih^).
C* Atia and Tibtt
(1 ''rms-Htmaleya
(1 \* in Tent end
Ti mrnal, vol. ii ;
L London. 1895).
1; Uuu end til
^ . Jount. (Feb..
M Cokl-washing."
P »d Disco\*eries,''
ib xl Diacoveries."
P . von Rosthom.
" Ceof. Jomm.
p. P fe ^ "^ •"
Kozlov.
[. Jomm. (May
ol. xxxL (1908);
." Unneam 5^.
WoCmm 0f TiUi
)6):F.Crenard.
; C. G. Ramlirs.
ke Ufneiiinf cf
^ondon, 190^)';
, 1906}; Ofiicial
(ed. 5a4o)'M\
(London, loto).
; O. J. R. H.)
nbeto-Bunna*
family comprises a long series of dialects spoken from Tibet
in the north to Burma in the south, and from the Ladikh w&z&rat
of Kashmir in the west to the Chinese provinces of Szc-ch'uen
and YUnnan in the easL In the first place we have the variotis
Tibetan dialects, spoken all over Tibet and in the ndghboorirK
districts of India and China. Another series of dialects, ibe
Himalayan group, is spoken in the southern Himalayas, (rosn
Lahul in the west to Bhutan in the east. Some oC these dialects
approach Tibetan in structure and grammatical principles, whik
others have struck out new lines of development, probably under
the influence of the dialects spoken by an elder populatioo.
East of Bhutan, to the north of the Assam valley, we find a third
small group, the North Assam group, which consists of ihrre
dialects. A fourth group, the Bodo group, can be followed in a
series of dialects from Bhutan in the north to the Tippeera. stale ic
the south. They have at one time extended over most of Assair
west of Manipur and the Nftgi hills, and even far into Ben^
proper. To the west of the Bodos,in and in the neighbourhood
of the NSgS hills we find a fifth group, the so-called NSgft group
It comprises dialects of very different kinds. Some ol Lhexn
approach Tibetan and the dialea of the North Assam sroup
Others lead over to the Bodo languages, and others again conneci
the Nftga dialects with their Tibcto-Burman neighbours 10 iIm
south and east. To the south of the N &gi hills, in the lon^ cbmii
of hills extending southwards under various names sudi as t Im
Lushai hills, the Chin hills and the Arakan Yoma, we find a six 1 1
group, the Kuki-Chin dialects. The old Meitei lan^n^a^e o
Manipur lies midway between this group and the eastemas»osJ
branch of the Tibeto-Bunnan family, the Kachin group. Ttu
Kachins inhabit the tract of country to the east of Assam aixxi t<
the north of Upper Burma, induding the headwaters of i~b*
TIBIA
929
Chi'ndwin and the Irrawaddy. The Kachins have not as yet
settled down, and are still pushing southwards. The Kachios
and the Kuki-Chins gradually and finally merge into Burmese,
the language of the ancient kingdom of Burma.
It is impossible to bring the relationship existing between all
these various groups under one single formula. The dialects
spoken in the Himalayas and in Assam can be described as a
double chain connecting Tibetan with Burmese, which are the
two principal languages of the family. In the first place the
Kachin group runs from the easternmost Tibetan dialects in
Szc-ch'uen down to the Burmese of Upper Burma. The second
chain has a double beginning in the north. We can trace one
line through the North Assam group, the NAgi, Bodo and Kuki-
Chin groups. Another line can be followed from Tibetan through
the Himalayan and Bodo groups into Kuki-Chin. . The latter
dialects finally merge into Burmese.
The original home of the Tibeto-Burman race seems to have
been on the Upper Hwangho and the Upper Yangtsze-kiang
in the Chinese provinces of Sze-ch*uen and Yiinnan. The oldest
invaders followed the Tsangpo into Hbet and became the Tibe-
tans of the present day. Other hordes crossed the Brahmaputra
and settled in the hiUs on the southern slopes of the Himalaya
range. From the headwaters of the Irrawaddy and the Chindwin
successive waves entered Assam and Further India. Some fol-
lowed the course of the Brahmaputra and settled in the hills to
the south and east of the great bend of the river. Others
entered the Nagft hills» while numerous tribes must have foUowod
the Chindwin into Manipxtr and the hills to the south. The in-
habitants of Burma have probably come down along the Chindwin
and the Irrawaddy, and the latest immigrants, the Kachins,
have only in modern times begun their wanderings southwards
through the hills. The tribes settled in the hills north of the
Assam valley appear to possess a mixed character. Their home
can be considered as a' kind of backwater which has been over*
flowed by the waves of successive invasions.
In their original home the Tibeto-Burmans weie the neighboun
of Chinese and Tai tribes. Their languages are also dosrly
related to Chinese and Tai, more dosely to the former than to the
latter. The agreement is apparent In the phonetical system, in
vocabulary and in grammar. The principal point in which they
differ is the order of words. The Tibeto-Burman family arranges
the words of a sentence in the order of subject, objea, verb, while
the order in Chinese and Tai is subject, verb, object. Together
all these languages form one great family, which is usually called
Indo-Chinese.
The Indo-Chinese famfly taQsaatly eooiklered as a typical
instance of the Kxalied iaolating languages. The single woidt
do not consist of more than one syllable. They are incapable ol
inflexion because there are no form-woids, which merely denote
reUtion in time and space. Grammatical relations are therefore-
not indicated by inflexion, but simply by patting together, according
to fixed rules, words of which each retains its independence.
Thus a sentence soch as *' the father struck the boy " wouM be
translated '* father agent son striking completwn. This sute
of affaire, which is the prevailing condition in Chinese, is not.
however, the original one. While the bases of the words are
monosyllabic, i^. each word consists of one syllable, comparative
philology shows that these bases were often preceded by prefixes,
short additions, the meaning of which cannot always be ascer-
tained, but which modified the meaning of the base in the same way
as the terminations of other languages. Such prefaces were not
accented, and in the course of time they were commonly reduced
and often dropbed altogether, so that each word (t.e. the prefix
plus base) itself came to be moooQrllabic. Such words were then
pronouneed in a higher tone, and this gave rise to the devdopment
of a complicated system of tones in Ciunese, Tai and some Tibeto-
Burman languaees. The existence of old prefixes can therefore
•till be inferred from the tones.
This development can still be followed in the Tibeto-Burman
lanniages. They have, to some extent, retained the oU prefixes.
Thu is, for example, the case in Old Tibetan and some modem
Tibetan dialects, while the piefixet have been dropped in the modern
dialect of Central Tibet. Compare Old Tibeun Mim, BaJti ab-4%n,
but C^ntnl Tibetan dttii, seven. The connexion between the drop-
E'ng of prefixes and the development of tones can be seen from the
ct that Balti. which has, to some extent, preserved the prefixes,
liile Central Tibetan has developed a system
m devoid of tones, while < ^_
of tones conespondtng to that prevafling in Chinese.
Thei
is the case with Kachin and some NBgS dialects, white the re-
maining Tibeto-Burman languages apparently agree with such
Tibeun dialects as are devokl of tones. The dcvelupmenc ot
tones in many dialects was probably counteracted by the inftnence
of the speech of the former inhabitants whom the Tibcto-Durman
found in possession of the country when they invaded their present
habitat. Remnants of such old inhabitants are still found in the
Khasi hills of Assam, in the midst of the Tibeto-Burman territory.
Traces of the speech of an old, non-Tibeto-Burman population,
can also be found in some dialccu bdongiog to the Himalayan
group.
Through the dropmng of old prefixes several different rnvrds
coincided in form. The same result was effected by another
tendency, which is apparent in all Indo-Chinese languages, via.
to harden soft consonants. Thus Tibetan ba, cow, is often pro-
nounced bha and fa. The confusion which might arise from this
double tendency is counteracted by the system of tones and the
fuDcd rules for the order of words.
The vocabulary is richly varied. Thus the different varieties of
some animal are often denoted by separate words. On the other
hand, there are few general terms or such as denote abstract
kicas.
All these features of Tibeto-Burman speech tend to make the
difference between the dialects considerable, and the chanees within
one and the same dialect bewildering. Instances are said to be on
record where one small tribe has changed its language in the course
of a couple of generations so as to be unrecognizable. This fart,
if fact it be, can however be accounted for by assuming that the
male individuals in question have robbed their wives U-om some
other tribe. At all events, the changes are not so important in
cases where we are able to compare the existing vocabulary of a
tribe with words noted down, say, a century ago.
The different classes of words are not clearly distinguished, and
many insunces occur in whkh a word can be used at will as a noun,
as an adjective or as a verb. The verb can, on the whole, be de-
scribed as a noun of action, and we find phrases such as " my going
is " instead of " I go." Inflexion is often effected by isolation.
Thus gender is commonly denoted by adding words meaning
"male,^' "female," respectively; number is indvated by means
of numerals and words meaning " many," " heap"; and there is
no relative pronoun and no clear distinction between the varknitf
verbal tenses. Many of the words added in order to indkrate
relation in time, space, &c., have, however, ceased to be used as
separate words, and have become what can for all practical pur-
poses be called case and tense affixes. The inflexion is thetefore at
the present date, to a great extent, effected by agglutination, i.r.
by adding modifying partkles to the base, which itself remains un-
changed. Such particles are only put once if there are more than
one word put together in the same relatron. Thus an adjective
and a qualified noun only takes one " case-suffix." Se\'enl dalects
have in this way developed a complicated system of grammatical
forms, partly perhaps under the influence of non-Tibeto-Burman
languages.
BiBLtOGRAPinr.>-J. Leyden, " On the Languages and Literature of
M&ller, "Letter to Chevalier Bunsen on the Classification
of the Turanian Languages," p. 97 sqq. (London. 1SS4)
1. liL of Bur — •- '•»•—- • -* .. ^
(reprinted from vol.
'h
Bunsen'b CkHstianiiy and Mankm
|54)
I. "LoniT, •• f he Woit HicnaUiT'or TVbetan "tribes of^AssamJ
Burma and Pegu," Jtmmd of tht Indian Archipelago (1858), ii.
too sqq. and aip sqq.; B. H. Hodgson, Essays on the Languages,
Literaturt and EeHpvn of Nepal and Tibet: together with fnrtker
papers on the Caooapky* Ethnology and Cmmerce ef thou
countries (London, 1874): Miseellaneons Essays relaling to Indian
Subjects, vols. L, u. (London, 1880); £mst Kuhn. Uebcr Berkunft
und Sprache der transtanietischen Vhlher. Festrede (Mtinchcn. 1881;;
B. Houghton, "Outlines of Tibeto-Burman Linguistk Palaeon-!
tokigy," /Mm. of the Ray. Asiatic Soc. (1896), p. 23 sqq.;
August Conrady. Eimo mdochmesixho CausoH^-Denominattv-
BildHng nnd ikr Zusammenhang^ mil den Tonaccenten. Ein
Beitrag sur tergUichenden Grammatth der indochinesiuhen Sprachen
insonderheit des Tibetischen Barmaniscken Siomesischen und Chine-
sischen (Leipxig, 1896) : " Sten Konow" in Grierson'sLtMc«f«/ic Survey
3r India, vol. iii.; Tibeto-Burman Family^ otr I* General Intro
uction. Specimens of the Tibetan Dialects, tne Himalayan Dialects
and the North Assam Group (Calcuttt, I906): part ii., with G. A.
Grierson. Specimens of the Bodo, NisA, and Kachin Croups ((^krutta.
1993): pt. iii.. Specimens of the iCuki-Chin and Burma Groups
(Calcutta. 1904). (S. K.)
TIBIA, a pipe played by means of a reed mouthpiece, eiten-
iiTely used in classic Rome. The tibia, often mistranslated
" fhite," was identical with the aulos of the Greeks, and accord-
ing as it was made with a cylindrical or with a conical bore,
it may be regarded as the prototype of onrdaiinet or oboe. The
tibia was used at musical contests, in the theatre, in the arena.
(
930
TIBULLUS
I
ftt banquiets, &c. A set of Ivory tibiae of cylindrical bore
foynd at Pompeii in a good state of preservation are in the
museum at Naples.
I TIBUUUS, ALBIUS (€. 54-19 B.C.), Latin elegiac poet. The
information which we possess about him is extremely meagre.
Besides the poems themselves— that is to say, the first and
second books— we have only & few references in later writers
and a short Life of doubtful authority. We do not know his
praenomen; his gentile name has been questioned; nor is his
birthplace ascertained. His station was not improbably that
of a Roman knight (so the Life affirms) ; and he had inherited
a very considerable esutc. But, like Virgil, Horace and Proper-
tius, he seems to have lost the greater part of it in 41 amongst
the confiscat.ions which Antony and Octavian found expedient
to satisfy the rapacity of their victorious Mdiery. Tibullus's
chief friend and patron was M. Valerius Messalla Corvinus,
himself an orator and poet as well as a statesman and a com-
mander. Messalla, like Maecenas, was the centre' of a literary
circle in Rome; but the bond between its members was that of
literature alone. They stood in no relations to the court; and
the name of Augustus is not once to be found in the writings of
TibuUus. About 30 B.C. Messalla was despatched by Augustus
IQ Gaul to quell a rising in Aquitania and restore order in the
country, and Tibullus may have been in his retinue. On a
later occasion, probably in aS, he would have accompam'ed his
friend who had been sent on a mission to the East, but he fell
sick and had to stay behind in Corcyra. Tibullus had no liking
for war, and though his life seems to have been divided between
Rome and his country estate, his own preferences were wholly
for the country life. His first love, the subject of book i. , is called
Delia in the poems, but we learn from Apuleius(/ipoi/. xo) that
ber real name was Plania. Delia seems to have been a woman
of middle station. It is impossible to give an exact account
of the intimacy. The poems which refer to her are arranged
in no chronological order. Now she appears as single, now as
married; but we do not htu anything either of her marriage or
of her husband's dcatL It is dear, however, that it was the
absence of her husband on military service in CiUda which gave
Tibullus the opportunity of making or renewing the acquaint-
aince. It was not dropped when he returned. It was not
difficult to deceive the simple soldier; and Delia was an apt
pupil in deception — too apt, as Tibullus saw with dismay when
he found that he was not the only lover. His entreaties and
appeals were of no avail; and after the first book we heu no more
of Delia. In the second book the place of Delia is taken by
Nemesis, which is also a fictitious name. Nemesb Qike the
Cynthia of Propertius) was a courtesan of ihe higher class;
and she had other admirers besides Tibullus. He complains
bitterly of his bondage, and of ber rapadty «nd hardhearted-
oess. In spite of all, however, she seems to have retained
her hold on him until his deathu TibuDns died prematurely,
probably in zg, and almost immediatdy after \lrgiL His
death made a. deep Impression in Rome, ms we karn from
his cont^poraxy Domitius .Maisos and from the ^legy in
which Ovid (Awtorts, m. 19) has enshrined the memory of
)us predecessor.
The character of Tibullus & reflected in his poaos.' Though
not an admirable it is certainly an amiable one. He w a man
of generous impulses and a gentle unselfish disposition. He
>ik-as loyal to his friends to the \'erge of self-sacrifice, as is shown
by his leaving Ddia to accompany Messalla to Asia, and constant
to his mistresses with a constancy but ill deser\'cd. His tender-
ness towards them b enhanced by a refinement and delicacy
which are rare among the andents. Horace and the test uunt
the cruel fair with the retributioo which is coming wiih the
years. If Tibullus refers to such a fate, he does it by way of
warning and not in any petty spirit of triumph or revenge.
Cnidly tiwQi^ he ouy have been treated by his love, >e does
Aot invoke cones upon her head. He goes to ber little sister%
grave; hang so often with his garlands and wet with Ids tears,
AMI bcmotas his fate to tht dumb ashes there. TibuUvs has
•^leaaiBfa to an active life: hb ideal is a qsiet wrl'^^t"* in
the country with the loved one at his side. He has no ambition
and not even the poet's yearning for imniortality. As Tibullus
loved the country life so he clung to its faiths, and in an age of
crude .materialism and the grossest superstition, he was religious
in the old Roman way. As a poet he reminds us of CoUins
and Longfellow. His clear, finished and yet unaflfected style
made him a great favourite with his countrymen and placed
him, in the judgment of Quintilian, at the head of their degiac
writers. And certainly within his own range he has no Roman
rival. For natural grace and tenderness, for exquisiteness of
feeling and expression, he stands alone. He has far fewer faults
than Propertius, and in particular he rarely overloads his Hoes
with Alexandrian learning. But, for all that, his range is
limited; and in power and compass of imagination, in jngour
and originality of conception, in richness and variety of poetical
treatment, he is much his rival's inferior. The same differences
are perceptible in the way the two poets handle their metre.
Tibullus is smoother and more musical, but liable to become
monotonous; Propertius, with occasional harshnesses, is more
vigorous and varied. It may be added that in many of Tibul-
lus's poems a symmetrical composition can be traced, although
the symmetry must never be forced into a fixed and onelastic
scheme.
It b probable that we have lost some of the genoioe poems of
Tibullus. On the other hand, much has come down to us under
his name which must ccrtainl^r be assigned to others. Only the
first and second books can claim his authorship. The first book
consists of poems written at various times between 30 and 26.
About the second book we can only say that in all likelihood it
was published before the poet's death in i^ It is veiy shore,
containing only 428 verses, and apparently moomplete. In boih
books occur poems which give e\idence of internal disorder; but
scholars cannot agree upon the remedies to be applied.
The third book, which contains 390 verses, is by a miidi inferior
hand. The writer calls himself Lygdamus and the fair that be
sings of Neaera. He was bom in the same year as Ovid, but there
is nothing Ovidian about his work. He has little poetical po«er,
and his style is meagre and jejune: He has a good many leminis-
cenccs and imitations c^ TibuUiis and Propertius : and they axe not
always happy. The sepaxation of the fourth book from the third
has no anaent authont>'. It dates from the re\-ival of letters,
and is due to the Italian scholars of the 15th century. The fourtli
book consists of poems of very different aualtty. The first is a
comfmsitioa in 211 hexameters on the adiievemcnts of MessaJla.
and is very poor. The author is unknown; bat he was certainly
not HbuUus. The poem itself was written in 31. the yrxr of
MessalU's consulshif). The next cle\'en poems rdbte to the loves
of Sulpida and Cerinthus. Sulpicta was a Roman lad>- of h:<h
station and, acoording to Haupt's probable oonjcctiire. the daugh'er
of Valeria. Messalla's sister. She had fallen violently in low «.:h
Cerinthus, about whom we know nothing but what the poet tc'Is
OS, and be toon reciprocated her feelings. The Sulpica de>r^
divide into two i^roups. The first comprises iv. a-6, ooBtaL'<.:r^
nmety-four lines, m which the theme of the attachment is «orkei
up into five graceful poema^ The second, iv. 8-12 (ro «hich 7
should be added), conasts of Sulpicia's own letters. They are
very short, only forty hnes in all; but they have a uasqoe interest
as being the only love poems by a Roman woman that have escaped
the ravages of time. Their frank and passonate outpounngs
remind us of Catullus. The style and metrical handling bcray
a novice in poetical writing. The thirteenth poem (twcBty-fcvx
lines) claims to be ^ TibuUus: but it b hardly moie than acento
from Tibullus and Ir o pef tiu s. The fourteenth is a little cptgraci
of four lines with notning to determine its authorship. Las^ •>:
all comes the epigram or fragment of Domitius Manus afaradv
r cferred tou To sum op: the third and fourth books atfpear ui
the oMcst tiaditioa as a single book, and they c o m pri s e pMocs l-v
different authors in different styles, aooe of which can be ass^grcd
to Tibullus with any certainty. The natural conduaoa b th«t
we have here a couection of scattered oompositions. rdatins; to
MessaUa and the members of hb circle, which has bees added a>
an appendix to the genuine reiicsof Tibulhts. When thb ** >les6A:.a
coUcction " was made cannot be cnctiy determined: bet k was
not till after the death of TibuUus. 19 B.C.. and pnsbably between
15 and 2 «.€. Besides the foregone, two pieces in the ccl>c:irn
called Priapea (one an epigram and the other a kx^cr piece in
iambics) have been attributed to Tibulhis; but there b little exterzul
aad no tatemal evidence of hb authorship ^see Hiucr in itcrmer.
jo-iii. 54^-349)- ,
The value of the short Fits Tibtj:*, (oaad at the end of the
Ambrodan. Vatican and inferior MSS^ has been ranch dsscwssed.
There b linle in it that «e could noc at oiace iafcr fnMa Tib^*:.ja
lumself aad irom what Horace says about AlbiaSk thc:^^ it is
TIBUR
93«
boccibfe tliat its compiler nuy have taken woe of hit itatemeaci
from Suetonius's book Dt pottis. It is as follows: " Albius TibuUus
eaues R. (R. being the customary abbreviation for Romaniu, the
KISS, have the oomiption re^is), instgnis forma cuhuque corporia
observabilb. ante alioe Corvinam Messalam Onitorem (MSS. Or.,
tx. oralorem) ingenue (MSS. ifinem) dilexit, cuiua et contubcmalis
Aouitanico bcUo milltaribus ck>nis donatus est. Hie multorum
iudido principcm inter elegiographos optinet locum. EpistuUe
quoque eius, quamc|uam breves, omnino utiles sunt (the " letters " are
the Sulpida eieoes). Obiit adulescens, ut indicat cp^ramma
supencnptum " ((.«. the one ascribed to Domitius Manua. These
words seem to be a later addition to the Lij*). It is another moot
qucstbn of some importance whether our poet should be identified
with the Albiua of Horace {Od. i. 33: Epist. i. 4), as b done by the
Horatian commentator Porphyrio (a.d. 300-350) in his ScMlia.
Porphyrio's view has been most recently examined by Postgate
{SetuhoHsfrom TibuUus, appendix A). If it is rejected, the authority
of the Life is oonudcrably impaired.
Ovid, Trist, iv. 10, 53 seq., " successor fuit hic tTibullus] tibi.
Galle, Propertius illi, quanus ab his serie temporis ipse fui.*' In
the pfececfing couplet ne had aaid. " VcrgUium vidi tantum aec
amara TibulTo tempus amicitiae fata dcdere meoe." Ovid, who
was bom in 43, would be only twenty-four at Tibullus's death if it
occurred in 19. The loss oC TibuUus s landed property is attested
by himself (i. I, 19 seq.), ** Felicis quondam, nunc pauperis agri
cuscodcs " (d. 4U43)> its cause is only an inference, though a very
probable one. That he was allowed to retain a portion of hts
estate with the family mansion is clear from iL 4* ^3* TibuUus
may have been Messalla's coHfubernalis in the Aquttanian War
{Vtta Tib. and Tib. i. 7, 9 seq., a poem composed for Messalla's
triumph), and may havtc received miiitaria dona ( Vita),
Delia's name (from ftijXoi) is a translation of Plania. As regards
her station, it should be noticed that she was not entitled to wear
the stola, the dress of Roman matrons 0- 6, 68). Her husband is
mentioned as absent (i. 2, 67 seq.). She eludes the custodes placed
over her (i. 2, 15 and 6, 7). Tibullus's suit was favoured by Delia's
mother, of whom he speaks in ver>' aScctkmate terms (i. 6, 57 seq.).
For Tibullus's illness at Corcyra, see i. 3, 1 sen., 5* seq. The filth
ricgy was written during estrangement idiseidium), and the sixth
after the return of the husband and during Delia's double infidelity.
Ovid, writing at<the time of Tibullus's death {Am. iii. 9, 31), saya:
"Sic Nemesis longum, sic Delia, nomen habebunt, altera cora
rccens, altera primus amor.** Nemesis is the subject of book ii.
3, 4, 6. The mention of a Una (ii. 6) settles her position. The con-
nexion had beted a year when ii. < was written (see ver. 109). It is
worth noticing that Martial selects Nemesis as the aoucoe of
Tibullus's reputation (viai. 73. 7; cf. xiv. 193).
^edroens of Tibutlus at his best may be found in i. I, 3, 89-94;
5, 19-36: 9, 45-68; ii. 6. Quintilian says (Inst, x, 1, 93). " Elc^ia
quoque Craecos provocamus, cuius mihi tersus atque eUgans maxime
wUtur auetor TibuUus; sunt nui Propertium nalint; Ovidius
ntroque lascivior, sicut durior Callus."
Charisius (pp. 66 and 105) quotes part of a. hexameter which u
not ifound in the extant poems of TibuUus.
Lygdamus is probably the real name of the author of the first,
six elegies in book iii.. but liale further u known about him. His
elegies and the other poems in the third book (" third " and " fourth"
books) appear to have been known to 0\'id. There arc agreements
between lu. 5. 15-20. and three (xa&saccs of Ovid, Ars. am. ii.
669 seq.; Tr. iv. 10, 6: "cum cecidit fato consul uterque pari"
(Lygdamus and Ovid using word for word the same expressk>n
for the year of their birth, the consulship of Hirtius and Pansa)
and >f m. xL 14, 23 seq., much too close to be accidental. We do
not know when they were added to the genuine poems of TibuUus.
Most scholars since Lachmann have condemned the " Panegyric
on Messalla." It b an inflated and at the same time tasteless
declamation, entirely devoid of poetical merit. The btiguage b
often absurdly exaggerated^ r.g. 190 seq. The author himself
seems to be conscious of his own deficiencies (i seq.. 177 seq.).
Like so many of hb contemporaries, he had been reduced to poverty
by the loss of hb estates (181 seq.). If we could set the questk>n
of poetical merit aside, it woula not be impossible to identify
him with Propertius as in fact is done by N^methy (op. cited below).
The date b fixed by I2t seq. Sulpicb was the daughter of Serv-ius
Sulpicius (iii. t6'«iv. lo, 4), and she seems to have been under
the tuteUge of Messalla, her uncle by marriage (Haupt, Opuscula,
Some scholars attribute iii. 8-1 a -iv. 2-6 to Tibullus himself;
but the style b different, and it b best to answer the question,
as Rahrens does, with a non liquet.
The direct ascription of iii. 19 -»v. 13 (verse 13, "nunc licet e
caeio mittatur arnica TibuUo") to Tibullus probablv led to its
inclusion in the collection and later on to the adclition of the
third book to the two genuine ones. For the evidence against the
aSA'ription. see Postdate, SrUcttovi, app. C.
Manuscriptt.—The two l^esi MSS. of Tit>ullus are the Ambrosianus
<A), of date about 1374. and the Vatk-anus (V). of the 15th century.
Boidcs these we have a numtier of extracts from Tibullus in
Fioritegium Parisinum, an antholof;y from various Latin writers
which probably goes back to the nth century, and the Exeerpta
frinuifana, vnmn t d bx^ aa iidhcentnry MS. nam at Munich,
unfortunately very few in number. Abo excerpts from the lost
Fraementum cuiacwnum, made by Scaliger. and now in the Ubraiyat
Leiden. It only contained the part from iii. 4. 65 to the end. The
Codes euiacianus, a late MS. containing Catullus, Tibullus and
Pr o p ert i ua, b still extant.
£^MW«.^Tibullu8 was first printed with Catullus^ Propertius,
and the Sitvae of Statius by Vindelinus de Spira (Vemoe, 1472),
and separately by Florentius de Argentina, probably in the same
year. Amongst other editions we may mention thooe fay Scaliger
(with Catullus and Propertius, 1577, Ac.), Broukhumns (1708),
Vulpius (1749)* Heyne (1817, 4th ed. by Wunderlich. with aupple-
roent by Dissen, 1819), Huschke (1819), Lachmann (1829), Dicsen
(i835)> Among mote recent texts B&hrens (1878, the first of the
modern critical editions), L. MfUler (1880, with a useful intro-
duction), Hiller (1885, with hidex vetborum), Postgate (1905).
Of the commentaries Heyne's, Huichke's and Dissen's are cull
of value. The most recent (with Latin notes) b N^mcthy's (1905-
1006). The greater part of the poems are included in rostgate's
Selections (with English notes, 1903). For further information see
the aax>untt in Teuffel's History of Roman LUerlurt (translated
by Wan-), Schana's G esc k i c kte der rdmisckon LiUeraturt and Marx's
article s:9. " Albius," 'in Pauly-Wissowa's ReaUncyclopAdie. A
hbtory of recent contributions b given in A. Cartault's A propos
du corpus TibuUianum (1906; not quite complete); see abo nb
TibtiUo et ks avtturs dm Corpus TibuUianum (Paris, 190Q). Thr
folbwing translations into bnglish verse are known— by Dart
(London, 1720), Grainger (1739. with Latintext and notes), Cranstoun
(1872). An Essay towards a New Edition of the
with a Translation and Notes (London, 1792).
I'a Specimens of the Classic Poets (London ,
ins 1. 1; ii. 4: iii. a-4: 6, 33 to end:
1 probably b^ added TibtMus, with other
fev Edition of the Ekiies of TibuUus,
(London, 1792). contains only 1. I
and 7. 39-48* C. A. Elton'aS -.v ^. . ^ . ~
1B14; xiu 141-171) contains i . ^.
iv. 2, 3. To these should probably b^ i ,
Translations from Ovid, JTorace, &c.. by Richard Whiffin (London,
1829). Cranstoun's is the only complete version of merit; but it
ia far inferior to the translatkMis by Elton. {J. P. P.)
TIBUR (mod. Tlvoli, q.v.), an ancient town of Latium, x8 m.
E.N.E. of Rome by the Via Tiburtina (sec Tiburhna, Via).
It b finely situated at the point where the Anlo forma its cele-
brated faUs; it b protected on the E., N., and N.W. by the river
and it commands the entrance to its upper course, with an exten-
sive view over the Campagna below. The modem town b in
part built upon the terraces of a large temple of Hercules Victor,
the chief deity of Tibur, of which some remains exbt: many small
votive objects in tcrra-cotta were found, in the gorge of the Anio
below the town on the north-west in 189S. Bdow it, on the difia
above the Anio, b a large building round a colonnaded court-
yafd in opus reticulatum built over the Via Tiburtina (which
passes under it in an arched passage), generally known as the
villa of Maecenas, but shown by the discovery of fnscriptions
to have been in reality the meeting place of the Herculanei
Augustales, connected probably with the temple.'
In an ancient hall at one side of the modem cathedral two
mensac ponderariae — marble tables with holes in them for
measuring solidsr—erected by one M. Varenus Diphilus, a freed-
man, a magis/er herculaneiu, we're found m sUu in 1883, and
in 1903 two vases of statues erected by Diphilus, as inscriptions
showed, in honour of hb patron, and a bas-relief of a bearded
Hercules entirely draped in a long tunic with a lion's skin on
his shoulders.
Remains of two small temples — one circular, with Corinthian
columns, the other rectangular with Ionic columns— stand at
the north-east extremity of the town, above the waterfalls.
They are traditionally, but without foundation, attributed
to Vesta and the Sibyl of Tibur (Varro adds Albunea, the water
goddess worshipped on the banks of the Anio as a tenth Sibyl
to the nine mentioned by the Greek writers.
The so-caUed Tempio dcUa Tosse, an octagonal domed
structure just below the town, b probably a (omb of the 4th
century a.d. Two Roman bridges and several tombs were found
above the faUs in 1826.
Tibnr was a favourite place of resort In Roman times, and
both Augustus and Maecenas had villas here, and possibly
Horace also. It b certain that a house was shown as being his
in the time of Suetonius; and thb has been identified with a
villa of the Augustan period, the site of which b now occupied
by the monastery of S. Antonio. In his poems he frequently
mentions Tibur with enthusiasm. Catullus and Statius, too,
have rendered it famous by their poems. The ?»««*'««*'^ *»«
(
932
TIBURTINA, VIA— TICHBORNE CLAIMANT
water from aqueducts and springs and the falls of the Anio were
among its chief attractions. The remains of villas in the district
are numerous and important (sec T. Ashby in Papers of ike
British School at RonUf ili.). The largest is that of Hadrian,
situated in the low ground about 2 m. to the south-west of Tibur,
and occupying an area of some 1 60 acres. The remains are exten-
sive and well preserved, though the identifications of the existing
buildings with those mentioned by Spartianus who records that
Hadrian gave to them the names of various well-known edifices
at Athens and elsewhere, cannot in most cases be treated as
certain. A large number of statues have been found in the
vUIa, and costly foreign marbles and fine mosaic pavements,
some of the last being preserved in Jt/u, while among others
may be named the mosaic of the doves in the Capitol and that
of the masks in the Vatican. Of the fresco and stucco decora-
tions of the walls and ceilings, less is naturally preserved.
Excavations have gone on since the x6th century, the last
having been carried on by the Italian government to which the
greater part of the site now belongs: but litUe has been done
since iZ&a-^
The ancient Tiburwas founded, according to tradition, by
Tiburtus, Corax and Catillus, grandsons of Amphiaraus. Thou^
on the edge of the Sabine mountains, it was a member of the
Latin League. There are remains of ancient roads and out-
l3nng forts in its territory dating from the period of its indepen-
dence. It allied itself with the Gauls in 361 B.C., and in the
war which followed the towns of Empulum and Saxula were
destroyed (their sites are unknown) and triumphs overTibur
were celebrated in 360 and 354 B.C., and again in 338, when its
forces were defeated, with those of Fraeneste. It did not, how-
ever, lose its independence, but became an ally of Rome, as is
shown by an inscription, probably of the 2nd century B.C., in
which it is recorded that the ambassadors of Tibur successfully
cleared tHeniselves before the Roman senate of a suspicion that
they were acting contrary to their treaty with Rome. It
acquired Roman citizenship in 90 B.C., though some of its
citizens gained the franchise previously^ Syphax, king of
Numidia, died in the territory of Tibur as a captive in soz B.C.;
and in a.d. 273 Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, was assigned a
residence here by Aurelian. Its prosperity during the imperial
period was mainly due to the favour in which it stood as a
summer resort. During the siege of Rome by Narses, Beli-
sarius occupied Tibur: it was afterwards treacherously surren-
dered to Totlla, whose troops plundered it, but who rebuilt it
in A.D. 547.
See H. Dessau in Corp. inscripl. taHn. sdv. 365 sqq. and reflf.
(Berlin, 1887) ; Notisie degli scam, passim. (T. As.)
TIBORTINA, VIA, an ancient road of Italy, leading E.N.E.
from Rome to Tibur, a distance of about x8 m. It must
have come into existence, as a track at any rate, during the
establishment of the Latin League. Though it afterwards be-
came an important thoroughfare, the first portion of it always
retained its original name, that of Via Valeria (see Valeria,
Via) being applied only to the portion of the road beyond Tibur.
The road is in the main followed by a modem highroad. There
is, however, a difficulty about the lost portion of its course
from the Albulae Aquae {q.v.) to Tibur; whereas, according
to the milestones and itineraries, it should be 20 m. from Rome
to Tibur, it is impossible to make the distance more than x8 m.
along any probable line.
See T* Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, ill. 84 sqq.
(T. As.)
TICHBORNE CLAIHANT. THE. Roger Charles Tichbome
(1839-1854), whose family name became a household word on
account of an attempt made by an impostor in 1868 to personate
him and obtain his heritage, was the eldest grandson of Sir
Edward Tichbome, the 9th baronet, of a very ancient Hamp-
shire family. Sir John de Tichbome, sheriff of Southampton,
ms.cvr** ' ' * V James I. In 1621, and from him his
la des Hadrian (Berlin. 1895). Jahrbiuh
ozungsbcft Hi.: JLLaaciani«.i.a Villa
^
descendants inherited great wealth and the position of one of
the leading Roman Catholic families in the south of England.
Roger Charles, born at Paris on the 5th of January 1829, was
the eldest son of James Francis Doughty-Tichbome (who subse-
quently became loth baronet and died in 1862) by Henriette
Felidt6, natural daughter of Henry Seymour of Knoyle, in
Wiltshire. This lady, who hated England, was intent upon
bringing up her son as a Frenchman; the result was that he got
hardly any education until he went in 1846 to Stonyburst,
whence he proceeded in 1849 to Dublin and joined the 6lh
Dragoon Guards. His eccentricity and his French accent made
him a butt in his. regiment, and, being disappointed of war
service, he sold out in 1852, and in the following year proceeded
on a trip to South America. He sailed in March 1853 from Havre
for Valparaiso, whence he crossed the Andes, reaching Rio de
Janeiro in 1854. In April of that year he sailed from Rio in
tlw " Bella " and was lost at' sea, the vessel foundering with all
hands. His insurance was paid and his will proved in July
1855. Hie baronetcy and estates passed in 1862 to Roger's
younger brother, Sir Alfred Joseph Doughty-Tichbome, who
died in 1866. The only person unconvinced of Roger's death
was his mother the dowager Lady Tichbome, from whom every
tramp-sailor found a welcome at Tichbome Park. She adver-
tised largely and injudiciously for the wanderer, and in Novem-
ber 1865 she leamt, through an agency in Sydney, that a man
" answering to the description of her son " had been found in
the guise of a small butcher at Wagga Wagga, in Queensland.
As a matter of fact, the supposed Sir Roger did not corre^x>nd
at all to the lost heir, who was slim, with sharp features and
straight black hair, whereas the claimant was enormously fat,
with wavy, light-brown hair. His first letter to Lady Tichbome
was not only ignorant and illiterate, but appealed to drcum-
stances (notably a birth-mark and an inddeat at Brighton) of
which she admitted that she had no recollection. Bat so
great was her infatuation with her fixed idea, that she soon
overcame the first qualms of distrast and advanced money
for the claimant to retum to Europe. Like all pretenders, this
one was impelled by his entourage, who regarded him in the
light o! an investment. He himself was rductant to move,
but the credulity of persons under the influence of a romantic
story soon came to his aid. Thus an old friend of Sir James
Tichbome's at Sydney, though puzzled by the claimant's
answers, was convinced by a resemblance to his supposed father.
At Sydney, too, he made the acquaintance of Bogle, a negro
servant of a former baronet. Bogle sailed with him from
Sydney in the summer of x866, and coached him in the mdi-
mcnts of the r61e which he was preparing to play. On reaching
London on Christmas Day x866 the claimant paid a flying visit
to Tichbome House, near Alresford, where he was soon to obtain
two important allies in the old family solidtor, Edward Hopkins,
and a Winchester antiquary, Francis J. Baigent, who was inti-
mately acquainted with the Tichbome family history. He
next went over to Paris, where in an hotel bedroom on a dark
January aftemoon he was promptly " recognized " by Lady
Tichbome. This " recognition ** naturally made an enormous
impression upon the English public, who were unaware that
Lady Tichborne was a monomaniac. That such a term is no
exaggeration is shown by the fact that she at once acquiesced
in her supposed son's absolute Ignorance of French. She
allowed the claimant £1000 a year, accepted his wife, a poor
illiterate girl, whom he had married in (^eensland,and handed
over to him the diaries and letters written by Roger Tichborne
from South America. From these documents the claimant
now carefully studied his part ; he learnl much, too, from Baigent
and from two carabinicrs of Roger's old regiment , whom he took
into his service. The villagers in Hampshire, a number of the
county families, and several of Tichborne's fellow officers in
the 6th Dragoons, became eager victims of the delusion. The
members of the Tichbome family in England, however, were
unanimous in declaring the claimant to be an impostor, and they
were soon put upon the track of discoveries which revealed that
Tom Castro, as the claimant had. been called in Australia, \vas
TICINO
933
idcntfcal with Aithulr Orton (x834't898)> the soQ of a Wappiag
butcher, who had deserted a tailing vessel at Valpanuso in
1850, and had received much kindness at Melipilla in Chile
from a family named Castro, whose name he had subse-
quently elected to bear during his sojourn in Australia. It
was shown that the claimant, on arriving in England from
Sydney in x866, had first of sll directed his steps to Wapping
and inquired about the surviving members of his family. It
was discovered, too, that Roger Tichbome was never at Meli-
pilia, an assertion to which the claimant, transferring his own
adventures in South America to the account of the man whom
he impersonated, had committed himself in an affidavit. These
discoveries and the deaths of Lady Tichbome and Hopkins
were so discouraging that the " claimant " would gladly have
" retired " from the baronetage; but the pressure of his creditors,
to whom he owed vast sums, was importunate. A number of
" Tichbome bonds " to defray the expenses of litigation were
taken up by the dupes of the imposture, and an ejectment action
against the trustees of the Tichbome esUtes (to which the heir
was the xath baronet, Sir Henry Alfred Joseph Doughty-
Tichbome, then two years old) finally came before Chief
Justice Bovill and a special jury at the court of common pleas
on the nth of May 1871. During a trial that lasted over one
hundred days the claimant exhibited an ignorance, a cunning
and a bulldog tenacity in brazening out the discrepancies and
absurdities of his depositions, which have probably never been
surpassed in the history of crime. Over one hundred persons
swore to the claimant's identity, the majority of them-— and they
were drawn from every class— being evidently sincere in their
belief in his cause. It was not until Sir John Coleridge, in a
speech of unparalleled length, laid bare the whole conspiracy
from its inception, that the result ceased to be doubtful. The
evidence of the Tichbomes finally convinced the jury, who
declared that they wanted no further evidence, and on the 5th
of March 1872 Serjeant Ballantine, who led for the claimant,
elected to be non-suited. Orton was immediately arrested on
a charge of perjury and was brought to trial at bar before Chief
Justice Cockburn in 1 873. The defendant showed his old quali-
ties of impudence and endurance, but the indiscretion of his
counsel, Edward Kcncaly, the testimony of his former sweet-
heart, and Kcncaly's refusal to put the Orton sisters in the box,
proved conclusive to the jury, who, on the one hundred and
eighty-eighth day of the trial, after half-an-hour*s deliberation
found that the claimant was Arthur Orton. Found guilty of
perjury on two counts, he was sentenced on the 28th of February
1874 to fourteen years' penal servitude. The cost of the two
trials was estimated at something not far short of £200,000,
and of this the Tichbome csutes were mulcted of fully £90,000.
The claimant's better-class supporters had deserted him before
the second trial, but the people who had subscribed for his
defence were stanch, while the populace were convinced thai
he was a persecuted man, and that the Jesuits were at the
bottom of a deep-laid plot for keeping him out of his own.
There were symptoms of a riot in London in April 1875, when
parliament unanimously rejected a motion (by Kenealy) for
referring the Tichbome case to a .royal commission, and the
military had to be held in readiness. But the agitation
subsided, and when Orton emerged from gaol in 1884 the fickle
public took no interest in him. The sensation of ten years
earlier could not be galvanixed into fresh life either by his
lectures or his alternate confessions of imposture and rdtera-
lions of innocence, and Orton sank into poverty and oblivion,
dying In obscure lodgings in Marylebone on the 2nd of
April 1898. ^ . ,JT'^;K
TICINO (Ger. Tessin, anc. Ticinus), a nver of Switzerland
and north Italy, which gives its name to the Swiss canton of
Ticino {.q.v.)t and gave it in classical limes to the town of Tidnum
(Pavia). It rises at the foot of the Cries Pass to the west of
Airolo; from Airolo to the Lago Maggiore its valley bears the
name of Val Leventlna, and is followed as far as Beiliniona
by the St Gotthard road and railway. It flows through Lago
Maggiore, leaving it at iu south end at Sesto Calende, and thence
flows S.S.B. Into the Po, which it joins a little way south of
Pavia.
TICINO (Fr. and Ger. Teisin), a canton of Switzerland, the
only one situated almost wholly on the southern slope of the Alps
and inhabited by a population of which the majority is Italian-
speaking. It takes iu name from the Ticino river, the whole
upper coune of which (the Val Leventina, with its side glen of
Val Blenio, the so-called Riviera, extending from Biasca to near
Bellinzona,andthebit beyond Bellinzona), till it swells into the
Lago Maggiore, is within the canton. Not far from the head
of the Lago Maggiore the lake is increased by the Maggia tor-
rent which is formed by the unton of the torrents descending
from the mountain g^ens known as the valleys of Locarno,
save the Val Vcrzasca, the stream from which falls into the
lake without joining the Maggia. The third portion of the
canton is that called Monte Cenere, including the hilly region
between Bellinzona on the Ticino and Lugano, together with
most of the lake of that name, and stretching on the south a*
far as Mendrisio, not far from Como. These three districts
were all formerly part of the duchy of Milan till conquered by
the Swiss, and in X803 were joined together to form a Swiss
canton of the most artificial kind (Campione, opposite Lugano,
is still an lulian '* enclave "). Iu total area is io8i*i sq. m.,
of which 72 1 '9 sq. m. are reckoned as " productive " (forests
covering 267*2 sq. m. and vineyards 19-9 sq. m.), while of the
rest part is taken up by the Lake of Lugano (the Swiss share of
which is 7I sq. m.), and those of the Lago Msggiore (Swiss share
i6i sq. m.), and by 13! sq. m. of glaciers. - In point of size the
canton is surpassed by only four other cantons (Bern, the Orisons,
the Valais, and Vaud), while only Vaud can boast of a larger
vine-growing district. The highest poinU in the canton are
two of the loftiest summiu of the two halves of the Lepontine
Alps— the Basodino (10,749 ft.) and the Rheinwaldhora or
Piz Valrhein (11.149 ft-) in the Adula Alps. Save the Tidno
valley between Biasca, Bellinzona and Locarno, and the en-
virons of Lugano, the canton is principally composed of hills
and mountains, and is therefore poor from the material point
of view, though rich in fine scenery.
The canton is travened from end to end, from Airolo at the southcra
mouth of the St Gotthard tunnel to beyond Mendrisio (about 74 m.),
by the main line of the St Gotthard railway, many of the marvcllout
engineering triumphs of which occur between Airolo and Bia«ca.
From Bellinzona there is a short branch railway to Locarno (14 m.),
whence another runs up to Bignaaco (i?} m.), while from Lugano
there is a mountain line up the Monte S. Salvatore (3004 ft.), and
from Capobgo another siniilar line up the Monte Generooo (5591 ft.,
that summit being just on the poUtkal frontier). Till 1859 the can-
ton was l^Uy included in the Italian dioccMS of Milan (the portion
north of Bellinzona, the Val Leventina and the Val Blemo therefore
still using the andent " Arabrosian Liturgy ") and of Como (the
rest of the canton). In that year the Swiss Confederation abolished
this fore^a jurimliction, but practically the two bishops named
had charge of these districts till in 1888 the purdy Swiss diocese
of Lugano was set up. being now joined to that 01 Basel, and governed
by an administrator apostolic. In 1900 the population of the canton
was 138,638. of whom I34>774 ^»^re Italian-speaking. 3180 German-
speaking and 403 French-speaking, while 135.828 were Romanifita,
2ao9 Protestants and 18 Jews. Of the German-spoakiog inbaU-
Unts 260 belonged to the hamlet of Boaco or Gurin, situated
at the head of one of the side glens of the Val Maggia. and
colonized before 1253 from the ndghbouring Tosa or Pommat valley
(now politically Italian), which is inhabited by German-speaking
emigrants from the canton of the Valais. In 1900 there were in
the canton 75.731 women to 62,907 men, the men being in the habit
of emigrating m search of work. Up to 1881 Bellinzona. Locarno
and Lugano were aUematefy the political capital, each for six years,
but since i88t Bellinzona is the permanent capital. Yet it u but
the second town in size, bdng MirpMscd by Lugano («.».). while
after it come Locarno («.».) and Mcndnsio (3338 mhabitants).
Being practically Italian, though now " Italun Switzerland, the
canton has produced many sculptors, naintera and architects. But
its industrial devctopment is backward, though the opening of the
St Gotthard nilway haa attracted many foreign travellers. Vet
the male popuUtion Urgely migrate in search of work and wages
as coffee-house keepers (such as Dehnonico, of New York), waiter*
in caf6». masons, plasterers, labourers, nawies^c. Fruit, chestnuts
and wine are aroong the prindpal exports. The canton is divided
into 8 ndmintstmtive districts, which comprise, 265 commuoet.
The cantonal constitution is still that of 1830. which, however, has
been almost mended out of sight owing to the pofitical struggles
(
936
TICKNOR, G.— TICKS
licking b used for mitUtsses, awniocft and tents. In sooie
qualities it is also used as a foundation for embroidery.
White, grey, or brownish warp threads are usually flax, while
the coloured threads are often cotton. The weft is 6ax or tow.
The warps of many of the cheaper kinds are made entirely of cotton,
and jute is used tor weft in the cheapest grades. A feather tick
should be made of fine flax yams set closdy, and there should also
be a laree number of weft threads per incL Sometimes the tnstde
of the tick is waxed in order to prevent the feathers from working
out.
The structure of the fabric'is termed a twin, of which four varieties,
each showing four units, are illustrated. Fig. i, the ordinary three-
leaf twill, is more extensively used than any other. Oocaaionally
Fto.t.
Ftca.
the pattern or twin b in one direction only, but more often the
direction is reversed at interv'ab, thus producing what is tcchnacally
termed a " hcrring-booe " or an *' arrow-head twill. Fig. 3 com-
plete on twenty-four threads and three picks shows such a pattern,
where the twitl is reversed c>-cry twchx threads. Figs. 3 and 4 axe
Fig. 4.
Fic. 5.
Fic. 3.
the foor>thrvad and five4hread straight twills respectively, while
fiq;. 5 is the hvr-thrcad sateen twill. These two latter weaves require
a great number of threads and pkks per inch, and are used only
in the finest ticks. The pUin wca\T is occasionaUy used for dwaper
varieties.
Mattress ticks and awninp are wtives with the same twills, but
the cokMfins ol these, especially ol the former, is more dabonlCb
TICKMOR* QIOftQB (i7qx*i$7i), American educator and
author, was bora in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 1st of August
1701. He received his early education from his father, Elisha
Ticknor (175^-1821). who had been principal of the Franklin
public school and was a founder of the Massachusetts Mutual
Fire Insurance Company, of the system of free primary schools
in Boston, and of the first New England savings bank. In
1S05 the son entered the junior class at Dartmouth, where he
graduated in 1S07. During the next three years he studied
Latin aiMl GreA with Rc%\ Dr John S>'h-esteT GanliDer, rector
of Triiuty. Boston, and a pupil of Dr Samnd Parr. In iSio
Ttckikor be^an the study of law, awl be was admitted to the
bar in 1S13. He opened an of!xe in Boston, but practised
for only <»e jTar. He went to Europe in 1S15 aisd for nearly
two years studed at the uni^-etaty of GdtticjetL In 1S17 he
b<v-ap^ Smith piv^fessor of French and Spanish hnsnases and
h:eratuncs U ch^r founded in i$i6V and professor oC beOes-
k;;r» at Harvard, and be^n hzs work of teachi:^ in iSiq after
tr»\-v4 and stuv^y in Franoe, S^[«ain and PortusxL Dtrring fas
p:o!>5Sor«h'p Ticknor a\!\>x:ated the crcarion of departEccctSs
th<> |:TV»urir^ of stcJents in di>-TS3oas acccrfing to pc^^dency.
ar.d the cstaM^^itr-wst of the electi\^ systetts. and reocsxsiaed
h^i en-a vSe{\x7t»r£t. In 1S55 he u si ga e d his chair,
ia whvN be w:» soccecded in iS?^ by Professor H. W.
Lor«^:HJow; and he was apaza in Etjope in i5;5>-iS3SL After
►^ return he Jewved b'^rsirf! to the chVf work of his life, tbe
h <tocy aad critkrsa of Spar^jh literature, in aunr les p ec ts a
Bx*w 5;;b5ect at that tirae" even ia Europe, there bear^ 00 adequate
treat ascot of the Kterat^rr as a w^-vc ia Spanish, aad Kxh
Bocterwek and Sis2a*^adi ^\->? worked with sorty cr srcoc^d-
W:>d lescoKTS^ TWkssr dere^oped in h» coDe^e kctuirs tSe
sciwvBir ol tes snoee per=sar«est w«ck. w^xh he pcSfefaed as 1^
Hsslwnr 4/ 5f«Wsil lin-tN^ vXew York aad Lceijoe, j irols.,
t&foV TW boe4 is not actely a story <£ Spazssh kttos. bet.
BMe bcoftdly. ul S^pansfa cK^SisatMa aad Baeaers. TVr Ht.-c.-r7
is C3dha«st^i« aad vcMt in sthUa i sM qpv. and Srect asd uzrre^
R ^jtves saBy vustratnpe pnssagcs Cic^
It was soon transbted into Spanish (1851-1857) by dc Gayangoa
and de Vedia; French (1864-1872), a poor version by Magnabal;
and German (1852-1867), by N. H. Julius and Ferdinand Wolf.
The second American edition appeared in 1854; the third
corrected and enlarged, in 1863; the fourth, containing the
author's last revision, in 187a, under the supervision of Georse
S. Hillard; auid the sixth in 1888. Ticknor had succeeded his
father as a member of the Primary School Board in 1822, and
held this position until 1825; he was a trustee of the Boston
Atheneum in 1823-1832, and was vice-presidoit in 1833; acd
he was a director (1827-1835) and vice-president (1841-1&62)
of the Massachusetts Hospital Life Insurance Company, and a
trustee of the Massachusetts General Hospital (1826-18:3;
and of the Boston Provident Institution for Saving (x^iS-
1850). the bank that his father had helped to found. He u is
espedaOy active in the establishment of the Boston Pull'c
library (1852), and ser\'ed in 1S52-1866 on its board of trustees,
of which he was president in 1S65. In its behalf he spent 6ftet.3
months abroad in 1856-1857, at his own expense, and to it he
gave at various times money and books; a special feature of Lis
plan was a free circulating department. He left to the Ubn^-
his own collection, which was particularly strong in Spanish ar d
Portuguese literatures. He died in Boston 00 the s6ih of
January 1871.
Tkknor*s minor works indude. besides oocasSonal revi e w a» asd
papers, Sytiainu of a Coterse of Lectves on Ike History end CrUu: 5«<
of Spauisk LUrrature (1S23): OiUiine of Uie Primcipal Esnls :« :%c
Life of Geiurcl Lafayette (1825) : Remarks on. Ckaajta LaUiy Pr-f>::f£
or Adopted in Harvard Unioersity (1825); Tke JCratcsai of .Y-
AppUtom Harenrwitk « Memioir of his Life (i&
- ,, . {1^)1 Ramaris am :k€
Life OMd Writing^s of DaniH Webster (1831); Lutmra am ike F<^
Methods of TeatkiH^ the Liring Langmages, delivered, in 1832. Y*. • rre
the Amcncan Institute of Education; aad the Life of Wu^am
HicUiut PrtseoU (1864).
See Ufe, Letters amd Jomrmals of Ceerfe Tictmor (2 vols.. ih''=>\
by Geor^ S. HlUard and Mrs Anna (Eliot) Tackaor asd M ^
Anna Ebot Ticknor. This book m-as edited, with a crxtkal iaxzo-
duc thw > in I9^> by Ferris Gcee&slct.
TICKS* the common name for Aradinida iq^.) l>»^»i g i i -^ to
the order Acaxi, <^ which they constitute the two **^ "^^
' Ixodidae and Argasidar Coilecti\-e!ytbeIxodk!2eaadAi^:£.-^
may be dzstinguisbed from other Acari by the presesce cf a
median probe, armed with recurved terib, whkb project fcr« iris
beneath the mouth and between the paipi. acd of a cocs7-:_-.:>a
spiracuhx area above and iscallybehirx! tbc basecf li>e fcsrJi
leg 00 each side. As compared with the laxjccity cf \iz^^
licks are of large siie, d^esdcd female speci-sesss of scire c:
the species measuring half an Lach cr nxre ia Vry^ -Ix
c\'en the newly hatched young can barvily be rry: ricd as el .-ry-
scoprcaL The iategunieat is toag*i. katLay cr bcrsy. Z^£
mouih parts cocssst of two s=i3 retractile ^--j*"'^^^ of a, r:-r
of short palpi aad of the tooihed probe abcre anestiaDed. Tbe
palpi and probe or h\-pcstc=e are attached to a irr-r- ^
sd«ite or hcmy plite czHa! the czr»* — ^^^^s- "Hsc caf..t J .—
wi:h its associated structures, is sc=:e:ir-«s ca!lrd tht iTte*r-r-
wbereas someiir-es the term rottr_r= is restricted to tie ^•.- -
stcsre alooe. It is by ceiss el the k>T>ostrc3e tial iScks 7 .-— «
the iategursent and £r=Iy aih<Te to i!se bcsc wbcee LS»>* * r 7
suck for food. The two far^^ AirxsAs^ tsd Iisciiir —- .
be «&ti=g:ssfaed as fellows. I2 tie Argi.sadsr tke art:.- r
portkn of the dcr^ scziace of the bc«iy is ettcatfed 5cr«t.r^
abore the apft:Jua. so l*at t^% strarnBe is cneicea^d ^.rr
above; the •=:te5c=ent is fiirhr z±^cr=!>r ^ar^iStr cr conscc: ::<
abcre aad beJow; tie pahx are s^rie aad —iicitLaed: iVe-r a
! i» SQcker beneath tie <iLws !a the afri, aai t^bere is <-r t 1
, $5^ stractzra! <E£erence b e f tea tie snssL fa tke bR«r^ i?
tie capi:^^= is not c% et!i;ced by a f^-riri ecesace c^ 'rt
dersi! area, wikh is sacnci aad s--> c= 1 ^fstsa ertier = r-, ~ :
cr a3 orer: tVe pa??i are tt5=a!*y rsnljir:! tias is ^o sav *>•-
seccoj a»! tifri sesjzeacs are esaal-r e ac^tas ed s-te:
fera a sheath Sor tie i i g »t. e^c < K < : tie-* s
beseaih tie cinss aad tie vi^TtitiBct Ut»au tSr i
■orked. the caks havs« tV dccsal aeefvaeaa th .ci. -: a^i
TICONDEROGA
937
portion bears a chhiiious plate, the rest of the integument being
soft to admit of its distension by the blood which is imbibed in
quantity by members of this sex. For a longer or shorter
period of their lives ticks are parasitic upon vertebrate animals
of various kinds; but «kho4igh the belief that the bite of certain
Tropical species is poisonous has long been held by the natives
of the countries they infest and has been recorded with
corroborative evidence by European authors in books of travel,
it is only of recent years that accurate information has been
acquired of the part played by these Arachnids in transmitting
from one host to another protozoal blood-parasites which cause
serious or fatal diseases to man and other animals.
Both the Argasidae and Ixodidae contain pathogenic species, of
which the best known are the followine: Ornilhodoros monbata,
belonging to the Argasidae. and called bibo in Uganda, monbata in
Angoh, and tampan on the Zambezi, is widely distributed in tropical
Afnca from Uganda in the north to the Transvaal in the south. It
was first recorded as poisonous by Livingstone and is now known
to be the carrier of the Spirochaetc of relapsing fever in man,
known as tick fever. Although Europeans suiter from this disease
far more severely than negroes, death seldom follows. The tick
especially infests old huu and camping grounds and is nocturnal
in habit, spending the day hidden in crevices of the walls or floor
and coming out at night to feed upon the sleeping inmates. An allied
species. O. turicata, occurs in Mexico and Texas, where it causes
considerable destruction amongst poultry and is a pest to mankind
as well. A similar bad repute attaches to other species in different
parts of South America; while Argas miniatus has been proved to
be the carrier of the Spirochaete causing spirillosis in fowls in Rio
Janeiro, and also in New South Wales whither it has been introduced
with imported poultry. Argas perncus has been introduced in
the same wav into South Africa from Europe. As its name indicates
it was first discovered in Persia, where the belief in the venomous
nature of its bite to human beings is both widespread and historical.
It is singular that the Argasidae, which are for the most part parasitic
upon birds, contain the only species of ticks, especially O. monbata,
wnicA are known to be seriously harmful to mankmd; whereas
amongst the Ixodidae no human pathogenic species has been ascer-
tained to exist, although several forms have been proved to be highly
destructive to domestic mammals of different species. The most
important of these are the following: Dermacentor rHietdiUus^ a
species widely distributed in Europe, Asia and America, infects
dogs in Europe with the Hacmatozoon causing the disease known as
" biliary fever," and has been asserted to be answerable for the
wO'CalM spotted or tick fever in man in the Rocky Mountains.
The same canine disease results in South Africa from the t>ite of
Haemapkjsalis Uacki. A mblyomma hebracum, the bont or variegated
tick of the Cape Colonrsts, infects sheep with the Sporozoon causing
" heart-water sickness, and in Europe sheep arc inoculated with
the same disease bv another tick. Rkipieephalus bursa. The so-
called " coast fever in cattle in South Afnca is conveyed by two
distinct species of the genus Rhipicephalus, namely by R. abpenduu-
lotus and R. simus, which are locally known respectively as the
" brown tick " and the " black-pitted tick." Finally Margaropus
annulatms, of which there are several jgeographical races, is the
carrier of the germ causing the destructive cattle-disease variously
known as " Texas " or '* red water " fever in America. South Africa
and Australia. In the United States alone the annual pecuniary
loss in cattle stock occasioned by the ravages of this tick disease
was computed in 1907 at one hundred million dollars. With one
or two possible exceptions, like Argas vespertilonts, which has only
been obtained from European bats, no species of tick is known to
be confined to a particular host. The common sheep-tick (Ixodes
virinus) of England, for example, infects cattle and dogs as well as
sheep; and the pathogenetic Ixodidae above mentioned occur
parasitically upon other mammals than those to which they convey
the diseases specified. Reptiles are infested as well as mammals,
and it is no uncommon thing to find specimens of Ixodidae of various
kinds adherent to tortoises, snakes and lizards. Ticks belonging
to the Ixodidae differ to a certain extent in their life-histories.
Mature males and females are found together upon the same host.
Fertilization is effected by the male transferring spermatophores
into the genital orifice of the female by means of bis proboscis. The
gorged and fertilized female quits her hold of the host, and falling
to tnc ground, proceeds after a short delay to lay her eggs in some
»heltered spot. The number of eggs laid is enormous, one computa-
tion putting it at twenty thousand. After oviposition. which may
extend over several weeks, the fenule dies. The newly-hatched
young has only three pairs of legs and is without spiracular and
geniul orifices. These young, or larvae as they are called, after the
integument has hardened by exposure to the air, climb up the stalks
of grain or herbage and cling with outstretched legs waiting for
passing animals. They seize hold of the first that brushes by. and
crawling to a suiuble place become engorged with blood. After
about a week's feeding they drop to the ground! lie dormant for
a month, during which time they acquire their fourth pair of legs
and spiracles, and, moulting, emerge from their old skin as nym^s.
Nymphs repeat the behaviour of the brvac. and finally moult into
the adult, showing the generative orifice, which is the mark of
maturity. The adult secures a host in the same way as the young.
Both sexes feed upon bkx>d; whereas the male alters but little in
appearance, the female becomes enormously distended.
From the foregoing epitome which applies to many species,
RhipUepkalus abpendtcuiatus for example, it is evident that every
individual tick has to find a ' '
larva, nymph and adult.
host on three occasions, namely, as
In R. bursa, however, the moult that
Fig. t . —Hyalotnma aegyptium Savigny. Undistended female.
a Rostrum or hypostome; b, b. Palpi; c, Capitulum;/, Abdomen.
Fig. 2. — The same: under side.
a, Rostrum or hypostome; b, b, Palpi; c. Genital aperture; i. Anal
orifice; e, e. Ventral suriace of capitulum; g, Sternum; 1-7, seg-
ments of leg.
transforms the larva into the nymph takes place on the host, and
in Margaropus annuhlus the transformation of larva into nymph
and nymph into adult is effected without the temporary sojourn
on the ground. Another species. Hyalomma aegyptium, the so-called
camel-tick of Egypt and Arabia, is alleged to be parasitic only in
its mature stage. Again, in OmUhodcrus monbata, which is parasitic
apparently omy at night, the young does not hatch from the egg
until it has attained the nymphal stage.
It is an interesting and important fact that the newly hatched
young of certain species, Margaropus amtulalus for instance, before
It has fed, if produced by a fenule carrying the germs of spirillosis,
can infect healthy organisms with the disease. From this it is
evident that the Spirochaetes pass directly from the mother tick
to her offspring. , .^ .
Duration of life in ticks depends upon the conditions of their
existence. Under favourable conditions, when food is obtainable,
growth is rapid, the time from the hatching of the young until it
reaches maturity and dies after oviposition being, for example,
about eleven weeks in R. appendifulalus and only about three weeks
in M. annulatus. On the other hand, when food is not obtainable,
life may be indefinitely prolonged if the tick be guarded from enemies
and from atmospheric conditions inimical to existence' Examples
of Ixodes vicinis have been kept for two years and three months with-
out feeding, and specimens of Argas persicus were still alive after
four years starvation. (R. 1. P.)
TICOMDEBOOA. a vUlage in the township of Ticonderoga.
Essex county, New York, U.S.A., on the outlet of Lake George,
100 m. by rail N. by E. of Albany. Pop. (iSgo), 2267: (1900),
iQi I ; (1905), 1749; (1910). 2475- Ticonderoga is served by the
Delaware 2( Hudson and the Rutland railways- Th« water
(
(
936
TICKNOR, G.— T^
Ticking Is used (or mittresscs, awnings and tents. In some
qualities it is also used as a foundation for embroidery.
White, grey, or brownish warp threads are usually flax, while
the coloured threads are often cotton. The weft is flax or tow.
The warps of many of the cheaper kinds are made entirely of cotton,
and jute is used lor weft in the cheapest grades. A feather tick
•houfd be made of fine flax yarns set closely, and there should also
Inb a large number of weft threads per inch. Sometimes the inside
of the tick is waxed in order to prevent the feathers from working
out.
The structure of the fabric • is termed a twill , of which four varieties,
«och showing four uniu, are illustrated. Fig. i, the ordinary three-
leaf twill, is more extensively used than any other. Occasionally
It was R>^
andde^ X'^
and G' '-^
The . •-
corn
aut
S.
f
es are tabulated according to the hour
the moon will cross the meridian at the
Hstingnishing between the visible and
•n simple corrections have also to be
'egree of elaboration has to be given
t may give accurate results, and it
n to a dozen pages of a book, its
the degree of accuracy aimed at.
tes to extract a prediction from
table. There are many ports
nee where, neverthele^, it
:x the great and rq>eated
FtCi.
Fl0.a.
the pattern or twill is in one direction onl^r, but more t
direction is reversed at intervals, thus producing what is t» \ *^
termed a " herring-bone " or an ** arrow-head twill. ^ ^
plcie on twenty-four threads and three picks shows sue'
where the twill is reversed every twelve threads. Fig*
Fio. 3. Fig. 4.
the four-thread and five-thread straight tw'
6g. 5 is the five-thread sateen twill. These t
a great number of threads and picks per
In the finest ticks. The plain «'eave is occ
varieties.
MattnMs ticks and awnings are wove
the cok>uring of these, especially of the
TICKNOR. QBORGB (1791-187'
author, was bom in Boston, Mass?'
i7Qf . He received his eariy edu*
TIcknor (1757-1821), who had
public school and was a fount*
Fire Insurance Company, of ♦
in Boston, and of the first
1805 the son entered the ]
graduated in 1807. Dur
Latin and Greek with Ri
of Trinity, Boston, ant*
Ticknor began the stt>
bar in 1813. He 01
for only one year. '
two years studed r
became Smith pr
literatures (a di
lettrcs at Harvs
travel and stti
professorship .,%
I
rig of the civil year 1884 to the midnight, ending Jan. 14, Zeroef
io 12^ Jan. 14. 1884. astronomical time. * Cmigt
of Sir John
. t ;ncnt on the
...,.l since that time
. a branch of science.
^ ^'!it of the water at the
t \>f the day, but such a
,.; s; it is therefore usual to
. * A.id heights of high-^-ater and
;y^ kind of tide-table contains
,^^ vrf a definite year, and we naay
sl,l ^Mw«g*» t*»* **^*« » o"*y "**<**
, ^ i« ^en passible to give fairly
lL),K^«ng ports by the application
''^^ ' ^ M. Special tide-tables
wtant
easa
rrence
idian.
^finite
Eeit is
w the
lalkm
-Ubk
■n this
(thods
7s4rs.
But
usua::y
expenditure involved in the publication of special ublcs.
this kind of elaborate general table has been used in few i
and the information furnished to mariners usually consists
either of a full prediction for every day of a future year, or oi
a meagre statement as to the average rise and interval^ which
must generally be almost useless.
The success of tidal predictions varies much according to the
place of observation. In stormy regions the errors are
often considerable, and the utmost that can be expected
of a tide-table is that it shall be correct wiih a steady
barometer and in calm weather. But such conditions
are practically non-existent, and therefore errors are
inevitable.
Notwithstanding these pertuHjatkms. tide-tables are
of surprising accuracy e\^en in northern latitudes: this may be seen
from the foUouiog uble showing the results ol com- _ ^
parison between predktion and actuality at Portsmouth. y*** T
The importance of the errors in hnght depends. of^~ "'^i
course, on the range of the tide: it b »^ therefore, to
note that the average raises of the tide at springs and ocaps are
IJ ft- O in. and 7 ft. 9 in. respecti\^ly.
Prediction at such a place as f\>rtsmouth b diJEcnh. on acccu-t
of the instability of the weather, but. on the other hand, the ttc^
in themsdxrs are remarkably simple in character. Let
us now turn to such a port as Aden, whete the weather ^^T^
b very uniform, but the tides xtt)- complex on account XSs
of the large diurtul inequality, which frequently
obliterates one of two successi\-e high-waters. The short serifs -4
comparisons b et w txn actualit>- and pcedKtion which we gi\-e tir*.:;^
may be taken as a lair example of «hat would bold good v hen a
k>ng series b examiited. The results refer to the intervals lorh '
March to the 9th of .\pril and the wth of Nox^embcr to the- 1 2i> ■
December 18S4. In these two prrr^ds there should ha\^ be^n t '■'*
lugh waters, but the tide^augv laDfd to register on ooe cccav r
Tidal Prediction.** quoted abofve. This kind cf t^b^
has brrn apfilied «-ith some sucrrss at Cairns m North (^ice-.'-.ataad.
where there b a large diurval inequality.
TIDE
9f>
wtfuftoatcamptriMMklott. WetkiMhaw ii/ca^
but on one ocjcaaion the diunud inequality oblilereted a hkh-water.
leaving f t6 actual compariaont. Tne maximum range of the tide
at Adm tea ft 6 in., and tbit KTVM to give a itaadard of importance
lor the tnon in iMight.
TatU ^ Errors in the Prtdklion 9f ffigi-WaUr at Portsmouth in
the months of Janmary, May and September 1897
Time.
Height. !
<eof Number of
Cases.
Magnitude of
Error
Number of
Cam.
69
50
as
Inches,
oto 6
7 to 13
13 to 18
19 to 34
SI
-
177
gk- Water at Aden is March-
December 1884.
' 20"
to 25"
and38»
33- and 36-
c^p^aod 57*
N^bigh water.
35
19
19
5
117
HcighL
Manitudec
Error.
Inches.
o
I
a
3
*N6hig2
NusBberol
Cases.
I
It
"7
It wDold be natural to think that when a prediction b erroneous
by as much as fifty-seven minutes it n a very bad one, but such a
conclusion may be unjust. There was one case in which the high-
water was conipletely obliterated by the diurnal faiecniaKty, bat there
were many others in which there was nearly complete «>Uieretioo.
so that the water stood nearly sc^nant for several hours. A measure
of the degree of stagnation is afforded by the amount of rise from
low to high-water. Now, on examinxng all the eleven cases where
the error of time was equal to or over twenty minutes, we find fiw
cases in which the range from low to high-water was las than 8 in.,
and these include the enora of fift^-six and of fifty-seven minutes.
There IS one case of a rise of ia in. with an error of thirty-six minutes;
one case of a rise of 17 in. with an error of twenty-two minutes, one
of 19 in rise with tharty-thiee minutes error The remaining three
cases have rises of a ft. 10 in.. 3 ft. 9 in.. 3 ft. 1 1 in., and enors of
twenty-two, twenty-three, twenty minutes. Thus all the very
Urge erron of time correspond with approximate stagnation, and
are unimportant. It is fair to conclude, therefore, that the predic-
tions as to time are very good The predictions as to height are
obvioudy good, for more than half were within I in., and only eleven
ksd an error of as much as 4 in.
When It is considered that the incessant variability of the tidal
forces, the complex outlines of the coast, the depth of the sea, the
earth's rotation and the perturbations by meteortrfogical influences
are all iavolvBd. it should be admitted that the success of tidal
predictaott is remarkable. If further evidence were needed, we
might appeal to tidal predictioa as a convincing proof of the truth
of the theory of gravitation.
( 5 General Explanation of tha Comu 0/ ftilM.—The moon
atuacta every particle of the earth and octan, and by the law of
gravitation the force acting on any particle is direaed
' towmrda the moon** centre, and is jointly proportional
to the masses of the particle and of the moon, and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the
partide and the moon's centre. II we imagine the earth and
ocean subdivided into a number of small portions or particles
of cqiBl mass, then the averafe. both as to direction and intensity
of the forces acting on these particles is equal to the force acting
on that particle which is at the ciith's ccatft. For there is
XXVI 16
syflunctiy about the line Joblae tko oentres of the two bodies;
and, if we divide the earth into two portions by an ideal sphericil
surface passing through the earth's cenue and having its centre
at the moon, the portion remou from the moon is a UtUe laigcr
than the portion towards the moon, but the nearer portion is
under the action of forces which are a little stronger than those
acting on the farther portion, and the resultant of the weaker
forces on the huger portion is exactly equal to tbe resulunt of the
stronger forces on the smaller. If every particle of the earth and
ocean were being urged by equal and parallel forces there would
be no cause for relative motion between the ocean and the earth.
Hence it is the departure of the force acting on any particle from
the average which constitutes the tide-generating force. Now
it is obvious that on the side of the earth towards the moon the
departure frooi the average is a small force directed towards the
moon, and on the side of the earth away from the moon the depar-
ture is a small force direaed away from the moon. Also these
two departures are very nearly equal to one another, that on
the near side being so little greater than that on the other that
ve may neglect the excess. All round the sides of the earth along
a great drde perpendicular to the line joining the moon and earth
the departure Is a force directed inwards- towards the earth's
centre. Thus we see that the tidal forces tend to pull the water
towards and away from the moon, and to dq>reas the water at
tight angles to that direction*
^^^-^TTn.
F^G. 3.— Tide-generating Force.
In fig, 3 this explanation is iUustrated graphically. The
relative magnitudes of the tidal forces are given by the numbers
on the figure. M is the direction of the moon, V the centre
of the hemisphere of the earth at which the man in the moon
would look, I the centre of the hemisphere which would be
invisible to him, DD are the sides of the earth where the tidal
force is directed towards the earth*s centre. The outward
forces at V and I are exactly double the inward forces at D
andD.
If it were permissible to neglect the earth's rotation and to
consider the system as at rest, we should find that the water
was in equilibrium when elongated into a prolate ellipsoidal or
oval form with its longest axis directed towards and away from
the moon.
But it must not be assumed that thn would be the case when
there is motion. For, suppose that the ocean consisted of a
canal round the equator, and that an earthquake j^^f^ ^
or any other cause were to generate a great wave in B q mMt m W
the canal, this wave would travel along it with CmmMom
a velocity dependent on the depth. If the canal ^"^^
were about 13 miles deep the velocity of the wave would be
about 1000 miles an hour, and with depth about equal to the
depth of our seas the velocity of the wave would be about half
as great. We may conceive the moon's tide-gencBsting force
ss making a wave in the canal and continually outstiipping
the wave it generates, for the moon travels along the eqnator
at the rate of about 1000 miles an hour, and the sea is less thaft
13 miles deep. The resultant oscillation of the ocean must
therefore be the summation of a serie* ves
generated at each instant by the moo
behind her, and the aggregate wave, b
(
942
TIDE
loiunt, must trtvd tooo n. aa hoar so u to keep up whb
Che tnoon.
Now it is a general law of frictionfess oscillation that, if a
slowly vaxying periodic force acts on a system which would
oscillate quickly if left to itself, the maximum excursion on one
side of the equilibrium position occurs simultaneously with the
maximum force in the direction of the excursion; but, if a
quickly varying periodic force acts oq a system which would
oscillate slowly if left to itself, the maximum excursion on one
side of the equilibrium position occurs simultaneously with the
maximum force in the direction opposite to that of the excursion.
An example of the first is a ball hanging by a short string, which
we push slowly to and fro; the ball will never quit contact with
the hand, and will agree with its excursions. If, however, the
ball is hanging by a long string we can play at battledore and
shuttlecock with it, and it always meets our blows. The latter
is the anak>gue of the tides, for a free wave in our shallow canal
goes slowly, whilst the moon's tide-generating
ja^t^^ action goes quickly. Hence when the system, is left
to settle into steady oscillation it is low-water under
and opposite to the moon, whilst the forces are such as to tend
to make high-water at those times.
If in this case we consider the moon as revolving round the
earth, the water assumes nearly the shape of an oblate spheroid
or orange-shaped body with the shortest axis pointed to the
moon. The rotation of the earth in the actual case introduces a
complexity which it is not easy to unravel by general reasoning.
We can see, however, that if water moves from a lower to a
higher latitude it arrives at the higher latitude with more velocity
from west to east than is appropriate to its latitude, and it will
move accordingly on the earth's surface. Following out this
conception, we see that an oscillation of the water to and fro
between south and north must be accompanied by an eddy.
The solution of the difficult problem involved in working out
this idea will be given below.
The conclusion at which we have arrived about the tides of
an equatorial canal is probably more nearly true of the tides of
a globe partially covered with land than if we were to suppose
the ocean at each moment to assume the prolate figure of equili-
brium. In fact, observation shows that it is more nearly low-
water than high-water when the moon is on the meridian. If we
consider how the oscillation of the water would appear to an
observer carried round with the earth, we see that be will have
low-water twice in the lunar day, somewhere about the time
when the moon is on the meridian, either above or bek>w the
horizon, and high-water half-way between the low waters.
If the sun be now introduced we have another similar tide of
about half the height, and this depends on solar time, giving
low-water somewhere about noon and midnight.
The superposition of the two, modified by friction
and by the interference of land, gives the actually
observed aggregate tide, and it is clear that about new and full
moon we must have spring tides and at quarter moons jieap
tides, and that (the sum of the lunar and solar tide-generating
forces being about three times their difiFerence) the range of
spring tide will be about three times that of neap tide.
So far we have supposed the luminaries to move on the
equator; now let us consider the case where the moon is not
on the equator. It is clear in this case that at any
yjjj!^*'' place the moon's zenith distance at the upper transit
is different from her nadir distance at the lower
transit. But the tide-generating force is greater the smaller the
Rnith or nadir distance, and therefore the forces are different
At swoeMive transits. This was not the case when the moon
wii ^Bened to move on the equator. Thus there is a tendency
lorlfMMpoeMlvt hl&ar tides to be of unequal heights, and the
" p of height is called a " diurnal tide." This
I the moon is on the equator; and as
L the lunar diurnal tide is evanescent
lly in summer and winter the successive
fi unequal height, whilst b spring. and
One of the most remarkable condtutoiis of tMflba^ thnrf
of the tides, on a i^obe covered with ocean to a imifonn depth,
is that the diurnal tide is everywhere non-existent. ni„n\9»t
But this hypothesis differs much from the teahty, ^oemm mi
and in fact at some ports* as for example Aden. Cf**^^ *
the diurnal tide is so large that during two portions '^'^'^
of each lunation there is only one great high-water and one
great low- water in each twenty-four hours, whilst in other
parts of the lunation the usual semi-diumal tide is observed.
f 6. Progress of the Tide-wave oner the OceaH and in the BniisA
Sou. — Sufficient tidal data would give the state of the tide
at every part of the world at the same instant of time, and if (h«
tide wave is a progressive one, like sudi wave as we may observe
travelling along a canal, we should be able to picture menialty
the motion of the tide-wave over the ocean and the successive
changes in the height of water at any one pbce. But we ate
not even sure that the wave is progressive, for in some oceans,
such as perhaps the Atlantic, the motion may be only a see-saw
about some line in mid-ocean^up on one side and down on the
other; or it may more probably be partly a progressive wa\*e
and partly a see-saw or stationaiy oscillation. In contracted
seas the wave n undoubtedly predominantly p r ogre ssi ve in
character, but too little is known to enable us ro speak with any
confidence as to wider seas.
Whewell and Airy, while acknowledging the unceftainty of
their data, made the attempt to exhibit graphically the progress
of the tide-wave over a large portion of the oceans of the
world. In the first edition of this article (Ency. Brit., 9th ed )
we reproduced their chart. But, since doubts as to its correct-
ness have gradnally accumulated, we think it more prudent to
refrain from reproducing it again.^
As we have already indicated, the tide in British seas has
mainly a progressive chaiactfr, and the general march of the
wave may be exhibited on a chart by what are called cotidal
lines. If at the full and change of moon we draw lines on the
sea through all the places which have high-water simuluoeously,
and if we mark such lines successively XII, I, II, &c., being
the Greenwich time of hig^-water along each line, we shaJI have
a succession of lines which show the progress of the wave from
hour to hour.
For phases of the .moon, other than full and chanse, the num-
bers may be taken to represent the interval in hours after \ht
moon's transit, either visible or invisible, until the occurrence
of high water. But for these other phases of the moon ibe
interval varies by as much as one hour in excess or defect of Use
number written on any ol the Knes. Thus when the nsoon a
about five days old, or five days past full, the numbers must aO
be reduced by about one hour so that I, II, III, &c. will then
be replaced by XII, I, II, &c; and when the nooon is about
ten days old, or ten days past full, the numbers must all be
augmented by about one hour, and will read 11, III. IV, &c.
However, for a rough comprehension of the tides in these seas
it is unnecessary to pay attention to this variation of the
intervals.
Airy in his " Tides and Waves '* gives such a chart for Great
Britain and the North Sea, and be attempts to complete the
cotidal lines conjectutally across the North Sea to Norway.
Denmark and the German coast. In this case, as in the more
ambitious attempt referred to above, further knowledge has
led to further doubt. We therefore give in fig. 3 Berghaus's
modification of Airy's Chart,' abandoning the attempt to draw
complete cotidal lines. In this chart we can watch, as it were,
the tide*wave running in from the Atlantic, passing op the
Bristol Channel and Irish Sea, travelling round the north of
Scotland and southward along the east coasts of Scotland and
England. Another branch comes up the Channel, and meets
the wave from the north off the Dutch coast. The Straits of
Dover are so narrow, however, that it may be doubted wlaethcr
* Portion of Airy's Chart (EncycL Mwtrof.^ art. "Tides aad
Waves ") u given in Darwin, Tiiu end Ktndnd Pkn^mam «•
the Soiar System.
" Berghaus's Pkysial AHas (1891). pt H., ". Hydrography.**
TIDE
943
the tides M the Batfitk oooU mmld be pniotsadkf awdifiBd
if the Stniu «exe oompletcly doeed.
It win be noticed that between Yannouthrand HoUand the cotidat
lines crow one another. Such an intcncction of lines is in geocsul
impossible; it b indeed only possible if there is a region in which
the water neither rises nor falls, because at such a place the cotidal
Kne ceases to have a definite meaning. A set of observations by
Captain Hewitt. R.N.. made In 1840. appears to prove the 4 *
of a region of this kind at the part of the chact referred tow
a^s Alias.)
Fig. 3.— Cotidal Lines in British Seas.
§ 7 HisUnical SktUk} — The writings of various Chinese,
Arabic and Icelandic authors show that some attention was paid
by them to the tides, but the several theories advanced are
fantastic. It is natural that the writings of the classical authon
of antiquity should contain but few references to the tides, for
the Greeks and Romans lived on the shores of an almost tide-
less sea. Nevertheless, Stnibo quotes from Posidonius^ dear
account of the tides on the Atlantic coast of Spam, and connects
the tides correctly with the motion of the moon. He also gives
the law of the tide in the Indian Ocean as observed by Seleucus
the Babylonian, and the passage shows that Seleucus had
unravelled the law which governs the diamal inequality of
the tide in that sea.
We shall not give any details as to the medieval speculations
on the tides, but pass on at once to Newtoo, who in 1687 laid
the foundation for all that has since been added to the theory
of the tides when he brought his grand generalization of universal
gravitation to bear on the subject. Johann Kepler had indeed
Ktfkr, at an^eariy date recognized the tendency of the water
of the ocean to move towards the centres of the
sun and moon, but he was unable to submit his theory to
calculation. Galileo expresses regret that to acute a man as
Kepler should have produced a Iheoiy which appeared to him
to reintroduce the occult qualities of the ancient philosophen.
His own explanation referred the phenomenon to the rotation
and orbital motion of the earth, and he considered that it
afforded a prindpal proof of the Copemican system.
In the 19th corollary of the 66th proposition of bk. i. of the
Prinapta, Sir Isaac Newton introduces the conception of a canal
f^^„^^ drding the earth, and be conaders the influence of
a satellite on the water in the canal. He remarks
that the movement of each molecule of fluid must be accderated
in the conjunction and opposition of the satellite with the
< The aas>ant from the time of Newton to that of Laplace is
fowMM on Upbce's Micmrifm cHe$k, bk. xiiL c^ i
mofaenle, thftt is to my «hta the BMleoile, the earth's oottre and
the satdlite are m a straight line, and reurded in the quadra*
tures, that is to say when the Hne joining the molecule and the
earth's centre is at right angles to the line joining the earth's
centre and the satellite. Accordingly the fluid must nndergo
a tidal osdllation. It is, however, in propositions 46 and 17 of
bk. iii. that he first determines the tidal force due to the sun
and moon. The sea is here s^ppofeed to cover the whole earth
and to assume at each instant a figure of equitibrinm, and the
tide-generating bodies are supposed to move in the equator.
Considering only the action of the sun, he assumes that the
figure is an ellipsaid of revohition with iU major axis directed
towards the sun, and he determines the dliptidty of such an
etlipBoid. High solar tide then occun at noon and midnight,
and ]ow»tide at sunrise and sonset. The action of the moon
produces a similar elli p sai d , but of greater dliptidty The
superposition of these ellipsoids gives the prindpal variations of
the tide. He then proceeds to consider thie influence of latitude
on the height of tide, and to discuss other peculiarities of the
pbcnomenott. Observation shows, however, that spring tides
occur a day and a half after f tiU and change of moon, and
Newton fabdy attributed this to the fact that the osdUatioBS
would last for some time if the attractions of the two bodies
were to cease.
The Newtonian hypothesis, although it fails in the form which
he gave to it, may still be made to represent the tides if the
lunar and solar ellipsoids have thdr major axes ..
always directed toward a fictitioua moon and sun, nwih.**
which are vespectivdy at constant distances from
the true bodies; these distances sn.such that the fiiU and
change of the fictions moon as Illuminated by the fictitious
sun occur about a day or a day and a half later than the
tne full and change of moon. In fact, the actual tides may
be supposed to be generated directly by the action of the real
sun and moon, and the wave may be imagined to take a day
and a half to arrive at the port of observation. This period has
accordingly been called " the age of the tide." '^^Ag^^nm.
what precedes the sun and moon have been supposed ^^ ^^
to move in the equator; but the theory of the two dlipsoids
cannot be reconciled with the truth when they move, as ia
actuality, in orbits inclined to the equator. At equatorial ports
the theory of the eUlpSdds would at spring tides give moming
and evenmg hi^ waters of nearly equal height, whatever the
dedinations of the bodies. But at a port in any other latitude
these high waters would be of very different heights, and at
Brest, for example, when the dedinations of the bodies are
equal to the obliquity of the elliptic, the evening tide woifld
be eight times as great aa the moming tide. Now observatioa
shows that at this port the two tides are nearly equal to one
another, and that thdr greatest difference is not a thirtieth of
thdr sum. Newton here also offered an erroneous explanation
of the phenomenon.
In 1758 the Academy of Sciences of Paris offered, as a subject
for a prise, the theory of the tide& The authors of four essays
recdved prises, via. Daniel Bernoulli, Leonhard Euler, ,
Colm Madawin and Antoine Cavallcri. The first ^^ggg~
three adopted not only the theory of gravitation, but
also Newton's method of the superposition of the two dlipsoids.
Bernoulli's essay contained an extended devdopment of the
conceptbn of the two ellipsoids, and, under the name of the
equilibrium theory, it is commonly sssodatcd with his name.
Laplace gives an account and critique of the essays of BemoulH
and Euler in the iHcanigue etiale. The essay of Madaurin
presented little that was new in tidal theory, but is notable as
containing certain important theorems concerning the attraction
of ellipsoids. In 1746 Jean-le-Rood D'Alembert wrote a paper
in which he treated the tides of the atmosphere, but this work,
like Madaurin's, is chiefly remarkable for the importance of
coUateral points.
The theory of the tidal movements of an ocean was therefore,
as Laplace remarka, alm^t untouched when in 1774 he fiist
undertook the subject. In the MSeamque Okrtt he pvcs a»
i
gw
TID^
iateresting account of the manner' in wliich lie was led to atUck
the problem. We shall give below the investigation of the tides
wm^m^ ^^ "* ocean covering the whole earth; the theory is
substantially Laplace's, although presented in a dif-
ferent form, and embodying an important extension of Laplace's
work by S. S. Hough. This theory, although very wide, is far
from representing the tides of our ports. Observation shows,
in fact, that the irregular distribution of land and water and
the various depths of the ocean in various places produce irregu-
larities in the oscillations of the sea of such complexity that the
rigorous solution of the problem is altogether beyond the power
of analysis. Laplace, however, rested his discussion of tidal
observation on this principle — The stale of oscillation of a system
of bodies in which the primitive conditions of movement have
disappeared through friction is coperiodic vriih the forces acting
on the system. Hence if the sea is acted on by forces which vary
Ptftiipfp Iff periodically according to the law of simple osciU»-
Ftecctf tions (a simple time-harmonic), the oscillation of
0'dtt»' the sea will have exactly the same period, but the
*"• moment at which high-water will occtir at any
place and the amplitude of the oscillation can only be de-
rived from observation. Now the tidal forces due to the moon
and sun may be analysed into a number of constituent periodic
parts of accurately determinable periods, and each of these will
generate a corresponding oscillation of the sea of unknown
amplitude and phase. These amplitudes and phases may be
found from observation. But Laplace also used another prin-
ciple, by which he was enabled to effect a synthesis of the various
oscillations, so that he does not discuss a very large number of
these constituent osdllaiions. As, however, it is impossible
to give a full account of Laplace's methods without recourse
to technical language, it must suffice to state here that this
procedure enabled him to discuss the tides at any port by
means of a combination of theory with observaUon. Mitr the
time of Laplace down to 1870, the most inqsortant workers in
this field were Sir John Lubbock (senior), William Whewdl
rwilnft. And Sir G. B. Airy. The work of Lubbock and
wiMweO Whewell (see § 33 below) is chiefly remarkable for
9mAAky. th^ coordination and analysis of enormous masses
of data at various ports, and the construction of trustworthy
tide-tables and the attempt to construct cotidal maps. Airy
contributed an important review of the whole tidal theory.
He also studied profoundly the theoiy of waves in canals, and
explained the effects of frictional resistance on the progress of
tidal and other waves.
The comparison between tidal theory and ddal observations
has been carried out in two ways which we may describe as
the synthetic and the analytic methods. Nature is herself
synthetic, since at any one time and place we only observe one
single tide-wave. All the great investigators from Newton
down to Airy have also been synthetic in their treatment,
for they have sought to represent the oscillation of the sea by a
single mathematical expression, as will appear more fully in
chapter V. below. It is true that a presupposed analysis lay
behind and afforded the basis of the synthesis. But when at
length tide-gauges, giving continuous records, were set up in
many places the amount of data to be co-ordinated was enor-
mously increased, and it was found that the simple formulae
previoudy in use had to be overloaded with a multitude of
corrections, so that the simplicity became altogether
Kelvia, fictitious. This state of matters at length led Lord
Kelvin (then Sir William Thomson) to suggest, about 1870,
- iinalytic method, in which the attempt at mathematical
esis is frankly abandoned and the complex whole is re-
sted as the sum of a large number of separate parts, each
a perfectly simple wave or harmonic oscillation. All
*st modem tidal work is carried on by the analytic method,
Jch we give an account bebw in chapter IV.
)rd Kelvin's other contributions to tidal theoiy are also
profound importance; in particular we may mention that he
established the correctness of Laplace's procedure in discussing
' -> dyflamfcal theory pf the tides of an ocean covering the whole
earth, which' had'beeii impugned by Airy and by William
Fcrrel. We shall have frequent occasion to refer to his name
hereafter in the technical part of this article.
Amongst all the grand work which has been bestowed on
the theory of this difficult subject, Newton, notwithstanding
his errors, stands out first, and next to him we must rank L.aplace.
However original any future contribution to the science of the
tides may be, it would seem as though it must perforce be based
on the work of these two.
§ 8. The Tide-Predicting Instrument,— In the field of the
practical application of theory Lord Kelvin also made anotha
contribution of the greatest interest, when in 1872 he tm^
suggested that the laborious task of constructing zPrrdkOag
tide-table might be effected mechanically. Edward *■•*"••■*•
Roberts bore a very important part in the first practical
realization of such a machine, and a tide-predictor now in
regular use at the National Physical Laboratory for the Indian
government was constructed by L€g6 under his direction. We
refer the reader to Sir William Thomson's (Lord Kelvin's) paper
on "Tidal Instnmicnts" in fnst. C.£., vol. Ixv., and to the sub-
sequent discussion, for a full account and for details of the share
borne by the various persons concerned in the realization of
the idea.
Fig. 4 illustrates diaKrammadcany the nature of the instrument.
A cord passes over and under a suooeasion of pulleys, every other
pulley beinr fixed or rather
balanced and the alternate ones
being movable; the cord is fixed
at one end and carries a pen or
pencil at the other end. In the
diagram there are two balanced
pulieys and one movable one; a
second unit would reqmre one
more movable pulley and one
more balanced one. If, in our
diagram, the lowest or movable
pulley were made to oscillate up
and down (with a simple har-
monic motion), the penal would
execute the same motion on half
the linear scale. If the instru-
ment possessed two units and the
movable pulley also rocked
Fig. ^— Tide-Predictiiig
lostmraent.
up and down, the pencil would
add to its previous motion that of this second oscillation, again 4
half scale. So also if there were any number of additional units.
each consisting of one movable and one balanced pulley, the pencil
woukl add together all the aeiiarate simple oscillations, and wooU
draw a curve upon a drum, which is supfiosed to be kept revolving
unifomfly at an appropriate rate.
The rocking motion is communicated to each movable pulley
by means of a pi^ attached to a wheel C sliding in a slot attached
to the pulley frame. All the wheeb C and the drum are geared
together so that, as the drum turns, all the movable pulleys rock
up and down. The gearing is of such a nature that if one revolurion
01 the drum represents a single day, the rocldng motion of each
movable pulley corresponds to one of the simple constituent oscilla-
tions or tides into which the aggregate ride-wave b analysed. The
nature of the gearing b determined by theoretical consideratioos
derived from the motions of the sun and moon and earth, but the
throw of each crank, and the angle at which it has to be set at the
start are derived from observation at the particular port for which
the tide-curve is required. When the tide-predictor has been set
appropriately, it will run off a complete tklc-curvc for a whole yezri
tne curve is subsequently measured and the heights and times of
high and low-water arc Ubulatcd and published for a year or two
in advance.
The Indian instmment possesses about 20 units, so that the tide-
curve is regarded as being the sum of 20 different ample tides; and
tide-tables ace published for 40 Indian and Oriental ports. A tide*
predictor has been constructed for the French government under
the supervision of Lord Kelvin and b in use at Paris; another has
been made by the United States Coast Survey at Washington: in
1910 one was under constructbn for the Brasilian goyemment.
These instruments, although differing considerably in detail from the
Indian predictor, are essentially the same in principle.
§ 9. Tidal Friction,— AH solid bodies yield more or less to
stress; if they are perfectly elastic they regain their shapes after
the stresses are removed, if imperfectly elastic or viscous they
yield to the stresses. We may thus feel certain that the earth
yields to tide-generating force, either with perfect or imperfect
ebsUdty. Chapter VIIL will contain some discussion oC Uiis
TIDE
•fTMif
•BBfccC, MM It torn Mtttt to tty Mre titet toc BMUoidnrat
of the mionte ebsUc Udes of the solid earth has at Icn^h been
achieved. The resulu recently obtained by 0r O. Heckcr at
Poiidam ooastUiite n oooiplciioua advance on ail the {vevioaa
attcmpta.
The tides of an imperfectly elastic or viscous t^obe are ob-
viously subject to frictiooal icsistancci and the like is true ol the
tides of an actual ocean. In either case it ia dear that the system
must be losing energy, and this leads to results of so much
feneral interest that tve propose to give a short sketch of the
subject, deferring to chapter VIII. a mors rigocous investig»*
tion. It is unfortunately impossible to give even an outline of
the principles involved without the use of some technical terms.
In fig. % the paper b supposed to be the plane of the orbit of a
satellite M mvolving in the diractiiMi of the arrow ebout the planet C,
which rotate* in the direction of the arrow about an
axis perpendicular to the paper. The rotation of the
planet it supposed to be more rapid than that of the
nteUlte.ao that the day is shorter than the month. Let
Hi flopnese that the planet I* either entirely fluid, or has
an ocean of such depth that it is high-water under or neatly under
the satellite. When there is no friction, with the satellite
at m, the pUnet is dongatcd into the ellipsotda! shape shown,
cutting the. mean sphere, which is dotted. The tidal protuberances
are drawn with mudi ex-
aggeration and the satdlite
a shown as very dose to
the pbnet in order to ilfus-
trate the prindple more
clearly. Now, when there
is fnction in the fluid
motion, the tide b retarded,
and high-tide occun after
the satellite has passed the
meridian. Then, if we keep
the same figure to represent
the tidal deformation, the
aatellite must be at M,
instead of at m. If we
number the four auadrants
. as shown, the satellite must
"••S- be in quadrant i. The
pretufaeianee P Is nearer to the satellite than P*. and the defi-
ciency Q is farther away than the defidency (/. Hence xlvt
resultant action of the planet on the satellite must be in some
such directioa as MN. The action of the satellite on the planet
is equal and opposite, and the force in NM. not bdng through the
planet's centre, most produce a retarding couple on the planet's
rotation, the magnitude of which depends on the length of the arm
CN. This tidal friaional couple varies as the hdeht of the tide,
and as the satellite's distance. The magnitude of the tidal pro-
^._.^ tuberances varies inversely as the cube of the distance
L"-"*r_ of the satdlite. and the difference between the ttttrae-
S*!""?*^ tions of the satdlite on the nearer and farther pn>-
^ tuberances also varies Inversely as the cube of the
(Cstaace. Accordingly the tidal frictional couple varies as the Inverse
sixth power of the satdlite's distance. Let us now consider its effect
on the satellite. If the force acting on M be resolved along and
perpendicular to the direction CM. the perpendicular component
tends to accelerate the satdlite's velocity. It alone would carry the
satdlite farther from C than it would be dragged back by the central
fonce towards C The satdlite would describe a spiral, the coils
of which would be very neariy ciicular and very nearly coinddent.
If now we resolve the central component force abng CM tangentially
and peroendicutar to the sfural. the ungcntial comoooent tends to
leura the velocity of the satellite, whereas the disturbing force.
already considered, tends to accelerate it. With the gravitational
law of force between the two bodies the reurdation
must prevail over the accderation.^ The action of
tidal friction nuy appear somewhat paradoxical, but
it is the exact converse of the acceleration of the linear
and angular vekoty and the dimtnutfon of distance of a satellite
moving through a resisting medium. The latter result b generally
more lamilbr than the action of tidal friction, and it may hdp the
leader to realiae the result in the present ca«. Tidal friction then
dimiabhes pbnetary rotation, Increases the satdlite's dbtance and
dumnishes the orbital angubr vdocity. The comparative rate of
dttmiButioa of the two angular vdodties b generally very different.
If the anceiUte be dose to the planet the rate of increase of the
■Btdlite'speriodie thne or month b bree compered with the rate of
faneaaeof the period of planetary routlon orday: but if the satdlite
is far off theeowvewe b trae. Hence, if the seteiliie starts very near
the planet, with the month a Bttb tongerthantheday.astheaatdKte
* Thb way of presenu'ng the action of tidal friction bduetoSir
■ mis way oi p
C^aorse C. Stokes.
945
,, the SBoMn eooB nicmasea eo ibsl It contmna many days.
The mimfocr of days in the month atuins a maximum and then
dunfadahes. Finally the two angubr vdodties subside to a second
identity, the day and month bdng identical and both very long.
We have supposed that the ocean b of such depth that the tides
are direct; if, however, they are inverted, with low-water under or
nearly under the satdlite, friction, instead of retarding, accelerates
the tide; and it woukl be easy by drawing another figure to see that
the whob of the above condudons wo«dd hold equally true witk
inverted tides.
Attempts have been made to estimate the actual amount of the
retaidation of the earth's lotation, but without much success. It
must be dear from the sketch just given that the effect of tidal
friction b that the angubr motion of the moon round the earth
b retarded, but not to ao great an extent as the earth's roution.
Thus a terrestrial obaerver, who regards the earth as a perfect time-
keeper, would look on the real retardation of the moon's angubr
moiion as being an acceleration. Now there b a true acceleration
of the moon's angubr motion which depends on a skyw change in the
eccentridty of the earth's orbit round the sun. After many thou-
sands of years this acreleratkm will be reversed and it will become
a retanktion, but it will continue for a long time from now into the
future ; thus it is indbtinguishable to us at present from a c
accderetion. The amount of this true acceleration maybe derixed
from the theories of the motkms of the moon and of the earth when
correctly devek>ped. Laplace concdved that its observed amount
was fully expbined in this way. but John Couch Adams showed that
Laplace had made a mistake and had only accounted for half of it.
It thus appeared that there was an unexplained portion whbh mbfat
be only apparent and might be auributed to the effects of tidal
friction.
The timeandjpboe of an ecUpae of the son depend on the motionB
of the moon and earth. Accordingly the records of ancient eclipses,
which occurred centuries before the Christbn era. afford exceedingly
ddkate tesu of the motions of the moon and earth. At the time
when Thomson and Tait's Natmral Pkilo9opky* was first published
it was thought that all the numerical data were known with sufficient
precision to render it possible to give a numerical estimate of the
retardation of the earth's rotation. But the various revisions of
the lunar theory which have been made since that date throw the
whole mat ter Into doubt. It seems probabk that there is some port ion
of the accderation of the moon's motion which b unexpbined by
gravitation, and may therrfore be attributed to tidal fhction, but
tts amount is unceitain. We can only say that the amotmt b very
smalL It ilk however, not impoasible that thb amallness may be
due to counteracting influences which tend to augment the speed
of the earth's roi&tion; such an augmentation would result from
shrinkage of the earth's mass through cooling. However thb
matter may stand. It does not follow that, beomae the changes
produced by tidal friction in a man's lifetime or in many generations
of man are almost insensibb, the same must be true when we ded
with millions of years. It follows that it b desirabte to trace the
effects of tidal friction back to their bcginninn.
We have seen above that thb cause will explain the lepuUon
of a mtelUte from a position ckjse lo the (^net to a more remote
distance. Now when we apply these conaideratkMW to the moon
and earth we find that the moon must once have been nearly in
contact with the earth. Thb very remarkabb initbl configura-
tion of the two bodies aeema to point to the origin of the noon by
detachment from the earth.
Further detaib concerning thb q>ecubtion in ooamogony are given
bdow in chapter Vlll."
I to BUiliograpky. — Many works on popular astronomy cootaio
a lew paragraphs on the tides* but the ireaiinent b generally ao
meagre as to ajfford no adequate idea of the whob subject.
A compbte list of works both general and technical bearing oa
Iheory of the tkles. from the time of Newton down to 1881, b
contained in vol ii. of the BMiograpki* dt fastronomie by J. C
the theory of the tkies. from the 1
contained in vol ii. of the BMu_ . ...
Houamu and A. Lancaster (1882). This lUt does not contain papen
00 the tides of particular norts, and we are not aware of the existence
of any catalogue of worka on practical observation, reduction of
observations, prediction and tidal instruments. The only general
work on the tides, without mathematics, is George Darwin's Tidts
Md Kindnd PkencmeiM in the Solar SysUm* Thb book treats
of all the subiecta oonskleved in the present article (with rderences
to original sources), and also others such as seiches (fljs.) and the
bore (9.9.)'
The most extensive monqgrapli on the tides b A Mmmol of Tides
by Mr RolUn A. Harris, published by the United States Coast Survey
m a series of pans, of which pt. i. appeared in 1697, and pt. iv.
• See that work (ed. 1883). 1 830; P. H. CoweU, M. N, JL Asl. Soe.
(190$). Ixv. 661.
• For a disc
discussion of the subject without m a them atics, see G. H.
Darwin's ri&i. , . .« •
* London (1898) andwith Important changes (1901, 1911); (Boston,
1898); tranOations: German, by A. Pockds (Ldoiig, 1962, IQ");
Italbn. by G. Magrini (Turin, 1005), with appendices by transbtor;
Magyar, by Rad6voo KAvesligethy (Budapest, 1904}. with appendices
byt
9+6
xroE
B ia 1904. This work oootaint «a caMnnoiis aum «f meful woric,
and gives not ooly oomplettt techoical development* both on the
theoretical and practical sidee but also haa chapters of general
interest. The present writer (eels it his duty, however, to dissent
from Mr Harris's courageous attempt to construct the ootidal Unea
of the various oceans.
This work contains the most complete account of the hbtory of
tidal theories of which we know. Laplace's admirable history of
the subject down to his own time has been summarized in | 7.
Dr Giovanni Magrini has an appendix to his translation of Darwm s
book, entitled La Omoscenm ddla marta mM'tuUkkUi, founded
on the researches of Dr Roberto Ahnad4. Dr AlmagUL himself
gives the results of his researches more fully in a memoir, presented
to the Accademia dci Lincet of Rome (5th series, voL v. fasdc x..
1905> >37 PP)-
Another monograph on tid^, treating especially the mathematical
developments, is Maurice lAvy'tLa TlUorte des maries (E^aris, 1S98).
Colood Baird's Manual of Tidal ObservaHon (1886) contains
instructions for the iostalktton of tide^uges, and auxiliary tables
for harmonic analysis. Airy's article on " Tides and Waves " in
the Eney. Uetrop., although superseded in many respecu, still
remains impprUnt. Harriirs Manual contains a great collection
of results of tidal observations made at ports all over the world.
The article " Die Bew^ung der Hydrosphare " in the Eneykhpidie
der mathtmatiscken WissenschafteH (vL i, 1908) ffive* a technical
account of the subject, with copious references. The same article is
?'ven in English in vol. iv. (191 1) of G. H. Darwin's collected Scientific
a^« : and vols. Land iL contain reprints of. the several papen by
the same author referred to in the present article.
Since the date of the 9th edition of the Ency. Brit, some technical
discussion of the tides has appeared in textbooks, such as H. Lamb's
Hydrodynamics.^ That work also reproduces in more modern form
Ajry's investigation of the effects of friction on the tides of rivers^
We are thus able to abritke the present article, but we shall present
the extension by Hough <4 LapUice's theory of the tides of an ocean-
covered planet, which is still ooly to be found in the original
n.— Tioe-Genzsatznc Fosces
5 II. Ifnestigalums of Tide-Generaiing Potential and Forces, —
We have ulr^dy given a general explanation of the nature of
71*- -tide-generatiog forces; wc now proceed to a rigorous
OtaeniUw investigation. If a planet is attended by a single
'*'■'■• satdlite, the motion of any body relatively to the
planet's surface is found by the process described as reduc-
ing the planet's centre to rest. The planet's centre will be at
rest if every body in the system has impressed on it a velocity
equal and opposite to that of the planet's centre; and thu is
accomplished by impressing on every body on acceleration
equal and opposite to that of the planet's centre.
Let M, mhc the masses of the planet and the satellite; r the
radius vector of the satellite, measured from the planet's centre;
p the radius vector, measured from same point, of the partide
whose motion we wish to determine; and s the angle between
r and p. The satellite moves in an elliptic orbit about the planet,
and the acceleration relatively to the planet's centre of the satellite
u (if +m)/r* towards the planet along the radius vector r. Now
the centre of inertia of the planet and satellite remains fixed in space,
and the centre of the planet describes an orbit round that centre
•f inertia similar to that described by the satellite round the planet
but with linear dimensions reduced in the proportion of m to M+m.
Hence the acceleration of the planet's centre is mlr*- towards the
centre of inertia of the two bodks. Thus, in order to reduce the
irfanet's centre to rest, we apply to every, particle of the system an
acceleration mfr* parallel to f, and directed from satellite to
planet.
Now take a set of rectangular axes fixed in the planet, and let
Mif. Mif, MiT be the co-ordinates of the satellite referred thereto;
and let (a, vp, tp be the co-oMinates of the particle P whose radius
vector b p. Then the component accelerations for reducing the
planet's centre to rest are — «Mi/f*, *— #riMj/f*, — mMj/r*; and
since these are the differential coefficients with respect to pC, pn, pf
of the function
-7f(M.{+Mrt+M,r).
and anoe cos s«Mi(4-Mif +Mir, it folk>ws that the potential of
the forces by which the planet's centre is to be reduced to rest is
— ^coss.
* The theory as presented in the MHanique cHeste is unnecessarily
difficult, and was much criticized by Airy. Before the publication
of the 9th and loth editions of the Ency. Brit, it was necessary for
the student to read a number of controversial papers published all
over the world in order to get at the matter.
NovletiMCQMlderthaodierfoneaMtiicoathtptetida. TIh
planet is q>heroidal. and therefore does not attract equally ia aQ
directions; but In this Investigation we may make abstraction of
the ellipdcity of the planet and of the elUpticity of the ocean doe
to the pbnetary loution. This, which we set a siJs , is cofisidend
in the theories of gravity and of the figures of plancta. Ontaide
its body, then, the planet contributes forces of umich the potential
is Mla\ Next the direct attraction of the satellite contributes f<Kcct
of which the potential b the mass of the satdlite divided by the
distance between the point P and the aatellite; this la
fW
V|f« + p^ - zrp one i)*
To determine the forces from this potenti&l we regard p and a la
the variables for diffcreatiatum, ana we may add to this potential
any constant we please. As we are seeking to fbd the foraea whkh
urge P relatively to M, we add such a constant as will make the
whole potential at the planet's centre lero, and thus we take as the
potentuil of the forces due to the attraction of the satellite
V|»'+p»-2rp cos's] ■" r '
It is obvious that in the case to be considered r is very larve compared
with p, and we may therefore expand this in powen of i^r. This
expaaaon gives us
sj^i-.+^.+J^.+.-l.
where i»i-cosi. Pi«|bos*s-i, Pa-fcos*s-fcoss. &c
The reader familiar «ath spherical harmonic analysis of course
recognizes the zonal harmonic functions; but the result for a few
terms, which is all that is necessary, is easily obtainable by aimpte
algebra.
Now. collecting together the varbus contributions to the potential,
and notking that S. ^p^-^cost, and is therefore equal and
opposite to the potential by which the planet's centre was reduced
to rest, we have as the potential of the forces acting on a particle
whose co-ordinates are p{, pv, pf
7't2^(|cos-«-D+ J^(tco.»i-|co.a) + ... (i)
The first term of (i) is the potential of gravity, and the terms of the
BmtmmiimL *^'"*®*» ^ ^***^^ ^''^ ^^^^ *" writtCn, constltutc the
''*"■'" tide-generating potential. In all pcactkal appticatraos
this series converges so rapidly that the iint tenn is amply sufi*
dent, and thus ve shall generally dcqote
V-^ (cos's -.J) (a)
as the tidc-generatine potential*
At the surface of the earth p is equal to a the earth's radius.
I 13. Form oS Equilibrium. — Consider the shape assumed by aa
ocean of density 9, on a planet of mass M, density i and radius a,
when acted on by disturbinz forces whose potential is a folid spherical
harmonic of degree i, the planet not being in rotation.
If 5i denotes a surface spherical harmonic of order i. such a
potential is given at the point whose radius vtCtae is p by
(3)
In the oue considered in § II, «' ">a and Si becomes the second xooal
harmonic catf «— 4.
The theory of harmonic analysis tdls us that the form of the
ocean, when m equilibrium, must be given by the equation
p^a+CiSi. (4)
Our problem is to evaluate et. We know that the externa] potential
of a layer of matter, of depth eiSi and density v, has the vakie
Hence the whol^ potential externally to the planet tad up to Ht
surface is
The first and most important term b the potential of the plaiict«
the second that of the oisturbiag. force, and the third that of the
departure from q>hcricity.
Since the ocean must stand in a level suriace, the cxpreaakm (s)-
equated to a constant must be another form of (4). Heace. if wv
put p^a'^eiSt in the first term of (5) and p«« in the second mad
" ' terms, <s) must be consunt; this can only be. the case if the
'-^(S)'*^
* The reader may refer to Thomson and Tait's Nalutal FkiUtophy
(1883), pt. it. HI 798-821, for further considerations on this mad
analogous subjects, together with soms interesting \ *
TIDE
94-7
t to flCfOt w nod
Bat by the deftnitiona of A aid a we Imw if -i|vla>«co^. whcfe
f is gravitx« and therefore
(6)
In the paiticular caae coonderad ia I ii «e therefore have
Mthe equatioq to the equilibrium tide under the poteotisl
If 9 wtxt vety smatl compared «ith I the attraction of the vnter
on itself would oe very maXL compared with that of the planet on
the water; hence we aee in the general case that i/ f i -' ^iXiw
19 the factor by which the mutual graviution of the ocean ausments
the deformation due to the external fofcet. Thb factor will occur
frequently hereafter, and therefore for brevity we write
and we may put (6) in the form
•-^ <»>
Cbmparfaon with (j) then ehowe that
V^gbi(j^yeiSi (10)
is the potential of the dliturbing forces under whidi
p-a-K5^ (ii)
is a figure of eqtulibrium.
We are thus nrovided with a convenient method of specifying
•BT disturbing loree by means of tlie figure of eqailibtium which
it IS competent to maintain. In considerfaw the dynamical theory
efthttidn«naAoeean-cafveredplaaet,weanaUapoafyUie disturb-
ing forces io the manner mmmiil by (lo) and (ii)> This way of
ncdlying a diatuibing ibroe is equally eact whether or not we
diooae to inclode the eBeda of the motnal attrKtaon of the ocean.
11 the aosmentatioo doe to mntnal attnction of the water is not
included, at b e nau a e equal to unity; there is no longer any Bcoeswty
to nie spherical harmonie analysis, and we see that if the equation
to the surface of an ocean be
where 5 Is a function of latitude and longitude, it is in cquiBbrfum
under forces due to a potential whose value at the swfaoe of the
sphere (where p«a) b g5.
In treating the theory of tidal observation we shall specify the
tide-generating forces in this way. and then by means ci "the
principle of forced vibretions." referred to in f 7 as used by Laplace
for discussing tlie actual oscillations of the sea, we shall pam to the
actual tides at the port of observation.
In this equifibrium theory it b assumed that the figure of the ocean
is at each instant one of equilibrium under the action of gravity and
rffigrfrnf of the tide^generating forces. Lord Kelvin has. how-
^ ^ ever, reasserted' a point which was known to Bernoulli,
^2T^ but has dnce been overlooked, namely, that this law
zT^rT ^of rise and fall of water cannot, when portions of the
immmrjm gi^^^ ^^ continents, be satisfied by a oonsunt volume
of water in the ocean. The nfressarycijtwn inn to the theory depends
on the distribution of land and sea, bat a aumefScal solution shows
that it b practically of vary small amount.
f 13. Deodopmau tf Ttie-§mtmini PtteMliai im Terms af Jfanr-
Angf* and DsdMMfiofi.— We now proceed to develop the tide-
generatini potcntbl, and shall of course implicitly (| 13) determine
the equation to the equilibrium figure.
We have already seen that* if s be the moon's aenith distance at
the point P on the earth's surface, whose co-ordinates referred to
A. B, C, axes fixed fai the earth, and o(. a«. af.
cm««|Mi+fMt+rM«.
where Ml, Mt, Mi are the moon's direction cosines referred to the
■ameaaes. Then, with thb value of cos s,
<Oi%-i -3|vM.M. +9£=Ai!!:^ + anTMiM, + atrMiM,
|, l'-iV-bt«M.«-i-M,«-aM,» („)
^ 3 3
The «xb of Cia taken aa the polar axis, ud AB is the equatorial
plane, so that the f unctionB of (, ■, f are functions of the btitude
and longitude of the point P, at which we wish to find the potentul
T:.2rKs/iE^^s^X'&5** »-^ c. H. o.^ «. „ „.
The functions of Mi. Mt. Mt depend on the moon's position, and
we shall ba>tt oocasion to develop them in two different wmrs^firrt
in terms of her hour-angle and declination, and seooodly (| 35) in
terms of her longitude and the elements of the orbit.
Now let A be on the equator In the meridbn of P, and B 90* cast
of A on the equator. Then, if M be the moon, the incUaation of
the pbne MC to the plane CAb the moon'aeasteriy local hour-anfte.
Let AM->Greenwicb westward hour-angle; /«the-west longitude of
the place of observation; X*-tbe btitude of the place; t^moon's
dechnation : then we have
Ml ""COS < cos(A«-/). Ml* — cos I sin(ftt-/), Ml «rin I,
f«cosX,f«o,r-ishi^.
Also the radius vector of the place of observation on the enth'e
auiiaoeba. Whence we find
r-£^{ |cos*Xoo^8ca6a(iht-0 +sin 7X sin Soos 8cos(«i-/)'
+|(|-sin«l)(|-sin«X)| (13)
The tide-generating forces are found by the rates of variation of V
for btitude and longitude, and also for radius a. if we care to find the
radbl disturbing force.
The westwanicompoiKnt of the tide-generating force at the earth's
surface, where p^a, udVfacM Xil, and the northward component
is dVfitdk; the change of apparent level b the ratio of ^. ....
these to gravity g. On ejecting the differentbtions "uTTTT^
we find that the westward oorapoaent b made op <<y !!ffT' *
two periodic terms, one going through its variations T_ .^ "^ .
twice and the otber once a day. The southward com'f^fH
pooent has alio two arailar terms; but it has a third ^^ "■"■'■'
very samtt term, adiich does not osalbte about a sero value. Thb
lot tcm corresponds to forces which produce a constant hcapim
up of the water at the couator*, or, m other words, the moon^
attraction has the effect of causing a small permanent elHptidtv
of the earth's mean figure. Thb augmenution of ellipticity is
of course very small, but it is necessary to mention it.
If we consider the motiott of a pendulum-bob under the iaflneaoe
of these forces during any one day, we see that in consequence of
the semi-diurnal changes of levd it twice describes an elbpse with
major axis east and west, and the formub when developed shows
that the ratio of axes is equal to the sine of the btitude, and the
linear dimensions proportional to coif A. It describes once a day
an ellipse whose north and south axb is proportional to sin ai cos ^
and whose east and west axis b proporttonal to sin a< sin X. Obvt*
ously the htter b drcubr in latitude 50*. When the moon b on
the equator, the maximum deflexion oocure when the moon's loosi
hoor-angb b 45*, and b then equal to
Thb angle b equal to oh>I74' cos X. Attempts actually to measure
the deflexion of the vertical have at length proved suoDessful
(see SiHMOMlTia).
m— DYNAlOCAt THEORY 07 THE TU)ES
S 14. Kecent Advances in the Dynamical Theory oj ike Tides.^
The problem of the tidal oscillation of the sea is essentially
dynamical In two papers in the second volume of LiawUWs
Journal (1896) H. Poincar6 has considered the mathematical
principles involved In the problem, where the ocean b inter-
rapted by land as in actuality. He has not sought to obtain
numerical results applicable to any given configuration of land
and aea, but he has aimed rather at pointing out methods by
which it may some day be possible to obtain such solutions.
Even when the ocean b taken as covering the whole earth
the problem presents formidable diQioiltics» and thb b the only
case In which It has been solved hitherto.*
Laplace gives the solution in bks. i. and iv. of the Jf&ofitftie
eUttle; but hb work b unnecessarily complicated. In the 9th
edition of the Ency. BriL we gave Laplace's theory without these
complicatbns, but the theory b now accessible in H. Lamb's
Hydrodynamics and other works of the kind. It b therefore not
reproduced here.
In 1897 and 1898 S. S. Hough undertook an important
rerisfon of Laplace's thaofy and succeeded not only m intro-
ducing the effects of the mutual gravitation of the ocean, but
' Lord Kelvin's (Sir W Thomson's) paper on the grevitatiooal
oscillations of routing water, Phik Mag. (October 1880). bears on
this subject. It b the' only attempt to obtain numerical results
•A respect to the effect of the earth's roution on the oscilb lions of
landlocked ams^
948
TIDE
also in detenoining the nature and periods of the free oscil-
lations of the sea.' A dynamical problem of this character
cannot be regarded as fully solved unless we are able not only
to discuss the '* forced " oscillations of the system but aho the
"free." Hence we regard Mr Hough's work as the most
important contribution to the dynamical theory of the tides
since the time of I^place. We shall accordingly present the
theory briefly in the form due to Mr Hough.
The analysis is more complex than that of Laplace, where
the' mutual attraction of the ocean was neglected, but this was
perhaps inevitable. Our first task is to form the equations
of motion and continuity, which will be equally applicable to all
fonni of the theory.
I 15; Equations of Motion.~-Let r, 9, ^ be the racfius vector,
coUtitude and east longitude of a point with reference to an origin,
a polar axis and a zero-meridian rotating with a uniform angular
vdocinr n from west to east. Then if R, rl, S be the radial, colatl-
tudinal and longitudinal accelerations of the point, we have
«-?a,2[''*'*{^+«)]-
If the point were at rest with reference to the rotating meridian we
th ou M have
R w — i#r sin 0, 8 « -iiV tin # cos 9, H MOW
When these considerations axe applied to the motion of an ocean
relative to a rotating planet, it is clear that these accelemtk>n8,
which still remain when the ocean is at rest, are annulled by the
permanent oMateness of the ocean. As then they uke no part
in the oscillations of the ocean, and as we are not consideringtbe
figure of the planet, we may omit these terms from R and S. This
being so we mast replace (f^+*) » <t oocun in R and Z by
Now suppose that the point whose accelerations are under
eonskleration never moves far fixMn its sero position, and that its
displacements (, « sin # In colatitude and longitude are very large
compared with p its radial displacemenL Suppose, further, that
the vdocitics of the point are so small that their squares and
producu are negligible compared with nV; then we have
^"^1 n very small quantity;
r9ai9^»^{nfdn§).
Snce the radial velocity always remains very small it is not neces-
sary to concern ourselves further with the value of R, and we only
require the two other components whkJi have the approximate
forms,
S-gf-2fi8in«cos^, 1
H-sin^+3»cos^ J
(14)
We have now to consider the forces by which an dement of the
ocean is urged in the direction of colatitude and longitude. These
forces are those due to the external disturbing forces, to the pressure
of the water, surrounding an element of the ocean, and to the
attraction of the ocean itself. ...
If f denotes the equflibrium height of the tide, it is a function
of colatitude and bngitude, and may be expanded in a series of
spherical surface harmonics c<. Thus we may write the equation
to the equilibrium tide in the form.
f-=o+«-a+Xf|,
Now it appears from f 10) and (11) that the value of the potential,
at the surface of the sphere where o»a, under which this is a figure
of equilibrium, b
We may use this as specifying the external disturbing force due
to the known attractions of the moon and sun, so that u may be
regarded as known.
But in our dynamica! problem the eeesm U not n figure of equt-
nbrium, and we may denote the elevation of the surfaoe at any
moment of time by b. Then the equation to the surface may be
written in ♦»»^ f"*"**
'-•+»»■«+»•,
whr ' harmonic just as u did before.
201-S58 and 191 A, pp. I39-'1<9.
The suffaee value of the-potoatial of-the foma wUeh voald oMin-
tain the ocean in equilibrium in the shape it has at ainr moment is
Zgbibi. Hence it follows that in the actual case the lovces doe to
fluid pressure and to the attractbn of the ocean must be such as to
balance the potential just determined. Therefore these forees are
those due to a potentiaf— ZgM<. If we add to this the potential
of the external forces, we have a potential which wiU induae all the
forces, the expression for whkn is~fZ&<(bf— c<). If further we
perform the operations dfadS and d/a sin $d^ on thn potential, we
obtain the colatitudloal and kmgitudittal foiocs which are equal to
the accelerations 3 and H.
It follows, then, from (14) that the equatkms of motion ai«
g-an sb f cos ^— J Z*.^ (n-s,)
sin •g+21. cos dg— jJ^^^j (b,.,)
(IS)
It remains to find the equation of continuity.
duced geometrically from the conskleiatioo that 1
element of the flukf reouuns constant ; but a shorter way is to doive
This may bede-
i conskleiatioo that the volume of aa
it from the equation of continuity as it oocun in onboaiy hydro-
dynamical investigations. If « be a velocity potential, the equation
of continuity for incompressible fluid is
The dement referred to in this equatkni is defined by r, 9* ^
r-Hr. e+t9, ^+<^. The colatitudinal and longitudinal vdocifia
are the same for all the denientary prism defined by f , 4, #+i9,
^-H^, and the sea bottom. Then ^-§, nCTaj"*"*^'-
and. since the radial vdocity Is ib/dt at the surface of the ocean,
where r>a+T. and Is nro at the sea bottom, where rmta,
we have jf^"-^ ff» Hence, hitegrating with respect to r from
r-a+Ytof-a. andagaln with respect to f from time I to the
time when b, (, if all vanish, and treating y and I} as small compared
with 0, we have
bosin»+^(-rtsin«)+^(-W8hi«)-a (ifi)
This b the eqostion of continuity, and, together with (ig). it
forms the system which must be integmtca in the „. ...
general probiera of the tides^ The difficulties in the SCSILr
way <tf a solutioa are so greM that none has hitherto ""*■'■•■*>
been found, except on the suppoaitioo that Ti the depth of the
ocean, b only a function of btitnde. In thb case (16) >»*rftmrf
f 16. Adaptation to Forctd OsctBo/MiK.— -Since we may suppose
that the free oscillations are annulled by friction, the soliition re*
quired is that corresponding to forced oscillations. Now we have
seen from (13) that e (whk:h b proportional to 10 has terms of three
kinds, the first depending on twice the moon's (or sun's) hour-angle,
the stcond on the hour-angle, and the third mdependeat thereof.
The coefficients of the first and second vary slowly, and the wh<^
of the third varies slowly. Hence e has a semidiurnal, a diurnal
and a long-period term. We shall see later that these terms may
be expanded in a series of approximately semi-diurnal, diurnal and
slowly varying terms, each of which b a strktiy barmonk: function
of the time.
Thus according to the usual method of treating oscillating systems,
we may make the following assumptions as to the fbrai of the
solution
e«Zei-Zft cos(Mft+sH-a) 1
b-b£<«Z*<cos(ss/>+s«+«) I
|-I&a»cos^n+s«+«) f
f -Sfrtyt sin(sqfi-»-J*+«)
(18)
where «{, IW. A, y< are functions of colatitude only, and ci. If ate the
assocbtcd functions of colatitude corresponding to the harmonic
of order • and rank s.
For the semi-diurnal tides 5«>3 ai
md / Is approxinutely nnity;
iroximatdy f ; and for the tkfcs
for the diurnal tides r- 1 and/ is appi
of long period i«o and/ b a small fraction.
Substituting these values in (17) we have
C19)
Then if we write m (or Jki— «f, and put M«ifiWr» aabititutioa
from (18) in (15) leatds st once to
fZbiXi —/ sin 9 cos BUbiyi - ^
f* tin 0Zb{yi-¥f CM tZbtXi
**■ "4111 sin *^****'J
(»d
TIDE
949
(ai)
i22)
Solviiic (ao), «e baire
Tbcn nibiUtuting fron (21) in (19] we have
This b almost the same as Laplace's equation for tidal oscilbtions
in an ocean whose depth is only a function o( latitude. If indeed
we treat K as unity (theieby neglecting the mutual attiactioo of
the water) and replace Zui and Zti by u and e, wt obuin Laplace's
equation.
When tu is found from this equation, its value substituted in (21)
wiU give Xi ^nd n.
I 17. Zonal Osciltatums. — ^We might treat the general harmonic
oaallations first, and proceed to the conal oscillations by patting
««"a These waves are, however, comparatively Mniple, and it
n well to begin with them. The zonal tides are those wmch Laplace
describes as of the fiat species, and are now more usually called the
tides of long period. As we shall only consider the case of an ocean
of uniform depth, y the depth of the sea is constant. Then unce
in this case <*o, our equation (22), to be satisfied by «< or At — e<,
nnlZfti'Ok
(»3)
This may be written
where il is a consunt.
Let us assume
where Pi denotes the i th sonal harmonic of cos #. The coeffirtents
C are unknown, but the Bt are known because the system oscillates
under the action of known forces.
If the term involving the integral in thb equation wciv expressed
in terms of differentials of harmonics, we should be able to equate
to zero the cx>cflicient of each dPiJdS in the equation, and thus find
the conditions for determining the Cs.
The task then is to eKpcess ^ T^^ J ^* sin 1^ in differentials
of aonal harmonics.
It is well known that Pt satisfies the differential equation
If ("" ^) +»(•+ 1 )/*« «n f -a (24)
Therefore /a ■in«*--j^7j:]ytin:#^-,and
£^i/p, sinid.. -jpi^Cf -c^ ^^
A a o th er wdl-hiowB property of aonal harmonics is that
If w differentiate (25) and use (24} «« have
Multiplying (25) by sin #, and using (26) twice over,
^a5nrJ^*'^^- (2»-,K2t+,) 'y'
\ /»-! . ? }dPi . I dPu.
" \ 1(1+1) '(2.-i)i2»T3J5'ai^'(2i+i)(2.'+3) ^ •
Thb expresskm, when multiplied by 41110/7 and by d and summed,
is the second term of our equation.
The first tennb
In Older that the touatioo may be satisfied, the coeffioent of
each dPildi must vanish identically. Acoordin^y we mtdtiply
the whole by T/4ma and equate to aero the coefficient in question.
Therefore''
This equation (27) Is applicable for all values of t' from x to infinity*
provided that we take C9, E^, CU. B^ as being seto.
We shall only ooasider in detail the case of greatest interest,
namely that of the most important of the tides gcnereled by the
attrectioo of the sun and moon. We know that in tiib case thn
equilibrium tide is expressed by a aonal harroociic of the second Older;
and therefore all the Bt, excepting Bt, are aero. Thus theequatioa
(27) will not involve Bt in any case excepting when i^'2,
U we write for brevity
the equation (27) b
Save that when t "2, the tfght-hand side b ^£^4*18, a known
quantity ex fypotkesi.
The collations naturally separate themselves into two groups in
one of which all the suffixes are even and the other odd. Since
our task is to evaluate all the Cs in terms of £%» it is cbviouB that
all the C*s with odd suffixes must be zero, and we are left to consider
ontv the cases where t>2, 4, ^ &c.
o;if
^e have said that Q must be regarded as being 1
we take
so that C« b essentialfv a known quantity, the equation (28) baa
complete ap^krability for all even >nftlues of t from a upwards.
The equatwtts are
b'-iiC*-
;«a
Ac. Ac
It wouM seem at first sight as if these equations would soffioe to
determine all the Cs in terms of Cu nnd that Q would remain in-
determinate; but we shall show that this b not the care.
For very large values of t the general equation of condition (28)
tends to assume the form
By writing aocoessively «+2, s+a, t+6 for i in thb eqaatioBr
and taking the differences, we obtain an equation from which
we see that, mmless CtfCt^t iends to botomo infmUdy matt, the cqon*
tions are satisfied by C<*C«fi in the limit for very large values
off.
Hence, if Ci does not tend to aero, the later portion of the svies
for k tends to assume the form CCi't+i^itt+iV*. . .). AU the
P'» are equal to unity at the p^t hence the hypothcab that C<
does not tend to aero leada to the conclusion that the tide b of
infinite height at the pole. The expansion of the hdght of tide b
essentblly convet]K<ent, and therefore the hypothecs ai negatived.
Thus we are entitled to assume that Q tends to aero lor laise
values of t.
Now writing for brevity
n,-i^(2t+i)<2f+3)«(2t+5).
we may put (28) into the form
l2.-3)C«-i) (a. ' 4-i)^2» ' 4-3)
By sucoesrive applications of thb formula we may write the rbht>
hand side in the form of a continued fraction. ^^^'
Let
Ki
Then wchave
Thus
Li— Li^" Ih^—
Ci a^
(2«~3K2f-i)^"]S^
C(/cij-(2i-i)(2f+i)ir«.
C,-3.5ir,Ci; C«-3.s.7.9X:,ir«G:
C.-3 5 7-9- " . "3ffsa:Ac;, Ac
If we assume that any of the higher Cs, such as Cm or Ci«, Is cf
negligible smallncss, all the continued fnctxMis iCt» K^ JC<, Ac.,
may be computed ; and thus we find all the Cs in terms of C«. which
b equal to-3diT£^4im. The height of the tkle b therefore
given by
ll-X».tMS(2ll/l+«)
" "4^^3 5ifsP.+3 5.7 9^.irj*« + . . I «s (»/f + •).
It b however more instructive to express 1{ as a multinl'' -* '*-
9SO
Mtttlibriiim tide c, which b at «e kflow equal to fiiPa oot (a«>24*«}.
• - -^ ^l3-5iff^t+3.3.7.9iC.iC4P.+3S. .i5KtKJCJ».. . . |.
The Rttmber/ is e fraction such that It j reciprocal is twice the number
of ndereal days in Che period of the tide. The greatest value of /
is that appertaining to the lunar fortnishtty tide (Mf in notation
of harmonic anatysis), and in this case/ is m round numbers i/aS,
or move exactly /**■ -ooiij. The ratio of the density v of sea-water
to I the mean density of the earth is '18093; which value gives us
*!-«-§— 89144.
The quantity m is the ratio of equatorial centrifugal force to gravity,
and ts equal to 1/289. Finally, y/a is the depth of the ocean
expressed as a fraction of the earth's radius.
With these numerical values Mr Hough has applied the aotution
to determine the lunar fortnightly tide for oceans of various depths.
Of his results we give two: —
first, when Yi-7260 ft. - 13 10 fathoms, which makes ylima « 1/40,
he finds
b Mp-f -aefidft-* i678P«+-o^5P«— oo8iP|+*ooo9Pit— •oooiPis... ) .
If the equilibrium theory were true we should have
thus we see how widely the dynamical solution differs from the
9680 fathoms, and 7/4*14 •1/5,
TIDE
Abo
equilibrium value.
Secondly, when 7*58080 ft.
he finds
b -p-| ^aoSPt— 0973^«+'0<HBP«— OQOiPa ... I
From this we see that the equilibrium s(rfution presents some sort
of approximation to the dynamical one; and it u clear that the
equilibrium solution would be fairiy accurate for oceans which are
still quite shallow when expressed as fractions of the earth's radius,
although far deeper than the actual sea.
The tides of long period were not investigated by Laplace in this
manner, for he was of opinion that a very small amount of friction
would suffice to make the ocean assume its form of equilibrium.
In the arguments which he adduced in support of this view the
friction contemplated was such that the integral effect was propor-
tional to the velocity of die water reUtively to the bottom. It is
probable that proportionality to the square of the velocity would
nave been nearer the truth, but the distinction b unimportant.
The most rapid of the oscilbtions of thb class is the lunar fort>
nightly tide, and the water of the ocean moves ncnthward for a week
aiKl then southward for a week. In oscilbtinj; systems, where the
resistances are proportional to the velocities, it is usual to specify
the resistance by a ^ modulus of deoy,** namely the time in whkh a
velocity is reduced by friction to r^ or 1/2*78 of its initial value.
Now in onler that the result eootempbtcd by Laplace may be true,
the friction must be such that the modulus of decay b short compared
with the semi-period of oadllation. It seems certain that the
friction of the ocean bed would not reduce a slow ocean current
to one.third of its primitive value in a day or two. Hence we
cannot accept Laplace's discussion as satisfactory, and the inves-
tigation which has just been given becomes necessary. (See § 54).
f 18; Tesseral Osdthtiou*. — ^Tbe oscilbtions which we now have
to consider are those in which the form of surface b
" expressibb by the tesseral harmonica. The results will
be applicabb to the diurnal and semi-diufnal tide*—
Laplace's second and third species.
If we write #-s^ the equation (22) becomes
a)+# eoa •)(^-«> OQiP «) «- (i*-«* coi^ «)a>+r coa $}*
+Ss*tiii^#oos«*. (33)
Now perform D-|-# cos 9 on (31), and use the first of (32) and (33),
and we have
(D+« cos 9)(Z&(a<)-(l>*>-i«-|-« sin* «+'-•> cos<9)«.
-f(j'-«*cos*9)(i7-f<roosf)«-|-2«*sinVcoa««. (34)
The functions * and * are as yet i n determ in ate, and we may
impose another condition on theou Let that oooditaoa be
(Z)«-j«-|-ffsin«#)#--a»«sin«$coi»#. (35)
Then C34) may be written
Substituting from this in (30). and using the second of (32), the
function tr disippears and the equation leaocea to '
(D«- j«-^ nn> »)*+^ mftZki -o. (36)
Since by (35) -••co^»*-l^^(I^-^+» ««»•)♦. (31) «n*y
be written
ZftiiM-[D-#coa^-l.*23r5cO»-i»+» a8ft*«)]#+s»#. (37)
The equations (35), (36) and (37) define I" and ♦. and furnish
the equation which must be satbficd.
If we denote cos • by #» the zonal harmonics are defined by
''-i^(5)V-.)'.
The following aie three wdl-knowa properties of aonal hanaooics :
^[(«-^)1^]+»«+t)'**-
r (sin 9^-\-9 cos #) Z6<ffi1 (w cos 0^-|-s* cosec $) Ib^u
L — 7=?^5sn — ^J-"^ — i«->*cosP* ^ —
■f^^siu W*<-0.
C19)
If we write D for the operation sin fj^ the middle term may be
arranged in the form
»cot#(p-H^w»)(Zfe<if<) ZftitM
Thcrefoie on multiplying by sin # the equation becomaa
We now introduce two auxiliary functions, sach that
Z»i(A«-«f)-ZfrflN
-(X>-# COS #)«+(<■-•> cofli* 9)«. (31)
fif)-2?"-j"-|-rsin«»-!-(j«-««coi»#).) |„%
(•+i)Pm-(2«+i)i»P«+«7'«-»
Of
0.
C3«)
(39)
_ t+l)i»4. (40)
If ^ ^Q <^ are the two tesseral harmonics of order i and lenk s,
it b abo known that
r:<i-A*^- (41)
liet Qs now assume
*<-Cjp;, a»-fi;/^. ♦-2<i^. ^*^A-
These must now be substituted in our three equations Css). (36),
(37), and the result must be expressed by series 01 the /^ functions.
It b clear then that we have to transform into P^ functions the
following functions of P^, namely
3^(D«-i-.rsb««)P:. eoa in
[d-# cos i+lglj (Z?i-ji+^ rin« »)] n
If we differentbte (38) s times, and express the result by means
of the operator 1>, we find
iJD»-^PlWi-¥l)P; iirf •-©. (42)
Again, diiferentbting (39) s times and using (40), we find
(«-*+i)P:^-(2i+i) cos i /»;-l-(i-|-f)i»-^-a (43)
Lastly, differentbting (41) once and using (38), (40) and (43)
By
of (4a). (43) »«<l (44) w* •>»»«
Tberefon the «iiiatioiu ()5), (36), (37) (>*•
TIDE
95 »
SSnoi tiMM aqpatbiw miist be tm^ Utetieallr, tfat oecfidenU
ol ^ ia each ci ihcm muft vaakb. Therefoi*
If wc cKflilmte tbe m'% tm! ^« from the third eqntfoo (45), by
means of the fim two, we find
fUS:!^ er-tc:-i--t:c:+<«c:„.^fi:, (46)
ia7
-.<h*><'r*-:i^
In the cMe of the luni-eolar ■eni-diumet tide (called Kt in the
notation of harmonic analysis) we have {"2, <>a, 9^2. Hence
it would appear that these lormnke for £f and (JL| fail by becoming
indeterminate, but t and s are rigorously integers, whereas 9 depends
on the " speed" of the tide; accordingly in the case referred to we
must regard terms involving^ (i—s) as vanishing in the limit when
r approaches to equality with • (i— i). For this particular case
then we find
*»^35 4iisB*"*» ^
The equation (46} for the successive Cs is available for all Talues of
t provided that C^, E-i, C^ £• are re^rded as being aero.
As in the case of the zonal oscillations, the equations with odd
sufHxet separate themselves from those with even siafl&Jiea. so that
the two series may be treated independently of one anotha*. In-
drcd. as we shall see immediately, the series «^th odd suffistes are
satisfied by putting all the Cs with odd suffixes sero for the case of
such osdUatiens as may be geneiated by the atttactions of the moon
or sun.
For the temi-diuraal tide* I** 3. t"*9» and / is lipprosdmatdly
equal to unity. Hence the eqaiUoriuffi tide b such that aU the
E% excepting £|. are aenK
For the dlunial tides Iw3, r«i, and / la approxfmat^ equal
to i. Hence all the £;, excepting £|. are aero. Since in neither
case is there any B with an odd iiitSa^ we need only condder those
with even suffixes.
in both cases the first equation among the C*a is
-ijc:+,:c:-^£;(»-2ori).
h follows that if we write
€:q--^B;(i-aorii,
tite eqd a tio o of conditioa amongst the Ca would be of general appli-
cability for all even values of « from 2 upwards.
The symbols (V f*i do not occur in any of the equations, and
therefore we may arbitrarily define theoa aa denoting unity, although
the general formulae for f and 9 would give iImbs other vahm.
Acowdiagly we shall take
With this definitioa the cquatiott
t:^c:^-i::c:+<^c-M)(»-aor I)
is applicable for 1*2. 4, 6, &c.
1 1 may be proved as in the case of the tides of long period that wc
may regard t^/C?^ as tending to aero. Than our equatioa may be
written in the form
^-^ ; scs^'
and by successive applications tbe right-hand side may be e xp ie s se d
in the form of a continued fraction. Let us write
Hence our equation may be written
Whaaca
Itfolbwathat
Orh<
Tim jince «t h>v* itimA
»'-tMdc;— J^a.
aU the C*a are lapweaud in terms of known quaatitfeai Heaoe the
height of tide b is givan by
b-Z»<cos<»ii/r-|-«^t«)
But the equilibrium tide c is given by
«-i2;;PJcosC2ii/l+i*.h«).
ly write our result in the following form, which shows the
b e twee n tbe true dynamical tide and the equilibrium
From a formula equivalent to this Mr Hou|^ finds for the lunar
semi-diurnal tide (« «2). for a sea of u 10 fathoms v^S^ipj •
b-^|.i0396PJ + .57998i>J-.i9a73PJ.f-.030S4i'S.. I .
This formula shows us that at the equator the tide is " inverted "
and has 2*4187 times as great a range aa the equilibrium tide.
For this same ocean he finds that the solar semi-diurnal tide is
** direct " at the equator, and has a range 7'9548 as great aa the
equifibrinm tide.
Now the lunar equilibrium tide b a«a timea aa great as the solar
equilibrium tide, and since 2*aX2*4i67 b only 5*3« it followB that
in sueh an ocean the solar tides would have a nuige half aa grcac
again aa the lunar. Further, since the lunar tides are " invcited "
and the solar " diiact," spring tide would occur at quarter nooa
and neap tide at full and chanae.
We give cme more example uom amongst those comcMt^ by Mr
Hougib. Id an ocean 01 9680 fathoms (t/4w»"'I/S}* he finds
»-3^| l-7fi4ft/*l--0te57i'l+-00f447i'I... |.
At the equator the tides are *' direct ** and have a range of ^'923$ aa
great as the equilibrium tide. In this case the tides approximate
in type to those of the equilibrium theory, although at the equator,
at least, they have nearly twice the range.
We ao not give any numerical results for the diurnal tides, lor
reasons which will appear from the following section.
I 10. Diurnal Ttae approximately ooiwicmf.— The equilibrium
diurnal tide is given by
c-£4PJcos(3»/H^-|-e),
where / b apprnaimately \ and the associated functioa for s'*3,
s>i| b
Pi "3 sin 9 cos #.
Now the height of tide b given by
b-rc:/»:co«(an/>+#+«).
and the problemb to evaluate the coostaau C^
If ponible suppose that b b also eApitJ a ul by a single term like
that which represenu s, so that
b»3Ci sin • cos » co8<a»i/l-l-*-l-a).
Then the differential equation Us) to be satined becomes
t(Ci-gi)^g^j8 \ /*-.coe<» 7 S5#c|fcS?i5)
where « b written for brevity in place of sin # ooatf.
Now whea/b rigorously equal to |. it may be proved by actual
differentbtini that the expwssinn inside the brackeu | | vanishes
identically, and the equation red voce to C| " o.
We thus find that in thb case the differential cquatioe b satisfied
by aero oarilhrion of watcT'leveL In other words we reach Laplace's
reraariable cwiduskm that thcie b ao diurnal rise and fall of the
tides. There are» it b true, diurnal tidal cuoenta, but they are ao
arranged that the water levri mnains v
In reali^/bnotri]
th^re will be a small (
has been evaluated for various depths of ocean by Mr Hough and b
found always to be small
§ 30. Fru OseiOoHans ef the Oleeaa.— Mr Hough di sn iss ra the
various types of free oscHbtions of the ocean. Tlmr are very cooip
piex, and consist of westward waves and eastward waves of very
various periods. He finds, as was to be expected, that if. for an
ocean ol^ given depth, a free wave very neariy coincide* '
mter lewl mnains unchanied.
t risorously \ (except for the tide called XO and
lU diurnal tide. The lunar diurnal tide called
952
TIDE
I
with the forced lunar or tolar wave, the actual tide is largely aug-
mented. Thus, for example, for aif ocean of 29,000 ft. in depth the
solar semi-diurnal tide would have a height at the e9uator 235 times
as great as the equiUbrium hetifht, and would be inverted so that
low water would agree writh the nigh water of the eciuiUbrium theory.
The general outcome of the discussion b that it b imposuble to
foresee the heieht of any forced tide-wave by mere general mspectton.
If this is so in the simple case of an ocean of uniform depth, how much
more must it be true of oceans of various depths mtcrrupted by
continents?
i 21. Stability of At Oceon.-^Imagine a globe of <len»tv A, sur-
rounded by a spherical layer of water of density 9. Then, still
maintaining the spherical ngurc, and with water still covering the
nucleus, let the layer be displaced sideways. The force on any part
of the water distant r* from the centre of the water and r from the
centre of the nucleus is Jvtfr' towards the centre of the fluid sphere
and |r(i-«r)r towards the centre of the nucleus. If i be greater
than there is a force tending to carry the water from places whore
it b deeper to places where it b shallower; and therefore the equili-
brium, thus arbitrarily disturbed, b stable. If, however, i b less
khan « (or the nucleus lighter than water) the foiee b such that it
tends to car^ the water from where it b shallower to where it b
deeper and therefore the equilibrium of a layer of fluid distributed
over a nucleus lighter than itself is unstable. As Lord Kelvin
remarks,* if the nucleus b lighter than the ocean, it will float in
the ocean with part of its surface dry. Suppose.
SiMbiaih» again, that the fluid byer be disturbed, so that its
9tv*ri om equation is r*o(i-f-5i), where r< Is a surface
"'*'■' harmonic of degree »; then the potcntbl du& to this
deformataon b ^^, 4m ^* and the whole potential is
af"T» »
If, therefore, W(3i+i) is greater than \i, the potential of the forces
due to deformation b greater than that due to the nucleus. But
we have seen that a deformation unds to iitcrea»e itself by mutual
attrsaton, and therefore the forces are such as to increase the
deformation. If, therefore, v«i(2t+i)a, all the deformations
up to the ith are unstable, but the (t-l-ijth b suble.' If, however,
o be less than i, then all the deformations of any order are such that
there are positive force* of restitution. For our present purpose
it sufiices that the equilibrium b suble when the fluui b lighter than
the nucleus.
1 22. Pruessim and Jfa/B/«a«.— Suppose we have a planet covered
with a shallow ocean, and that the ocean b set into oscillation.
Then, if there are no external disturbing forces, so that the oscilla-
tions are " free,** not " forced," the resultant moment of momentum
of the planet and ocean remains constant. And, since each particle
of the ocean executes oeriodic oscillations about a mean position.
it follows that the oscillation of the ocean iropans to the solid earth
oecilUtions such that the resultant moment of momentum of the
whole system remains consunt. But the mass of the ocean being
very small compared with that of the planet, the component angular
velocities of the pbnet necessary to counterbalance the moment of
momentum of the oscillations of the sea are very small compared
with the component angular velocities of the sea. and therefore the
disturbance of pbnetary rotation due to oceanic reaction is negligible.
If now an external disturbing force, such as that of the moon, acu
on the system, the resultant moment of momentum of sea and earth
b unaffected by the interaction between them, and the precessional
and nuutional couples are the same as if sea and earth were ngidly
connected together. Therefore the additions to these couples on
account of tidal oecilbtion are the couples due to the attraction of
the moon on the excess or deficiency of water above or below mean
sea-leveL The tidal oscilUtiuns are very small m height compar^
with the equatorial protuberance of the earth, and the density of
water b ^rtis of that of surface rock; hence the additional couples
are very small compared with the couples due to the moon s action
^ on the solid equatorial protuberance. Therefore pre-
^■'''•^■•■•cesaon and nutation take place sensibly as thouch the
*?J™!' "ea were congealed in its mean ppeitioa. If the
tSJSz ocean be regarded as f rictionless, the pnnciples of energy
JrflSfc. »*»«' «■ that «*»«« insensible additional couples must
MscuHw. j^ periodic in time, and thus the corrections to nutation
must consist of semt-diumal, diurnal and fortnightly nutations of
absolutely insensible magnitude. We shall have much to say bdow
on the resulu of the^introduction of friction into the concepuon of
tidal oedttations as a branch of Lpeculative astronomy.,
I 23. Some Phenomena oj Tides in Rioers.—AM a considerable part
of our practical knowledge of tides b derived from observations
In estuaries and rivers, we shall sute the results of an investigation
of waves which travel along a shallow canal, and we refer the reader
to the article Waves for the mathematical investigations on which
they are based. ______^_
Nat, Phil. % 816.
ant paper by H. Poincar^ io Acta wwtk.
It amit be ptarfs ed that when the profile of a wave does'iiot pre-
sent the simple harmonic form, it b convenient to analyse its shape
into a series of partbl waves superposed on a fundamental wave;
and generally the principle of harmonic aaalym b adofited in whk^
the actual wave is regarded as the sum of a number of simple waves.
SuppQie that the water bconuined in a stiaight and shaJk>w canal
of uniform depth h, and that at one end the canal ddxMiches on to
the open sea. Suppose further that in the open sea there b a forced
oscillation of water level, given by thb formula
««i/8ia«l
where V b the elevatioa of the water at time I above its mean level,
2r/a the period of the oscillation and U the amplitude of the
osdlbtion
Waves will cleariy be transmitted along the canal, and the piablem
b to obtain a formula which shall represent the oscilbtions of levd
at any dbtance x measured from the mouth of the canal.
The mathematical investigation shows that, if g deaotes gravity,
the formub for the oscillation of water level at the point deiioed
by X b
,-H .i» . (/-^) +^. « « (1-:^)
The second of these terms b proportional to x. and if the canal
were infinitely long it would become infinite. The difficulty thus
occasioned may be eluded by supposing the canal to debouch on a
second sea in which a second appropriate osdiUtion b maintained.
In actuality friction gndually annub all motiooi and no such diffi-
culty arises.
The first term of the formula b called the fundamental tide, the
second gives what b called the first over-tkle; an<IL further approxi-
mation would give second and third ov«r-tides, &c. All the o^xr-
tides travel up the river at the same rate as the fundamental, but
they have double, treble, Quadruple frequencies or '* speeds." and
the ratio of the-amplitude of the first over-tide to the fundamental b
"" ax
As a nomerical example, let the range of tide at the river mouth
be 20 ft., and the depth of the river so ft. The " speed ** of the serai-
diumal tide, which is an angular velodty. b 38-98* per ho»*- or 1 /i -9
radians per hour; yifc-27 miles per hour; hence ^ TSk^'^S^
Therefore 34 miles up the river the over-tide b i/iotn <rf the funda-
mental and baaa range of 2 ft. If the river shallows very gradually,
the formula will still bold, and we see that the height of the over-
tide varies as (depth)-!.
Fig. 6' read from left to right exhibits the progressive change of
shape. The steepness of the advancing crest diows that a shorter
fv
(Ffom Airy'i TkUs tmi Warn,)
Fic. 6.— Tide Wave in Rivers.
time eUpses between low to high water than inversely. The aame
investigation shows that the law of the ebb and flow of currents,
mentioned in f 2, must hold ^ood.
The second bw of waves in rivers to which we draw attention
relates to the effects produced by the simultaneous propagation into
shallow water of two waves of different periods. It appeaus that the
effect b not simply the summation of the two separate waves.
Suppose that at the mouth of the river the oaciUatioa of the open
sea b represented by
f -ffi sin Hif+fft rin im^+t).
Then we find that at dbtance x from the river's mouth the vmvc is
given by the formub
,-<??. sin «.(/.- ^)+^««n ["•('"" ^) +•]
The first two terms give us the two waves just as if each exbted by
itself. Tlw third and fourth terms give the results of their oonabina-
tion, and are called "compound " tides, the first being a aummatioii
tide and the second a difference tide.
As a numerical example, suppose at the mouth of a river 50 ft.
solar semi-diuraal tide has a range 2£fi«4 ft., ai»d
deep that the
the lunar semi-diurnal tide has a range zHt^li
then ii«4-»t
59/57 radians per hour, and Mi-Nt«>l/57 radbns per hour, and
iiore V f* -27 miles per hour.
With these figures
^rvis^* 170'
> From Airy*8 Tides and Waaes, with ombsion of part which mm».
enpqeous..
TIDB
953
Thus 15 milM np tlM tivw tht miiiii<luiiiil tide (ctlled MS in
harmonic analyM) would have a range of 1/60 of an inch. Where
the two intcractanc conpound tkkeaic nearly of the tame " epeed "
the wnunatiottal compound tide is much the Urger of the two. As
^ore. when the river shaUows gradually this formula win still
hold true.
It a interestinc to note the kind of effect produced by these ooro-
pound tides. WDen the primaiy tides are in the tame phase (as
at spring tale)
and w« may writ* the formola in the form
,. (H.+HO d. n. (1-:^) +a^^x «a [«,I-J2^
yir'"'-^=#-
Hence the front slope of the tide-waye is steeper at swings than at
•eaps, and the compound tide shows itsetf at springs m the form of
an augmentation of the fint over-tide: the converse hcMs at neaps.
Also mean water-mark is affected to a slight eaaent as we go up the
river by an inequality represented by the last term.
IV.— Harmonic Analysis
f 3A. Oudint cfiki Uakod.—Vf€ have seen fai f 13 that the poten-
tiu of the tide-^encratmg fotee of the moon oonsisu of three terms,
one being approximately seminfiurnal, one approximately diumaL
and one varymg ^wly In consequence of tne irregular motion 01
the moon in right asoensbn and in declination and the variabilit^r
of paralbi^none of these three classes of terms is sim|^ harmonic
in time. The like is also true of the potential of the sun's tide-
generating force. In the method of harmonic aaalyais we conocivo
the tidal forces or potential due to each distu i lm ig body tv be
devebped in a series of t$rms each oonaistittg of a oonstant (deter-
mined oy the elements of the planet's orUt and the oUiauity of the
ecliptic) multiplied by a simple harmonic function of the time.
Thus in place of the three terms of the potential $» developed in
1 13 we have an indefinitely long series of terms for each of the three
terms. The loss of simplkrity in the expieasmn for the foeoes is
far more than ooonterbalanced by the gain of facility for the dis>
euasbo of the oadlUtions of the water. This facility arises from
die dynamical principle of forced osciHations, which we have ex-
plained in the historical sketch. Applying this principle, we see
that each individual term of the harmonic developroent of the tide-
generating forces corresponds to an oscillation of tne sea of the same
period, but the amplitude and phase of that oscillation must depend
on a network of causes of almost inextricable complication. The
analytK or harmonic method, then, vepfeeents the tide at any port
by a series of simple harmonic terms whose periods axe determined
from theoretical oonsiderations, but whose amplitudes and phiaes
are found from observation. Fortunatdy the series representing
the tidal forces converges with sufficient ra|Mdity to permit us to
cooMder only a moderate number of harmonic terms m the aeries.
Now it seems Ukely that the corrections which have been applied
in the use of the older synthetic method might have been dothea in a
won satisfactory and succinct mathematical form had investigatore
first carried out the harmonk development. In this article we
shall therefore invert history and come tack on the synthetic method
from the analytic, and shall show how the formulae of correction
stated in harmonic language may be made comparable with them
in synthetic language One explanation is expedient
before proceeding with the harmonic development.
.^^ There are certain terms in the tide-generatina forces of
,^ the moon, depending on the longitude of toe mooo'a
nodes, which complete thdr revolution in iS'^ years.
Now it has been found practically convenient, in the
appliraTif>n of the harmonic method, to follow the syn-
thetic plan to the extent of dassif yti^ together terms whose periods
differ only in consequence of the movement of the moon's node, and
at the same time to concdve that there b a small vmxiafaility ia the
intensity of the generating forces.
i 25. Dtvdopment of Equilibrium Theory of TUiS In Terms ef
Ae Elements elf the (MtCr.— Within the limits at our dispoaal we
cannot do more than indicate the processes to be followed in this
development. We have already seen in (3) that the o^NcasioB for
the moon's tklc-generating potential is
V-g^ari»s-|).
aad ia (13) tbat
^ 3 3
where Mi, Mt. Mi and (. e , r vt respectively the direction ooiiiies
referred to axes &xed in the eanh of the moon and of a place on the
earth's surface at which the potential K is to be evaduated. At
such a place the radius vector p is equal to a the eaith'spdins.
Ut tht uea fiaed in the ttfth bft taken aa foHowB zttKaasC
the north polar axis; the axia A through the earth's centre and a
point on the eouator on the same meridwn as the plaoe of observa^
tion : the sxis B at right angles to the other two and eastward of A,
Then if X be the latitude of the plaoa of observatioa
(-CDS^.t-o.r«sbX.
With theee values we have
coiFs-i-|eoi^XfMi*-Mrt +anaX M|M,
+iC|-sin«X) (M,'-1-M/-2M?).
In fig. 7 let ABC be the axes fixed
in the earth; XYZ a second set of
axes, XY bring the plane of the
moon's orbit; M the projection of
the moon in her orbit; />ZC« the
obliquity of the lunar orbit to the
equator; x-AX-BCY; /«MX«
the moon's kx^tude in her orbit
measured from X, the dearending
node of the equator on the lunar
orbit, hereafter called the ** intersex
F10.7.
Then
Mivcos/oosx-f-rinfrinxcos/ «
Mt«" — cos/u^x+riQ/cosxCQs/"■
M«*sb/sin/ »<asin i/cos |/siaf.
When these eapr e esioas are substituted in W-Uj^, lliMai
Mi>-f Mi^-aM/. it is clear that the first will have terms in the
cosines of 2(x-0. 8x. a(x4-^: the second in sines of x*-aA x»
x4-3/; aad the third in cos V. to«Bther with a term '<T**'!^«pg
diaunce, e the eccentricity of her
Oi^Uoos(x-/)
_,,,+«i^i^coe(x+l).
-eos»|/sin(x-/)
-«inM/sia<x-H),
only 00 /.
Now let c be the moon's 1
orbit, and let
«Hlr-f5.
Then we have for the lunar tide-generating po^mtiaT at j^^^
the plaoe of observation
F-7jr?r«II«j'J^ (X'-v»)-»-rinix.xz
-fKI-riii' M (X«-|.Y«-aZO (47)
Tbe only parts of this expresskm which are variable in time are the
functions of X, Y, Z.
To complete the development the formulae of eUiptic motion ate
introduced in these functions, and terms which appear numerically
negl^;ible are omitted.^ FinajUy, the three X-Y-Z functions axe
obtained as a series of simple tun^hazmonics, the amiments of the
sines and cosines being linear functions of the earth^ rotation, the
moon's mean motion, and the longitude of the moon's perigee. The
next step is to paas, according to the orindple of forcea oaciUations,
from the potential to the height of tide nocrated by the forcea
conrspomfing to that potentiaL The X-Y-Z functions being simple
time-barmonics, the principle of forced oscillations allows us to con-
clude that the forces corresponding to K in (4?) wiU generate oadlU-
tions in the ocean of the aaaie periods and t^oes as the terms in V,
buj of unknown amplitudes and phases. Now let JC*—^^ 30^
320 bo three functions having respective^ auailar
aoeeof
but dilSering fren them hi that the aigumeat of each mtlfif
4^ the simple time-harmonics has some angle subtracted IMrara^
from it, and that the term is muUinlied by a nuaaerical |%fC
factor. Then, if g be gravity and b the neight of tide
at the plaoe of observation, we must have
h-Y[JcoaFXOe-y)-|.slatX3ei+I(J-ain»X)i(3e«-|.fi-a2«)I.(48)
The factOT rol'/g may be more conveniently pif ilui^n yrj a, where
if b the earth's mass. It has been so chosen that, if theeqwiUhrium
theory of tides were fulfilled, with water covering tbe whole eartli.
the numerical facton in the X-^-X functions wtwildj^i^ j -^ ^ .
be each unity and tlie alterations of phase would ht^l^^T^^zi
aero. The terms hi OC»+W«-220 nsquh« 9Dcdai^7!rZ
consideratkm. The function of the htitode DdnglTTr'-"^
i-sin" X, it foHows that, when in the northern hemie-^^^
phere it b hi^-water north of a certain critical latitude, it b low
water on the opposite skSe of that parallel; and the same b true
of the southern be mbph eie. h b best to adopt a uniform system
for the whole earth, and to legard faigh^tide aad higb-«ater as
forms to
954
xroE
ooueataaeousin the equatorial bdt, tad of oppothe mtaaiagi outnde
the critical latitudci. We here eonceive the f unctioa ilwayt to be
written I— ain'X, ao that outside the critical latitudes high<tide is
low-water. We may in continuing the development write the
X-V-2 functions in the form appropriate to the equilibrium theory
with water covering the whole earth, for the actual case it is only
then necessary to multiply by the reducing factor, and to subtract
the phase alteration «. As these are unknown constants for each
place, they would only occur in the development as symbols of
quantities to be deduced from observation. It will be understood,
Uierefore, that in the following schedules the " argument " is that
part of the ar]|^ment which is derived from theory, the true complete
argument bemg the "argument" — «» where c b derived from
observation.
Up to this pmnt we have supposed the moon's longitude and the
earth's position to be measured from the '[ intersection '*; but in
order to pass to the ordinary astronomical formulae we mutt measure
the longitude and the earth's position from the vernal equinox.
Hence we determine the longitude and right ascension of the inter-
section " in terms of the longitude of the moon's node and the in-
clination of the lunar orbit, and intrxxluce them into our formulae
for the X'%'X. functions. The expressions for the functions corre-
nmnding to solar tides may be written down by symmetry, and in
tiiis case the intersection b actually the vernal equmox.
The final result of the process dcetched b to obtain a aeries of
terms each of which b a function of the elements of the moon's
_ ^,„,,„ , or sun's orbit, and a function of the terrestrial latitude
° ^?T*fr* of the place of observation, multiplied by the cosine
k»tmm^^ **' •■ *"8** which increases uniformly with the time.
^^^" .We shall now write down the result m the form of a
achedulej but we must first' state the notation employed: e, e^»
cocentrioties of lunar and solar orbits; /,«# "•obliquities of equator
to lunar orbit and ecliptic; p, ^."longitudes of lunar and solar
perwees, a, 0.«houriy increments of p, P/, s, Jk- moon's and
suna mean longitudes; y, f >houriy increments of 5, h; I *■ local
mean solar time reduced to angle; 7'-«"lS* po* hour; X-
latitude of place of observation; t, r- longitude m lunar orbit,
and R«A. of the intersection; N« longitude of moon's node; i «
itidination of lunar orbit. The " speed " of any tide
b defined as the rate of increase of its argument, and b
expressible, therefore, as a linear function of t, ^, v, O;
for we may neglect tt, as being very small.
The following schedules, then, give h the haght of tide. The
arrangement b as follows. First, there b a umveml coeJBkient
|-j^ r^ j *a, which multiplies every term of ^ the schedules. Secondly,
re scneral coeffidents, one for each schedule, viz. coe^ for
the semi-diumal terms, nn aX for the diurnal, and )— | nn' X for
the terms of long period. In each schedule the third column, headed
" coefficient," gives the functions of / and e. |n the fourth column
b given the mean semi-range of the corresponding term in numbers,
whidi is approximately the value of the coeJBBdent in the first column
when /"w; but we pass over the explanation of the mode of
computing the values. The fifth column contains arguments,
linear functions of I, h, s, P, r, C* In JA, i.] 7t-\-7(k-'9) and in
(A, ii.] t-|-(k— r) are common to all the arguments. The argu-
ments are grouped in a manner convenient for subsequent computa-
tion. Lastly, the sixth is a column of speeds, being the hourly
increases of the arguments in the preceding column, estimated in
degrees per hour. It has been found practically convenient to
denote each of these partial tides by an initbl letter, arbitrarily
chosen. In the first column we give a descriptive name for the tide,
and in the second the arbitrarilv chosen initial.
The schedule for the solar tides b drawn up in precisely the same
manner, the only difference being that the coefficients are absolute
constants. In oiraer that the comparison of the importance of the
solar tides with the lunar may be complete, the same univerwl
coefficient |^ 0j o b retained, and the specbl coeffictent for each
term b made to involve the factor ^:
am'smasB. With
To write down any term, take the universal coeffidcnt, tlx
general coefficient for the class of tides, the spedal coefficient, and
multiply by the cosine of the argument. The result,
taken with the positive sign, is a term in the equilibrium
tide, mth water covering; the whole earth. The transi-
tion to the actual case By the introduction of a factor
and a delay of jdiase (to be derived from observation)
has been already explained. The sum of aU the terms b the
c j um p l ete impression for the height of tide h.
k must H- — m.*-v-^ fVat the schedule of tides b here largely
abridged ~ who desires fuller information must
cofiat to for 1883, or vol. i. of C. H. Darwin's
Sb^ Manual Q/Tidu.
Here r, - 1^^, m, belqg the
Universal Coefficient-^^ (>)'«.
i. — Semi-diurnal Tides; General Coeffictent -cos* X.
»(i+i#)|dat/
■454 i«
■OJ9J0
H+KA-r.)
■Ht'i>'U-P)
Desm
»t^*4I04<"
iL — Diurnal Tides; General Coefficient* sin 2X.
DcKTlptivc
Namt.
portioQ)
(i-fii>)ktfai«i#ft/
O-fl^Htto/cMl
'ttits
•Q36SI
l+l*-r).
iSwnc»
iS'o«M6ac*
iii.— Long Period Tides; General Coefficient }— { sin'X.
Chaos* of
ana
Fort-
•iglthr.
:}
(»+|«^)l(i-|ifaV)
•«S>J4'
•07t»7
\ nA.the'
'«}
B.-SckiduU of Solar Tides.
Universal Coeffident - J-^ 0) V
S£i
i.— Semi-diurnal Tides; General Coefficient -cortL
(labr
portbo)^
Liincr
••iiw
•oiSii
30-0«»U7i*
*9-«s80314*
ii.— Diurnal Tides; General Coefficient* sin aX.
•<*7»$
■«8407
I-4+I*
<+*-*•
>4'0s>asi4*
■S-a4*o6aar
iii.— Long Period Tides; General Coefficient-)—} siiAk
oiAnsT^
From the fourth columns we see that the coefficienta in de-
scending order of magnitude are Ma. Kt (both eombined). S«p
0» Kt (hinar), N, P, Ki (wbr) Ks (both combined). -.^^
K, (lunar), Mf . O. K. (solar), 5s. ^ ^^ , *^ •^
The tides which we omit from the schedules a
rebtively unimportant, but nevertheless commonly
evaluated in accurate tidal work, are all lunar tides, viz. the follow-
ing semi-diurnal tides; the smaller elliptk tide L, the larger and
smaller evectional tides p, X, the variational tide i». Also the fol-
lowing dlnmal tides, viz. the smaller elliptic tide-Mi, a tide of speed
7+ir-0 called J. Also amongst the tides of long period, the
luni-solar fortnightly called MSL
The tides depending on the fourth power of the roooa'a parallax
»The mean valucof thiscoeffictcni b §(i -f |e')(i -|»inS)^i - Jsn^^}
- -as, and the variable part is approximately - U -F|<*) sin t coa i sin^
cos M cos AT-— -0328 cos JV.
TIDE
955
ariat horn Che potential Vm^ (| eoe* e-| eoe t). They |$ve
riee to 4 eraeO dfainiai tide Mi, and to a tmaUter-dhinal tide Ma;
but we thall not give the analytical development.
§ 96. Cher-Tidu. Compound Tides ami UeUeroUfueil Tidtt.—
We have in | 33 stated lesulte derived from dynamical theory as
J T to over-tides, which repreaent the change of profile
«/»w*#^H» of the wave as it advances in shallow water« The only
tides in which it has hitherto been thought necessaiy to leprescnt
this chaoge of form belong to the principal lunar and principal
solar series. Thus, besides the fundamental astronomical tides
Mt and Si. the over-tides M« Ma. Ma and S* S« are usually deduced
by harn>A'*'C analysis.
Compound tides have been also refened to in 1 33: they reptesent
a result of the combination of two waves of different speeds travd-
^ ling through shallow water. On combining the q>eeds
-.^-1 of the important tides, it will be found that there is
in many cases a compound tide which has itself a speed
id«itical with that of an astronomical or meteorological tide. We
thus find that the tides O, Ki. P. Ma. Mf. Q. Mi, L are liable to
perturbation in shallow water. We rder to the BriL Assoc. Report
for 1883 or to Harris's Manual for a schedule^ with initials, of the
compound tides which are usually evaluated.
All tides whose period u an exact mulriple or submultiple of a
mean solar day. or of a tropical year, are affected by meteorological
mg^ggg^ conditions. Thus all the tides of the principal sdar
lagtat astronomical series S, with q)eeds t— e> 3(y— ^).
tSZT Sd^"*)* &c., are subject to more or less meteorologica]
perturbation. An annual inequality in the diurnal
meteorological tide S| will also give rise to a tide 7-311, and
this will be fused with and indistinguishable from the astronomical
P; it will also give rise to a tide with iperd y, which wOl be in-
distinguishable from the astronomical part of Ka Similariy the
astronomical tide Ka may be perturbed by a semi-anniial ineouality
in the semi-diurnal astronomical tide oi speed 2(y-^). AltJiougo
the diurnal tide Si or 7 — f and the semiannual and annual tides
of speeds 2f and i| are all quite insensible as arising from astronomical
causes, yet they have been found of sufficient importance to be con-
sidered. The annual and semi-annual tides are of enormous
•mporunce in some rivers, representing in fact the yearly flooding
in the rainy season. In the reduction of these tides the alignments
of the S aeries are /, it, 3/, &c., and of the annual, semi-annual,
ter-annuaf tides A, 3A, 3A. As far as can be fcM-eseen, the magni-
tudes of these tides are constant from year to year.
i 27. On the Form of Presentation of Results of Tidal OhservaHons.-^
Supposing » to be the speed of any tide in degrees per mean solar
. ^_^_ hour, and i to be mean solar time elapsing since o^ of
^**!f ^" the first day of (say) a year of continuous obaervatbn,
fflnMalfc '^^^ ^® immediate result of harmonic analysis is to
"*'T"r obtain a height R and an angle f such that the height
'"■■'^'* of this tide at the time t is given by
Rco8(iK-r).
R is the seni-nuige of the tide (sav) in British feet, and f ia an an^
such that tfn is the time elapsing after o^ of the first day untfl
it is high water of this particular tide It is obvious that f may
have any value from o* to 360*. and that the results of the analysis
of successive years of obsovation wQl not be comparable with
one another when presented in this form.
But let us suppose that the resulta of the analyaia are presented
in a Bomber of terms of the form
fHcosCr+n-s),
where V is a linear function of the moon's and sun's mean longi*
tudes, the mean longitude of the moon's and son'* p erig ees, and
P^^f^rmt *^ ^^"^ mean solar time at the place of obaiervation,
rS tt^^ reduced to angle at 15* per hour. V increaars uni-
riiiiifla '^<**^y ^^l> uic time, and ita rate of increaae per
mean aolar hour is the s of the first method, and
b called the speed of the tide. It is supposed that 11 sunds
for a certain function of the longitude of the node of the lunar
orbit at an qioch half a year btcr than 0^ of the first day. Strictly
speaking, u should be taken as the same function of the longitude
of flie moon's node, varying as the node moves; but, as the varia-
tion IS bnt small in the course of a year. 11 may be treated as a
constant and put equal to an average value for the year, which
average value is taken as the true value of n at exactly mid year
Together V+u constitute that function which has been tabulated
as the ' argument " in the schedules of 1 25. Since K-f-a are
together the whole argument according to the equilibrium theory
of tides, with sea covering the whole earth, it follows that nfn is
the lagging of the tide which arises from kinetic action, friction of
the water, impeifcct daaticity of the earth, and the distribution
of land It is supposed that H b the mean value in British feet of
the aemi-range of the particular fide in ooestion: f b a numerical
factor of augmentation or diminurion, due to the variability of
the obli9uity of the lunar orbit The value of f b the ratb of the
'* coefficient " m the third colunu of the preceding schedules tp
I value of the same term. It is obvious, then, that* if the
MB year to year. H and « abguld
mne oat the auM fxt» each ytVa reduetiDiia. It la only wImb
the results are preacnted in auch a form aa thb that it will be poaaibte
to judge whether the harmonic analyab b < ' '"
Thb mode of ^viqg the^tidal resulta b also
for the uae of a tide-predicting machine (aee § 8).
We muat now ahow how to determine H ain a from R and f. It
b clear that H«-R/r. and the determination of I from the achedulea
dependa on the evaluation of the mean value of each of the tema
in the achedulea, into which we ahall not enter. If Ka be the valiat
of K at o^ of the first day wheai b aero, than deariy
BO that «-f+Va+a
Thua the rule for the determination of s b: Aid to Ike nabu •/
t tie oalue ef the argument ai ^ of Ike first day.
The results of harmonic analysb are usually tabulated by giving
H, K under the initial letter of each tide; the resulu are thus cei»-
parable from year to year.* For the purpose of using ^|^,
the tide-predicting machine the proceasof determining j^^,,,.
H and « from K and f has simply to be revenedL *«■»■■■■•
with the difference that the instant of time to which to refer
the argument b o^ of the first day of the new year, and we must
take note of the different values of u and f for the new year. Tables*
have been computed for f and n for all longitudes of the momi'a
node and for each land of tide, and the mean longitudea of moon,
aun, and lunar perigee may be extracted from any ephemeris.
Thus when the mean semi-range H and the retardation « of any
tide are known its height may be computed for any instant. The
sum of the he^hts f or all tbe principal tides of course givea the
actual height 01 water.
I 38. Numerieal Barmonic iinolyifi.— The tide^gaoipe furnishes
us with a continuous graphkal record of the height <? the water
above some known datum mark for every instant of ^ ^
time. The first operatron performed on the tidal 'JJJJJ
record b the measurement in feet and decimals of the cunm.
height of water above the datum at every mean solar
hour. The period chosen for analysb b about one year and the
first measurement corresponds to noon.
If T be the period of any one U the diurnal tklea, or the double
period of any one of the semi-diurnal tides, it approximates more
or leas neariy to 3a solar hours, and, if we divide it into 34 equal
parts, we may $ptak of each as a T-hour.
The process of harmonk: analysb consists of finding the average
height of water at each of the 24 T-hours of the T-day, but we shall
not go into the way in which thb may be done.' it must suffice
to say that it depends on the fact that fai the long run any given
T-hour will fall at all hours of any other special day.
The final outcome b that we obtain the height of water at each
of the 34 T-hours of a T-day, freed from the influence of all the other
tides. We mav see that it b thus possible to isoUte the T^tide
When thb has been done let f denote T-tiroe expressed in T-hours,
and let M be 15*. Then we express the height k as given by tlw
averaging process above indicated by the formula
Jb«iAa-l*Ai cos m-f-Bi sin «i/ + Aa cos aiil-fBs aia 3nl-H . . .,
where I b o, i, 3. . . . 33.
See the article HAMComc Analysis for the numerical pro c ea a ea
by which A« At, Bi. At. Bib Ac., may be evaluated. It b obvioua
that such a formula as A cos nl+B un nt may easily be reduced to
the form R ens (nt—f) An actual nuroericar example of harmonic
^natysb of tidal obeervations b given in the Admiralty Scientific
Manual (1886) m the article "Tides." or G. H. Darwin^ SciewHfic
Papers, voL I
V.->Stnthetic Mstboo
I 39. On fke Method and Notation.— The general nature of the
synthetk method has been already explained; we now propose
to show how the expreaaiona for tbe tide may be devekiped from the
result aa expressed in the harmonic notatkm. If it should be
desired to make a comparison of the results of tidal observation
as* expressed in the synthetic method with those of the harmonit.
method, or the converse^ or to compute a tide-table from the har-
monic constants by reference to the moon's trandts and the declina-
tions and parallaxes of sun and moon, analytu:al expressions founded
on a procedure indicated in the following sections are necessary.
In chapter I v. the mean semi-range and angle of retardation 01
any one of the tides have been denoted by H and c We shall
here, however, require to introduce several of the H's and s's into
the same expression, and they must therefore be distinguished
from one another. This may in geneial be done conveniently by
writing as a subscript letter the inithJ of the co r re s ponding tide:
for example H«. ■«, will be taken to dettote the H and « of the
lunar tide Mt. This notatkm does not suit the Kj and K| tides,
* See. for example, a collection of results by Baird and Darwin,
Proi Roy Soc. (1 885). No. 3^9, and a more extensive one in Harris's
Manual.
> Report on Harmonic Analysis to Brit. Assoc. (1883), and more
xtended table in Baird's Manmal of Tidal Observation (London.
1887;
^'L
Darwin's Tides for an account without mathfraatifs.
956
TIDE
KlkttMl
i n'tT far Ike
H'. «" far the diaraal K« lid& Ihtat two ^
to adered tine and arise fnMB the wan and moiMi
qrathob of the two pafts cf cack h effected ia
mrthod. ahhiwuh that syulhe a is b not rtpbiaed in chapter iv.
It b aov aeoeaBary to rererae thb partial syatbesis, ia order to obtain
• waan complftr ooe: We mnst therefore aole that the ratio of
the aohr to the hnar part of the total Ks tide is o-^^^ofj; so that
94mi H' b the hiaar portioo of the total K» There wiB be no
orrawno to Kpaiate the two p oi tiu i w of Ki. aad we riiaD reiaia
the s]mtheBS which b effected la the harHnnic method.
i yn S t Mi Dimnai Ttda.'—Tht naaaem »iopud b to replace
of the Khcdaks
*;"*5*^tefm of the
y*f oflasbyht
!?'?""- ■ At the tia
.^^ n*. uac tiiae I CaieaB aobr tine of port ledoced to
^ angle) let ^ 1. if be >'s RA^ drrfinatinn. and hoar-
aagle. aiod / »*s loiMptade ineawued froa> the ** inter-
•ectioo.** These and other qrmbob when written with
a sabscript accent are to apply to the sun. Thenrbeiag
the ILA. of the intersectaoo. we have from the risht-
«aiM «plKfical tiiaacle of which the odesare 2. A. «-r the idatjoas
taa (o— »)«ooB/taal,an4 «Ba/anL C49)
Now s~t b the y% wan lu mituJ e m e asui c d from the
and $—p h the mean anomaly; heme appnnrimatejy
i-«-«-|-ar an (»-#).
From (49) and (50) we have appranmatdy
«-» + (•'-{) -I- a« sin (*-^)-tan"|/«m»Ci-0.
Now. h being the O's mean tooptude. I -|- A b the sidereal hoar-
anele.aad #>x + i-«.
Hence
l-f &-«- (r-0 «f +3e sin C>-i>) -tai^ i / an 2Cs-0-
Afaia, if we pot
oorfA -1 >|nn»/
we have appnadmately from (49) and (50)
ooA — oos'A
(SO)
(51)
— ^SS ^C«2(,-|)J
sinlco»» tf . , ^l"
(ss;
ObviomfyA b anch a decUaatioa that sin* A bthe mean valne of
an* i during a lunar month. Again, if i* be the ratio of the »'s
an paralbiT, the equation to the '"
I dP
1(1-^)1
(54)
A of { M that the argoments of aO
' ■ la
Now it appeals in ad ^ ^^
the lunar aemi-diama] tkks are of the farm 3(/+A— r) ^ 3(x— i) or
* (s— ^). It b dear, therefore, that the cosines of such an^es may
by the relatioiis (51). (S3). (54) be expressed ia terms of hour-angles,
dfrlinations and paraUazes. Also by means of (52) we may intro-
duce A in place of / in the coefficients of each term. An
mate formula for A b 16-51* -(-3-44* cos N— 0-19* cos 2N.
will be faand in the JlrtL Xrtoc. Htpart for 1885.
We shall i»ot follow the analytical pioce MO in detail, bot the
formulae given show the possibility of replacing the syrabob used io
the laethod of harnwoic anal ysb by others iniroivingRlA., d ecl i natio n
BdCore giving the resaha of the p ro ce s s e s im&ated it mnst be
remarlDBd that greater succiactiKss u obtained by the introduction
M^^n^ a( the symbol i' to denote the »'s declinatioo at a time
2nmi!mi ***^^ ^''^ ^^^'^ ^ observation by an interval which
f^g^^g^ Bay be called the " age of the declinational inequality.**
^^ and b computed from the formula tan (c'— ««);2v or
CmfWBttamx,^'^ ^''^ ^' '^' Similarly, it b convenient to
mtroduoe P* to denote the value of P at a time earlier
than that of observatioo by the ** age of the paraiUrtic inequality."
to be computed from tan («• — «i)7U— ai) or 105-3^ tan («• — >•)
These two " ages *' probably do not differ in general much from a
third period, oompoted from (p«— O/aU— «). which b called the
"ageof thetide^'^
The similar series of tnnrformatioas whea applied to the solar
tides bad to simpler tesolts. because A^ b a constant. beii«
16-33*. «nd tlw " ages " may be treated as aeso: besides the terms
depending on dkjdt and dPJdi are negligible. Formulae for the
senu-diumal tide of great exactness are obtain^>te by means of
these traasfermatioaa, bot they lack the simpltcity of those obtained
fa the h ai mua h. method. On the other hand theyare in some
r e sp e cts even more exact, snice all lunar iaeoualiiics are represented
We shaD not give the complex fomolae whacb rep r esem the com-
abte fliAKtitutKMi of R Jt.. dedimtioa and f >*»«» ia the earlier
ionaabe. bot shall ooatent ootselvca with looghcr results, which
»«MH-€aBf.'-«J.
Letasviilathem
^:
^'^'"^^
Then sre mn that "^ "**ff™ ^rftfc»*yiwini^f I— ^ — ^
maraal tide a rcpfeseateo with a fair degree of anpsnai
h».licos3(#-p) + ii.oaa2(^.-^
The first of these a the famar tide, and it wfll be ijiwiiul
the height M depends oa the cube of the mooa*s
(SS)
that
the mo '
ef tbe
tide, rep r tjenten by
ineqoahty.
Inese
^-#0^)
(S7)
The formulae (u). (^) 1
comp u tation of a ode-table givca in the XAnroffey 1
(1886).
L31. SrwOttsh tf Lmmr ami Sdar Sewu-Dmnml TMhi In
the excess of »'s over Q's RJL, so that
A-.-«^
t-# + A.
-M cos 3(#-^)-|-M. c« 2!^-i-A-
The synthesb b thea completed by writiag
H cosaCn-^)-' M+M, cos 3(A«Pb4^),
H aa aC^-f)-^ M, « »(A-^-f,),
so that . lk«H ooa a(^-#). (58)
Then H b die height of the total semi-diaraa] tide aad^kTy— ^ ^}
or apprasimately Hit—*) or A f , when 4 b given ia ijart,^
degrees, b the tntcnral ** from the mooa's transit to tm •assto
hi^ w ater. ^_ s^*
The fuimiiue for H and ^ any be wriUca Vksmt
H-VIM«-|-M,«+3MM,cos3CA-,^-|-^| )
M^sina(A--#.-|-ji) 1. (5^
Since A goes thnmgh its period in a faaatioa. it floBowa that R and
4 have meqnaKties with a period of k^a faasnua ^ ....
These are called the " fortiqghdy iaeqoafitics ia the
bebht and mtervaL
Spring tide obvioosiy ocean whea A^m^a
vafaae of A b s~h (the diffei e nt e of the aa
the mean values of p and m, arc |^. J«» i
value of the period ebpsing aher foB amoa aad chaagt of 1
op to spring tide b (k«~««)/7(«— «). The a—iali i m of qaiag
tide with fuH and change b obvious, and a fiction has beea adopted
by which it b held that spring tide b gcaemted ia ihaae coa-
figmations of the mooa and sun. bat takes some taaK feo seach tte
poet of obscrvatioa. Accordingly j(c»—*^''(*~~^ ^
been ,----'
' ^^'^^ -k-|-i*.COS2(A-^-hJ-
1 called the "age of the
The aw
Amt
t36 hoara aa far as ofaser\atiaas have
age of the tide appears aot i _ __, _
from the ages of the dcdinatiooal and parallactic iaequaKties.
In computing a tide-table it b fomid p ra ctica lly rimn aii 11' ax
to ase A, which b the diffcscace of RA. s at the aalauaa tisse d
high-water, bat to refer the tide to Ai^ the dMiiiWA of lUL's at
the tnne of the amoo's txaasit. It b dear that M a the apparcst
to aagb at l$* per Wmr. Wt
eof thei
as tn
have aheady reamrked that «/<t
' to " "
-Wn/«) a the saterval froa
A-*.+'-^^i*5S^
As aa appitndmation we may attribate to a8 the qaaatlLfs
m the aeoond term their mean values, aad we ^
have
A-*. + ^>
and A— a,+a-A«— p^+^-^Jp-A.— #!, + 5ta.
Thb approximate foranda (61) may be ased m ct
(59) the lortaigfatly meqnalitv ia the ^height ** aad "
In thb invcstigatioo wr have api i u a d that the
aad parallactic conectioas are applied to the faaar a
before dieir syathesb; bat it b obvtoos that the
reversed, aad that
basedoa a
Thbbthe
of n wapa iiag the fottsMhtly Ja M ai Bij, cqaoaly by
aieihods. b aot gnat, aad the pha here a
fi ^ JMaraaTrsda
lat we nay farm a tableo f thefart ajghtly ^— "f- ■ ^'y
values H« aad H« aad afterwards apply concctso^
em asaaliy adopted bat it b km exact. Thefabom
with muck coaiplctcaBM In Ike milietic method. la the tide-
tables of Che Bfitiib Admiralty we fend that the lidee at tome ports
are "affected by dmraal inequalitr"; euch a sta tem e nt may be
inteipceted as meaning that the tioca afe not to be predicted by
the mfonnatioa given in the io<alled tide-table^ The diurnal
tides are indeed complesc and do not lend, themselves easily to a
complete synthesis. In the hannonic notation the three important
tides are Ki. O, P. and the lunar portion of Ki is nearly equal to O
tn height, whilst the solar portion u nearly equal to P. A complete
synthesis may be carried out on the lines adopted in treating the
semi>diumal tides, but the advantage of the plan is lost in conse-
quence of large oscillations of the amplitude through the value xer-^
•o that the tide is often represented by a negative quantity multipl.ed
by a circular f unctioo. It is best, then, only toattempt a partial syn-
thesis, and to admit the existence of two diurnal tides. One of these
will be a tide consisting of Kt and P united, and the other will be O.
We shall not give the requisite formulae, but refer the reader to
the Brit, Aiscc. Report for 1885. A numerical example is given in
the Admiralty Manual for 1866.
\ l^ Ontke Rediuiim ef Obfervatimu pf Hi^ and Lm-WaUry-
A continuous register of the tide or observation at fixed intervals
of time, such as each hour, is certainly the best; but for the adequate
use of such a record some plan analogous to hannonic analysis is
necessary. Observations of h^b- and low-water only have, at least
■ntil recently, been more usual. In the reduction the immediate
object is to connect the times and heights of high- and low-water
wfth the moon's transits by means of the establishment, aae and
fortniglnly inequality in the interval and height. The reierence
of the tide to the establishment is not, however, sdendficaUy
desirable, and it is better to determine the mean establishment,
which is the mean interval from the moon's transit to high-water
at spring tide, and the age of the tide^ which is the mean penod from
full moon and change 01 moon to spnng tide.
For these purposes the observations may be conveniently treated
graphically.' An equally divided horizontal scale is taken to
represent the twelve hours of the clock of civil time,
regulated to the time of the port, or — more accurately —
arranged always to show apparent time by being fast
or slow by the equation of time; this time-scale represents
the timc-of<lock of the moon's transit, either upper or
,. _ The sc^ is perhaps most conveniently arranged
in the order V. VI.. . .XII. I. . . IIIlT Then each interval of tune
from transit to high-water is set off as an ordinate above the corre-
sponding time-of<lock of the moon's transit. A sweeping curve
is drawn nearly through the tops of the ordinates* so as to cut off
minor irregularities. Next along the same ordinates are set off
lengths conesjponding to the height of water at each high-water.
A second simflar figure may be made for the interval and height
at low-water. In the curve of high-water intervals the ordinate
corresponding to Xll. is the establishment, since it gives the time
of high-water at full moon and change of moon. That ordinate of
high-water Intervals which is coincident with the greatest ordinate
of high-water heights gives the mean establishment Since the
moon s transit falls about fifty minutes later on each day, in setting
off a fortnight's observations there will be about five days for each
four times-of<lock of the upper transit Hence in these figures
we may regard each division of the time-scale I to II, II to III,
Acm as representing twenty-five hours instead of one hour. Then
the distance from the greatest ordinate of high-water heights to
Xil is called the age of the tide. From these two figures the times
and heights of high- and low-water may in general be predicted with
fair approximation. We find the lime-of -clock of the moon's upper
or lower transit on the day. correct by the equation of time, read
off the corresponding bdghts of high- and low-water from the figures,
and the intervals being also read off are added to the time of the
moon's transit and give the times of high- and low-water. At all
ports there is. however, an irregularity of heighu and intervals
between successive tides, and in consequence of this the curves
present more or less of a zigzag appearance . Where the np»^ is
perceptible to the eye. the curves must be smoothed by drawing
them so as to bisect the zigzag, because these diurnal inequalities
will not present themselves similariy in the future. When, as in
some equatorial ports, the diurnal tides are large, this method of
tidal prediction fails in the simple form explained above. It may
however be rendered applicable by greater daboration.*
This method of working out obsnvations of high- and low-water
was not the earliest. In the Uicanique CUuU, bks. I and v., Laf^ace
treats a laige mass of tidal observations by dividtns them into
classes depending on the configurations ol the tide-generating
bodies. Thus he separates the two syzygial tides at full moon and
change of moon and divides them into equinoctial and solstitial
tides. He Ukes into consideration the tides of several days
I Founded 00 Whewell's article " Tides," in Admiralty Manual
(^ 1841), and on Airy's " Tides and Waves," in £iicy. Mttrap.
*For a numerical treatment, sec Dirtctions tor Rediuini Tidal
Obiervationtt by Commander Burdwood, R.N. (London, 1870).
* Gu H. Darwin " Oa Tidal Prediction." FktL Trams. (1891), vol.
«89 A.
TIDE 957
amfandfic tfant coafiaradoM. He foce tfcroui^ the tides at
quadiattirai on the Mme general plan. The effects of declinatloa
and perallay and the diurnal inequalities are «milariy ^^._. «
treated. Lubbock (PkiL Trow,. i«3l, seq.) improved the f^«* •^
method «f Laplace by taking into account all the ob- '
' those
served tides, and not merely t
ooafiffuiations. He divided tl
ber oil classes. Fiist, the tides are separated into parcels, one for each
appertaining to certam i^^-^
the observadons into a num- """•"
month ; tfaea each pared is sorted according to the hour of the moon's
transit. Another clasafication is made according to declination;
another according to paralhx; and a last for the diurnal inequalities.
This plan was followed in treating the tides of London, Brest, St
Helena, Plymouth, Ptortsroouth and Sheeraeaa Whewell {PkiL
Trans., 1834, seq.) did much to reduce Lubbock's resulu to a mathe-
matical form, and made a highly important advance by the intro-
duction of gtaplucal methods by means of curves. 'The method
explained aSove is due to him. Airy remarks of Whewell's papers
that they appear to be " the best specimens of leductioa of new
obaervations that we have ever seen."
VL— Hdal DsroiMATioN or tbx Soud Eaktb
I 34- ElasHe rides.— The tide- gener ating potential varies as
the eqoareof the distaaoe from the earth's centre, and the correspond-
ing forces act at every point throughout its enaaa No ».«m>
solid matter posseises the property of absolute rigidity, nST
and we must there f ore admit the probaMe existence '****
of tidal ebstic dcfomation of the solid earth. The problem of
finding the state of stmia of an elastic nhere und
was first sdved by^ G. Lam^: * he made, however, but^'few physical
deductions from his sdutioa. An independent solution was found
by Lord KelYin** who drew some interesting coodusioas concerning
the earth.
His problem, in as far aa it Is now material, b as follows. Let
a sphere of radius a and density « be made of elastk: material
whose bulk ajid rigidity moduli are k and u, and let it be subjected
to foices due to a potential per unit volume, equal to rmr*(m.iA.-'\),
where X is latitude. Then it is required to bnd the strain of the
sphere. We refer the reader to the oriainal sources for the methods
ol solution applicable to spherical shells and to solid spheres. The
investigation sipplies cither to tidal or to rotational stressea In
the case of tides r^lmfi*, m and c beine the moon's mass and
disunce. and in the case of rotation r*- "W* « being the aimilar
velocity about the polar axia The equation to the surface is found
In most solids the bulk modulus is consideraUy larger than the
rididity modulus, and in this discussion it is suflxlent to neglect u
compared with k. With this approximation, the dlipticity e of
the surface becomes
Kow suppose the sphere to be eodu^ with the power of graviutioo.
and write
where g 7s gravity at the surface of the globe. Then, if there were
no elasticity, the ellipticity would be given by e-r/j, and without
gravitation by e^r/r. And it may be proved in several ways that,
gravity and dastidty co-operating,
t T I
'" FTi" 9- i+r/9-
If a be the rigidity of steel, and if the globe have the size and mean
density of the earth, r/s->2. and with the rigidity of glass r/a*].
Hence the ellipticity of an earth of steel under tide-generating force
would be I of that of a fluid eanh, and the fraction for glass would
be |. If an ocean be superposed on the globe, the visible tide will
be the excess of the fluid tide above the solid tide. Hence for sted
the oceanic tides would be reduced to {, and for glass to | of the
tides on a rigid earth.
It is not poi»ble in general to compute the tides of an ocean lying
on an unyielding nucleus. But Laplace argued that friction would
cause the tkles of long penod (i 17) to conform to the eouilibrium
law. and thus be aiiwnable to calculation. Acting on this belief,
C. H. Darwin discussed the tides of long period as observed during
33 years at various ports, and found them to be | as great as on an
unyielding globe, indkating an elasticity equal to that of steel.*
Subsequently W. Schweydar repeated the calculation from 194 years
of observation with neariy tlie same result.' But as Lapbce's
argument appeere to be unsound (f 17)* the conclusion seems to
become of doubtful validity. Yet subsequently Lord Rayleigh showed
* TMorie malk. de rilasticiii (1866). p. 3(3-
nson and Tait. Pfat. Pkil. f f 73^737 and 833-^, or Phil.
1863). pt. ii.. p. 583. Compare, however, j. H. Jeans, PkiL
• Thomson and Tait. ffat. PkiL f f 73^737 and 833-^,
Traiir. (1863), pt. ii.. p. 583. Compare, however, j. H. Jea
Trans. (1903). 20f A, p. 157.
• Thomson & Tait. Nal. Pkil. f 843.
• Beitrd^t tmr Ctopkytik (1907) ix. 41.
958
TIDE
ch&t the existence In the oceen of cotinmtal berricrt wooM have
the same effect as that attributed by Laplace to (rictiom and thus
he re-established the soundness of the result.*
A wholly independent estimate derived from what b called the
variation of latitude also leads to the aaan oooclnsion. namely that
the earth is nbout as stiff as steel.*
The theory of the tides of an elastic planetjnves, mnJolis mnlamdis,
that of the tides of a viscous spheroid. The reader who desires
to know more of this subject and to obtain icfcreaoes to original
memoirs may refer to C. H. Darwin's Tides,
VII.—TlDAL FUCTIOV
1 3^ J«W3fi(a/i4» «/ <^ StaJar Effects af Tidal Fneiwm.—Vfe
have mdkated in general terms in i 9 that the theory of tidal friction
leads to an interesting speculation as to the origin of the moon.
We shall therefore invc»Ugate the theory mathematkalljr in the
cue where a planet is attended by a single satellite moving in a
circular orbit, and rotates about an axis perpendicular to that
orbit. In order, however, to abridge the investigation we shall only
consider the case where the planetary routkm ts more rapid than
the satellite's orbital motion.
Suppose an attraaive particle or satellite of mam « to be moving
in a circular orbit, with an angular velocity m, round a planet
of mass M and suppose the pluwt to be rotaring about an axis
perpendicular to the plane of the orbit, with an angular vriocity
n; suppose; also, the mass of the planet to be partially or wholly
impetfectly elastic or viscous, or that there are oceans 00 the sur-
face of the pbnet; then the attraction of the mtellite must produce
a relative motion in the partt of the planet, and that morion must
be aubject to friction, or. in other wosds. there must be frictional
tides of some sortorother. The mrstcm must accordingly
be losing eneiry by friction, and iu configuration must
. ' change in such a way that its whole energy diminiriies.
arnasMA. 5„^ ^ system does not differ anich from thoseof actual
pbnets and atelUtes, and, therefo r e, the resuhs deduced in this
h\-pothetical case must agree pretty doaely with the actual course
of e\-olutaon. pro\ided that rime enough has been and will be civen
for such changes. Let C be the m ome n t of inertia of the plancc
about its axis of rotarion. r the distance of the mtelltte from the
centre of the planet. * the resultant moment of momentum of the
whole system, « the whole energy, both kinetic and potential, of the
sv*stcm. It is assumed that the Mure of the planet and the distribo-
tjon of its internal density are snch that the attraction of the satellite
causes no couple about any axb perpendicular to that of rotation.
A special s\^cm of units of mass, length and time will now be
adopted such that the analytical results mav be reduced to their sim-
plest forms. Let the unit of mass be Urn, (Jf -|-m). Let the unit of
Vagth y be such a distance that the moment of inertia of the planet
about its axis of rotation nay be equal to the moment of uertia
of the planet and satellite, treated as particles, about their centiv
cf inerua, when distant y apart from one another. Thb condition
giv«
-iB^'-^-G^*-^'
Let the unit of rime r be the time in which the atetlite revolves
through 57-3* about the planet, when th« aatelbte's radius vector
is equal to >. This s>-stcm of units «iU be found to make the
three following fonctaoos ench equal to unity. \'ix.
^MmiM-i-m)-*, jii/M. and C. where ^ is the attiac^
tiooal constant. The uniu are in fact derived from the
OMMideratioa that these functions shall ench be unity. In the
rase of the earth snd moon, if we take the moon's mass as ,S of
the earth's a*^ the earth's moment of inertia as |J/a* \as is vef^
frMriy the ca<e\ it nuy easily be shown that the unit of mass ts
»'. .^ihe earth's mass, the unit o( lei^;th ^-36 earth's ndii or 33.^
kJL>metres (20 ^07 mi^\ and the umt of rime 2 h*^ 41 nuns.
_ ^ In these unit* the present angul&r ^-ekidiy of the
^***— ^*f earth's divreal rt>taf(:?n is expressed by 0-7044. and the
•••"■•^moon's present ndius vector by 11*454- The two
bodies betes st:rr«>Md to fe\\>:\^ tn circles about thctr common
centre of ir<rtia «i:h an aagxAlar velocity w, the moment of momen-
tum of orbital mcticn is
Then, by the taw of periodfc times in a circabr oririt,
whnot •w*-ASir-f-ai;<A
-nJjrm<Jf + ■>-»»*.
awl in the sfccul nnits thb is eqoal to r^. The moment of momen-
tvtm of the plaaK^s rotation is C^ and C- 1 in the spccxal units.
Therefore A-a-fr*. (62)
Smce the moc«*s HLJtat ndssa vector is lI*4St* it foScws chat
tW oihAal mMsentcn «f the troco is 3'3&|. .Xddlvg to this the
ratMioAal momentnm of thecanh. «hlch ia 0*701, me ebtaia 4-oM
for the toul mnment of momentum of the moon and canfc. The
ntio of the orbital to the rotational m o mentu m is 4*80, m> that
the total moment of momentum of the system wtmld, bnt for the
obliquity of the ecliptic, be 580 times that of the ewth'i rotation.
Again, the kinetic energy of orbital motion is
The kinet'ic energy of the planet's rouiion is |Ci^. The potCBtial
energy of the system is — ^Mm/r. Adding the th ree en eigica tofecher,
and transforming into the special units, wc have
a« - *■ - i/r. (6^
Now let xmil, 7-«. r«2e.
It will be noticed that x, the moment of momentnm of orbital
motion is equal to the square root of the satellite's ^^mh^wit from
the planet. Then equations (62) and (63) beoome
A-y + « {«4)
(M m the equation of conservation of moment of
dmnly. the equation of momen t um : (65) is the equa
a system aiartcd with given positive
) is the equation of energy.
yw.. •|ie^K/U.rrena^(li|9).t07A.^
3»».
with given positive awmmt off
momentum k; nnd me have all aoctt of ways m which _ ^
it may be started. If the two rotations be of oppos it e ^?^—
kinds, it is dear that we may atart the system with fff.
any amount of eaerry. h o n c rei- great, but the trwe f^^j^T*
maxima and mininsa meneigy compatible with the given "*"*V^
mooMnt of momentum are supplied by dK/tfr«o^
or X - k -H/r» - ot
that b to my. x* - kx* + 1 - a (66)
We shall presenriy see that this quartic has either two real tootn
and two imaginary, or aO imaginary roots. The
quartic may be derived from quite a different considcra- ***
tnn, viz. by finding the condition under which che^'*'
satellite may moxe round the planet so that the planet '
shall alwavs show the same face to the acellite— in fact. ~
so that they move as parts of one rigid bodyl The |
condition b simply that the »telUte*s orbital anL
velocity m « n. the planet's angular vetocity of rocatkm, ]
or y>i'r*. ancen^y andr««w~l«x. By snbstitwting
this value of jr in the equation of mnmmtnm 464), me gci aa hdbre
x«-kx*+i-OL
At present wv have only obtained one rcank. viz. dmt. If with
given moment flf mome nt um it b po sM bl e to set the sa te Kt e and
planet moving as a rigid body, it b possible ro do so in two wn>'«.
and one of these way* requires a ma s in mm amnnnt of cncf(y arxf
the other a minimum; from dib it b dear that osw mnsi bea rep«c
rotation with the mtellite ncnr the phaet and the other n skiw oar
with the mtellite remote from the planet. Of the three eqwntkms
i-y+x. f67^
K-(fc-x)«-i/a«, i6S>
x*y-i, i6q*
(67) b the eeaation of momentnm, (68) that of energy, amd 'Jsq
may be ca!!ed the equation of ligidity. since tt imficates that tie
two bodies niox-e as though parts of one rigid body.
To illustrate these equations geometrically, we may '
take as absci&sa x, which b the moment ol momentcm t^
of orbital i&crion. so that the axb of x may be caBed ^^
the XTiis of orbital momentum. Abo. Cor equations ^67' ^^^.
ar^d 6q' ve may take as ordinate y. which b the moment
of -^^rsectam of the planet's rtxation, so that the axb of y may be
C3":d the axb cf ratational momrxncra. For (68) we may take a.s
ci-v::aite Y, which b twice the energy of the srsfeem, an that the
I A\» of Y may be calkd the axb ofeoergv* Inen, as it wi2 br
I oTR^T^iest to exhibit aO three curres in the same figme, w«^ a
I parsiv: ivb cf x. we must have the axb of energy i*timl w«h ^at
• of r-tat-xul momentum. It wiB not be nil if to c on akS e i t'oe
case «ytrre the resultant m om ent of iiiiwiiimaia i b neptrtT. be-
cause *.h-s «cj'd cn'.y be equrv-aient to revcxaing aB the rocaticcs: i w
tbcreiore to be takes as esaentiaUy positr««: The Kncof mr— ir ,1 ■
vihjse ec^xatSoo b '67^ b a straight fine incfined at 45* *» eetber
axis, ha\':'"s povithT iatet c e pts on both aiKn. The carve of Tig»irr>
«h?!eeQ--a::?cb '6o- b ckarfy of the same SBtare as a ivctsng..^
hyperbcva. bat it has a much iMre rapid rare of ap o c on d h to the
axb of orbcol mome gra m than to that of r teatirmal mr— . ■ i?-
The tn t er ae c ti oQs t,d xny) of the cnrre cf tim i dity with the E=<e ctf
nxxre -. fjm ha\-e abscssxe which are the two roecs of the qcarrx
x^-fcr'Tt'O^ The quartic has, thervfcre, two red roets er a-t
xmaprary loots^ Then, snoe x«r*. the mtcraecrian which b
tt-tr r'-rrte fr-^-= the crt^j iadJcatcs a ccn^waticn wWrv tVe
! sitHL-.e IS rrt- :e fr:-~. rbe planet: the otbercfx^es the coafc=-at v 9
I ■■'gr e t»5e sitr -te a closer to the planet. We ha"** ahene« lea-Tt
* thit tbcse : mo c-rrespcrd teapeetfrelT to mirint a m assi rouamwi^
eaers>-- \M>« r is \^erv la^e the eq^tJon to the c«f^« ctf euLiij
i* K- 1 — T * wiich b t*>e eq-_ati» to a frshnb wiA a wcrcini
I axb pan^«j ro Y asd <L5tx9t a fma the ccnu se» thus the anss cf
t the paraboSa passes thrsc^ the intersection of the £ne «f movnntoM
TIDE
959
witli the «rii of oibkal mowmom. Wbea 9 fa vwy nulL tlw
equation beooncs K« -i/x*. Hence the exit of Y b eeymptotic
on both sidet to the curve of eaeivy. H the line of nomentnm
intersects the curve of rigidity, the corve of energy has a mannram
vertically underneath the point of interwction nearer the origin
and a minimum nndemeath the |x>int more lemote^ But if these
are no interMctions, it hai no maximum or minimunr.
Fig. 8 ahowe the»e curves when drawn to scale for the case of the
earth and moon, that is to say, with km^. The poinu a and 6.
which are the raaximam and minimum of the curve of energy, are
supposed to be on the same ordinates as
A and B. the intenections of the curve
of rigidity with the line of moroentunu
The mtenection of the line of momentum
with the aaas of orbital momentum fa
Fic. 8.
denoted by D. bat in a finire of thfa siae 't
indistinguishable from B. As the lero of eno
inly
^ J is quite arbitrary
the origin for the energy curve fa displaeed <towBwarda, and this
prevents the two curwes from crotaiag one another in a confusing
manner. On account of the limiutioa imposed we neglect the case
where the quartic has no real rootsi £very point of the line of
nomentum gives by its abscissa and ordinate the square root of
the satellited distance and the rotatioa of the pbnet, and the
ordinate of the energy curve givee the energy comsponding to
each disunce of the satellite. Part of the figure has no phyacal
meaning, for it is impossible for the satellite to move round the
planet at a distance km than the sum of the radii of the planet
and satellite. For example, the moon's diameter being about
2200 m. and the earth's about 8000. the mooa'sdistance cannot be less
than sioo miks. Accordingly a strip fa marked off and shaded on
each side of the vertical axfa within which the figure has no physical
meaning. The point F indicates the present confinration <h the
earth and moon. The curve of rigidity x^* 1 fa tne same for all
values of k, and by moving the line of momentum paralM to itself
■ f g. nearer to or further from the origin, we may represen t
*^**^'*** all poesible moments of momentum of the whole system*
The smallest amount of mcmient of momentam with
which it is possible to set the system moving as a rigid
body, with centrifugal force eaough to balance the
mutual attraction, fa wheo the line of momentum touches
the curve of ricidity. The condition for thfa fa dearly
that the equation x«— JbH+l'-O should have equal roots, if it
hM equal roots* ench root must be ik» and therefore
(|Jk)«-*(lJk)«+i-o.
whence k*»A*l3,\ «* ik -4/3! - 1 -75. The actual value of k for the
mooo and earth fa about 4; hence, if the moon-earth system were
— . started with less than ^ <^ *t* <u:tual moment of momen-
NamZrmt ^^i**' '* would oot be possible for the two bodies to
tunZ ^'^^^ "* ^^^ ^^ ^^^ should always show the same
JM ul^fc, face to the moon. Again, if we travel alons the line
of momentum, there must be some point Tor which
«c* fa a maximum, and since yx**ii/w there must be some point
lor which the number of planetary rotations fa greatest during one
revcrfution of the satellite; or, shortly, there must be some configura-
tion for which there is a maximum number of days in the month.
Now vx* fa equal to x* {k^x). and this Is a maximum when z-*|A
and the maximum number of days in the month is (}A)>(A— |Jk) or
$*k*i4* i if A is equal to 4. as fa neariy the case for the earth and moon,
thfa becomes 37. Hence it follows that we now have very nearly
the maximum number of days in the month. A more accurate
investigation in a paper on the " Precession of a Viscous Spheroid "
in Pkif. Trans. (1870). pt. i.. showed that, uking account of solar
tidal friction and of the obliquity to the ccliptK. the maximum
number of days is about 29, and that we have already passed through
the phase of maximum.
\Aie will now consider the physical meaning of the figure. It is
assumed that the resultant moment of momentum of the whole
Q^^^^ system corresfxmds to a positive rotation. Now
zTj^^^T imagine two points with the same abscissa, one 00 the
"^ iriomentum line and the other on the energy curve, and
suppose the one on the energy cunw to guide that on the momentum
line. Since we are supposing frictional tides to be raised on
the planet, the energy must degrade, and however the two points
are «t inidaily the pote on the eneiir curve RHWt alwaya slide down
n slope, carrying with it the other point. Looking at the figure,
we aee that there are four slopes in the energy curve, two running
down to the planet and two down to the minimum. There are
therefore four ways in which the system may degrade, according
to the way it was started; but we diall only consider one, that
corresponding to the portion ABAa of the figure. For „.
the part of the line of momentum AB the month fa eT^**
longer than the day, and thfa fa the case with all known ^ ^L.
satellites except the nearer one of Mars. Now, if a mtellite yr"*{g;
be placed in the conditionA— that is to say, moving rapidly '
round a pfanet which always shows the same face to the satellite—
the conoition fa deariy dynamically unstabfa. for the least disturb
banoe will detenmne whether the system shall degrade down the
slopes ne or c6-Hhat fa to say. vdMther it falls into or recedes from
the planet. If the equilibrium breaks down by the satellite receding.
the recession will go on until the system nas reached the state
corresponding to B. It fa clear that, af the intersection of the edge
of the shaded strip with the line of momentum be identica with
the point A. which indicates that the satellite fa just touchln^^ the
planet, then the two bodies are in effect parts of a single body in aa
unstabfa configuration. If, therefore, the moon was originally part
of the earth, we dmuld expect to find this identity. Now in fie. 9,
drawn to aoafa to represent the earth and moon* there fa so close
an approach between the edge of the shaded band and the intersec-
tion « the line of momentum and curve of rigidity that it would
be scarcely possible to distingofah tbcm. Hence, there seems a
probability that the two bodies once formed parts of a single one.
which broke up in consequence of some kind of instability. This
VKW fa confirmed by the more drtailod consideration of the case
in the paper on the " Precession of a Viscous Spberosd." already
referred to. and subsequent papers* in the PkU. TransA
136. Efftets of Tidal Friction on ike Elements oj tke Moon's
Orht and on tks Eartk's J^oislson.-- It would be impossible within
the limits of the present articfa to discuss completely the effects
of tidal friction: we therefore confine ourselves to certain general
considerations whkh throw light on the natme of those efTccts.
We have in the preceding section supposed that the planet's axis
fa perpendicufar to the oibit of the satellite, and that the fatter is
circular: we shall now suppose the orbit to be oblique to the equator
and eccentric For the sake of brcarity the pfanet will be called
the earth, and the sntellite the moon. The complete investi^tion
was carried out on the hypothesfa that the pfanet was a viscoue
spheroid, because thfa was the only theory oi frictionaUy resisted
tides which had been worked out. Ahhouch the results would be
practically the oame for anv syaten of frictionaUy resisted tides,
we shall speak belov of the pfanet or earth asn viscous body.'
We shall show that if the tidal retardaekm be small the obliauity
of the ccliptfc increases, the earth's roution fa retarded, and this
moon's distance and peri- j-mm. >..<■#
odac time aw incfensed. f'*^*'
Fig. 9 tepieaents the]
earth as seen from above
the south pole, 00 that S fa the pole
and the outer drcfe the equator. ^ J
The earth's rotation fa in the direo* v**]
tion of the curved aaow at Sw The
half of the inner dsde which fadrawm
with a full line fa a semi«8mall<circfa
of south fatitude. and the dotted
fan semi-smaU-drcfo in
north fatitude. Genen&y
les indicate parts of the
figure which are bekm the plane of the paper. If the s
in twoand one half retained at the pfaee of the moon and the ot
half transported to • point dfametrically opposite to the fbst 1
with reference to the earth, there would be no material change in
the tkle-generating fofces. It fa easy to verify thfa statement by
reference to f It. These two halvcamay be docribod as moon and
aati>moon. and ouch n substitution will facilitate the explanation.
Let M and M' be the projections of the moon and anti-moon on to
the terrestrial sphere. If the fluid in which the tides are raised were
perfectly frictionless,' or if the earth were a perfect ^uid or perfectly
efastic. the apices of the tidal spheroid would be at M and M'. If,
however, there is internal friction, due to any sort of viscosity, the
tides will lag, and we may suppose the tidal apices to be at T and T'.
Now suppose the tJdal protuberances to be repfaced by two equal
heavy particles at T and T', which are instantaneously rigidly con-
nected with the earth. Then the attraction of the moon onT fagreatcr
FiC. 9.
' For further consideration of thfa subject see a series of paper*
by G. H. Darwin in Froued. and Trams, of the Royal Society from
1878 to 1881. and app. G. (fr) t. pt. ii. vol. i. of Thomson and Tait's
Not. PkU, (1883): or ScienHfie Papers, vol H.
"These cxpfanatioos. together with other remarks, are to be
found in the abstracts of G. H. Darwin's UKaoirs in Pfoc. Roy. Soc.,
1B78 to 1861.
MVe here
inverted thee
•We here suppose the tides not to be inverted. II they are
inclusion i ' * '^
I fa precisely the
^€>C>
TIDE
, and that of the anti-mooa on T' b f
r-?»*^
T'. •«*1 ^r* ? *** »«ti-moon on T* fa gnater than on T.
^^"^"Vi.'.wSfTvTT'M-'^^ly • pair of fS^ acting on the
^\%c »^ll »be <>*'**^^*°" * "'i.' M . These forces cause a couple about
Zil^ »* ' • io «»"« *»"*4S:'* !i^"=** .*•" »" **« •»«« meridian as^ibe moon
tH^*iS^i-««*'\,T*J* IftS*"*"***' the couple U shown by^S
S»<* ^ irrtjws at L.L . If the effects of thU couple be compounded
•J!^r«^ *^existing rotation of the earth accordiAg to the prindple
of **^ Sic to fPRJ^JF?,,^; J^!u*** •"Ppwing the moon to move in
«ort*» ffotic. the inchnation of the eaah^s axi. to the ecliptic dlmin-
?be «*=L? the obliquity increases. Next the fofces TM. VW ctoriy
iSved' 5^ »» in the simpler case considered in « 9. a coi^pleVbout thj
i^^f^^jS^ *«^*- "f •''*' '^^"**» ^« '«««» the diufnal rotation.
Sr»*»> "Wneml explanation remains a fair represenution of the
T*»»*j^he <*? " ^;; 3» ^»>* «»i«««»t hamiSnic consiStoenislJ
state 5* rtgate tidfrwave do not suffer very different amounts of
the »g5^- *^ ^t^f^f/i'' ^* ~ *?"« '* ^ vxy^xy U not great.
te«*«^^c>rou» re«"»t for a viscous planet shows that in general the
of ««:? Sro o*?*»?iL*yv" ^''^y dynamicallv suble when the period
of the •»^ble, by «n»»/,cpn»iderations. to obuin some insight
** .lU eS«^ which tidal fncuon must have on the plane of the
into »»** »*'"*'L n il:»^.!l!Jl.*** ^^^^ » somcwCit complex
.-.Jtot^**** «« •*?*" "?; P~««<J to a detailed examination of the
5^2J^ question. It must suffice to say that in general the inclin-
ior5» »tion of the unar orbit must diminish. Now let us con-
%9*r9^ »i<J«' » ?J*""* f«i'P»ving about a pUnet in an elliptic
SS^«*** orbit, with a periodic time which is bng compared with
motion is faster than that of the planet s rot
apogee it is slower; henoe at apogee the tides
they are accelerated. Now the laffging apogean
accelerating force on the satelUte, ac
Bat M may ^.-an distance, whilst the accelerated
^ ..^od of JO^'***? ™ ^"« fenet ; and suppose that f rictional tides
*^* ^«Dd »n '^* pwnet. The major axb of the tidal spheroid
are t»»»«^ alw»y» PO»«ts in advance of the satellite, and exercises
B«r«<Hd«r on It * [oree which tends to accelerate its linear velocity.
^OrtM When thcsatelhte is tn perigee the tides arc higher, and
Ota^rMttr this disturDmg force Is greater than when the satellite is
laci»a»»* in apogee. The oisturbing force may therefore be repro-
^««m1 as a conswnt force, always tending to accelerate the motion
tlZ satellite, to which is added a_peribdic fofce accelerating in
^.riffee and letarding in apogoew The consunt foire causes a
Uruiar increase of the satellite's mean distance and a reUrdation
of its mean motion. The accelerating force in perigee causes the
satellite to swing out farther than it would otherwise have done,
flo that when it comes round to apogee it b more remote from the
olanet. The retarding force in apogee acts exactly inversely, and
diminishes the perij^n distance. Thus, the apogean disunce in-
creases and the perigean distance diminishes, or in other words, the
eccentricity of tne orbit increases. Now consider another case, and
suppose the satellite's periodic time to be identical with that of the
planet's rotation. Then, when the satdlite is in perigee, iu angular
motion is faster than that of the planet's rotation, and when in
-"' "^ the tides las, and at per^ee
Kn tides give rise to an
^ and increase the peri-
gean distance, whilst the accelerated perigean tides give
rise to a retarding force, and decrease the apogean dis-
tance. Hence in this case the eccentricity of the orbit wul diminish.
It follows from these two results that there must be some inter*
mediate periodic time of the satelUte for which the eccentricity does
not tend to vary.
But the preceding general exfJanation is in reality somewhat less
satisfactory than it seems, because it does not make clear the exist-
ence of certain antagonistic influences, to which, however, we shall
not refer. The full investigation for a viscous planet shows that in
general the eccentricity of the orbit will increase. When the viscos-
ity is small the Law of variation of eccentricity is very simple : if eleven
periods of the satellite occupy a longer time than eighteen routions
of the planet, the ecccntriaty increases, and vice versft. Hence in
the case of small viscosity a circular ortMt is only dynamically stable
d the eleven periods are snorter than the eighteen routions.
VIII.— CosMOcoNic Speculations FotmoED ok Tidal Fwctiok
f 37. History of the Earth and Moou.—We shall not attempt to
discuss the mathematical methods by which the complete history
of a planet, attended by one or more satdlites, is to be traced. The
laws indicated in the preceding sections shoW that there is such a
problem, and that it may be solved, and we refer to G. H. Darwin's
Bapcrs for details {PkU. Trans., 1879-1881). It may be interesting,
owever. to give the various results of the investigation in the form
of a sketch of the possible evolution of the earth and moon, lol-
knk-ed by remarks on the other planetary systems and on the solar
qrstcmasawhole.
We begin with a planet not very much more than 8000 m. in
diameter, and probably partly solid, partly fluid, and partly saseous.
It ia rotating about an axis inclined at about 11* or la*^ to the
normal to the ecliptic, with a period of from two to four hours, and
is rewoWing about the sun with a period not much shorter than our
The rapidity of the planet's lotation causes so I also iValiire (Feb. 18, 1886),
great a compressfon of ka figure that it caanot oontiaue to east
in an ellipsotdal form with st&iity : or else it is so nearly unstable
that complete instability is induttd by the solar tides, p |.^ .
The planet then separates into two masses, the larger iT!^.""
being the earth and the smaller the moon. It is jfooelraa
not attempted to define the mode of separation, or ff^^
to say whether the moon was initially a chain of
meteorites. At any rate it must be assumed that the smaller mass
became more or less conglomerated and finally fused into a spheroid,
perhaps in consequence of impacts between its constituent meteor-
ites, which were once part of the primeval planet. Up to this
point the history is largely speculative, for the investigation of the
conditions of instability in such a case surpasses the powers of the
mathematician. We nave now the earth and moon nearly in coo-
tect with one another, and rotating nearly as though ^^
they were parts of one rigid body. This b the system ^^y?
which was the subject of dynamical investigation. As ^T^i"
the two masses are not rigid, the attraction oi each f'^^lT^
distorts the other; and, if they do not move rigorously "■■■•■■■•*
with the same periodic time, each raises a tide m the other. Also
the sun raises tides in both. In consequence of the frictional lesst-
ance to these tidal motions, such a system is dynamically unstable.
If the moon had moved orbitally a little faster than the earth
rotated, she must have fallen bhclc into the earth; thus the exist-
ence of the moon compels us to believe that the equilibrium broke
down by the moon revolving orbitally a tittle slower than the earth
rotates. In consequence of the tidal friction the periodic times
both of the moon (or the month) and of the earth s roution (o>
the day) increase; but the month increases in length at a much
greater rate than the day. At some early stage in the history c^
the system the moon was conglomerated into a spheroidal form,
and acquired a rotation about an axis nearly panlld to that of the
earth.
The axial rotation of the moon is retarded by the attraction of
the earth on the tides raised in the moon, and this reutdation takes
place at a far greater nte than the similar retaidation «^j.„.-
of the earth's rotation. As soon as the moon rotates >*""*^
round her axis with twice the angular vriodty with which she
revolves in her orbit, the position of her axis of rotation (paralfel
with the earth's axis) becomes dynamically unstable. The obli-
quity of the lunar equator to the plane of the ori>lt increases, attains
a maximum, and then diminishes. Meanwhile the lunar axial
rotation is being reduced towards identity with the orbital
motion. Finally, her equator is neariy coincident with the plane
of the orbit, and the attraction of the earth on a tide, which degene-
rates into a permanent ellipticity of the lunar equator, causes her
always to show the same face to the earth.
All this must have ukcn place early in the history of the earth,
to which we now return. At first the month is identical with the
day, and as both these increase in length the lunar orbit ^^
wiU retain its circular form until the month is equal to ^*f j
t-ft days. From that time the orbit begins to be ccoen- ^Tr
trie, and the eccentricity Increases thereafter up to its **•*
present magnitude. The plane of the lunar orbit b at first practically
identical with the earth's equator, but as the moon recedes from
the earth the sun's attraction bcffins to make itself felt. We
shall not attempt to trace the compliex changes by which the plane
of the lunar orbit is affected. It must suffice to say that the
present small inclination of the lunar orbit to the edipiic accords
with the theory.
As soon as the earth rotates with twice the angular vdocity with
which the moon revolves in her orbit, a new instability sets ixu The
month is then about twelve of our present hours, and the day aboct
six such hours in length. The inclination of the equator to the
ecliptic now begins to increase and continues to do so until finally
it reached its present value of 23)*. All these changes continue
and no new phase now supervenes, and at length we have the system
in its present configuration. The minimum time in which the
changes from first to last can have taken i^ce b 5^.ooo,ocx> y^rs.
There are other collateral results which must arise from a supposed
primitive viscosity or plasticity of the earth's mass. For durii^
this course of evolution the earth's mass must have _,^
suffered a screwing motion, so that the polar regions 'tJ
have travelled a little from west to east relatively to the jii*'
equator. This affords a possible explanation of the '^'**^
north and south trend of our great continents. The whole of this
argument reposes on the imperfect rigidity of solids and on the
internal friction of semi-solids and fluids; these are wroe Cf
Thus changes of the kind here discussed must be going ^^
on. and must have gone on in the past. And for this ^** '
history of the earth and moon to be true throuffhout,
it b only necessary to postulate a suflkieni lapse of time,
and that there is not enough matter diffused through
space materially to reust the motions of the moon and
earth in perhaps aoo.ooo,ooo years. It seems hardly too nrach fn
say that, granting these two postulates, and the existence of m
* See criticism, by Nolan, Genesis of Moom (Melbourne, 1SS5}:
Tfttf fiwta
TIDORE
^6 1
prfmevu pinict rach as thst ftbowe d eicrib cd» s ■jrMcui would
necesiarily be developed which would bear a itronf[ veaembUnce
to our own. A theory, reposing on verat causae which brings into
quantkalive coreelation the lensth* of the preaeni day and month,
the obliquity of the ecUiitic, and the indiaation and eoceatrictty off
the lunar orbit should have claims to acccptanoe.
I 3&. n« ImjLwnut of Tidal Friclum an fkc Evotidian of Iht
Sew Sysum and ej the Planetary Sub-systems^ — According to the
oebular hypothesis of Kant and Laplace the planets and aatellites
aie poaiona detached from ooatiacting aebulous masses, and other
theories have been advanced subsequently in explanation of the
present configuration of the solar system. We shall here only
examine what changes are called for by the present theory of tidal
friction. It nuy be shown that the reaction of the tides raised in
the sua by the planets must have had a very small influence in
changing tne dimensions of the planetary orbiu round the aun, and
h appears improbable that the planetary orbiu have been sensibly
enlarged by tidal frictbn nace the origin of the several planets.
Similarly tt appears unlikely that the satellites of Mars, Juoiter
.od Saturn originated very much nearer the present surfaces oi the
p&nets that we now observe them. But, the data being
insufficient, we cannot (eel sure that the alteration
* in the dimensbas of the orbits of these satcllitea
has not been considerable. It remains, however, nearly ceitain
that they cannot have first originated almost in contact with
the present surfaces of the planets, in the same way as in the pre-
ceding sketch has been shown to be probable with re^url to the noon
and earth. Numerical data concerning the distribution of moment
of momentum in the several planetary sub-sjrstems exhibit so striking
a difference between the terrestrial system and those of the other
planets that we should from this alone have grounds for believing
that the modes of evolution have been considerably different. The
difference appears to lie in the genesis of the moon close to the pre*
sent surface of the planet, and we shall see below that sobr tidal
friction may be assigned as a reason to explain how it has happened
that the terrestrial planet had contracted to nearly iu present
dimensions before the genesis of a satellite, but that this was not
the case with the exterior pbnets. The efficiency of solar tidal
friction b very much greater in its action on ,the nearer planets
than on the fanher ones. The time, however, during which strfar
tidal friaion has been operating on the external pbnets b peobably
much bnger than the period of iu efficiency for the interior ones,
and a series of numbers proportional to the total amount of rotation
destroyed in the several pbnets would preae nt a far less rapid
dccnase aa we recede from the sun than numbera simply expressive
of the efficiency of tidal friction at the several pbnets. Nevcrthelcas
it must be admitted that the effect produced by solar tidal friaion
on Jupiter and Saturn has not been nearly so great as on the interior
pbnets. And, as already stated, it b very improbable that so brge
an amount of momentum should have been destroyed aa materially to
affect the orbits of the pbneU round the sun.
We will now examine how the difference of distances from the sun
may have affected the histories of the several pbnets. According to
_, _ _ _^ the nebub hypothesis, as a pbnetary nebub contracts,
Ohtmwmu ihe inaeasing rapidity of the rotation causes it to
mfSaMmea jj^ome unstable, and an equatorial portion of matter
JJfJSL^ detaches itself. The separatum of tha^ part of the mass
asnsMn. ^ivhich before the change had the greatest angubr momen-
tum permits the central portion to resume a pbnetary shape. The
oontraetion and the increase of rotation proceed continually until
another portion b detached, and so on. Theie thus racur at
intervals epochs of instability, and somethti^ of the same kind must
have occurred according to other rival theoncs. Now tidal friction
must diminish the rate of increase of rotation due to contraction,
and therefore if tidal friction and contraction are at work together
the epochs of instabilitv must recur more rarely than if con-
traction alone acted, li the tidal retardation b sufficiently great,
the increase of rotation due to contraction will be so far counteracted
as never to permit an epoch of instability to occur. Since the rate of
retardation due to sobr tidal friction dccrtaaes rapidly as we recede
from the sun. these considerations accord with what we observe in the
sobr system. For Mercury and Venus have no satellites, and there b
progrcsMve increase in the number of satellites as we recede from
the sun. Whether thb be the true cause of the observed distribu-
tion of aatelliies amongst the pbnets or not. it b remarkable that
the same cause also affords an expbnation, as we shall now show,
of that difference between the earth with the moon and the other
pbnets with their satellites which has caused tid^l friction to be
the principal agent of change with the former, but not with the
latter. In the case of the contracting terrestrial mass we may
^ - suppose that there was (or a long time nearly a babnoe
5?T*^- between the retardation due to sobr tidal friction and
y .^ the acceleration due to contraction, and that it was not
*2^JJ~^uniil the pbneUry mass had contracted to nearly its
mmmwm p„g,gflj dimensions that an epoch of instabirity eauld
It may also be noted that if there be two
equal pbnetary masses which generate satellites, but under very
different conditions as to the degree of condensation of t he masses, the
' A review of this and of cognate subjects is oootaincd in C U.
Darwin's presidentbl address to the Bnt. Assoc, in 190$.
two satettitai will be likely to differ b mass; «e cannot, of onirae. ten
whk:h of the two pbneU would generate the brger satellite. Thui^
if the genesb of the moon was deferred until a bte epoch in the
history of the terrestrial mass, the mass of the moon rebtively to
the earth would be likely to differ from the mass of other satellites
rebtively to their planets. If the contraction of the pbnetaty masa
be almost completed before the fencsb of the satellite, tidal iriaion
will thereafter be the great cause of change in the system ; and thua
the hypothesis that it b the sole cause of change will give an ap-
proximately accurate expbnation of the motion of the pbnet and
satellite at any subsequent time. We have already seen that the
theory that tidal friction has been the ruling power in the evolution of
the earth and moon co-ordinates the present motions of the two
bodies and carries us back to an initbl state when the moon first had a
separate existence as a satellite; and the initbl configuration of the
two bodba b such that we are led to believe that the mooo b a
portion of the prioiitive canh detached by rapid rotation or by
other causes.
Let us now turn to the other pbnetary sub-systems. The satellites
of the brger planeu revolve with short periodic times; for the
snallness of their masses would have prevented ticbl friction from
being a very efficient cause of change in the dimensions of their
orbits, and the largeness of the pbnet 's masses would have caused
them to proceed slowly in their evolution. The satellites of Mars
present one of the most remarkable features in the sobr system, for.
wh e r e a s Mars rotates in 24h. 37m., Detmos haa a period of joh.
tSm. and Phoboa of only yh. 30R1. The minuteness of these satellites
precludes us from supposing tliat they have had much influence on
the rotation of the pbnet. or that the dimendons of their own orbits
have been much chaneed.
The theory of tidal friction would explain the shortnem of the
periodic time of Phobos by the sobr retardation of the pbnet'a
rotation, which woukl operate without directly affecting
the satellites' orbital motion. We may see that, given
sufficient time, this must be the ultimate fate of all
satrilites. Numerical comparison shows that the efficiency of solar
tidal friction in retarding the terreatrbl and manian rotations b
of about the same dcsree of importance, notwithstanding the much
greater distance of the pboet Mars. In the above discussion it
will have been apparent that the earth and moon do actuallv differ
from the other planeu to such an extent as to permit tidal iriction
to have been the most Important factor in their hbtory.
By an examination of the probabb effects of sobr tidal friction
on a contracting obnetary mass, we have been led to assign a cause
for the observetf distribution of satellites in the sobr ,
■yscem, and thb again haa itadf afforded an expbnation sammsty*
oi how it happened that the moon so originated that the tidal
friction of the lunar tides in the earth should have been able to
exercise so brge an influence. We have endeavoured not only to
set forth the influence which tidal friction may have, and probably
has had in the history of the system, if sufficient time be granted,
but also to point out what effects it cannot have produced. These
investigations afford no grounds for the rejection of theories more
or less akin to the nebubr hypothesis; but they introduce modifica-
tions of considerable importance. Tidal friction is a cause of chanee
of which Laplace's theory took no account; and. although the
activity of that cause may be regarded as mainly behmgin^ to a
btcr period than the cvcnu described in the nebubr hypothesis, yet
it seems that its influence has been of great, and in one instance of
even paramount, importance in determining the present condition of
the planets and their satellites. Throughout the whole of thb
discussion it has been supposed that sufficient time b at our
disposal. Yet aisumenu have been adduced which .. ^ ^
seemed to show that thb supposition b not justifiable, rfjjir^
for Hc'mholtr. Lord Kdvin and others have attempted •'"■^
to prove that the history of the sobr system must be comp ri sed
within a period consaderably less than a hundred miUkm years.*
But the discovery of radio-activity and the consequent remarkable
advances in physics throw grave doubt on all such argumenu,
and we believe that it b still beyond our powera to assign definite
numerical limits to the age of the sobr system.
Dr T. J. J. See {Researches on the Beetutiom of Stellar Systems:
vol. ii. (1910) Capture Theory) rejects the applicability of tidal
fnction to the cosmogony of the solar system, and argues that the
satellites were primitively wandering bodies and were captured by
the graviutional attrsctbn of the pbnets. Such capture* are
considcfed by Dr See to be a necessary result of the presence in
space of a resitting medium: but the present writer does not fed
convinced by the argumenu adduced. (C H. D.)
TIDORI or TnxMt, aa island of the Malay Archipebfo, off
the W. coast of Halmahen, S. of Teniate. It b nearly drctifair
and haa an area of about jo sq. m. Several qtucscent volcanic
peaka, reachhif 5700 ft., occnpy moat of the bland, and are
covered with forests. The capital, Tidore, on the east coast, is
a walled town and the seat of a sultan tributaiy to the Dntch
* Thomson and Tah's ATof. PkQ., app. E; Natmre (Jan. 37, 18$?);
Wolf, Thteries coemoganiques (1886).
962
TIECK— TIEL
•iidofal)rtch<»iilrrftt»'(coBnBlirioiierori«eBl). Bytnagree-
ment of 1879 the sultan ezerdses authority over some parts of
Halmahera, the Papuan Islands, the western half of New Guinea
and the islands in Geelvink Gulf. The sultanate is included in
the residency of Tcmate {q.t.). The population, of Malay race
and Mahommcdans in religion, b about 8ooa They live by
agriculture (cotton, tobacco, nutmegs, &c) and fishing.
TIBCK. JOHANN LUDWIO (x773-i8S3), German poet,
novelist and critic, was bom in Berlin on the 31st of May
1773, his father being a rope-maker. He was educated at the
Friedrich-Werdcnche Gymnasium, and at the universities of
Halle, G6ttingen and Erlangen. At Gdttingen Shakespeare
and the Eliaabethan drama were the chief subjects of his
study. In X 794 he returned to Berhn, resolved to make a
living by hb pen. He contributed a number of short stories.
(1795-1798) to the series of StroMssJedem^ published by the
bookseller C F. Nkolai and originally edited by J. K. A.
Musius, and wrote AbdaUak (1796) and a novel in letters,
WiUiam LoveU (3 vols. 179S-1796). These works are, how-
ever, immature and sensational in tone. Tieck's transition
to lomantidsm is to be seen in the series of plays and
stories published under the title VtUumOrcken wm FtUr
LAncht (3 vols., 1797), a collection which contains the
admirable fairy-tale Dtr blonde Eckbert, and the witty d r a m a! ir
satire on Berlin Uterary taste, Der testiefeUe KaUr, With
his school and college friend W. H. Wackemoder (i773~
X798), he planned the novel Frons Skmbdds Wandtrungeu
(vols. HL 1798), which, with Wackenroder's Htnensergies-
smntm (1798), was the first ezpccasioa of the romantic
enthusiasm for old German art. In 1798 Tieck married and in
the following year settled in Jena, where he, the two brothers
Schlegd and Novalis were the leaders of the new Romantic
schooL His writings between 1798 and 1804 indude the
satirical drama, Prins 7rr6tiio(i799), »od RomaMUcke Dkk-
tmmgeu (2 vols., r 799-1 800). The btter contains Tieck's most
ambitious dramatic poems, Leben amd Tod der keUigen CenoKva,
Lehtn mndToddes kUinem Roihi^pckens, which were foUowcd in
1804 by the remarkable " comedy " in two parts, Kaiser OkUni-
anus. These dramas, in which TSeck*s poetic powers are to
be seen at their best, are t>'pical plays of the first Romantic
school; allhoi^ formless, and destitute of dramatic qualities,
they show the influence of both Caldenm and Shakespeare.
Kaiser Oktavianus is a poetic glorification of the middle ages.
In 1801 Tieck went to Dresden, then lived for a time near
Frankfort-4Mi-the*Oder, and spent many months in Italy.
In 1803 he published a transbtioo of Mimtuiieder mas der
uhaSbiscken Yoneit, between r7Q9 and 1804 an excellent version
of Don QuixoU^ and in iSi i two volumes of Elizabethan dramas*
AUeuiUsckts Tktaler, Ini8i2-i8i7 hecoUectedin threevohimcs
a number of hb earlier stories and dramas, onder tht title
Fk^mUsms. In this collection appeared the stories Der Rmmem-
berg. Die EJfen, Der PctjJ, and the dramatic fairy tale, FertmuaL
In 1817 Tieck visited Fn^jami in order to collect materials for a
work on Shakespeare (ttufortnnately never finished) and in 1819
he settled permanently tn Dresden; from 1835 on he was literary
*d>-iser to the Court Theatre, and his semi-puhlk reatfings from
the dramatic poets gave him a reputation which extended far
beyond the Saxon capitaL The new aeries ol short stories
which be began to pohhsh in i%n also woo him a wide popu-
larity. Notable among these are Die GemSide^ Die Reisendeu,
Die V*riobmmt» Des Lebeus Cberjimss. Moie ambitioas and 00 a
wider canvas are the htstocical or semi-historical novels, DkHer-
hben (tS^). Der Amfrukr in dfn Cremnen (i?.^ coinished),
Der Tod des Dickttrs (1834); D^ juKge TisckUrmeisUr (1S36;
h«C bagiBi in iSix) is an exoetteat siocy written nnder the io-
iuenc* of Goethe^^ WUkdm Ifeisier; ViOervM Aecorcwtkoms
(xS.«o), in the style ol the French Romanticists^ shows a faiHnt-
oS. In later yeacs Tkck carried oaa varied hiecary activity
aa crilic {Dramaimtistke BUMer, > vais^ 18^5-1826; KritiscJae
&Afi)iM«t^Miis^i<48); he abo edited the traMbtiooof Shake-
B ky A. W« Schkgcl, vho wis assisted by Tieck's daughter
* ■'^■ ' — •11) aKi hy Graf Waif Hciaiich Baadbsin
(i78^r878); Skatetpearts "Yorsektde (> vob., 1823-X8S9); the
works of H. von Klebt(i826) and of J. M. R. Lena (x8a8). la
184X Friedrich Wilhehn IV. of Pnissb Invited him to Berlin
whine he enjoyed a pension for hb remaining years. He
died on the 28th of April x8s3>
Tieck's importance by rather in the readiness with winch he
adapted himself to the new ideas which arose at the dose of the
i8th century, than in any coo^cuons originality or genius.
Hb importance as an immedbte force in German poetry
b restricted to hb eady period. In later years it was as the
helpful friend and adviser of others, or as the well-read crilic
of jiride sympathies, that Tieck distinguished himaeK.
I appeared hi 20 vob. (1828-1846), sod hb Cesc^-
m X2 (i852-i854)« Naekgdassene Sckriften were
pi k in 1855. Tbere are several modem eiditions <J
A\ e by H.^dti (8 vols.. l886-t888): by J. MIror
Qi Xntfsdb NationaUiteratur, 144, 2 vols., 1885); b>-
G. n excelleot bioeraphy, 3 vob^ 1892). aad C
W L. 1903). The Ehiu and Tke CoUet woe tzaas-
bl n German Romance (1827). Tke Futures and Tke
Bt _, ^op ThiriwaO (X825). A translatioa of Vinoria
Aeceroatboma was published in 18^5. Tieck's Letten have noc yet
been collected, but Briefe an Tieck werepubfishcd in 4 vob. bv K.
von Holtd in 1864. See for Tieck's earner life R. Kopke, Lnd^ng
Tieck (2 vols., 1855) ; for the Dresden period. H. von Friesen. Lndrzir
Tieck: Erinuentngjen (2 vob., 1871): abo A. Stem. Ludvig Tteck
in Dresden (Znr LiUraimr der Cegtui u ut , 1879): J- Minor, Tieck eis
NoeeUendidder (1884); B. Steiner, L. Tieck and die Voikstmcker
(189^): H. Bnchof. Tieck aU Dramaimrg (1897): W. Miessner.
Tiecks Lyrik (1902).
nEDBMAHH, FRIEDRICH (1781-1861), GcrxnaB anato-
mist and physiologist, eldest son of Dietrich Tiedemann (1748-
1803), a philosopher aiKl psydiologbt of considerable repute,
was bom at Cassel on the 23rd of August 1781. He gradi;ated
in medicine at Marburg in 1804, but soon a b and o ned practice.
He devoted himself to the study of natural sdence, and, betaking
himself to Parb, became an ardent follower of Baron Cnvier.
On hb return to Germany he maintained the daims ol patient
and sober anatomical research against the prevalent Sftecn-
Utions of the school of Loccns Oken, whose foremast antagonist
he was long reckoned. Hb remarkable studies of the develop-
n^nt of the human brain, as correlated with hb father's stcdies
on the development of intelligence, deserve mention. Be
spent most of hb life as pioiessor of anatomy and physiology
at Heidelberg, a position to which he was appointed in 1^16,
after having fiDed the chair of anatomy and zoology for ten jeais
at Landshut, and died at Manich on the aaad «f Jairauy
1861.
TIEL, a town in the province of Gelderland, HoOaad, 00 the
right bank of the Waal (here crossed by a pootooa bridge).
25 m. by tail west of Nijmwegea. Pop. (1900), xo^;8&. It
po s se«es fine streets and open places, hot of its fortificatioas
the Kleibefg Gate (X647) akme remains. The principal boik}-
ings are St Martin's diurch (isth centur>-), the town hail,
court-house and the historical castle of the family ol van ArkeL
In X892 a harboor was built, but the shippiag of Tid b aonr
chiefly confined to craft for inland navigation. It carries ob a
flourishing trade, especially in fruit, and b an impcrtant zsiarkel
for horses and cattle. It abo majinbctures agDcnkaral ii»-
plements, fomiture, paper, tobacco, Ac
Fhre miles WJi.W. of Tid b the smafl town of Bsrea,
which "witaitx aoine intetesting old booses and b an smportaac
market for horses. Barcn was the seat of an iadcpendeal
lordship which b mentiooed as early as 1x52. In kter tznacs
it was held in fief, first from the dukes of Brabast, thesi from the
dukes of Gdderland. In 1492 the eotperor Charles V. raised
it to a oountship, axkd in 1551 it passed by purri a y to Priziie
William of Orange Kaasan. The title b b0w w—etiwvs csed
by the royal family of the Netheriir.ds when ^vefibxg ic»:Qg-
cito. The castle was destro\-ed ia the bc^' r . nfr g of Iha lotk
century, and the site of ii b now marked by the park «» tbe
west side af the towa. It cooiai-ted not kss than noap art-
nenls and was me m or a ble for the iu'ttisoament wMtia tSs
walb of Amood duke of Gdicrlaad (± X4T3)» and » Ac Urtb-
placeof Philip Wilham cf Oraace in I SS4.
...^
IXELE— TIEPOLO
9*3
ItBM, OOffltBUS rannS (xS^o-r^M), Dutch theologian
and schoUr, was bom at Leiden on the x6th of December z8jo.
He was educated at Amsterdam, first studying at the Athenaeum
lUustre, as the communal high school of the capital was then
nameti, and afterwards at the seminary of the Remonstrant
Brolhcrhood. He was destined for the pastorate in his own
brotherhood. After steadily declining for a considerable period,
this had faicreafied its influence in the second half of the X9th
century by widening the inelastic tenets of the Dutch Methodists,
which had caused many of the liberal clergy among the Lnth^
ehws and Calvinists to go over iCo the RemonstruiU. Tiele
certahily had liberal religious vlew^ himself, which he early
enunciated from the pulpit, as Remonstrant pastor of Moor-
drecht (1853) and at Rotterdam (1856). Upon the removal of
the seminary of the brotherhood from Amsterdam to Leiden
in 1873, Tiele was appointed one of its leading professors. In
1877 followed his appointment at the univenity of Leiden as
professor of the history of religions, a chair specially created
for him. Of his many learned works, the Vergdijkende (es-
ckiedenif ton de egyptiscke en mesop&tamiscke GodsdknsUn
(1872), and the Cesckiedenis van den Codsdienst (1876; new ed.
1891), have been translated into English, the former by James
Ballingall <t87»*i883), the latter by J. Estlin Carpenter (1877)
under the title " Outlines of the History of Religion " (French
translation, 1885; German translation, 1895). A French trans-
lation of the Comparative History was published in 1883. Other
works by Tide are: De Codsdienst van Zaralhutra, van.het
Ontstaan in Baktrit, tat den Vol van hei Ottd-Peniscke Rijk
(1864) a work now embodied, but much enlarged and improved
by the latest researches of the author, in the History ef Religions
(vol. ii. part ii., Amsterdam, 1901), a part which appeared only a
short time before the author's death; De Vrnckt der Assyriolop*
voor de vergelijkende gesckiedenis der Codsdiensten (1877; German
ed., 1878); Batfylonisck-assyriscke GeschidOe (two parts, Leipzig,
1886-1888); Western Asia^ according to the most Recent Die-
eateries (London, 1894). He was also the writer of the article
" Religions " in the 9th edidon of the Ency. Brit. A volume
of Tiele's sermons appeared in 1865, and a collection of his
poems in 1863. He also edited (1868) the poems of Petras
Augustus de Gfeestet. Tiele was best known to English
students by his Outlines and the Gifford Lectures " On the
Elements of the Science of Religion,", delivered in 1896-1898
at Edinburgh Univenity. They appeared simultaneously In
Dutch at Amsterdam, in English in London and Edinburgh
(1897-1899, 2 vols.). Edinburgh University in 1900 conferred
upon Tiele the degree of D.D. konoris cansd, an honour
bestowed upon him previously by the universities of Dublin
and Bologna. He was also a fellow of at least fifteen learned
societies in Holland} Belgium, Fiance, Germany, Italy, Great
Britain and the United Sutes. He died on the nth of
Januaiy 1902. In 1901 he had resigned his piofeasorahlp at
Lc^en University. Tiele's zeal and power for work were as
extraordinary as his vast knowledge of andent languages,
peoples and religions, upon which his researches, according
to F. Max Mailer, have shed a new and vivid light. With
Abraham Kuenen and J. H. Schoken, amongtt othcn, he
founded the "Leiden School" of modem theology. From
1867 be assisted A. Kuenen, A. D. Lomaa and L, W.
Rauwenboff editing the Theologisck TijdsckrifL
His brother Piete* Anton Tieix (i834-r888) acted for
many years as the librarian of Utrecht University, and dis-
tinguished himself by his bibliographical studies, more espedaUy
by his several works on the history of colonization in Asia.
Among these the most noteworthy are: De Opkomsi van Met
nedcrlandsck Caug in Oost-Indie (1886); De VesHging der
Porlugeezen, in Indie (1873)* ^^ other books on the early
P ortugnea e colonisation in the Malay Archipelago.
TIBNTillf, the hrgest commercial dty hi Chih-li, the metro-
politan province of China. Pop. (1907), about 7SD,ooa It
Is situated at the junction of the Petho and the Hun-ho, which
is connected by the grand Canal with the Yangtsae-kiang. It
u a p«f fectvial dty, and has, since the cBBrinsson «l the
foreign tnatles, become ^ icsidence of die viceroy of the
province daring a great portion of the year. The town }b built
OB a vast aliuviid plain, which extends from the mountains
beyond Faking to the sea, and through which the Peiho runs
a circuitous course, making the distance by water from Tientsin
to the coast about 70 m. as against 30 m. by railway.
The appeaiance of the dty haa greatly changed smce the
Boxer rishig hi t9oa After that event the dty walls, which
measored idbout three quarters of a mile each way, were razed,
wide streets were made, the course of the river straightened,
electric Ughthig and tramways introduced and a good water
service supplied. Among the public huildings are a umvcrsity
(in which instruction is given in western learning) and an
arsenal. There are several cotton mills and important rice and
salt markets. The dty has always been a great oommerdal
depot; a wharf nearly two miles long affords ample facilities
for vessels able to cross the bar of the Peiho, overirhicfa there is a
depth of water varying from 9 to 12 ft.
In 1907 the imports amounted to 79»5oo,oaO taels (a tad in
1907 averaged 3s. 3d.); viz. iorcign imports 61,200,000. native
imports 18,317.000 tads; the exports in the mme year amounted to
l7^^,ooa Valuable canoes of tea are landed here for cairiagt
ovcnand, via Kalgan and iCiakhta, to Siberia. During the winter
the river is frozen. The principal articles of Import are shirtings,
drills, jeans and twills, opium, woollens, steel, lead, needles,
Japanese sea-weed and sugar; and of export, wool, skins, beans
and pease, stnw braid, coal, dates, tobacco and rhubarb. The
coal exported is brought from the Kaiping ooUierv to the east of
Tientsin; its output in 1885 was 181,039 tons and m 1904 28.956
tons.
The Importance of Tientsin has been enhanced by the railways
connecting it with Peking on the one hand and with Shanhai-fcwan
and Manchuria on the other. The British ooocession, in which
the trade centres, is situated on the right bank of the river Peiho
bdow the native d^, and occupies some 200 acres. It is hdd
on a lease in perpetuity erantod by the Chinese govcmnient to the
British Crown, which sublets dba to private owners in the same
way as is done at Hankow. The local mana];[ement is entrusted
to a municipal council orfpmxtA on lines similar to those which
obtain at Shanghai. Besides the British concession the French,
Germans, Russians, Japanese, Austrians, Italians and Belgians
have sepaiate settlements, five miles in all, the river front being
governed by foreign powcra.
In 1853 Tientsin was besieged by an army of T'aip'ing rebels,
which had been detached from the main force at Nanking for the
capture of Peking. The defonccs of Tlentnn, however, saved the
capital, and the rebels were forced to retreat. Five yaua later
Lord Eldn, accompanied by the repr es en tative of France, steamed
up the rciho, after having forced the barriers at Taku, and took
peaceable possession of the town. Here the treaty of 1858 was
signed. But in i860, in consequence of the treacherous attack
made 00 the British plenipotentiary the precedinc year at Taku.
the dty and suburbs wexe occupied by an allied British and French
force, and were held for two years. The dty was constituted an
open port. On the establishment of Roman Catholic orphanages
some years later the pretenaons o( the priests so irritated tne people
that on the occurrence ot an epidemic in the schools in the year
1870 thcv attacked the French and Russian establishments and
murdered twenty-one of the foreign inmates, besides numbers of
ihdr native followers. The Chinese government suppressed the
riot, paid £80,000 in compensation and sent a representative to
Europe to apologize for the outbreak.
During the pniod 1874-18^4, when Li Hang->Cfaang was viceroy
of Chtb-ii and ex officio superintendent of trawj he made Tientsin
his bcadauarters and the centre of his experiments in military
and naval education. As a consequence the dty became the chid
focus of enterprise and foreign progress. Having arrogated to him-
self the pracucal oontrtd of the foreign policy of the nation, Li's
yamen became the scene of many important negotiations, and
attracted distinguished viMtors from all parts of tne gibbe. The
loss of pnestiffe conseouent on the Japanese War brought about the
retirement ol Ii, ana with it the political importance of Hentsin
ceased. Both the foreign concessions and the native dty suffered
sevcrdy during the hostilities resulting from the Boxer movement
in June-July, 190a (Sec Ciuna: History } D.)
TIBPOLO, OIOVAmn BATTISTA (1692-1769), ItaCan painter,
was bom at Venice, and acquired the rudiments of his art from
Greforfo LauatiBl, and pcobabiy from Piauetta, though the
dedshre influence on the formation of his style was the study
of Paok> Veronese's sumptuous paintings. ¥Aien hardly out
of hb teens he developed an eztnordlnary facility of brushwork,
■ad piowd hintdf, as m fiCKo-paiotcr» a oolo'
J
964
TIERNBY—TIERRA DEL FUEGO
order thuoA thb ttrlj mstay of technique made him trt-
oaeatly neglect form eod composition. The more solid quali-
Uea of Paolo Veronese— depth of thought and balance of design
~~Mn Ikequently wanting in hia work, but he approaches the
earlier master in richness of colour and in the management of
diJl^oill effects of lighting. He decorated many Venetian
chuichea and palaces with ceilings and frescoes full of turbulent
movement and rich colour, extending his operations to the
near cities of the mainland and to Bergamo (Colleoni Chapel)
and Milan (ceiling at Palazzo Chierici). In 1750 he proceeded to
Witeabttig to paint the magnificent ceiling and frescoes at
the archbishop's palace. From 17SJ to about 1763 he worked
ag^ at Venice and in the cities of north-east Italy, until he was
summoned to Madrid by Charles III. to paint some frescoes
for the royal palace. He died at Madrid in 1769. He was the
last important figure m Venetian art, and at the same time the
initiator of the baroque period.
Tiepolo's altarpieccs and easel plaures show more clearly
even than his frescoes how deeply he was imbued with the
Q>irit of Paolo Veronese, for in these smaller works he paid
more attention to the baJance of composition, whilst retaining
the luminosity of his cok>ur harmonies. The majority of his
works, both in fresco and in oils, are to be found in Venice in
the churches of S. Aloise, SS. Apostoli, Gesuati, SS. Giovanni e
Paolo, in the Scalzi, and the Scuola del Carmine, the Academy,
and the Palazzi Labia, Rezzonico, and Quirini-StampaUa, and
the Doge's Palace. Besides the cities already mentioned, Padua,
Udine, Parma and Vicenza boast of fine examples of his work.
At the National Gallery are two designs for altarpieces, a " De-
position from the Cross," "Esther at the Throne of Ahasuerus,"
and " The Marriage of Marie de MMicis." Two versions of
** Christ and the AduUcress " are in the collection of Dr L.
Richter. Other easel pictures by Tiepolo are at the Louvre,
and at the Berlin and Munich galleries. His paintings in
Madrid belong to the closing years of his life and show signs of
waning power. Tiepolo also executed some notable work
with the etching-needle, the list comprising some fifty plates.
His two sons, Giovanni Domenico (about 17 26-1804) and
Lorenzo, did not attain to his excellence.
See Les Tiepolo, by Henry dc ChenneviSres (Paris, 1898) ; and
Pompeo Molmenti, G. B, Tiepolo (Milan, 1910).
TIERNBY, GEORGE (1761-1830), English Whig politician,
was bom at Gibraltar on the 2olh of March 1761, being the son
of a wealthy Irish merchant of London, who was living there
as prize agent. He was sent to Eton and Peterhouse, Cambridge,
where he took the degree of LL.B. in 1784, and was called to the
bar; but he abandoned law and plunged into politics. He
contested Colchester in 1788, when both candidates received
the same number of votes, but Tiemey was declared elected.
He was, however, defeated in 1790. He sat for Southwark
from 1796 to 1806, and then represented in turn Athlone (1806-
1807), Bandon (1807-181 2), Appleby (i8i2-i8i8),and Knares-
borough (1818-1830). When Fox seceded from the House of
Commons, Tiemey became a prominent opponent of Pitt's policy.
In 1 797 Wilberforce noted in his diary that Ttemey's conduct was
" truly Jacobinical "; and in May 1798 Pitt accused hi.Ti of
want of patriotism. A duel ensued at Putney Heath on Sunday,
the 37 th of May 1798; but neither combaUnt was injured. In
1803 Tiemey, partly because peace had been ratified with France
and partly because Pitt was out of office, joined the ministry
of Addington as treasurer of the navy, and was created a privy
councillor; but this alienated many of his supporters among the
middle classes, and offended most of the influential Whigs.
On the death of Fox he joined (1806) the Grenville ministry as
president of the board of control, with a seat in the cabinet,
and thus bipught himself once more into hoe inth the Whiga.
Aftei the death of George Ponsonby in 181 7 Tiemey became
the wOBgni""* »- ^-- -' »k» oppoailioa in the House of Commons.
fis master of the mint, and when
he lead Tiemey was admitted to
' su0ering from ill-health and died
te}| oa the asth ol Jaauaiy 1830.
■
Tiemey wis a shrewd man of the worid, with a natural ap i il i i i lf
for business. His powers of sarcasm were a cause of terror to his
adversaries, and hb imsence in debate was much dreaded. His
arguments were felicitous, and his choice of language was the fbeme
of constant admiration. Lord Lyttoe. in his poem of St Stephen's.
aUudes to " Tiemey's air^ tread." and praises his " light aiid yet
vigorous " attack, in which he inflicted, " with a placid smite,*'
a fatal wound on his opponent.
TIERRA DEL FUEGO, an archipelago at the southern ex-
tremity of South America, from which it is separated by Magellan
Strait, at the First Narrows and other points acaicdy a mile
wide. The group lies between 5a* 40' and 55** 59' S. and 63"
30' and 74* 30' W. stretching nearly in a line wUh the Palar
gonian Andes for over 400 m. N.W. and S.E., between Capes
Pillar (Desolation Island) and Horn, and for about 270 m. W.
and £. from Cape PiUar to Catherine Point at the north of the
main island of Tierra del Fuego. Southwards it tapers to i so m.
between Capes Horn and San Diego, east of which extends
Staten Island, which terminates in (^pe St John. The boundary
between Argentina and Chile has been settled in such a manner
that Argentina holds that part of the main isUnd of Tierra dd
Fuego which is situated east of the meridian of Cape Espiritu
Santo, the frontier striking the north shore of Bea^ Channel
about its centre; and Chile holds all the western part of the main
island and the other numerous islands to the west and to the
south of Beagle ChanneL The Argentine ude is known as the
Territory of Tierra del Fuego (including Staten Island), and the
Chilean forms part of the Territory of Magallanes. Although
on ordinary maps this region presents to the eye a hopelessly
confused aggregate of islands, channels and fjord-like inlets,
it is nevertheless clearly disposed in three main sections: (1)
the main island; (2) the islands to the south, from which it is
separated byBea^e Channel; (3) the islands to the west, marked
off from those to the south by the Brecknock Peninsula.
Knowledge of these lands increased considerably during
Ihe later years of the X9th century, and their reputation for
dreariness has been favourably modified. The climate in the
eastern and southern regions is not so rigorous as was believed,
there are no barren lands, the soil is fertile and can support
fruitful industries, and the aborigines are far from being so
dangerous as they were once considered to be. The greater
part <d the main island of Tierra del Fuego is formed by the
continuation of the Tertiary beds of the Patagonian tableland
cut by the transversa] depression of Magellan Strait and by the
low land extending from Useless Bay on the west to San Sebastian
Bay on the east, of so recent origin that there exist stiU some
salt lakes, this depression being represented in the old charts
as an inter-oceanic passage for small boats. Although in 1880
numerous prospectors discovered extensive deposits of alluvial
gold, its exploiution was not generally successful, and farms
took the place of mines. By the end of the 19th century 120
square miles had been occupied by cattle and sheep on the
Argentine side, and about the same extent on the Chilean; and
the cattle industry proved very profitable.
The undulating tableland has an average height of 300 ft. above
the sea. and its climate, however cold in wintei^-in 1893 and 1893
the temperature reached ia*6* P.— allows of the cultivation of
barley, oats and occasionally potatoes, which, however, grow better
along Beagle Channel. To the south the tableland b hq;her and
more broken, being drained by the Silva and Grande, among snian«r
rivers, the Grande beii% navigable in some parts by small craft. To
the west and aooth-we&t the general character of the lend changes;
the ends of the Tertiary beds are raised in small hills and Mesoxoic
rocks appear, forming broken ridges of the Prc-Cordillera, a name
S'vcn on the continent to the ridges which precede, to the cast, the
ndes. In this rcpoa appean the Antarctic forest in which pr«^
dominates the Fagus antarctka and P. he tmhi d es, Dtymis WtnUri^
Berberis licifoliat PemeUia, DesfotiUini» and PkUesia buxijolia*
Lake Solier and Lake Fagnano receive the waters of these mountains
and hills. Lake Fagnano b only 180 ft. above the sea, and its depth
reaches 700 ft. To the south of the lake rises the south-eaaiem pro-
k»ngatk>n of the Cordillera of the Andes, with ridges of a onlfomi
height of 3SOO ft., in which predominate crysUlline schists which
do not seem to be very old. Some peaks of 1 ertiaiv gnuute break
the uniformity, such as Mt Sarmiento (7200 ft.),Mt Darwin,
of which two peaks have been measured (6301 and 7054 ft.),
aod Mt Olivaia (4324 ft.). SarmientQ. Che culminaring pout m
TIERRA DEL FUEGO
96s
Ck* aicUpebciN «m teMnlly Mtppond to be vofeanic. but it
preaents Mich extremely |^recipitou» flanks that John Ball cooudered
It more probably " a poruon of the original rock skeleton that rormed
the axis of the Apdean chain during the k>ng ages that preceded
the great vokank outbunte that haw covered the framework of
the wotern side of South America." * Sir Martin Conway, who
ascended it. aacertaincd that it is not a volcano. This is ah<»ether
*n alpine region with numerous snow-clad summits and glaciers
descending down to the sea. Deep valleys, which seem to be only the
pioloagatjon of fjords, penetrate into the chain in the southern slope
where exist several harboun on which settlements have been founded.
Yend^ia. La^tia and U^uaia Bavt am among the larger.
Ushuaia is the site of the capital of the Argentine Territory, and nas
shown consklerable development, having regular communkation
by monthly steanoers with Buenos Aires, while smaller steamers
aerve the different settlements akmg the coast. Cattle farms
pros p er along Beagle Channel, the timber industry is growing,
ugnitc seams have been discovered, and alluvial gold Is washed
principally at Slos^et Bay. These region^, as they become more
known, may even invite the attention of tourists by thdr sublime
aoenefy. Suten Isbod to the cast of Tiem dd Fuego has been
Kttled by the Argeiusne government: there are a prison and
lighthouse at St John Harbour, ana a first-class permanent
meteorological and magnetic station.
The division of the archipelago to the sooth of Beagle Channel
iacludee the islands of Hoste, Navaiin, Cordon, Londonderry,
Stewarti Wollaston and numerous islets, disposed in triangular form
with the base on Beadle Channel and the apex at the rocky headland
of Cape Horn. At its west end Beagle Channel Ukes the name of
Darwin Sound, which leads to the I^cific at the Londondernr and
Stewart Islands. Partial exploration in this region was conducted
by the French Mission du Cap Horn in 1882*1883, and the gcok>gicaI
fouodstkms are granite and basic volcanic rocks. The western group
of islands, demarcated by Brecknock Peninsula, includes CLircnoe
Island and Captain Cook's Desolation Land, with Dawson Island
and numerous rocks and islets. Desdation Land was supposed by
Cook to form a continuous mass stretching from the western entrance
of Magellan Strait to Cockburn Channel, but it actually consists
of several islands, separated from each other by very narrow channels
flowing between the Pacific and the western branch of Magelbn Strait.
The name Desobtion is eiven to the northern member of the ^up
terminating at Cape Pillar: the southernmost and Urgcst island
nearer to Clarence Island, is Santa lOes. In other cases small
■urvevs among these fjords have shown that several of the larger
istancu are cut by channels whkh serrate them into smaller ones,
while elsewhere the k>w valleys which unite the mountains and
hills are the result of post-Glacial deposits that have filled part
of the former channels, these tsbnds bein^ the summits of an old
continuous half-submerged mountain chain. At Dawson Island
the Chilean government has esublishcd settlements, and a Roman
Catholic mission has carried on work among the Alakaluf Indians.
CUfMolr.— At Ushuaia ten years' meteorological observations*
have shown a mean annual temperature of 42'84* F., with a winter
mean of 317* and a summer mean of jO'iS". These figures show
tolerably mild winters (as a whole, apart from the extremes
of cold alrea^ indicated) arc folkmed by cool summers, both seasons
being tfboompanied by overcast skies, constant and Midden chan^
from fair to foul weather: whik: fogs, mists, rains, snows and high
winds (prevailing throughout tlic year) endanger the navigation
of the intricate inland channels. The precipitation during ten
years at Ushuaia has been observed to average 34-8 in. But on
the aouthem seaward islands, under the influence of the prevalent
westerly or south-westcrlv winds, it is very much heavier, and
reaches 59 in. at Staten Island.
Fauna. — In the main island of Tierra del Fuego, the low-lying
plains with their rich growth of Ull herbage are frequented by
the rhea, guanaco and other nniniab common to the adjoininjjp
aiainland. In the southern and western islands the fauna la
restricted mainly to foxes, bats, rats, mice, the sea otter, the penguin
and other aquatic birds, and various cetaceans in the surrounding
waters.
/■JbaMtefUr.— To the three geographical divisions correspond
three well-niariied ethnical groop»---the Onas of the main island,
the Yagans (Yahgans) of the south and the Alakalufs of the west.
With the settlement of the main island, which is now sometimes
called Onisia, leaving the name of Tierra del Fuego to the archi-
Klago, the Onas tnbe has become fairly known. Their origin,
e that of the other groups, is obscure. Undoubtedly amon^
these Indians are many that recall some Patagonian tvpes; it
•eems that they are not the same as the Tehuekhe type, but that
they pertain to one of the races that in eariier times existed in Pata-
gonia. Their language Is ckisely allied to that called Old Tehuelche ;
It b a hard, slow-spoken speech, not at all resembling the soft,
rapidly-spoken language of the Yagans, which has many pmots
■ JVofer o/a Naturalist tn South America fLondon. 1887).
* Dr Chavanne, Dit Temptratur mud Rt^jomrkSltmisu Argm-^
UnitHt (Buenos Aiiv^ 1909)*
of similarity with that of the Abkalufs. The isobtlon of the
Onas b peculiarly marked, inasmuch as they are an insubr peopb
who do not use boats. Their Ufe is nomadk. and they arc hunters,
kving upon the flesh of the guanaoo, and using only tussock-roots
and wild celery for vegeubie food. Their skDI in and necessary
devotkm to the chase influence their whob mode of life; "their
moral code b based upon a standard of physical culture and health." *
They live in small groups, every member of whkh b connected by
family tics; between these groups, as in the case of the Yagam
and Abkalufs, the vendetta b common. They have no gods,
though certain legends are pnescrved. They have maintained
their stock untainted, and have withstood the influence of the white
man to a remarkabb degree (for exampb, they use no spirituous
or fermented drink), though they have suffered a serious decrease
in numbers at his hands. The men average about 5 ft. 10 in. in
heisht : the women ^ ft. 6 in. They are of a light ccwiper cokmr,
with bbck straight hair, and remarkably mUKular. The Yagsns
heisht : the women ^ ft. 6 in. They are of a light ccwiper colour,
with bbck straight hair, and remarkably mUKular. The Yagsns
live under conditions of extraordinary ngour. In order to obtain
food, they venture naked in small canoes into the treacherous
seas; their life b a constant battb with starvation and a rude
climate, and their character has become rude and bw in conse-
quence. They have no hbhcr social unit than the family. Ott
the authority of Charles Darwin they have been held by many
to be cannibals, but they are not, although those suffering from
incurable ailments are often put to death. Although taller than
the Negritoes of the eastern hemi^ihere (4 ft. 10 in. to 5 ft. 4 in.),
the Yagans present in some respocu a more debased type chatactcr»
ized by bw brows, prominent xygomatk arches, brge tumid lips»
flat nose, loose wrinkled skin, bbck restless eyes very wide apart,
coarse bbck unkempt hair, and head and chest disproportionately
bi^e compared with the extremely slender and outwardly curved
lop. The missionaries, who have reduced the bnguage to writing
(Gospel of St Luke, London, 1881), assert that it conuins no fewer
than 30.000 words, although the numerab stop at five, a^beady n
compound form, and although the same word expresses both Mnd
And finger; but it appears that a brge number of the words included
in thb total are compounds. Comparatively Gttb b known about
the Abkalufs. They have a testation for treachery, and for
assaults on shipwrecked crews. They are hunters both on land
and on the water, usine the bow and arrow like the Onas, and
building canoes often of large siae.
The aborigines are decreasing rapidly in the whob archipelago,
and although the Rev. Thomas Bridges, who, as missionary first
and then as faimer, resided thirty years there, calcubt«l the
popubiion to be 10,000 when he arrived, towards the close of tlae
19th century it was estimated to be little more than 1000.
Tierra dd Fuego was discovered by Fernando de Magelbn In
1530. when he aaibd through the strait named after him, and called
thu region the " Land of Tire," either from now extinct vokank
flames, or from the fires kindled by the natives along parts of his
course. In 1578 Sir Francis Drake first sighted the point which
in 1616 was named Cape Hoom (angliciscdr Horn) by the Dutch
navioators Jacob Lemaire and Wilbm 0>melis Schouten (1615-
1617). In 1619 the brothers Garcb and Goncab de Nodal first
circumnavigated the archipebgo. which was afterwards visited at
intervals by Captain Sir John Narborough (1670). M. de (>nnea
and the Sieur Froger (1696), Commodore John Byron (r764). Samuel
Wallis and PhUip Carteret (1767), James Cook (1768) and James
Weddell (1822). But no systematic expkxation was attemptej until
the British Admiralty undertook a thorough survey of the whole
group by Philip PSrker King (1826-1828) and Robert Fitxroy
(1631-1836). The btter expeditbn (Voyage 0/ the ** Beagle'')
was accompanied by Charies Darwin, then a young man. To
these admirable surveys b due most of the present gcographkal
terminology of the archipebgo. Subsequently the work Of ex-
pkrration was continued by Dumont d'Urvtlle (1837). Charles Wilkes
(1839), Parker Snow (18C5), various bter travelbrs, a selection of
whose works are quoted below, and British, American and Roman
Cat hoik misHonanes.
BiBLiOGEA PHY.— Charles dc Brosscs, Histoire its natiealions
aux lerres austrates (Paris, 1756); J, Bumey, History of Voyages
and Diseooeries in the South Sw (London. 1803-1817): J. Weddetl,
A Voyage towards the South Pole and to Tierra del Fuego (London,
1825) ; Charles Darwin, Journal of Researches, &c., during the Voyam
of the " Beagle " round the World (London, 1845); W. Parkel^ Snow,
A Two Years* Cruise off Tierra del Fuego (London. 1857) ; G. Marguin,
" U Terre de Feu," in Bull. delaSoc.de Ciogr, (November. 1875) ;
J. G. Kohl, Ceuh. d. Entdechungtreisen, &c., tmr iiatellans Sirass*
(Beriin. 1877): " La Terre dc Feu et ses habiUnts." in Journal des
missions toang&iques (August 1876): D. Lovisato, ApfmnU etnO'
rrafUi con oceenni geologui suUa Terra del Fuoco (Turin, 1884);
John Ball, Notes of a Naturalist in South America (London, 1887);
R. W. Coppinger, Cruise 0/ the " Alert " (London, 4th ed., 1885);
G. Sergi, Anteepolopa fistea della Fueg^a (Rome. 1887): "
• W. a Barcby. " The Land of Magalbnes, with 1
of the Onas and other Indians," Geographical Jour
(iUoodon, 1904).
966
TIETJENS— TIFLIS
0;
Lisu. "Biat Fuegia,'* ia Ptkrmo$ms M
Mission uitntifiqut du Cap Horn, i88a-i81 las
Bridges, " Notes on Tierra del Fuego," la
Plata (1892) ; Otto Nordenskiold, " Ueber ( m-
Utoder," PeUr. MiU., 43, 1897; LExpbix m
de Feu (1895-1897; Wiss. Ert. der sckwed. tt-
hnsldndtm, 1805-18(^7 (Stockholm, 1898) he
Magellan Territories (Stockholm, 1809); de
verano en la Tierra del Fuego," Revista Mus ol .
vui. ; Sir Martin Conway, Aconcagua and ! ttu
190a) ; R. Dabbene, " Viaje k la Tierra c _ de
I08 EstadoB." Bdet. Inst, Ceog. Argenlino (1905). xn.; K. Skott»-
berg, VegctationsbUder aus Feuerland, 8cc., parts iii. and iv. in
G. Kareten and H. Schenck's VegetaHonsbUdtr (Jena, 1906); R.
Crawfthay, The Birds of Tierra del Puegp (London, 1907).
TIETJENS, TH^RiSB JOHANNE ALEXANDRA (1831-
1877), Hungarian soprano vocalist, was bom at Hamburg on
the 17th of July 1831. Her voice was trained at Hamburg,
where she made a successful d6but in 1849 as Lucrezia Borgia
ia Donizetti's opera. Thence she proceeded to Frankfort and
Vienna. She sang for the first time in London in 1858, appearing
as Valentine in Lcs Huguenots. Her success was so great that
for the rest of her life she made England her home, and soon
gained as brilliant a reputation in concert and oratorio work
as she had already won upon the stage. Her voice was a dra-
matic soprano of magnificent quality, and her powers as an
actress were supreme. Her most famous parts were Fidelio,
Medea (in Cherubini's opera) and Donna Anna (in Don Gio-
vanni). She died in London on the 3rd of October 1877,
having endeared herself to the English people as much by her
private virtues as by her artistic gifts.
TIFFANY, CHARLES LEWIS (181 2-1909), American jeweler,
was bom at Killingly, Connecticut, on the 15th of February
x8i2. At fifteen he became a clerk in his father's store, but
removed to New York City in 1837, and with John B. Young
opened a fancy goods store. In 1847 the firm began to manu-
facture gold jewelry, and in 1848, when the political unrest in
Europe caused great depreciation in the price of precious stones.
Tiffany invested heavily in diamonds, which were sold at a
great profit a few years later. The firm became Tiffany, Young
ft Ellis in 1841 and was reorganized as Tiffany & Company
(Mr Young and Mr Ellis retiring) in 1853. In 1851 the firm
had established the sterling silver standard of '925 fine, sub-
sequently adopted by other jewelers; and in the same year
had foumled a branch house in Paris. In 1858 Tiffany bought
the unused portion of the Atlantic telegraph cable which he
made into cane handles or sold in sections. At the beginning
of the Civil War, foreseeing that the jewelry business would
sufifer, be turned most of his capital to the manufacture of
swords, medals and similar war material. In x868 the com-
pany was incorporated, and branches were established at
London and at Geneva. Tiffany made a speciality of importing
historic gems, jewelry and art works, and in 1887 bought some
of the crown jewels of France, paying for them about half a
million dollars. He was made a chevalier of the Legion of
Honour in 1878. He died in New York on the x8th of February
1909.
TIFFANY, LOUIS COMFORT (1848- ), American artist,
son of Charles L. Tiffany, was bom in New York City, on the
1 8th of Febraary 1848. He was a pupil of George Inness and
of Samuel Coleman, New York, and of L6on Bailly, Paris.
He became a member of the Society of American Artists (1877),
of the National Academy of Design (1880), of the American
Water 0>k>r Society, and of the Soci6t6 Nationaie des Beaux
Arts, Paris. He travelled extensively in Europe, and painted
in oil and water-colour, but subsequently devoted himself to
decorative glass work. He became president and art director
of the Tiffany Glass and Decorating Co., and produced a
" Favrile " ^ass, of unusual beauty of colour.
TIFFIN, a dty and the cotmty-seat of Seneca county, Ohio,
U.S.A., on '*-^ e-»j..-i.v river, about 40 »• SS.E. of Toledo.
Pop. (x ->m 1x68 were foreign-bom; (19x0
-ved by the Baltimore & Ohio, the
) & St Louis and the Penaaylvmiua
i
railways, and by an electric Uoe to Foatoria, about is m.
It is the seat of an Ursuline College for girls, founded m
X863 and incorporated with power to confer degrees in XS78;
and of Heidelberg University (ReforoMd Church), founded
in X850, incorporated as Heldelbeig College in 185 x and rein-
corporated under its present name in 1890. The Heidelberg
Theological Seminary was conducted here from x 8 50 to x 907,
when it was combined with the " School of Theology " of Ursinus
College, CoUegeville, Pennsylvania, to form the Central Theo-
logical Seminary of the Reformed Church in the United States,
which in 1908 was removed to Dayton, Ohio. In TifBn are the
St Francis Home (X869), and the National Orphans' Home
(1897). The city had 87 factories in 1905, of which 54-2^ were
owned by individuals, and the vahie of the factory products
was $2,434,502. Tiffin was settled in 1817, incorporated
as a town in X835, and chartered as a city in 1850, when the
village of Ft. Ball, on the opposite side of the Sandusky, was
consolidated with it. It was named in honour of Edward
Tiffin (i 766-1829), a native of Carlisle, England, who emigrated
to the United States. He graduated at the University of
Pennsylvania in 1789, removed in 1796 to Chillicothe, Ohio,
where he practised medicine and was a local Methodist preacher.
He was speaker of the House of Representatives of the North-
west Territory in 1799, president (1802) of the convention «hich
framed the first constitution of Ohio, the first governor ol the
state (1803-1807), a Democratic member of the United States
Senate in x 807- 1809, first commissioner of the United States
General Land Office in 1812-1814, and surveyor-general of
public lands north-west of the Ohio River in 18X4-X829.
TIFLIS, a government of Russian Transcaucasia, occupying
the eastern portion of the great valley which stretches between the
main Caucasus range and the Armenian highlands, from the
Meskes Mountains eastward, and extending up into the higher
regions on both north and south. The district of Akhaltsikli
lies actually on the Armenian highlands. The government is
rich in minerals, but only copper is extracted, at Alavcrdi aiKl
Akhtal; petroleum and other mineral springs arc abundant.
The government is drained by the Kura and its tributaries
(Lyakhva, Aragva, Yora and Alazan), all of whose waters are
largely used for irrigation; but in the lower parts of the valley
there are extensive waterless steppes, Shirak and Karayaz,
on the left batik of the Kura, which are chiefly inhabited by
nomad Tatars. The area of the government ia X5,6ox sq. m.
(17,140 with the 2^kataly district), and the estimated population
in X906 was x,o8x,900. The government is divided into nine
districts, the chid towns of which are Tiflis, Akhalkalaki,
Akhaltsikh, Dushet, (jori, Signakh and Telav Agriculture is
the principal occupation. Gc<>d silk is produced, especially in
the region of Kakbetia. Livestock breeding is extensively
carried on on the steiq;»e8. About one-fourth of the area is
under forest. The natives exhibit remarkable skill in the
manufacture of leather and metallic goods, felt, woollen stufis
{e.g. carpets and shawls) and gold embroidery.
TIFUS, a town of Russian Caucasia, capital of the gorvem-
ment of the same name and of the governor-generalship of
Caucasia, picturesquely situated (44** 48' E., 41" 42' N.) at the
foot of bare high mountains, on both banks of the river Kura^
300 ft. above the Black Sea. It is connected by rail with Poti
and Batum (2x7 m.) on the Black Sea, with Baku on the Caspian
Sea (342 m.), with Kars (185 m.),and, via Baku and Petro\'sk.
with the railway system of European Russia, which it joii^ a.t
Bcskn, near Vladikavkaa. Omnibuses also, run regularly
across the main range to Vladikavkaz, which by this route is
only X33 m. distant. The heat in summer is excessive (mean,
73*4** F.), owing to the confined position; but the surrounding
hills (xsoo to 2400 ft.) shelter the town effectively from the
cold winds of winter (mean, 34*7^)- A Urge square, cathedrals,
handsome streets, gardens, bridges, many fine buildings— among
them (he grand-ducal palace, the opera-house and the museoxn —
European shops, the dub or " circle," hotels and public offices,
are evidence of western dvilization. Among the inodem public
buildings axe the Hall of Fame (1885), the Csocanan Mvaettm. *
TIGELLINUS— TIGER
967
ttthednl of tba Catliolic Greek Churdi, and a serioiltural
museum. The chief of the older edifices is the (Sion) cathedral,
which traces back its origin to the 5th century. Other churches
date from the X4th and 15th centuries, the Armenian cathedral
of Van from 1480, and the Catholic church from the 14th century.
At Tiflis are the Caucasian branch of the Russian Geographiod
Society, an astronomical and a physical observatory, a botanifal
garden and museum, and a public library. There are cotton
and silk factories, tanneries, soap-works and brick-works.
The artisans of llBis are renowned as silversmiths, gunsmiths
and sword-makers. Tiflis is the chief centre for the import of
raw silk and silken goods, raw cotton, cottons, woollens, boots,
tobacco, wine, carpets, and dried fniits from Persia and Trans^
Caucasia, while manufactured wares are imported from Russia.
The city has considerably developed, and had, in 1897, 160,645
inhabitants, as compared with 104,024 in 1883. Tb^ include
Georgians, Russians, Germans, Persians and Tatan.
In the old division of Tiflis three distinct towns were included —
church of St hficholaa and a royal palace; that of the latter the
church of the Holy Virgin and the residence of the archimandrite.
The town b now divided into quarters: the Russian (the finest of
•11), the German, the Armenian, and that in which are congregated
Jews, Mahommedans and the mass of Orientals.
The Georgian annals put the foundation of Tiffis back to
A.D. 379. In the bter half of the 5th century the chieftain of
Georgia, Wakhung, GurgasUn, transferred his capital from
Mtskhet to the warta springs of Tphilis, where he erected several
cfiurcbes and a fort. In 570 the Persians took the place and
made it the residence of their rulers, but retained it only for ten
years. Tiflis suffered successive p!\mderings and devastations
at the hands of the Greeks in 626, of one of the commanders of
the Caliph Omar in 731, of the Khazars in 828, and of the Arabs
hi 851. The Georgians, however, always managed to return to
it and to keep it in their permanent possession. In the course
of the succeeding centuries Tiflis fell repeatedly into Persian
hands; and it was plundered by the Mongol conqueror Tamerlane
towards the end of the 14th century. Afterwards the Turks
seized it several times, and towards the end of the X7th century
the Lcsghians attacked it. In 1795, when the shah of Persia
pihmdered Hflis, Russia seht troops to its protection, and the
Russian occupation became permanent in 1799.
IVrfiaps one of the fullest accounts of TilUs Is contdned In
Brosset's edition of the DeacriMum i So g r Aphiq m de la Giertit
(St PMersbuig, 184^). by the illegitimate aoa of Wakhtans VI.,
kinff of KartbU {Le. Georgia}, who became a pensioner of Peter
theCfeat. (P. ATk.; J. T. BB.X
TIGELLINUS, SOPHONIUS, mmister and favourite of the
emperor Nero, was a native of Agrigentum, of humble origin and
possibly of Greek descent. During the reign of Cahgula he was
banished (a.d. 39) for adultery with the emperor's sisters, but
recalled by Claudius (41 ). Having inherited a fortune, he bought
kuvd in Apulia and Calabria and devoted himself to breeding
race-horses. In this manner he gained the favour of Nero, whom
he aided and abetted in his vices and cruelties. In 6a he was
promoted to the prefecture of the praetorian guards. In 64 he
made himself notorious for the orgies arranged by him in the
Basin of Agrippa, and was suspected of incendiarism in connexion
with the great fire, which, after having subsided, broke out
•fresh in his Aemilian gardens. In 65, during (he investigation
into the abortive coiispiracy of Piso, he and P<^)paea formed a
kind of imperial privy coimciL In 67 he accompanied Nero on
his tour in Greece. When the emperor's downfall appeared
imminent, Tigellinus deserted him, and with Nymphidius
Sabinus Itfought about the defection of the praetorians. Under
Galba he was obliged to give up his command, but managed to
save his life by lavishing presents upon Vinios, the favourite
of Galba, and his daughter. Otbo on his accession (69) deter*
mined to remove one so universally detested by the people.
While in the baths at Sinuessa, Tigellinus received the news that
he most die, and, having vainly endeavoured to gam a respite,
cathisthroaL
See Tacitus, Annols, idv., zv., xvL; Eia. i. 7^; Db Caaaius
lix. 33, buL 13. iSf 37i hdii. la, ai, fadv. 3; Suetonius, Galba, 13:
Plutarch, Goifo, dli^randent authorities quoted by Mayor on
Juveaal, L 155; B. W. Henderson, Lt/e and Prtncipale tg the Emperor
ftro (1903).
TIOER {FdU Ugn*)t an animal only rivalled by the lion in
siae, strength and ferocity among the cat-like beasts of prey
(see CARMivoaA) . Almost everything that is stated in the article
Lion oonceming the structure of the skeleton, teeth and claws
o! that animal will apply equally well to the tiger, the difference
between the two lying m^dnly in the skin and its coverings. A
tiger's skull may, however, always be distinguished from that
The Tiger {FtUs tigrit),
of a'^lion by the circumstance that the nasal bones extend higher
on the forehead than the maxillae, instead of stopping on nearly
the same line. Although examples of both q>ecies present
considerable variations in uae,it is ascertained that the length of
the largest-ftiied Bengal tiger may exceed that of any lion.
Much larger specimens are recorded, but 10 feet from the tip
of the nose to the end of the tail is no unusual length for a large
male tiger. The female is somewhat smaller and has a h'ghtcr
and narrower head. The tiger has no mane, but in old males
the hair on the cheeks is rather long and spreading. The ground-
colour of the upper and outer parts of the head, body, limbs and
tail is bright rufous fawn; and these parts are beautifully marked
with transverse stripes of a dark, almost black colour. The
markings vary much in different individuals, and even on the two
tides of the same individual The under^-parts of the body, the
inside of the limbs, the cheeks and a large spot over each eye are
ikariy white. The tigeis which inhabit hotter regions, as Bengal
and the south Asiatic islands, have shorter and smoother hdr,
and are more richly cobured and distinctly striped than those of
northern China and Siberia, in which the fur is longer, softer
and lighter^coknired. The Siberian tiger is P. Hgris numgoUca^
and the Persian F. tigHs virgaia. Black and white phases have
been recorded, but they are rare. The tiger is exclusively
Asiatic, but has a veiy wide range in that continent, having been
found in almost all suitable kcalitiea south of a line drawn from
the river Euphrates, passing along the southern shores of the
Caspian and Seaof Aral by Lake Baikal to the Sea of Okhotsk.
Its most northern range is the territory of the Amur, its most
touthem the islands of Sumatra, Java and Bali. Westward it
reaches to Turkish Georgia and eastward to the island of Sag-
halin. It is absent, however, from the great elevated plstean of
Central Asia, nor docs it inhabit Ceylon, Borneo or the other
islands of the Indo-Malay Archipelago, except those named.
The principal food of the tiger in India is cattle, deer, wild hoc
and pea*fowl, and occasionally human beings. The regular
" man-eater " is generally an old tiger whose v<«-« •■ «•«♦
and whose teeth are worn and defective; it taV
968
TIGER-CAT— TIGLATH-PILESER
the ndghbourhood of a village, the population of which it finds
an easier prey than wild animals. Though chiefly affecting
grassy plains or swamps, tigers are also found in forests, and seem
to be fond of haunting the neighbourhood of old niins. As a
rule, they do not climb trees; but when pressed by fear, as during
an inundation, they have been known to do so. They take to the
water readily and are good swimmers. The tigexs of the Sundai-
bans (Ganges delta) continually swim from one island to the other
to change their hunting-grounds for deer. The following extract
from Sir J. Fayrer's Royal Tiger of Bengal (1875) may complete
this notice of the tiger's habits.
The tigress gives birth to from two to five, even tax cubs; hut
three is a frequent number. She is a most affectionate and attached
mother, and ^eneradlyguards and trains her young with the most
watchful aolicttude. They remain with her undl nearly fuU-grawn,
or about the second year, when they are able to kill for themselves
and begin life on thetr own account. Whilst they remain with lier
she is peculiarly vicious and aggressive, defending them with the
greatest courage and energy, and when robbed 01 them is terrible
m her rage; but she has been known to desert them when prnsed,
and even to eat them when starved. As soon as they begin to
require other food than her milk, she kUls for them, teaching them
to do so for themadves bjr practising on small animals, such as
deer and young calves or pigs. At these times she is wanton and
extravagant in her cruelty, killing apparently for the gratification
of her ferocious and bloodthinty nature, and perhaps to excite and
instruct the young ones, and it is not until they are thoroughly
capable of killing their own food that she separates from them.
The young tinrs are far more destructive than the old. They will
kill three or four cows at a time, while the older and more ex-
perienced rarely kill more than one. and this at intervals of from
three or four days to a week. For this puipoae the tiger will leave
its retreat in the dense jungle, proceed to the neighbourhood of a
village or cowrie, where cattle feed, and during the night steal
on and strike down a bullock, drag it into a secluded place, and
then remain near the " murrie " or " kill," for several daj-s, until
it has eaten it, when it will proceed in search of a further supply,
and, having found good hunting ground in the vicinity of a village
or gowrie, continue its ravages, destroying one or two cows or
buffaloes a week. It a very fond of the ordinary domestic cattle,
which in the plains of India are generally weak, half-starved, under-
sized creatures. One of these is easily struck down and earned
or dragged off. The smaller buffaloes are also easily disposed of ;
but the buffalo bulls, and especially the wild ones, are formidable
Antagonists, and have often oeen Imown to beat the tiger off. and
eves to wound him seriously. (W. H.F. ; R. L.*)
TIOBR*CAT, typically Pelts Ugriiuif an American wild cat
ranging from Mexico, on the east of the Andes to Paraguay and
the centra] forest region of Argentina. Together the head and
body measure something over 30 in., of which the tall counts for
a tMrd. The fur is griazly grey, with black spots that do not
form diains. The name is also applied t6 the Ocelot (9.1.), and
often used of any small striped or spotted wild cat, either from
the western or eastern hemisphere.
TIOER-FLOWER, known botanically as Tigridia, a genus of
bulbous plants (natural order Iridaceae), natives of Mexico,
Central America, Peru and Chile. They have long narrow
plicatdyoveined leavea springing from the bulb and a stem bear-
ing two or three scatternl smaller leaves and above a few flowen
cmeiging from a spathe. The flowers are spotted (whence the
^ame tiger-flower or tiger-iris) and have free segments springing
Itom ji tube; the three large broad outer segmenU are concavely
spreading, the three inner are much smaller and more erect.
T. paooma (Flower of Tigris) has large flowexs with a golden
orange, white or yellow ground colour.
T1QHB» MARY (1772-18x0), Irish poet, daughter of the Rev.
William Blachford, was bom on the 9th of October 1771. In
1793 she oontiacted what proved to be an imfaappy marriage
with her cousin, Henry Tighe, of Woodstock, Co. Wicklow. She
died 00 the 24th of March x8ro, at Woo<btock,Co. Kilkenny, and
was boded at Inistioge. Mrs Tighe was the author of a poem of
imusual merit, Psyche or Uu Legeiei of Lne^ fainted privately
in 1805 and published posthumously in xSix with some other
po^Q)^ j» u r»..«^.^ «.Q iiig gy^fy gg loifj ),y Apolehis, and is
wtitter insa. Hie poem had many admirers,
nd * it in a contempoiaiy notice in the
TlGLATH-^ILBSER (Ass. TuhdH-pd-B-sarra, "my coo-
fidenoe is the son of E-sarra," i.e. the god In-Aristi), the name of
several AsBytian kings. The nombering of these kings is not
certain.
TlGLATH-PlLESBK L, the SOD of AsBUT-ris-isi, ascended tbe
throne e. ixao b.c, and was one of the greatest of AsByriaa
conquerors. His fint campaign was against the Moachi who had
occupied certain Assyrian cUstricts on the Upper Enphratcs;
then he overran Commagene and eastern Cai^Mudocia, and drove
the Hittites from the Assyrian province of Subarti north-east of
Malatia. In a std»equent campaign the Assyrmn forces pene-
trated into the Kurdish monntains south of Lake Van and then
turned westward, Malatia submitting to the invader. In his
fifth year Tiglath-Pfleser attacked Comana in Cappadoda, and
placed a record at his victories engraved on copper plates in a
fortress he built to secure his Cilician conquests. The Aramaeans
of north Syria were the next to be attacked, and he thrice made
his way as far as the sources of the Tigris. The command of the
high road to the Mediterranean was secured by the possession of
the HittiU town of Pethor at the juncUon of the Euphrates and
Sajur, and at Arvad he received presents, including a csooodile,
from the Egyptian king, and, embarking in a ship, killed a d<^phin
in the sea. He was passionately fond of the chause and was also a
great builder, the restoration of the temple of Assur and Hadad
at Assur {q.v.) being one of his works.
TiGLATH-PiLESER H. or UL, SOU of Hadad-niraHIL, appeals
to have reigned from about 950 to 930 B.C., but iu>thing b known
about him.
TiGLAXH-PzLBSEK HI. or IV., was a successful general who
usurped the Assyrian throne on the X3th of lyyar 74$ B.C.,
after the fall of the older dynasty, and changed his name of Pula
(Pul) to that of the famous conqueror of earlier times. In
Babylonia, however, he continued to be known as Pulu. He was
a man of great ability, both military and administrative, and
initiated a new system of policy in Assyria which he aimed at
making the head of a centralized empire, bound together by a
bureaucraqr who derived their power from the king. The empire
was supported by a standing army and an elaborate system of
finance. The first task of Tiglath-Pileser was to reduce the
Aramaean tribes to order, and so win the gratitude of the Baby-
lonian priests. Then he struck terror into the wild tribes on
the eastern frontiers of the kingdom by a campaign which ex-
tended into the remotest parts of Media. Next came the defeat
of a northern coalition headed by Sar-duris of Ararat, no fewer
than 73,950 of the enemy being captured along with the city of
Arpad, where the Ass3rrian king received the homage of vaxfoua
Syrian princes. Arpad revolted soon afterwards, but after a
siege was taken in 740 B.C. The following year Asariah of Judah
appears among the enemies of Tiglath-Pileser, who had over*
thrown his Hamathlte allies and annexed tne nineteen districts
of Hamath. The conquered populations were now tran^>orted
to distant parts of the empire. In 737 b.c. Tiglath-Pileser again
marched into Media, and in 735 he invaded Ararat and wasted
the country round the capital Van to a distance of 450 miles.
In 734 B.C. he was called to the help of Yahu-khasi (Ahaz) of
Judah, who had been attacked by Pekah of Israel and Reaon
(Rasun) of Damascus. Reson, defeated in battle, fled to his
capital which was at once invested by the Assyrians, while with
another portion of his army Tiglath-Pfleser ravaged Syria and
overran the kingdom of Samaria. Ammon, Moab, Edom and
the queen of Sheba sent tribute, and Teima in northern Arabia
was captured by the Assyrian troops. In 73a B.C. Damascus
fell; Reaon was put to death, and an Assjrrian satrap appointed
in his stead, '^e also was made tributary. The next year
Tiglath-Pileser entered Babylonia, but it was not untfl 729 b.c.
that the Chaldaean prince Ukin-zer (Chinzirus) was driven from
Babylon and Tiglath-Pfleser acknowledged as its legitimate ruler.
In the early part of Tebet 727 B.c he died, after having built two
palaces, one at Nineveh, the-other at Calah.
See P. Rost. Die KeUschrifUexle Tiglat-Piksers III. (1893); also
Babylonia and Assyria. § v. Hu/oryC' Second Assyrian Empire*^:
and authorities quoted in { viil Chronology.
TIGRANES— TIGRIS
969
idag of Amtnit («. 95-55 bx.)-
AnacaU had by the coaquoU of Alexaader the Gieat become
apioviaoe of the Macedonhn Eaipire; but it wiaaever thoraogUy
fliibJectedtotheforeigBiale. APenUnfaiaily^thatof Ujrdanies,
one of the ■■orfatw of Daxiua Hyttas^ which po— ea w d
hxgjt domaias in Armeoia and had been invcated with the
lattapy for Kveial geaeFatlona, was dominant in the oountiy,
and aMuned the royal title in defiance of the Selendd. Antio-
cfatis III. the Gxeat put an end to this dynasty about an and
divided Annenia into two satrapies, which he gave to two generals
of Peniaa origin, the district of Sophene in the west (on the
Euphrates and the souices of the Tigris) toZariadics, the eastern
part, called Armenia BCajor (roond the lake of Van) to Aitaxias
(see AsMtiOA). After the battle of Magnesia (190) both made
thrmtelves independent; ArtaJdas conquered the valley of the
Araaes, whete he founded his new capital Artaxata {** town of
Artaxias/' laid to be built by the advice of Hannibal, Strabo xi.
528; Plut. Luc, si). He waa defeated and taken prisoner by
Antiochus IV. Epipkama in 165 (Applan, Syr, 45, 66), but soon
became independent again in the troubles which followed his
death (cf. Dlod. szzi. as. a7a); and his socoeasoia extended their
power even farther against Media and the districts on the Kur.
But from 140 the Parthians became the dominant power esst of
the Euphrates. King Artavaades of Armenia was attackedby
Mtthradates II. the Great abont 105 B.C. (Jtalin xlii. a). He
bad to give his son Tigranes (b. 140 n.c. according to Lucian,
Mccnb. 1$: by Appian, Syr. 48, be is called ** son of Tigranes ";
if that is correct, he probably was the nephew of Artavasdes)
as hostage to the Parthians, and he obtained his freedom only
by ceding seventy valleys bordering on Media (Strabo xL
53a; d. zvi 745; Justin xxxviiL 3). This sketch of the earlier
hLtoiy of Annenia is principally based upon the data given by
Strabo d. 5 38, sjc acq. The traditions preserved by the Armenian
histoiiaos (wbo fancy that an Arudd dynaaty ntled over Annenia
ance the time of Alexander) have no historical value whatever.
Tigranes, who ascended the throne in 95 or 94 bX: (Plut. Luc.
ai). imBBediatelyJwgan to enlaige his kingdom. He deposed
Aitanes, the last king of Sophene from the race of Zaxfauirea
(Strabo xi. 53a), and entered into dose alliance with Mithiadatea
VI. Eupator oJf Ponlus, whose daughter Geopalxa he manied.
In 93 be invaded Cappadoda in the interest of Mithxadates, but
was driven back by Sulla in 9> (Fhit. SuUa, 5, Justin xxxviiL 3).
Puring his first war with Rome, Mithiadatea was supported by
Tigranes, although be abstained from interfering opimly. But
he meanwhile b^an war with the Parthians, whose empire was
weakened after the death of Mithrsdates II. (about 88) by
internal disaensiona and invasions of the Scythians^ Tigranes
leoonquered the valleys which he had ceded, and bud waste a
great part of Media, down to Ecbatana (Isidor. (Hiarac 6), and
tiie districts of Nineveh and Aibela; the kings of Atropatene,
Goidyeoe (the country of the C^ardudu, now Bohtaa), Adiabene
(the former Assyria) and Osroene (Edeasa) became his vasaala,
who atttnded him like slaves wherever be went; northern Meso-
potamia also waa torn from the Panbian Empire (Siiabo xL
S3 a, 747; Phit Lm. 3 a). In 83 he invaded Syria, ddeated the
last sttocesaors of Sdeucus aixl occupied (Tilida, of which the
eastern pans ttHl bdonged to the Seleudds (Justin xL x;
Appian, Syr. 48; Hut. Imc. 14* ai). In the war between Mithra-
dates and SuUa he did not interfere, but after the death of Sulla
(78) he occupied Cappadoda again and expelled King Ariobarz-
anes I., the vassal of the Romans (Appian, Uiikr. 67; Strabo
aii. 539). During the next yean wars are mentiooed in Syria,
where the princess Cleopatra Selene attempted in vain to restore
tbeSeleudd rule, but was besieged in Acooand aftenrards killed
(Joseph. AnL vol 16, 4; Strabo xvi. 749)* ud fai Cllida, where
he destroyed the Greek town of Soli (Phit. P&mp. a8; Dio Casa.
mvi 37). Tigrmea now had beoome ** king of kmgs " and the
r»»lfr«i— * monarch of Asia. So he buHt a new royal dty,
Tfgranooerta, en the bonlen of Armenia and Mesopotamia,
betweon Mt Maaua and the Tigris, where he accumulated all
hia wealth and to which he transplanted the fnhabtianta of
twcba OsbA town of Cappadoda, Ciidft and ^yiia (Fhit. Luc.
ir, ad; Appian, MUkr. 67; Stiabo it $t%, 53a, 539; Plin. vi.
a6 seq.; for the situatfon, which is much disputed, d. Tac. Ann.
xiv. a4, XV. 5, ed. Fumeaux). He also transplanted many Arabic
tribes hito Mesopolamaa (Phit. Emc. si; PlhL vL 14a). But the
Romans could not tolerate encroachment upon their sphere of
power, and in 69 LocuUus Invaded Armenia. Tigranes was
beaten at TSgranoccrta on the 6th of October 69, and again near
Artaxata in September 68. The recall of Lucullua gave some
respite to the two kings, who even invaded Asia Minor again.
But meanwhile a son of Tigranes and Oeopatra, called Tigranes,
like his father, rebelled against him (as the old man had already
killed two of his sons, he had reason enough to be afraid for his
life) and found refuge with the Parthian kiag Phraates III., whose
daughter he married and who sent him back with an army
(Appian. MUkr. 104; Plut Pomp. 33; Dio Casa. xxxvi. 51).
The old king now gave up all hope of resistance; he put a price
on the head of Mitbradates, and when Pompey advanced into
Armenia and united with the yoAnger Tigranes, he surrendered
himself to the Roman general (66 B.C.). Pompey now changed
bis policy; he recdved the old Tigranes graciously and gave him
back his diadem, while he tieated theaon vtxy coolly and aoo*
made him prisoner. The younger Tigranes was led in triumph
into Rome, where he found his death when be tried to escape from
his confinement by the intrigues of P. (Hodius in 58 (Dk> Cass^
38, 30). The father after his defeat ruled about ten years longer
over Armenia, as vassal of the Romans. He died about 56,
and was succeeded t^ his son Artavasdes. (See also Mrhba-'
DATXS.) (En. M.)
TIOBB, a northern province of Abyasbla; one of the three
prindpal divisions oi the country, the others being Amhara or
Gondar in the centre and Sboa in the south. The ras (or prince)
of Tigr6 has been often a more powerful potentate than the
nominal emperor. Tigrf oontaina the town of Axum (9.V.),
capital of the ancient Ethiopic Empire. Adua (Adowa, q-t.) is
the capital of the province. (See Abyssxmia.)
Tigrina. the dialect spoken in Tigrf and Laita, ta nearer the ancient
Gees than is Amharic, the official and more widely diffused laagnage
of Abysnnia. See j. Schreiber, ifofiacl dt la imnm tmi (Vienna,
1887-1893): and L de Vito, GrommtUka ddla Umpna H^igu
(Rome, 1895). *
TI0BIB (Old Persian Tigrd, Diktat of the condfonn hiso^
tfons, Hiiiekd of the Old Testament, Dn^ of the Targum,
Dit^ of the Arabs) , a great river of western Asia, rising from two
prindpsl sources. The more western of these is about xo m. S. of
Lake Geuljik (Colchis of the ancients), at an altitude of 5050 ft,
some a or 3 m. only from the channd of the Euphrates, which
here forms a peninsula by a great bend (38* xcf N., approxim-
ately 39* ao^ E.). The eastern source, which joins the main
stream at Td (37* 4S' N., 41* 46' E.), b itself divided into two
branchce, or rather it may be said to oonabt of a network of
small streams, the most northerly of which has its origin in about
38* 40' N. to the west of Lake Van, and dose to the headwaUra
of the Mund Su, the eastern brsnch of the Euphrates, while the
most easterly point is situated in a region about 4a* ^ £.,'
southward of the same lake. - The two sources together drain,
the region south as the Euphrates drains the region north of the
Taurus mountains. After the jtmction of the two branches the
river pursues a windhig course, generally south-east, for about
800 m. to the point of union with the Euphrates at Garmat All,
whence it is known as the Shatt-d-Arab until it empties into the
Persian Gulf some 70 hl lower down. For some five or six
centuries before 1901^x909 the juitctloB with the Euphrates was
at Koma, some 30 m. above Garmat AIL On the western side
there are no tributaries at the present day. As late as aj>. i 200,
however, the Arabian geographers mention a tribuUry, the
Tharthar, navigable in fiood time, which flowed from the Jaghi-
gagh brandi of the Khabur, a tributary of the Euphrates, to the
Tigris. Ormsby, in 1833, also reported a river, Uie Asia Amir,
as coming down from theSinjar hflla and joining the Tigris near
Kal-*at Shergat, about sf y^ N.; but this seems now to be a dry
bed. On the eastern side of the river, on the
are several important txibvtaiks dfsrrndhif
970
TILBURG— TILDEN
mountaint: the K&ftbnr,* littls north of 37* N., navigable for
rafti; the Great Zah, at 36" N., just bdow Nimrud, the ancient
CaUh; the Little Zab, about 35* ^S' ^-i ^^e 'Adhem at 34*" N.
and the very Urge and important Diyali, a little below Bagdad,
*t33"i5'N.
The course of the Tigris Is much shorter than that of the Euphrates,
jbout 1 150 m. as compared with 1800 m., but its volume of water
is grtMtcr, at least in its lower course. At Bagdad it has an average
bnesdlh of about 300 yards and a current in flood time of about
4i m. per hour. It is navigable for steamers to a point a little
above the mouth of the Great Zab. about 30 m. south of Mosul,
at which point navigation Is blocked by two ancient dams, erected,
aptMrcntly, to control the rivtf for the Assyrian city of Calah, the
rums of which are called Nimrud by the natives after these dams,
which they conceive to be the work of that mythical hero. Were
It not for these dams steamers might reach Mosul itself, at an dcva-
tion of 353 ft. above the Persian Gulf. Two lines of eteamen, an
English and a Turkish, furnish an inadequate service between
Basra and Bagdad, but there is no steam navigation on the river
above the latter city. Small sailing craft navigate opwards as
far as SamArra; above this all navintion is downward, and by
raft. For rafts the river is navigable from Diarbekr and is termed
by the natives "the cheap cameleer.** The rafts used are the
so-called M/rAr, of wood supported on inflated sldns, which are
bfolren up at Bagdad, the wood sold and the skins cazried back
by caravan.
Near the source of the Tisrisp at Arghana-Ma'den, are copper
mines. In the neighbourhood of Diarbekr is iron. Bdow Mosul,
for some distance, occur sulphurous and bituminous springs. There
are also in that neighbourhood famous marble ouamea. This
pert of the river's couneb the ancient Assyria, is aM a rich agri>
cultural region.
From a little above the confluence of ^he Great Zab downward,
the banks of the river are absolutely uninhabited, and the river
flows through a desert until Tekrit ia reached. Beginning shortly
below Teknt there are indications of oonstdetable canalisation,
both for the punmse of irrigating country remote from the river,
and also of shortening the course of the river for navigation. In
ancient times the country on both sides of the river was well irri-
gated below this point, the waters of the Hgris were under thorough
control, and it and its lower tributaries, the Adhem and the Diysla,
were made, by means of huge canals, to furnish great water-ways
for the country between it and the Persian hills eastward. Of
these canab the best known, and probably the greatest, waa the
Nahmwan, which, leaving the Tigris, on its eastern side, above
Sanarra, over 100 m. north of Bagdad, rejoined it bdow Kut-ei-
Amara, an equal distance to the south. None of these canals
is serv-iceible at the present time, and few cany water in any part
of their course, ex'en in flood time.
A little south of Saminm the stony plateaa of Meaopotaaua
ends, and the alluvial plaia of Irak, andcnt Babykmia, begins.
Here the palm groves begin also, and from this point to a uttle
beyond Bagdad the shores of the river are mxU culti>-3tcd. At the
point of entering the allu\-ial plain the bed of the Tigris seems to
Be lower ti^n that of the Euphiatea. so that the canab run from
the latter to the former stream. At Bajedad the Tigris and Euphrates
are Ivss than \% m. apart, then they recede aeain, the Tigris bending
eastward. untU. below the Shatt-el-Hat, they are separated by
almost 100 m. From Bagdad downward, the course of the Tigns
is peciiUarty serpentine and shifting. The mud brought down by
it, calculated at 71SO Vt> an hour at Bagdad, a not deposited in
marches to form allu'^'ium. as in the case q^ the Euphrates, but
ahhough in flood time the river betomes at places an inbnd aea,
rendenng navigutioa extremely difficnlt and uncertain, the bulk
«l the mud is de^iositcd in banks* shoala and idonds m the bed
of the riv«r, and u finally carried out into the Penaan Gulf. At
Kutnrl-Anvira. approximately half way from Bagdad to Koma.
the bed of the Tigris is higher than that of the Euphrates, and
accordingly from this p(Hnt du w u w aid its. waters flow into the
Eophntta and net vice vena. ^
bbonly bdow Kut-d-Ansain all traces of nftesent rsanliistinn on
the east side vanidk. and it would appear as thongh much of that
region, new largely under water at flood time, constituted an inland
«c«. On the we«t side, however, there are the rrmains of se^rral
camak or channels, some still cairying water, one of which, the Shatt-
tl-HaL Waving the Tigria at Kotjai-Amara. and cn^tying into tfttt
Euphrstes at Nosrich, is still navigable. _Iadeed« in the time of
ihe caliphate this nas the channel of the TMris* and on its hanks
* citv ol Want. At a much wore remote pervnd
; city of Lagash stood by or on iu banks. In the
siocd the important <
tho thn great . „ .
UoM of the Saamnian kiags, however, ns at the iiinni taose.
Tigria oct u tiied a more caatniy course. Indeed, the bver
Of the Tigns. tven mo€*. ^nn that of tVe Eitthratn, has alwavs
tacn aMMct to dttngcw Mow the Shatt^-Hai the covetrv on
krth #»aljl>a ^wt\g aiCth ily n swamn. eaoepe wWre the palm
^SmS^Vt' ^'^" ^ ilbaiNddbofNovwbcrandis
The principal towns on iti banka are Dfaibdr {aaeTAmSia)^ oa
the western branch; Bitlis, en the eastern bmach; Mosul; Tcknt,
a town dating from Persian days, said to have been founded by
Shapur I. son of Ardaahir I., formedy important, bntmnr re*.
lativdy insignificant; Samflrra, also called Samita, the capitaJ of
the caliphate from a.o. 8j6 to 892, a i^ace of pilgrimay of the
Shia, Moslems, containing magnificent tomba of two of tbair
Jtttams the tenth and efeventh, with another nnch vocnted
shrine of the twelfth, as wcU as some interesting rains; and Bac*
dad. While the Tigris never played the same r^ UstotkaJly
as the Euphrates, nimaerous remains of antiqnity are to be seen
along its cowse. Cuneiform inscriptionB and bas-idiefa have
been found at the sources of both the western and eastern TSgria,
as well aa at various points on the difiis along the upper ooone of
both branches. Opposite Mosul are the ruins of andentranevcb,
the last capital oil Assyria, and ao m. below that the Tvins of
Calah, the second capital; whUe 35 m. farther south, on theo|ip»>
site bank, lies Kal'at-Shcrgat, the ahdent Aasur, the oogbul
name-place and capital of the Assjrtian £mpiie, A littk soutih
of SamArta axe found remains of the Median WaB, wfaidi
stretched soutb-wtst towards the Euphrates near SaUawycb,
marking the edge of the Babyionfan aUuvial ptain. In tins
neighbourhood alsQ stood the andcnt Opis. At Bagdad, besides
the memorials of the chliphate, may be seen a few icaains of tlw
old Babylonian dty of Ba^dado, and a doaea miks sontliwaid,
on the east bank of the river, stands Tskhti-Khcsra, the royal
palace at Ctesipbon, the most conspkaous and picturesqae ivia
in all Babylonia, opposite which,.on the other side of tbe m«r>
are the low ruin mounds of ancient Seknda.
See W. F. Ainsworth. JUnartktM tn Assm (t«3$): R. F. Chcsniy,
Expedition to tk* Empkrola omi Tigris C1850); W. F. Ainawwtk,
TU Euphrates Expedition (1888); Guy Le Strange, ** Deacripcioa
of Mesopotamia and Bagdad " {Jonnml of Iko Royal Asiatic Society,
189s): E. Sachau, Am Emptmi mud Tigns (19001 0* P- Pk.)
TILBURft, a town in the province of north Brabant, HoDaad,
and a junction station 134 m. by rail E. by S. of Breda. Astcaaa
tramway connects it northwards with Washrijk. Pop. (1905),
46,517. TQbuig has risen into importaaoe since the oepaiatioa
of Belgium from HoOand as one of the dnef indnatrial catcscs
of the south. It hss Roman Catholic and Protestant chnrcliesv
a synagogue, a doth haD, a higher-bugher school, aa art and
music school, and a Roman Catholic s e minsi y . The <<
msnnfartnre is the ducf indostxy, besides whkfc
leather, soap, oil sad tobacco fisctorics, as wcfl aa 1
TOBIIBT DOCKI, on the nortb shore of tke.naBM% m the
county of Essex, Fnglaiwt. They lie oppesile Giawcsend 15 m.
befav London Bridge sad shoot the same dteaaoe faoB the Nore,
being thus within the port of Loadoa. They wcr MUnind
in 1886 by the East ft West Indm Docks CdnfMiqF; aad were
later owned hy the London ft Indm Dods Comiioay. The
docks aie foor in number, having; with tidal basin and fatnaor
locks, a total area of 74 aots. The depth 4f water in the lidsl
basin is as fL at low tide and 44 ft at high tidi^' The kofth of
quayage is afaoat s) m^ awl there is eat eo sire warehossHif as
wdl asacconuBodatioo far usiauigeia, asthehisot |
steamers trading arith the rat of London lie [
communkafinn is p soi id o d by the fnndnn, TSnay ft 2
line, and there is direct ooanenon %>r goodil
nartncn Imra
iiLDfiii, lunnLjom (1814-1886), i
was bora at New LchaMo, Nev Yo±, on the «th af Fdnnqr
1814. In 1834 he cMcred Yale Uaiveoity, bit asoD withdrew
on aooonat of 01 Iwahh, and IstcrstndiBd hi the OMnity af the
OtyofNevYod:. HewMaihdttediothehghnfti,andi—
rapidly to the froni rank. In the inancid tsodtha liilni lo
i8so aad 1S60 it w reid tlna more thn hdf the naaavawMh of
the Oh^ riftr and between the Hinten and AelfimareiincBa
were U some time his dieata. iaspiteaf hisaetirii^nithehaK;
Tilden sasistSTiwd an. iaftcicst m pofiliKi, avsisg re fha Stela
1S40 and i367. In s&A lBi«eiy aw aooMOft dt his p^waal
ajiarhawat bo Maitia Van Barcw. ha asMicreBisd re the resaig
TILE
971
of tte ^^Banbonicr'* or imt^oa fKlion ci tbe Nnr York
Demoamts, and in 2855 was the candidate of the >' softahcll/' or
aati-slavery, faction for attomey-geoerai of the ftate. Duxing
the Civil War, althimgh be opposed several of the war measures
of President Lincoln^ ad nrinist ration, he gave the Union cause
his heartiest support. In 1866 Tildcn beaime chairman of the
Democratic state committee, and soon came into conflict with
the notorious '* Tweed ring " of New York City. As the " ring "
could be destroyed only by removing the corrupt judges who were
iu toob, Tilden, after entering the Assembly in 1872 to promote
the eaoae of reform, took a leading part in their impeachment.
By analysing the bank accounts oi certain members of the
" ring," he obtained legal proof of the principle on which the
spoils had been divided. His fame as a reformer brou^t him to
ibe governor's chair in 1874, and he at once gave his attention
to a second set of plunderers — the ** canal ring," made up of
members of both parties who had been systematically robbing the
state through the maladministratioa of its canal»—«nd succeeded
in breaking them up. In 1876 the Democrats nominated him
for the presidency, the Repid>Iicans nominating Rutherford B.
Hayes of Ohio. The result was the disputed dection of 1876-,
when two sets of returns were lent to Washington from the states
of Florida, Louisiana, South Carolina and Oregon. As the
Federal Constitution contained no provision for settling a dispute
of this kind the two houses of Congress agreed to the appoint-
ment of an extra-constitutional body, the " Electoral Com-
miwon " (q.9.) which decided all the contests in favour of the
Republican candidates. Tilden counselled his followers to abide
quietly by the result. In 1878 the New York Tribune (Repub-
lican) publishe<ha series of telegraphic despatches in dpber,
accompanied by translations, by which it attempted to prove
that during the crisis following the election Tilden had been
negotiating for the purchase of the electoral votes of South
Carolina and Florida. Tilden denied emphatically all knowledge
of such despatches, and appeared voluntarily before a Congres-
sional sub-committee in New Yorit City to dear himself of the
charge. The attempts to implicate him in corrupt transactions
vrere not successful; but his political opponents endeavoured to
make capital in subsequent campaigns, out of the "Cipher
dispatches." The remainder of his life was spent in retirement
At his country home, Greystone, near Yonkers, New York, where
be died on the 4th of August 1886. Of his fortune (estimated at
$5,000,000) approximatdy $4,000,000 was bequeathed for the
establishment and maintensnre ol " a free public library and
reading-room in the City of New York "; but, as the will was
successfully contested by relatives, only about $3,000,000 of the
bequest was applied to its original purpose; in 1895 the Tilden
Trust was combined with the Astor and Lenox libraries to form
the New York Public Library.
See the Wriimn and Speeches ef Samuel J. Tilden (2 vola.. New
York, 188$) and Letters and LUeeaey Memorials of Samuel J. Tilden
(2 vob., New York, 1908), both edited by John Bigelow; also
Kgdow't Life of Sammel /. Tilden (3 vols.. New York, 189c);
and P. L. Haworth's The Hayes-TUden Disputed Presidential Electmt
ef 1876 (Cleveland, 1906).
TILB (O. Eng. tigd, Fr. tuUe, connected with Lat. ktula), the
name given to flat slabs of baked clay or other material used for a
great variety of architectural purposes, such as covering roofs,
floors and walls.
X. Roofing Tiks.^— In the most important temples of andent
Greece the roof was covered with t3es oi white marble, fitted
together in the most perfect way so as to exdude the rain. In
most cases as in the Athenian Parthenon and the existing tempk
of Aegina the tiles were huge slabs of marble, with a flange along
each side over which joint tile^ (AfvioO were accuratdy fitted
(see A. in fig. x). In the temple of ApoUo at Bassae, though the
main building was of limestone, the roof was covered with very
beautiful tiles of Parian marble, which are specially mentioned
by Pausanias as being one of the chief beauties of the temple.
Some of these were found by Mr Cockerell during his excavations
* In Egypt and Anryrta temples and palaces were mostly roofed
with stone, while inferior buildings had flat roofs covered with beaten
day (see also Taaaa Corra).
at Bassae early in the tgth century.' In design they resemble
the other examples mentioned above, but are peculiar in having
a joint piece worked out of the same slab of marble as the adjacent
tiles (see B in fig. x) at great additkmal cost of material and
labour, in order to secure a more perfect fit. Fig. a shows the
A B
Fig. I. — Framplra of roofing tiles from Greek Temples.
A, B, Marble dlea from Aegina D, Sketch showing method of
and Bassae. showing two ' jointing at the lower edge,
methods of working the E, Longitudinal section of a clay
ioint tiles. iomt-tile (ifiuM).
C, C, Clay tiles from Olympia. F, Joint-tile with peg to fix it.
way in which they were set on the roof. Great splendour of
effect must have been gained by continuing the gleaming white
of the columns and wads on to the roof . All along the eaves each
end of a row of jomt tiles was usually covered by an antefixa, an
oval topped piece of marble with honeysuckle or some other con-
ventional pattern carved in relief.* In most cases the Greeks
used terra-cotta roofing tiles, shaped like the marble ones of fig. X,
A. Othen were without a flange, being formed by a concave
upper surface to prevent the rain getting underneath the joint
tiies. The lower edge of the tile, whether of marble or of clay,
was usually half-lapped and fitted into a corresponding rebate in
Fic. a.-^Perspectivc sketch showing the arrangement of tiles B in
fig. I, at Bassae.
B, B, Dowels to fix the joint-tilei. C, Tilting piece, a, a. Flat
surface of tiles.
the upper edge of the next tile (see D in fig. i). The iipfiol also
were half -lapped at the joints (see £ in fig. 1). All these were
usually fastened with bronze nails to the rafters of the roof. In
some cases each joint-tile had a projecting peg to fix it to the
next ipf/tln, as diown at F. . In the temples of Imperial R^me
marble roofing tiles were used like those shown at fig. i. These
were copied from Greek work along with other salient archi-
tectural features. For domestic and other less important work
day tOes (legulae) were employed, of the form shown in A, fig. 3.
These are narrower at the lower edge, so as to fit into the upper
■See Cockerell. Temples of Aegtna and Bassae (LonOon, i860).
* Marble tiles are said to have been first made by Bvxes of Naaos
about 630 B.C.: see Pausanias v. 10, 3.
972
TILE
edge of the next tOe and tlie foints were covered with a semi-
dirukr joint tile (imbrex). Rows of terra-cotu antefixae were
set ak>ng the eaves of the roof, and were often moulded with
very beantiful reliefs. In localities which supply laminated
stone, such as Gloucestershire and HampsUre in Britain, the
Romans often roofed their buildings with stone tiles fastened
V:^/^
F10.3.
A, Section and elevation of the day dies commonly used in ancient
Rome.
B, Roman stone tiles, each fixed with one iron nail at the top angle.
C, Pan-tiles used in medieval and modem tiroes.
with iron nails. Fig. 3,6, shows an example from a Roman villa
at Fifehead Neville^ in Dorset, England. Each slab had a lap of
about a' over the row of tiles below it; many large iron nails were
found with these stone tiles.
In a few cases, in the most ma^iificent temples of andent
Rome, as in those of Capitoiine Jupiter and of Venus and Rome,
and also the small drcular temple of Vesta^ tiles of thickly
gilded bronze were used, which must have had a most magnificent
effect. Those of the last named building are specially mentioned
by Pliny (H-JV. xxxiv. 7) as having been made of Syracusan
bronze' — an alloy in great repute among the Romans. The
bronze tiles from the temples of Jupiter Capitolinus and of Venus
and Rome were taken by Pope Honorius 1. (625-638) to cover the
basilica of St Peter, whence they were stolen by the Saracens
during their invasion of the Leonine dty in 846.*
In medieval times lead or copper^ in large sheets was used for
the chief churches and palaces of Europe; but in more ordinary
work clay tiles of very simple form were employed. One variety,
still very common in Italy, b shown in C, fig. 3. In this form of
80<alled " pan-tile " each tile has a double curve, forming a
tegula and imbrex both in one. Stone tiles were also very common
throughout the middle ages. Another kind of roofing tile,
largdy used in pre-Norman times, and for some centuries later
for certain purposes, was made of thin pieces of split wood,,
generally oak; these are called " shingles." They sUnd the
weather fairiy weU, and many old examples still exist, especially
on the wooden towers and spires of East Anglia.
At the present day, when slate is not used, tiles of burnt day
are the ordinary roofing material, and many complicated forms
have been invented to exclude rain. Most of these are, however,
costly and do not answer better than the recUngylar tile about-
9 by 6 in., fastened with two copper or even stout zinc nails,
and ivell bedded on mortar mixed with hair. For additional
security clay tiles are usually made with two small projections
at the upper edge, which hook on to the battens to which they
are nailed. The dbtrict round Broseley (Shropshire) is one of the
chief centres in England for the manufacture of roofing tiles of
the J>etter sort. The common kinds are made wherever good
•The dome of the Pantheon was* covered with tiles or plates
of bronze thickly gilt, as were also the roofs of the forum of Trajan.
* Bronze tiles for small buildinn such as this were usually of
a pointed oval form, something like the feathers of a bird. This
kind of tiling b cal'-^ A«twM.-i-*«^ by Pliny, H.N., xxxvi. 23.
' Part of the ' en stripped from the temple of
Jupiter by the '^rocopius, Beli. Van. I 5.
* The gilt f camples of this use of copper.
See also the crdam, Amsterdam, Hamburg
andLQbeck
bridt-dayexiili. In aome places pm-tfles are itlD used indhavc
a very picturesque effect ; but they are Ibble to let in the nin, as
they cannot be securely nailed or well bedded in moctar. la
Gloucestershire, Yorkshire, north-cast Lancashire and other
counties of England, stone tiles are still employed, bat are
rapidly going out of use, as they require very strong loof timben
to sup^rt than, and the great extennon of railways has made
the common purple slates cheap in nearly every district. Tbe
green slates of the Lake Dbtrict are now extensivefytisedlortliis
purpose, often with excellent efiecL
Some of the mosques and palaces of Perua are roofed with
the most magnificent, enamelled, Instred tiles, decorated with
daborate painting, so that they shine like gold in the sun.
They were spedally used from the X3th century to the 15th.
In style and manufacture the finest of them resemble the
frieze shown in fig. 5.
3. Waa rtZer.—Thcse are partly described under Muxax.
DicoKATiON iq.v.)* In most oriental countries tiles were
used in the most magnifi-
cent way throogjhout the
middle ages especially in
Constantinople, Broussa,
Damasctis, Cairo,Moorish
Spain, and in the chief
towns of Persia. Fig. 4
shows a fine example
from a mosque in Damas-
cus. From the 12th to
the i6th century a special
kind of iustred tiles was
largdy employed for
dadoes, friezes and other
wall surfaces, being fre-
quently made in . large
slabs, modelled boldly in
relief with sentences from
sacred books or the
names and dates of rdgn-
ing caliphs. The whole
was picked out in colour, -
usually dark or turquoise
blue, on a ground of
cream-white enamd, and
F1C.4.-
WaU Tiles from]
the 16th century.
in the last firing minute ornaments in copper lustre were
added over the whole design, giving the utmost splendour
of effect (see fig. 5). Great skill and taste are shown by
the way in which the delicate painted enrichments are
Fig. 5.~Pfersian Luatied Tiles of the 13th century, formiag
part of a frieze.
made to contrast with the bold decoration in rdief. These
Iustred tiles sometimes line the prayer-iudie in houMS and
mosques; in such cases the slabs usually have a conventional
reprcsenution of the kaaba at Mecca, with a lamp hanging in
front of it and a border of sentences from the Koran.* The
mosques of Persia are specially rich in thb method of decoration,
• For the enamelled wall tiles of ancient Egy^t, see Ceramics.
*The Victoria and Albert Museum. London, contains many
fine eaamples of the early as wall aa 01 the later aorta, like 1'
shown in ng. 4.
TILE
973
n^gtifA^^Hf esanples exisdngr at N&tenz, Sdjuk, Tabriz, Ufahan
and other places.^ Indiaa tik>work is specially described in the
article Kasui.
Stamped Spanish tile decoration in its earliest foim was an
imitatioo of mesaic, pieces of enamelled tile of various colours
being anrai^^ in geometrical patterns, or combined with glass
or stone for the purpose. In the 14th and tsth centuries this
process was supplanted by oaj in which the variously shaped and
coloured sections of tile were separated by means of narrow bands
of the same material, enamelled in white and disposed in various
combinations of geometrical interkdng. Of this kind are the
bulk of the Alhambra tiles. But the tediousness of the process
gave rise, about 1450, to what is known as the euerda seca (or
** dry cord ") method, in which mrrow fiUcts at the edges of the
separating interlacings were first stamped upon the tile itself and
filled with clay and manganese; these being fired (thus forming
a ** dry cord " or line) formed shallow compartmems which
were in turn filled with coloured enamel, white being used for the
interlacings themselves. The process was much in vogue in
Andalusia and Castile until about 1550, when there arose the
method de euenca in which the parts of the design to receive
different coloured enamels were stamped, slightly concave
(euenca — a bowl or socket), their edges alone being left in reUef.
Th» process lasted until about the commencement of the 18th
century.
At Manises, Patema and elsewhere in Valencia, soon after the
middle of the 14th century there commenced an extensive pro-
duction of white enamelled tiles painted with designs in blue
(mote rarely in lustre and manganne) for wail and pavement
decoration. This manufacture continued throughout the isih
ceotnry and produced some of the finest freehand tile designs that
are known tO'day. The motives included figure compositions,
animals, plants, coats of arms, &c., drawn with great skill and
facility. Most of these tiles are to be found in old bouses in the
dty and province of Valencia.
In Catalonia, in the i6th century, blue and white painted tiles
were produced in imitation of those of Valencia. For the most
highly finished of these stencils were employed to block out the
designs.
Polychrome painting upon tiles in the Italian manner was
introduced into Spain by NicuJose Francisco of Pisa, who settled
at Seville (1503-1S0&) and executed alur-pieccs and architectural
details in tile work. This imported Italian style was much
affected for am. "rial decoration.
In the i6th and 1 7th centuries tiles of a coarse kind of majolica
were used for wall decoration in southern Spain; some rich
examples still exist in Seville. These were the work of Italian
potters who had settled in Spain.
LrraaATuaa.— A. Van de Put, Htspano-Uortsqiu Wan of Ae
XVtk CttUury (IQ04); C. J de O&ma. ApuaUs sabre ceramUa
morisca: Uxlas y documcntos vaUnciaHOs, No. t (1906), and " Lcs
Lctrcros omamcntales en la ccramica morisca del siglo XV " (in the
review Ctdtura es^Hota, no ii . 1906). J. Font y Guma. Rajolas
vaUneianas y caUUanas (1Q05); J. Gcstoao y Perez, Histana de las
barroi ndriados seoUiaaos (1904).
3. Ftoor Tiles — After the development of painted and lostred
tQes in Spain and luly for the decoration of wall surfaces, they
were also introduced, during the latter part of the isth and the
first part of the f6ih centuries, as pavements, especially in the
chapds of the famous cathedrals of those countries. Compare*
tively few examples of these pavements now exist, as the majolica
enamel was too soft to stand the wear of the feet of worshippers.
The earliest known pavement of this type b that In the church of
San Giovannfa Carbonara in Naples, which is dated, approxi-
mately, 1440. The tiles, square and hexagonal in shape, arc coated
with white enamel and are painted chiefly in dark blue, with
touches of green and purple. The British Museum, the Louvre
and other museums have secured odd examples of these tiles.
It seems probable from the technical methods of the work that it
was produced by a Spanish or even a Moorish hand. It isivell
known that Moorish tile-makers did travel both into Italy and
into France to embellish the palaces of great nobles or the chapels
> See Coste. Monuments de la Peru (Parib. iM;).
XXVI 16*
they founded. There is the well-known instance of the Moorish
potter, Jean de Valence, who, in 1384. was brought to France by
Jean de Berry to make tiles for the adornment of his ducal palace
at Poitiers. One of the most important of these early majolica
pavements is that made for the Convent of San Paulo at Parma,
now in the museum of that town, which was probably laid down
in 1482. One of the south chai)eb in the church of S. Maria del
Popolo in Rome has a very fine pavcmem of painted tiles,
executed probably at Forli, about 1480, for Cardinal della Rovere
(Julius Ii.), whose arms— an oak tree — are repeated over and
over again among the rich decorations. A still more magnificent
tile fioor, in the uppermost of Raphael's Vatican loggie^ is men*
tioned in the article Della Robbia, where also are described the
exquisite, enamelled tiles which Luca della Robbia made as a
border for the tomb of Bishop Federighi at Fiesole near Fference.
Fine examples of tile pavements of i486 exist in the basilica of
S. Petronio at Bologna. The chapel of St Catherine at Siena and
the church of S. Sebastiano at Venice have majolica pavements
of about isia Fig. 6 shows an example of about this date from
(Vklark and Aftcrt Miaan.}
Fic. 6.— Majolica Paving Tiles from Siena, made in 1509.
the Fetrucci Pahux In Siena, now in the Victoria and Albert
Museum. In the early part of the 16th century majolica tiles
from Spain were occasio n a l ly imported into EngUnd. At the
south-east of the mayor's chapel at Bristol there exists, though
much worn, a fine pavement of Spanish tiles dating from about
152a Others have been found in London, at Newington Butts*
and in other places*
Long before the southern nations of Europe were introducing
their painted majolica tile pavements, a much more practical
type of flooring tile was in use in Ormany. France and England;
of these the English encaustic tile pavements, dating from the
eariy years of the 13th century to the end of the i6th century,
are particularly important and beautifuL These Northern
peoples had no knowledge of enamels and colours such as was
possessed by the contemporary tile-makers of Moorish Spain
or of Italy, and they were confined to the native redbrick earths
and white pipeclays for then' materials. The method of
decoration was as simple and homely as the materials. Slabs
of ordinary red-brick clay freed from pebbles, but not from grit
or sand, were shaped by pressing cakes of clay into a mould cl
wood or baked clay, carved in such fashion that when the clay
was just hard and dry enough to be removed from the mould
the important elements of the design were formed as sunk cells
divided by broad raised outlines. While this red tile was stiT
soft and plastic, a thickish paste of pipeclay or other liani
burning cLsy was poured into the ceUs and aUow
r CkoRfc of GocBl lUhnA. vt» a^
£ nrigmiHy aaed to fann a rrsk iri
; Gotfak ■nhilfwiiur ii. pasoe-JC
m the aocaed — wngno- * ILi.*!
K oi '^ Msm," tlK agrmhok oi UK l^
. oiker iki>inH This ngmpir e tA .^a^,
*--« -s OBo^ ar^ae of its in a imijtl i u c oo toe 3J|i!
^ i. :. XXX\7..** that » the thirtrttcr rc-t
s^ r 3c?^— ^ howr faeeo found ox .Ha ■ k jr, nor I m|
- -^«^ Is. -«^K -^■^— "f mne xsth-centany tiiss ; Rcr^',
I !■ ^>£BH- ItjmmmiaMd Gnat fkirdnn, in Stasor.2£i.'
-.-9^ 3a ^ fBehe lh. r ■ ill ii r* £*-xM
» ^ TbmwiiiT r«ia: Fnsk Vlolu^ 't\
£ : locasK. EwausticTites** .TrBs^ 2^'. -ti
. W--T j*Jir-. voL fat.) ; W. W Pbo»-k . " * ,
IS dtts': J R H. ' ■
-^-•-srmc. ^"-rrtodt, Tius irem^ Cams"
of Hc-r
•k. :r^ lOK Oekamxs). Tbui *
• OAST^M. XK i^nhsnd i&hoectLr. i
ijofica; in lV
1 fitflvt tfles. 0-'
or hcSDIC J B'^-
k.-tssu: xil zfar coaccaipora.'
wsn. fast, the pais*-
K a. iUwen (x5*»->55'
Hcec «: Sakb, N«v(.^
ttr c^Vk «i the ciarrr
km tils 30- the deoon:
' ' '^ m^
Vherever icjw;^-
i^^uniL GcnBanj «r the
dr c sDiihr tiks natizr^^^
-^« sd BdsUiC the c^'
, jg^ ^ouitities of x--'^
.v:t ottiy. The u-s
« . TWAucrpes. bwt di-rv4
. « -^w«£ becuae fac^KS
* '-^ 2 - .^* lL.ae«L the CiA£^
-<« l«»
TILLEMONT
975
^ dtoocmted pttwineiii tiles Metned to hav« been eatirdiy replaced
by the common buff or red terra-cotta " quarries " so largely
Vied ia fannhouse kitcbeos, dairies, kc., azid it is to the
painted tiles for walls and fireplaces that we have to look for
the progress of the art.
The modem revival of tile-making in Europe dates from
about i8jo^ when Samod Wright, a potter of Shelton, near
Stokc-upoa-Trcnt, was granted a patent for the manufacture
of tiles by mechanical means. His patent was exUoded for
fourteen years, and in 1S44 was purchased, in equal shares, by
Herbert Minton— bead of the famous firm of Mintons, of Sloke*
ttpon-Trent— and Flcmli^ St John, of Worcester. In 1848
the firm of Mintons acquired the sole right of the patent, and
^x"*
Fig. 7.— a Panel of De Morgan's.
for many years Mintons were the most famous tOe manufacturers
in the world. In 1850 the firm of Maw & Co. purchased the
remaining stock of encaustic tiles made at Worcester, and, on
the expiration of Wright's patent, commenced to manufacture
at the old works at Worcester, removing in 1851 to Benthail,
Shropshire, and afterwards, about 1887, to their prcscsit works
at Jadcfield in the same district.
From the methods thus invented in England all the modem
p roces s e s xA tile-making have sprung, in some cases they re-
semble the old ** plastic " method of encaustic tile-making as it
was practised in England in the middle ages, except that the
tile is finally pressed in a mechanical press.
The tile-makers of this mid-Victorian period owed much of
their success to the birth of modern Cothk arcfaitectwe, and
many of their designs were produced by such famous architccU
as Pugin, Gilbert Scott, Street, &c., so that between 1850 and
1880 encaustic tiles had a great vogue for pavement work not
only in England, but in all civilized countries, and fine examples
of the rich encaustic pavemenU made at Mintons', Maw's, or
Godwin's of Hereford, are to be found in most of the restored
cathedrals and churches of this period.
Side by side with the revival of this andent process, there
was developed an essentially modem process of manufacturing
by compressing pulverized day in metal dies under a screw press.
This was the outgrowth of a patent granted to Richard Prosser
in 1840, and worked out and perfected at the works of Minton
at Stoke-upon-Trent. The advantages of this method of manu-
facture consist in (a) greater rapidity in execution than can be
effected by the plastic method, and (b) the greater mechanical
accuracy of the finished tile due to the steel dies used in shaping
the tile and to the diminished contraction in drying and firing.
This essentially modem method of tile-making is really an out-
come of the methods introduced in the manufacture of English
earthenware (see Ceraiocs), and it has not only been extensively
developed in England, but has been adopted, practically without
modification, in all the leading countries of Europe and in the
United States.
The manufacture of tiles by the compression of powdered
clay rendered possible the Introduction of many varieties-
plain, inlaid, embossed and incised. The designs in these cases,
though generally based on old work, are so different, espcdally
In mechanical finish, that they form a class of tiles entirely
distinct from old work. Economically, and for all practical
purposes, they afford a style such as the world has never before
seen, but, h*kc many modem productions — perfect in execution
and finish — ^they lack the spontaneity and artistic charm of
the work of bygone days.
Since the middle of the xgth century artist-potters in many
countries have gone back to the andent methods of production
for richly painted tile panels, and, in this connexion, the pro-
ductions of Deck in France, William de Morgan and Filkington's
in England, mark a distinct dq>arture from contemporary
modem work.
The extended use of tiles for interior decoration has created
a large trade in these articles, either for wall or floor decoration.
Among the most important firms engaged in this branch of
the ceramic industry must be mentioned Mintons, HoUins & Co.,
Maw & Co., and Filkington's in England; Villeroy & Boch in
Germany; Utschndder & Co. in France; Boch Frdres in Belgium;
Thooft & Labouchere at Delft, Holland; and the American
Encaustic Tile Co., in the United States.
LiTBRATUitB. — Bevdes the works mentioned in connexion with
special sections in the text a good deal of information about tiles
in general, and modern tiles in particular, will be fotmd in Fumi-
val. Leadkss Decorative TiUt, &c.: L. L. Jewitt, Ceramic Art of
Great Britaini see also Forrer, Ceukichte der europdiuhen Fliesen-
Keramik. (W. B.»)
TILIEMONT, SteASTIEN LB NAIK BE (1637-1698}, French
ecdcsiaslical historian, was bom in Paris on the 30th of Novem-
ber 1637. His father, a wealthy member of the legal class,
being a devoted Jansenist, the boy was brought up in the little
schools of Port Royal. Here his bent towards historical study
was warmly encouraged, and in 1660 he was made a tutor in the
seminary of Buzenval, Jansenist bishop of Bcauvais. Ten
years later he came back to Paris, and was eventually persuaded
(1676) to enter the priesthood, and become a chaplain at Port
RoyaL In 1679 the storm of persecution drove him to settle
on his family estate of Tillemont, between MontreuH and V'in-
cenncs. There he spent the remainder of his life, dying on the
loth of January 1698. He was buried at Port Royal; in 1711,
on the desecration of the cemetery, his remains were transferred
to the church of St Andr6 des Arcs in Paris.
From the age of twenty he was at work on his two great books-^
the Jiitkoires pour senir H Vkiitoire ecaisiaitique des six premiers
siicles, and the Histoire des empereurs during the same period.
Both works beg;an to appear during his lifetinw — •'-^ m^-.*^ {„
1690. the MSmoires in 1693 — but in neither car >
976
TILLEY— TILLY, CX)UNT OF
till long afttr h» datk To his modesty Botsuet beofs
eo he cotd him
witncm* wlwo Iw cold him to ataod ap sometimes, and not be
always od his knees before a critic Gibbon vouches for his learn-
ing, when (in the 47th chapter) he speaks of " this incomparable
Side, whose bi^ry is overbalanced by the merits of eruditioa.
igenoe. veracity and scnipwious minuteness." Therr is a lull
•ccoont of his life in the 4th volume of Saimc-Beuve's Port Royal,
TILLET. SIR SAMUEL LEONARD (ifti&-i8g6). Canadian
•Utcsman, was bora at Gacelown, New Brunswick. 00 the iSih
of Xfsy iSiS, the son of Samtad Tilley. an American Ijoyalist,
who had seliled in St John in 1783. In 1S50 he was ekcted
to the tocal legislature as a Libcxal rcpicsentative of St John.
He soon became prominent from his opposition to the liquor
tiaflic, and in i8s5 petsuadcti the ssembly to pass a prohibitory
law. which proved a failuie. and was repealed. From 1S60 to
March iS6s he was premier of the province, and was prominent
in oiganizing the conference on the union of the maritime
provinces* which met at Charlottetown in 1S64* and which soon
widened into a discussion of Canadian fcd«alioii. In iS6s
be was defeated in a general election on the fcdctaUon question,
but returned to power in 1866, partly through an intrigue of the
colonial olBoe. From 1S6S till November 1S7J be beU various
pottfoiioft in the Dominion cabinet; from 1873 to iS7S*he was
lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick, but in 1S78 was a^in
elected as member for St John, and entered the Con5crv-aii\-c
cabinet as minister of finance. Later in 1S78 he introduced
and carried throug^i parliament the ** national policy " of
protection, on which issue the dcctioa of 1S7S had been von.
The tariif 90 introduced became the basb of CaiudLin financial
policy. In October i8$s iU health forced him to retire from
the cabinet, and he was again appointed lieutenant -foverrMr
of N,:w Brunswick, which position he held till 1893. He died
on the 2Sth of June iSg6. In iS;^ he was created K..C.M.C.
Hb kindly and hoiKNirable private character was admiiicd by
all; his political merits are judged ditTercsiiy by ad\xKatrs and
oppooeols of the policy of protect ioa which he introduced, but
01 his finance! ability anJ gnsp of detail there is w> dowSt.
H«« L.^t, b\ James Ruiaay \i907). lorms one of the " Makers of
Can*da ^
TfiUiUUIHIA, a group of mammals of uiKxrtain position,
typified by ThixkenMm from the Miiidle Eocene of H^xMnang,
SkuS of Ti2itfhiT:«B/M!v«s.
and petlapft iacWdlsg Es:hmjx irxz tbe Lower Eocene of the
same dastrkt, and olhcr gcaera frc>ai the same bc^lroo in boeb
Noctli America and Eaicipe. iMT^jC^riKmlhestzZ^AeoAe^iij
rodeat-Eke, with an doK^ptcd ciaru! aid a sbort fam2 porter?
and a smaS bca^a<arity; the jngal boae ocrapTu;g tbe C35i!c
«f the xyiOBkalic azch. TIk drcnrWi. of w^jch tbe f crcsb is
i |. <^> i. ^ I, «^ i. ate apptonmates to tJhe rodcst t^-pe. tV
GuiKS boac msmcse and fix rjiaikj^, and tfe tnt pair a
iuMn kive aad cAaekfte. Oh these aad otber grscnds h
1 that lahtfffixm icf wttch the g:catCT par.
ih ftawal Wkates t&e asce£:zal .vrm of tl>e
wTcxKr ceasidexs, bcwrinr, iltai
HdbrJtbma/tap w-.tk the
_ ^ifthorbe
i«9Athe
Piossibly />laljr4ogr»^ r ii fcai rf ifi. f w m the L>w u t
Clay, belongs to the groups (R. L.*)
nLUnSON. JOHV (i6j»-t694). Ei«|iih anMittbop. «nas the
son of a Puritan ctothier in Soiicrby, Yoriuhirc; wl wji. Ik was
bora in October 163a He entered as a pen ri mwr of date HaQ,
Cambridge, in 1647. graduated in 1650 and was ande feOa*
of his college in 1651. In 1656 he became talor to Che son of
Edmond Prideaux. atioraey-gencfal to CiumwcR. Afaovi 1O61
he was onlained without subscription by T. Sjfdscrf. a Scotiiah
bishop. TiUotson was present at the Sawoj Camk jnMa m
1661, and remained identified with the Piabjlciians tiB the
passing of the Act of Unifomily in ififia. Slmnly afterwards
he became curate of Cheshont, Hots, awl ii Jmne 1663, nctor
of Kedington. Suffolk. He now devoted himaelf to an exact
study of biblical and patristic wrilefs, especially Basil and
Chtysostom. The result of this reading, and of the iafloexbct
of John Wilkins, master of Trinity Cnnfff. Caanhndee. «2s
seen in the general tone of his preaching, which was poct-ral
rather than theolosicaL He was a man of the world as well as
a divine, and in his sermons he exhibited a tact wbidi mahid^d
him at once to win the ear of his andience. la 1664 he becaxoe
preacher at Linokln's Im. The same year be married El^xaLcli
French, a niece of Oliver CromweO; and he also becaae TucscLiy
Icaurer at St LawreiKX. Jewry. Tilkxsoa cm p luyed his CDcir>
versial we a p o n s with some skiD against atheism and popery.
In 1663 he published a chamcteristic seimon on " The Wis^i.c:
of being Religious,'* arxS in 1666 replied to John Sfiyants 5:.'f
FojIiK^ iu Ckrisii^milj by a pimphhi 00 the ** Rnle of Fa^.H.*
The same year he recei%-ed the degree of DJ>. In 1670 he
became prebendary and in 1672 dean of CaBtcrimry. In it:3
he edited John WUkins's Prirtipia of Sstmai JU^farx, com-
pleting wiut was left wnfinished of it. and in i6&x kis Scrmcc:.
.\long with Burnet. TiUotson attended Lord ^^^'^J on 1*^
scaiToU in 1683. He afterwards enjoj-ed the friendship of Li...
Russell, and it was partly through her that he ohriinrd so is-.. "
iciluence with Princess Aime. who foOowed has nd%'ke in rc^:.'-:
to the settlement of the crown on WiUiam of Okajice He
p o «ewed tbe ^Kcial confidence of Witliam and Maiy, aiad was
made derk of the closet to the king in Uaich 16S9. ItwxscHjef.
through his advice that the king ippoimed an oode&iasitKj
commission for the reooodiiaiioa of the Diseoicn. la A-^^^k
of this >Tar he was appointed by tlie chapter of his cathet:-:.
to exeirise the archie^scopal juiisdiction of the pi9«-nre ^
Caaterbory during the wnprnwon of SaacrofL. He w«s £sc
about the same time named dean of St PkaTs. Sons aiicr^^"^
he was eleaed to sacceed Saacroft; bet accepted the pnaooc :
with extreme rehxtance. and it was descried from time 10 t.*"c
at his request, id April 1601. In ific.t he pabfished iaar jk-
tunes on the Sorlrian oootmnenj. His attempts to relcra
oenaia abuses of the Cbcn:h. cspcaaSy that of Jferacal eoo-
lesadeace. awakened mcch £}-wi^ aad of this the Jacnk .a
took ad«-astage. piarsk>2sg h'-a to the end oi his hie m^h KS&l
aad reproach. He<Sedoathe ;mdof Noveittber ifiiM-
For his flr.ar39r~< s ei w xM u T^ncsaa's widev ■iisitud zs^
Cc^eas. Ra -'^ F-'w^r ee :cnI icrae ^5? «f them
the '■ Rjie c* F^ i ' r*-? i^cy* 1= 1752 aw edlti
n t vois. virtti L v b« Thorvu. Btfck. coMvOed im
oc^^ :u.' Tiaom oati ittirr%. Varwas actrm— t fran his
^-v. v-an:s ka\e been p-:* .-thcd scfu^oie:}. cf. b> C W
otth iwe IMS caz:y-
Uiw-.i
; geaeml of the Cathohc Le^ae m the Tkary Vcbs' War. «
. bora m IS59 at the Chilean of TJSy m BaViiwl. He ■
dr^jaed Sor the priesthood aod ■e u ei % ed a axaot >
tiaa. Bat, ptefeTriagihecweerof aaakhev.hecmiaedalSpas:^':
fjcc repTttst aboA 15:4 as a \tikrwffrr. aad m the cnose 1^
srvcxai ca mpa ^tt foae to the camenaad of n campa^. T^ ^
hoagnaaced. heaga^ became a saapie pihcmam. amd ass^^
he took pott ia the iaxaows siege 01 Aatwecp hy fteaiL w^tic
' arv7 af cried tbe best t-a.^:^ i= the att of war then ett^.s-
2.':.ie. He c^^:^Tsha4 femaeia by his faraweiy, aad ihe • -'*
Ok Lasrx ae paie b.m tte pBit«raaKS^r> «< I>fcS aad ^'^^- ^^.
. aAun he heM taom ajQD 4o ii*«. ttovy I^'- «m
TILSrr—TIMAEUS
977
•ffen* Wildi ^Ptn fefnsed, to inifoK blu to cntef tho terviet
of Fnuice. Somewhat later he left the Spanish aeivice for that
of Austria to fight against the Turks. la xtea he hecame
colonel in the inpetial anny, and imised a regiment of Walloon
infantry, which be oomnanded in the assault on Budapest,
Rodving a severe wound. la 1604 he was made general of
artilleiy, and handled his new force with conspicuous success;
the campaign of this year showed Tilly as a soldier of great
capacity, and in 1605 he was made a ficld^maxahal. His part
in tiie dteensioas in Austria, which preluded the Thirty Years'
War, was maifced by unswerving loyalty and devotion to the
emperor and the Catholic religion. In 1610 he left the service
of the e m p ei u i to enter that of MaiimlKsn, duke of Bavaria,
the head of the Catholic League. It was not, however, until
t6 JO 'that he became lieutenant-general to Mailmflisn and
commander»in«chief of the field forces.
With the great victory of the Weisser Berg near Plague
(i6ao) the new army and its leader became celebrated through-
out Germany, and the long and weary campaigns against Chris-
tian, Mansfeld and the Protestant princes of the north-west
established their reputation. The diief battles were Wimpfen
(1633), Stadtk>hn (1623), Wiesloch (i6a3), HScfast (1622), the last
being a great viaoiy for the Catholic focces, and winning for
Tilly the title of count, which was given by the emperor himself
(1632). The militacy operations of the Thirty Years' War will be
found described under that heading. With the intervention of
the king of Denmark, the stragg^ entered upon a new phase, and
on the imperial side a new army, that of Wallenstein, appeared
on the scene, though it was the army of the League which won
the great success of the war at Lutter-am-Barenberge (1626).
Tbrwigbottt these arduous campaigns TiUy had other than
military difficulties with which to contend. The mlliUry
superiority of his veterans, trdned aa they were to his own
idoJ of '* a ragged soldier and a bright musket." may be held to
explain Us victories over superior numben, but the energy which
he displayed in the midst of political difficulties was not less
conspicuous than his leadership and strategy. On two occasions,
at least, he was thwarted by orders from the League; once the
Protestants were aUowcd to escape into Holland, once the army
of Wallenstein waa left to iu own resources in the presence of
the enemy. That the League achieved the successes which it
actually did, was to the credit of Tilly and his men rather than
to any action of the allied princes. It may be that Tilly cannot
be considered as great a soldier as Wallenstein; it should,
however, be borne in mind that the League army never
possessed the prestige of an imperial force: that TQly was
repeatedly thwarted by political considerations, and that, even
so, the hardest part of the task was achieved by the League
army.
The defeat of King Christian was soon followed by the inter-
vention of Gustavus Adolpbus, a great capuin at the head of
the finest troops In Europe. But Tilly was the best general
of the old school; the League troops were trained after the
Spanish model, and the opening stages of the campaign did not
display any marked superiority of the Swedes. At this time
Tilly was commander of the imperial forces as well as of his
own army. The first great contest was for the possessbn of
Magdeburg (1631). After one of the fiercest struggles of the
war the town was taken by storm on the soth of May, and the
sadc which followed was accompanied with every sort of atrocity.
For thia the old general has been held responsible, yet it waa
rather the magnitude of the catastrophe than its special cruelties
which made it the most striking eiample of military barbarity
in modem history. Till/s personal exertions saved the cathe-
dral and other religious buildings from pillage and fire. Four
months later Tilly and Gustavus, the representatives of the old
and the new art of war, met in the battle of Breitenfeld (q.v.).
The victory of Gustavus was complete, though the imperial
general, severely wounded as he was, managed to draw off his
men in good order. A few more months of campaigning
brought the two armies to the Lech, where Gustavus was again
victorious, and TQly received a mortal wound. He died oa
the 3eth of April 1633, m Ingolstadt, and waa buried in the
church at Altenfltting in Bavaiia.
Sec a Klopp. TiUy im jo-Jdkrifm Kritt (Stuttgart. i86t):
K. Wtttich. Mcniilmn. CmsIom AMf «atf TtUyi alio memoir of
Tilly to AlU, dnUseke Biopapki*\ Keym-Marcour, Jokamn Turciaes,
Craf 9. TiUyi Count ViUennont, Tilly, ou La Guerre d* trtnU ohs
(Tournay. 1859).
TILSIT, a town of Germany, in tne Prussian province of East
Prussia, situated on the left bank of the Memel or Niemen,
here crossed by an iron railway bridge, 57 m. S.E. of Bf emcl and
73 N.E. of Kdnigsberg by raiL Pop. (1905). 37.X48. The town
has a number of handsome modern buildings, including a town
haU, a post office, law courts, and a large hospiuL It contains
four Protestant churches, among them the German diurch,
with a handsome steeple, and the curious circular Lithuanian
church, a Roman CathcJic church, a Jewish synagogue and
a classical school (Gymnasiitm), The manufactures include
machinery, chemicab, soap, leather, shoes, glass and other
articles, and there are iron-foundries, breweries, and steam
flour and saw-mills. Tilsit carries on trade in timber, grain.
hemp, flax, herrings and coal; but its trade with Russia, at one
time considerable, has fallen off siikce the construction of the
railway from KGnigsberg to Kovno. The river is navigable
above the town, and there is a steamboat communication with
ELSnigsberg, Memel and Kovno.
Tilsit, whkh received civic rights in iw. grew up around a
castle of the Teutonic order, known as the ' Schalauner Haus."
founded in 1288. It owes most of its interest to the peace signed
here in July 1807. the prdiminaries of which were sectled by the
emperor * Alexander and Napoleon 00 a raft moored in the Mcmd.
This treaty, which constituted the kiradom of Westphalia and the
duchy of Warsaw, registers the nadir 01 Prussia's humOiation under
Napoleon. The poet Max von Schenkendorf (1784-1817) was1)om
* See ilitf TOsUt Vtrnmmkeit (5 vols.. Tilsit. i88»-i893) ; and R.'
Thimm, Beitrd^ am CutkUkU soa TUsU (Tilsit, 1893).
TniAEUl <c. 345-<« 'So B.c),* Greek historian, waa bom at
Tauromeaiuffl in Skily. Driven out by Agathodes, he migrated
to Athena, where he studied rhetoric under a pupil of Isocratcs and
lived for fifty years. During the reign of HIero II. he returned
to Sicily (probably to Syracuse), where he died. While at
Athens he completed his great historical work. The Histories, ia
at least 3^ (Bury says 33) books, was divided into tmequal sections,'
containing the history of Italy and Sidly in eariy times; of Sicily
alone ; of Sicily and Greece; of the dtiea and kings of Syria (unless
thetext of Suldas is corrupt); the lives of Agathocles and Fyrrhus,
king of Epiros. The chronological sketch ('OXv^nnorUai, the
victon at Olympia) perhaps formed an appendix to the larger
worit. Timaeua waa bitterly attacked by other historians,
especially by Pofybius, and indeed his xmfairness towards his
predeoesaors, which gained him the nickname of Bpiiimaeut
(fault-finder), laid him open to retaliation. Polybios waa
a practical soldier and statesman, Timaeus a bookworm without
military experience or personal knowledge of the places he
described. The most serious charge against Timaeus is that he
wilfully distorted the truth, when influenced by pemnal coa*
siderations: thus, he waa less than fait to Dionysius and Agatho*
des, while loud In praise of his favourite Timoleon. On the
other hand, as even Polybius admits, Timaeua consulted all
available authorities and records. His attitude towards the
myths, which he chums to have preserved in their simple form
(hence probably hia nickname ypaonXkurplai "collector of
old wives' tales," though some authorities render this "old rag*
wonum," in allusioo to his fondness for trivial dctaib) , b preferable
to the rationalistic interpretation under which it had become
the fashioii to disguise them. Timaeus also devoted much
attention to chronology, and introduced the system of reckon-
ing by Olsrmpiads, with which he compared the years of
the Attic archons, the Spartan ephon, and the priestesses of
Aigos. This system, although not adopted in everyday
life, was afterwards generally used by the Greek hiitorians
Although a pupil of Philiscus of Miletus, a disdple of Isocratcs,
Timaeus is a represenUtive of the Asiatic style of Hegesias of
* J. £. Saadys.^ 3SO-fc Jto: J. a Bury, 340-*'"
(
978
TIMANTHESr-XIMBER
Mognesia rather than of the Attic (see Norden, CHeck. Kunst-
prosa i. 136). Both Dioaysius of Halicamaasas and the poeudo-
Longinus charactcrixed him u a model of " frigidity " (^vxpf*")*
although the latter admits that in other respects he is a competent
writer. Cicero, ^dio was a diligent reader of Timaeus, expresses
a far more favourable opinion, specially commending his
copiousness of matter ancL variety of expression. Timaeus
was one of the chief authorities used by Trogus Pompeius,
Diodonis Siculus and Plutarch in his life of Timoleon.
BiBLiOGRAFHY. — Fragments and life in C. W. Mailer, Frat
hiit. graec. i. iv.; frags: of bks. i., ii.. ed. J. Geffcken, Timaio?
Ceegrapkie des WesUns (\^2)\ Polybius xii. y>28; Died. Sic.
xxL 17; Cicero, De Orat. ii. 14: J. B. Burv, Ancient Creek
Historians (1909), 167 sqq.; F. Suscmihl, Cesckichte der griuh. Lift,
in der AUxandnnerzeit, with references to authorities 7i89l); W.
Christ, Griechische Litleraturgeschichte (1898): H. Kothe, De
Timaei Tauromenitae vita et scripiis (Brcslau, 1874): C. Clasen,
Historisch-kritiscke Untersuchungen tu Timaios von Taunmenion
(Kiel. 1883) : E. SchwarU in Hermes (1899), zxxiv. p. 481.
11HANTHES, of Cythnus or Sicyon, a Greek painter of the
4th century B.C. The most celebrated of his works was a picture
representing the sacrifice of Iphigenia, in which he finely de-
piaed the emotions of those who took part in the sacrifice; but
despairing of rendering the grief of Agamemnon, he represented
him as veiling his face. A painting discovered at Pompeii, and
now in the Museum at Naples, has been regarded as a copy or
echo of this painting (Helbig, WandgcmOlde Campanims^ No.
1304).
TIMARU, a seaport of Ceraldine county, New Zealand, on tne
E. coast of South Island, 100 m. S.W. of Christchorch by raiL
Pop. (1906), 7615. The slight inward sweep of the coast forms
the Canterbury Bight, and the shore-line noiilhward from
Tiniaru is called the Ninety-mile Beach. The harbour is formed
by breakwaters enclosing a space of 50 acres. Chief exports are
wool, flour and frozen meat, and the industries are in connexion
with these. Opals are found in the district. The Anglican
church of St Mary is built of Oamaru and bluestone, with a
roof of kauri wood. Caroline Bay, to the north, is a bathing
resort. The vokanic soil is highly fertile. Timaru b the chief
town in South Canterbury district, and the seat of the supreme
and district courts. „A branch. railway_^tTaverse8 the inland
agrioiltural district.
TIMBBB* the term given to wood cut and shaped for build*
ing purposes, or growing wood suitable for such purposes;
in EngUsh law the tenant for life may not cut suck trees (see
Waste). The word appears in many forms in various Teu-
tonic languages, meaning originally material to be used for
building purposes; in the case of Ger. stmMer, and Du. timmert
both meaning " room," the word has been transferred to the
structures made of this mmfrisl. « The root is seen in Gr.
t^Mtt^t to build, and Lat..J0OT«i, house.
The wood used in buildbg is obtained from trees of the
class known to botanists as exog$tu, or those trees which grow
larger by the addition each year of a layer of new wood on
their outer surface. A transverse section of a tree ol this class
shows it to consist of three distinct parts: the pitli or medulla,
the wood, made up of annual rings or layers, and the bark.
The pith b in the centre of the tree and around it the wood is
disposed in approximately concentric rings; that part near
the pith is hard and dose in grain, and from its position is
termied heart-wood. The sap-wood is made up of the outer
Uyers or ring^ and these are softer than the heart and generally
is large, and the beart-^rood fa not so hud as thai of a tni
of mature age. The wood of an old tree, on the other haad,
has lost a great part of its toughness, and fa of bad , _
colour, brittle and often predisposed to decay. In nHSr.
trees that have arrived at a mature a«e the heart^wood
fa in its Itfgest proportioa and the sap-wood fa firm and dastic;
and the timber from such trees fa of the strongest, toughest and
most durable character. The age at which the northern pine
and Norway fir arrive at maturity fa between seventy and one
htmdred years. The larch, elm and ash should be feQed when
the trees are between the ages of fifty and one hundred years.
The oak should be about one hundred years old when it fa cut.
The best time of the year for felling timber fa in midsiinuner or
midwinter, when the sap of the tree fa at rest; it fa not desirable
to cut timber in the spring or autumn. By some authorities
it fa considered a good plan to remove the bark in the early
spring and fell the tree in the ensuing winter.
As soon as possible after feUing, logs should be converted
by sawing into scantlmg sixes, for if the log fa left to dry or
season, it fa liable on shrinking to split. The usiud ^3^_^.
method fa to saw a log into planks or boards by ZiTimi^
cutting it into slices longitudinally as shown in
fig. x; thfa fa. called bastard sawing, and fa the most
k
f
a
d
Fic. I. Flo. 2.
economical method, but, as will be seen in the diagram, the
quality of the boards will vary very much, some consisting
sdmost entirely of sap-wood cut at a tangent to the annular
rings such as a, b, c, whilst the centre boards contain the heart-
wood cut in the best way at right angles across the annuil
rings as d, e, /. For oak and other hard woods another method
of conversion fa often adopted, called quarter sawing. The
log is first cut into quarters and then sawn diagonally (fig. s).
In oak thfa develops the beautiful silver grain by cutting
bn^tudinally through the medullary rays. Timber fa now
generally sawn into marketable sizes in the country of its
growth', and shipped as scantling timber.
Definitions and sizes are given below of the most usual forms oi
sawn timber: —
A ^ is the trunk of a tree with the bark remo ved and brandies
lopped.
^ A balk fa a log hewn or mwn to a square section, and varying ia
_•_- r — I II to 18 in. square.
t are paraHel-sided pieces of timber from 2 to 6 in. thick,
re ins. wide, and from 8 to ai ft. long.
ire abntlar ineces 9 ia. wide, and a to 4 in. tUdc
i are simitar to deals, but not more than 7 in. wide. Pieces
(, deals and battens under 8 ft. loag are called ends. Many
>ft woodsi such as ptne and fir, are sold by the standard.
idard of measurement most in use fa the St iVtersburi
, which contains 165 cubic ft. or 720 hoeal ft. ol 1 1 ia.
' of sawn or hewn timber contains 50 cub. ft., and a k»d
rn timber 40 cubic ft. ,.^
Iff Ii a superfidal measurement, used chiefly for bcorcfisc*
■tat too sq. ft.
TIMBER
9^9
Norvedatt Um&et a ateadBed with tbe ihipper's tnttials in blu«
letten painted on the ends. Swediih timber m etcndUed with red
letters or devices, the inferior qinJitiet in blue. PruMiniv timber
is scribed on the sidsn near the midctte. By soribing is aieant that
the distingttishing letters are roughly cut in with a gouge. Russian
timber is dry^tami>ed or hammer-branded on the ends. American
(Canadian) timber is stencilled in black and white. United States
timber IS marked with red chalk on the sides.
To fit timber for use in building construction tbe super-
fluous sap and moisture contained in the green wood must
be evaporated, either by natural or aitificial means. During
this process the wood shrinks considerably, and Unless much
care and attention are given to the drying wood it will waip
and' shake sufficient^ .to unfit it for piactical uses. After
the log is converted into scantlings, or " lumber/' as it is termed
in America, it is stacked in the timber yard under covered
sheds with open ^dea to enable it to "season.".. The wood
e^,^,^ is carefully pOed in tiers or courses, with strips
TiflHMi^r* ^f ^^^^^ about an inch thick between each layer,
so as to allow of the free circulation of air aH round each piece.
This is the natural and best method of seasoning, and timber
treated in this way is more durable than that seasoned by
artificial methods; the time taken, however, is much longer.
For joiners' worit the drying of the wood is often hastened by
stacking the timber in well-ventilated rooms kept at a tempera-
ture of from So** to 150^ F. The time taken in seasoning wood
by this desiccating process is not more than one-tenth of
that occupied in the natural or open-air method. Where it
is convenient, timber is sometimes treated with a water
seasoning process winch enables it to be naore easily dried. The
wood is placed in a running stieam and so tied or chained down
as to be entirely submerged. The water enters the pores
of the wood (which should be placed with the butt end pointing
up stream) and dissolves and forces out the sap. After about
two weeks in this position it is taken out and stacked in open
sheds to be dried in the natural way, or treated by warm air
in special chambers. Steaming and boiling are sometimes
resorted to as artificial means of seasoning, but not to any
great extent, as the timber deteriorates under such treatment,
and the cost of the process is in many cases prohibitive. When
wood is required to be bent, however, this is often the method
that is adc^'ted to soften the material, so as to allow it to be
bent easily. Tbe time allowed in the English government
dockyards for the natural process of seasoning for hard woods
such as oak is, for pieces 34 in. sq. and upwards, a6
months; from 16 in. to ao in. sq., x8 months; from
8 in. to 13 in. sq., 10 months; from 4 in. to 8 in. sq.t
6 months. Soft woods are allowed half these periods. When
the wood is required in a " dry " state for joiners' work, twice
the length of time is given. Planks are allowed from a half
to two-thirds of the above time, according to their thickness.
Deals with coarse annual rings Cue, coarse grain) should be re-
jected for good work, as also sbouki those with wanev or' naturally
bevelled edges. The wide annual rings snow that the
tree was grown too quickly, probablY in marshy ground.
Timber ^th waoey edges has a large proportion of
sap-wood, and is cut either from a small tree or from the outer por-
tion of a large one, the wancy edge being obviously due to irregu-
larities in the surface of the tree. Cup shake " is a natural splitting
in the interior of the tree between two of the annular rings. It
is supposed to be caused in severe weather by the frccring of the
asceoaing sap. " Heart shake " is often found in old trees and
extends from the pith or heart of the tree towards the circum-
ference. When there are fissures radiating in several directions
it is called " star shake." " Upsets " are the result of some crush-
ing force or violent shock to the balk or log. " Foxey " timber
is tinged with dull red or yellow stains, indicating incident decay.
" Doatiness,'* simtlarl^r, b a speckled or spotted stain denoting
decay in certain varieties of timber, such as beech and some kinds
of oak.
The primary causes of decay in timber are the presence of sap,
exposure to conditions alternately wet and dry, and want of
n_^ ,,. eflident ventilation, especially if accompanied by a
jJiSJr ^'^'^ *"<! moist atmo^here. Timber is most
"^'^' durable when it is kept quite dry and well ventibted,
but some varieties last an indefinite period when kept continually
under water. When, on the other hand, the wood becomes ahcr-
sately wet and dry, " wM rot " lesulti. The wood affected shrivels
giuwui ot luu^, WOBOB «> wnica mm vjbiinc «o uib nai
mioeofloopie. The spores from the fungi 00 the d
float in the air and alight on any adjacent timber,
also if the oooditions be favourable. . In this way \
op and bfcom e t redooed after a time to a fine brown powder. It
is only bv actual contact that wet rot affects the aumranding
good wood, and if the decayed timber is cut out the remainder of
the wood will be found to be unaffected.
" Diy rot," which usually attacks the sap-wood, senerally
starts m .a warm damp unventilated ^lace, and is caused by the
growth of fungi, some of which are visible to the naked eye, some
._. ,_ «».-_ * — ^t- * — * !._ ij^gayed wood
, infecdI^{ this
. . way the disuse is
spread rapidly, continually eating into the timber, whkh is first
rendered brittle, and then reduced to powder. A strong growth
of the fui^os giws the appearance of mildew on the wood, and
produces an unplesMant murty smcIL The q»res of the fungus wilt
tind a way through brickwork, concrete and rimilar material, in
order to reach woodwork that may be on the other ride. Damp>
ness and a dose atmosphere are essential to the growth of dry rot,
and it is under these coaditioBa that it spreads most quickly, the
f uunis soon dyin|r when exposed to the fresh air.
There will be htde damer of the decay of timber used in the con-
struction of ofdinary buildings if care nas been taken, in the first
place, to have it w«l seasoned, and, in the second, to
ensure its beti^ well ventilated when fixed in positkm.
There are. however, several preservarive processes to
which timber may be subjected when it is to be fixed
in positions which favour its decay (see also Dkt Rot). In c
ittg, which was invented by J. Bcthell aiul patented by him in
18^, the timber is impregnated with oil of tar. This may be done
by soaking the wood in the hot oil for several hours, but the better
way is to place the seasoned timber in an iron chamber in which
a partial vacuum is created by exhaustit^ the air. The creosote
is then forced in at a pressure of from too Ih to 160 lb to the
sq. in., accordiM to the sise of the timber. In warm weather
the pwiBiire need not be so great as in winter. The whole process
oidy oocopiea from two to toree hours. Soft woods take up from
10 to la lb to the cub. ft.; hard woods are not usually treated
by this process. Kvan's process, patented in 1833, consists in
impresnating the timber srith OMToeive sublimate which, acting on
\t alottinen in the wood, converts it into an indecomposable sub*
thaot
Boocherie, a Frenchman, originated a system in which
the sap b expelled from the timber under pressure, and a strong
solution of copper sulphate b then injected at the end of the wood.
In Blythe's process the timber b (fried, -and crude caorbolic add
injected. In Burnett's process a solution of sine chloride b forced
into tiie pores of the wood. A new process of preserving timber
by means of steam heat has been tried and seems to be oTectual.
The wood b placed in closed chambers ami steam admitted at high
pressure (300 lb to the sq. in.). The heat and pressure together
exert a chemical action upon the sap, which becomes insoluble
and itself preserves the wood from decay.
Posts that are to be fixed in the ground should have their buried
ends either charred or else well tsired. .External woodwork may
be protected by painting or oiling.^
The timber used in building b obtained from trees which may
be classed under two heads: (x) Conifezous or needle-leaved
trees; (s) the non-ooniferous or broad-leaved trees, y^rts^
Conifema Trees. — ^Thb class includes most of-
the soft woods which furnish Umber for the fnming.and
constructional portions of neariy all building work. They are
also used for the finishing joinexy of the ordinary class of
building. *i The ntmierous varieties of pine which are used
more extensively than any other kind of wood are included in
thbdass.!
The' northern 'pine (Pinus^sjlvestris) has a number of other
names and may be referred to under any of the following: Scotch
fir, red deal, red fir, yellow deal, yellow fir, Baltic pine, Baltic fir.
It STOWS in Sweden, Norway, Russb, Germany and Great Britain,
and often gets a name from the port of shipment, such as Memel
fir, Danrig fir, Riga fir, and so on. The colour of the wood of the
different growths of northern pine %'aries considerably, the general
charactenstics being a light reddbh yellow colour. The annual
rings are well defined, e^h rin^ consisting of a hard and a soft
portion, respectively dart and light in colour. No medullary rays
are visible; the wood b straight in the grain, durable, strong and
elastic, easy to work, and is used by the carpenter for internal
and external constructional work, and by the jmner for his fittings.
Tar. pitch and turpentine are obtained from the wood xA tnis
tree, which weighs from 50 to 38 lb per cub. ft.
The white fir, or Norway spruce (Abus excdsa), b exported from
Russia, Sweden and Norway, where it grows in enormous quantity.
It b the tallest and straightest of European firs, growing with a
slender trunk to a height of from 80 to 100 ft. Like the northern
pine, it is called by several names, such as " spruce," ** white
deal." '* white wood," " Norway fir." The colour of the cut wood
is. a very light yellowish or brownish white, the ban*
980
TIMBER
r of a «iHtar dttde A dMiaclcriitk fettnre is
tbe large aumber of very hard black knots whick Cke wood containa.
It IS tucy to work, but ratber inferior in all re ip ec u to tbe nortbem
|Mne. It* we^ht per cubic foot avcmge* about 1^ ftt
The rad pine \Pimus rcsniMa or P. rubm) n also known as
*' CansHien pine ** and ** American deaL" It frows in tbe nortbem
pnrts of North America, where tbe tree attains a beicht of 60 or
70 ft. with a diameter of from la to 30 in. It wofhs about 36 Bi
to tbe cubic fooc In Canada it is celled '* Norway ^ .
** red pine ** from tbe cofogr of tbe bark. The wood is white*
timed with yettow or red. of fine gnun, and works to a smooch
lustrous surfnoe remarkably free from knots.
The white pine (Pimms sirphus) is e apo i t e d from tbe northern
parts of tbe United States of America and from Canada Other
names for this timber are ** yeUow pine '* and ** Weymouth pine,"
the last name orj^^ting in the fact that tbe ceil of Weymouth
first iatroduoed it into Knriand. Tbe tree attains a height of from
1«> to aoo ft. with a thjckuns of trunk at 5 ft. from the bottom
of from < to 10 ft. The wood when cut b wfite oryeUowish aAiite,
str^ght m giaia and easfl^ worked, but a not ao to««:h. dastic or
durable as the northern piae, and therefore is not so suitable for
coastructkmal work. For joiners* work, however, it b wcB adapted,
and glue adheres strongly to it, though naib do not hokl weU.
It weighs about 30 B» per ad». ft.
The iCauri pine (Pawsrs mmslnUs) h a native of New Trnlawl
It grows to a boght of from to to tJO ft., with a straight stem
4 to 8 ft. in diameter. Tbe wood is a l^t yellowish brawn mcofeur.
fine in grain and of even texture, tbe annular rings being marked
by a daurker Una. It is strong, dastic and r esino u s. A cubic foot
weiebs about is >o fo lb.
The pitch piae(P»«snt«ia) is a native of Canada and h co mm on
throughout the United States of America. It is remarkable for
die lai^ onantity of resin it contains, tbe weight of the wood,
which IS about 48 lb per cub. ft., and tbe strong red aaar ki ngs
of the grain, usually straight but sometimes exhifaiting a beautiful
Its weight and strength, and the faige siae of tbe balks,
Bsake it very valuable for bea^-y constructional works and piKng.
and its fine figure makes it cquaUy valuable for joinery.
Of the larch tbe best known vaiiety is the European brch (Lornr
tufpto), which grows ia Switicrland, Italy, Russia and Germany.
The bida frequentlv attains a height of too ft. bwt the avenge
height is about 50 ft. and diameter 3 ft. The wood is esi ie uni y
durable and lasts well where exposed alternately to wet and dry;
indeed, the larch b useful for evcr>' purpose of boiUiiig. intenml
and externaL It b the hardest and tougbm off the cone^bearing
trees and weighs 30 to 40 lb per od^ ft.; it has a stnight grain
free from many knots: in ooloar it b of a rather deep >TlVnr or
brownbh tint, with the hard portions of the annular rings narked in
a darker red. Tbe American black larch (Larix prwitda) and the
Anerican led larrh {Larix micr«corpa) aie native to North America.
The latter tree b of coincMnti\xly little service. The black bicb
>'iekb limliii of good quality, nearly equal to that of the European
trw.
The cedir used tn builvling work is rr-olly a species of jucsper.
The Mrnmaa red cedar {Jmmtpen^s vt>fTit\xna) grows in the I'mttd
States Caivkda and the West Indies. The tree produoes cxcinl«iit
timber, and b much used (or furniture, its strong acrid taste dn\ in^
avny insects. It vrdghs about 40 lb per cub. ft. The Bcrrnadi
cedar (Jmniperms ktrmmimma^ b nsed (or internal joinecy and b
w iirmri y durably
Htri Wmdu — ^The timbeis in the second class are obtained
from BOB-amifcnMS trees, coauixxing 00 tiupetitiae or resin,
and are given tbe general name of hard woods. Their initial
tipi"***^ and the high cost of working prcdude their geoenl
use, and thcjr aie coDsequeathr icser\Td to a great extent ibr
wpooMXty hmry coastractMoal work and onammfal finishipc
Joinery.
The oak (Qarmu'^. of vhkrh some &xty dbtinct species are knovn.
Vvmt freely in Europe and .\iacrica. be\erAl Liads >«eid val^^Ue
\itauer: in England the two best-known \'anctir5 are Q»t*au p«d»%'
-uua^ uii Quercus stssSi/Un. There b Uttle ddcrewce between the
•i^uty of the two woods, tbe variation bci^ in tbe iobage and
'' »r. The wood b veiy hard, toi^^ with fine rtnlar gnua ami
''«» tcmam, the annular tings being lEstinct and the
wdL marked. When it b cut akmgjhese la}^
for joSMfywork. Whifteaakc ^
the name of American oak. It b straight in (cain bal — bjuA tn
warping, and b not so durable as British oak.
The ooakmon walnut (/nglanr rnpo) grows in Cmat Britnin.
On aooount of its acarcby it b little used for beiMim pt
cacept lor ornamental jomery, being mone used by the c
furmtiue maker. A cubic toot weighs aboot 45 ihw Tke white
walnut iJu^lams alba) or hickory b comm o n in North Aaaericm, and
b very tough, hard and elastic The black walnut {Jmgfmms asr«}
b also native to America. It has a fine grain with beantifal figure,
and takes a fine polish. It weighs 56 lb per ad». ft.
Of tbe efan iUlmms} there are five osmmon varicdcs. ihe two
most cultivated being the rough-leaved dm iUlmms €m m pt\t tis},
which b grown in lai^ quantities in England and Nortb America,
and the smooth-leaved wych dm {Vlmau {fairs). The colour oi
the wood b brown; it b hard, heavy, Strang and very t nuah . and
when keoc dther alwaiu wet or amqrs dnr m dwJblr kha b
very liable to warp and shake, b porous and osaaDy cnoan^rein.^.
The piles of old London Bridge were of dm. and after n ccnti:.-o9
of fa amersion were but li ttle deoi^'^d . ^ "ft e wood b not much
used in building operatuns. It wibus MHmt 40 Ih per csdi. ft.
The oommoa ash (froawMtf CMsaor) b a nativw of Emofie and
Northern Ana. and b grown extenaivdy in Grant Bcstain. Its
colour b light brown, sometimes with a greenish dnt, with the
annular rings 01 darker colour. Tbe wood ^^cry ***^W" asd strong
ad it wd^ 40 ao 55 &
.ft.
Beech (fogw syhaUca) grows in the temperatedbtiio a of Eurape.
The wood b heavy, strong and hard; white to fight reddish-browa
in colour: and durable if kept dther dry or wet; b poraos and works
easily: it weighs about 40 to 48 l> per cub. ft. The rad beech
{Fagmsfmmgum) b rommfwi in North America.
Sycamore (^or f rr n rf s Hfsl Bns r ), aomedmcs mktakenly caled
the plane tree, booounoo in Germany and Britain and iq tbe enstcra
states of North America. It b a bree tree of rapid growth. Tbe
wood b light brown or yellowish white, with anadhr lingi
very dntinct, often crass-grained and of 1
It warps and cracks nuher badly,
per cob. ft.
Teak (rectena graadir) b a iativ« of southern la
It grows rapidly to a great hebfat, often < ■ ruli n g isn ft,
a straight trnnK and spreading ticanchea. Teak smoa is sam^
ia the grain and exceptionally strong and durable, its oiy aoture
enabling it to resist the attacks of insects and to nreaerve boa aa&
and (astenings. It weighs frcKn 45 to 56 lb per ci». ft.
Mahogany (5wie£MM mmkctuMt) b a native of the Wts^
"^f**^ air revealed, called silver gnan. The c o i sm b a ^iht
^ ^ hs weight b about S» to S^ ^fer cab. h. Oak b
the
It
foi kL.
^ — .. ..i a dry or a wet s*-
'Jhe altematdy dry and we*
^JJ* and engineering woriti, '
^*b» oniatnenul joiaacy
and Central America, the hot-known '
Spanish and Honduras. The Spanish wood has a darker cofcv
and richer fi^re than the Honduras, and b therefore pufimi s d for
oncaniental joinerv wtirk. The coloor of mahiys ny b redf-^
brown, and in the Cuban wood the pores «« often fikd with a w ** rr
chalky substance which b usually abaent in the ifloaidnsas wwriery :
(he Utter, ho«v\Tr. may be obtained ia larger aiaes. mad jibiismI 11
ia the grain and easier to work. Spanish m a ho ga ny w«Mn abc^
S6 !b t3 the cj' kr ft., and tbe HoodtK^ variety aboot 3^ m^
Greenbeart {.\ecU%dra rodiari} b a very heavy, hard and ijsii'ii
wood from the East Inches. It raises in ookmr faosn pnfe ydkw
to a deep brown, and the grain b very compact ami of rJoae nsErkTe.
The wood conr.il35 an od which enables it to mist the attack cf
sea wonnss asA this quality niLakes k suitable for are in marine
constructieo. Tbe av«n^ weight of a cubic foot b abowt 61 ft^
H on ha n Voitcd States. It b scft and easy to work, and of rvea
texture and stracht grain. It aaay be t J i < aimii m wide boards.
and thas b fitted for ve ia large panels. It weigha afao^ 30 lb
per ctAl ft-
TSrre are several laii e ti e s of maple giuwluf m CaaaA aad the
Tnited States, best the one ta most ci.iaiao n use b Ae sngar mtapie.
i!» calVed rock maple, which crows ffeelr in Ae d isa i na nren^ad
:Se Crox Lakes. The wood b fine-grai-vd. huimjal y voh a
leautifKl wavy firwre. l eB cmith white to light bros '
it is very hard*, rocsh *««l dcrable- Bcrds*-e>^ sc^le 1
csriy grain, »ad b mock in seqaest lor onasnental joiaBry.
BDch, boCb as itsndi iht coiaditaaBS \
tbey w«fe earned am. aad the lessks obf ajard. tht \
Am JirfxTsat aeiia of
~i8Ss and'iSSr at Ifaaadk by Piufuam
Be ledwtd al the spcoKaa sebnllcd fsr test to a
ted of Mbfmr. the imbiiihi aekctcd heiic >S V
W9S m B u a oMr j on iiiii—l af the cicai < M i n mi ia ALiiJUfJ h
ioamJ to ena bctweca HauMj>i ct ham the — e faecc ed
TIMBER-LINE— TIMBUKTU
981
In AflNrica, Frefq^or J. B. JdboMn nade a Imsb immber
of tests for the Forest Dqwrtment of the Board of Agriatkure
of the United States between 1891 and 1895. More tlua 300
tiecs were cut down and experimented with, the species under
test embracing ten different kinds of pine and five different
varieties of hard-wood trees. Records were made as to the
nature of the soil and dimaie where the trees were grown;
their conditions of growth, their age and size, and the season
of felling. As in the tests made by Bauschinger, the per*
centage of moisture contained in the wood was very carefully
observed, and it was found that this anonnt of moisture has
a very great influence upon the resisting power of the wood, the
strength increasing with the dryness of the material up to
3 or 4% of moisture, at which point the greatest strength of the
wood is resched. Wood in such a diy condition, however, b never
found in actual practice, timber in an ordinaiy well-wanned
and wdl>ventilated situation probably containing at least xo%.
One general conclusion arrived at both by Bauschinger and
Johnson was that the strength is much affected by the specific
gravity of the timber. In all cases the strength increases pro-
portionately with the density of the wood. A most complete
series of tests upon the physical chaFBCteristics of the hard
woods of Western Australia was completed for the govern-
ment of Western Australia by G. A. Julius in 1907. This
work was carried out in a most thorough manner, and as
many as x6,ooo tests were made, the conditions of test
being based upon those Uud down by Johnson. The results
serve to show the great value of Australian timbers, and the
comparisons made with the typical timbers of many other
countries emphasise the fact that the Australian woods ate
equal to any in the world for hardness, strength and durability.
For use under special conditions a wood suited to the par-
ticular requiremenU must be selected. The following b a list
of the best timbers for different situations: for general con*
stmctioa, spruce and pine of the diffierent varieties; for heavy
constmcttons, pitch pine, oak (preferably of EngUsh growth),
teak, jarrah; for constructions bnmersed in water, Baltic pine,
elm, oak, leak, jarrah; for very dry situatJona, apraoe, pines,
maho^ay, teak, birch, sycamore.
There are no regulaf tons in England limiting the wofldng ttrenes
that may afely be placed upon timber, although in some districts
the least sizes that nay be used for timbera in roofs and floocs are
specified. In some European and <Mher countries, however, the
safe working stresaes of timber used for constructional purposes
•re defined. The building by-laws of the municipality of Johannes*
buig. in South Africa, contain the folfewing table :-~
Safe Workini Stresses for Timbtr. In tons per square inch.
MateriaL
Tensional.
Compressive.
Bcndiiw.
Extreme Fibre
Stress.
Timber ....
Fir and Roe. . ,
Hardwood . . .
T
T
T
ATofe.— The compression sKresses are for short struts and columns
where the length does not cacced for rimber is tines the least
transverse dimension, and where the ends are fined. Where the
ratio of the length to the least transverse dimension is higher, the
toad per square Inch shall be proportionately reduced. No post of
timber shall exceed in length 30 times its least transverse dimension.
RsrBaBNCas.--T. Tredgokl, Frinci^ ef Carpentry, § xii.;
R. E. Grandy, Timber Importer's Guide; C A. Julius, Report et
a Series of TesU upon the Physical Characteristics of the Hardwoods
af Western Australia (1906-1907); J- B. Johnson. Report of Tests
upon Timber made for the Forest Department of the Board of Agri-
culture of tha United Slates (1891-1895): J. Bauschinger. "^Report
of Tests made upon Timber at Munich,^* Mittheauufeu aus dem
Mechantsch-Technischen Laboratorium der K. Tethnischen HochschuU
in Minchen; F. £. Kidder, Building Construction and Supenntew
deuce, v6L it.: Rivlngton, ffoles on BuildintConslrueliou, vol. Ui.;
T. Udett. Timber and Timber Trees; H. ^tone. The Timbers ^
Commeru and their IdeuUfifoliou; H. M. Ward. Timber and some
of its Diseases; R. Hartig. Timbers and How to huow them; 1. Brown,
the Forester; G. S. Bouger, Wood, 0- Bt.)
TIMBBR-UNB, in physical geography, the lane of elevatioB
Mhavt lea-levcl above which trees do pot gmw. In any
hilly locality, whidi b Mt of too Ugh latitude to altow of trees
growing near the aea-leviel, this line b generally cleariy marked.
It vaiies boc only with seoeral but also with local conditiom of
climate just as does the snow-ltne.
TIMBER-WOLF (Canis auidenkUis)^ or grey wolf, an American
spedes, or, perhaps, a geographical race of the European C.
lupu$ (see Woit). The length of good specimens b about 64 in.,
of which the tail forms nearly a quarter, and the range of
oohmr b from black to white. Cattle ranchers and shepherds
have established a war of eitermination against this wolf and
the coyote; several states offer bounties ranging from $9 to
$10 on wolf-acalps. In Montana in 1901 during a month
in the saddle an observer saw no wolves, which have become so
scarce that the occupation of the professional wolf-hunter b
almost gone. These anlnab are, however, far from being
exterminated, the **bad lands "forming an abMlutdy seoue
refuge.
nilBRBU or Tabut (the to/ of the andent Hebrews, the
ir/ of Islam, the adufe of the Moon of Spain), the prindpal
musical instrument of percussion of the Isnelites, identical with
the modem tambourine. The word timbrel b jused in the Old
Testament in both singular and plural form, so as to suggest
that the former referred to a hoop of wood or metal over which
was stretched a parchment head; while the plural was perhaps
used to designate the tambourine with belb or jangles fixed at
btervab in hoops. The Israelites learnt to use the timbrel
during their sojourn in Egypt, and it has been suggested that as
the Egyptians used it to scare away their evil spirit Typhon,
the word tof b derived from the latter. The tabret or timbrel
was a favourite instrument of the women, and was nsed with
dances, as by Miriam, to accompany songs of victory, or with
the harp at banquets and processkms; it was one of the instra-
ments used by King David and hb musicians when he danced
before the Aric It was also used in the valley of Hinnom at
the sacrificial rites, when human victims were ** passed through
Ihe fire " to MokKh. (K.S.)
TIMBS, JOHN (i8oi>i875)» Engffsh antiquary, was bom in
Qerkenwell, London, on the 17th of August i8oz. He was edu-
cated at a private school at Herod Hempstead, and in hb sixteenth
year apprenticed to a druggbt and printer at Dorking. He had
eariy shown literary capadty, and when nineteen began to write
for the Monthly Mapaina. A year later he became secretary
to Sir Richard Phillips, iu proprietor, and permanently adopted
literature as a profession. He was successively editor of the
Mirror of LUeraiuref the Harieqmn, the IMerary Wortd, and
sulxditor of the JUuOrated London Nemt, He was $Sso founder
and first editor of Year-Booh of Science and Art. Hb published
wofks amounted to more than one hundred and fifty volumes.
In 1834 he was elected a fellow of the Sodety of Antiquaries.
He died in London on the 6lh of March 1875.
TmBOKTU (French spelling Tombouctou), chief town of the
territory of Timbuktu, French West Africa, 9 m. N. of the main
stream of the Niger in 16* N. and 5** W.
Timbuktu lies on a terrace formed by the southern scarp of the
Sahara, about 800 ft. above sea-level, and overlooking a chain of
dkayas or marsh v hollows, fringed here and there with a Tew mimosas
ana palm thickets, amid the surrounding sandy wastes. These
dhayas. which are flooded every three or four years, converting
the lowland tracts between the terrace and the main stream into
a labyrinth of channds and backwaters, mark the bed of a navigable
creek which formeriy branched from the Niger northwards to the
foot of the scarp, and which in 1640 inundated a low-lying quarter
of the dty. It is conjectured that the main stream followed thb
course before it took its present easterly curve to Burrem, where
it bends southwards to the coast. Here also it was probaUy
loined at some remote period by the now dried-up Wadt Messaura
from the Tuat oases south of Algeria, although the rough levels
taken by Oscar Lens and others make it uncertain whether the flow
threnrh this depression was northwards or southwards. In any
case Tirobuktu has been left, so to say. high and dry by the general
process of desiccation going on throughout the Saharaa region.
Tlnbaktu has been described as ** the meeting point of the
CBod and the canoe," " the port of the Sahara in the Sudan,**
and (more correctly) " the port of the Sudan in the Sahara.**
It b a great " cirhsny " for the ptodoce of ^^ ^
9^3
TIMBUKTU
that of the lich countries iouth And weat of the Niger. It was
formerly a much larger place thao it waa found to be at the time
of its occupation by the French in 184^1894. Extensive ruins
exist north and west of the present town. The great mosque
which at one time stood in the centre of the town now lies near
the western outskirts, where its high but unsightly earth tower
forms a striking landmark. The mosque of Sidi Yaia (in the
centre of the town) and that of Sankor6 in the north-«ast also
possess prominent towers. Two forts, built by the French
and placed, one on the northern the other (Fort Bonnier) on the
southern side of the town, protect the roads to the desert and the
river respectively. Whereas in 1895 the town was little more
than a vast ruin, under French protection the inhabitants,
relieved from the fear of Tuareg oppression, set about repairing
and rebuilding their houses; trade revived; new streets were
built; European schools, churches and other establishments
were opened.
The industries of Timbuktu— ootton-wcaving, earthenware,
feather-work and embroi^ry — are of subordinate importance,
and the great bulk of the people are occupied exclusively with
trade. The whole traffic of the surrounding lands converges on
Timbuktu, which has a transit trade estimated at over £800,000
per annum. Considerable quantities of BriUsh and German
fabrics, hardware, beads, ftc, are conveyed across the Sahara
from Mogador (Morocco), while two great caravans of 3000 or
4000 camels are yearly charged with salt from the Tandeni
district, salt being an article which the Niger countries lack.
The imports via the Sahara average iJx>ut £50,000 annually,
and by way of Senegal goods of equal value axe received. From
the south come cereals, gold, wax, ivory and coarse native
cotton goods, now brought to Kabara (the port of Timbuktu)
by steamers plying on the upper Niger. Cowries, the former
currency (35008- 5 francs), have been generally replaced by
French money. It is proposed to connect the dty with the
Niger by a canal.
Timbuktu, which possesses some valuable Arabic manuscript^
—notably the T^Hk esSudan, a xjth-century history of the
Sudan written by Abderrahman Sadi of Timbuktu — and b
a centre of Moslem teaching, is a converging point of the diief
west Sudanese and Saharan races — ^Arabs or Aiabixed Berbexs
to the west; Songhoi in the immediate vicinity, and thence
south-eastwards along the Niger; Ireghenaten or " mixed "
Tuareg southwards across the Niger as far as the Hombori Hills
and in the fertile Labbako plains beyond them; Fula, Xlandingos,
and Bambara in and about the dty; and Immhagh (Tuareg)
belonging to the Awellimiden confederation mainly to the north
and east.
The k>cal administration— yesenred under French luk —
b in the hands of an hereditary kakia^ a kmd of mayor, descended
from one of the Ruma families (see below). The kahia, during
the greater part of the xgth century, was more or less under the
control of the powerful Bakhai (Backay) famfly, who, as
" sherifs " and marabouts, were levcrcd thioui^out the western
Hisfory.— The hbtory of Timbuktu ' b intimately connected
with that of the city oT Jenn6 and the Songhoi Empire. The
Songhoi iq.v.) are a negro race reported to have come to the Niger
countries from the Nile valley. In the 8th century they made
themselves masters of a considerable tract of country within
the bend of the Niger, and built the dty of Gao (,q.v.) 200 m.
in a direct line S.S.E. of Timbuktu, making it their capital. In
the xith century they were converted to Islam. Besides Gao,
the Songhoi founded Jenn6 (9.S.), which early attained consider-
able commerdal importance. Meantime (itth century) a
settlement bad been made at Timb\iktu by Tuaxeg. Percdving
the advantages for trade with the north offered by thb desert
■cwkavtMis, the merchants of Jexui£ sent agents thither (isth
oentwy), and Timbuktu shortly afterwards became known to
the mlaUunts of the SiJxaa «id fiKUxy « the beit vadiet
m wAsk to d^se of thdr "
the p Bffch as e of the many commodities of the w tsiei o Sudaiu
In the x 3th or X5th oentury Timbuktu fell under the power
of the Mandingo kings of Iddfe or Mali, a coontr>' lying west and
south of JtaaL Its fame as a man for gold and sak spread to
Europe, '* Timhoutch " bdng marked on a Catalan nap dated
1373. In X353 it had been visited by the famous traveller Iba
Batuta. In 1434 the Tuareg made themselves masters of the
dty, which in 1469 was captured by the Songhoi king Sunni Ah.
In the days of Suxmi's successor Askia (1494*1539), wlio com-
pleted the conquest of Melle begun by Sunni Ali, the Soof^
empire reached its highest devdoiMnent, and Timbuktu rose to
great splendour. The *' university ** of Sankor£ became a cfaiii
centre of Mahommedaa culture for the peo|ries of the western
Sudan. One of the sheikhs of Sankori, Ahmad Baba, was amcr c;
the most learned of Moslems. Some of hb writings afe s\iA
extant. The riches of Timbuktu exdtcd the cupidity of LI
Mansur, sultan of Morocco, «dio, in 1590, sent an army acro«a
the Sahara under an **Andalusian ** Moor (that is, a Met:
descended from those expelled from Spain), which captured Tim
buktu ( 1 591) and completely broke op the Songhoi empire. Tk«
Moors made Timbuktu their capital dty. For about twenty
years after the conquest the pasha who ruled at Tbnbuktu was
nominated from Morocco, but the distance of the Niger coantrks
from Martakesh enabled thb vast viceroyalty to thnm off all
allegiance to the sukan of Morocoo.
The Niger Moots, known asRumasthn'El Maasor'sinoakcteers,
quarrelled continually among themsdves, and oppre ss e d the
negro tribes. By the cxxl of the x8th century two hundred years
of oppresskm had reduced Timbuktu to compantlve dcsoladoa'
and povcxty. By thb time the whole country was in a state of
anarchy, and in 1800 the Tuareg swooped down from the desert
and captured the place. They were in turn (18x3) dispossessed
by the Fula, who in 1840 gave place to the Tbkulor, led by £1
Haj Omar, the first great opponent of the extensfton of Frend
influence in the Niger bend. When the French icached Tdb-
buktu in December 1893 they found that the town hakd again
faUea beneath the role of the Tuareg. The townsfolk, indc«d,
from the time of the decay of the Ruma power being at the
mercy of all comers, were conteia to pay tribute to each In tun
and somcttmes to more than one simultaneously, for which
they indemnified themsdves by peaceful intervals of trade
whenever the land routes were open and the upper and lowrr
reaches of the Niger dear of pirates. But at times even the short
tract separating the town from Kabara was so beset with
xiuirauders that it bore the ominous name of " Ur-lauBandesB,''
that b, " He (God) hears not." Little wonder then that the
townsfolk, wearied by the extortions and intemedne strife of
thdr Fula and Tuareg masters, fredy opened their gates to the
French »» soon as lieut. Boiteuz reached Kabara in rmmwi^w^
of a ifm»^t flotiHi,
The occupation of the town, against orders, was a dazzag
exploit of a handful of marines. The force whidi " garrxsoned "
Timbuktu consbted of but seven Europeans and twdve Seite-
galese, a somewhat laJger body bdng left with the gnnboots at
Kabara. On the 38th of December the Tuareg attached the
boat party, kilting Naval Ensign Aube, another officer, and
eighteen Uack. sailors. Cdlond T. P. £. Boimier, who was at
Mopti, aoo m. to the south-west, marched to the relief of Botteax
and entered Timbuktu without opposition on the 10th of January
X894. Leaving part of hb force in the town the cokiod set out
with about 100 men to chastize the nomads. In the xugjht of
the I4th-x5th January hb camp was surprised and the oolood
and nearly all hb men perished. The enemy did not follow
up their victory, and within a short period French inlc was
firmly established in Timbuktu.
Apart from some Christian captives, the place vasVeacked
durfaig the X9th century, previous to its capture by the Piecch,
by four Europeans — Major (Gordon Laing from Tripoli (1826 ^
who was murdered by order of the Fula; Ren£ CaiUif from the
south (1828), Heinrich Barth from Central Sudan (1853) and
Oikar Lens from Morocco (1880). (In 1903 the Prcndi avthori-
tisi placed ooaiaemorativc tablets on Iht bovacs occnpiod hy
TIME— TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
983
these four mea durinx thefr ntkf in Ttmtnkta. The tablets bear
simply the name of the explorer and the date of hb visit.) In 1895
Felix Dubois made a stay of some duration in the town, investi-
gating its history and that of the sonounding country. In 1904
Timbuktu became part of the colony of Upper Senegal and Niger.
The British connexion with Timbnktu may be briefly stated.
Barth went to West Africa as the officially credited representa-
tive of the British govtmment, e m p o wered to enter into rdationi
with the native princes. At Timbuktu he stayed under the
protection of the sheikh Sidi Mahommed El Backay (Bakhai),
and took back to England letters from the sheikh professing
friendship with the British. In reply Lord Clarendon, secretary
of state for foreign affaln, wrote a letter dated the X5th of April
1859, to El Backay, suting that " the friendship binding us
shall not diminish through the centuries " and " as our govern-
ment is very powerful we will protect your people who turn to
us." A nephew of the shdkh went to Tripoli where he received
presents for his uncle and other chieftains from the British
consul, who also wrote a letter to El Backay, saying, among
other things, " The English government has sent a steamer up
the river which flows out of your country and has recommended
those on board to make every effort to reach you." The
steamer did not ascend the Niger to Timbuktu, and no further
efforts appear to have been made in Engknd to maintain political
relations with Timbuktu. Moreover the power of £1 Backay
seems not to have been so great as was believed in England,
or at least did not long continue after the departure of Barth.
AuTHOftiTiES.— The chief original authorities are the Tarik ts-
Sudan (trans. Houdas, Paris, lool); and Ahmad Balw's" Chronicle"
(trans. Barth) in Zeitsch. der mowul&nd. CeseUsck. ix. 826.
Among medieval writers, see cspcctally fon Batata and Leo Africanus.
Of early European records Bajrth% Traads are the most important.
The b^t popular account is F. Dubou, Timhuctoo the Mysterious
(London. 1896). Consult also H. N. Frey. SHftpi «t Soudan
(Paris, 1888): Lieut. Hourst, The Exploration of the Niftr (London,
1898); O. Un2. Timbuktu (Leipzig. 1884); W. D. Cooley. Negreland
of Ike Arabs (London. 1841): A. iLebon, Rapport de h mission au
Sfnfzal et au Soudan (Paris, 1898): Commandant Tout^. Dahomi,
Nigier, Touartg (Plaris* 1897). ^ Dohomi au Sahara (Paris. 1899);
Lady Lugard, A Tropical Deptndaacy (London, 190s). (F. R. C)
UMB (0. Eng. tifna, cf. led. ftmf, Swed. timme, hour, Dan.
time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of be-
tween the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen,
" even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. lempus), the
general term for the experience of duration or succession, either
in whole or in part. For time in its psychological sense see Space
AND Time; for time in music, see Rhythm; for fhe methods
of reckoning time see Calendak; Day; Month; and the articles
Time, Measurement or, and Time Standabd, below. Gener-
ally in English law, where any particular time is mentioned
in acts of parliament or legal instruments, it is to be defined as
meaning, in Great Britain, Greenwich mean time, and in Ireland,
Dublin mean time. At common law, where parties enter into
legal relations, and specify their intention of being bound by
any particular arbitrary system, the courts will, as a rale, |^ve
effect to their intentions.
TIME. MBASUREHENT OP. Hme is measured by successive
phenomena recurring at regular intervals. The only astronom-
ical phenomenon which rigorously fulfils this condition, and the
most striking one — the apparent daily revolution of the cdestiil
sphere caused by the rotation of the earth — has from the
remotest antiquity been employed as a measure of time. The
interval between two successive returns of a fixed point on
the sphere to the meridian is called the sidereal day; and
sidereal time is reckoned from the moment when the " first
point of Aries " (the vernal equinox) passes the meridian, the
hours being counted from o to 24. Clocks and chronometers
regulated to sidereal time are oiily used by astronomers, to
whom they .arc indispensable, as the sidereal time at any
moment is equal to the right ascension of any star just then
passing the meridian. For ordinary purposes solar time is used.
The solar day, as defined by the successive returns of the sun
to the meridian, does not famish a uniform measure of time,
owing to the sBghtly variable vdocHy of the son*^ motiOB
and the indfaiatioD of iu oibit to the equator, ao that it beeomei
neoessaiy to introduce an imaglnaxy mean sun moving in the
equator with uniform velocity. The equation of time ia the
difference between apparent (or true) solar time and mean
solar timei The latter is that shown by clocks and watches used
for ordinary purposes. Mean time is converted into apparent
time by applying the equation of time with its proper sign, as
given in the Nautical Atmanac and other ephemerides for every
day at noon. As the equation varies from day to day, it is
necessary to take this into account, if the apparent time is
required for any moment different from noon. The ephemerides
ahn give the sidereal time at mean noon, from which it is easy
to find the sidereal time at any moment, as 24 hours of mean
solar time are equal to S4^ 3* 56* 5554* of sidereal time. About
the axst of March of each year a sideiMl dock agrees with a mean
time dock, but it gsins on the latter 3* 56-5" every day, so that
in the course of a year fit has gained a whole day. For a pbce
not on the meridian of Greenwich the sidereal time at noon
must be oonected by the addition or subtraction of 9*8565*
for each hour of longitude, according as the place is west or
east of Greenwich.
While it has for obvioos reasona become customary in all
dvilised ooimtries to oomnaence the ordinary or dvil day at
midnight, astronomers count the day from noon, being the
transit of the mean sun acioas the meridian, in strict conformity
with the rale as to the beginning of the sidereal day. The hours
of the astronomical day are also counted from o to 24. An
international conference which met in 1884 at Washington to
consider the question of introdudng a imiversal day (see bdow),
recommended that the astronomi^ day should commence at
midnight, to make it coincide with the dvil day. The great
majority^ of astronomen, however, expressed themselves very
strongly against this proposal, and it has not been adopted.
Determination ^ rMM.-~The problem of determining the
exact time at any moment is practically identical with that of
detennming the apparent position of any known point on the
celestial sphere with regard to one of the fixed (imaginary) great
drdes appertaining to the obaerver's station, the meridian or the
horison. The point selected is dther the sun or one of the
standard stars, the places of which are accuratdy determined
and given for every tenth day in the modern ephemerides. The
time thus determined furnishes the error of the dock, chrono*
meter or watch cmpkiyed, and a second determination of time
after an interval gives a new value of the.error and thereby the
rale of the timekeeper.
The ancient astrononers, althongji they have left ua very
ample information about thdr dkls, water or sand docks
{clepsydrae), and similar timekeepers, are very reticent as to
how these were, controlled. Ptolemy, in his Almagestt states
nothing whatever aa to how the time was found when the immcr-
ous astronomical phenomena which be records took place;
but Hipparchus, in the only book we possess from his hand,
gives a list of 44 stan scattered over the sky at intervals of
right ascension equal to exactly one hour, so that one or more
of them would be on the meridian at the commencement of
every sidereal hour. H. C. F. C. SchjeUerop* has shown that
the right ascensions assumed by Hipparchus agree within about
is' or one minute of time with those calculated back to the year
140 B.C. from modem star-places and proper motions. The
accuracy which, it thus appears, could be attained by the ancients
in their determinations of time was far beyond what they seem
to have considered necessary, as they only record astronomical
phenomena {e.g. edipses, occultations) as having occurred
'* towards the middle of the third hour," or " about 8) hours of
the night," without ever giving miiwtes.* The Arabians had a
* " Recherches sur I'astronomte des Andens: I. Sor 1c chrono-
m^rc c*lesre d'Hipparque." in Copernicus: An Intemationat
Journal of Astronomy, I. 35.
■For astronomical purposes the ancients made use of mean-
time hours &pmt loiuupipM* korae equinoctiales — into which they
translated all indtcatiens expressed in tivil hours of varying length—
bpoi iwpMsi. korae temporales. Ptolemy counts the ^ ' — '~*^
984
TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
clearer perception of the importance of knowing the accurate
time of phenomena, and in the year 829 we find it stated that at
the commencement of the aolar eclipse on the 30th of Novonber
the altitude of the sun was 7^ and at the end 24^, as observed
at Bagdad by Ahmed ibn Abdallab. called Uabash> This seems
to be the earliest determination of time by an altitude; and this
method then came into general use among the Arabians, who,
on observing lunar eclipses, never failed to measure the altitude
of some bright star at the beginning and end of the eclipse. In
Europe thb method was adopted by Purbach and Regiomontanus
apparently for the first lime in 1457 Bemhard Waliher, a pupil
of the latter, seems to have been the first to use for scientific
purposes clocks driven by weights: he states that on the i6lh
of January 1484 he observed the rising of the planet Mercury,
and immediately attached the weight to a clock having an hour-
wheel with fifty-six teeth; at sunrise one hour and thirty-five
teeth had passed, so that the interval was an hour and thirty-
seven minutes. For nearly two hundred years, until the applica-
tion of the pendulum to clocks became general, astronomers
could place little or no reliance on their docks, and conse-
quently it was always necessary to fix the moment of an observa-
tion by a simultaneous time determination. For this purpose
Tycho Brahe employed altitudes observed with quadrants; but
be remarks that i( the star is taken too near the meridian the
altitude varies too slowly, and if too near the horizon the refrac-
tion (which at that time was very imperfectly known) introduces
an element of uncertainty. He sometimes used azimuths, or with
the large " armillary spheres " which played so important a part
among his instruments, he measured hour-ang^ or distances
from the meridian along the equator.* Transits of stars across
the meridian were also observed with the meridian quadrant, an
instrument which is alluded to by Ptolemy and was certainly in
use at the MarSigha (Persia) observatory in the 13th century,
but of which Tycho was the first to make extensive use. But
he chiefly employed it for determining star-places, having
obtained the dock error by the methods already described.
In addition to these methods, that of " equal altitudes " was
much in use during the 17th century. That equal distances east
and west of the meridian correspond to equal altitudes had of
course been known as long as sundials had been used; but, now
that quadrants, cross-staves and parallactic rules were a>mmonly
empfeyed for measuring altitudes more accurately, the idea
natundly suggested itself to determine the time of a star's or
the sun's meridian passage by noting the moments when it
reached any particular altitude on both sides of the meridian.
But lycho's plan of an instrument fixed in the meridian was
not forgotten, and from the end of the 17th century, when
Rdmer invented the transit instrument, the observation of
transits across the meridian became the prindpal means of
determining time at fixed observatories, while the observation
of altitudes, first by portable quadrants, afterwards by reflecting
sextants, and during the 19th century by portable alt-azimuths
or theodolites, has been used on journeys. Since about 1830
the small transit instrument, with what b known as a " broken
telescope," has also been much employed on scientific expedi-
tions; but great caution is necessary in using it, as the diAcultics
of getting a perfectly rigid moimting for the prism or mirror
which reflects the rays from the object glass through the axis
to the eyepiece appear to be very gnat, for strange discrepan-
In the spherical triangle ZFS between the aenith, the pole aod
a star the side ZP-^o*-* (^ being the latitude). F5-90*-
h (I being the declination), and ZS or s*90* minus the ofaMrvod
altitude. The angle ZPS^t is the star's hour-angle or, in time, the
interval between the moment of obsetvation and the mcridiaa
of the star. We have then
cos « — sin ^ dn > .
cos ^ coo < '
which formula can be made more convenient for the use of ksgarithins
by putting s-l-^-h4*>>35, which gives
cosi--
,in (5--») f(S'l)
* cos .S cos (.i-«)
According as the star was observed west or east of the tneri<fiaa,
I will be positive or n^ative. If a be the right ascenaon of the
star, the sidereal timc-Z-f-o, a as well as 6 being taken from aa
ephemeris. If the sun had been observed the hour-angle I would
be the apparent solar time. The latitude obsoved must be cor-
rected for refraction, and in the case of the sua also for paraUax.
while the sun's semirdiameter must be added or subtracteo^cord-
ing as the lower or upper limb was dbdervul. The dedination d;
the sun being variable, and being given in the ef>hemerides for nooa
of each day, allowance must be made for this by interpolatti^
with an approxiniate value of the tinne. As the aftitiKle diai^a
ycrv slowly near the meridian, thb method b most advantagetras
if the star be taken near the prime vertical, while it b also easy to
see that the greater the latitude the more uncertain the rcsuh.
If a number of altitudes of the same object are observed, it b not
necessary to deduce the clock error separately from eadi obser>-3-
tton, but a correction may be applied to the mean of the zenith
distances. Supposing n observations to be taken at the momcnt»
Ti, Tt, Tt,. .., the mean of all being To, and calling the z corre^Mndii^
to this Z, we have
«• - ^ + ^(n - T^ + j|?(^i - W:
* - ^ +^(7-. - ro + l^in - r^»:
and so on, t bein^ the hour-angle answering to r». As XiT—T^ »q.
these equations give
^ , Si -f z« + «i + . . ♦ . i(PZ (r, - ny + (r, - r.;)* -«- . . .
« gl-^st-^g»+..■ _ <PZ 22sin«H7'- r>)
But. if in the above-mentioned triangle we dengnate the ax^cles at
Z and 5 by iio*-A and p, we have
un s sin i4 scoe i un f ;
sin s cos i4 - —cos ^sinS-f-nn^coed ooa f ;
and by differentiation
<fZ cos ^ cos < cos i4 cos ^
W — SJTT '
in which A and p are determined by
. sin t • 1 • ^ on t
With thb corrected mean of the observed zenith di^ances the boor-
angle and time are determined, and by comparison with T% the cmr
of the timekeeper.
The method- of equal altitudes gives very simply the dock exnr
equal to the right ascension minus half the sura 01 the dock times
corresponding to the observed equal altitudes on both aides of Uk
meridian. When the sun b observed, a correction has to be applied
for the change of declination in the interval between the obaervatiom.
Calling this mterval 2f. the correction to the apparent -noon given by
the observations x, the change of dedination m half the interval M
and the observed altitude k, we have
sin A=8in ^ sin («-A«)-fcos ^ cos («-A«) cos («-|-r)
and sin k -sin ^ sin (J+A«)-|-cos ^ cos (fi-\-M) cos (<— x).
whence, as cos x may be put«> 1, sin x-x. and tan AA^ZU.
/tan* tanj\ .,
gives the required correction In seconds of
ernoon observation may bo combined with
the following momii^ to find the time of
he time when a star has a oertun aanuth
eterminin^ the clock error, as the bour-an^
: dedination. the latitude and the asmutk
s most rapidly at the meridian, th« observa-
lus there, besides which it b ndihcr neccsnrv
M- the declination accuiatdy. The obscr>«d
meridbn must be corrected tor the dex'btkiai
imuth. level and coUimation. Thb corrected
6cd in sidereal time, should then be eqe^
of the object observed, and the diffesence is
bservatories the determination ol a dorV's
ration during a night's work vith a transit
TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
985
'dide) it snenSy fonnded on obteryttioM of foor or five " dodi
tun." thoe being standard atara not near the pok, ol which the
ftbsoltite right aacsensioiis have beea determined with great care,
besides observation of a ckae drcumpolar star (or finding the error
gf aamuth and determination ol level and orfUmation errors
Observers in the field with portable instruments often find it
tnooaveniem to wait for the meridian transts o( one of the few
elooe cifcumpolar stars given in the ephemerides. In that case
they have reooune to what is known as the method of time deter-
minatioo in the vertical of a pole sur. The ak-aamuth is first
directed to one of the standard stars near the pole, such as s. or 8
Ursae Minoris, using whichever is aeaicst to the meridian at the
time. The instrument is set so that the star in a few minutes will
cross the middle veitical wire in the field. The spirit-level is in the
meantime put on the axis and the indiaation of the latter measured.
The time of the trannt of the star b then observed, after which the
instrunent. remaining^ clamped in aaimuth, » turned to a cock star
and the transit of this over all the wires is observed. The level
is apptied again, and the mean of the two results is used in the
reductions. In case the ooUimation error of the instrument is not
accamtely known, the instrument should be reversed and another
observatwn of the same kind taken. The observations made in
each positk>n of the instrument are separately reduced with an
assumed appnndanate value of the error of oollimation, and two
I cquatbns are thus derived from which the dock error and correction
to the assumed coHimation error are found. Thb use of the transit
or alt-aximuth out of the meridian throws considerably more work
on the ooroputer than the meridian observations do, and it is thoe-
fore never resorted to except when an t^iserver during field operations
is pressed (or time. The formulae of reduction as developed by
Hansen in the Astronawnsdu NtekrickteH (sdviii. 113 seq.) are
given by Cfaauvenet in his Spherical and Practical AstroBomy
u. 216 seq. (4th ed.. Philadelphia. 1873) The subject has also been
' treated at great length by Dollenintwomerocars: DitZeitbtslimwtuitg
tetmiUda des tra^bam Dwrckgingunstmmeni im Veriicale des
Pctantenu (4to« St Petersburg, 1863 and 1874).
iianiiiwU, — Hitherto we have only spoken of the deter*
mination of local time. But in order to compare observations
made at different places on the surface of the earth a knowledge
oC their differeoce of longitude becomes necessary, as the kical
time varies proportionally with the longitude, one hour corre-
sponding to 15**. Longitude can be determined cither geodetic-
ally or astronomically. The first method supposes the earth
to be a spheroid of known dimensiotts. Starting from a point of
I dcpartare of which the latitude has been determined, the azimuth
from the meridian (as determined astronomically) and the
distance of some other station are measured. This second
station then serves as a point of departure to a third, and by
repeating this process the longitude and latitude of places at ■
considerable distance from the original starting-point may be
found. Referring for this method to the articles Emlth,
FicuKE OF THE, and Geodesy, we shall here only deal with
astronomical methods of determining longitude.
The earliest astronomer who determined longitude by
astronomical observations seems to have been Hipparchus,
who chose for the first meridian that of Rhodes, where be ob-
served; but Ptolemy adopted a meridian hid through the '* In*
sulae Fortunatae *' as bdng the farthest known place towards
the west.* When the voyages of discovery began tbe peak of
Tenexiffe was frequently used as a first meridian, until a scientific
oi>ngr ea » , usembled by Richelieu at Paris in 1630, selected the
island of Ferro for this purpose. Although various other
meridians (e.g. that of Uraniburg and that of San Migud. one of
the Aaores, ap* 2^ W. of Paris) continued to be used for a long
time, that of Ferro, which received the antboriaation of Lools
XIII. on the 25th of April 1634, gradually superseded tbe others.
In 1724 tbe longitude of Paris from the west coast of Ferro was
linind by Louis Feuiilic. who had been sent there by the Paris
Academy, to be 30" i' 45'; but on tbe proposal of Guillaume de
Lisle (x675'X736) the meridian of Ferro was assumed to be
exactly 30" W. of the Paris observatory. Modem maps and
charts generally give tbe longitude from the observatory of cither
Paris or Greenwich according to the nationality of tbe con-
structor, the Washington meHdian confetence of 1884 recom*
floended the exclusive use of the meridian of Greenwich. On
the same occasion it was also recommended to introduce the use
* The probable error of a clock correction found in this way from one
fltar is aoout *o-04'. if a modem trannt circle and chronograph is
used
■ This was fint done early in the and century by Maxiaus of Tyre.
of a " oni veisal day," be^nidog for. the whole earth at Gitenwf cb
midnight, without interfering with the use of local time. This
proposal has, however, not been adopted, but instead of it the
system of " Standard Time ** (see below) has been accepted in
most countries. Already in 1883 four standard meridians were
adopted in tbe United States, 75*, 90*, 105*, lao* west of Green-
wich, so that clocks showing " Eastern, Central, Mountain or
Pacific time " are exactly five, sax, seven or eight hours slower
than a Greenwich mean time dock. In Europe Norway,
Sweden, Germany, Austro-Hungary, Switaerland and Italy use
mid-European ^ime. one hour fast on Greenwich. In South
Africa the legal time is two hours fast on Greenwich, &c'
The simplest method for determining difference of bngitude
consists in observing at the two sutions some celestial pheno-
menon which occurs at the same absolute moment for the whole
earth. Hipparchus pointed out how observations ci lunar
eclipses could be used in this way, and for about fifteen hundred
years this was the only method available. When Regiomontanos
began to publish his ephemerides towards the end of the 15th
century, they furrl'hed other means of determining the longitude.
Thus Amerigo Ve^ucci observed on the 33rd of August 1499,'
somewhere oa the coast of Venezuela, that the moon at 7^ 30"
p.ffl. was I*, dt midnight 5I* east of Mars; from this he concluded
that they must have been in oonjunction at 6^ 30^, whereas the
ephemeris announced this to take place at midnight. This gave
the longitnde of his station as roughly equal to 5I hours west of
Cadiz. The instruments and the lunar tables at that time being
very imperfect, the longitudes determined were very erroneous.
The invention of the telescope early in the X7th century made
it possible to observe eclipses of Jupiter's satellites; but there
is to a great extent the same drawback attached to these as to
lunar eclipses: that it is impossible to observe with suiEdent
accuracy the moments at which they occur.
Eclipses of the sun and ocoiltations of stars by the moon were
also much used for determining lon^tudc before the invention
of chronometers and the electric telegraph offered better means
for fixing tbe longitude of observatories. These methods are
now hardly ever employed except by travellers, as they are very
inferior as regards accuracy. For the necessary formulae see
Chauven/tCs Spherical and Praefieal Astronomy, L 5x8^-542 and
We now proceed to consider the four methods for findmg tha
longitudes of fixed observatories, viz. by (i) moon culminations,
(a) rockets or other signals, (3) transport of chronometers and
(4) transmission of time by the electric telegraph.
X. Moon Odminaiiams.'-Owa to the rapki oibltal motion of the
moon the sidereal time of tu cwminatioa is different for different
meri&ns. If, therefore, the race of the moon's cfaai^ of ri^ht
ascendon » known. It is easy fnam the observed time of cuiminatum
at two stations to deduce their difference of kMigitude. In order
to be as much as possible independent of instrumental crrora, some
standard stars nearly on the paialld of the moon are observed at
the two stations; these *' moon<ulminating stars " are given in the
ephemerides in order to secure that both obtervcn taloe the mme
stars. As either the preceding or the following limb, not tbe centre,
of the moon is observed, aUowaaoe must be made for the time the
senu-diameccr takes to pass the meridkui and for the chance of right
ascension during this tone. This method was proposed by Pigott
towards the end of the i8th century, and has been much used;
but. though it may be very serviceable on joumevs and expeditkms
to distant places where the diTonomctric and teiegrephic methods
cannot be employed, k is not accurate enough for fijoed obaervatc 'ie^
Errors of four to ax seconds of time have frequently been noticed
in longitudes obtained by this method from a limited number of
observations: e.g. 4'47» in the case of the Madras observatory.*
* For a complete list of the standard times adopted in all countries
see Publicatiatu of the I/.5. Naoal Obsermitcry, vol. iv. app. iv.
(Washington, 1906). . . ,
* For bekl sutioos the photogiaphic method firet proposed and
carried out by Captain Huls, ICE., in 1895, may be found advan-j
tageouB. A camera of rigid form is set up and some istttantaneous
moon-exposures are made, after which tbe camera is left untouched
until a few exposures can be made of a coopte of bright stars, which
are allowed to impress their trails on the plate for 15 or 30 seconds.
If the exact local time of each exposure be known, such a plate
gives the data necessary for computinfE the moon's po«tk>n at the
rime of each exposure, and hence the Greenwich time and Wngitudc
{Memaifs Ray. Astr, Sac., 1899, liiL 1x7).
9S8
TIME BARGAINS— TIMGAD
cnidvmton of trUdi are mott icoBBtomed to the conversion of
lottl into standard or Greenwich time. An unavoidable
inconvenience aasociated with the eystem is the uncertainty in
many cases whether local or Greenwich mean time is under*
stood. This must be especially the case with magnetic and
seismic phenomena, the designation of which should be uniform
for the whole earth; at present, however, we cannot invariably
expect local olxiervers to convert their observations from local
into Greenwich mean time.
Associated with this question is that of the moment when the
day should begin, or from which the hours should be counted.
The civil divuion of the day into a.m. {ante miridiem, before
mid>day) and p.m. {post menditm^ after mid-day), now practi-
cally universal in household and ordinary dvil life, is impracti-
cable for scientific purposes, where a count of the hours from o
up to 34 is necessary. In railway schedules the necessity of
distinguishing a.m. from pjn. when our dvil time is used is
found so troublesome that in some countries, espedally Italy
and Canada, the a4-hour system is used. Hours after noon are
there designated as 13, 14, &c., up to midnight, at which moment
ft oevt day begins. On the other hand, with some few exceptions,
astronomers have almost from time immemorial begun their day
at noon, and navigators have very generally adopted the same
practice, but lot a quite different reason. In astronomy the
day begins at noon for two reasons of convenience. One is that
as the day is fixed by the transit of the sun over the meridian, it
is more natural to start the cotint of the hours from this moment
than from that when the sun is on the invisible antimeridian at
midnight. This practice also coinddes with that of counting the
hours of sidereal time from the transit of the vernal eqmnox, and
leads to the simple rule that the local mean time is equal to the
hour angle of the mean sun. The other reason is that, as the
astronomer makes most of his observations at night, and often
after midnight, it is inconvenient to begin a new day at the
latter hour* This consideration is however reversed in day
observations, especially those on the aun, but these are few in
number.
Navigators began the day at noon because their latitude is
determined by observations of the sun, while the longitude is
also generally determined during the daytime. Thus, in doing
the '* day's work " in the log, the position of the ship was always
computed for noon. Such being the case, it was 'found more
convenient to begin the count of a new day at this hour, to be
continued through the night until the following noon. But the
navigator's count of days was one day in advance of that of the
astronomers; for example, March the xoth, astronomical time,
begins on the toth day of March at noon, and this count continues
until noon of the day following, so that the forenoon of March the
xxth, civil time, is still March the loth, astronomical time. But
the navigator begins March the nth at noon on March the xoth.
This difference is worthy, of mention because a widespread
misapprehension exists that the navigator was forced to count
his days from noon owing to the adoption of the same system
in the Nautical AimanaCk The fact is that the practice of the
navigator, like that of the astronomer, was adopted purely for
his own convenience, and for the reasons just set forth. It is,
however, being changed so as to conform to dvil Lime, but as
yet iw> general law prescribes the change.
At the Meridian Conference of 18A4* it was proposed that the
practice of beginning the day at midnight should be adopted
universally in astronomy and navigation, and that the hours
should be counted from that moment in all the nautical and
astronomical cphemeridcs. The question of adopting this system
became a subject of international correspondence. The views
of the directors of the astronomical ephemerides, so far as
elicited, were strongly against the change. The considerations
which determined them were the confusion which the change
would introduce into the tables and the count of time in the
ephemerides, including the relation of sidereal and solar time;
the unavoidable doubt as to whether the one or the other
- used in astronomical publications: and the danger.
Se navigator an ephemexis in which
the hottfs should haVe a different meaning from thftt to vMdh
he was accustomed. On the other hand, the reasons of con-
venience which led to the practice of beginning the day at noon
still continued, so that nothing could be shown to couoterfoalanoe
these drawbacks Still, in works to be used by the public,
espedally almanacs and other astronomical annuals, it is neces-
sary to convert astronomical into dvil time. This must con-
tinue to be done, but offers no difficulty to the authors of such
works, 1^0 are acquainted with the difference, nor to the public,
which has no interest in the ephemerides and measures of time
used by the professional astronomer. (S. N.)
TIIIB BARGAINS, a financial or commerdal term for opera-
tions in securities or commodities which are to be completed
at a future date, as opposed to bargains which are settled
immediately. (See AIarket.)
TIMOAD, a ruined dty 23 m. S.E. of Batna in the department
of Constantine, Algeria. Timgad, the Thamugas of the Romans,
was built on the lower slopes of the northern side of the Aurcs
Mountains, and was situated at the intersection of six roads.
It was traversed by two main streets, the Cardo Maximus
running north and south, and the Decumanus Maximus east and
west. The residential part of the town was on a lower level
than the capitol and most of the other public buildings. The
ruins of the capitol occupy a prominent position in the south-
west of the dty. Some of the columns of the fa^e (which arc
of the Corinthian order and 45 ft. high) have been re-erecied.
The dimensions of the capitol correspond with those of the
Pantheon at Rome. Immediately north of the capitol are the
remains of a large market; to the east are the ruins of the forum,
basilica and theatre. The auditorium of the theatre, which
held nearly 4000 persons, is complete. A little west of the
theatre arc baths, containing paved and mosaic floors in perfect
preservation. Ruins of other and larger thermae are found in
all four quarters of the dty, those on the north bring very
extensive. Across the Decumanus Maximus just north-east
of the market is the arch of Trajan — still erect, and restored
in 1900. The arch is of the Corinthian order, and has three
openings, the central one bring 11 ft. wide. Each facade has
four fluted columns 19 ft high. The chief material used b
. building the arch was sandstone. The fluted columns are ol
fine white Umestone and smaller columns are of coloured marble.
At the other (eastern) end of the street are the remains of another
triumphal arch. West of the capitol are the ruins of a large
church, a square building with drcular apse, built in the ;ih
century. There are also renuins of six other churches. About
400 yds. south of the dty, the walls nearly entire, is a ruined
citadel, a quadrangular building 360 ft. by 295 f t , «-ith eight
towers. It was built (or rebuilt) by the Byzantine army in the
6th century. Near the northern thermae is the house of the
director of the excavations and a museum cont<ining smaO
objects found in the ruins.
Numerous inscriptions have been found on the ruins, asxi from
them many events in the history of Thamugas have been learnt.
In the year a.d. 100 the emperor Trajan gave orders to build a
city on the site of a fortified post on the road between Thev*csie
and Lambaesis. This dty, called Colonia Mardana Trajana
Thamugas (Mardana in honour of Trajan's sister) appears from
the inscriptions to have been compleied, as far as the principal
buildings were concerned, in seventeen years. A legion of
Parthian veterans was stationed in the newly founded diy
From the time of its foundation to the 4th cenluiy Thamugas
seems to have enjoyed a peaceful and prosperous existence.
Numerous inscriptions testify to the manner of life of the
citizens. In the 3rd century Thamugas became a centre of
Christian actlvhy, and in the next century espoused the cause
of the Donatists. The city declined in- importance after the
Vandal invasion in the sth centur>', and vcas found in a ruinom
condition by the Byzantine general Solomoni who occupied it
A.D- 5 J 5- It Is briievcd that the Berbers from the nrighbounn^r
mountains destroyed the city, hoping thus to prevent it beini;
used as a stronghold from which to harry them. Thamu|E.s
was, however, rcpcopled, and in the 7th century was a Christian
TIMOCREON— TIMOR
989
dty. After the defeat of Gregorias, goveraor of Africa, by tlw
Arabs in 647, Thamugas passes from history. After centuries
of neglect James Bruce, the African traveller, visited the spot
(1765), made careful drawings of the monumenu and deciphered
some of the inscriptions. Bruce was followed, more than a
century later (1875), by Sir R. Lambert Playfair, British consul-
fenerai at Algiers, and soon afterwards (1875-1&76) Professor
Masqneimy published a report oo the slate of the ruins. Since
i88t Thamugas has been systematically explored, and the ruins
excavated under the direction of the Service des monuments
kuUfrigues. Among the objects discovered are a series of
standard measure»--&ve cavities hollowed out of a stone slab.
Seventeen miles west of Timgad, on the site of the Roman city
Lambaesis, is Lambessa ig.v.).
See C. BocswillwaLd. R. Cagnat and A. Ballu. Ttrntad. unt ciU
afruaim sous t empire romain ; and A. Ballu, Guide iUuslri de Timtfld
{Fvio, 1903).
TIIIOCRBOK, of lalysos in Rhodes, Greek lyric poet, flourished
About 480 BX. During the Persiaa wars he had been banished
em suspidon of "medtsm." Themistodes had promised to
procure hb recall, but was unable to resist the bribes of Timo-
creon's adversaries and allowed him to remain in exile. Timo-
creon thereupon atucked him most bitterly (see Plutarch,
TkemUtocUs, ti); and Simonides, the friend of lliemistoclcs,
retorted in an epigram {Antk. Pol. vii. 34S). Timocreon was
also known as a composer of scolia (drinking-songs) and, accord-
ing to Suldas, wrote plays in the style of the old comedy.
His gluttony and drunkenness were notorious* and he was an
•tUete of great prowess.
TIHOLBON (c. 411-337 B.C.), of Corinth. Greek statesman
and general. As the champion of Greece against Carthage he is
closely connected with the history of Sicily, especially Syracuse
iq.9.). When his brother Timophanes. whose life he had saved
in battle, took possession of the acropolis of Corinth and made
himsdf master of the city, Timoleon, after an ineffectual protest,
tacitly acquiesced whiJe the friends who accompanied him put
Timophanes to death. Public opinion approved his conduct
as patriotic; but the curses of his mother and the indignation
of some ol his kinsfolk drove him into retirement for twenty
years. In 344 envoys came from Ssrracuse to Corinth, to appeal
to the mother-city for relief from the intestine feuds from which
the Syracusans and all the Greeks of Sicily were suffering.
Carthage too, their old and bitter foe, was intriguing with tlic
local despots. Corinth could not refuse help, though her chief
dtisens declined the responsibility of attempting to establish a
settled government in the factious and turbulent Syracuse.
Timoleon, being named by an unknown voice in the popular
assembly, was chosen by a unanimous vote to undertake the
mission, and set sail for Sicily with a few of the leading dtisens
of Corinth and a small troop of Greek mercenaries. He eluded
n Carthaginian squadron and landed at Tauromenium (Taor-
raina), where he met with a friendly reception. At this time
Hicetas, tyrant of Leontini, was master of Syracuse, with the
exception of the island of Ortygia, which was occupied by
Dionysius, still nominally tyrant. Hicetas was defeated at
Adranum, an inland town, and driven back to Syracuse. In 343
Dionysius surrendered Ortygia on condition of being granted a
safe conduct to Corinth. Hicetas now received help^ from
Carthage (60,000 men), but ill-success roused mutual suspicion;
the Carthaginians abandoned Hiceias, who was besieged in
Leontini, and compelled to surrender. Timoleon was thus
master of Syracuse. He at once began the work of restoration,
bringing new settlers from the mother-dty and from Greece
generally, and establishing a popular government 00 the basis
of the democnillc laws of Dtocles. The dtadcl was razed to the
ground, and a court of justice erected on its site. The amphi-
polos, or priest of Olympian Zeus, who was annually chosen by
lot out of three dans, was invested with the chief magistracy.
The impress of Timoleon's reforms seems to have lasted to the
days of Augustus. Hicetas again induced Carthage to send
(340-330) a great army (70,000), which landed at Lilybaeum
(Marsala). With a aalsoeUancous levy of about 12,000 men,
most of them mereeMries, Timeleoo maitbed westwards acron
the island into the neighbourhood of Selimis and won a great
and decisive victory on the Crimissus. The general himself
led his infantry, and the enemy's discomfiture was completed
by a blinding storm of rgin and halL This viaory gave the
Greeks of Sidly many years of peace and safety from Carthage.
Carthage made, however, one more effort aiui despatched some
mercenaries to prolong the conflict between Timoleon and the
tyrants. But it ended (338) in the defeat of Hicetas, who was
taken prisoner and put to death; by a treaty the dominion of
Carthage in Sicily was confined to the west of the Haiycus
iPtatoni). Timoleon then retired into private life without
assuming any title or ofiice, though he remained practically
supreme, not only at Syracuse, but throughout the island. Not-
withstanding the many dements of discord Sidly seems to have
been during Timoleon's lifetime tranquil and contented. He
became blind some time before his death, but persisted in
attending the assembly and giving his opinion, which was
usually accepted as a unanimous vote. He was buried at the
cost of the dtixens of Syracuse, who erected a montunent to
his memory in their maiiet-place, afterwards surrounded with
porticoes, and a gymnasium called Timolconteum.
Livei by Plutarch and Comeliu* Nepos; see also Diod. Sie. xvl.
63-90; monograph by I. F. Amoldt (1850). which contains an ex*
haustive examination 01 the authorities; also Sicily: Hislory\ and
Syracuse, with works quoted.
TIMOMACHUS, a Greek painter of the ist century b.c He
was noted especially for two pictures, one of which represented
Ajax during his madness, the other Medea mediuiing the slay-
ing of her children. Both of these works were remarkable for
their power of expression, espcdally in the (ace, and so belong to
the Utest phase of Greek art. Of the Medea we may form some
notion from paintings found at Pompeii, representing that heroine
standing with a sheathed sword in her hand, and watching the
children at play (Hdbig, WandgemiUde Companions, Nos. ia6>-
1265).
TIMON, of Athens, the noted misanthrope, celebrated in
Shakespeare's play, lived during the Peloponnesian War. He t%
more than once alluded to by Aristophanes and other comedians.
Plutarch introduces a short account of his life in his biography
of Mark Antony (ch. 70), who built a retreat called Timonium
(Strabo xvii. 794) at Alexandria. Timon also gave his name to
one of Lucian's dialogues. Shakespeare probably derived his
kimwiedge of Timon mainly from Plutarch; but the Timon of
Shakespeare so resembles the Timon of Ludan that Shakespeare
(or whoever wrote the first sketch of the play) may have had
access to the dialogue.
TIMOH (c. 320-230), of Phlius, Greek sceptic philosopher and
satirical poet, a pupil of Stilpo the Megarian and Pyrrho of Elis.
Having made a fortune by teaching and lectxiring in Chalcedon
he spent the rest of his life chiefly at Athens, where he died.
His writings (Diogenes Laertius, ix. ch. 12) were numerous both
in prose and in verse: besides the £IXXot,.he is said to have
written epic poems, tragedies, comedies and satyric dramas.
But he is best known ob the author of the ZIXXoi, three
books of sarcastic hexameter verses, written against the Greek
philosophers.
The fragments that rrmain (about 140 lines or parts of lines,
?-intcd in F. W. A. Mullach. Frat. ^kit.traec. i. 84-98^ show that
imon possessed some of the qualities of a ereat satinst, together
with a command of the hexameter; but he had no loftier aim than to
awaken laughter. Philosophers are^" exces»vely cunning murderers
of many wise saws " (». 96) ; tlie onlv two whom he spares are
Xenophanes, " the modest censor of Homer's lies " (0. 29), and
P>rTho. against whom ** no other mortal dare contend " (v. 126).
Besides the ZlXXot we have some lines preserved from the 'IpioXttcl,
a poem in elegiac verse, which appears to have inculcated the tenets
of scepticism, and one or two fragments which cannot be with cer-
tainty assigned to either poem. There is a reference to Timon in
Eus. Praep. £r. xiv. (Eng. trans, by E. H. Cifford, 1903. P- 76O.
Fragments of his poems have been collected by W6lke. De eraecorum
syUts (Warsaw. 1820). Paul. Dissertatie de syttis (Bcrhn. 1 821),
and Wachsmuth. SiUoerapkorum graee. reli^iae (Leipzig, 1885).
TIMOR, an island of the Malay ArchipeUgo, the eastemmosi
and largest of the Lesser Sunda IsUnds, stfctching ? "
9^o
TIMOR LAUT
for 300 m. bdweeii 8* 40^ and 10* 40' S., and between 123" 30'
and 127°. & It has a mean brcadtJi of 60 m., and an area of
about 1 3,500 sq- m* Politically its north-eastern half is Portu-
guese, as are two small enclaves in the south-western half, the
remainder being Dutch. Timor lies in deep water a little to the
west of the hundred fathom line, which marks in this direction
the proper limit of the shallow Arafura Sea, extending between
it and northern Australia. It differs considerably from the other
members of the Sundanese group both in the direction of its
main axis and in the prevalence of old rocks and slighter volcanic
character. It comes, however, within the great volcanic zone
which stretches from the north of Sumatra, through Java and
the other Sundanese islands, round to Amboyna, Tidore, Temate,
Halmahera and the Philippines. There appear to be volcanic
centres in both the east and the west of the island, and the
surface is everywhere extremely rugged, with ridges from 4000
to 8000 ft. high, forming a confused orographic system,
which is by no means fully understood. Mount Kabalaki in
the north rises above xo,ooo ft.; the culminating point appears
to be Mt Alas (over 13,000 ft.) near the east coast. Owing
to the prevalent dry easteriy winds from the arid plains of north
Australia, Timor, like Ombay, Flores and other neighbouring
islands, has a much drier climate, and a poorer vegetation, than
islands further west, and has few perennial streams and no
considerable rivers. Hence, apart from almost untouched
mineral wealth, such as iron, copper and gold, the island is poor
in natural resources. Coal and petroleum have been found.
At Kupang, on the south coast, the number of rainy days per
month in the six months May to October dwindles from 4 to o,
while the monthly rainfall gradually sinks from a little less than
2 in. to nil; the northern distrias are better watered. Though
the mineral products are varied, the supply of ores has hitherto
proved scanty; besides which their exploitation is rendered
difficult by the lack of labourers, water and wood. The uplands
yield fairly under cultivation, while the woodlands, which
nowhere form true forests, contain much excellent sandalwood.
This and a noted breed of hardy ponies form the chief articles
of export. Owing to the deep water between Timor and the
Arafura Sea, the fauna of Timor presents scarcely any Australian
types beyond a marsupial cuscus. The few mammals, such as
deer, civet, pigs, shrews and monkeys, as well as the birds and
insects, resemble ordinary Malayan forms.
Timor connsts of a core of ancient rocks (Archcan?) upon which
rest Permian and later deposits of sedimentary origin. Volcank
rocks are also present but they are not so extcoaively developed as
in the islands of the Javan arc. The Permian beds consist chiefly
of limestone and contain numerous fossils similar to those of the
middle and upper divisions of the Productus limestone of northern
India and the Artinsk stage of the Urals. The best-known locality
is the bed of the Ayer Mali near Kupang. These rocks were origin-
ally referred to the^ Carboniferous system, and similar limestones
have been recorded in many parts of the island. Triassic beds with
Halobia and Monotis are well-developed in Rotti and appear also
to occur in Timor. The fauna is similar to that of the Mediterranean
Trias. ^ Fragments of Jurassic rock have been found amongst the
volcanic material 00 the island of Rotti, but they have no( yet been
discovered in situ. The Tertiary deposits form a fringe around the
older rocks, and in some places this fringe extends far up into the
interior of the island.
The bulk of the popularion is certainly Papuan, but intermingled
with Malayan. Polynesian and other elements; hence it presents
an extraordinary diversity of physical types, as is cleaHy shown by
the portraits figured in H. O. Forbes's Naturalist's Wanderings in
the Eastern Archipelago. The natives, still mainly independent of
their nominal Dutch and Portuguese rulers, are divided into many
hostile tribes, speaking as many as forty distinct Papuan and
Malayan languages or dialects. Some are addurted to head-
hunting, at least during war, and to other barbarous practices.* In
their uma4idi, or sacred ftaboocd) enclosures, rites are performed
resembling those of the Polynesian islanders.
Portuguese Timor includes the neighbouring isle of Puk> Kamb-
ing, and has an area of about 74^ sq. m. Estimates of the popula-
tron vary from 300.000 to over half a million. Dilli, on the north
coast, the administrative headquarters and chief settlement, is a
poor little place of some 3000 inhabiunts, containing hardly any
Europeans apart from the officials. Macao was administratively
united to Portuguese Timor till 1896, and still pays a contribution
to the rev*niip- Th* estimated Revenue for 1901-1903 was £25,196
X£iy ' in 1905-1906 it was i^J96ii the astunatfed
expenditure was £«6.S3S in the cariier sad iU3.3M in Che later period
Few ships visit the colony, except Dutch vesaeb tndinc m the
archipeUfo, which call regulariy at DiUL Exports (pitndpally
coffee and wax) are valued at about £SSiOOO annually, aod tmporra
at about the same amount.
Dutch Timor has an area of a little over 5000 sq. m. Kupang.
the chief town of the residency, contains some 8000 inhabitants,
of whom 145 are Europeans living in well-built Iwuses, 594 Chinese,
and 43 Arabs. In agriculture, European plants have not been
successful, and of native products the supply is only aufBdcnt
for the home consumptkm. The export of sandalwood, ponic.
cattle, pinang nuts, &c.. amounts in a year to only about XBsoa
Dutch Timor gives its name to a residency comprising, beaoes its
own territory, the small adjacent islands, Rotti. Peman, Ac., the
Savu islands. Sumba or Sandalwood island, the Solor and AJUor group
of islands, and the eastern half of Ftores, all lying between 8* s'
and II* 5' S. and IIQ* 3' and 125* 15' E., the total area befog 17.698
sq. m. It is divided into four aidministrative districts — ^Timor,
Rotti and Savu, Larantuka (eastern Flores) and Sumba. Pop. of
the residency (1905), 308.500.
It is possible that the Portuguese visited Timor before the
Spaniards did so in 1523. They were, at anv rate, established on the
island when the Dutch expelled them from Kupang in 1613. During
the 18th century the two powers came frequently into conflict ; and in
1859 their boundaries were aetded by treaty. This treaty was
replaced bv one signed at Lisbon in June 1893. The old treaty
had proved irksome in many ways, especially as it left portions oi
the territory belonging to protected chieftains of each power as
enclaves within the boundaries of the other. This led to frequent
disDutes, and a mixed boundary commisaon was therefore appointed
under the new treaty and determined more satisfactory boundaries^
The new treaty, moreov^, stipulates that all future disputes shall
be referred to arbitration. Equally important is the declaration,
signed at the same time, that either power would favour the subjects
of the other in granting concessions, &c to the exclusion cii all
others. Thus Portugal and Holland secured the exclusive posseseioa
of Timor to themselves.
See P. A. van der Ltth. Nederiands-Itsdii (Leiden. 1893-1804).
H. O. Forbes, A Naturalist's Wanderings in the Eastern Arckipeiego
(London, 1885) ; and other general works (cf . Malay Archipelago).
Some of the i>roblems connected with the physical features of llrocir
are discussed in H. Zondervan's " Timor en de Timoreexen." Tijdstkr.
Aardr.Gen. (1 888). vol. v. (with bibliography) : K. Martin and A. Wich-
mann, Sammlungen des teologisehen Reicksmuseums (Leiden, 1881-
1884); A. Wichmann, " Bericht Qber eine Reise nach dem iodiscben
Archipel," Tijdschr. Aardr. Gen. (i890<-i8q2). with sketches of Timor,
map. &c; A. Rothpletx, Die Perm^, Trias-, wid Jura-Formatien
auf Timor und Rotti im indischen Arckipd, Palaeontograpkiea (1892)
PP- 57->o6. There is a summary of Rothpletx's results m A mericam
Naturalist (1891), xxv. 959-962. For the remarkable flying survey
of the south coast by the commandant of the Siboga expedition,
explorine the deep seas and fauna of the archipelago, see Bulletin
(No. 35) of the Maatschappij ter bevordering von ket ncttturkun
ondenoek der N.I. Kolonien : R. Dores. " Apontamentos para um
diccionario chorographico de Timor," Bol. Soc. Ceogr. Lisbon (1901).
voLxix.
TIMOR LAUT ("Seaweed Timor"; Dutch, Tintor Uod),
Tenimbes or Tenimbas, a group of islands in the Malay Archi-
pelago, S.W. of the Aru Islands, between 6*" 20' and 8" 30' S.,
and 130*^ 40' and 132** 5' E. By the Dutch, in whose residency
of Amboyna they are included, they are politically divided into
two districts; Larat, including the inhabited islands of Larat,
Vordate, Molu, and Maro, together with many uninhabited
islands; and Seta, indudlng the Sera Islands, Selaru, and the
southern part of Yamdena, all inhabited. Only Yamdenn.
and Selaru are by the natives called Timor Laut; all the
others they call Tenimbar. The group is in the main
coralline. Vordate, Molu and south-eastern Yamdena have a
maximum height of 820 fL; the rest are low and flat, except
Laibobar, apparently a volcanic islet on the west, which has aa
extinct crater 2000 ft. high. Yamdena, the largest island, has
an area of about iioo sq. m.; the rest together about loocx
Ritabel in Larat is the only safe roadstead during the east and
west monsoons. The fauna includes buffaloes, a marsupial
cuscus, some bats, the beautiful scariet lory, rare varieties of
the ground-thrush, honey-eater and oriole. The population is
estimated at about xq,ooo. The aborigines are Papuans, but
much mixed with Malayan and perhaps Polynesian dements.
They are a fine race, often over 6 ft. tall, noted for their
artistic sense. In other respects they are pagans in a. low stale
of culture, mostly divided into hostile communities and addicted
to piracy. The only means of subaistciicc is priaitivc agriculture
TIMOTHEUS— TIMOTHY, FIRST EHSTLE TO
991
CO ft poor soil, turtk and tnpang fiahciy tod cfttUe-naving.
Tlie yearly export (trepang. turtle and kamuning wood) is valued
at onty £850 to £i6so.
See H. O. Forbes. " Three Months* Explorations {n the Tenimbar
laUods." in Free. 0/ Roy, Cm. ^oc. ( 18&L) ; J. G. Riedel. D§ sluik em
hctshvitf rassen tussckeu SfUbis en PaPua (1886): W. R. van
Hoi^veU. "Tanimbar en Timor Vaoet-bilanden." in Tijdxkrift
Bakman (knoolsckap (1889). vol. xixuL; J. D. Caraon, " On Cmnial
Characten o£ the Natives ol TimoMJiut," /Mm. Anlkn^ JnUiL
xaiL386.
TIIIOTHBUS, Athenian statesman and general, son of Conon,
the restorer ol the walls of Athena. Froa 378-356 B.C. he
ffcquently held command in the war b e twee n Athens (in aWance
with Thebes), and Sparta. The object of Athens was to revive
the old confederacy (see Deuam League, $ B), and to
regain oomouad of Uie sea, and in 375 Timotheus was sent with
a fleet to sail round Fdoponncsus by way of demonstration
against Sparu. He gained over Cephallenia, secured the friend-
ship of the Acamanians and Molossians, and took Corcyra, but
used his victory with moderation. Want of funds and jealousy
of the Thebaas led to a short peace. In 373 Timotheus was
appointed to the command of a fleet for the relief of Corcyra,
then beleaguered by the Spartans. But his ships were not fully
manned, and to recruit their strength he cruised in the Aegean.
The delay excited the indignation of the Athenians, who brought
him to trial; but, thanks to the exertions of his friends— Jason,
tyrant of Phcrae, and Alcetas, king of the Molossians, both of
whom went to Athens to plead his cause— he was acquitted.
He had previously been superseded in hh command by
Iphicrates. Being reduced to great povety— for he had pledged
his private property In order to put the fleet in an efiicicnt stale-
be left Athens and took service with the king of Persia. We
next hear of him about 366, when, having returned to Athens,
he was sent to support Ariobananes, satrap of Phrygia. But,
finding that the satrap was in open revolt against Persia, Timo-
theus, in conformity with his instructions, abstained from helping
him and turned his arms against Samoa, then occupied by a
Persian garrison, and took it after a ten months' siege (366-65).
He then took Sestus, Crithote, Torone, Potidaea, Methone,
Pydna and many other cities; but two attempts upon Amphi-
polls failed. An actbn was brought against him by Apollodorus,
the son of the banker Paskm, for the return of money lent by the
father. The speech for the plaintiff is still extant, and is attri-
buted (though not unanimously) to Demosthenes. It is interesting
as ahowing the manner In which Timotheus had exhausted the
large fortune inherited from. his father and the straits to which he
was reduced by his sacrifices in the public cause. In 358 or 357,
the Athenians, in response to a spirited appeal of Timotheus,
crossed over to Euboea and expelled the Thebans in three days.
In the course of the Social War Timotheus was despatched with
Iphicrates, Meneslheus, son of Iphicrates, and Chares to put
down the revolt. The hostile fleets sighted each other in the
Hellespont; but a gale was blowing, and Iphicrates and Timo-
theus decided not to engage. Chares, disregarding their opposi-
tion, lost many ships, and in his despatches he complained so
bitteriy of his colleagues that the Athenians put them on their
trial. The accusen were (Hiares and Aristophon, both men of
notoriously bad character. Iphicrates, who bad fewer enemies
than Timotheus, was acquitted; but Timotheus, who had always
been disKkod for his arrogance, was condemned to pay a very
heavy fine. Being unable to pay, he withdrew to Chalds, where
be died soon afterwards. The Athenians showed their
repentance by remitting the greater part of the fine to his son
Conon. His remains were buried in the Ceramkus and statues
erected to his memory in the agora and the acropolis.
See Life by Cornelius Nepos; Diodorus Siculus xv., xvl ; Isocrates,
Z>« permulBliene; Pseudo- Demosthenes, Adverstu Timotkgum;
C. Rehdaatz, VUae Uhkroiis, Ckabruu, TinutkH (1845); and
especially HdJn. HisL «/ Creeet (Eng. traas^ vol. iii.).
TtHOTHBUS, an Athenian sculptor of the 4th century B.C.,
and one of the artists employed on the Mausoleum of Hall-
camasstts. An Inscription at Epidaums shows that he was
employed to furaisb models for the pedhnental sculptiucs of
the teaple 6f Aoculiptus on that site, and to eaecuie in maiUe
the egaemal deoorations (acroteria) for one of the gables. Co»>
siderahle remains of the acroteria and the pedimental figures
have been discovered (see Gjkebc Art, fig. 44; and Epioaubus).
TUIOTHBUS»of Miletus (c. 446-357 B.C.), Greek musician and
dithyrambic poet He added ono or more strings to the lyre,
whereby he Incurred the displeasure of the Spartans and Athe>
nians (£. Curtius, HiaL of Gruce, bk. v. ch. a). He composed
musical works of a mjrthological and historical character.
Franaeats in T. Bergk, PedM lyiici groed, A papyrus>f ragment
of his Persians (the oldest papyrus m existence), discovered at Abuur
hat been edited by U. von WiUmowitz-Mdllendorfr (1903), with dis-
cussion of the norae, metre, the number of strings of the lyre, date of
the poet and fragment. See V. Straxsulla. /. Peniani dt Esckile e4
a nm» ii TimoUe (1904); S. SudhJbs in Rkein, Mus., Iviil. (1903).
p. 4gi ; and T. Rcinach and M. Croiaet in Rene des iUtdet peeques,
xvi. (1903). pp. 63, 323.
TIMOTHT or TDiOTBzns, in the Bible (Acts xvl. x, xvil. r4,
ftc.), a Lycaoolan, the son of a Gentile father and a Jewish
mother, Eunice (2 Tim. i. 5), was bora at Lystra, and was already
a member of the Christian Church there at the time of Paul's
second vbit. He took the place formerly occupied by John
Mark in Paid's compaity, and In deference to Jew^ f eding was
circumcised. He accompanied the apostle on many of his
journeys, and was employed by him on haportant missions
(i Thesa. iii. a; i Cor. ve. 17, xvL 10). Paul speaks of him as
his " son," and this (see PhIL n. aa) refers to loyal service rather
than to spirittial parentage. He was especially interested la
the Macedonian churches, which he helped to found. His
name is associated with that of Paul in the opening salutations
of both epistles to the Theasalonians, the second epistle to the
Corinthians, and those to the Philjppians and Colossians. He
was, therefore, with Paul at Rome. At a later date he is men-
tk>ned In Heb. xiil. 93 as having undergone imprisonment, but
as havmg been released. On the basis of the epistles of Paid
to Timothy, Timothy Is traditionally represented as bishop of
Ephesus, and tradition also tcUs that he suffered under Domilian.
His martyrdom is celebrated on the a4th of January In the Latin
Church, on the sand in the Gredt.
The apocn'phal Ada Timotkei (Greek and Latin) have been edited
by Uaener (Bonn, 1877) ;cf. Lipsius. Apokr. Aposkiuschichlen (1884).
11.3.
TmOTHY, FIRST BPISTLB TO. This book of the New
Testament is really a pastoral letter upon church order, addressed
by the apostle Paul to the Asiatic Christian communities in and
round Ephesus (L 3).^ The object of the writing Is stated in
u\.i$:rui6tih oCirip $eov ivaerrpi^a&ajL It is thrown into the
liteory form' of a letter from Paul to his lieutenant Timothy,
but, as the closing saluUtion Indicates (vL ar, " grace be with
you,." btuif), the writer really has the Church in his mind all
through. The Pauline standard of doctrine is set up (i. 3-ao)
as the norm of thought and practice. This trust and tradition
is to be maintained throughout the churches. It involves, the
writer proceeds to argue, the proper conduct of public utirship
(11. X seq.,8 seq.),and the proper qualification iotepUcepiim. t seq.)
and diaeom (Hi. 8 seq.). The finale of this section (in. 15^16)
leads, by way of contrast, to a sharp prophetic warning against
contemporary enorists (iv. x seq.), with advice upon the proper
management of various classes of people within the Church
(v. X seq.). Special attention Is given to the ecclesiastical
"widows" (3 seq.) and to presbyters (17 seq.). After a
word on slaves and masters (vi. x-a), the epistle recurs to
the errorists (vi 3 seq.), passing into a warning against wealth
(6 seq.) and an impressive dosing charge (it seq.). The
writing doses with the ^ x^f t^ ^f«^ of verse at. The
context and contents of vi. 17-axa suggest that It Is a later
Interpolation, such as writings on church discipline were
* The same motive occurs in the preface to Irenaeus*s treatise,
Aie. kaer.
'The opposite view, which iodsts upon the definite character
of the pastoials, is ably sUted by A. Kuegg in Aus Sekr^ und
GtsckkhU (1898). pp^ 59-108. Otto and Kdillng attempt to refer
wopmAitmH (i. 3) to Timothy, not to Paul, and in this way to refer
the situation to Acts xlx. aa; but this is engecicaUy unt*—*-*-
992
TIMOTHY, FIRST EPISTLE TO
particularly exposed to (Hariiack). Their inorganic character
naturally permitted later generations to bring them up
to date, and accretions of this kind may be suspected in
1 Tim. iiL x-13, v. 17-20 (22a), vi. xt-zi, as well as in Tit. i. 7-9.
Other verses, like iii. ix and v. 33, have all the appearance of
misplaced fosses, perhaps from the margin. When vi. ao-21
b thus taken as a later addition, it becomes possible' to see in
the reference to oMnOicHt r^ ^^>«u5(i»vfiov ypoia^tas an allusion
to Maroon's well-known volume.
Attempu have been made by some critics, partxculariy Hesse
{Die Entstekung dcr neuksi. Hirlenbriife^ 1889: i. i-io, X&-30,
iv. 1-16, vi. 3-16, 20 seq.) and Knoke {Prakt. thed. Kommentart
1887, 1889: o«i. 3 seq., 18-20, ii. i-io, iv. 12, v. 1-3,40-6,
XX-X5, i9-33» 34 seq., written to Timothy from Corinth; b^i.
12-17, iii- X4-16, iv. i-ii, 13-X6, ii. X2-15, v. 7 seq., vi. 17-19,
i. 5-11, vi. 2C-16. 20 seq., written from Caesarea), to disentangle
one or more original notes of Paul from the subsequent additions,
but the comparative evenness of the style does not favour such
analyses.' They have more relevance and point in 2 Tim.
than in x Tim. P. Ewald, in his Probabiiia bdr, d. Text des
i Tim, (1901), falls back upon the hypothesis of the papyri
leaves or sheets having been displaced, axxl conjectures that
L 12-17 originally lay betw^n i. 3 and i. 3, while iii. X4-iv. xo
has been misplaced from after vi. 3. But his keen criticism of
Hesse and Knoke is more successful than his positive explanation
of the textual phenomena, and a more thorougfa>going process of
literary criticism is necessary in order to solve the problems of
the epntle. Its irregular charaaer, abrupt connexions aiul loose
transitions* are due to the nature of the subject rather than to
any material disarrangement of its paragraphs.
The phenomena of style have to be viewed in a broad lisht.
Allowance must be made for the difference of vocabulaiy produced
by change of subject. The evidence of inf tbfiniti»m, is always to
be teoeived with caution and strict acnitiny; no hard and fast rule
must be set up to judge the language of a man like Paul. Yet such
considerations do not operate against the literary judgment that the
pastorals did not come from Paul's pen. The words and phrases
which are common to the pastorab and the rest (tf the Pauline
epistles are neither so characteristic nor 00 numerous as those pecu>
liar to the former, and the data.of style may be summed up in the
verdict that they point to a writer who. naturally reproducing Paul's
standpoint as far as possible, and acquainted with hb epistles, yet
betrays the charaaenstics of hb later milieu in expressions as well
as in ideas.^ Thus, of 174 words which occur in the pastorab ak>ne
(of all the New Testament writings), 97 are foreign to the Septuagint
and 116 to the rest of the Pauline letteis. Thb proportion of
iirui •JtpqfOra b extremel^T large, when the sbe of the pastorab
b taken into aooount, and its significance is hdghtened by the further
fact that several of Paul's cnaiacteristic expressions tend to be
recced by others (e.g. wtpivmrdw and «tmx«£» by itmrrpt^tiw,
Ac, Kbpuof by i«g-r6riit, wofiovaia by jri^dwta), while a large
number of Pauline words are entirdy absent {e.g. ASuof, OitudtpU,
Mmvx9c8mi, ptXfMv, >up^« ifufia, rapMdau, vii9«iv, ^tpivv^btuf, a&itA^
&c). Nor b thb by any means all. " Difference in vocabu-
lary may be partblly explained (though only partially in thb case)
by difference of subject-matter and of date; bu. the use of particles
b one of the most unfailing of literary tests. The change in the use
of particles moA the comparative ranty of the definite article form,
together with the startling divergence in vocabuUry. the chief ground
of our perplexity " (Ckurck Quarterly Review, 1903. pp. 428 seq.).
Pauline particles like ipa, it6, Itiri, intra. Irt, tic and T8ow
> When the literary integrity of the efMstle b roaintuned thb
allunon naturally drops to the ground, since the use of the epistle
by Polycarp rules the earlier conjectures of Baur and others (who
made the pastorab anti-Marcsonite) out of court; besides, passages
like L 7 (Titus i. 10. 14) would not apply to the Mardonites. Dr
Hort iJudaislic Christianity, pp. 1 13 seq.) prefers to group both the
false ypdait (of. Rom. ii. 20) and the iwrdfUrtis as Jewish casubtical
decisions, the yvt«>ciylai of i. 4 and Tit. iii. 9 being the lef^endary
pcdienoes of Jewish heroes, such as are prominent in Philo and
the Book of lubilees. Cf. Wohlenberg, pp^ 30-36. and on the other
side KlOppcr in ZeiU. fiir wiss. Theologie (1902), pp. 339 seq.
'Kesse's. in particular, is shipwrecked on the assumption that the
IgnatUn epistles must be dated under Marcus Aurclias.
» T^ "^ ^ Almost Uke a gk)«a (Hesse. Knoke), iv. 1-8
ritext. and the oSr of iL I indicates a very
Treceding paragraphs.
!4ageli (Der Wortsehat* desA^sUh Paulus,
'. opinion is all the more significant on this
dmit any linguistic features adverse to the
disappear; the Pauline 9*0 b icphccd by iot«. whila |iw|w i lkw»
like am, IjM, ItatpeaBm and wpk (accua.) drop out eatindy.
A number of Latinbms, unexampled in the rest 01 Paul's eptstWa.
occur within the pastorab: whole families of new wordsi especially
composite words (often compounded with A-privative, •«•-. a<«-.
««>»•,* mtfpik'. 4*>^), emerge with others. «.f. ^ifimm, wwr^l
MTof. &c: and the very greeting b un-PauBne (i Tim^i. a; a Tim.
i. 2). The peculbrities of syntax conoborate the impressioo made
by such features of the vocabulary. There b leas flow t^n in the
rest of the Pkuline letters; " the syntax b stiffer and moie rendar
... the cUuses are marshalled together, and there b a tendency
to paralletism " (Ltghtfoot. Biblical Essays, p. 402). An increase
of sententious imperative clauses b also to be noted. Doubtlesa,
some of these features might be set down to Paul's aoianuensb.*
But not all of them, more especially when the charsaeristic coaccp-
tions and ideas of the pastorab are taken into account. Nor caa
it be argued that the characteristics of the pastorab are those of
private tetters ; they are not private, nor even semi-private aa thev
stand; besides, the only private note from Paul's hmd (Philetaoa)
bears no traces of the special dictioa exhibited in tbe cpistks to
Timothy and Titus.
Furthermore, throughout the pastoials. and espedaOy in 1 Thn.,
there are traces of a wider acquaintance with Greek literature'
than can be detected in the letters of Paul. Affinities to Piutardh
(cf. J. Albani in Zeilsckrifl fur wiss. Tk$ohgie, l^M, 40-1S8) and
to 4 as well as to a Maccabees are not improbable.
I Tim. also gives clearest expression to the author's «^^'^^*^a«^Ti^l
and doctrinal views. The objective sense of wiartt has begun to
overpower the subjective. Christianity b bcootning more and
more a " fonn of sound words.*' a cryscaUiaed creed, whose teaching
is the vital point. The dee^ conceptions of Paul, via. the fatherly
love of (iod, the faith-mysticism of the Christian's relation to Christ*
and the inward witness of the Spirit, fall into the background.
while unusual prominence b assigned to the more *««g?Mf and
practical tests ol Christbnity.
(X all the pastorals. 1 Tim. b furthest from Paut* The author
writes more out of hb own mind, evidently with little or do special
material to fall back upon. The epbtle b not a compilation fraoa
the two others (as Schleiermacher thought), but it seems to denote
a slightly later stage.* Many critics therefore (e.g. De Wette.
Mangold. Reuss, Bruckner. Pfleiderer,vonSoden,McOiffett.S.David-
son. Bourquin, Clemen and iQIichcr) conclude that the pastorab
were written in thb order (2 Tim., Titus, i Tim.). Whoi the
epistles were arranged for the canon, it was natural to pot
a Tim. bter than the other two, since iu setting seemed to imply
the ck»e of Paul's career. Its literary priority b oon&micd Iw
several rcaembUnces between it and PhUippbns, the last of Pauls
epistles (e.g. MJitmts iv. e^iPaXbop Plul. L 33, and #tMw#«i
iv. 6-Phil. ii. 17).
LiTEKATURB.— The followhig special mooonaphs on t Tim. are
noteworthy : Melanchthon's Enarraiio episL f. PauU ad Timmkcmm
et duorum capUum secunda (1561), Heshusius. Comwiemtarius in
friorem epist. Pauli ad Timotkeum (1582), Orhard. Annelatiames ad
. Pauli ad Tim, epistatam (1643) and M. G. B. Leo, Pamli episleta I.
ad Tim, cum perpetuo cammenlaria (Leinsig. 1837; full and exact).
More modem essays are published by KMling. X>^ /. Bri^Pamlms am
Tim. aufs neue untersucki und ausgcleg^ (1882 seq.) and. from a conser-
vative standpoint, by Liddon (1897). Two other essays appeared ia
tbe early part of last century, by Beckhaus, 5^tiNe» ab»ervaUa$emm
de verbis Ava{ VyAfi. el rariorUms diemdi fertmdis in prima ad Tim.
epislda Paulina obuiis (1810) and A. Curtius, De tempore quo prim
episL Tim. exarata sit (1828). In the difficult passage (v. x 8). both
. . . , . .. . ^,_, ^j^
quotations seem to be ranked as from i -rpaM. in which
* RaXfc, which Paul never uses as an attribute, b mainly empio>ed
in this way by the author. On ournp as applied to Cod, cf . Wagner
in Zeits.f. neuL Wiss. (1905), pp. 331 seq.
* The so<aned " Lucan 'features (cf . HoUxmann, pp.93 aeq.,aad
Von Sodeo in Theologjiscke Abhandhmseut 189a, pp. 133^x35) have
suggested that Luke may have been the amanueaab (cxTa Tna-
iv. 1 1). or even the author of the pastorals.
' £.c. Tit. i. 1 1 (cf . Plut. Moral. 067, 1 3). u. 3 (cf. Thoc IL 6x ; Xen.
Mem, I. 5. 5« 6. 8): 3 Tim. ii. 17 (cf. Plut. Moral. 65 D i « mmp^Lm
siAipBcAxvror fr ry o^hulti wiSm); I Tim. i. 6 (d. Plot. MoroL
414 EI ioTojcaHei rav /tcrpiovxal vpcverrot). L XO (U. Plut. De educ.
lib. $ A Tta inri^poinoi col rtroyiih'mi filov ^ra^^op tl n, for A^tft
-"normal"; cf. Plato's Protagoras, 346 C), 1. 19 (cf. Galen, x.
307 . Iv olt IvaiT^M' o< rp60««» larppl »" came to grief *'), vi. S (cf. PtvL
Colo major, 35, Moral. 92 B with Plato's ProtoMras, 313).
■ Even linguistically Titus and 1 Tim. are doaer to one another
than either to 3 Tun. The htter has no allusion to the nX^
ipyor. the irtpoMaa'nMv, the it90*fiu¥iiio$uM, Ac., of the others, and
contains one or two specific phrases of its own. I Tim., like
Ef>hcsans, is a writing whose lack of greetinn and teneral tone
point to the functions of an encyclical or Catholic epistle.
* For details, cf. Eney. Bib. 5093-5094- Of the five ** faithful
sayines." three occur in i Tim.; these condensed aphorbnis taOy
with liturgical fragments such as the famous quotation in 1 Tim.
iii. 16, a (ormuU of oonfessaon written in small riiort aria (fL
Klftpper in ZeiUciirififiu inu. Tkedogia, I903» pp» 191$ ee^).
TIMOTHY, SECOND EPISTLE TO
993
mnmd (d. Lske x. 7^ foctbtck to«iihcr Luke** gotpd or ht MMooe
at thb patiticuUr pmac. The hypotheiis that a laying of Jetus is
locMcly added here to an Old Testament citation is very fornd, and
the inlerence is that by the time the author wrote. Luke's gospel was
fe c kotwd as vpai##. This would be expliable if Luke could be
■sMimwi to have bom the author, in wlwleor part, of the pavtonb.
TmOTHT. SECOND BPISTLB TO. In this book of the New
Testament, after a brief thanksgiving for the faith of Timothy
(i. i-s), Paul IS represented as warning htm against false shame
(6 seq.), adducing his own example and that of Onesiphorus.
The need and the reward of endurance arc then urged (ii. 1-13),
and Timothy is bidden to adhere in his woiic to the Pauline
gospel against the seductions of controversial and immoral
heretics (ii. 14 seq )•* The practices of the btter are pungently
depicted* (lit. 1-9); P&ul reiterates his opening counsels (xo seq )
and then doses with a solemn charge to personal faithfulness.
A note of personal matters concludes the epistle (iv. 6-22).
The last verse, with its two-fold greet mg ( 6 gbpun /uri, rw
rPtbiMTM ccn, ^ x^* 1*^ v/iwr), shows unconsciously but
plainly that, while the epbtle professes to be a private letter to
Timothy, it is in reality addressed to a wider circle, like i Tim.
and Titus. But its composite origin is also clear.' Thus iv.
6'22a, which is certainly authentic, b not homogeneous in
itself, the situation of verses 6-8 hardly agreeing with that of
9 seq., while verse xi (" Ltike alone b with me ") cannot have
been written at the same time as verse 31. Various schemes of
analysb have been proposed to account for thb and other
passages of the same nature in the epbtle, e.g. i. 15-18, iii. xo seq.
But the general result of such reconstructions b tentative. All
that criticbm has succeeded in establishing b the fact that the
author had some rdiquiae Pmdmae at his disposal, notes written
cither before or during hb last imprisonment in Rome,* and tliat
these have been worked tip into the present letter by one who
rightly believed that hb master would stoutly oppose the current
crrois of the age.
3 Timothy, like i Thnothy, reveals with fair precision the
period and aim of the writer of the pastorals. Evidently (cf.
Acts xz. 39-30) the Pauline Christianity of Ephesus was im-
perilled seriously during the last quarter of the zst century.
Its very growth invited attempu to weave ascetic, theoiopiblCi
scmi'Jewish fandca round the faith, not unlike the attempts
often made in modem India to assimilate Chrbtian and local
philosophies of religion. Against such the writer argues in Paul's
name, as Luke had already done. From the composition of «
speech in Paul's name (for, though the farewell in Acts goes back
to first-hand tradition, it reprcsenu the author's standpoint
as well as Patil's), it was but a step to compose letters in hb name,
especially on the basb of some of his extant notes. A genuine
concern for local Christianity is the writer's justification for hb
vork, and any idea of fraudulent aims must be dbmissed at
once.* " To a writer of thb period, it would seem as legitimate
An artifice to compose a letter as to compose a speech in the
iteeral ^^ .^^ have it, its geouioencss
* Bahasen jpves an ingenious analysb of thb section in the eptstte.
In tL 8-13, it. 6 b develoncd: in ii. 14-26. ii. 4; and in iiu 1-4 (8).
iL S* But thb b as artahcbl as Otto's attempt to classify the con-
tents of the epistle under the three notes of the v>«i»ta in L 7.
* On iiL 6 see the fragment iron Philo quoted in Eua^ Pntp.
JEsanf. viii. II.
* "If the epistle was an inti
coUU scarcely be maintained " (Laughlin. p. 36).
* Bacon iSiary «i SkPatU, p. 198) and Clemen both assign part of
the epistle to the Caesarean imorisonment. the former dLtentangling
iv. 9. 11-18. 20-aia. 32b. the latter iv 9-18. Hiuig had already
found a Caesarcan letter in i. 15. iv. 13-16. 20-22a. One great point
in favour of such theories b that they give a natural sense to iv. 16,
Paul's fint defence being that befdre the Jews or befoie Felix.
^Cf the present writer's Hutaricol New Teskutunt (2nd ed..
1901. pp. 619 seq.). where the relevant literature is cited. An
adequate mooogiaph on ancient pseudonymous literature remains
to be written; meantime, further reference may be made to the
older essays of Mosheim {DiistrUUio de caussis suppositorum librormm
mUr Ckristiancs uutuli primi cf $etuudi, 1733) ; Bcntley's Disserta-
tioM OH Phalaru, pp. 80 seq. ; K. R. KAstkn s article in Th€<d. Jakr-
biUker (1851). pp. 149-221. on " Derpseud. Littrratur der Altesten
Kirche : and A Gademann. in Oauical Studies in Honour ef
U, DfitxUr. pp. 52-74 (New York. 1894)*
name of a great man whose sentiments it was desired to reproduce
and reoocd ; the question which seems so important to us, whether
the words and even the sentiments are the great man's own or
only hb hbtorian's, seems then hardly to have occurred either
to writer or readers " (W. H Simcox, Wriltrt of the New Testo-
went, p. 38). The address at Miletus b Paul's last i*ord to the
Chrbtian elders of Ephesus, warning them against heresies
(Acu XX* 29 seq.) and solemnly bidding them exercise their
dbdplinary duties. The Second Epistle to Timothy carries on
thb line of advice. Here Paul, being dead, yet speaks through
Timothy to the k>cal Christians who are exposed to such mis-
chievous tendencies in their environment
Where the writer has hardly succeeded in representing Paul b
in his relations to Timothy. One may admit that, strictly speaking
the latter at the age of about th«fty.h\'e or forty coukl stUl be called
riM, and that Paul might conceivably have termed him still hb
rkiw. But the counsels addressed to him aeem rather out of
place when one recollects the position which he occupied. To a
writer who dcmred a situation for such advice on church life and
doctrine from the lips of Paul to hb lieutenant, it was natural
to think of a temporary absence* But many of the directions
are much too serious and fundamental to have been given in thb
form; one can hardly imagine that Paul considered Timothy (or
Titus) still in need 01 elementary advice and wanting upon suck
matters, and, especially on personal purity. When they are n>
garded as typical figures of the later eptuopt of the Church, the point
of thb emphasis upon elementary principles and duties is at once
clear; they outline grophscally the qualificationa for the church
offices in question.
The pressing need of the Church, as the writer conceives it. b
to maintain the true Pauline tradition (2 Tim. L 13. &c.} against
certain moral and speculative ideas. This maintenance takes the
twofold practical form of (a) adherence to formulated statements
of the ''sound teaching" and (fr) insistence on a succeasioa of
church ofiiciab (2 Tim. ii. 1-2^ who are not merely to preside
but to teach. The last point is significant in view of Didacb8
XV. I. The standpoint of the author is practically that of Clemens
Romanus (xlii. seq.). who asserts that the apostles preached " every-
where in country and town, appointing their first-fruits, when they
had proved them by the Spirit, to be bUhops and deacons." The
interests of discipline and doctrine were thus to be conserved.*
Paul's lieutenants possess the central deposit of the apostolic
faith, and have the duty as well as the right of exercising the
authority with which that position invests them.
The occa^onal coincidences between the pastorab and Barna-
bas or Clemens Romanus do not prove anything more than a
common milieu of thought, but the epistles were plainly familiar
to Polycarp, who alludes to x Tim. ii. x, vi. 7, xo, and 3 Tim. iL
ti, 25. iv. xo (for thb and the other passages from Polycarp, see
Tke New Testament in the Apostolic Fatlters, 1905, pp. 95 seq.).
Thb indubitable use of the pastorab in Polycaip^ throws the
terminus ad fsrem of their composition back into the first decade
of the 2nd century, and additional coiifirmation of this would
be forthcoming w«re the evidence for their use in Ignatius more
* The drawback was that, if Paul was soon to see his colleagues
again (Titus i. 5; 1 Tim. i. 3), such detailed advke was hairdly
necessary: but this imperfec t ion was inevitable.
' The post«PauUne atmosphere of the ecclesiastical regulations
b felt most pbinly in the references to such sub-apostolic features
as the organized register of " widows.'* The Ivivxaros. the ttdxoMDf
and the x4p« aie also forbidden to contract a second marriage.
Such, at any rate, seems the fairest interpretttion of I Tim. ili. a
iiwlrmown) m the light of earlv CbrUtbn tradition, for although
the phrase " husband of one wile " might conceivably be intended
as a prohibition of polygamy or vice (« faithful husband, or
mber. married man), the antipathy to second nuinriages (cf . Jacoby,
Neutest. Etktk, pp. 378 seq.) is quite in accord with snb^postolic
practice. It is almost as un>PauUne as the assumption that eveiy
IrLaK^rot must be married. Cf. on this whole subject Hitgenfelq
IZeilsehriftJir vur. Tkeoiogte^ x886, pp. 456 seq) and SchmiedH
(Eneyd. Bibtiem, 31 13 seq.) : the opposite position is stated excellently
by Hoct (CAfM<ia« Eceksia, 1898 189 aeq.) and Dr T. M. Lindsay
{Hibberi Journal, L 166 seq.. and in Tlu Church and tke Miuutrj
tn the early Centuries^ 1903. pp. 139 seq.).
* The pastorals soon passed into great favour in the eariy Church.
Their method and aim were entirely congenial to the rising Catholic
Church, and one b not •urpnsed to find from writers in the East
(Theophilus of Antioch. Justin Martyr) and West (Irenaeus, Ter-
tunian and the author of 2 Clement) that they were widely read
and valued. Absent from Maroon's canon, they were included
in the Muratorian. where they appear as privare letters ("pro
affectu et dilectione "). See. on the external evulence in general,
Zahn's Cesckicktt der ueutest. Kanons, L 634 seq.
994-
TIMUR
•ecun. The oocMioMl timilaritif of thovglit and fxpieaskm
between them and the Luaui writings suggest that the period
o{ their origin lies within a quarter of a century aiter Paul's
death, and, when one or two later accretions are admuted,
the internal evidence, either upon the organiaation ol the
church* or upon the enors controverted, tallies with this
hypothesis.
Uterattjre.— Spedal monographs on this epistle by Leo (1850)
and Bahnsen {Dte sogenannUn Pdstoraibnefe, I,der 2 Ttm , 1876)
are to be noted For a textual discuastoa of ia 19, d Reach's
Pauluusmus, pp. 258-359. The allusion to the ^i^Xia. /laAMra
rdf iitii0fiij>as (iv It) has produced a wealth of discussion; the
latter were probably pugulares tnembranett sheets for private
memoranda The books may have mcluded the l^ia or Evangcli
Scriptures from which i Tim. v 18 is quoted (so Resch), but this
k a mere conjecture. Cf , on the whole question. But s Das anttke
Buckwesen, pp 50 seq . 65, 88 seq . and Nestle s Binfukrunrtn das
grtechiuke N T. (1899). PP> 39 «()• CI ^iT.)
TIMtTR {Timw i Ltng, the kme Tinfir), commonly known
as Tamcklake, the renowned Onental conqueror, was bom in
J336 at Kesh, better known as Shahr-i-Sabz, ** the green dty,"
situated some so m south of Samarkand in Transoziana. His
lather Teragai was head oi the tribe of Berlas. Great-grandson
of Karachar Nevian (minister of Jagatai, son of Jenghiz Xhan,
and commander-in-chief of his forces), and distinguished among
his fellow^lansmen as the first convert to Islamism, Teragai
might have assumed the high mihtary rank which fell to him
by right of inhentance, but like his father Burkul he preferred
a life of retirement and study. Under the paternal eye the
education of young Timflr was such that at the age of twenty he
had not only become an adept in manly outdoor exercises but
had earned the reputation of bdng an attentive reader of the
Koran. At this period, if we may credit the Memotrs (Malfufdl),
he exhibUed proofs of a tender and sympathetic nature.
About 1358, however, he came before the world as a leader of
armies. His career for the next ten or eleven years may be thus
briefly summarized- from the Memoirs, Allying himself both in
cause and by family connexion with Kurgan, the dethroner and
destroyer of Kazan, chief of the western Jagatai, he was deputed
to invade Kborasan at the head of a thousand horse. This was
the second warlike expedition, in which he was the chief actor,
and the accomplishment of its objects led to further operauons,
among them the subjection of Khwarizm and Urganj. After
the murder of Kurgan the contentions which arose among the
many claimants to soverdgn power were arrested by the invasion
of Toghluk TimOr of Kashgar, a descendant of Jenghiz. Timllr
was despatched on a mission to the invader's camp, the result
of which was his own appointment to the government of Miwarftr
'Inal^r (Transoxiana) By the death of his father he was also
left hereditary head of the Berlas. The exigencies of his
quasi-sovereign position compelled him to have recourse to his
formidable patron, whose reappearance on the banks of the Sihon
created a consternation not easily allayed. Mfiwarfllnahr
was taken from TimQr and entrusted to a son of Toghluk,
but he was defeated in battle by the bold wamor he had replaced
at the head of a numericaUy far inferior force Toghluk'a death
facilitated the work of reconquest, and a few years of perse-
verance and energy suflked for its accoinplishment, as well as
for the addition of a vast extent of territory. Dunng this
period Tlmilr and his brother-in-law, Hosain — at first fellow*
fugitives and wanderers m joint adventures full of interest and
romance — became rivals and antagonists At the dose of 1369
Hosain was assassinated and TimOr, havmg been formally
proclaimed sovereign at Balkh, mounted the throne at
Samarkand, the capital of his dominions.
The next thirty years or so were spent fai various wan and
estpeditions. TimCkr not only consolidated bis rule at home by
the subjection of intestine foes, but sought extension of territory
by encroachments upon the lands of foreign potenUtes. His
conquests to the west and north-west led bim among the Mongols
r-^ ' nd to tbe banks of the Ural and' the Volga;
thu aspect are closer to Clemeos Romanus
those to the sottth and south-west conpiebtnded almost eveiy
provmce in Persia, including Bagdad, Kerbela and Kurdistan.
One of the most formidable of his opponeni5 was Toktamish,
who after having been a refugee at the court of Timiir became
ruler both of the eastern Kipchak and the Golden Horde, and
quarrelled with Timflr over ihe possession of Khwarizm. It
was not until 1395 that the power of Toktamish Iraa finally
broken (see Mongols, Golden Hoade)
In 1398, when TimOr was inore than sixty years of age,
Farishta tells us that, "informeH of tbe commotions and avil
wars of India," he " began his expedition into that country,"
and on the X2th of September "arrived on the banks of the
Indus " His passage of the river and upward march along the
left bank, the reinforcement he provided for bis grandson
Pir Mabommed (who was invested in Multan), the capture
of towns or villages accompanied, it might be, with dcsiruciXn
of the houses and the massacre of the inhabitants, the batUe
before Delhi and the easy victory, the triumphal entry into the
doomed aty, with its outcome of horrors — ^all these circumstance^
bdong to the annals of India. In April 1399, some three months
after quitting the capital of MahmOd T<^uk, TimOr was back
in his own capital beyond the Oxus. It need scarcely be added
that an immense quantity of spoil was conveyed away. Accord-
ing to Clavijo, wnety capturod elephants were employed merely
to carry stones from certain quarries to enable the conqueror
to erect a mosque at Samarkand. The war with the Turks and
Egyptians which succeeded tbe return from India was rcndertd
notable by the capture of Aleppo and Damascus, and especially
by the defeat and imprisonment of Sultan Bayeaid 1. (see
Turkey: History ^ and Egypt: History ^ Mahommedan pecicd).
This was Timor's last campaign. Another was projected
against China, but the old warrior was attacked by fever and
ague when encamped on the farther side of the Sihon (Syr-Daria)
and died at Atr&r (Otrar) on the 17th of Febniaxy 1405. Mark-
ham, in his introduction to the narrative of Clavijo'a embassy,
states that his body " was embalmed with musk and roee water,
wrapped in linen, laid in an ebony coffin and sent to Samarkand,
where it was buried." TimOr had carried his victorious arms
on one side from the Irtish and the Volga u> the Persian Gulf
and on the other from tbe HeUespont to the Ganges.
Timor's generally recocnired bioeraphers are — 'AH Yarfi,
commonly oJled Sharif u M-Din, author of the Persian Zafcf-
nlkma^ trandated by Petis de la Crouc m 1722, and from French
into English by 1. Darby in the following year; and Ahmad it-d
Mohammed ibn Abdallah. al Dimashki. al 'Ajmi, commonly caHcd
Ibn 'ArabshSh, author of the Arabic *Ajaibu 7 JUpkhlnkSt, mn^
lated by the Dutch Orientalist Golius in 1636. In the work of
the former, as Sir William Jones remarks, " tbe Tartarian cooqueror
is represented as a liberal, benevolent and illustrious prince";
in that of the latter he is " deformed and impbus. oi a low bUth
and detestable pnnaples.** But the favourable account was t^-ritTca
under the penonal supervision of TimQr's grandson, Ibnihim.
while the other was the production of his direst enemy. Few in-
deed, if any. original anaals of this dass are written otbcnhiae
than to order, under patronage, or to serve a purpose to vhub
truth IS secondary Among less reputed bi<Mvaphics or materials
for biography may be mentioned a second ZmtnUma, by Maulina
Nn&mu ^-Din Shanab Gha>3lni (Nitftm Shftnd). stated to be
" the earliest known history of Timflr. and the only one written
in his lifetime*', and vol. i. of the Jtatta'i^s^Sa'datH — a choice
Persian MS work of 1495— introduced to Orientalises in Europe
by Hammer. JahrbQcher. Uom and (notably) Quatteni^re. There
are also the Memoirs (MalfS^) and InsUlutes {rusuhUh of whkh
an important section is styled Destpu and Enterpnses {TadtArat
toa KangSskahd) Upon the genuineness of these doubt baa been
thrown The circumstance of their alleKcd discovery and presenta-
tion to Shah JahSn In 1637 was of itself open to suapkioD.
Alhazen, quoted by Puichas in his quaint notice of TimOr and
referred to by Sir John Malcolm, can hardly be accepted as a
serious authority Hh assumed memoir was printed for En^ti^
readers in 1597 by WiHiam Ponsonby under the title of a Histant
of the Creai Emperor Tamertan, dravm from the ancient manmwtemtt
by Messtre Jean du Bee, Abbot of Mortimer; and another X'crskA
of the same book is to be found In the Histoire du Grand Tamartam.
historian to be equally ficritious.
Rcfereooa may be made to two move sonioes of tafonsatsoik.
TIN
995
mSupiMM
to
I of TI»Or AfB to bt faoad lo teots ud
the mlendid coHectkm of Oriental ouuiuicriMt mnd dnwinga
' '^^- " One contained in the 5Jhaik yoMii AMma
in die Brinth Moesutn.
pi*ieotte
of iUnminated Fenian mannscript and
cnuMite calligraphy— rapreMnts a most ofdtnary* middle-a^
Oneoul, irith narroir black whidcer frinciog the cheek and meeting
the tip of the chin In a scanty, pointed bcani, a thia moustache
tmtepm in a semicircle from above the apper Hp; the eyebrow over
the almond-shaped eye is narked but not bushy. But it weie
vain to seek for an exprassion of acnius in the connteoanoe. Another
portrait b mchided m a set of sketches by native anists. some
of which, taken probably from life, show |^t care and clever-
ness. TimOr b here dupbyed as a stoutish, h»g-bodied man,
brlow the middle-height, in age and feature not unlike the fint
portrait, but with thicker and more straggling hair, and dbtiqcter,
chough not more agreeable character in the fadal expressk>n,
v*t nnr a. uffn oC powcT, gettius, CT any elements of ^ndeur or
oncomfortable figure in the Bodleian Library
celpbrity. ^- - — -^^
does not give much help. Sir John Makolm has been at some
pains to invest bb portrait of TimOr with individuality. But an
analysis of hb results leaves the reader In more perplenty than
sati»factioo at the kind of information imparted, and he reverta
insensibly to the sourors from whfeh hb instructor has himseK
been instructed, (a) As rerards pbys, in Marlowe's Tamburlamt
TimOr b described as tall oi suture, straightly fashioned, large of
limb, having joints strongly knit, kmg and sinewy arms, a breadth
of shoulders to " bear old Atlas's burden," pale of complexion,
and with ** amber hair wnpp*d m curb." The outkne of this
description might be from Shsrifu *d-Din, white the ookmn are the
poet's own. A Latin memoir of Tamerbne by Perondmus, printed
in 1600, entitled iiagnt Tamurtanu uytharum tmPeratons vtto,
describes TimOr as tall and bearded, broad-chested and broad-
shouifriefed, well-built but bme, of a fierce countenance and with
receding eyes, wbbh express cruelty and strike terror into the
lookers-on. Bot Jean du Bee's account of TtmOr's appearance b
Suite different. Now TambuHctne was wntten m 1586. The
rst English translation of Jean du Bee is dated in 1595. the Lf/«
by Perendinos in 1600, and Petw de b Croix did not introduce
Sbanfu 'd-CMn or *AB Yazdi to European readen till lyaa The
dramatist must have heard of TimOr in other quarters, equally
reliable it may be with those avaibbb in the present stage of
Oricnul research. At the bgnnmng of the 18th century TimOr
was represented in Rowe's TatiurUuu as a model of valour and
virtue. The plot, however, has littfe to do with history, and b
improfaabb and void of interest. By Matthew Gregory Lewb
again "Timour" b depicted as the conventional tyrant of a
gorgeous melodrania, sbying, burning, sbnghtering and commit-
ting every possible atrocity until checked by a violent death and
• poetkal cfimax.
Apart from modern European gamnU and hbtonans. and the
more strictly Oriental chroniden who have written in Persian,
Turkish or Arabic, the following authorities may be dted — Laonkus
Chalcondybs, Joannes Leuncbvius, Joochimus Camcrarius. Petrua
Perondinus. Laaaro Soranzo. Simon Mairius, Matthew Michioviusi
A score or so of other names are given by Samuel Purcfaas. See
also Sir Clemenu Markham's Oovtjo. in the Hakluyt Society's
publKatkms; White's edition of Davy's traiisbtion of the Insitimtes
(178)); Stewart's traielation of the UaiH^At. Makxilm's History
of Persia', and Trans. Roy. See. (1885). Horn, "Gesch. Irans
in isbro. Zdt," in Geiger and Kuhn, Crundr, dm ttamuck Pktiol
(1904) ; works quoted, sjs. Mongols. (F J G.)
tn (Lat stannum, whence the chemical symbol '*Sn*\
atomic weight ■■ 11 7*6, 0«>i6), a metallic chemical element
Being a component of bronie, it wis used as a metal thousands
of yean prior to the dawn of history; but it does not follow
that prehistoric bronzes were made from metallic tin When
the unalloyed metal was first introduced cannot be asccrtamed
with certainty The " tin " of the Bible (ttaoolTtpof in the
Septuagint) corresponds to the Hebrew btdinl, which b really a
copper alloy known as early as 1600 bc in Egypt AH we
know b that about the ist century the Creek word Kajrolnpot
designated un, and that tin was imported from Cornwall into
Italy after, il not before, the invasion of Britam by Julius
Caesar. From Pliny's writings it appears that the Romans
ia hb time did not realize the dbtinction between tin and lead
the former was called ^f uni^ai album or candtdum to dbtingubh
it from piumbum nigrum (lead proper) The word stannum
definitely assumed its present meaning in the 4th century (H.
Kopp). By the eariy Greek alchemists the metal was named
Hermes, but at about the beginning of the 6th century, it was
termed Zeusor Jupiter, and the symbol 7f assigned to it, it was
also referred to as diahdui metaUirwm, on afioount of the brittle
■Uoys which it formed.
OcMrfOMt.— Graiaa of metallic tin occur intermingled with
the gold ores of Siberia, Guiana and Bolivia, and in a few
other localities. Of minerab containing thb etemeot mention
oiay be made of caasiterite (g .v.) or tinstone, SnOi, tin pyrites,
Cu4SnSi-|-(Fe,Zn)tSnS4; the metal abo occun in some epidotes,
and in company with columbium, tantalum and other metaU.
Of these *' tinstone " b of the greatest commercial importance.
It occurs in its matrix, either in or dosely associated with fissure
veins or disseminated through rock masses. It b also found in
the form of rolled lumps and grains, '* stream tin/' in alluvial
graveb, the Utter are secondary deposits, the products of the
disintegration of the fint-named primaiy deposits. Throughout
the worid, primary deposits of tiitstone are in or dosely connected
with granite or add eruptive rocks of the same type, its mineral
asaodates being tourmaline, fluorspar, topaz, wolfram and araeni-
cal pyrites, and the invariable gangue bdng quartz: the only
exception to thb mode of occuriepce is to be found in Bolivia,
where the tin ore occurs intimately a[ssociated with silver ores,
bismuth ores and various sulphides, whilst the gangue indudes
barytas and certain carbonatea Over five*fiixths of the worid^
total production b derived from secondary aUuvial deposits,
but all the tin obtained in Cornwall (the alluvial deposits having
been worked out) and Bolivia b from vein mining, while a small
portion of that yielded by Australasia cbmes from veins and
from granitic rocks carrying disseminated tinstone.
Productum — Dtmng the x8th century the world's supply
of tin was mainly drawn from the deposits of En^and^ Saxony
and Bohemia, in 1801 England produced about 2500 tons,
while the suppbes of Saxony and Bohemia had been greatly
dimmished The Englbh supply increased, with some oscilla-
tions, to between six and seven thousand tons annually in the
period 1840-1860, when it suddenly rose to about jo,ooo tons,
and thb figure was fairly well sustained until about 1890, when
a period of depression set in; the yield for 1900 was 4336 tons,
and for 1Q05 about 4300 tons. In the opening decades of the
19th century supplies began to be drawn from Banka; in 1820
thb island contributed 1200 tons; the production was increased
to 12,000 tons in 1900, when a diminution set in, 9960 tons being
the output during 1905. Bill! ton became of n6te in 1853 with
a producuon of 40 tooa, which increased to 6000 in 1900 and
has smce dedmed to about 3000 tons in 190s. The Straits
Settlements ranked as an important producer in 1870 with 2337
tons; it now supphes the greater part of the world's supply,
contributing 46,795 tons in 1900, and over 60,000 tons in 1905.
Australian deposiu were worked in 1872, and in the following
year the production was 3000 tons, the maximum outpuu were
in 1881-1883, averaging 10,000 tons annually, but the supply
declined to 3420 tons in i89iB and has since mcrcascd to about
5028 tons in 190$. Bolivia produced 501 tons m 1883, 10.245
ui 1900 and 1 2,500 in 1905
The world's supply in 1900 was 72,91 1 long tons, thb increased
m 1904 to 97.790 tons, but in 1905, pnnapally owing to a
shortage in the supplies from the Straits and Banka. the yidd
fell to 94.089 tons.
MeiaUurgy-^The operations ha the metallurgy of tin may
be enumerated as- (1) mmmg and dressing. (2) sradtmg, (3)
refining The fint stage has tor lU purpose the producuon of a
fairiy pure tinstone; the second the conversion of the onde mto
metallic tin; and the thizxl preparing a tm pure enough for
commercial purposes
iiintng and Dresstug.'-Tht alluvbl deposits are almost invariably
worked opencast, those of the Maby Peninsub and Archipcbgo
chiefly by Chinese labour- in a few insunces hvdraulic mining hss
been resorted to, and in other cases true underground minine b
carried on. but the bttcr is both exceptional and difficult The
alluvbl extracted, which in the Maby Peninsub and Archipelago
carries from 5 to 60 Ih of tinstone (or *' bbck un." as it is termed by
Cornish miners) to the cubic yard of navel, b washed in various
simple sluicing applbnccs. by whkh the lighter cby. sand and stones
are removed and tinstone is left bdiind comparatively pure, coo-
uminjc usually 65 to 7S% of metallic tin (chemically pure tinstom
contains 78 7 %)•
Lode tm. as tinstone derived from primary deposits b often
termed, b mined in the oidiaary method, the very hard vugw in
996
TIN
which it occu^ iMceiritatii^ a libeial use oC explosives. The vein-
•tuflF IS broken small either by hand or in rock-breakers, and stamped
to fine powder in stamp mills, which arc practically iar;^ mechani-
cally-worked pestles and mortars, the sump proper weighing from
500 to 1000 lb. The mineral, crashed small enough to pass a sieve
with perforations ^ in. in diameter, leaves the stamps in susoension
in water, and passes through a aeries of troughs in which the neavier
mineral is collected; this then passes through a series of washing
operations* whkh leaves a mixture consisting chiefly of tinstone and
araenkral pyrites, which b cakined and washed again, until finally
black tin containing about 60 to 65 % of metal is uat. The cakina-
tion is preferably enfected in mechanical roasters, it being especially
necessary to agitate the ore continually, otherwise it cakes. The
crude tinstuff raised in Cornwall carries on an average a little over
2%oi black tin. The Bolivian tin ore is treated by first extracting
the sQver by amalgamation, &c., and afterwards concentrating the
residues; there are, however, considerable difficulties in the wa)r of
treating the poorer of these very complex ores, and 8e\'eral chemical
processe s for extracting their metallic contents have been worked
out. Of the impurities of the ore the wolframite (tungstate of iron
and man^nese) is the most troublesome, because on account of its
high specific gravity it cannot be washed away as gangue. To
remove it. Oxland fuses the ore with a certain proportion of carbonate
of soda, which suffices to convert the tungsten into soluble alkaline
tungstate. without producing noteworthy quantities of soluble
sunnate from the oxide of tin; the tungstate is easily removed by
treatment with water.
a. Smetting.— The dressed ore is smelted with carbon by one of
two main methods, viz. either in the shaft furnace or the reverbera-
tory ; the former is the better suited to stream tin, the latter to lode
tin, but either ore can be smelted in either way, although reverbeia-
tory practKe yields a purer metal. Shaft furnace smelting is
confined to those parts of the world where charcoal can still be
obtained in large quantities at moderate prices. The furnace
consists of a shaft, circular (or more rarely rectangular) in plan,
into which alternate layers of fuel and ore are chamd, an air blast
being generally injected near to the bottom of the furnace through
one or more tuyeres. This was the primitive process all over the
world; in the East, South America anci similar regions it still hoMs its
own. In Europe. Australasia and one hiree works at Singapore it
has been practically replaced by the reveroeratory furnace process,
first introduced into Cornwall about the year l70O. In this process
the purified ore is mixed with about one-fifth of its weight of a non-
caking coal or anthracite smalls, the mixture being moistened to
prevent it from beine blown off by the draught, aiwl is then fused
on the sote of a reverberatory furnace for five or six hours. The sbg
and meul produced are then run off and the latter is cast into bars;
these arc in general contaminated with iron, arsenic, copper and other
impurities.
3. /Sc/EitiMf.— All tin, except a*BmaIl quantity produced by the
■haft furnace (Kocess from exceptionally pure stream tin ore, requires
refiningby liquation and " boiling " before it is ready for the market.
In the English process the bars are heated cautiously on an inclined
hearth, when relatively pure tin runs off, while a skeleton of impure
metal remains. The metal ran off b further purified by poitng,
«'.«. by stirring it with the branch of a tr e e the apple tree being
preferred traditionally. This operation is no doubt intended to
remove the oxygen diffused throughout the metal as oxide, part of
it perhaps chemically by reduction of the oxide to metal, tne rcst
by conveying the finely diffused oxide to the surface and causing it
to unite there with the oxide scum. After this the metal is allowed
to rest for a time in the ^t at a temperature above its freezing point
and is then ladled out into ingot forms, care being taken at each
stage to ladle off the top stratum. The original top stratum is the
purest, and each succeeding lower stratum has a greater proportion
of impurities: the lowest consists lai^gely of a solid or semi-solid alloy
of tin and iron.
' To test the purity of the metal the tin-sraelter heats the bars to a
certain temperature just below the fusing point, and then strikes
them with a hammer or lets them fall on a stone floor from a j^'ven
height If the tin is pure it sfilits into a mass of granular strings.
Tin which has been thus manipulated and proved incidentally to
be very pure is sold as grain tin. A lower quality goes by the name
of block tin. Of the several commercial varieties Banka tin is the
purest : it is indeed almost chcmkally pure. Next comes English
grain tin.
For the preparation of chemically pure tin t^x) methods are
employed. (1) Commercially pure tin is treated with nitric acid,
which converts the tin proper into the insoluble roetastannic acid.
while the copper, iron, &c., become nitrates; the mctastannk acid
is washed first with dilute nitric acid, then with water, and is lastly
dried and reduced by fusion with black flux or potassium cyanide.
(a) Absolution of pure stannous chloride in very dilute hydrochloric
acid is reduced with an electric current. According to Stolba,
bi»»»:r»i /•~«»M« of pure tin can be obtained as follows: A platinum
^th wax or paraffin outside, except a small circle
oint, is placed on a plate of amalgamated tine,
'^f a beaker, and is filled with a solution of pure
he beaker also is cautiously filled with acidu-
K>int beyond the edge of the platinum basin.
The whole is then left to Ittdf, vhoicfyttabcf tutcndiany •
out on the bottom of the baan.
Properties, — An ingot of tin is pure white (except for a slight tinge
of blue), the colour depeixis. however, upon the te mperature at
whkh it is poured — if too low. the surface is dull, if too high, iridescent.
It exhibits considerable lustre and is not subject to tamuihing 00
exposure to normal air. The metal is prettv soft and easily flattened
out under the hammer, but almost dievoM oi tenaaty. That it is
elastk, with narrow limits, u proved by its dear cine when struck
with a hard body in circumstances permitting of free vibratioB.
The specific gravity of cast tin is 7*29^ of rolled tin 7*399, and of
dectncally deposited tin 7*143 to 7*1 78. A tin ir^ot is distinctly
crystalline; hence the chsiracicristic crackling noise, or **cry " oi
tin, whkh a bar of tin gives out when being oent. This structure
can be rendered visible by superficial etching with dilute acid; and
as the minuter crystab dissolve more quKkly than the laiiger ones, the
surface assumes a frosted appearance {nunrie mHaUtfme). Tbe metal
b dimorphous: by coolinc molten tin at ordinary air temperature
tetia^nal crystals are obtained, while by cooling at a tempera^
ture just below the mdtii^ point rhombk fomisare produced. Whca
exposed for a sui&dent ume to very low temperatures <to —39" C
for 14 hours), tin becomes so brittle that it faUs into a grey ]
termed the grey madijUatiinu under a pesde; it indeed sos
tieniperei
luctibty a
crambles into powder spontaneously. At ordinary
tin proves fairiy dtictile under the hammer, and its di
to increase as the temperature rises up to about 100* C. At
temperature near its fusii^ point it becomes brittle, and still 1
brittle from "-14* C. downwards^ Iron renders the metal hard and
brittk; arsenk, antimony and bismuth (up to 0-5 %) reduce its
tenacity; copper and lead (i to a%) make it harder and stror^ger
but impair its malleability ; and stannous oxide reduces its tenacity
Tin fuses at about 230* C : at a red heat it begins to vobtilize slowly ;
at 1600* to 1800* C it boila The hot vapour produced combines
with the oxygen of the air into white oxide, SnOk. Its co^h:ient of
linear expansion between o* and 100* b 0000271 7; its specific beat
0^562; its thermal and electrical conductivities are 145 to 152 and
1 1^'5 to I40'i respectively compared to silver as 1000.
jMustrial Appltcalions. — ComnierebUy pure tin b used for naakiiv
such apparatus as evaporating basins, tnfusion pots, stills, &c.
It b also empkyed for making two varieties of tin>fotl~one for the
silvering of mirrore (see Mirros). the other for wrapping «p choco-
late, toilet soap, tobacco, &c. The mirror foil must contain some
copper to prevent it from being too readily amal^iamated by the
mercury. For making tin-foil the metal b rolled into thin sheets,
pieces of whkh are boiten out with a wooden mallet. As pure tin
docs not tarnish in the air and is proof against acid Uquida, such as
vinegar, lime juice, &c., it b utilized for culinary and domcstk
vessels. But it b expensive, and tin vesseb have to be made very
heavy to give them sufficknt stability of form ; hence it b gcnesaDy
employed merdy as a protecring coating for utenaib made cssenttaOy
of copper or iron. The tinning of a copper basin b an easy operatkn.
The basin, made acrapulously clean, is heated to beyond the f usisc
point of tin. Molren tin is then poured in, a little p ow d e r eJ sal-
ammoniac added, and the tin spreaitl over the inskle with a bunch of
tow. The sal-ammoniac removes the last unavoidable film of oxid^
leaviiqf a purdy metallic surface, to whkh the tin adheres firmly.
For tinning small objects of copper or brass (t.«. pins, hooks, &c) a
wet-way process b followed. One part of cream of tartar, two of
alum and two of common salt are dissdved in boiliiig water, and
the solution is boiled with granulated metallk tin (or, better, mixed
with a little stannous chloride) to pivxluce a tin solution: and into
this the articles are put at a boilingheat. In the abaeiKe of metaUk
tin there b no visible chan^ ; but, as soon as the metal b introduced.
an electrolytk action sets m and the artklcs Ket coated o\-er with a
firmly adhering film of tin. Tinning wrought iron b effected by
immersion. The most important form of the operation b making
tinned from ordinary sheet iron (making what b called " daeet tin "y.
This process was mentioned by Agrkola ; it was practised in Boberab
in 1620, and in England a century later. The iron plates, having
been carefully deaned with sand and hydrochloric or sulphuric
acid, and lastly with water, are plunged into heated taOow to drive
away the water without oxidation of the metal. They are next
steeped in a bath, first of molten ferraginous, then of pore tin.
They are then taken out and kept suspended in hot tallow to enable
the surplus tin to ran off. The tin of the second bath dissolves
iron gradually and becomes fit for the first bath. To tin casr-irxm
ankks they must be decarburetted superfkblly by ignitkMi within
a bath of ferrk oxide (powdered haematite or simibr material), tbca
cleaned with acid, and tinned by immeraon. as explained aboxT.
(See Tin-Plate.) By far the greater part of the tin produced
metalluiigkany is used for making tin alloys (see Pbwtk«, BronzsX
Compounds of Tin,
Tin forms two well-marked series of salts, in one of whkb it b
divalent, these salts bdng derived from stannous oxide, SnO. 13
the other it b tetravalent, thb series being derived from stmnnk
oxidei SnOj.
Stannous Oxide, SnO. is obtained in the hydrated form SngO(OH)h
from a solution of stannous chloride by addition of sodium car*
bonate; it forms a white precipitate, whkh can be washed wiik
TINAMOU
air IrawaMrHitf dried »t ao" C viOMt modi Cbi^B by cndsUoD :
U ic be heated in cerboa dioadde the black SnO remaina. PieciD»>
tated stannous hydrate dissolves readily io caustic potash; if the
•oIutioQ is evaporated qukkly it suffefs decomposition, with forma-
tion of metal and stannate, 2SnO+sKOH-K^Oi+Sa+HtCX
If it ia evaporated ilafwiy, anhydnxia stanooua csdde cryatalliaea
«it ia forma which aie co m bi n ationa of the cube and dodecahedron.
Dry stannous oxide, if touched with a gbwtng body, catches fire and
bums to stannic oxide. SnCV. Stannous oxalate when heated by
itself in a tube leaves stannous oxide.
Slamuc Oxtd«. SnOk.— This, if the tem ia taktD to inclade the
hydrates, exists ia a variety of forma, (i) Tmattme ^see above and
•tto CasSitekitb) is proof aoainst all adds. Its dismtesration for
analytical purposes can be etlected by fusion with caustic alkali in
alver basins, with the formatkxi of soluble stannate. or by fuson
with sulphur and sodium caiboaate, with the formatioa of a soluble
thaostaanatc. (a) A similar oxide Obrrs jems) i« produced by burn-
ing tin in air at high teropetatunea or exposing any of the hydrates
to a strong red heat. Such tin-ask, as it is calkd, is used for the
polishing of optical glasses. Floret sUtnMi u a finely divided mUture
of the metal and oxide obtained by fusing the metal lA the p rese nce
of air Ibr some time. (3) iUkutamme aeid <genemUy written
Hi^^k to account for the oompfkated compositioo of meta-
stannatesk «.{. the sodium salt HsNa^n«Oit) b the white compound
produced from the metal by means of nitric acid. It ia insoluble
m water and in nitric acid aad apparently so in hydrodiloric acid;
but ti healed with this last for some time it passes lato a compound,
which, after the acid mother liquor has been decanted off. diasotves
in water. The solution when subjected to distillation behaves v^
much bke a physical solution of the oxide in hydrochloric acid,
while a solution of orthosunnic acid in hydrochloric ackl behaves
phuric adds. The salts are obtained by the action of alkalies on
the acid. U) Orthostannic add is obtained as a white prcci|Mtate
on the addition of sodium carbonate or the exact qoanuty of
predpifcated calcium carbonate to a solution of the chlonde. This
acid, H^Oi. is readily soluble in adds forming stannic salts, and in
caustic potash and soda, with the formation of orthostannates. Of
these sodium stannate. Na^nOi, is produced industrially by heating
tin with Chile saltpetre and caustic soda, or by fusing very finely
powdord tinstone %rith caustic soda in iron vessels. A solution of the
pure salt yiekU fine prisms of the compositioo NaiSnOa+ioHaO,
which effloresce in the air. The salt it used as a mordant in dyeing
and calico-printing. AlkaGne and other stannates when treated
with aqueous hydrofluoric acid are converted into fluoatannates
(sLg. KsSnOs into K^Ft). which are closely analogoua to. and
Moroorphous with, fluosilicatea.
A caUoidd or soiubU stannic acid is obtained by dialynng a mixture
of tin tetrachloride and alkali, or of sodium stannate and hydro-
chloric add. On heating it is converted into ooUoidal meuaunnlc
add.
A hydrated tin trioxule, SnOa, was obt^ned by Spring by adding
barium dioxide to a solution of stannous chloride and hydrochloric
acid : the solution is dialysed. and the colkudal solution u evaporated
to form a white mass oT xSnOs'H^.
Slannma Chloride, SnCIa, can only be obtained pure by heating
pure tia in a current of pore dry tiydrochloric acid gas. It i» a
white solid, fusing at 2m' C. to an oily liquid which boils at 606*.
and volatilizing at a red heat in nitrogen, a vacuum or hydrochloric
acid, without decompo s ition. The vapour density bek>w 700* C.
oonesponds to Sn<CI«, above 800* C. to ncariy SnCl». The chkxide
readily combines with water to form a crystallizablc hydrate
SnCk-2H(0. known as " tin salt *' or " tin crystals." This salt is
also formed by dissolvine tin io strong hydrochloric add and allowing
it to crysulliae, and is industrially prepared by paadng sufficiently
bydrated hydrochloric add gas oyer granolated tin contained in
atoneware bottles and evaporating the concentrated solution
produced in tin basins over granulated tin. The basin itself is not
attacked. The crystals are very soluble ia cold water, and if the
•alt b really p jre a small proporuon of water forms a clear solution ;
but on adding much water most of the salt is decomposed, with
the formation of a precipitate of oxychloride, 2Sn(C)H}O-Hy0.
According to Michel and Kraft, one litre of cold saturated solution
o^tin crysuls weighs 1827 jrrammes and contains 1333 erammes of
SnCU. The same oxychlonde is produced when the moist crystab.
or their solution, are exposed to the air. Hence all tin crystals as
kept in the Uborbtory give with water a turbid solution, which
contains stannic in additbn to stannous chloride. The complete
conversion of stannous into stannic chkyide may be effected by a
peat many reagent»— for instance, by chlorine (bromine, iodine)
readily; by mercuric chkitide in the heat, with preripitation of
calomel or metallic mercury; by ferric chloride in tlie heat, with
(ormauon of ferroua chloride; Vy arsenious chloride in strongly
hydrochloric solutions, with precipitation of chocolate-brown
metallic arsenic. All thes reactions are available aa tests for
** stannoeum '* or the r espe ctiv e agents. In opposition to stannous
chkmde, even sulphurous add (solution) bekavcf as an oridiaing
agent. If the two reagents are mixed a pcedpitate of ydbw ptannic
997
-^ , .^. A itfipol iMtiBic tiatfwhen pfaeedla a
solutson of stannous chkmde predpiutes the tin in crystab and
takes its place in the solution. Stannous chloride b largely used
in the laboratory as a redudng agent, in dydng as a mordant.
SlaiOne CUorido, SoCI«. named by Andreas Ubavius in 1605
SpiritMt crtput vai subUmaU from iu preparation by dbtilKng tin
or iu anaa%am with corro«ve sublimate, and afterwards termed
Spirilus fumans Libavii, is obtained by passing dry chlorine over
granulated tin contained ia a retort ; the tetrachloride distils over
aa a heavy liquid, from which the excess of chlorme b easOy removed
by shaking with a small quantity of tin filings and re-dbtilling. ft
b a colourless fuminff liquid of specific gravity 2-269 at o*; it freezes
at -33* C, and boUs at 113-9. The chbnde umtes energetically
with water to form crystaUlne hydrates (f.g. SnCli-3Hj0T. easily
soluble in water. With one-third ita wdght of water it forms the
80«allcd " butter of tin.** It combines readily with alkaline and
other chlorides to form double salts, (j. MiSnCU. analogous to the
chloroplatinates; the salt (NHOiSnCU b known industrially as
" pink salt " on account of us use as a mordant to jwoduce a pink
colour. The oxymuriale 0/ tin. used by dyers b Sn04'5H/). The
plain chloride solution b similariy used. It b uwally prepared by
dissolving the metal ia aqua regia.
Stannous Fluoride, SnVu is obtained as small, white monodinic
tables by o^poratine a solution of stannous oxide in hydrofluoric
add in a vacuum. Stannic Fluoride, SnF*, b obtained in soluiroo
by dissolvings hydrated stannic oxide in hydrofluoric add ; it forma
a characteristic scries of salts, the stannofluorides, MsSnF«, uk^
morphous with the silico-. tiuno>, germano* and zuconofluwidM.
Stannous bromide, SnBn, b a light yellow substance formed from tin
and hydrobromic acid. Stannic bromide, SnBr^, b a white crystallf—
mass, meltii^ at 33* and boiling at 201 *, obtained by the comSinatioa
of tin and bromine, ' preferably in carbon bisulphide solution.
Stannous iodide. SnU, forms yellow red needles, and is obtained from
potasnum iodide and stannous chkiridc. Stannic iodide, Snl«,
lorms red octabedra and b prepared amilarly to stannic bromide.
Both iodides combine with ammonia.
Stannous sulphide, SnS. b obtained as a lead-grey mass by heating
tin with sulphur, and as a brown precipitate by adding sulphurett^
hydrogen to a stannous solution; thb is soluble in ammonium poly-
sulphide, and dries to a black powder. Stannic sulphide, SnSi, b
obuincd by heating a mixture of tia (or. better, tin amalgam),
sulphur and sal-ammoniac in jiroper proportions in the beautiful
form of aairum musivum (mosaK gold)— a solid consisting of goUen
yellow, metallic lustrous scak», and used chiefly asa yellow " bronie "
for pUster-of-Paris sutuettcs. &c. The yellow precipitate of sUnnic
sulphide obtained by adding sulphuretted hydrogen to a stannic
solutioa readily dissolves in aalntk>na of the alkaline aulpihides to
form Ikiostannatts of the formula M^nS«; the free ackl. H^SnSi.
may be obtained as an almost black powder by drying the yellow
precipitate formed when hydrochk>ric acid is added to a solution of a
Analysis.— 'Tin. compounds when heated on charcoal with sodium
carbonate or potaseium cyanide in the reducing blowpipe flame yiekl
the metal and a scanty nng of white SnOi. ^annous salt solutions
yield a brown precipitate of SnS with sulphuretted hydrogen, whkrh
IS insoluble in cold dilute adds and in real sulphide of ammonium,
(NH4)sS; but the yellow, or the colourless reagent on addition ol
sulphur, dissolves the precipitate as SnSs salt. The solutum 00
addification yields a yellow predpitate of this sulphide. Stannic
salt solutions give a yelk>w predpitate of SnSj with sulphuretted
hydrogen, which b Insoluble in cold dilute acids but readily soluble
in sulphide of ammonium, and is rc-preciptlated thereftom as SnS|
on acidification. Only stannous salts (not stannic) give a predpitate
of calomel in mercuric chloride solution. A mixture of stannous
and stannic chloride, when added to a sufficient quantity of solution
of chbride of gold, gives an intensely purple precipitate of gold
purple (purple of Cassius). The test is veiy delicate, although the.
cdour b not in all cases a pure purple. Tin b generally quantita-
tively estimated as the dioxide. The solutions are oxidized, predpi-
»«*^ _:.i. ._^....^:. *k^ — »^;..:.»»^ .4:...^i....j ;. l i-i^ui-L--
tated with ammonia, the precipitate disaolved io hydrochlcric
ackl, and re-thrown down by boiling with sodium sulohate. Tl^
predpitate b filtered, washed, dried and ignited.
BiBUOCRAPHT.^For the history of tin and statistics of ita
mrxluction. &c., see Bernard Neumann, J>ie MetalU (1904); A.
Rossing, Ceschickte der MetaUe (1901). For its chcmbtry see Roxoe
and Schorlemmer. Treatise on Inorganic Chemistry, vol. ii.; H.
Moissan. Traiti de ckimie minirale: O. Dammer, Handbuck der
anorganiuken Ckemie. For its production and metallurgy see
Sydney Pawns, Tin DepotiU ef the World; A. C. Charieton. Tm
Mimint; Henry Louis. The Production ef Tin, and C. Schnabcl,
Handbook of Metallurgy (English trans, by Louis, 1907). General
statistual infmnation, and improvements in the metallurgy, &c.«
are recorded annually in The Mineral Industry.
miAMOQ, the name given in Guiana to a certain bird, aa
stated in 1741 by P. Parr^re (Franu iqusnoxiale, p. 138), from
whom it was taken and used in a more general sense by Buffon
{Hist. not. oiseaux, iv. 502). In 1783 J, Latham {Synopsis, ii.
734) adopted it as EogUaJi, and b 1790 (/adex, ii. 633) Latiniaed
99^
TINCTURE-^TINDAL
it Tinamus, u tlie BAme of a neiTuid ^ttinct genus. The
" Tinamou " of Barrdre has been identified with the " Bfacu-
cagua " described and figured by Marcgrav in z048, and is the
Tinamus major of modem authors.*
Buffon and his successors saw that the Tinamous, though pasnns
among the European colonists of South America as " Partndees,
could not be associated with those birds, and Latham's step, above
mentioned, was generally approved. The genus he had founded
was usually placed among the Gallinae, and by many writers was
held to be allied to the bustards, which, it must be remembered, were
then thought to be " struthious." Indeed the likeness of the
Tinamou's bill to that of the Rhea (^.«.^ was remarked in 1811 by
Illiger. On the other hand L'Hermimer in 1827 saw features in the
Tinamou's sternum that in his judgment linked the bird to the
RalUdae. In 1830 J. Wagler {Nat. SysL Ampkibien, &c., p. 127)
placed the Tinamous in the same order as the ostrich and its allies:
and, though he did this on very insufficient grounds, his assignment
has turned out to be not far from the mark:, as in 1862 the great
affinity of these groups was shown by W. K. Parker's researches,
which were afterwards printed in the Zoological Transaciions
(v.
tiat<
pL , . ...
m the Zoological Proceedings (1867. pp. 42^, 426) was enabled to
place the whole matter in a clear ii^nt, ureme that the Tinamous
formed a very distinct group of birds which, though not to be
removed from the Carinatae, presented so much resemblance to
the Ratitae as to indicate them to be the bond of union between
those two great divisions. The group from the resemblance of its
t»latal cha^cters to those of the Emeu (q.v.), Drtmaeus, he called
Droroaeognathae, but it is now more usual to place them in a separate
order, the Tinamiformes.
The Tinamous are comparatively insignificant in numbers. They
are ^uliar to the neotropical region — a few species finding their
way into southern Mexico and none beyond. Some of them inhabit
forests and others the more open country; but setting aside size
(which in this group varies from that of a quail to that of a large
common fowl) there is an unmistakable umformity of appearance
among them as a whole, so that almost anybody Having seen one
species of the group would always recognize anotner. Yet in minor
characters there is considerable difference among them ; and about
sixty-four species are recognized, divided into the genera Tinamus,
Nothocercus, Cryphtrus, Rkynchotus, Notkoprocta, Nothura, Taoniscus
and TinatnoHs.
To the ordinary spectator Tinamous have much the look of
partridges, but the more attentive observer will notice that their
Rufous Tinamou {Rkynchotus n^escens).
elongated bill, their small head and slender neck, clothed with
very short feathers, give them a different air. The plumage b
generally inconspicuous: some tint of brown, ranging from
rufous 10 slaty, and often more or less closely barred with a darker
shade or black, is the usual style of coloration; but some species
arc characterized by a white throat or a bay breast. The
wings are short and rounded, and in some forms the feathers
' Brtsson and after him Linnaeus confounded this bhd, which they
^n, with the Trumpeter (g.tr.).
of the tail, whicb in aO are liiddeo hy tbeif onvctta, aito toft.
In bearing and gait the birds show some resemblance to their
distant relatives the Ratitae, and A. D. Bartlett showed {Proc
Zool. Soc.t 1868, p. XI 5, pL xiL) that this is especially seen in
the newly hatched yoimg. He also noticed the still stronger
Ratite character, that the male takes on himself the duty of
incubation. The eggs are very remarkable objects, curiously
unlike those of other birds; and their shell looks as if it were
of highly-burnished metal or ghued porcelain, presenting also
various colours, which seem to be constant in the i>articular
species, from pale primrose to sage-green or light indigo* or from
chocolate brown to pinkish orange. All who have eaten it
declare the flesh of the Tinamou to have a most delicate taste,
as it has a most inviting appearance, the pectoral muscles being
semi-opaque. Of their habits not much has been toW. Darwin
{Joum, ch. iii.) has remarked upon the silliness they show
in allowing themselves to be taken, and this is wholly in
accordance with what W. K. Parker observes of their brain
capacity and is an additional testimony to their low morpho-
logical rank. At least one species of Tinamou has bred not
infrequently in confinement, and partly successful aticmpti
to naturalize the species Rkynchotus rufeuau have been made
in England. (A. N.)
TINCTURE (Fr. Uinture, Lat. tinctura, tingcre, to dye, stain),
the colour with which a substance is dyed; hence, metaphori-
cally, distinaive character or quality. The term is used in
heraldry of the metals, argent, o", of the colours, gules, azure,
sable, vert, &c., or of the fursj ermine, tair, &c. Since the i6ih
century a conventional arrangement of lines and dots gives the
equivalents of these tinctures in black and white (see Uekalokv).
In medicine, a tincture is a fluid solution of the essential
properties of some substance, animal, vegetable or mineral;
the menstruum being either alcohol, ether or ammonia;
the various kinds are accordingly distinguished as alcoholic,
etherial or ammoniated tinctures.
TINDAL, MATTHEW (d. 1733), English deist, the son of a
clergyman, was born at Beer Ferrers (Ferris), Devonshire,
probably in 1653. He studied law at Lincoln College, Oxford,
under the high churchman George Hickes, dean of Worcester;
in X678 he was elected fellow of All Souls College. About 16^5
he saw " that upon his High Church notions a separation from
the Church of Rome could not be justified," and accordIngI> ht
joined the latter. But discerning " the absurdities of popery,"
he returned to the Church of England at Easter 16SS. His eariy
works were an Essay of Obedience to the Supreme Pavers (1604V
an Essay on the Power of the Magistrate and the Rights of ManhirJ
in Matters of Religion (1697); «d The Liberty of the Press (i6oS)
The first of his two larger works. The Rights of the Christian
Church associated against the Romish and aU other priests vh^
claim an independent power over it, pt. i., appeared anonymously
in 1706 (2nd ed., 1706; 3rd, 1707; 4th, 1709). The book «k4s
regarded in its day as a forcible defence of the Erastian theory oi
the supremacy of the state over the Church, and at once provoked
criticism and abuse. After several attempts to proscribe the
work had failed, a case against the author, publisher and printer
succeeded on the i2th of December 1707, and another against
a bookseller for selling a copy the next day. The prosecution
did not prevent the issue of a fourth edition and gave the author
the opportunity of issuing A Defence of the Rights of the ChrUlicu
Church, in two parts (2nd ed., 1709). The book was, by order
of the House of Commons, burned, along with SacbevereU*s
sermon, by the common hangman (1710). It continued to \e
the subject of denunciation for years, and Tindal believed he
was charged by Dr Gibson, bishop of London, in a PaslcraiLtUer,
with having tmdermlned religion and pron)oted atheism and
infidelity— a- charge to which he replied in the anon>'moxis tract.
An Address to the Inhabitants of London and Westminster, a
second and larger edition of which appeared in 1730. In this
tract* he makes a vaUant defence of the deists, and anticipates
* A Second Address to the InkabHants, Ac., with replies to soa»e
of the critics of that book, bears tlie came date (1730), tboufb
tome of the works it refers to appeared in 1731*
TINDER—TINNEVELLY
999
fcere and tlere his Christianity, as Old as Ike Credtion; w, Him
Gospel a RepuUicalion of Iks Religian of Nature (London, 1730,
and ed, 1731; 3rd, 173a; 4th, 1733), which was regarded as the
" Bible *' of deism. It was really only the first part of the whole
work, and the second, though written and entrusted in manu-
script to a friend, never saw the light. The work evoked many
replies, of which the ablest were by James Foster (1730), John
Conybeare (1732), John Leland (1733) and Bishop Butler (1736).
It was translated into German by J. Lorenz Schmidt (1741)1 &nd
Xrom it dates the influence, of English deism on German theology.
Tindal bad probably adopted the principles it expounds before
he wrote his essay of 1697. He claimed the name of " Christian
deist," holding that true Christianity is identical with the eternal
religion of nature. He died at Oxford on the x6th of August
1733.
The religious system expounded fn Christianity as Oid as the
Creation, unlike the earlier sjrstem of Lord Herbot of Cberbunr,
was based on the empirical principles of Locke. It assumed tne
traditional debtk antitheses of external and internal, positive and
natural, revelations and religicns, and perpetuated at the same time
the prevalent misconceptions as to the nature of religion and revela-
tion. The system was worked out by the a priori method, with an
all but totaf disre^rd of the facts of religious history.- It starts
from the assumptions that true relteion must, from tne nature of
Gfxi and things, be eternal. univemT, simple and perfect; that this
religion can consist of nothing but the simple ana universal duties
towards God and man. the first consisting in the fulfilment of the
•econd«-in other words, the piactice of morality. The author's
moral system, somewhat confused and inconsistent, is essentially
utilitarian. True revealed religion is simply a republication of
the religion of nature or reason, and Christianity, if it is the perfect
religion, can only be that republication, and must be as oM as crea>
tton. The specsai mission of Christianity, therefore, is simply to
deliver men from the superstition which had perverted the religion
of nature. True Christianity must be a perfectly " reasonable
service,'* reason must be supreme, and the Scriptures as well as all
religious doctrines must submit; only those writings can be regarded
as divine Scripture which tend to the honour of God and the good
of nan. The strength of Tindal's postion was the conviction of
the essential harmony between man s religious and rational nature.
Its weakness from the standpoint of modem theology was that, like
the whole religious philosophy of the time, it was founded on a
misconoepcbn of religion and revelation, and on a disregard of the
course'of man's religious development.
Sec works quoted under Dbism.
TINDn (O. Eng. tynire, from /iVk^m , ttnian, to kiniU, cf . Dan.
tand^f Ger. amUnden), a term applied to any dry substance that
will readily take light from a q>ark and so be used for kindling
a fire. Before the invention of matches (see Match) fire or light
was procured by the ignition of tinder through sparks obtained
by the striking of flint against steel, the whole apparatus of
tinder, flint and steel being contained in a metal box, which was
an essential utensil of sll households and was also carried on the
person of everyone who might require a light in an emergency.
The usual material of " tinder " was a mass of charred linen,
but the term was also applied to " touchwood," or wood con-
verted into an easily Ignitible consistency by the action of certain
fungi. Another form of " tinder " was " touchpaper," paper
dipped in nitre and used as a slow-match for igniting gunpowder.
tn both these words " touch " stands for an earlier facA, (ache
or tasske, tinder, of which the origin is unknown. It may be
related to Dn. tak, bough, twig, and would thus mean dried
twigsttscd as tinder.
TimO, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo;
on a small tributary of the river Narcea, among the northern
outliers of the Cantabrian Mountains, and on the high road from
Cangas de Tineo to the Biscayan port of Cudillero. Pop. (1900),
a 1. 865. Mining, agiicultnxe and stock-rearing are the principal
In dustries.
TiiffKlli« an' itinerant mender of kettles, pots, 'pans, &c.
The name means simply one who makes a tinkling sound as he
mends the vessels, and the word is found as ** tinkler " in the
f 6th century. From early times " tinkers " were looked on as
vagabonds, and were so classed in the act of Elizabeth against
vagrancy.
mnm, AunaaiwxmE rmxnmLk FRAUcmA (1839-
1869), Dutch traveller in Africa, bora at the Hague oo the 17th j
of October 1839, was ihe dan^ter of Philip F. Timi£, a Dutch
merchant who settled in England during the Napoleonic wars,
but afterwards returned to his native hud, and of his wife,
Baroness Van Steengracht-CapelUn. Her father died when she
was five years oU, leaving her the richest heiress in the Nether-
lands. After travelling in Norway, luly and the East, and
visiting Egypt, when she ascended the Nile to near Gondokoro,
Mi» Tinni left Europe again in 1861 for the Nile regions. Ac-
companied by her mother and her aunt, she set out from Cairo
on the Qth of January 1862. After a short stay at Khartum the
party ascended the White Nile to a point above Gondokoro, and
explored a part of the Sobat, returning to Khartum in November.
Baron Thcodor von HeugEn (^.t .) and Dr H. Steudner having
meantime joined the huhes at Khartum, the whole party set
out m February 1863 for the Bahr-el-Ghazal. The intention
was to explore that region and ascertain how far westward the
Nile basin extended; also to investigate the reports of a vast lake
in, Central Africa eastwards of those already knowir— reports
referring in all probability to the lake-like expanses of the
middle Congo.
Ascending the Bahr-el-Ghazal the limit of navigation was
reached on the loth of March. From Meshra-cr-Rck a journey
was made overland, across the Bahr Jur and south-west by the
Bahr Kosango, to Jebel Kosango, on the borders of the Niam-
Niam country. During the journey all the travellers suffered
severely from fever. Steudner died in April and Madame Tinn£
in June, and after many fatigues and dangers the remainder of
the party reached Khaitum in July 1864, where Miss Tinn^'s
aunt died. Miss Tinn^ returned to Cairo by Berber and Suakin.
The geographical and scientific results of the expedition were
highly important, as will be seen in Heuglin's Die Tsnnische
ExpedUion im wesUicken Nilgebiet {1863-1864 (Gotha, 1865), and
JSeise in das GeHet des Weissen Nils Leipzig, 1869). A descrip-
tion, by T. Kotschy and J. Peyritsch, of some of the plants
discovered by the expedition was published at Vienna in 1867
under the title of Planta Tinntennts. At Cairo Miss Tinn^
lived in Oriental style during the next four years, visiting Algeria,
Tunisia and other parts of the Mediterranean. In January 1869
she started from Tripoli with a caravan, intending to proceed
to Lake Chad, and thence by Wadai, Darfur and Kordofan to the
upper Nile. On the ist of August, however, on the route from
Murzuk to Ghat, she was murdered, together with two Dutch
sailors, by Tuareg in league with her escort, who believed ihat
her iron water tanks were filled with gold.
_-,._._ ^ dition in Central
and Sir H. H.
TINNEVBLLT, a town and district of British India, in the
Madras presidency. The town is on the left bank of the Tam-
brapami river, on the other side of which is Palamcoltah, the
administrative headquarters of the district. Pop. (1901),
40,469. It is the terminus of a branch of the South Indian
raUway, 444 m. S.W. of Madras. Its most noteworthy building
is a beautiXuUy sculptured temple of Siva.
The District of Tinnevelly has an area of 5389 sq. m.
It is for the most part a plain with an average elevation of
200 ft., sloping to the east with slight undulations. It is
watered by numerous short streams, the principal being the
Tambrapami with a length of 80 m. The chief irrigation work
is the Srivaikuntam am'cut or dam on this river. In the north
the scenery is unattractive and the soil poor; in the south red
sandy soil prevails in which little save the Palmyra palm wiH
grow. This palm yields toddy as well »& a coarse sugar. Abng
the banks of the riven are rice-fields and a variety of trees and
crops; and coffee is grown on the slopes of the Travancore hills.
The district contains many ancient and magnificent buildings.
But the most interesting antiquities are the Urge sepulchral
earthen urns of prehistoric races, which have been found' at
several places, especially along the course of the Tambrapami;
they contain bones, pottery, beads and bronze ornaments,
iron weapons, implements, &c The South Indian railway
has hs maritime terminus at Tutioorin, the chief seaport. The
xooo
TIN-PLATE— TINTAQEL
prin^Md eipons are rice to Ceylon and cotton to Ja|Ma and
Europe. In iqox the population was 2,059,607, showing an
increase of 8% in the decade. The number of native Christians
was 159,213, TlnneveUy being the most Chcistian district in
India. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel and the
Church Missionary Society have important and flourishing
stations at TlnneveUy town and Palamcottah, as also have the
Jesuits. It was here that St Francis Xavier began his preaching
in India. The Shanans, or caste of toddy-dcawets, have supplied
many converts to Christianity. In 1899 their treatment by
the Vellalars, or cultivating caste, led to serious riots and
bloodshed.
The early lustoiy of Tinnevelly is mixed up with that of
Madura and Travancore. Down to 1781 it is a confused tale of
anarchy and bloodshed. In that year the nawab of Arcot
assigned the revenues to the East India Company, which then
undertook the internal administration. Several risings subse-
quently took place, and in 1801 the whole Camatic, including
Tinnevelly, was ceded to the Britbh.
TIN-PLATE and TERNB-PLATB. Tin-plate consists of sheets
of iron or steel which have been thinly coated with tin by being
dipped in a molten bath of that metal. Teme-plate b a similar
product, but the bath b not of tin, but of tin and lead mixed,
the latter metal constituting from 75-90% of the whole; it has
not the bright lustre of tin-plate, whence its name, from
lerne^ doll, tambhed. The sheets employed in the manufacture
are known as " black plates," and are now of steel, either
Bessemer or open-hearth. Formerly iron was used, and was of
two grades, coke-iron and charcoal-iron; the latter, being the
better, received a heavier a>ating of tin, and this circumstance
is the origin of the terms " coke plates " and " charcoal .plates "
by which the quality of tin-phite b still designated, although
iron b no longer used. Tin-plate b consumed in enormous
quantities for the manufacture of the tin cans in which pre-
served meat, fish, fruit, biscuits, cigarettes and numerous other
products are padked, and also for the household utensib of
various kinds made by the tinsmith or silversmith; teroe-plates,
which began to be produced in England about the middle of
the 19th centuiy, are widely employed in America for roofing
purposes.
The manufacture of ttn-plate was long a monopoly of Bohemia,
but about 1620 the industry spread to Saxony, in 1665 Andrew
Yanranton (1616-1684?). an English engineer and asnculturist,
was commissioned to go to Saxony and if possible osscover the
methods employed. According to his own account (England's
Improoement, pt. ii. 168 1), he was " very civilly treated and was
allowed to see the whole process. On hb return to England his
friends undertook the manufacture on an experimental scale, but
though they were successful they had to abandon it. because their
method became known and a patent for it was " trumpt up " by a
rival, who, however, from lack of technical skill was unable to work
it. Half a century later the manufacture was revived by Major
John Hanbury (1664-1734) at Pontypool; the " method <M roUmg
mm plates by means of cylinders," said to have been devised by
him, enabled more uniform black plates to be produced than was
possible with the old plan of hammering, and m consequence the
English tin-plate became recognized as superior to the German.
During the next hundred years or so the industry spread steadily
in England and Wales, and after 1834 its expannon was rapids
especially in Wales, Great Britain becoming the chief source of the
world's supply. In that year her total production was 180.000
boxes of 108 lb each (in America a box u 100 lb), in 1848 it was
420,000 boxes, in i860 it reached 1.700,000 boxes, in 1870 neariy
^460,000 boqces, and in 1890 it exceeded 9.500.000 boxes. In the
United States the manufacture of tin- and teme-plates did not make
much way until about 1890, and up to 1892 the bulk of the supply
Was imported from Great Britain. But subsequently the advance
was rapid, and the production, which was about 2,236,000 lb in
1891. had by 1900 increased to more than 849,000,000 lb, of which
over 141,000,000 S) were teme-plates. The total imports in that
year were only 135,264,881 lb. In later years, again, there was a
decline in the American production, and m 1907 only 20% of the
American tin-pbte mills were at wwk, while the British production
teathod 14 muKon boxes.
There are two processes for the tinning of the black plates. In
the " palm-oQ " process, which b the older, the plates, after being
pro*—"" — — '-^ are scoured with sand and water and pickled m
^ ahemately until they are perfectly dean and
• washed in water, and after being boiled in
palm oil to remove all tfioas o( add aad water am <fipped into a
bath of molten tin, covered with oil to prevent oxidation. They
are then taken to a second bath containing purer tin than the first.
After this they are scoured with a hempen rubber and dipped in a
third bath containing the purest tin oi all*, then they are passed
through rolls to finish the surface and regulate the thickneaa of the
coating. As the tin in the third bath becomes alloyed with iron
from the operation, it b removed inro the second, pure fresh tin
being substituted; and similariy the metal of the second, as the
amount of iron in it increaaea. b removed to the first. In the " add
process " only a single bath 0^ tin b required. The molten metal b
covered with a layer of muriate of zinc, which acts as the flux, and
by means of rolls the plates are passed through tfab down into the
tin. to be brought out at another pomt in the bath where there is
a layer of oil on the sucf aoe.
TIMTAGEU or Trevena, a village in the Launceston parlia-
menury division of Cornwall, England, on the north coast,
4} m. from Camelford. Pop. (1901), 868. It stands on a bare
upland, ck>se to the sea; and below it b Tmtagel Haven, or Porth,
a small cove surrounded by cliffs of almost biack slate. The
scanty ruins of a castle are built partly on the mainland, partly
on a rugged promontory spoken of as the Island, but united by
a narrow peninsula to the shore. They have been celebrated
as the birthplace of King Arthur, or as the stronghold of King
Mark, in a host of medieval romances, and in the poems of Tenny-
son and Swinburne. The Norman waib are so darkened and
weathered that, from a little distance, they seem a part of the
rock itself. Portions of a chapd remain, dating from the i3ih
century, and including a porch and a stone altar; while beside it
are traces of a tomb hewn out of the slate, and of some domottc
building which had a staircase and a pointed arch above the
door. The crudform parish church of St Marcelliana stands on
a high cliff, west of the castle. Although it has been restored,
there remain traces of Saxon workmanship in the chancel,
besides two Norman doorways, a font of the same period, a
stone altar bearing five crosses and a fine isth-ocntury brass.
In the churchyard the graves are buttressed, storms bcii^
frequent and violent on this unprotected coast. For a time
the church belonged to Fontevrault Abbey in Normandy; but
it was made over by Edward IV. to the collegiate dburch of
Windsor. A 9th-century roodstone stands in the village.
Portions of the vicarage date from the 14th century, and in its
garden there is a stone dovecote of great age. A Uttle date b
quarried, bdng taken from the rocks below the church, and
exported in the small vcsseb which can visit Tintagel Haven in
calm weather. The magnificence of the coast has inspired moie
than one famous painting.
Tmtagd (Tintajol, Dundagd) b a parish a portion of which
appears in the Domesday Survey as Bossiney (Botdnnu). The
latter was held in the time of the Confessor by a thegn of St
Pettock and at the time of the survey by Robert, count of
Mortain, of the same saint. The castle probably eaisted in
pre-Saxon times. Under the Nonnan earls of Cornwall this was
rebuilt, embattled and furnished with munitions of war. Its
ofiicers induded a constable and .a chaplain. It was in a
ruinous condition in Leland*s time (c. 1540). Queen Elizabeth
abolished the office of constable. In the parish of Tintasel b
the hamlet of Bossiney which under the name of Tintagel received
a charter (undated) from Richard king of the Romans, granting
freedom to the borough and to the burgesses freedom from poa*
tage and stallage throughout Cornwall, a market on Wednesdays
and a three days' fair at Michaelmas. This charter was con-
firmed in 1386. In 1333 the burgesses, those who held tenenwnts
within the borough, numbered zoo. The borou^, which
apparently owed its exbtence to the castle, shared its fortunes.
Lidand caJb attention to the decay of a great number of houses^
Its charter was surrendered to Charles II. and a new one obtained
from hb brother in 1685. Under the latter a mayor, recorder,
tax common councillors, a coroner, six freemen and a common
clerk were to constitute the corporation. For supi^ying
vacandes in it the votes of those oidy who were membm of it
were required. Provision was made for the administration ol
the borough. Bossiney acquired the right of dectmg two mem-
bers of parliament in 1553^ the franchise being Ofifinally vested
in the freeholders within the boroui^. By the middle cf the
TINTERN ABBEY—TINTORETTO
jom:
s8th ceotury the franchise had become restricted to the freemen
or burgesses. In 1784 the vicar of Tiotagd, as Diayor and only
quaU6ed elector, enjoyed the probably unique privilege of return*
ing two members to the House of Conunona. In 185a there were
tea resident legal voters withm the borough and nine out^voters.
The Reform Act transferred their votes to the county. There is
now no market, and the only iair is held on the aist of October.
See Vteiaria County History, Cormua, Sir J Maclean, History of
Tnu ^itor,
TINTERN ABBEY, in Monmouthshire, one of the most famous
ecclesiastical ruins in England It is beautifully situated on the
right bank of the river Wye The abbey was founded by Walter
de Clare in 113 1 for Cistercian monks. The existing church,
however, dates from the later part of the 13th century, it is
unroofed, and the nave is imperfect, but many of the finest
details of a style transitional from Early English to Decorated
are preserved The church is crudform. Cloisters and other
monastic buildings, of which there are considerable remains,
lay to the north of the church. The foundation was dissolved
by Henry VIII. At the neighbouring village of Tintem Parva
there is a station on a branch of the Great Western cailway.
TINTORBTTO, JACOPO ROBUSH (i 518-1594). one of the
greatest painters of the Venetian school, was bom in Venice in
1518, though most accounts say in 151J. His father, Battista
Robusti, was a dyer, or *' tintore "; hence the son got the
nickname of "Tintoretto," little dyer, or dyer's boy,
which is Englished as Tintoret. In childhood Jacopo, a born
painter, began daubing on the dyer's waUs; his father, noticing
his bent, took him round, still in boyhood, to the studio of Titian,
to see bow far he could be trained as an artist. We may suppose
this to have been towards 1533, when Titian was already
(according to the ordinary accotmts) fifty-six years of age.
Ridolfi is our authority for saying that Tintoret had only been
ten days in the studio when Titian sent him home once and for
all. The reason, according to the same writer, isf that the great
master observed some very spirited drawin|;i, which he learned to
be the production of Tintoret; and it is inferred that he became
at once jealous of so promising a scholar This, however, is
mere oonjectuxe; and perhaps it may be fairer to suppose that
the drawings exhibited so much independence of manner that
Titian judged that young Robusti, although he might become
a painter, would never be properly a pupiL From this time
forward the two always remained upon distant term»~R(4>usti
being indeed a professed and ardent admiier of Titian, but never
a friend, and Titian and his adherents turning the cold shoulder
to RobustL Active disparagement also was not wanting, but
it passed unnoticed by Tintoret. The latter sought for no
further teaching, but studied on his own aocouat with laborious
leal; he lived pooriy, collecting casts, bas-reliefs, &c., and prac-
tising by their aid. His noble conception of art and his high
personal ambition were evidenced in the inscriptbn which he
placed over his studio — " II disegno di Michelangelo ed il colorito
di Tiziano *' (Michelangelo's design and Titian's colour). He
Studied more especially from models of Michelangelo's " Dawn,"
** Noon," " Twilight " and " Night," and became expert in
modelling in wax and clay~-« method (practised likewise by
Titian) whidi afterwards stood him in good stead in working out
the arrangement of his pictures. The models were sometimes
taken from dead subjects dissected or studied in anatomy
schools; some were draped, others nude, and Robusti was wont
to suspend them in a wooden or cardboard box, with an aperture
for a candle. Now and afterwards he very frequently worked by
night as well as by day. The young painter Schiavone. four
yeara Robusti's junior, was much in his company. Tintoret
helped Schiavone gratia in wall-paintings; and in many subse-
quent instances he worked also for nothing, and thus succeeded
in obtaining commissions. The two earliest mural paintings
of Robusti--done, like others, for next to no pay— are said to
have been " Bekhazzar's Feast " and a '* Cavalry Fight." both
long since perished. Such, indeed, may be said to have been
the fate of all his frescoes, cariy or later. The first work of his
which attracted soose coosiderable notioe waa a portnit-group
of himaelf and his biother-^he latter playing a guitar— with a
nocturnal effect; this also b kst. It was followed by some
historical subject, which Titian was candid enough to praise.
One of Tintoret's early pictures still exunt is in the church of
the Carmine in Venice, the " Presentation of Jesus in the
Temple ", also in S. Benedetto are the " Annunciation " and
" Christ with the Woman of Samaria." For the Scuola delhi
Triniti (the scuole or schools of Vem'ce were more m the nature
of hospitals or charitable foundations than of educational
uistitutions) he painted four subjeas from GenesiB. Two of
these, now in the Venetian Academy, are " Adam and Eve '*
and the '* Death of Abel," both noble works of high mastery,
which leave ua in no doubt that Robusti was by this time a
consummate painter^^ne of the few who have attained to the
highest eminence by dire study of their own, unseconded by
any training from some senior proficient
Towards x 546 Robusti painted for the church of the Madonna
dell' Oito three of his leading works— the " Worabip of the
Golden Calf," the " Presentation of the Virgin in the Tem]^.**
and the "Last Judgment "—now shamefully repainted, and
he settled down in a house hard by the chureh. It is a Gothic
edifice, kioking over the lagoon of Murano to the Alps, built in
the Fondamenta de' Mori, still standing, but let out cheap to
artisans. In 1 548 he was commissioned for four pictures in the
Scuola di S. Marco— the ** Finding of the body of St Mark im
Alexandria " (now in the church of the Angell, Murano), the
*' Saint's Body brought to Venice," a " Votaiy of the Saint
delivered by invoking him from an Unclean Spirit " (these tw<o
are in the library of the royal palace, Venice), and the highly
and justly celebrated "Miracle of the Slave." This last, which
forms at present one of the chief gk>ries of the Venetian Academy,
repRsenta the legend of a Christian slave or captive who waa
to be tortured as a punishment for some acts of devotion to the
evangelist, but was saved by the mitKulous intervention of the
latter, who shattered the bone-breaking and blinding fanplements
which were about to be apphed. These four works were greeted
with signal and general applause, induding that of Titian*'^
intimate, the too potent Pietro Aretino, with whom Tintoret,
one of the lew men who scorned to curry favour with him, waa
mostly in disrepute. It is said, however, that Tintoret at one
time painted a ceiling in Pietro'a house, at another time, bang
invited to do his portrait, he attended, and at once proceeded to
take hs sitter's measure with a pistol (or a stiletto), aa a signifi-*
cant hint that he wasnot exactly the man to be trifled with. The
painter having now executed the four works in the Scuola di
S. Marco, his straits and obscure endurances were over. He
married Faustina de* Vescovi, daughter of a Venetian nobleman.
She appeals to have been a careful housewife, and one who
both would and could have her way with her not too tracuble
husband. Faustina bore him several children, probably two
sons and five daughters.
The next conspicuous event in the profenienal life of Tintoret
Bi his enormous labour and profuse self-development on the waUa
and ceilings of the Scuola di S. Marco, a building which may bow
almost be regarded aa a shrine reared by Robusti to his own
genius. The building had been begun in 1595 by the Lombard!,
and was very defideot in light, so as to be particularly ill-suited
for any great scheme of pictorial adornment. The painting of
its interior was commenced in 1560. In that year five principal
painters, including Tintoret and Paul Veronese, were invited
to send in trial-designs for the centre-piece in the smaller hall
named Sala dell' Albeigo, the subject being S. Rocoo received
into Heaven. Tintoret produced not a sketch but a picture, and
got it inserted into iu oval. The oompetitois remonstrated, not
unnaturally; but the artist, who knew how to play his oWn game,
made a free gift of the picture to the saint, and, as a by-law of
the foundation prohibited the rejection of any gift, it was
retained in rtTai— Tintoret furnishing gratis the other decorations
of the same ceiling. (This is one version of the anecdote there
is another version, which, though differing in Incident, has the
like general bearing.) In 1565 he resumed work at the scuola,
painting the magnificmr ** Crucifixion," for which « sum of
looa
TINTORETTO
ctaat'tiBtt Ifcal far the cegaig <f the fftax haB,
the ^PfacK«f ScfpeBt»*;aBd m \ht kJkamm^ jmr ht
pitted tkis CBlii« vitk pifu «f tke ' PUchd Fast"
' Masrs stnkiac iIk Rock " • cu t tu qg vhatncr
caofntexaky chose to psy. BciHsti oext
the patarmg o£ Lhe cadre eoMfta aad at the
S^ Rocox He oBcxcd at KvvcBbcr 1577 t» oBOiCe Ike wfcs
at the nte c< rao dacats per aaosss* tkree pktszes hcac dot
« each pear. T^ praposii «as
ftfia't^i^ t^ piLJi:er*s 'death afaae pcercBim^ the tin l ir a of
sane «M Lbe €ei:.3««ib jecci. The v^oae stus pud far the saola
tkxm^yta; was e««7 dacats. DwrgairiMg aooe
, the acsnfa aed cfanch CBctais iMVftwo
, veikzh maj" he deserved as vast aafgBBn
«irh tbe Bxsc«;y. hot aot the dcubmrr pcccisfan, of
pktwes^ aad adipfiol far bcss Ancni at a a Aedqr hiK i ghl .
"^ Adm aal Ere," the "^ \lsi"ttwnj' the " .Mnrarina af Ae
Mj«i.^ t3tt -^ M^saoc flf the iMtoeats.'* the ** Affay ia the
Guvxa.'" '^ Chnst befaee Pilite;'* "^ C&ost carrrias EEs CnaB^*
and ^ 11^ xjoae ba viz;; beea esarrcd by icstar^aQC t the
tsa ct i^ \l?g&a " are ■th'^tk rmnrArs ia the soa
chsfcjk. " CSrist c^zs^ the Finiytic.'*
It v:ks pcvca :Cy ia 1 5^0. the year in a fejA he begi
ia she Sc.^Tfci ci x Rfcco. :iui Tz^oret r a tr m xttl hia
pa"*-Tgs m the JocaL ar.i.nr; he then nrrr'ed there a poetzaot
ai :ae Ji^bb^^ G->iti»» Pn^i- OtisT vccks v^i:h , ^
■kihepca: :it« «f I5T7 aaxeeoed — the ^ E ju w atwrt l aanat '
Frederick. 6.iriMrossa by f^peAJsnaaer IIL'*aad the**- \Krjry fvareot^Vc
«f Le^oactx'' Arier the ire Tacaret tfaEted a&ash. Ttai. -aiae ■crehcB «f the j
Venaacie b«uec hs ccuesfae: tJaes- wxks hrre 5cr the 1
heea <iaa«cmeay aai cs^cacsi^T mrccsei ec late j
anre at the aaest mamamesLs ot pkt»rl&l paver ever p t udaied Tz
are taas ^ Sr t mnni »e enapaiajge m^ nMHMj e> latkeSafa heas heag aa the C&a C 1111 j af 1
de!M» Scrar.Tra» Safaesci pt::i:ee t^ "^ Cxpcse ct Zsra faea the
H<difaems5 irr 13^ uxji a H^rrkiae et M^ssaes ^: = the hzl at
theaeaasa> ^ Vcsbcc. Qaeea jc iheSca ": a taekil <t She rrrrge.
the -^E^oKfii: cc St Carrnnmr aa J
Aacx-AJe^?*. scur caLJiC ajgy mat B iyiJem * B a ii %, ai^=h -etch a 9
Jkfskiae caMraeii by Vssbs..' ;he ^ T^sce iVarr^ xad UcEcazy.''
* V j yr «a.iacir-i:r^ ViTv ~a3dthe* FntgB 3c V:
1—5, A iae A -rV-^jrsf^zA, - St Ccrese aad 5c yi-^rh^ wih ac dke !
V Xtt-pifmf ' -"^ ■»><rt»»V '*f^^^ ^ i>mMr i»^ l^ ^>*. - 'Vi> j
St .VjSLircv : 2 i2e Lul «c tae {rsa: cwsir^ zae icpc caaipssc-
tkc&. c^jsi/ bai--e-^.'e«s^ ¥ie iere reic^ tie oawriiajj pr*- *— -w-t^ va
#B iM «c iL:c<u£C; s jx. the iesc 70=^29 « riy ntirsirmTic :iw suisizrr :
W 53,. gyc te c r J je tlw '.xcptsc ^wai: -^ e»^r arinr -rp:^ caoras.
fc a xw-,-ct sc s:^e:rci:cs ir sOJe. as r-n-sta.' a. i^u swe^ sc is
jiw .T 1 I I ~t ff r "iinr mi'i~^ a c a cLag oaKTaBesaine
ae 3«re aa rscinnj* « a sir«^ ^ i r VAt% -r^Ji Ttt^famyr vasiaC - - - - v_ -^ t ■
att»ir=.TC »:>- X tt^ 3t:jroi. -^ -iREt ar ssoe aaii CDtnxr. ^ ^^ ^.^ is --nca? rr-^:ena. «=raai^ It «-=
.ict;^ asc yrz* jc* irsc Vsarciia cstcasirvnr«5 j o t-m ^saa^^rc, .
. vr ai «ct37~c iLTuw. ▼iiie » a iew e««5 iireiida^ * •^"'-^
« lie rr=s»!::i ^ — -r j; aeents » W at ;
KC a tiT^ii iic:;:-T ocoed M tie ae ;
a? »e 1 i t a gji v i»'uc 1 T« "nrr uwiqpc « ^
'^'ttje tie <eittcr-»4*:fi kt rsis i ay ^Jri ^aas yer ?e9c:
aaaa^paac ILrc ..^^ w -vcac ix sel lae ssi;>as :Ja£
paeyoi » Ccc 'Uc he sii^pxz ^ coaiaL.:aiiiiaei£ ist jl a
t?» he aet ^ US ~- ^ sr^_*T.ci
TIPASA—TIPPERA
X003
Tlacant weuody «w crawBOed out «f VSeoioft He loved eO the
arts, pUyed in youth the lute mod various instnunentSk some of them
of hie o«m iaveatioa, and designed theetrkel costumes and pn>per>
taes^ «ae vened ia mwhaairs and mechanfrai devices, and was a
very agrseaUe companion. For the sake of his work he lived in
a most retired fashion, and even when not painttmr was wont to
eemain in his working room surrounded by casts. Here he haidlv
admitted any. even intimate friends, and he kept his modes of work
secret, save •» regards hia aswtants. He aoonnded in pleasant
witty sayinn whether to grant personages or to others, but no smile
hovmd 00 nis lips* Out of doors his wife made him wear the robe
of a Venetian dtisen; if it rained she tried to indue him with an
outer garment, but this he lesisted. She would also when be left
the bouse wrap up money for him in a handheitbief. and on hu
return expected an account of it; Tintoiet's accustomed reply was
that he had spent h in alms to the poor or to ptiso n eri * In 1574
he obtained the revernon of the first vacant broker's patent in a
fcmdaco, with power to bequeath it— «n advantage granted from
time to time to pre-eminent oainteim For his phenomenal energy
in paiating he was termed " 11 Funoea'* An agreement is extant
showing that he undertook to finish ia two months two histoncal
pictures each containing twenty figures, seven being portraits. The
number of his portrsitt is enormo u s; their merit is uneoual, but
the really fine ones cannot be suriassed. Sebastian o del Piombo
remarked that Robusti could ^nt in two days as much as himself
ia two yean; Annibale Caracci that Tintocet was fai many pctures
equal to Titian, in othete inferior to Tintoret. This was the geneial
' ' m of die Venetians, who said that he had three pendle— one
d, the second of silver and the third of iron. The only pictures
and fhe " Crucifixkn ** in the Scuola di & Roooo: thf last was
engraved in 1569 by A^oetino CaraocL Generally he painted at
once on to the canvas without any prdiminary. Some m hb dicta
on art have been recorded as follows by RIdolfi : *' the art of painting
remains increasingly difficult "; '* painters in youth shooM adhere
to the best masters, these being Michelangelo and Titian, and should
be strict in representing the natural forms "; " the first glance at a
picture is the crucial one "; " black and white, as developing form,
are the best of colours "; " drawing is the foundation of a painter's
work, but drawing from life in the nude diould only be essayed by
wrdl^pcactised men, as the real is often wanting in beauty.'*
or pupfls Robusti had very lew: his two sons and Martin de
Vos of Antwerp were among theim Domenico Robusti (1562-1637),
whom we have already had occanon to mention, frequently assisted
his father in the groundwork of great pktures. He himself painted
a multitude of works, many of them oa a very large scale; they
would at best be mediocre, and, comiiv from the son of Tintoret.
are exa^erating; still, he must be regarded as a considerable sort
of pictorial practitioner in his way.
We conclude by naming a few of the more striking of Tintoret's
very numerous works not already spe c ified ia the course of the
article. In Venice (S. Giorgio Maegiore), a series of his later works,
the " Gathering of the Manna." "Last Supper," " Descent from the
Cross," " Resurrection." " Martyrdom of St Stephen." " Coronation
of the Virgin," " Martyrdom 01 St Damian ''s (S Francesco dd
Vtgna) the ** Entombment"; (the Fran) the " Massacre of the
■ ■• >a**Ci
Innocents"; (S. Cassano) i
\ from
- . . , . ' the figun . __
behind along the hill slcyx; (St Mark's) a mosak of the " Baptism of
Christ " — toe oil-paintmg of this composition u in Verona. In
Milan (the Bren). "St Helena and other saints." In Florence
(Pitti Gallery). " Venus," " Vufcan " and " Cupid." In Cologne
rWallraff-Rkharts Museum). " OvU and Corinna." In Augsbeiv
(the town-hall), some historical pictures, which biogiaphers and
tourisu alike have unaccountably neglected — one of the sicce of a
fortilM town b astonishingly fine. In England (Hampton Court),
*' Esther and Ahasuerus." and the ** Nine Muses"; (the National
Gallery), " The Origin of the Milky Way." a memorable Awf ds/erce;
" Christ washing Peter's Feet," a grand piece of colour and execution,
not greatly interesting in other respects, also a spirited smallish
St Gcom and the Dragon."
The writer who has done by far the most to establish the fame
of Tintoret at the heieht which it ought to occupy b Ruskin in hb
Status »f Venice and other books ; the depth and scope of the master's
power had never before been adequately brouriit out, although his
extraordinarily and somewhat arbitrarily used executive gift was
acknowledeecf. Ridolfi (Meravigtie ddl* Arte) gives interesting per-
sonal details; the article by Dr Janltschek in Kunst und KUnstUr
(1876) is a solid account. For an English reader the most handy
narrative is that of W. R. Osier {Tintoretto, 1879). in the series en-
titled " The Great Artisu." Here the bioeraphical facts are clearly
presented; the aesthetic criticbm is enthusiastic but not persptcuoua.
Other works deserving of mention are: L. Mesnard. Eiude sw
Tintmei (1881); T. P. Steams. Four Great Venetians (1901); H.
Thode, r«al0reilo (1901); Stoughton Holbom, Jacopo Robusti (1903).
(W. M. R.)
lIPiSA* (1) A town and oooubqik ob the coast of Algeria,
Im tha dipaitaieBt ol Algien, 10 m. W. af the capital. Popw
«f the ooaanme (iQofi), 97<5- Tbe aiodaD tom), foaaded in
1857, b remarkable chiefly for its pleasant situation and saady
beach. The loadstead is eipoaed to the N.E. and N.W. There
is a mole abont 90 ft. long and anchorage in six fathoms. A
considerable trade b done. The Roman dty of Tlpaaa was
btiilt on three small hOla which overlooked the sea. Of the
houses, most of which stood on the centnl hill, no traces re-
main; but there are luias of three churchea— the Great Basilica
and the Basilica Alexander on the western hill, and the Basilica
of St Salsa on the eastern hiil— two cemeteries, the baths,
theatre, amphitheatre and nynphaeom. The line of the ram-
parts can be distinctly tnced and at the foot of the eastern
hill the remains of the andent haxboai. The basilicas are
surrounded by cemeteries, which are full of coffins, all of
stone and oovend with mniBifs The basilica of St Salsa,
which has been excavated by S. Gsell, consbu of a nave and two
aisles, and still contains a mosaic The Great Basilica served
for centuries as a quarry, but it b still possible to make out the
plan of the building, which was divided into seven aisles. Under
the foundations of the church are tombs hewn out of the solid
rock. Of these one b circular, with a diameter of 60 ft. and
space lor 34 coffins.
Tipasa was founded by the Phoenicians, was made a Roman
militaxy obkmy by the emperor Claudius, and afterwards became
a munidpium. Commercially it was of oonsadenble impor*
tance, but it was not dbtinguished in art or learning. Chiis-
tianity was eariy intioduoed, and in the third century Tipasa
was a bishop's see. Blost of the inhabitants continued hcathcas
until, according to the legend. Salsa, a Christbn maiden, threw
the head of their serpent idol into the sea, whereupoa the
enraged populace stoned her to death. The body, miraculously
recovered from the sea, was buried, on the hill above the har-
bour, in a small chapel which gave place subsequently ta the
statdy basilica. Saba's martyrdom took place in the 4th
century. In 484 the Vandal king Honeric (477-484) sent an
Arian bishop to Tipasa; whereupon a huge number of the in-
habitants fled to Spain, while many of the remainder were
cruelly persecuted. After thb time the dty disappears from
history; and, whether or not its ruin was caused by the
Axabs, they seem to have made no settlement there.
(2) Another town which in Roman times was called Tipasa
b in the department of Constantine, Algeria, ss m. due south
of Bona, 3x40 fu above the sea; it b now called Tifesh. The
chief ruin b that of an extensive fortress, the waOs of which
axe 9 ft. thick.
T1F4AT (also caOed CttvidCaiand Dogl, a pastime which
consists in tapping with a stick a short ballet of wood with
sharpened ends upon one of these ends, so that it jumps in the air,
and then hitting it to the greatest possible distance. There are
many varieties of the game, but in the most common the batter,
having placed the billet, or Ml, in a small drde on the ground,
Hps it into the air and hiU it to a distance. His opponent
then offers him a certain number of poinu, based upon hb
estimate of the number of hops or jumps necessary to coyer
the dbtance. If the batter thinks the distance underestimated
he b at liberty to decline the offer and measure the distance in
jumps, and score the number made. The game b one or more
hundreds.
TIPPBRA {Tripura), a native sUte and also a Britbh district
of India, in Eastern Bengal and Assam. The state, which b
known as Hill TtPPEiA {q.v.), represents that portion of the
raja's temtory that was never conquered by the Mahommedans.
The dynasty, which b of great antiquity, was converted to
Hinduism many centuries ago; but the people still profess an
aboripnal religion, similar to that of the neighbouring hill
tribes. The raja owns an esute of S70 «q- m., yidding an
income of more than £40,000, in the British district, where he
ranks as an ordinary tomindar. Hb residence b at AgsftaUa,
Just within the boundary of Hill Tippera.
The Britbh district of Tippera, with adminbtrative head-
quarters at Comilla, has an area of U99 iq* m. It hasa flat and
open foifaoe, with the cxcepUon of the boUted Ulmti faagt
X004
TIPPERARY
(xoo feet), and b for the most part laid out ia iraB-<oltivited
fiddi, intenected by rivezs and khals (creeks) partially affected
by the tidea. In th'? lowlands the sou is light and sandy; but
In the higher parts a deep alluvial soil alternates with bands of
day and sand. The principal rivers are the Meghna, or estuaiy
of the Brahmaputra; and the Gumti, Dftkitia, and TitJs, which
are also navigable for a considerable portion of their couxae.
There are many marshes or bils. The wild animab include
tigers, leopards, wild boars and buffaloes. The climate is mild
and healthy. In 1901 the population was 3,1x7,991, showing an
increase of 19% in the decade, being the highest rate in the
province. M****^"*™^""* form neariy three>fourths of the total.
Rice is the suple crop, followed by jute; betd-nut and bctd-
leaf and chillies are also grown. The chief exports are rice,
jute and betd-nuts; and the prindpal imports cotton goods,
salt and kerosene oiL
The eastern border of the distria is traversed by the Assam-
Bengal railway, with branches from Lakabam to Chandpur
and Noakhali; but waterways remain the chid means of com-
munication.
Tippera came under the East India Company in 1765; but
more than a fifth of its present area was under the immediate
rule of the raja of Hill Tippera, who paid a tribute of ivory and
elephants. At that time Tippera with Noakhali formed part of
JaUlpur, one of Shuja-ud>Din's divisions of the province of
Bengal; but in 1822 it was separated, and since then great
changes have been made in its boundaries. With the excq>tion
of a serious raid in i860 by the Kukis or Lushfiis, nothing has
disturbed the peace of the district.
TIPPERARY, a county of Ireland in the province of Munstcr,
bounded N.W. by Galway, NX. by King's Cbunty, £. by
Queen's County and Kilkenny, S. by Waterford, and W. by
Cork, Limerick, Clare and Galway. The county is the sixth
in size of the Irish counties, having an area of 1,062,963 acres,
orabouti66i8q. m. The surface is varied and picturesque. The
Knockmealdown Mountains on the southern border reach an
elevation of 2609 ft. To the north of this range arc the pic-
turesque GaUy or Galtee Mountains (Galtyroore 3015 ft.).
To the cast, bordering Kilkenny, are the SUcveardagh Hills,
and near Templemore the Devil's Bit MounUins (1583 ft.)
with a curious gap on the summit. In the north-west is Keeper
Hill, 3278 ft. The greater part of the county, however, is a
gently undulating plain. From the rich levd country the Rock
of Cashd rises boldly. Tipperary has only one considerable
river, the Suir, which has its source in the Devil's Bit Moun-
tains, and flows soathward and eastward by Templemore,
Thurles, Caber, and Clonrod. The Nore, which also rises in
the Devil's Bit Mountains, soon passes into Queen's County,
and the Shannon forms part of the western border. The
Mitchelstown stalactite caverns, discovered acddentally in
Z833 , attract a large number of visitors. They are in the extreme
south-west of the county; take their name from the neighbouring
town of Mitchelstown, 6 m. dbtant in County Cork; and were
explored and surveyed by M. Martel, the French spdcologist,
in 189$.
C*etogy.^-ln this county the Carboniferous Limestone b cwaping,
as it were, fron» confinement between the Old Red Sandstone nd^cs
of the south, and spreadinjg; out northward into the great plain.
Its folded character is seen in the anticlinal boss on which the acro>
pdis of Cashd stands; but generally its level surface is covered bv
boulder^rift. A groat denuded dome of Old Red Sandstone, with
Silurian exposed across the centre, divides the north of the county.
and another simitar mass, the Arra Mountains, rises between
Ncnagh and Lou^h Dcrs- The same rocks form the Galtees. Slieve-
oanian and the Knockmealdown Mountains. In the cast. Upper
Carboniferous shale* and sandstones lie along a synclinal axis, ironi
Cashd to Kilkenny, and anthracite is mined on a Coal Measure
pUteau at Kiltenaule. The lead-ore mined for many centuries at
ditvcrmines south of Nenagh is sil\Tr-bearinfr. and is associated with
sine blende, indications of ore have been traced along the JDnction
of the litneitone with the older rocks for thirty miles. Cowl slates
are quarried in the Silurian area in Clashoasmuth townlaod on
Stievcnaman.
/fNfMjfrttf.— Tipperary ranks among the best arrkurfotal districts
ibsoil in the lower grounds is Kmestone, which is
:nloiueous Umu^ capable of yielding the fawtt
crops. The centre of the county is eoeupied by t!he GdMen Vale,
the most fertile district in Ireland, which •tretcnes from Cashd to
the town of Limerick. On the higher districu the soil is light and
thin, partaking much of the character of the day aiate and aanik on
whkrh it rests. I>ctached portions of the Bog Of Allen encroach oa
the north-east of the county. The proportion of tillage to pasture
is roughly as 1 to ai, and the area under the standard crops of oats
and potatoes decreases. The area under barley, however, b vdl
maintained, aa distillation causes a steady demand for this grain.
Turnips are also an important and steady crop. The numbers of
cattle, sheep, pigs, goats and poultry also increase generally; and
butter-making occupies considerable attention. A few persons are
employed in mining, but the occupation of the inhabitants ia chidSy
Sxultural. There b a conaklerable number of meal aad flour
lis.
Communications are supplied by the Great Southern & Westen
raflway. the main line of which croaaes the county from north-east
to south-west by Templemore and Tburlca. The Ballybrophy
(Queen's County) & Limerick branch from this line serves the
north of the county by Roacrea (jui^ction for Birr) and Kenagh.
The Wateiford St Limerick line passes through the south of the
county by way of Ctonmel and Tipperary, crossing the main line
at LimerKk junction. The two lines are also connected by the
Thurles, Fcthard and Oonmel branch.
Population and Administralion.—Tht population (175,2x7
in 189 1 ; 160,23a in 1901) shows a sexious decrease (though
much leas so than formerly), and emigration is very heavy.
Of the total about 94% are Roman Catholics, and about 76%
constitute the rural population. The prindpal tovns are
Clonmcl (the county town, pop. 10,167), Tipperary (6281),
Carrick-on-Suir (5406), Nenagh (4704)* Thurles (4411), Casbd
(a cathedral city, 2938), Roscrea (2323), Caher (2058), Temple-
more (2774) and Fcthard (1498). Tipperary is divided inio a
north and south riding, each consisting of six baronies. For
parliamentary purposes it is separated into four divisions-
East, Mid, North and South — each returning one member.
Before the Union in 1800 the county returned two members to
the Irish parliament, and the boroughs of Cashd, Qoomd and
Fethard two each; afterwards, until the Redistribution Act
of 1885, the county returned two members and Cashd and
Clonmd one each. Assizes for the north riding arc held in
Nenagh and for the south riding in Clonmcl. Quarter-sessions
are held at Cashd, Ckmmel, Nenagh, Roscrea, Thnrles and
Tipperary. Ecclesiastically the county belongs to the Pro-
testant dioceses of Cashd and Killaloe, and the Roman Cathclk
dioceses of Cashd, Killaloe, Waterford and Lismocc.
History and Antiquities. — Tipperary is one of the ooonties
generally considered to have been formed by King John in
1 210; in 1328 Edward III. made it a coimty palatine in fa>-our
of the earl of Ormonde; and, though the king shortly aiier-
wards resumed his regal prerogative, the county was rcgranted
in 1337. In 137a the grant was confirmed to James Boiler.
eari of Ormonde, the lands belonging to the Church ret:iia-
ing, however, a separate jurisdiction, and bdng known as the
county of Cross Tipperary, or the Cross of Tipperary. In xO^i
James I. took the county palatine into his own hands. It was,
however, restored in 1664 to James, 12th eari and xst dv\c.
whose regalities were further made to indude the county of ibe
Cross. On the attainder of James, 2nd duke, in 1715. the
jurisdiction reverted to the Crown, and the last of thel.nsh
palatinates thus ceased to exist.
There are two round towers within the county--ooe at Roscrea
and the other on the Rock of Cashet The county i» rich in poM« «-
sion of remains of several ecclesiastical foundations of the hishcit
interest. Of these the foUowins are described under the names d
the respective towns: the remarkable ooUection of buildinn on aad
adjacent to the Rock of Cashd: the Cutercian abbey of Holy Cn»i
near Thurles, one of the finest monastic ruins in Ireland: ^id the
abbey and Franciscan friary at Roscrea. The stnuwhold of Cater.
occupied as a barrack, is in goodpreaervatioa. At Koacrea oae U
the towers of the castle built by King John remains, and the strocf
hotd of the Omondes, erected tn the reign of Henry VI IL. fom^
the d^pot attached to the barracks. The other principal ecckv.^
tic.1l ruins are the priory of Athasad, founded for Augustioian akx-.li
aU>ut 1200: and Fcthard Abbey, founded in the X4th oentory, iwv
used as a chapd.
TIPPEBART. a. market town of C6. Tipperary. Irdi::d.
Fop. (iQot), 6281. It is boMtifblly situated near the bi.^
^ the Slieve aa muck or Tjppeiaiy Uilla» a brudi Q( ibe GaUtt
TIPPOO SAHIB— TIRAH CAMPAIGN
1005
ruge, on the Wsterfotd & Linerkk line <yf the Gicftt Southeni
At Wester* railway, j m. S.E. of Limerick Junctioii and ito|
S.W. of Dnhlin. it is gpvcmed by an urban district coundL
It is situated in the centre of a fine agricettural district, and Its
batter market ranks next lo that of Cork. Condensed aqtfk
b mannfuturad. The town is of great antiquity, biit first
acquired aniportanoe by the erection of a castle by King John,
df which there aie no remains. » A monastery founded for
Aogustiniana by Henry m. gave a second impulse to iu growth.
The gatehouse, afl that remains of this foundatkm, is the only
building of antiquity in the town. * Formerly Tipperary was a
corporation from a grant made in 1310 by Edward U.'^ New
Tipperary was founded outside the town by Mr William O'Brien
in 1 890 during the "Flan of Campaign "inaugurated to boycott
the Smith-Barry csUte, in order to acoomowdate the tenants
who vacated their boldiogs, bat the scheme was a faihuek and
the place wis abandoned and sold. >.
. TIPVOO 8AH1B (i7SJ-^79Q)» iultan of Mysore, son of Hyder
All (f.t.), was born in 1755. . He was instructed in military
tactics by French officers in the employment of his father.
In 1767 in the invasion of the Ca^natic he comnuuided a oorpaof
cavaiiy, and he dlstlngniihfd himself in the MahratU War of
I77S-79- On the ootbreak of the first Mysore Wer in 17S0 he
was pot at the head of a large body of troops, and defeated
Brathwaiie on the banks of the Coleroon in Febraary r78s.
He tiifireeded his father in December 1789, and hi 1784 oonchided
peace with the British, and assumed the title of soltaB. In
1787-88 he aibjugiucd the Nairt of Malabar, and in r789 pn»>
voked Britisb invasion by ravaging the territories of the raja of
Travancoie. When the Britidi entered Myeore in 1790, he
retaliated by a coonter-invasite, but was compelled by Com-
walUs's victory near Seringapatam to cede half his dominions
(March t6, 1799). The British having deemed it necessary to
renew hoatUities in March 1799, he was shot Up in SeringapsUm
and finally killed during the storm (May 4« i799)* Tippoo
was of duel dispositlott, and inferior in mllitaiy talents to his
father.
Sec L. B. Bowrlttg. Baidar AH and Tipu StUon ('* Raferiof India
series." 1^93).
TIFSTAFr (Mid. Eng. Hppti Mtaf)^ a staiT of officelnoonted
with a tip or cap of metal, t/r with a crown, carried by a con*
stable or sheriff's officer, the term beiag hence applied to sacb an
officer. Tipstaffs are attached to the kinar's bench and chancery
divisions of the High Onxrt of Jostioe in England; their duty is
to attest or take into costody any person 00 an order of com*
mittal, if within the predncU of the court, and convey him to
the king^ prison at Kolloway. The tipstaff for the common
law ooorU was originally appointed by the marshal of the king's
bench, and the tipstaff of the lord chancellor by the marshal of
the Fleet prison. Since the abolition of these prisons the tip-
sinlls have been appointed by the k>rd chancellor and lord
chief justice respectively.
TlFIOir, an urban district 'of Staffordshire, Engbnd, in
the parliamentary borough of Wednesbury, adjacent to I>udley
(t| m. S.), served by the London & North Western and Great
Western ndlwajf*. Pop. (1901), 30^543. Iu streets are in-
terspersed with ooal-mlncs and iron works. Heavy iron goods
are the priadpal products, anchors and cables being a speciality;
there are numerous furnaces and rolling milk; also cement-.
works, brick'woiks and maltings. The village round which the
modem town sprang up is mentioned in Domesday as Tib*
bin^ton; Iu andent chyrch was undermined and collapsed in
1797.
TnUBOflCHI, OIIOUMO (i73i-i794)» the first historian
of Italian literature, was bom at Bergamo on the i8th of De-
cember 1731. He studied at the Jesuit college at Monza. entered
the order, and was appointed in z755 professor of ebquenoe in
the univcrrity of Milan. Here he produced (i 766-1 768) ViUra
lmmUial0nm wt^nmmtnta (3 vols.), a history of the extinct
order of the HumOiati, which made his literary repuUtion.
Nomfaiated in 1770 librarian to Francis IU., duke of Modcu, be
tamed to account the copious materials there.jccumulsted for
XXVI 17
the composition of his Storla idUt kUaaiwa itdkma. This*
vast work, in which Italian literature from the time of the
Etniacaas.to the end- of the X7th century is traced in deuil,
occupied eleven years, 1 77i-r789, and the thirteen quarto volumes
csnbodylng it appeared successively at Modena during that
period. A second enlarged edition (16 vols.) was issued from
1787 to X794, and was succeeded by many others, besides
amdgmenu in German, French and Enf^h. Tlraboschl
died at Modena on the 3rd of June 1794, leavbig a high
repaution for vihoe, learning and piety. '
* Tiraboschi wrote besides Bxblioteea modtnese (6 vols. ,"1781-1 786) •"
NoHaiM dt' piam, $cuiUri, ineisori, td wckUetH rnddenesi (1786);
Mtmon§ Mmidu m ^ imt ti (5 vola, t793*-i794)i »nd many minor
works. He edited the Nuaoo gwrnaU iti Utlenii d'lltiia (1773-
>7^). and left materials for a woric of great research entitled
Ihmonariv lopografic^-storko defti stati estensi (2 vols. 410, Modena,
1824-1835).. • "
TIKAH.-a'''mountainous tract of country on the Peshawar
Ifordcr of the North-west Province of India. It lies between the
Khyber Pass and the Rhanki Valley, and is inhabited by the
Afridi and Orakzai tribes. It is chiefly notable as the scene of
the Tirah Campaign of 1897 (see below). It is a cul-de-sac
in the mountains, lying off all the roads to India, and the
difficulty of its passes and the fierceness of its inhabitants had
hitherto preserved it inviolable from aU invaders. Tirah com-
prises an area of some six to seven hundred square miles and
includes under this general name all the valleys lying round
the source of the Bara river. The five chief valleys are
Maidan, Rajgul, Waran, Bara and Mastura.
Maidan, the summer home of the Af ridis, lies close under the anow>
bound ridfics of the Safcd Koh at an elevation of about 6400 ft. It
is an ovafplain about se>'eQ to eight miles long, and three or four
iride, and slopes Inwards towards the centfe of its northern side,
where all the diaina^c gathered from the four comen of the plain
is shot into a narrow c<M-kscrew outlet leading to the Bara Valley.
Centuries of detritus accumulated in this basin nave filled it op with
rich alluvial soil and made |t one of the most fertile valleys on the
frontier. All its alluvial slopes are terraced, and revetted and
irrigated till every yard is made productive. Here and theie dotted
louid
tand
,^ ^ basin
are wlkf olives In wide-grown clumps, almost amounting to forest,
and occasional 1 .- .....
bebw on the ft.
Valley lies north < , .., ^ ^
valley and well-wooded spur, eight to nine thousand feet high, and
west of the Bara Valley, which it joins at Dwatoi It is ten mfles
long, lour to five miles at its widest, and has an elevation of 5000 ft.
It w inhabited by the Kaki Khd Afridia The Waian Valley is
another valley about the same siae as Maidan, lying east of it, and
separated from it by the Taeri-Kandao Pass. It was the home of
the Afridi mullah Sayad Aldnr, and is the country of the Aka Khels.
After the function of the Rajgul and Maklan drainage at Dwatoi;
the united stream leceivee the name ef Bars, and the valley through
which it flows down to its exit in the Peshawar Valley as also known
by this name. The elevation of the valley is from j^ooo ft. at Dwatm
to 300O at Kajvrai ; on the north skte it is hemmed m by the Surghar
range, which divides it from the Basar Valley; on the south ties
another rame dividina it from Maidan and the Waraa Valley. The
heat of the Bara Valley in summer ia said to be excessive^ malaria
is prevalent, and mosquitoes vety troublesome, so the hamlets are
deserted and the Afridis migrate to the pleasant heights of Maidan.
The Mastma Valley oocupies the ■outhem half cl Tamh, and is
inhabited by the Onkiaia. It is one of the prettiest vaUeys 00 the
frontier, lymg at an elevatkm of 6000 ft The Orakaais live, for
the most part, in the Miranzai Valley, in the winter, and retreat to
Mastura, like the Afridis, during tlic summer montha The chief
passes in Tirah are the Sampagha Pass (6500 ft.), separating the
KhanU Vslley from the Mastura Valley; the Arhanga Peas (6095
ft.), sepamtiog Mastura Valley from Maidan: Saran Sar (8650 ft.),
leading from the Zakka Khd portion of Maidan into the Bara
Valley; the Tseri Kandao (8575 ft), separating Maidan from the
Waran Vslley, and the Sapri Pass (5190 ft), leading fi rm the east
of the Mastura Valley into the Bara Valley in the (irection of
Maroanal The whole of Ttnh was thoroughly explored and mapped
at the time of the Tirah Expeditioa
TIRAH CAMPAIOH, an Indian frontier srar fai r897-98L
The Afridis had for sixteen years received a subsidy from the
Indian government for the safeguarding of the Khyber Pase,
In additk»n to which the govemmciu bad main ta in ed for this
about m clusters all over the plain are sqnarfr>built twoatoeryed n
and rimber houses, standing in the ahade of gigantic walnut a
mulberry trees. Up on the hillsides surrounding the Maidan basin
il pomegranates. Higher still are die blue pines; but
i foelvins plains are nothtn||[ but fruit trees. Rajgul
»rth of Maidan, from which it is separated by a steep
ioo6
TIRANA— TIKE
purpose a loca^ regimeQt entirely oompoaed of Afddb, wbo wcr
sutioned in the pass. Suddenly, however, the tribesmen iok,
captured aU the posts in the Khyber held by their own countiy*
men, and attacked the forts on the Samana Ridge near Peshawar.
It was estimated that the Afridis and Orakaais could, if united^
bring from 40,000 to 50,000 men into the field. The prepara*
tions for the expedition occupied some time, and meanwlule
the Mohmand rising north-west of the Kliyber Pass was first
dealt with (see Mohmand).
The general commanding was General Sir William Lockhart
iq.v,) commanding the Punjab Army Corps; he had under him
34,882 men, British and native, in addition to ao,ooo followers.
The frontier post of Kohat was selected as the base of the cam-
paign, and it was decided to advance along a single line. On
the x8th of October the operations commenced, fighting ensuing
immediately. • The Dargai heights, which commanded the line
of advance, were captured without difficulty, but abandoned
owing to the want of water. On the 20th the same positions
were gallantly stormed, with a loss of X99 killed and wounded.
The progress of the expedition, along a wretched track through
the mountains, was obstinately contested on the 29th of October
at the Sampagha Pass leading to the Mastura valley, and on the
31st at the Arhanga Pass from the Mastura to the Tirah valley.
The force, in detached brigades, now proceeded to traverse
the Tirah district in aU directions, and to destroy the walled
and fortified hamlets of the Afridis. The two divisions available
for this duty numbered about 20,000 men. A force about 3200
strong commanded by Brigadicr-Gcncral (aftcru'ards Major*
General Sir Richard) Westmacott was first employed to attack
Saran Sar, which was easily carried, but during the retirement the
troops were hard pressed by the enemy and the casualties num-
bered sixtyJour. On the ztth of November Saran Sar was
again attacked by the brigade oi Brigadier-General (afterwards
Sir Alfred) Gaselee. Experience enabled better dispositions to
be made, and the casualties were only three. The traversing
of the valley continued, and on the 13th of November Brigadier-
General Kempster's brigade visited the Waran valley via the
Tseri Kandao Pass. Little difficulty was experienced during the
advance, and several villages were destroyed; but on the i6th,
during the return march, the rearguard was hotly engaged all
day, and had to be relieved by fiesh troops next morning. The
casualties numbered seventy-two. Ahnost daily the Afridis,
too wise to risk general engagements, waged a i)erpetual guerrilla
warfare, and the various bodies of troops engaged in foraging
or survey duties w^re constantly attacked. On the 21st of
November a brigade under Brigadier-General Westmacott was
detached to visit the Rajgiil valley. The road was exceedingly
difficult and steady opposition was encountered. The objects
were accomplished, and the casualties during the retirement
alone numbered twenty-three. The last important work under-
taken was the punishment of the Chamkannis, Mamuzais and
Hasaozab. This was carried out by Brigadier-General Gaselee,
who joined hands with the Karram movable column ordered up
for the purpose. The Mamuxais and Massozais submitted im-
mediately, but the Chamkannis offered resistance on the xst
and 2nd of December, the British casualties numbering about
thirty. The Kunram column then returned to its camp, and
Sir W. Lockhart prepared to evacuate Tkah, despatching his
two divisions by separate routes — the 1st under Major-Gcneral
W. Penn Symons (d. 1899) to return via the Mastura valley,
destroying the forts on the way, and to join at Bara, within
easy march of Peshawar; the and divisk)n under Major>General
Yeatman Biggs (d. 1898), and, accompanied by Sir W. Lock-
hart, to move along the Bara valley. The base was thus to be
transferred from Kohat to Peshawar. The return march began
tn the. 9th of December. The cold was intense, 21 degrees of
frost beltag registered before leaving Tiiah. The movement
of the 1st division though arduous was practically unopposed,
tot the 40 miles to be covered by the and division were contHted
almost throughout. The actual march down the Bara valley
X34 mfles) commenced on the loth, and involved four days of the
liArrlMt fighting and marching x>f the campaigii. The road
croiged and rscrosaiid the icy stream, while snow, sleet md rain
fell constantly. On the toth the casualties numbeied about
twenty. On the 1 xth some fifty or sixty casualties weie recorded
among the troops, but many foUowers were killed or died of
ttposttre, and quantities of stores were losL On the inh
the column halted for rest. On the 13th the march waes Ksumed
in improved weather, though the cold was still sevene. The
rearguard was heavily engaged, and the casualties numbered
about sixty. On the 14th, after further fighting, a junction
with the Peshawar column was effected. The ist dhrisioo,
aided by the Peshawar column, now took possession ol the
Khyber forts without opposition. Ncgotiatwns for peace were
tiien begun with the Afridis, who under the threat of another
expedition into Tirah in the spring at length agreed to pay the
fines and to surrender the rifies demanded. The expeditionary
force was broken up on the 4th of April 1B98. A meaMraMe
feature of this campaign was the presence in the fighting line of
the Imperial Service native troops under their own officers,
while several of the best known of the Indian princes served
on Sir W. Lockhart's suff. (C J. B.)
TIRANA, a town of Albania, European Turkey, in the vilayet
of Scutari; 20 m. £. by N. of Durazso, at the southern ex-
tremity of the plain of Kroia. Pop. (1905) about 12,000. Tirana
is beautifully situated on the border of the richly wooded bifd>-
lands inhabited by the Mirdite Albankuis. It is & picturesqae
town with a large bazaar and many mosques, gardens and
oUve groves. It was founded early in the xyth century and
was kmg the see of a Greek bishop, although the majority of
its inhabitants- have always been Modems. Krola, the andent
stronghold of Scanderheg (q.vJ), is 14 m. north.
TIRARD» PIERRE BMAKUEL (1827*1693). French poli-
tician, was bom of French parents at Geneva <mi the ayth of
September 1827, and, after studying in his native town, became
a civil engineer. After five years of government service he
resigned to become a jewel merchant. His determined oppoa-
tion to the empire, cuhninating in 1869 in 9. campaign in favour
of the radical candidate opposed to Ollivier, was rewarded by
his election as mayor of the x ith arrondiasement of Paris and as
deputy for the Seine. Nominated a member of the Commune, he
protested against the tyranny of the central committee, and
escaped from Paris to resume his place among the gxU e m e
Left in the National Assembly at Versailles. In 1876 be was
returned for the xst arrondissement of Paris to the Chamber
of Deputies, sAd was re-elected next year. He apedaUy de-
voted himself to finance, being for a sh^ time president d the
customs commission before his appointment as inintster of
agriculture and commerce in March 1879 in the Waddingtoa
cabinet He held the same portfolio ia the first Freydnet
ministry (1879-1880) and in the Jules Ferry cabinet (x88o-x88x).
He was minister of commerce in Freycinet's second cabinet
(1882), of finance under E. Duclac (1882-1883), and under A.
Fallidres (1883), retaining the same office in the second Jules
Ferry ministry (1883-^885). When Camot became pnsidebt
of. the Republic in 1887 he asked Tirard to form a xninistiy.
He had to deal with the WUson scandal which had led to Pre-
sident Gravy's downfall, and with the revisionist agitation of
General Boulanger. His refusal to proceed to the revisioa of
the constitution of 1875 ^^ to his defeat on the 30th of March
x868. He returned to power next year, and decided to bring
Boulanger and his chief supporters before the High Court,
but Ihe.geaeral's flight effectively settled the question. He also
arrested PiuUp, duke of Orleans, who had visited France in
disguise. He resigned office on the xsth of March 1890 on the
question of the Franco-Turkish oommacial-trtsaty. He te-
placed M. Rouvier in the Ribot cabihet (1892-18913) as aafaiistcr
of finance, and died in Paris on the 4th of November 1893.
TIRS, an homonymous word, of which the meanings are (1) to
weary out, (2) to adorn, or, as a substantive, a headHlreas, (3}
the outer rim of a ^oel! " Tii% " in sense ( i ) is from the Old Eng^
lish tearian, to weary, transitive and intransitive. Ultiftiately this
word ia connected with" tear," to read, the stages of mcanittg
being to lend apart, to wear out, to be or make exfaawstcd
TIRE
1007
la wofe (a> the woid is « afaortened fotm of '* attire," dress,
cqulpmeBt; this is from the Old French atirer, to put in order,
tire, a row, hence the word now spelled in English titTt but
earlier found as Urt or fyre. ** Tin " (j) ^ somewhat obscure
ctymologicaUy. It may be connected with ** attiss," especially
with reference to a siinilarity to the band of a woman's head-
dicss, or it may be a corruption of " tie-r," meaning that which
*' ties " or fastens together, though this is rejected by Skeat.
The spelling '* tyre " is not now acfepied by the best English
authorities, and Is unrecognized in America.
The tire of a wheel is the outer circumferential portkuithat
rolls on the ground or the track prepared lor it. When the track
is smooth aiid level, as in a railway, the principal functions of
the tire are to provide a hard, durable surface ^ the wheel,
and to reduce to a minimum the resistance to rolling. Railway
vefaide wheels usually have hard steel tires, this combination
with the hard steel rail giving the maximum endurance and the
minimum rolling resistance. For road vehicles also, in which
durability is the prime consideration, the tires are usually rings*
of iron or steel shrunk on the wooden wheels.
In Wcydes, motor-cars, and other road vehicles in which
freedom from vibration and shock from uneven road surface
is desired, rubber or pneumatic tires are employed. These
clastic tires are capable of absorbing small irregularities
in the road surface without transmitting much vibration
to the frame of the vehicle. Their range of yield is, however,
too limited to absorb the larger irregularities met with on
rough roads, so that their use does not obviate the ne^fcssity of
spring support of the carriage body on the wheel axles. Tbe
pneumatic tire has a veiy much smaller rolling resbtancc than a
solid rxibber tire. Where the driving power is limited, as to
bicydesy this consideration is by far the most important. A
pneumatic tired bicycle requires les^ power to arive it at a
given speed than does one with solid rubber tires— in popular
language, it is much faster; hence pneumatic tires are now
aioBOst univenally used 00 bicydet.
Mlimi Retulatue.-r^niaaor Oibome Reynolds, 'in his investt*
gations on the nature of rolUng icflistance. ioood that it m due to
actittl stidif^K of the surfaces ia ooo-
tact. Rg. I shows an iron rol)er
-' P ±Jftf^mmr vtt^ <>n * ^^ <^^ *beet of
^"^, Ijll iodia-nibber. A series of cquiifis-
7/////I I ^^^^ paralld lines drawn on the
lliliUillill iodia-nibber aiw distorted by the
presMifV. as shown in the figore.
The distance between the raaiks on
the periphety of the roller oorrespoitda „ .
oa the undistortod sheet of robocr. Tbe motkm of the roller
being from left to right, actual contact takes place between C
and /)« The surface of the rubber k depicsied at P, is balfed
up 10 front at Dt and behind at C The vertical oompressioo of
the rubber at P canses it to bulge laterally, this canuag a Utersl
contraction at D, which la turn cauaei a vertioal catenBOn at D.
Then is thus created a tendency to idatave creeping motion he i wee a
the roller and rubber. Between / and theri is no rdative sliding,
but over the portions tD and Cf there is slapping, with a consequent
expenditure of enersy. The action causes the actual dirtanee
travemd by the roller to be diffemnt from the geometric distanoe
calculated from the diameter and number of levdiitioas of the
roller. A certain amount of energy is expended in distorting the
rubber between PtnAD; part of »is enetgy is restored as the sear
portion of the roller panes over this and the rubber gets back to iu
original untrained ttata»
With a solid rubber tire roiling on a hard, smooth surface the
actkm tt similar. Fig. a shows a portion of the tira flattened out:
^ aod pt ar* the intensities of the
pressures at points at and Ot at
equal distances In front of and
behind e, the geome t rical point of
contact: fi opposes, ft assists the
rolling of the whed. At usual
spcetu the oppodng force, pi, will
be greater than the force 01 resti-
tution. Pt, the difference bdng a
mcasnre.af the dastk hyslercsb of the material. If.at.^t spscd.
If the vertical comprcaiion ci of tbe tine be denoted by y. the
energy lost may be nid to be propqrtional to By. Companng three
tires of sted, solid rubber and air respectivdy rolling on a smooth,
hard surface, J7 is probably smallest for sted and largest for
rubber, y » least for steet greater for a pneumatic tire pumped
hard, grmer Mil for sdid rubber and for a pneumatic tire in-
suffidentiy inflated. The rolling lesisunce of the sted tire will
therefore he least; next in order come the pneumatic tire inflated
hard, and the pneumatic tire inflated soft, while the sdid rubber
tire has the greatest resistance.
" Tires. Weight Snpporled.^-Let a pneumatic tire
inflated to ^ lb per square tnch support a load W m. The portkm
W4+k
Fig. y.
Fig. 2.
near the ground is flattened (fiig^. 3).
I, since the part
P and 9 on the opposite sides
to be perfectly flexible, then,
grounois quite flat, the pressi
must be equal; that is, the tii
intensity p lb per square inch.
If the tire fabric is assumed
the part in contact with the
e presses on the ground with an
The area of the flattened ponioo
Fic. 4.
is therefore WIp, Fig. 4 shows the shapes of the areas of contsct
of a blo'cle tire 28 in. by ik in., for various amounts of vertical
flattening, the figures annexed to the curves in plan and to the
corresponding lines in devation indicating the amoanf of vertical
flattening in sixteenth parts of an inch. Let y be the vertical
flattening, a the 8emi<major axis, and b the semi-minor axis of
the curve oi contact. For small values of y. corresponding to a
tire pumped hard, the curves of contact may be considered plane
sections of a circular ring. The area of the curve may be taken
equal to that of a n dlipse hav ing the same axes, i^. wab . But
a«Viy-( ^-yy«V»^ y->'-V;Viir:y.
and »- Vr»-(r-y)*- Vy Vay^.
J? and r bdng the nrindpal radii of sectioo of the tire longitudinally
and transvendy. Tberdore. ap proxima t dy.
A are^wsyVait— yVar— y.
For small values of y. y may be neglected in comparison with tit
and ir respectivdy, and tbe above equation becomes
A -iwyVJJT-wyVZJS,
and therefore W^^wyp^^wyp-^VL
For larger values of y. i4 is smaller than that given by the abov«
formula, aa shown in fig. 5. which gives the areas of contact plotted
with respect to the vertical Ratternngs for a
tire 38 m. by 1} in. The same curve may
serve to show values of W, thus corresponding
to the load-deflection curve of a spring. The
curve deariy shows the snudi value of the
pneumatic tire as a spring device. Thus.
when pumpiMl hard, so that the normal toad
is earned with \ in. vertical flattening, when
_ the bicyde u travdUns qukrkfy. a lamp on
I. ijifj^iiiru*** **** ""** eauivalent to f in. further flattening
P,^ . nearly doubles the upward reaction on the
'*<^-5- wheef. With the normal load carried with
I in. vertical flattening the same himp on the road increases the
upward reaction by only 2J%. the area of contact of the tire bdng
vd _ :h c.
increased from 6-5 to 8 aq. in. The above brief investjgatioiL
invalving a few approximations, is yet sufiidently accurate to aflord
a.ckac ioea of the usual c on d ti io ns of n tire.
ioo8
TIRE
e>
OuUr C^Mf .— The outer cover haA to be itmrtK enough to with-
stand the air-pressure inside the JLire and to tfansmit the driving
or the braking effort from the wheel to the road surface. For the
latter purpose, the threads of the fabric are best disposed spirally,
as shown m fig. 6. While driving in the direction of the arrow the
tension on the fibres u will be slightly increased, that on fibres dd
decreased. The distortbn of the fabric due to drivinc u thus
reduced to a minimum. A woven fabric is sometimes uscOj but one
made up of two or more la^^ers of parallel threads embedded ui rubber
is better. This construction makes the outer cover more flexible,
and consequently less, energy is u'asted in distorting the fabric as
the tire roUs oo mnd off the ground, while greater durability is also
..^^ secured. Fig. 7 shows a plain woven
^^^ fabric, from which it is seen that each
thread takes the form of a sinuous line.
As the air-pressure inside the tire is
increased the threads tend to become
straighten, thus pressing together with
a cutting action. The total thickness
b greater than that of two layers of
parallel threads, while on the latter the
threads can be placed closer together.
The woven fabnc is therefore stiffer,
weaker, and kss durable than that built
up of parallel layers. The average
p.Q . tensile stress per inch width, tt» on the
'' longitudinal section of the cover is
[iven by the formula pd^2ti; that on the transverse section. It,
jy pd^^h, d being the diameter of the tire in transverse section;
consequently the stress on the longitudinal section is twice that on
the transverse. With the spiral dispo«ition of the threads, as
shown in fig. 6. this inequality of stress in the two principal direc-
tions has the effect of tending to enlarge the transverse section of
the tire, while at the same time tending to contract the tire on
the dm.
Sin^ tube, VoubU tube and TubeUss Tires.— A, tire, beside being
strong enough to resist the stresses to which it is subjected, must be
air-tight. In most tires for cycles
and motor-cars an inner tube of
india-rubber is made separate from
the outer covtr. In these double-
tube tires the outer cover is more
or less easily detachable from the rim.
The air under pressure b pNamped
inside the inner tube, whkh b sup-
ported by the outer cover. In case of
puncture of a bicycle tire, .the inner
tube is repaired by cementing a patch
of rubber on the outside of the inner
tube, a aohittoo of india-rubber in naphtha or bbulphide of c^bon
being the cementing agent empteyed. Motor-car tires are oest re-
paired by vulcanizing, as sidution natches usually come loose owing
to the heating of the tire. In a single-tube tire, as its name indicates,
the outer co>-er and the air-tight tube are vukanixed together to form
a single hollow ring. To repair a simple puncture of a smgle-tube tire
it b not necessary to detach it from the rim. Single-tube tires are
not often used now, except for path-rsdng bicycles. A tabdeas tire,
such as the '* Fleuss " (6g. 8), consists of the outer cover, as used in a
double-tube tire, to the mner surface of which an air-tight layer of
sheet-rubber has been cemented. A continuous flap projects from
one edge of the tire, and when in position on the rim this flap b pressed
aeainst the other edge, forming an air-tight seat A slight moistening
01 the flap with soft soap tends to remove any impo^ection in the
tightness of the air scat The repair of a puncture of a tubefess
tire can be very quickly done. Since the inner surface of the air-
tight by^er is accessible, after pbcing the patch in position the tire
can be inflated and the bic^-de ridden at once : whereas in the double-
tulte tire sufficient time must ebpse between the patching and the
intUtion to allow the rubber solution to set.
AUackmunt of Tins la Rims.— A single-ti^ tire can be cemented
directly to the rim. For detachable double-tube tires on bicycles,
tmx> methods, the Dualop-WekJi endless wire
(fig. 9) and the "beaded edge'* (fig. 11).
account for by far the greater proportion.
^ In the Dunlop-Wekli tire the endless wires
1 are embedded in the two edges of the outer
r cover respccti^^^, the tnnsverse tcasMm
of the fabric bttn^ tsansmittcd to tfaeaa.
Each endless wire n formed of three ooib,
so as to^ve flexibility to the edge of the
P__ _ cover. Tne ring formed by each endless
^^^9' wire b smaller in diameter than the edge of
tbs risB. Tbe nAkPe portioa of the rim b d ee p en e d . "Its diameter
being kss than that of the ring of endless wire. To detach the tire
•Iter deflation, one pait of the edge of the outer cover b depn^ssed
iato the bottom of the rim. tht opposite part then profects sUghtly
bayoad the edge of the rim and b pcdled ontside: one portioo being
Ml oiit;4Aa, the rest easily follows. F'«. 10 shows the nature of the
■tntval Mtkw b t t w te n outer cover C. trm K and endless wire W in
« Dmiop- Welch tire. The transverse tcfisioa Tomtbt ooter cover
b transrekted to the endless wire W, whkh b abo aubjecMd to ttae
reaaion iVT of the rim. The resulunt Q must lie in the plane of
th^ endless wire W, and constitutes a radblly outward force acting
at all Doints, which in turn causes a longitudinal pull, F, on the wire.
Let d te the diameter of the inner air-tube, D the diameter of the
ring fonned by the endkss wire IK, ^ the air pressure, and # the angle
Fio. 10.
Fig. II.
between T and 0. Then for each inch length of wire T^pd.z,
O^r/cos 9; while P»QDl2. Combining these results, we ^<:t
F'^tdDU cos #. UB -so*, P>>o-29^I>, from whicb the
section ot wire for a tire of any siae can be calciilated.
In the " beaded edge ** fastening, thbkened edns €■ the outer
oover take into corresponding edges formed 00 the dm, and are
sccurdy held therein when the tire b inflated.
Prevention of Punctures. — ^The outside of the tire b co v e re d with
a thick byer of rubber, which protects the fabric tram injury by
contact with the rough road surfaces. In full roadster tires tha
outer byer of rubber is thinner at the ades than at the tread (the
part which actually rolb on the ground), but.^till completely co\'cn
the fabric In light roadster and racu» tires the ades are not
covered, and an appreciable gain in speed or ease oC driving b due
to the greater fleubility of the oover thus obeainwi N umer o us
puncture-proof bands and other devices have been tried with the
object' of absolutely preventing punctures, or making the tire self-
sealing after puncture: but they increase the rolling nesistaiioe, and
therefore the effort necessary to drive the bicyde at a given speed.
Vahefor Pfteumatic Tire. — A noa-retom valve b pernanently
attached to the inner tube of the tire, which aUows the air forced
from the inflater to pass inside the inner tube. The most commonly
used, the Dunlop- Woods valve, consists of a diort piece of rubber
tubing mounted on a bram stem, which has a small nole oonimuni-
cating from its outer end to the inner aiufaoe of the rubber tofae.
Nonnally, the.tubing doses the mouth of thb hole, preventing the
air from escaping from the tire, but lifts freely when air b being
forced from the inflater. The arrangement of tlie pans for dcAati^
and for getting access to the nibber tubing b very simple and
effective Tbe cydist should be careful that the small piece of valw
tubing, and the two fibre washers at the ends of the flcxiMe ooasKcter
which serve to make air-tight the two joints between the latter and
the pump and valve stem r e sp e cti vely, are always in good oosMlition.
If either of thtae seemingly small detaib b out of order it may be
impossible to pomp the tues hard enough; the bicvde bein^ ridden,
the tires nmy oe mppcd in many pkces b et we en u>e rim and sharp
edges on the road surface, and pcac ti eally ndnad.
Tires for Motor Cars, — In the cost of upkeep of a motor cox the
tires are the most expensive item. For a slow speed vehicle an
onfinary steel tire, shrunk or hydrauhcaDy pressed en a wooden
wheel, IS cheap and durable. At lugher speeds over nnevcn roads
it b lem aatiwictory; the wheel, forming with the tve one rigid
body, receives violent accelerationB vertaatly, due to the uneven
road, and b being continually shot upwards into ^e ah ovt of oontnct
with the ground. Thus eaocssive noise and vibration are earned at
all but veiy moderate speeds, and for passen^ cars an dartic tire
b a necessity. The sobd rubber tire, not bewg liable to pn ncini e .
b t rust wor t hy if made of sufficient section a l area, but it b e xpemiwe
and lades thie comfort and easy running of the pnetmatic. The
motor car pneumatic tire b made on the same lines as the eyde tirv.
bat the air^nbe b thicher, and the onter osnper b bmH op with
Fta. 12.
several layers of canvas or fabck to gnie the
(fig. 14). To provide for wear, the outer p ro t e cti ve byef of
b c oo sid er a biy thickened at die trend, where it b abo res]„ .
with two or twee byers of canvas. The RUmer ooni thv b bci>t
up of two byets of cord (fig. 12) arraneed uiialy,
* 01 four strands of six thrcndsL The co
TUftEH— TIRGOVISHTEA
1009
•omewbat. their narrow surUcM beiiig toiether at the tread of the
tire, and thdr wide ones at the beaded edge. The ancborase of the
cord to the beaded edge
b obtained by Meet pias
passing throufhtJie looas
of the cofd and iato the
canvas beads (fis. 13).
)The cords, tread and
beads being «nviilcaouRd
together, the tire is
practically impervious to
moisture, and has there-
fore less tendency to rot
than a canvas tire. Fur-
ther, the thmadi, by the
proo^w of manafactvre.
I ,< ire. insulated each from
V t'. the others bva layer of
\ i mbber, and there is thus
V 1 less tendency for them
Nj to fray or saw each other
as the tiie yields dur-
ing continuous running.
These features of con-
Fic. 13. atmccion tend to graater
dwabiUtr'
Strains on Fahrie ofPntumatie Tire. — As each portion of the tread
conies in contact with the ground it is flattened, while the rest of
the transverse section has iu ladius of curvature slightly decreased
(fig. 3). Thus the -transverae section is cepcatedly uadergoing
flexure through a range rxrrnding from flatness (radhis of curva-
ture infinity) to a radius of curvature slightly leas than that of
the normal section. On the longitudinal section the range of
flexure b from flat to a radius of curvature iequal to twit of
the normal section. The latter range b thertfore mbch less
than the former. The necessary thichncw of the iabfic and
rubber to resist the air pressure and punctures, involves a certain
amount of stiffness; consequently the energy expended in the
flexure of the tire b much greater than in a thin cycle tire. This
energy appears as heat; tlw temperatme of the cover rise* until
the heat carried away by the air b equal to that generated by flemrei
At very high ^leeds this heating becomes so great as to have bys
injurious action on the rubber and fabric. Uniortunatdy, the solid
rubber tire b worse off in thb respect, its elastic hysterens. and there-
fore the heating effect, being greater than that of a pneumatic tire.
It b evident that increase of the diameter of the tire aectioo lesaena
the heating action, while reduction of dbmeter of the wheel has no
effect, so fone as the ran^ of longitudinal flexure b leas than the
transverse. Nearly all tire fabrics are equally stiff longitudinally
and transversely: but probably greater durability would be obtained
from a fabric more flexible tranevecidy, even if sooewhat atiffer
longitudinally.
Fneumatic Tira for Heavy Loodf.— From the formula for load
supported, W^ry^vT^. for a given air piessure p and vertical
flattening y, the load supported b proportional to the square reot of
the product of the longitudinal and transverse dbmeters; thus a tire
36' X4' b equivalent to one a4'X6'. But the latter can be
subjected to a much greater vertical flattening y than the farmer,
with a less range of flexure of the cover, probably twice the amount.
In thb event, with the same air pressures, the 24'X6' tire could
carry a load twice that of the 36' X4' tire. Or, if both tires carried
Che same load, the air pressure in the former might be half that in
the latter^ and. its vertical flattening under normal load being twice
as great, its value as a spring in absorbing vertical unevcnness of the
road would be double. Since the first use of pneumatic tires for
motor cars, they have been steadily reduced in dbmeter. and
probably they can be made still smaller with advantage, if the
transverse section be proportionately increased.
The following Ubie gives the maximum loads and minimum air
fressures for a few sizes of tires, as recommended by the Dunlop
neumatic Tire Company. The corresponding vertical flattening
has been calculated from the formula given above.
(fig. la). Fig. 13 shows a flange ftstcnilif as used for the Pklmer
cora tire, the two flanges being secured by a number of bolts passing
through the rim of the whed.
Solid Rwbber Tim for Heean YehieUs.—Vtg. 1) shows a section
ol a solid rubber tire and iub, the rubber berag forced under
pressure on the beaded rim.
For very heavy loads, as in
motor omnibuses, a twin tire
gives the best results. The
two tires are fastened on the
same lim, at a suihdent dia-
Unce apeirt to allow each to
bulge lateral^ as it rolb on
the ground.
Diameter.
^1
Tires I
Heavy r
Car \
Tires I
In.
38
28
38
3a
32
Section.
In.
3)
4
S
Maximum
Load per
Wheel.
lb
¥»
700
900
loco
1300
Minimum
* Air
Pressure.
lb
per sq. in.
70
5
s
80
85
95
Vertical
Flattening,
In.
.19
•19
•25
•33
•33
•34
Fastening of Motor Tires fa Rims.-^Tht
u most brgdy used,
beaded edge " type of
supplemented by security doIu
Fig. 14, Fio. 15.
Non-Skid Drvices.~^Kd a pneumatic tire flattens where it b lA
contact with the road, under certain conditions of road surface a
semi-liquid film of mud gets interposed, and
frictional contact b rednced to a minimum.
The. vehicle has then no lateral constraint,
and side-slipping or skidding may occur. On
a bicycle this means a dismount, probably a
severe fan; on a three or four-wheeled
vehicle the steering control b temporarily
lost. Cycle tires are usually provided with
longitudinal ridccs at .the tread (figs. 8, 9. 1 1 ) ;
the narrow surfaces of the ridges penetrate
the mud and aet a better grip on the solid
road surface Motor car tires are sometimes
left with a smooth tread (fig. 14): fig. t;i
shows a non-slipping tread with longitudinal
ridges. The Dnnl^ non-slipping tread b
formed by a scries of bteral grooves about
a in. apart all round the tread. Fig. 16
shows a tire fitted with a non-skid leather
band, to which hard steel studs are fastened.
Thb type of non-skid band can be either
vulcanised to the tire or independently
fastened to the rim at the beaded edges.
The Parsons " non-skid " device consbts of
chains crossing the tire at ri^ht ansles and
fitting loosely over iu turtace; they are
fastened at tntervab to two chain rings one
on each skle of the wheel, and can be easily Fic. 16.
adapted to any tire. (A Sp.)
TIRSH (anc Teira), a town of Asia Minor, situated in the
valley of the KttchOk Menderes {Caystrus) at the foot of Mt
McsMgis. It was the capital of the aroirate of Aidin in the 14th
century, and b described by Ibn Batuta as a fine dty with streams
and gardens. Pop. over 14.000, the larger half Moalema.
It is connected with Smyrna by a branch of the Aidin railway,
and has a trade in raisins, wheat, rice, tobacco and cotton.
itRQOVISHTBA (Rumanian Ttrfonpea, or Tdrgoo^Ua,
■omctlBies incorrectly written Tergonsia or TirgpvUO, the capital
of the depanment of Dimbovitaa, Rumania; situated at the
foot of the Carpathians, on the right bank of the river Jalemltca,
48 m. N.N.W. of Bucharest. Pop. (1900), 9398. A branch Kne
connccU Tlrgovishtea with the main WaUchbn system, and
b prok>nged northwards into the hills, where there ace rich
drpoaits of pettoleum. salt and lignite. Coal b abo found but
not worked. Apart from the scanty mint of a i4th<entuTy
palace, the moat interesting buOding in the town b the
MetropoliUn church, ttOI one of the finest in the country, with
iu nine towm and monuments of the princely house of
Cantacuzino. It was founded in 1515 *>y Neagoe Basarab,
builder of the famous cathedral of Curtea de Argesh. Tlrgo-
vishtea b a garrison town, with a cavalry training school and an
artOleiy depot and repairing arsenal.
lOID
TIRXSU JIU-^TmOL
Under Biirceft the Old (i3t3'i4i9) TIrgovisbteft becaeie the
third capital of WahuJiia. In the 15th century it was sacked
by the Szeklers. Michael the Brave defeated the Turks under its
walls in 1597. In the i6th ce&tocy it ba4 « population of 60,000
and contained 70 churches and 40 convents. After Constantine
Brancovan moved the seat of government to Bucharest in 1698,
Ttrgovfshtea lost its importance and the popul&tion decreased.
TlROU JIU (often incorrectly written Tekgu Jiu), the capital
of the department of Gorjiu, Rumania; situated among the lower
slopes of the Carpathians, on the left bank of the river Jiu,
and at the terminus of a branch railway which joins the
main Walachian line between Tnrzui Severin and Craiova.
Pop. (1900), 6634. The town has a small trade in timber,
petroleum and farm produce. Anthracite coal is found in the
neighbourhood.
nRGU OCNA (Rumanian also Tarpd Ocna)^ a town of
Romania, on the left bank of the river Trotosh, an affluent of
the Sereth.and on a branch railway which crosses the Ghimesh
Pass into Transylvania. Pop. (1900), 8033. • Tlcgu Ocna is
built among the Carpathian Mountains, on bare hills formed of
rock salt. Outside the town stands the laigest prison in
Rumania; beyond this are the mines, worked, since 1870, by
convicts, who receive a small wage. The thickness of the salt
is unknown; the mines 3aeld about 11,000 tons annually.
TIRHUT, or Tishoot, the historic name of a tract in northern
India, being that portion of Behar which lies north of the
Ganges. It corresponds roughly with the ancient Hindu kingdom
of Mfihila {q.v.). Down to 1873 it formed a single district,
which was then divided into the two districts of Darbhanga and
Muzaffarpur. In 1908, when the diviaon of Patna was sub-
divided, the name of Tirhyt was again officially given to a new
division, containing the four districts of Barbhaiiga, Muza£Farpur,
Saran and Champaran: total area, x 3,588 sq. m.; total pop.
(1902), 9,867,373. It is a continuous alluvial plain, tra*
versed by many winding rivers', and it supports the densest
population in all India. It is the main centre of the indigo
industry, conducted by European planters, which is now in a
declining condition. Other crops are rice, millets, wheat, maize,
oilseeds, sugar-cane and tobacco. Apart from indigo there are
no large industries. Since the famine of 1874 the whole country
has been saved from its former isolation by the construction of
the Bengal & North- Western railway, with numerous branches;
but the Ganges is nowhere bridged.
TIRIDATSS, or Tekidates, a Persian name, given by Airian
in his Parthica (preserved by Photius, cod, 58, and Syncellus,
P* 539 scq.) to the brother of Arsacea L, the founder of the
Parthian kingdom, whom he is said to have succeeded. But
Arrian's account seems to be quitQ unhistorical (cf. Pakibia).
The king commonly called Tirtoates It. was set lip by the
Porthians against Phraates IV. in 32 B.C., but expelled when
Phraates returned with the help of the Scythians (Dio Cass, li
18; Justin xlii. 5 seq.; cf. Horace, Od. L 26). Tiridates fled to
Syria, where Augustus allowed him to stay, but refused to
support him. During the next years Tiridates invaded Parthia
again; some coins dated from March and May, 26 b.c, with the
name of a king " Acsaces Philoromaios, " belong to him; on the
reverse they show the king seated on the throne, with Tyrrhe
stretching out a palm branch towards him. He was soon
expelled again, and brought a son of Phraates into Spain to
Augustus. Augustus gave the boy. back to his father, but
declined to surrender " the fugitive slave Tiridates " (Justin xlii
5; Dio liii. 33; cf. Mon, Aneyr, 5, 54; in IL 18 Bio has
wrongly placed the surrender of the son in 30 b.c.).
Tiridates III.^ grandson of Phraates IV., lived as a hostage
inJ^ome and was educated there. When the Parthians rebelled
against Artabamis H. io a.d. 35 they applied for a king to
Tiberius, who sent Tiridates. With the assistance of L. Vitellius
' ' ' ' -s entered Selcucia, but could not maintain himself long
inn, vi. 3a sqq.; Dio Cass. IviiL 26).
•i Tiridates is also borne by some local kings of Persia,
c Arsadd kings of Armenia and Georgia. The best
be Armenian kings is t)ie Tikidaxes (aa aj&-3i4)
who was baptised by Gregory the Illuminator (sec Akvenxav
CBtmcH). (£0. M.)
nRLBMOIIT (Flemish Tkknen)^ a town of Belgium in the
province of Brabant, x i m. S.E. of Louvain. Pop. (1904), 18,340.
It still preserves its encdnte, 6 m. in circumference. The
principal church, Notre Dame du Lac, begun in the 12th and
enlarged in the 15th centuries, is still unfinished. The church
of St Germain also dates from the lath century, and contains
a ftne altar-piece by Wkppera. John Bolland, the Jesuit who
began the collection of the Ada sanetorum^ was bom here in
Z596. The principal Industrie are brewing, soap manufacture
and tanning.
TIRMIOHl (Aba 'IsA Mahommed ibn '1st ut-Tlrmidhll
(d. 892), Arabian tfaditlonalist, was bom at Tirmidh on the Ji^&n.
He was a scholar of the traditionalist Bukhlrf, and in his search
for traditions travelled through Khorasan, Irak and Hejaz.
His ai-Jitmi? us-^a^ is one of the sbc canonical collections of
traditions. In it he admitted every .tradition that bad ever
been used to support a legal decision, indicating the doctrine it
supported and mentioning the doctrines opposed to it. It was
published at Bulaq in 1875. He also wrote the KiUib usk-
Shanu^U on the character and life of Mahomet (printed at
CalcutU, 1846). (G. W. T.)
TIROL (or Tyrol*), the most southerly province of the
Austrian Empire. It makes a great bend southwards towards
Italy, by vriiich it is bounded on the S:E., S. and S.W., while on
the W. it adjoins part of present Switzerland (till 1652 the
Lower Engadine was Tindese, and not Swiss) and also the
Austrian province of Voralberg; to the N. it borders on Bavaria
and to the E. the province of Upper Austria. It is traversed
from west to east by the main chain of the Alps^ which rises in
various snow-covered summits, the more iinportaxit being the
Ortkr (12,802 ft., the loftiest peak in Tirol and in the Eastern
Alps generally), the WUdspitze (12,382 ft., Oetzthal group),
the ZuckerhatI (11,520 ft, Stubai group), the Hochfeiler
(xi»559 ft., ZiOerthal group), the Gross Venediger (ra,ooS ft.)
and the Grass Glockner (12,461 ft, both in the Tauem
range), while more to the south are the Dobmites, which
culminate in the Marmotata (10,972 ft.). It is divided into
two very distinct portions by the Brenner Pass (4495 ft),
connecting the Stubai and the Zillerthal groups; over this
pass a splendid ii^way was built in 1864-1867 from Inns-
bruck to VeronA, while the highway over the pass has from
the earb'est times been of immense importance from every point
of view. The Brenner, too, being on the main water^^ of
the Alps, separates the two main river systems of which Urot
is composed. To the north this province comprises the middle
portion of the Inn Valley, with its tributaries, as well as the
upper portion of the Lech valley, all flowing towards the Danube
and 80 to the Black Sea, while south of the pass is the great
upper valley of the Adige or EtKh, with many tributaries, as
well as (since 1500) a portion of the upper Drave valley, which
physically belongs to Carinthia— all these (save the Drave)
flow tQ the Adriatic Sea. The area of Tirol is 10,204 sq. m.
In X900 its population was 852,712 (all but wholly Romanist),
of whom more than half were German-speaking, and many in the
south Italian-speaking, while in certain side valleys of the Adige
system the quaint old Ladln dialect, still surviving also in the
Swiss. Engadine, is the prevailing tongue; in the soutbeni half
of the region there are a few German-speaking among the
Italian-speaking folk. The capital is Innsbruck, wfaik other
important towns are lYent, Botzen and Rovereto.
The present very hregular sfasipe of the district is due to
historical causes. The original Tirol consisted of part of
the. middle Inn valley and of the uppermost portion (the
Vintschgau) of the Adige valley. In x 500, by inheritance from the
counts of GOrz, the Pusterthal and upper Drave valley (east) were
added; in 1505 the lower portion of the Zillerthal, with the Inn
* To speak, as is commomy done, of " the Tirol " is as absntd as
speaking of " the England. ' As regards the English spelling of
the name adopted thraughout the Eney. Brit., it ^nhS. however,
be stated that the writer of this article regards " Tyrol *' as more
conect.--(£o.)
v«ll«y Ironi Ht entrance to KnUitcia, and the KitcbOliel regioo
(north-east) were att iran from Bavaria; in. i si 7 Rovereto and
Kveral other plncea ob the pieaent aouth-eastem frontier were
acquired from Venice; in 1803 many £e{s in the bishoprics of Trent
and Brlzea were annexed on the secuiarijsation of tlioie two
bishoprics; while finally the rest of theZillerthal, with Windisch
Matrei, was obtained in 18x6 fromthearchbiahopricof Salaburg.
Besides the great raihray Une over the Brenner, there are other
lines fipom Botzen past Meran to Mab, from Franaensfeste up the
Pusterthal to Liens in the Drave valley, and from Innsbruck,
by a tunnel beneath the Arlbeig Pass to the Vorarlberg and the
Rhine valley.
The majorhy of the population is devoted to pastoral, and in
some degree to agricukunu pursuits, Che cattle, as hf other Alpine
lands, being the mainstay of the peasants. In summer they are
dri\'en up to the mountain pastures (called here Almen, but Alpen in
S'vitzcrfand), which air, however, less carefuHy looked after than
in Switserland, partly because in many eases they have been alien-
ated by the neighbouring hamlets to far distant pbces. Forestiy
also empkys a certain proportion of the population, but the felling
of trees is carried on wastcf ully, though less so than In former years.
A few rhinerals are found in the district, but in this department
the saltworks of Hall, near Innsbmck, take the first place. In
southern Tirol, silk-spinning is still one of the prindpal uidustries,
while good local wines are produced near M ersa and Botsen. There
are also some factories of preserved fruits and tobacco. But, save
in the towns, Tiro! is above all a pastoral hind.
The peasants are famous for their devotion to the Roman Catholie
rdigkm, their fervent loyalty to the House of Austria, their excellent
maJrasmaaship, and thetr love of staging and music, the cither being
the national instrument. There is a university at Innsbruck, but
primary education, though compulsory, does not attain any very
litgh degree of excelleoce, as tn summer the schools are closed, for
alfhancb are then reonared in the fields or on the mountain pastures^
The fncturcaouc local costumes have nearly altogether di/aj^ieared,
save in the Passeyerthal. near Meran. while the increasuig crowds
J suHrag)
is divided into 21 adminbtrative districts (Betirte), each composed
oi a number of commmus or civil parishes. Tiro! sends 25 repre-
sentatives to the Austrian parfiament at Vienna. Locally it is
ruled by an fmperial governor (the Statthalter) who resides at Inns-
bruck, where, too, meets annually the kical legislature or Diet (the
Lattdtag), composed (according to the oonstitution of lg6i) of 68
snembm: the archbishop of Salzburg, the bishops of Trent and
Brixen. and the rector of the university of Innsbruck fit in person,
while the great eccledastical corporations send four deputies, the
chambers of commerce of Innsbruck, Trent and Rovereto each one,
the nobles ten. the towns 13, and the peasants 34.
ZfMory.— By far the gtester portion of tlie region later called
Tirol was inhabited, when it makes its appearance in history,
by the Raetians (perhaps a Celtic raoe» thoagfa aene still hoid
that they were connected with the Etmacans), who were con*
quered < 14 B.a) by Drutos and Tibctins, and were later organized
into the Roman province of Raetia. In the sth and following cen-.
turies the north portion was Tcntonizcd, first by the Ostro-
goths, mainly by the Baioiiani, but the Teutonic Langobardi
who pressed np from the south became Romanized them*
seh'est so that the doable character of the inhabitanU of
the land appears quite early. In 774 the Corolingianft con*
quered the Langobardi or Lombards, and in 788 the BaiouariL
But the offidala charged wkh tlie rule of these parts gradually
became scnii-independent« particularly the Bavarian dukes in
the region north of Trent. Some time after the break-up
of that duchy in 976, the emperor Coniad IL cntrasted aU
temporal powers in the northern region to the bishop of Brisen,
and in the southern portion to tlie hshop d Trent, detaching
these southern districts from Italy (to which they had ahrays
belonged, save from 951 to 962, when the march of Verona was
annettd to the duchy of Carinthia) and incorporating them with
Germany. The bishops, in their turn, had to exercise thetr
temporal rights through lay vassals, of whom the most powerful
in the course of the X3th century were the lords of Andechs,
near Munich. On the extinction of this fsmily in 1248, most of
their fiefs were given by the two bishops to the father-in-law of
the last lord of Andechs, Albert, count of Tirol This new
family took its name from the still existing castle of Tirol (Later
Roman, r<fiWu), above Meran, in the upper Adige valley, and
TIROL 10 1 1
is mentioned for the first time in ri46t. Albert's elder daughter,
Adelaide, married Melahard, count of Gdrz (north of Trieste);
their elder son Meinhard (d. raos) took Tirol^ and the younger
Gdrs; but in 1500 the latter's line became extinct, and the
elder line inherited its possessions. Ix»g before that tfane the
senior branch of the elder Une had ended in Margaret, nicknamed
di€ Manltascke (the Pocket-mouth), who, in 1343, married Louis
of Brandenburg (d. rjdx), and whose only child Meinhard died
in her lifetime in 1363; Tirol accordingly passed by agreement
in the latter year of the junior branch of the elder line, the
Habsburgers, dukes of Austria since 1282. In this way Tirol
came to the dynasty which has ever since held it (save 1805-1814),
From that time onwards till 1665 Tirol was generally entrusted
to a cadet of the Austrian house, who ruled first at Meran, and
from about 1420 at Innsbruck, as a nearly independent prince;
but since 1665 the province has been governed from Vienna.
We have noted above the manner in which the limits of Tirol
were gradusily extended. Several of these additions were due
to the archduke Maximilian, who ruled Tirol from 1490
onwards, becoming emperor in 1493 and dying in 15x9. liis
mcfnory is still cherished in the district, for he conferred on
it the title of CefUrstete Gra/sckqft, spent much time in it^
and erected in the chief church of Innsbruck a sumptuous
monument as his tomb.
Owing to iu position astrme of the Alps, and so commanding
the road across them, Tir(J has often been the scene of sharp
fighting. In 1499 the Swiss won a viaory in the Calven gorge
(near the head of the Adige valley) against Maximilian, which
resulted in the Swiss gaining their practical independence of the
empire. In 1703 the Bavarians and French, during the War of
the Spanish Succession, took Innsbruck, but were then driven
back« In 1805, by the peace of Pressburg, Napoleon forced
AvBtria to hand over Tirol to his ally, Bavaria, which held it till
1814. On the outbreak of war (1809) between France and
Bavaria, the people rose in revolt. Their leader was Andreas
Hofer (b. 1767), a small innkeeper of the Passeyerthal, and
ttixier him the peasants repeatedly defeated the Bavarian,
French and Saxon troops. Three times (April X3, May 29
and Aug. 13) did they drive the foe out of Innsbruck. On
the 15th of August, Hofer, yielding to the popular wish, assumed
the government of Tirol But in October the ill-success of the
Austiians against the French elsewhere forced them to conclude
the peace of Vienna, by which Tirol was definitely secured to
Bavaria. The peasants refused to believe in the bad news,
and contintied to resist the French, but were at last overpowered
by numbers. The French occupied the Passeyerthal on the
23rd of November, and Hofer was obliged to seek shelter in a
hut Oft the nmuntatn pastures. Here he was betrayed by a
neighbour- to the French (Jan. 27, 18^10), who took him
captive to Mantua, where, by express order of Napoleon, he
was shot (Feb. 20, x8io) for the sole offence of being loyal
to his emperor and his native land. His bones now lie in the
great church at Innsbruck, side by side with those of his t«o
chief supporters, the Capuchin friar and army chaplain, Joachim
Haspinger (d. 1858), and the peasant, Joseph Speckbacher.
See in fenctal vol. xiii., TirtI (Vienna, 1893), of the great oflicial
work entiUed Die oesktreickiach-unpiriuke Monarchte in Wort
und Bild. The following more q>ecial works may be consulted:
A. Achleitner and E, Ubl, Tirol und Vorarlberg (Leipzig. t^QS): J.
Alton. Die tadinischem Idiomen in Ladinien^ Cridat^ Fossa, Bwhen*
stfin, Ampe99 (Innsbruck, 1879): F. Arena, Das HroUr Voik in
stinen WeiOkinttrn (Gotha, 1904): W. A. Baillic-Crohman. Tirol
and Ike TiroUss (London. 1876), Caddings tritk a Primitivt People
(2 vols.. London. 1878), Sp^rt in the Alps (London. 1896). and
Tkt Land in the Jii0waaims (1907); Miss R. H. Busk, The VaUeys of
Tird (London, rB74): E. H. COmpton and W. A» Baillic-Crohnian.
Tyrol (London, 1908) ; I. Egger, GexAtcA^ Tirols (3 vols., Innsbruck,
1872-1880); J. Gilbert and (
. Churchill, The Dolomite Mountains
._. jdon, 1864) : Max Haushofer. Tirol (Bielefeld and Leipzig. iBoq) :
J. Htm. Tirols Erkehtng 4m Jakre tSop (Innsbruck, 1009) ; AKons
Httba*. Gesckickt* d. Vgnmiptng Tirois mil Oexterrvfca (Innsbruck,
1864) { A. jAgcr. CeschickU d. landstdndiscken Verfassung von Tirol
(3 vols.. Innsbruck, 1882-1885): W. D. McCrackan, The Tyrol
(London. 1905) ; E. Oefele, Gesckictite der Crafen ran Andechs (Inns-
1877);" L. Portschelter and H. Hew. Der Hoehtovrist (n dm
Osioipen, 3id ed., 3 vols. (Leipzig and Vienna, 19(>3>; ^ Riihtcr
10X4.
TISCHENDORF— TISIO
upper floor. Tte circuit waU roulKl the palace it more ttroogly
constructed than the rest. On the south ts a galicry built in the
thickness of the wall, and roofed by projecting courses of stone:
and chambers or storehouses open out of this gallery. The wall
on the east side has a similar arrangement (see fig. 3>. At the
•top level the wall was covered by a colonnade of woofkn pillars
resting on circular stone blpcks. This supported a flat roof
and was open to the inside of the fortress. The back of the
colonnade was built of brick, and is now ihissing, as are all the
brick parts of the palace, owing to the bricks having been only
sun-dncd.
The methods of construction employed in the Tnyas palace are
of the highest interest. The foundations- and about 3 ft. of the
walls above the ground are made of large blocks of stone bod(k^d in
clay : abo\'C this the wall was of brick, sun-dried, and covered with
Mucco. The upper storey was probably of wood. Some of the
thresholds of the doors were massive blocks of stone (XAii«« oUot)',
others were of wood (SpCtpot o656t). Wood was also used (or all the
columns, doorposts, and antae (vopcurrdjct), and in somecasesthe
walls of the rooms were lined with wood, carefully fixed by dowels,
tlic holes for which still exist. The doors had pivots of bronze
revolving in u'cU-fittcd bronze cup-like sockets let intd the
thresholds. In the mcgaron and other rooms the floors arc of good
concrete decorated with a simple scries of incised lines, coloured blue
and red. The stucco of the internal wall is decorated with bold and
very effective patterns — birds and scroll-work and other decorative
d«igns. The best preserved painting shows a scene fronv a .buU-
^ght. Both subjects and style show dose analogy to the paintings
in the palace at Cnossus in Crete. One example of rich and costly
decoration remains— part of a frieze of white alabaster, sculptured
in relief with rosettes and interlacing patterns, and studded with
jewel-like pieces of blue glass or enamel, the Bpiyiit iU'dvoto of
Od. vli. 87. Further ej^cavations in the lower parts of the city will
probably bring to light the dwellings of the citizens who garrisoned
the place. The great bulk of the Tirynthians must have lived in
houses outside the citadel, but under the shelter of its protection,
just as in medieval Italy villages grew up round the castles of any
powerfal lord. The relation of the pabcc at Tiryns to those described
in the Homeric poems his given rise to much discussion. The case
is somewhat altered by the discovery of several other early houses,
of similar character, but not identical in plan, at Mycenae and else-
where in Greece; these do not, for example, ^how the duplication
of the essential parts of the house found at Tiry'ns. It is now gener-.
ally recognized that, while the general character of the palace at
Tir>ns is invaluable as illustrating the type of house in the mind
of the Homeric poet, it is a mistake to appeal to it for the
explanation of details of arrangement such as probably N'aried
considerably according to the conditions and requirements in
different cases.
H. Schliemann, Tiryns (London, 1886); Schuchhardt, SchU'e-
mann's Excavations, trans! E. Sellers (London, 1891); C. Tsountas
and J. I. Manatt, The Mycenaean Age (London, 1897).
(J.I?. M.JE.GR.)
TISCHENDORF, LOBEGOTT FRIEDRICH KONSTAMTIN
VON (181 5-1874.), Orman biblical critic, the son of a physician,
was bom on the i8th of January 1815 at Lengenfeld, near
Plauen, in the Saaon Vogtiand. From the gynuulsium at
Plauen he passed in 1834 to the university of Leipzig, where he
was mainly influenced by J. G. B. Winer (1789-1858), and
began to take special interest in New Testament criticism. I&
1838 he took the degree of doctor of philosophy, and then be-
came master at a school near Leipzig. After a Journey through
southern Germany and Switacriand, and a visit to Strass-
burg, he returned to Leipzig, and set to wor^ upon a
critical study of the New Testament text, following the
guidance pf Karl Lachmann. In 1840 he qualified as univer-
sity lecturer in theology with a dissertation on the recensions
of the New Testament text, the main part of which re-
appeared in the following year in the prolegomena to his
first edition of the New TesUmcnt, These early textual
studies convinced him of the absolute necessity of new and
cxacter collations of MSS. From October 1840 till January 1843
he was in Paris, busy with the treasures of the great library,
eking out his scanty means by making collations for other
scholars, and producing for the publisher, F. Didot, several
editions of the Greek New Testament, one of them exhibiting
the form of the text corresponding most closely to the Vulgate.
The great triumph of these laborious months was the decipher-
ment of the palimpsest Codex Ephraemi Syri Rucriptus, of
which the New Testament part was printed before he left Paris
and the Old Testament in 1845. His success in dealing with
a MS, much of which, owing to the fact that it had been rewritten
with the works of Ephraera Synis, bad been illegible its earlier
coUaton, tMougfat bim into note and gained support for more
extended critical expeditions. From Paris he had paid short
visits to Holland (1841) and England (1842). In 1843 he visited
Italy, and after a stay of thirteen months went on to £g>-pt,
Sinai, Palestine and the Levant, returning by Vienna and
Munich.^ From Sinai he brought a great treasure, forty-three
leaves of what is now known lis the Codex Sinaiticus. He kept
the place of dJscover>' a secret, and the fragments were pub-
l^hcd in 1846 as the Codex Fridcrko-Augustanta, a name given
in honour oif the king of Saxony. He now became professor
extraordinarius in Leipzig, and married (1845). In the same
year he began to publish an account of his travels in the East
(2 vols./ 184S-1846). . In iSso appeared his edition of the
Codex Amiatinus and of the Septuagint version of the Old
Testament (7lh ed., 1887); In 1852, amoiigst other 'w-orks, his
edition of the Ccdex Oaromontanus. In 1853 and 1859 he made
a second and a third voyage to the East. In the last of these,
in which he had the active aid of the Russian government, he
at length got access to the remainder of the precious Sinailic
codex» and persuaded the monks to present it to the tsar, at
whose cost it was published in 1862 (in lour folio volumes).
In 1869 he was given the style of " von " Tiacbendocf as a
Russian noble. Meanwhile, in 1859, he had been made professor
ordinarius of theology and of biblical palaeography, this latter
professorship being specially created for him; and another book
of travel, '^Aus dcm heilig^ La$ide, app^red in 1862. Tlschen-
dorf*s Eastern Journeys were rich enough in other discoveries
to deserve the highest praise.* Side by si^e with his industry
in collecting and collating MSS., Tischcndorf pursued a constant
course of editorial labours, mainly on the New Testament, until
he was broken down 1>y overwork in 1^73. He died on the
7 th of December 1874 at Leipzig.
The great edition, of which the text and apparatus appeared ia
1069 and 187a.' was called by himself editio viti.; but this number
is raised to twenty or twenty-one if mere reprints from stereotype
plates and the minor editions of his great criticallexts are included;
posthumous prints brins up the total to forty-one. Four maia
recensions of Tischendorrs text may be distinguished, dating respec-
tively from his editions of 1841, 1849, 1859 {cd. vt't.), 1M9-1873
{ed. Ptii.). The edition of 1849 may be regarded as historically the
most important from the mass of new critical material it used : that of
1859 is distinguished from Tischendorf's other editions by coming
nearer to the received text; in the 8th edition the testimony of th«
Sinaitic MS. received great (probably too great) weight. The
readings of the Vatican mS. were given with more exactness and
certainty than had been possible in the earlier editions, and the
editor had also the advantage of using the puUisbed labours of
S. P. Trecdlea.
Trecdlea.
ch less in
Much less important was Tischendorf's work on the Creek Old
Testament. His edition of the Roman text, with the variants of
the Alexandrian MS., the Codex Ephraemi and the Fridcriro-
Augustanus, was of service when it app«ared in 1850, but, bring
stereotyped, was not greatly im(>roved in subsequent issues, its
imperfections, even witnin the limited fidfd it covers, may be judged
by the aid of C. E. Nestle's appendix to the 6tb issue (18801.
Besides this may be mentioned editions of the New Testament
Apocrypha [De Evangeliorum apocrvpkorum origine ei usu (i8sO;
Acta Apottolorum apocrypha (t85i>; Evangeiia apocrypha (i£53;
2nd ed., 1876}: Apocalypses apocrybhae (1866)] and various miiwr
writings, in part of an apologetic cliaracter, such as Wann vurden
unsere Evangetien verfasst t (1865; 4th ed.. 1866), Haben xeir den
echUn Schrifiiexi der EvanielisteH wtd Aposki t (1873), and Synapsis
evangdica (7th ed., 1898).
See, in addition to the handbooks on New Testament critkiscn.
Cari Bertheau's article on Tiscfaendorf in Herzog-Hauck, Realen-
cyhhpidie (3nl ed., 1907)*
TISIO (orTlsi), BENVENUTO (T48t>t 559)! commonly called
H Garofaio, Italian painter of the Ferrarese Khool, was born in
•* See his Reise in den Ortmi (Leipzig, 1845-1846).
"The MSS. brought to Europe on the first two journeys
are caulogued in the Anecdota sacra et prof ana (L(apzi|r. iSvj,
enlarged 1861). See also the Monumenta saera inediia (Ldpaig.
1846). and Napa coUeciio of the same (1855-1869). The 3rd
volume of the Nova coUectio gives the results of his last Eastern
journey. '
* The prdtegomena renlaitted unfinished at his death, and hax-v
been supplied by C. R. Gregory (cf. his Textkritik des Nemm Tas^
menus, vol. i., 1900).
TISSAPHERNES— TISSOT, J. J. J.
•4S1 At Gtrofolo, In the Ferrutae territory, Asd coMtsBtljr
Med tke gUlyikiwer dg^nfah) as « tymlMl with which to sisn
his pictures. He took to drawing in childhood, and was put
to study under Domenioo Puieiti (or Laaelo), and afterwards
nt Cremona under his matcmal unde NiccolA Soriani, a painter
who died in 1499: he also frequented the school oC Boecacdo
Boocaccino* He stayed fifteen months with Giovanni Baldini
in Rome, acquiring a solid style of draughtsmanship, and was
two years with Lorenso Costa at Mantua. H« then entered
the service of the marquis Francesco Gonaaga. Afterwards he
went to Ferrara, and worlLed there four years. Attracted by Ra*
phael's fame, and invited hy a Ferrarec gentleman, Geronimo
Sagrato, he again removed to Rome, and found the great
painter very amicable; here be stayed two years, rendering
some assistance in the Vatican frescoes. From Rome family
affairs recalled him to Ferrara; there Duke Alphonso I. com-
missioned him to execute paintings, along with the Dossi, in
the Villa, di Belriguardo and in other palaces. Thus the style of
Tbio parukes of the Lombard, the Roman and the Venetian
modes. He painted extensively in Ferrara, both in oil and
in fresco, two of his principal works being the " Massacre of
the Innocents'^ (i$io). in the church of S. Francesco, and
the " Betrayal of Christ " (1524), accounted his masterpiece.
For the former he made clay models for study and a lay
figure, and executed everything from nature. He continued
constantly at work until in 1550 blindness overtook him,
painting on all feast-days in monasteries for the love of
God. He had married at the age of forty-eight, and died at
Ferrara on the 6th (or 16th) of September 1559, leaving two
children.
Carofalo combined sacred inventions with some very familiar
details. A certain archaism of style, with a strong glow of colour,
suffices to distinguish from the true method of Raphael even those
pictures in which he most ckicely resembles the great master— this
•oractimes very closely; but the work of Garolalo is aekiom free
from a certain trim pettiness of feeling and manner. He was a
friend of GiuHo Romano. Giorgione^ Titian and Ariosto; in a picture
of " Paradise " he painted Ariosto between St Catherine and Sc
Sebastian. In youth he was fond of lute-playing and ako of fencing
He ranks arooog the best of the Fcrraresc pamtcrs; his leading pupil
was GiroUmo Carpi. The " Adoration 01 the Ma^i." in the church
of San Giorgio near Ferrara. and a " Peter Martyr." in the [>omink:an
church. Ferrare (sometimes asMimed to have been done in rivalry
of Titiaa). are among his principal works not already menikmed.
The National Gallery, London, contains four, one of them being
a Madonna and Chnst enthroned, with St Francis and three other
TUSAPHERNES (Pers. CUhrafama), Persian soldier and
statesman, son of Hydames. In 413 he was satrap of Lydia
and Caria, and commander in chief of the Persian army in
Asia Minor (Thuc. viii. 5). When Darius IL ordered the col-
lection of the outstanding tribute of the Greek cities, he entered
into an alliance with Sparta against Athens, which in 412 led
to the conquest of the greater part of Ionia. But TissaphemcS
was unwilling to take action and tried to achieve his aim by astute
and often perSdIous negotiations; Alcibiades persuaded him
that Persia's best policy was to keep the balance between Athens
and Sparta, and rivalry with his neighbour Phamabazus of
Hellespont ic Phrygla still further lessened his energy. When,
therefore, in 408 the king decided to support Sparta sttenuously,
Tissaphernes was removed from the generalship and Hniited
to the satrapy of Caria, whereas Lydia and the conduct of the
war were entrusted to Cyrus the Yoxmger. On the downfall
of Athens, Cyrus and Tissaphemes both dalmcd jurisdiction
over the Ionian cities, most of which acknowled^ Cyrus as
their ruler; but Tissaphemes took possession of Miletus, where
he was attacked by Cyrus, who gathered an army under thb
pretence with the purpose of usmg it against his brother Arta*
xcrxes H. The king was warned by Tlssapheraes, who took part
in the battle of Cunaxa, and afterwards tried to destroy the Greek
mercenaries of Cyrus by treachery. He was then sent back
to Asia Minor to his old position as general in chief and satrap
of Lydia and Caria. He now attacked the Greek dties, to punish
thera for their allegiance to Cyrus. This led to the war with
Sparta in J99. Tissaphemes, who once again had recourse
IOI5
to sttbtk diplomacy, was beaten by AgesOaus en the Pactolus
near Sardls (J9S); and at last the king yielded to the repre-
scntatiofks of Phamabaaus, strongly supported bytbechiliarch
Cviaier) Tithraustes and by the queen-mother Parysatis, who
hated Tissaphemes as the principal cause of the death of
her favourite son Cyrus. Tithraustes was sent to execute
Tissaphemes, who was lured to Coloasae and slain in 395.
(Eo. M.)
TISSBRAND. PRAM9OIS FfiUZ (1845-1396), French astro-
nomer, was bom at Nuits-Saint-Georges, C6te-d'0r, on the 13th
of January 1845, In 1863 he entered the £cole Normale
SupMeure, and on leaving he went for a month as professor
at the lyc£e at Meta. Lt Verricr offered him a post in the Paris
Observatory, which he accordingly entered as aslronome adjoint
in September x866. In 1868 he took his doctor's degree with a
brilliant thesis on Delaunay's Method, which he showed to be of
much wider scope than had been contemplated by its inventor.
Shortly afterwards he went out to Malacca to observe the
famous solar eclipse of the x8th of August x868. In 1873 he was
appointed director of the observatory at Toulouse, whence he
published his RecucU i'exercices sw U caUvl infinitisimal^ and .
in 1874 became corresponding member of the Academie des
Sciences. He took part in the French expeditions of 1874 to
Japan, and in 1882 to Martinique to observe the transits of
Venus. In 1878 he was elected a member of the Acadelnic des
Sciences in succession to Le Verricr, and became a member of
the Bureau des Longitudes. In the same year he was appointed
Professevr supplSarU to Uouville, and in 1883 he succeeded
Puiseux in the chair of celestial mechanics at the Sorbonne.
Tisserand always found time to continue his important researches
in mathematical astronomy, and the pages of the Comptes
rendus bear witness to his surprising activity. His writings
relate to almost every branch of celestial mechanics, and are
always distinguished by rigour and simplicity in the solution of
the most difficult problems. He treated in a masterly manner
(Buttetin astrotumiqne, 1889) the theory of the capture of comets
by the larger planets, and in this coimexion published his
valuable Criterion for establishing the identity of a periodic
comet, whatever may have been the perturbations brought
about in its orbit, between successive appearances, by the action
of a planet. His principal work, Traiti de tnScanigue cUcste,
is the noblest and most lasting monument to his memory, and
is worthy to sUnd beside the Uicanique ctltst£ of his feUow-
countryman, Laplace. In this treatise, published in four
quarto volumes, the last of which appeared only a few months
before his death, he fused Into one harmonious whole the
researches of Laplace and those of other workers in the same
field smce his time. It ifuriushes a faithful and complete
risumi of the state of knowledge in thai department of
astronomy at the end, as Laplace's great work did for the
beginning, of the 19th century. In 1892 he succeeded Mouches
as director of the Paris Observatory, and as president of the
committee of the photographic diait of the heavens he contri-
buted largely to the success of that great project. Under hts
direction the tevision of Lalande's catalogue was brought
almost to completion, and four volumes of the Annalts de
rObservatoire de Paris exhibit the progress made in this important
undertaking. He was also editor of the Bulletin aztronomique
from the beginning, and contributed many important articles
to its pages. He died suddenly, in the fuBness of his power,
of congestion of the brain, on the 20th of October 1896.
TISSOT, JAMBS JOSEPH JACQUES (1836-1902), French
painter, was bom at Nantes on the isth of October 1836. He
studied at the ficole des Beaux Arts in Paris under Ingres,
Flandrin and Lamothe, and exhibited in the Salon for the first
tline at the age of twenty-three. In i86x he showed "The
Meeting of Faust and Marguerite, " wWch was purchased by
the state for the Luxembourg Gallery. His first characteristic
period made htm a painter of the charms of women. 2>c«ii-
mondaine would be more accurate as a description of the series
of studies which he called La Pemme d Paris. He fought
ioi6
TISSOT, P. F.— TISZA
m the Fianco-German War, and, falling under «usptcion as a
Communist. left Paris for London. Here he stiidicd etching
with Sir Seymour Haden, drew caricatures for VaHity Fair,
and painted portraits as well as genre subjects. It was many
years before he turned to the chief labour of his career— the
production of a series of 700 water-colour drawings to illustrate
the life of Christ and the Old Testament. Some sudden shock,
or bereavement was said to have turned his thoughts from ideals
of the caf£ and the boulevard into a more serioos channel.
He disappeared from Paris, whither he had returned after a
stay of some years in England, and went to Palestine. In
1895 ^hc series of 350 drawings of incidents in the life of Christ
was exhibited in Paris, and the following year found them on
show in London. They were then published by the firm of
Lemerder in Paris, who had paid him 1,100,000 francs for them.
After this he turned to the scenes of the Old Testament, upon
which he was still engaged at the abbey of Bullion, in the depart-
ment of Doubs, France, when he died on the 8th of August 1902.
The merits of Tissot's Bible illustrations lay rather in the care
with which he studied the details of scenery than in any quality
of religious emotion. He seemed to aim, above all, at accuracy,
and, in his figures, at a vivid realism, which was far removed
from the conventional treatment of sacred types.
TISSOT, PIERRE FRANCOIS (1768-1854), French man of
letters, was bom at Versailles on the loth of March 1768. His
father, a native of Savoy, was a perfumer appointed by royal
warrant to the court. At the age of eighteen he entered the
office of a procureur of the Chitclet, in order to learn the practice
of the law; but he cultivated the Muses rather than the study
of procedure, and, being a handsome youth, was occasionally
invited to the f£tes of the Trianon. He devoted himself ardently
to the cause of the Revolution, in spite of the fact that it had
ruined his family. While with the procureur he had made I he
acquaintance of Alexandre Goujon, and they soon became
inseparable; he married Goujon's sister, Sophie (March 5,
1793), and when his brother-in-law was elected deputy to the
Convention and sent on a mission to the armies of the Moselle
and Rhine, Tissot went with him as his secretary; he then
returned to Paris and resumed his more modest position of
secritaire giniral da subsistences. On the ist of Prairial he
tried in vain to save his brother-in-law, who had been involved in
the proscription of the " last Montagnards "; all he could do was
to give Goujon the knife with which he killed himself in order
to escape the guillotine, and he afterwards avenged his memory
in the Souvenirs de Prairial. He also took under his care
Goujon's widow and children. His connexion with the Jacobin
party caused him to be condemned to deportation after the
attempt of the 3rd Nivose in the year IX., but Bonaparte, having
been persuaded to read his translation of the Bucolics, struck
his name off the list. Though still a friend of the Republic,
Tissot was henceforth an admirer of the First Consul; he cele-
brated in verse several of the empexxur's victories, and the arrival
in France of Marie-Louise (1810). So far he had Uved on the
income derived from a factory of horn lanterns in the Faubourg
St Antoine; and, being at last in fairiy comfortable circumstances
be now devoted himself to literature. The abb* Delille took
him as his assistant at the College de France; and Tissot suc-
ceeded him as head of it (1813); ^he emperor signed the appoint-
ment as a reward for a poem composed by Tissot on his victory
at Liitzen. He was removed from this post, however, in 1821,
in consequence of the publication of a Pricis sur Its gucrres de
la rivolutioUf in which rather oolouriess work he had dared to
say that the Convention had saved France and vanquished the
Coalition. Deprived of his post, Tissot was left still more free
to attack the government in the press. He was one of the
founders of the newspaper Le Consiitutionnd, and of the review,
the Minerve. Without laying stress on his h'teraxy works
(TraiU de la poisie laiine, 1B91; translation of the Bucolics,
3rd ed., 1823; £tudes sur VirgUe^ 1825) we should mention the
ires kistoritfues ei militaires sur Carnot, which he based on
^ left by the " Organizer of Victory " (1824), the
'u Giniral Foy (1826) and a Histoire de la guerre de
la PMnskle also inspired by GfoCral Foy (iBi-j). On tbt
overthrow of Charles X., Tissot made a successful effort to regain
his position at the Cbll^ de France; he was also dectcd as a.
member of the French Academy on the death of Oacier (1833).
It was then that he published hb chief works: Hisiotre de
NapolioH (2 vols., 1833), and Hi$taire ampUle de la ritalutiau
jranqaise de ijSg d t8o6 (6 vols., 1833-1836), full o( inoonsisten'
cies and omissions, but containing a number of the author's
reminiscences; in some places they become practically memoirs,
and are consequently of real value. In 1840 a carriage accident
almost cost him his sight; he had to find an assfeiant, and passed
the last years of his life in circumstances of increasing suflerini?,
amid which, however, he preserved his cheerfulness and good-
ness of heart. He died at Paris on the 7lh of April 1854.
Sec aa excellent essay on Ussot by P. Fromageoc in the Rome
de Veruulks et de Seine-elOisCt in 1901.
TISSUE (Fr. tissu, tissue, participle of tisser, Lat. texere, to
weave), properly the name of a fine textile fabric interwoven
with gold and silver threads, hence used of any delicate or
gauzy fabric (see Goto and Silver Thkcao). It was also
early applied, as in French, to a ribbon, fillet or various forms
of woven ligaments. In biology the word is of general use for
an aggregate of cells forming a texture or fabric; in animal
anatomy it is thus applied to the primary layers of which the
parts are composed, and named by some qualifying word
denoting its substance or its use (see CONNEcnvs Tissue and
Epithelial, Endotheual and Glandular Tissue).
TISTA, a river of northern India, which rises on the edge
of the Tibetan plateau, and flows through the mountain
gorges of Sikkim and Darjccling, till it spills itself over the
plain of Eastern Bengal. In the i8ih century its course was
due south to join the Ganges; but in 1787 great floods diverted
the stream towards the south-east, and it now enters the
Brahmaputra, the whole district of Rangpur being scored by
various interlacing channels. Its total length in British tcrrilor>'
is about 170 m.
TISZA, KALMAn [Koloman] (1830-1902), Hungarian states-
man, was bom at Geszt on the loih of December 1830, the son
of Lajos Tisza and the countess Julia Teleki, and was ediicated
at his father's castle. In 1848 he obtained a post in the ministry
of instruction of the revolutionary government which he accom-
panied to Debreczen. After the war he went abroad with most
of his family, and carefully studied foreign institutions. On
returning home he devoted himself to the improvement of the
family estates, and in 1855 was elected assistant curator of the
Calvinist church at Nagyszalonta, in succession to his father.
Wlicn, on the ist of September 1859, the Austrian government
issued the " Patent ** which struck at the very roots of Protes-
tant autonomy in Hungary, Tisza, at the congress of the Cal-
vinist Church beyond the Theiss, held at Dchreczen, publicly
repudiated the Patent on behalf of the Calvinist laity. He
renewed his opposition in the most uncompromising terms at
the ensuing congress (Jan. xi, i860), shrewdly guessing that
the Patent was direct<^ as much against the Hungarian con-
stitution as against the Calvinist confession. His fears were
justified by the October Diploma (see Hungary: History)^
which he attacked with equal vehemence. In August z86o
Tisza married the countess Helen Degenfeld-Schombui]g, a
union which brought him into dose connexion with the Karolyis,
the Podmaniczkys and the Odescalchis. He was unanimously
elected to represent JDebreczen at the 1861 Diet, and was
elected vice-president of the house at its second session. The
Diet was divided between the Addressers, led by Deik, and
the " Resolutionists," led by 0>unt Lisz]6 Teleki, and on the
death of the latter Tisza succeeded him as the leader of the
more radical party. During the Provisorium (1861-1865) Tis^a
fought for constitutional reform in the columns of the B-n
and the Magyar Sajld^ his leading articles, afterwards collected
and published under the title of Ai/oldi Levelek (Letters from
the Alfold), being by far the most important contribution to
the controversy. When the Diet was again summoned by
TITANIUM
1017
ft^al dtcxte (Dec xo, 1865}, Tisza once more^ represented
Debreon and fionaedrvith Kilmia Gbycay (1808-1888),
thfi Left-centre p«ty. From. 1867 onwards his ioiSue&oe con-
tinued to tncreue, despite the rupture of his party, which he
reconstructed at the conference of Nagyv&rad (March 17, 1868),
when the famous Bikan pontok, or articles of 9ihar, were
subscribed. The Bikari pofUok started from the assumption
that Hungaiy was a free and independent state. They bound
the Tissa party to repeal all lavs or institutions contxary to,
and to promote all measures neoessaiy for, the national inde-
pendence. Thus the delcgatiott system and the common msois*
tries were marked out for attxick, while eveiy effort was to be
made to procure. for Hungary a separate anny, a separate
diplomacy and a separste iinanfiai system. '* It was chiefly
o<inng to the efforts of Tisza and his party that Austria remained
neutral during the Franco-German War. ^ His speech on the
3rd of March 1875 led to the resignation of Istoan Bitt6's
admlnistntmi and the welding of De^'s followers and the Left-
centre into a new party, the SiabaddvU pM or Fk«e Principles
Party, which took office under Bda Wenckheim (1811-1879),
whom (Oct. 2) Tisza succeeded as prime minister, a post he
held, with a few interruptions, for the nest fifteen years (1875-
1890). In 1877 he resigned on the discussion of the questitm of
the Composition (Ausgleich), but he returned to office on his
own terms. The same thing happened the following year, when
his brief icstgnation compelled the Magyar Diet to agree to the
occupation of Bconia. In 1879 he materially contributed to
the formation of the Austro-Geiman alliance. ' Not till 1888,
when the national army bill was introduced, did he encounter
any serious opposition, but thenceforth his position became
precarious. On the xjth of March 1890, on the occasion of the
revision of the Indigenat Act, he resigned office, but contmued,
as deputy for Nagyv&rad to place his vast political experience
at the disposal of the bouse. It is no exaggeration to say that
Hnngary owes to KJ&mfin Tisza a consolidated govonment,
the formation of a parliamentary majority, a healthy public
spirit, public credit, the reform of the Upper House, an admirable
educational system, economical, and particularly railway,
development, and administrative and judicial reconstruction on
modem lines. His opponents have accused him of unscxupu-
lousncss sad party spirit, but not one of them can deny that he
reshaped Hungary and made her the leading partner of the
dual monarchy. As to his personal integrity and disinterested"
nesa there has never been the slightest doubL It is an open
secret that, oa the retirement of Andxassy, he was offered the
ehancelloxship. He refused it because, to use his own expression,
" I am as wholly and solely Hungarian as ,the river (Theiss,
Hung. Tiua) whose name I bear. "
See hare Vwl, KSmdn Tism, a SeliticafaMranslfew' (Hang.:
BudapMt, 188s) ; Korod Abrknyi, KMmSn Tisaa US* amd PotUiciu
Career (Hung.; Budapest. 1878); G. Gratz. Kdlmdn Tism {Modem
Magyar SlaUsmen, I.) (Hung.; Budapest, 1902); P. Busbach, Tht
Last Pirn Years (Hnqg.; Bwfapest, 1895). <
His youngest son. Count Siefsbn Tisza (x86x- ), was
bom oa the sand -of April x86x. Alter being educated at
BflJia, Heidelbeig and Budapest, he entered the ministry of
the interior lor the parpose of studying terhnical and economical
quesdOBS at the fountam-bead, and soon became a specialist
in sgrarian matters. * His Magyar agr^PoliUk (Budapest,
1897), authoritative on its subject, was translated into German
the same year (Leipzig). In t886 Tisza b^an his parliamentary
career, speedily becoming a leading member of the principal
oonumttees on economical and educational questions. On the
resignation of KUmin SzcU (June 17, 1903) he was entrusted
with the formation of a ministiy of pacification, but abandoned
tJie attemi>t on finding it impossible to secure a majority. On
the a7th of October, however, with the asaistaace of the Free
Principles Party, he succeeded in composing a cabinet, in which
he was m*"?****' of the interior aa wdl as premier. From the
first the ministry was exposed to the most unscrupulous opposi-
tion, exacerbated by the new and stringent rules of procedure
which Tisza felt it bis duty to introduce if any business were.
to be done. The motion for their introduction was made by
the deputy G&bor Daoid, supported by the premier, and after
scenes of unheard-of obstruction and violence (Nov. x6-i8) tbe
speaker, in the midst of an ear-splitting tumult, declared that
the new regulations had been adopted by the house, and
produced a royal message suspending the session. But the
Andiasoy group, immediately afterwards, separated from the
Free Principles Party, and during the rest of the year the
Opposition made legislatioa impossible. By January 190$ the
situation had become ex lex 01 anarchicaL « Tisza stoutly stood
by bis rules, on the ground that this was a case in which the
form must be sacrificed to the substance of parliamentary
government, f But lus appeal to the country at the beginning
of 1905 was unsuccessful, and his opponents triumphed by a
large majority. **^ Tisza thereupon resigned. and retired from
pubUclife. . (R.N. B.)
TITAinUH (symbol Ti,' atomic weight' 48-1 (O ■> 16) J, a
metallic chemical dement.' Its discovery as an dement waa.
due to William Gregor in 1789 who found in the mineral ihnem'tc
or menachinite a new earth, which was regarded as the oxide
of a new metal, menachin. ' Independently of him Klaproth
in 1793' discovered a new metal in rutile, and called it
tiunium; he subsequently found that it was identical with
Gregorys dement. Klaproth, however, was unable to prepare the
pure oxide, which 'was first accomplished in 1821 by Rose. The
isolation of the pure metal is of much later date. Titanium,
although pretty widdy diffused throughout the mineral king-
dom, is not found in abundance. The commonest titanium
mineral Is rutile or titanium dioxide, TiOi; anatase and brookite
are crystalline allotropes. Titanium is most frequently found
associated with iron; ilmenite (Gcr, TUan-eisen) is FeTiCV
perofskite (Ca,Fe)TiOs, and the metal occurs in most magnetic
iron ores. ^ The titanates are well marked in the mineral king-'
dom. Ilmenite is isomorphous with geikielite, MgTiOi, and
pyrophanite, MnTiO«; many of the " rare minerals "— ae&chy-
ntte, euxenite, polycraae, 8cc — contain tiUnates (and also
niobatcs). Silicates also occur; sphene or titcnite, CaTiSiOi,
is the commonest; keilhauite is rarer.
The isolation of metallic titanium is very difficult since i£
readily combines with nitrogen (thus rcsonbltng boron and
magnesium) and caxbon. In 1822 Wollaston examined a. specH
men of those beautiful copper-like crystals which are occasionally
met with in iron-furnace alagSy and declared them to be metallic
titanium. This view had currency until 1849, when W^er
showed that the crystals are a compound, Ti(CN)i*3TisNs, of
a cyanide and a nitride of the metal. An impure titanium was
made by Wdbler and Sainte-Claire Devillc in 1857 by heating
to redness fluotitanate of potassium (see bdow) in the vapour
of sodium in an atmosphere of dry hydrogen, and extracting
the alkaline fluoride fonned by water. The metal thus pro-
duced formed a dark brown amorphous powder resembling
iron as obtained by the reduction of its oxide in hydrogen.
In 1887 Nilson and Petersson (ZeU. phys. Chem. x, p. 15) obtained
a purer product by heating the chloride with sodium in a steU
cylinder; it then formed ydlow scales with a bluish surface
colour. H. Moissan (Compt. rend., 1895, 130, p. 990) obtained
a still purer metal by igniting the oxide w^tb carbon in the dectric
furnace. The product has a brilliant white fracture, a specific
gravity of 4-87, very friable, but harder than quartx or sted.
Moissan (ibid., 1906, 143, p. 673) has distil|ed this metal in a
veiy intense dectric furnace. When heated in air it bums
brilliantly with the formation of the oxide. It combines directly
with the halogens, and dissolves in cold dilute sulphuric acid, in
hot strong hydrodiloric add and in aqua rcgia, but less readily
in nitric acid. Its most curious property » the readiness with
which it unites with nitrogen. Several nitrides have been de-
scribed. Ti)N« is a copper-coloured powder obtained by heating
the ammooio-chloride TiCl4'4NHt in ammonia. TiNs is a dark
blue powder obtained when the onde is ignited In an atmo^here
of ammonia; while UN is obtained as a bronze yellow mass a^
hard as the diamond by heating the oxide in an atmosphere of
nitrogen in the dectric f umace«
i
10 1 8
TITANOTHERIIDAE
In iu chemical rekiions, titanium it gienerally tetravaknt,
and occurs in the same sub-group o£ the periodic classification as
zirconium, cerium and thorium. It forms several oxides,
TiOi, TiaOi and TiOi being the best known; others (some oC
doubtful existence) have been described from time UUime.
Titanium HaxidB, TiOt, Occurs m nature as the three distinct
mineral spedeB rutllet brookite aAd anataae. Rutile awumcs
tetragonal Conns isoraorphous with casriterite, SnOi (and also zircon,
ZiSiOi) : anata«e is also tetragonal, and brookite or tborhombk:.
Rutile is the most stable and anatase the least, a character reflected
in the decrease in density from rutile (4*2) and brookite U-o) to
anatase (3-9). The minerab are generally found together— « feature
rarely met with in the case of polymorphs. They have been obtained
artificially by Hautefeuille by the interaction of titanium fluoride
and steam. At a red heat rutile is produced^ at the boiling point
of zinc brookite, and of cadmium anatase. It is apparent that these
minerals all result in nature from pneumatolytic action. Amoiphous
titanium oxide may be obtained in a pure form by fusing the mmeral,
very finely powdered, with six times its weijght of potuaium t»8ul-
phate in a platinum crucible, then extracting the melt with cold
y/attr and Doiling the filtered solution for a long time. Titanic
oxide separates out as a white hydrate, which, however, is generally
conuminated with ferric hjrdrate and often with tin ooiide. A better
method is Wdhler's. in which the finely powdered mineral is fused
with twice its weight of potassium carbonate in a platinum crucible,
the melt powderul and treated in a platinum basin with aqueous
hydrcMHuoric add. The alkaline titanate first produced is converted
into crystalline fluotitanate, KiTiFc which is with difliculty soluble
and u extracted with hot water and filtered off. The filtrate, which
may be collected in glass vessels if an excess of hydrofluoric acid
has been avoided, deposits the {greater part of the salt on cooling.
The crystals are collected, washed, pressed and recrystaltized,
whereby the impurities are easily removed. The pore salt is dis-
solved m hot water and decomposed with ammonia to produce a
slightly ammoniacal hydratcd oxide; this, when ignited in olatinum,
leaves pure TiOj in the form of brownish lumps, the specific gravity
of which varies from 3'9 to 4'2S, according to the temperature at
which it was Impt in igniting. The more intense the heat the denser
the product. The oxide is fusible only in the oxy-hydrogen flamew
It is insoluble in all acids, except in hot concentrated sulphuric,
when finely powdered. If the sulphuric add, solution be evaporated
to dryness tne residue, after cooTing, dissolves in coki water. The
solution, if boiled, deposits its titanic oxide as a hydrate called meta-
titanic add. TiO(pH)t, because it differs in its properties from ortho-
titanic acid, Ti(OH)«, obtained by decomposing a solution of the
chloride in coki water with alkalis. The ortho-body dissolves in
cold dilute adds; the meta-body does not. If titanic oxkle be fused
with excess ci alkaline carbonate a titanate, RiTiOi, is formed.
Thb salt is decomposed by water with, the formation of a
solution of alkali free of titamum, and a residue of an add titanate,
which, is insoluble in water but soluble in cold aqueous mineral
adds. The riunates are very similar to the silicates in thdr tendency
to assume complex forms, eg. the potassium salts are KaTiO|*4HK),
K.Tirf)7-3H<0 and K,risOu-2H/>. . ,. . .
Titanium monoxide, TiO, is obtained as black prismatic crystals
by heating the dioxide in the electric furnace, or with magnesium
powder. Titanium sesquioxtda, TiiO«, is formed by heating the
dioxide in hydrogen. A hydrated fonoi is prepared When a aoliition
of titanic acid in hydrochkiric ad4 is digeded with copper, or when
the trichloride is precipitated with alkalis. Titanium trtoxide. TiOs,
is obtained as a yellow predpitate by dropping the chloride into
alcohol, addinjr hydrogen peroxide, and finally ammonium carbonate
or potash. Wnen liuken with potash and air it undeigoes autoxida*
tion, hydrogen peroxide being formed first) which converts the
trioxide into the dioxide ana possibly pertitanic add* this add
may contain scxavalent titanium (see W. Manchot and Richter,
Ber., 1906. 39, pp. 320, 488, and also Faber, Abst. Joum. Ckem,
5«:. 1907,11 M7.5 ^„ , , ^^^.
Tilantum fiuonde, TiF«, is a funang colourless uquid boihng at
284*, obtained by distilling a mixture of titanium oxide, fluorspar
and sulphuric acid; by ncating barium tltanofluoride. BaTiFl
(Emrich, Monats., 1004, 25, p. 907) ; and by the action of dry hydro-
tluoru: acid on the oiloride (Ruff and PlatOb Ber., 1904, 37, p. 673).
By dissolving the dioxide in hydrofluorie acid a syrupy solution is
obtained which probably cootains titanofluoric acid. HiTIFa. The
salts of this acid are well Jcnown ; they are Uomorphous with the
stiico-, stanno- and zircono-fluoridcs. liiey are obtained by neutral-
txing the solution of the add, or bjr fusing the oxide with potassinm
carbonate and treating the melt with hydrofluoric acid. Potassium
titanofluoride, KaTiF«-H/), forms white, shining, ^monoclinic scales..
When ignited in a current of hydrogen it yields titanium trifluoride,
TiFj. as a violet powder.
Titmdum ddonde, TxCU, is obtained as a coiovrless faming Uqnid
of i-76c^ sp. gr. at o* C.^ boiling at I36-4'' under 7S3'3 ram. pressure
(T. £. Thorpe), by heating to dull redness an intimate dry mixture
rrf th<» rtxide and ignited lamp-black in dry chlorine. In the method
icr and H. Wirthwein, the titanium mineral is fused with
carbon in the ehxtric' furnace, the cailrfdes treated with chlonne,
and the titanium chbride condensed. The distiUate b treed from
vanadium by digestion with sodium amalgam. Otker methods mm
doe to £. Vigouroux and G. Arrivaut iAkU. Jem. Obm. Soc,. 1907.
iL 97, 276) and Dlis (ibkl., p^ 270). By pssung chkiroCbrm vapma
over the heated dioxide the tetra- di- and tn-chlondeaare formed*
together with the free metal and a gaseous hydride, TiH* (Rena,
J7«r., 1906. 39, p. 249). When dropped very cantioualy into cold
water it dissolvcB into a clear soluuon. Accoiding to the amoimc
of water used, TiCl/)H. TiCWOH)*. TiCKOH)* or ritanic add ia
formed. The solution when boiled deposits most of ita oidde in the
meta-hydrate fornu It forms addition compounds similar to thoae
formed by stannic chloride, and combines with ammonia to fosro
TiCU-SNHi and TiC]«-6NHs. both of whKh with Uguid ammonia
give titanamide, Ti(NHi)4. Titanium dichloride, TiCU. obtained
by pauin^ hydrogen over the trichloride at a dull red heat, is a very
hygroscopic brown powder whk:h inflames when exposed to air,
and enetgetically decomposes water. Tilanimm trieUaride, TiCU.
forma involatile. dark violet scales, and is obtained by passing the
vapour of the tetrachk>ride mixed with hydrogen through a red-^iot
tube, or by heating the tetrachloride with molecular niver to 200*.
It is a powerful redudng agent.
Titamum tetrabromide, TiBr«, is an amber^olmucd crysuUine
mass. The tefraiodide, Til«, is a reddish brown mass having a
raetalUc lustre. The di-iodide^ Tili, is obtained as black laradla
by passing the vapour of the tetraiodide over heated mercury in an
atmosphere of hydrogen (E. Defacqz and H. Copaux, Compt. rend.,
1908, 147, p. 65). Sulphides are known corresponding to the beat-
known oKUies.
Titanium sesMtisulphate, Tia(S0«)j-8H/), obtained by concentrat-
ing the violet solution formed when the metal is dissolved in sulphuric
acid, is interesting since it forms a caeriam alum, CsTi(SO«)t*i2H^.
It gives the normal sulphate as a yellow, deliquesoent, amorphous
mass when treated with nitric add.
Add sdutMns of titanates are not predpitated by sulphuretted
hydrogen ; but ammonium sulphide acts on them as if it were ammonia,
the sulphuretted hydrogen bdng liberated. Titanium oxide when
fused with microcosmic sale in the oxidizing flame yieMs a bead
which is yellowish in the heat but colourleas after cooling. In the
reducing flame the bead becomes violet, more readily on tne addition
of tin; in the presence of iron it becomes blood-red. Titanic
oxides when fusra on charcoal, even with potasdum cyanide, yield
no metal. Rose determined the atomk: weight to be 47'*73 (H •■ i).
A redetermination in 1885 by T. E. Thorpe gave the value 47-7
(see Jouru. Ckem. Soe,, 1883* p. xo8).
TITAlfOTHBRnDAB (also known ^ as Menodontidae and
Brontotheriidfte), a family of large rhinoeeros^Iike peiisaodactyl
tmgulate mammals' from the CMigocene and Eocene stmta of
North America. The check-teeth are low-crowned, with the
external cones of the upper molars fused into a W-like outer
wall, and the inner ones retaining a regular conical form; while
in the lower teeth the crown is formed of crescentic ridges, of
which there are three in the last and two each in the other
teeth. There is generally little gap between the cmdncs and the
premolara.
THanctierhtmf of the Oligocene of the Dakotas and neighbour-
ing districU, was a huge beast, with the hinder upper prenwdars
similar in character to the molars, a pair of horn-cores^ ariaiiig
froDi the maxilla, overhanging the nose-cavity, four front and
three hind toes, only twenty dorso-Iumbar vertebrae, and an
almost continuous and unbroken series of teeth, in which the
canines are short; the dental formula being i. f , c. (, p. f , m. |.
The muzzle probably formed s snout In life; and there is
presumptive evidence that these animals were very long-lived.
Bfontops teem scarcely separated from the type genua; bot the
name BrotUotkerium is applied to spedes with two pairs of fodsor
teeth in both Jaws. The length of the largest spedes was about
14 ft.; and the height about 8 ft. The alleged occurrence of
remains of membeis of the group in the Balkans apparently
rests on insti£Scient evidence. •
A second group is typtfiM by Pataeosyepsy of the Bifdger
Eocene of Korth America; P. paludasus bdng aa animal
about the sise of a tapir. The skull, which has a longer
fiace than in THanoUurimm; htclu hom-oorea. while all the
upper premolan are simpler than the molars, and the full
series of 44 teeth was present. The limbs were relatively
slender, and the brain, was small. In the bwer. or Wasatch,
Eocene the group was lepresented by the still more primitive
Lambdolherimm, . On the other hand. Paiaecsyeps is connected
with Titonethenttm by means of Telmolothfrinm of the upper
TITANfS^TlTHES
lOI^
> tfid Widulck Bacaie, a larger aoim^, with a lon^r
and latter skoll, showing fudiments «f honi-«0Rs, only two
pairs of lower indsots, ami a general approzimatioQ in dental
character to THanatkmum. Another of these titanotheroid
forms b Diplaetdem, fiom the Upper or Uinta Eocene; an
animal .the siae of a rhinoceros, with the last two upper
premotars molar-fike. It was probabl;^'ofiF the direct ancestral
line of Til^MothtrUun, These intennediate forms render the
reference of the group to a dbtinct familjr— Palaeosyopfdac-^
unnecessaiy.
Professor H. F. Osbom, who recognises four geners, TUano-
ihenuMt MegaeeropSt Symborodm and BronltHhenuMf in the
typical section of the family, considen that each of these
represents a distinct line of descent from the Palaeasycp»^e
group. The whole assemblage forms one of the four main
sections of the Ferissodactyla, namely the Titanotheroldea.
See rt. F. OBbom, ** The Cranlaf Evolution of Titanotherium/*
B«0. Amer. lins. (1806), vui., 137. and the "Four Phyla of
OUgociae TitadOtheics,^' cP. -dL (1903)1 xvi. 9i; C H. Earle, " A
Memoir «n the Gcniu P<aae<»y0p$ and its AUtes»" /ram. Acad,
Fhsladdpkia (1892). ix. 267. OL L.*)
niAJlS (Gr. Tirfimt), In Greek mythology, the children of
Uranos and Gaea. Aceordhig to Hesiod (Thecg. 1$$), the male
Titans were Oceanus, Coeus, Crins, Hyperion, lapetus and
Croniis; the female, Thea, Rhea, Themts, Mnemosyne, Phoebe
and Tethys, to whom Apoflodonis adds Dione. At the instiga-
tion of Gaea they rebelled agahist their father, who had shut
them up In the bowels of the earth, and set up as ruler their
youngest brother, Cronus, who in turn was dethroned by his
son Zeus. A struggle then ensued between Zeus and Cronus, in
which the Titans took different sides. The opponents of Zeus
were finally defteted, and imprisoned in Tartarus {Tkeof.
1 53-«». <ii 7 aqq-). The rebellioiis Titans are the representatives
of the wild, disorderly forcesof nature, who are defeated by the
CHjrmpiaa deities, who stand for law and order. Hie name
Tbans is nsuaUy explained as "avengers," referring to the
Tcngeance taken by Cronus on his father Uranus, but A. Diete-
xicfa (Rheiniscka Museum, x8$3, xlviii., and J. £. Haxrisoa
{ProUgomenala Greek Rdiguff) connect it with riroyot (gypsum).
Aecording to Rarpocration (r.». 'KropArrwX the Titans,
srhen they mutilated Dionysus Zagreus (see DioirystTS),
besmeared themselves with gypsum to conceal their identity,
•s Artemis daubed her Csce with mud to escape the river-
god Alpbeus. The custom was practised at Bacchic and
p«infica«My lites (Demosthenes, De corona, p. 5x3) as among
asvage tifbes at the present day. The Titan story n probably
an attempt to txphdn the fact that the Orphic worshippers,
when about to tear the sacred animal, daubed themselves with
gypsum. L. Weniger, in an artide "Feralls exerdtus" in
Ardrio fUr ReUgionsgesekkkle (May 1906, February and March
1907), whUe regardfaig the " white colouring " as an original
feature, does net accept the derivation of Ttrapvf from rlreaw'.
According to Un, Zagreus is the divine hunter, in turn pursued
and slain by others mightier than himself, the "snow-clad"
(white) giants dweDIng on Pamassos. These Titans, whose
origmal is to be found in Pentheus and Lycurgus (For whom see
DiormoB), had nothing to do with the Titans of Hcsiod's
Tkeogonif, The wh<de has reference to the winter festival of
Dionysus, when the god arrived with his Thyiade:! (the wind
spirits) on the heights of Parnassus, there to be murdered by the
Titans, to be buried and come to life again.
The fltandard work on the sabiect is M. Mayer. Die C^anien und
Titanen in der auHken Soff und Kunst (1887).
TITBi OR WIUIAM (X79S-1873). British architect, the son
of a Russian merchant, was bom in London in Februaxv i79$<
From r8i7 to 1820 he assisted in the rebuilding of the body of.
the church of St Dunstan-in-the-East, and in compSing Its
history. Between 1827 and 1828 he built the Scottish church.
Regent Square, for Edward Irving, and ten years later
collabofated with Charles Robert Cockerc>n In designing the
London flt Westminster Bank, Lothbury. The rebuilding of the
Koyal Eachange, opened in 1844, was, however, Tite's greatest
imdertaklng. fie also designed many of the early lailway
stations *{n England, induding the termini of the London ft
South- Western railway at Vauxhall (Nine Ebns) and Sottthamp-
ton; the terminus at Blackwall, 1840; the dtadel station at
Carlisle, X847-X848; the majority of the stations on the Cale-
donian and Scottish Central railways, induding Edxnbiiri^,
T847-r848; Chiswick, 1849; Windsor, 1850; and the stations
on the Exeter ft Yeovil railway. The stations on the line
from Havre to Paris are also his woric Between 1853 and 1854
he planned the Woking Cemetery, and between 1858 and 1859
he built a memorial church In the Byzantine style at Gerrard's
Cross, Buckinghamshire. Tite's active work ceased about twenty
years before his death. In 1851 he visited Italy after a grave
illness. In 1854 he contested Barnstaple unsuccessfully as a
Liberal, but in the following year was returned to pariiament
for Bath, which he represented until his death. He keenly
opposed Sir George Gilbert Scott's prop<»al to build the new
foreign office and other government biibdingsadjaeent to the
treasury in the Gothic style. In tS6g he was knighted, and in
X870 was made a Companion of the Bath. He died on the soth
of April 1873. Tite had a wide knowledge of English literature
and was a good linguxst; he was an active dtiaen and a lover of
ol d boo ks.
TITHB8, a fbrm^of taxation,'^ secular and ecdedastical,
usually, as thie name implies, consisting of one-tenth of a man^
property or produce. Tht tax probably originated in a tribute
levied by a conqueror or ruler upon his subjects, and perhaps the
custom of dedicating a tenth of the spoils of war to the gods kd
to the religious extension of the term, the original offerings to
deity bdng " firstfruits."
The custom was almost tmfversal in antlqtiity; for Greece and
Rome see Pauly-Wissowa, Realencych^ie, iv. 2306, 2423; for
Babylon, M. Jastrow, Rdigwn of Babyioma and Assyria, p. 668;
for China, J. Legge, Chinese Qassia,' L 1x9; for Egypt, C.
Maspero, Struggle of Nations, p. 3x2.' The general notion of
tax or tribute often prevailed over that of " the tenth " part,
so that in Dion Halicamassus (L 23) and I^iHo {De mulat, nom.
L 607) ^hrapxo^ and fcxdtw are synonymous, and in Mahommedan
law the " tithe " is sometimes only Voth or -jVth.
Among the eariy Hebrews the king could exact a tithe from
comfidcb, vineyards and flocks (x Sam. viii. 1$, 17). On the
religious side the oldest laws {e.g. Exod. xxxiv. 26) speak of
bringing the firstfruits of the land to the house of Yahweh. In
the 8ih century the term " tithe " was used ht Isradof religious
dues (Amos Iv. 4; Geiu txviii. 22), and in the 7th century
Deuteronomic legislation the word is often found. In Deotcro*
nomy the new point emphasized fs not that tithes must be paid,
but that they must be consumed at the central, instead of a locaT,
sanctuary (Deut xiL 6, xx, x{v. 23 sqq.), apparently at the great
autumn feast or feast of Tabemades {g.v.)* Such a tfthe is
still nothing more than the old offering of "fixstfnnts" {bik"
kHrUn) made definite as regards quantity, aad It was only natural
that as time went on there diould be some fixed sttodard of the
due amount of the annual sacred tribute." ' The establishment
of such a standard does not necessarily imply that full payment
was exacted; in Gen. xxviiL 22 Jacob vows of his own free will
to pay tilhcfek just as the Arabs used Co vow the tithe of the
iooeate of the flock {scM. on HSrith, MoaiL I 69, ed. Arnold).
The Arab did boC always fulfil his vow, and there was no force
to make him do so. A distinction is drawn in Deuteronomy
between the ordinary annual tithe, which may not have been a
full tenth, aad the " whole " or " full lithe," paid once in thxee
* For other instances aee Spencer, 2>e U^bus kebmeorum, lib.
iii. cap. 10. i I. Among the Semites in particular note the tithe
paid by the Carthaginians to the Tyrian Mdkarth (Diod. xx^M).
aad the tithe of fiankincenfle paid In Arabia to the god Sabis (Plioy,
H M xiL 32; and d. W. R. Smith, Pre^ efhrod^p. 38a seq.).
A tithe of cattle appears in Lydia (Nic Dainasc. /r. 24}.
* Cf. Deut. xxvC with 1 Sam. L 21 (Sept.) and Jerome on Exek. i.
3; and see Wellhausen, Prolegomena, p. 94 (Eng. trans., p. 9> <«q.)*
■ In Deuteronomy, acoordin^rly. the firslTmiCs (JMcJcMnm) are not
mentioned : the tithe takes their place. The word translated " first-
fruits " in Deut. {rishUb) is a small gift to the priesu, a 1 ' ■ — '~*'
ful (xviii. 4, axvi. a seq.).
^
,i020 TITHES
years (Deut. liv. a8/zzvi. za), which the legislator directs to be
stored at home, and spent in feeding the poor. Amos iv. 4,
'' Bring your sacrifices every morning and your tithes evoy
three days ". (not " years " as £.V.), hardly implies more than
that occasions of sacrifice were three times as frequent as tithe-
day, and so alludes to the fact that there were by old usage three
annual feasts and one annual tithe. A triennial sacrificial tithe
is inconceivable when it is remembered that the tithe is only
an extension of the firstfruits. The triennial tithe in Deuter-
onomy seems to be rather an innovation necessary in the interests
of the poor, ^^n sacrificial feasts were transferred to the central
sanctuary, and ceased to benefit the neighbours of the offerer,
who, as stated above, had a prescriptive claim to be considered
on such occasions (cf.. x Sam. xzv. 8 sqq.; Keh._viiL_zo;
Luke nv. 13). __ _ .^ , ^ "
The priests of the sanctuaries had of old a share in the sacri-
ficial feasts,* and among those who ate to share in the triennial
tithe Deuteronomy includes the Levites, i.e. the priests of the
local sanctuaries who had lost their old perquisites by the
centralization of warship. In Ezekiel as in the Law of Holiness
there is no mention of tithes; he proposes to support all public
worship from the proceeds of a general tax (dv. 13) levied by
the prince, the old firstfruits being allotted to the priests. In
the Persian period the tithe was converted to the use of the
Temple (Mai. iii. &-10). As Malachi speaks in Deuteronomic
phrase of the " whole tithe," the payment to the Levitcs (now
subordinate ministers of the Temple) was perhaps stiU only
triennial; and if even this, was difficult to collect, we
may be sure that the minor sacrificial tithe had very nearly
disappeared. The indifference complained of in Mai. i. was in
great part due to the fundamental changes in the religion of
Israel, which made private altar gifts and feasts almost meaning-
Ies8. On the other hand, the provision of regular support for
the priests and Levites, the ministers of the publi£ ritual,. was
now all important, and received special attention from Ezra and
Nchemiah (Neh. x* 37 sqq., xiii. 10 sqq.). They effected it by
enforcing the new law of the priestly code (Num. xviii. n sqqO,
in which it is formally laid down that the tithe is a tribute paid
to the Levites, who in turn pay a tithe of it to the priests. It is
doubtful whether the system ever worked. The plain intention
of the priestly code is to allow the old tithe of Deuteronomy to
drop; but the harmonistic interpretation of the later scribes was
to the effect that two tithes were to be paid every year, and a
third tithe, for the poor, on every third year (Tob. i. 7 scq.;
Jos. Anl. iv. 8, § 32). The Uist change in the system was the
appropriation of the Levitical tithe by the priests, . which
apparently was effected by John Hyrcanus, though a tradition,
glaringly inconsistent with Nehemiah, ascribes it to Ezra, alleging
that he deprived the Levites because so few of them were willing
to return to Palestine (Mishnah, " Ma'aser Sh. ". v. 15; " Sota,"
ix. 10, and Wagenseil's note).*
On the whole subject of Hebrew tithes see furtlier G. F. Moore
in Ency, Bib. col. 5102; A. S. Peake in Hastings's Dia. cf the BibU,
iv. 780: and the works on Hebrew antiquities by H. Nowack and
L Benzinger. (A- J. G.)
TUbftinLiao:
Tithes wewT generally regarded up to the 17th century as
existing jure dhino, aiid as having been payable to the sup-
port of the Church ever since the earliest days of Christianity.
« The tithe offered to Yahweh may have oridnafly been consumed
—in whole or in representative part— on the attar, but in the rituals
preserved to us the offering is symbolical, the deity ceding his tithe
to the priest, so that from quite early times the tithe helped to
support the priesthood who fike the poor had a customary share
(guest-right) m the feasts. , . .. . . , .
. * A catUe tithe is demanded In Lev. xxvii. 32, and spoken of m
3 Chron. xxxi. 6. It is doubtful if this was ever acknowledged in
practice. Sec Kuenen. C«rfsrfi«|frt, li. 269 seq., and Wcllhauscn,
Frolegomena, v. i. § a (Eng. trans., p. 15S seqX who aiiguc that the
numge in Leviticus is a later addition. The tendency of the
Pharisees was to pay tithe on everything, and to makes self-righteous
L '•his (Matt, xxiii. 23; Luke xviii. 12). TheMishnaCMa'aseroth
" tiverything that is eaten and is watched over and grows
>und is table to tithe."
Histoiy, as Selden showed in- his learned and exhirestive tteatioe
{History of Tithes i6i&),does not bear out this view.* In the
words of Hallam, "the slow and gradual manner in which
parochial churches became independent appears to be of itself
a sufficient answer to those who ascribe a great antiquity to the
universal payment of tithes."'
Lons before the 8th century payment of tithes was enjoined
by ecclesiastical writers and by coundls of the Church; but the
earliest authentic example of anything Uke a law of the sute
enforcing payment appears to occur in the Capitularies of
Charlemagne at the end of the 8th or the beginxung of the 9th
century. Tithes were by that enactment to.be applied to
the maintenance of the bishop and dergy, the poor,* and the
fabric of the Church. In course of time the principle of pay*
ment of tithes was extended far beyond its original intention.
Thus they became transferable to laymen and saleable like
ordinary property, in spite of the injunctions of the third Lateran
Council, and they became payable out of sources of income
which were not originally tithabk. The canon kw contains
numerous and minute provisions on . the subject of tithes^
The Decretum forbade th«r alienation to lay proprietors, dc-
noimced excommunication against those who refused to pay,
and based the right of the Church upon scriptural piecodenta.*
The decretals contained provisions as to what was and what
was not tithable property, as to those privileged from payment,
as to sale or hypothecation to laymen, as to priority over
state taxes, SicJ Various questions which arose later were
settied by Boniface VUL* The Council of Trent enjomed due
payment of tithes, and excommunicated those who withheld
them.*
In England the earliest example of legal recognition of tithes
is, according to Selden, a decree of a synod in 786.* Other
examples before the conquest occur in the Pocdus JSXfredi d
Cuthruni and the laws of Athelstan, Edffir and Canute."
A full diecusnon of their origin and history n to be found In Lord
Selbome's Ancient Facts and Fiaioms eoneemini Ckttrekes and
Tithes (1888); the Bistory of Ike Law of. Tithes in England, by G.
Edwardes Jones; and the Sacred Tenths Ancient and Modem, Ly
H. UnsdeQ (1906).
(J. W.)
Tithes in England may be bat dealt with in two chronok^ical
divisions — ^tithes under the system existing previously to the
Commutation Acts and tithes imder the system then introduced.
I. Whether or not, as it is said, before the Council of Lateran
in 1x80, a man could have given his tithes to any church or
monastery that he pleased, at any rate anoe that BaStovOa
time, with the division of dioceses into parishes, 'rwa^ai
they now of common .right bekmg to the church <i"aAc«>.
within whose parish th^ arise, although by prescription
they may belong elscwlure. The general rule was said to
be that all lands within a parish are subject to tithce, and a
layman was not allowed to prescribe generally that his lands were
exempt; but he had to show a special exemption, and no length
of possession was regarded \n law in view of the maxim nuUtim
temfius occurrit eccUsiaef although equity did take account of it.
The tithes in places extra-parochial, e.g, forest lands, bckng to
the Crown, although by canon law they were to be disposed
of by the bishop; but by custom a parson or vicar night be
entitled to them. The tithes of tithable cattle pasturing in any
waste or common ground, whereof the parish is not certainly
known, were made payable to the parson of the parish where the
cattle dwell by a statute of Edward VI.
Tithes were classified according to their nature as praediaJ, or
.' It was his denial of the divine right of tithes that broi^ht down
the wrath of the Star Chamber upon the author. He was forced to
retract an opinion too liberal for the time. (See Sbldsn.)
* Hallam. Middle Ages, ii. 205.
* See Dante, Par. xu. 93, " decimas quae sunt paupenim DeL'*
•Pt.ii. 16,7. 'Bk.iiL^.
* Extrao. Comm. bV. iii. ?•
•Sess.xxv. 13. "CvHl. fa.
" The grsnt said to have been made by ^thelwulf in 855. to which
the general payment of tithes in England has been commonly traced,
appears not to rest on satisfactory evidence.
TITHES
1021
azifkg immcdiatdy fron tbe ground, e.g. fnbi of all mrts, bay,
wood and the tike; mixed, or arising freak things immediately
nourished by the ground, e.g. colts. Iambs, eggs and the like;
or personal, namely, of ptofits arising from the honest labour
and industry of man, and being the tenth part of the dear gain,
t.g. fishing, miUs and the like; or according to vahie, as great,
4.g, eom, hay and wood; or little, which embraced all others.
Of common ri^t tithes were only payable of such things
as yield a yearly increase by the act of God, and generally only
once a year. They were not payable of the following, except
by custom: things of the substance of the earth, such as coals,
minerals, turf and the like; things ferae naturae^ such as fish,
deer and the like; things tame, such as fowls, hounds or fish
kept for pleasure or curkmty; barren land, until it is converted
into arable or meadow land, and has been so for seven years;
forest land, if in the hands of the king or his lessee, unless diS'
afforested: a park which is -dtsparked; or glebe land in the
bands of the parson or vicar, which was mutually exempted from
payment by the one to the other, but not if in the hands of the
vicar's lessee. Another exception to the incidence of tithes
were abbey lands. These were exempted generally by Pope
Pascal n. while in the hands of iheir owners, but the privilege
was restricted by Pope Adrian IV. hi the time of Henry II. to the
three religious orders of Cistercians, Templars and Hospitallers
(to whom the Templars' lands were given on their dissolution in
17 Edw. II.), to which Pope Innocent HI. added the Prae-
monstratenses. The Council of the Lateran in 1215 further
restricted this exemption to lands of which these orders were
an possession before thsit council. A custom 1>y the religious
to obtain exemption for lands let to their tenants by means of
bulls from the pope was put an end to by a statute of Henry IV.
making the acquisition or use of such buDs henceforward
a praemunire. When the religious houses were dissolved by
Henry VIII., in the case of the greater abbeys and priories the
exemptions from payment of thhes en)0>'ed by them passed to the
Crown or the persons to whom the Crown assigned them, and thus
any lands which might have been thus exempted, whether they
bad been actually so or not, were piestimed to be exempt; and a
farther exemption was created 1^ parsoiuiges coming into the
same hands as tithable lands, which lasted so long as such union
contimaed.
A further exemption from tithes' Was gtwn by an act of 183 a
(1 & 3 Win. IV. c. loo), which fixed a period of prescttption against
claims of tithe by laymen or corporations aggregate, of thirty
yean during which there had been no payment of titlies or a
m^u$ or ooraposition had existed, in the absence of contrary
evidence, and in any case of sixty years; and against corpora-
dons sole, of sixty years or the tenures of two successive incum-
bents and three years after the entry of a third. The tithes
which Ciine into lay hands by the dissolution of the reUgiotis
houses and the previous suppression of alien priories by
Henry V. became In all respects incorporeal freehold property.
Under the UmiUtion Act of 1833 twenty yean of adverse posses-
slon of an estate in tithes gave a good title, except as against
spiritual or eleemosynafy corporations sole whose right to recover
tithes was limited, if at all, to a period of two incumbencies and
six yean afterwaids. Or sixty yean (s. 29).'
Tithes were genecally recovered by a writ against the owner
of the tithable property usually brought ia the ecdesiastical
courts (questions of title to tithes being reserved to the temporal
courts), the jurisdiction of which m this respect was confirmed
by the statutes CimmspecU agaih (13 Edw. I.), ArtkuH den
(9 Edw. n.), and othen of Henry VIII. and Edward VI.. and was
enforced by ecclesiastical censures and the writ De excammuni-
eai^ c4pieMdp', and an act i & 3 Edw. VI. made any person
i«f using to set out tithes liable to pay double the value in the
ecclesiastical court or treble m a common law court. Tithes of
small amount or due from Quaken could be recovered by sum-
mary proceedings before justices under statutes ranging from
William III. to Victoria. Tithes could also be sued for in equity,
espedatty the equity side of the exchequer. A custom also
sprang up» and was common at the time of the Commutation
Acts, for a tithe-owner (o accept a fixed sum of money or fixed
quantity of the goods tithable in place of the actual tithes, known
a> a modtfs decimandiy whether in respect oi a whole parish or
only of particular lands withia it; and this could be sued for in the
ecdesiastical courts. Tithe*payers could also file bilb in equity
to establish a modus against a tithe-owner. In the City of
London there were customary tithes; in other town» and places
there were compositions for tithes which were confirmed by local
acts of parliament; and according to a return presented to
the House of Commons in 1831, there were passed between 1757
and 1830 no less than aooo local acts containing clauses
for the commutation of tithes. Endosure Acts often gave
a portion of the lands enclosed to the spiritual or ky rector
and exempted the rest from tithes; and in other local acts a
com rent or yearly money payment was substituted for tithes.
Except, however, where made under parliamentary authority,
no composition for tithes, although made between the landowner
and the parson or vicar ^ith the consent of the patron and
ordinary, bound a succeeding incumbent, the statute 13 Eliz. c. 10
prohibiting any parson or vicar from making any conveyance
of {inter aJia) tithes, being parcel of the possessions of their
churches, to any persons, exccDt leases for twenty-one years or
three lives.
t. The principle of the Tithe Commutation Acts (1836-
i860) is to make permanent and general the system which had
been only partial or temporary (in most cases). Alter tb*
and to " substitute a com rent (known as a tithe Comm»ta'
rent charge), pemuinent in quantity and payable *'»•'**'••
in money, but fluctuating in value, for aU tithes, whether
payable under a modus or composition or not, which may have
heretofore belonged either to ecclesiastical or lay persons"
(Phinimore, Eecies. Lew, ii. xx6i).'
(now the board of agricolture) are appoiated to
csecute the acu; a »ent charge on all lands liable to titbes at the
time of tbe passing of the twit act is substituted for thoae tithes.
of which the gross amount is ascertained either by voluntary
parochial agreement, or, failing that, by compulsory award con-
firmed by the commissiooers; and the value of the tithes is fixed in
the latter case by their avenee value in the particular pari&h during
the seven yeara preceding Christmas 1835. without deduction for
Srochial or county and other rates, charges and aesessmcnls
ling on tithes, the rent charge being liable to all the chaiges to
which thhes were liable. The rear Oiarge is apportioned on all
the lands liable in the parish, and such apportionment may be
altered or a new one made: and the value of the rent charge is fixed
at the vahie (at the time of eonfirwiation of the apportionment)
of the number of imperial bushels and decimal parts of bushels of
wheat, barley and oats as the same would have purchased at the
prices so ascertained by the advertisement (of prices of com) to be
published immediately after the passing of the act 6 A 7 Will. IV.
c. 71. in case one-third part of such rent charge had been invested
in the purchase of wheat, one-third part ia the purchase of barley,
and the remaining thiid part in the purchase of oats: and the
respective quantities of wheat, barley and oats so ascertained shaU
be stated in the draft of every apportiohment. The price at which
the conversion from money into com is Co be made at the time ol
confirnuition of such apportionment, according to the provisions of
the said act. arc 7s. oid. for a bushd of wheat, 3*. i i4d. for a boshd
of bariey and 2S. 9d. for a bushd of oau (7 Will. IV. and I Vict. c. 69) ;
the average price of the bushel of each grain is now computed by
substtturing for the ** advertisement " above the statement of the
septennial average price of the imperial bushd of British com made
under the Com Returns Act i88a ; and thus the value of the statutory
amount of corn is now fixed for each year at the beginning thereof
at the average price of the three components of corn for the previous
seven yean. The extent of the depreciation in value of tithe may
be gathered from the fact that for 1902 the price of the wheat bushd
M Oius fixed at 3s. sid.. that of the barley bushd at 3s. oid. and that
of the oats bushd at 2s. id.
As already indicated above, certain lands are exempt from pay*
ment of titnes while In the occupation of their owners, either by
reason of their having been parcel of the possessions ol any privileged
Older, or by reaaoo of their bdng of the tenure of ancient demesne
and exempt whilst in the tenure, occupation or manurance ct
the Crown, its tenants, farmers and les<«cs or under-tenants, although
they are subject to tithes when aliened or occupied by subjects
not being such ; and in these and in all such cases, with the consent
of such oWners, a fixed rent charge may be substituted for any
contingent rent charge imposed on them (2 & 3 Vict, c 6a ; ^ A 4 Vict.
c. 15. now reoealed except as to tithes not commuted). In certain
cases where commutation of tithes for rent charge in the ordinary
_ _r 1
TITHING— TITHON US
^■s
X-
. »>K.. V »>a^ - s *. rV , »^ ,># Ia^jwl* Ua.t» or in the
' V \ -v >.*v> %*. v-'s.t > . V— ^ 1 ^^vvl*umoc^a^c
...... ^ L X ^ "*' '^ ""^l * * *^^^'* '^^ « »*» ««
" V I^^ ^w *^^ :r''^ ^vNir-. b^^^ \.-fc*%«m*» igjs had
..>s„ s,K. .. v.. ,w ♦.»wH.,«f..' :,Mi .> re»^-t ol the bnds
. \ .t ^^ ;^^ V** * ' *' ^"i: * ^^ J^^ *-* c. 6i ; 3 & 4 Vict.
' » . V^C ,. ^ 1 : *^ ^ -* » ^* V.\\ A ?,! Vict. c. 9J) a gross
^. vv Nv^ ,xv b^ tV v>«hrr Tithe Act?
^M»» M»»^ bv ^\»«»i uuhKl k<c Mit p( the b
^^* KH. ^-^S-.^^ l^blrW ^hc uX _ „^..
. Xi'^'^rir'^ "^.' \r conNWed into a rent charge^n
. ' t V, J^7 .'^ ' ^^**^ •^ "^» *"^i«« ♦<> the Tithe
►.. ^'K'si ,».vvf kH"«I «cr» tnio rent charres.
.aj# srt ^H-««vMmdi, otchards. fn ,n» and
^.•tN %^, jiixrn to the eooimission « them
... »MV^>^^,.vi i.^mtmas 1835. and to 1 anr and
--►:.» ^ \-^^*-V^^V^ • ""^/hereof, tl or such
--'"*-c-*' !.••< '^} v4 cultivation, the Utter for such aa were there-
**» t* ^'^ i> cuUivAtrd: lands subject »«♦!.« uv!l- ri-r^^2^^
cbi^^- the
,Han tith«
tithe-ownc
l^ore tne
nward m
are only »\
ct the real
for the nci
liavr been
or otherwi
which (em
and towns
person* e
handicraft
previously
lish caugh
uker heai
houses or (
in some a
is also mac
for land.' I
arts, and 1
inay abo
tithe COraiiii»9(VMid9 «■•» tuc lanuvwiici. vy lhe i6k<m a*iu djuiiai/iv
owners of tithes in fee simple or fee tail, or persons having power
to appoint the fee simple in tithes, or owners of glebes, or owners
of lands and tithes settled to the same usee-
Tithe Tcnt charge under these acts is subject to the same
liabilities and incidents as tithes, such as parliamentary, parochial,
oouaty and other rates, especially the poor rate and highway
nte; but the owner of tithe rent charge attached to a benefice
has been exempted by an act of 1899 fVom payment of half the
amount of any rate which he tvould be liable to pay under the
Agikultutal Rates Act iB^^ the other half being borne by the
Inlud Revenue Commissioners^ The limitation of time for
rccovtty of tithes or estates in tithes, whether between rival
Limitation Act 1833, •. 29, already qooted, the ict 9 It 3
Will. IV. c 100 bdng held only to apply to demands ot tithe
in kind.
The method of recovering rent charge sndcc the Cosunuuiioo
Acts was distraint where the rent charge is ia ancar for twenty.
one days after the half-yearly days of paymeot, and entry and
possession with power of letting if it is in aneac for forty days,
and arrears for two years are so recoverable: this power of di&trea
id entry extends to tU lands occupied by the occupieT of the
nd whose Utbc is in arrear as owner or uiuler the same
ndJord; but no action lies against the owner or occupier of the
.,jad personally. If a tenant quits leaving tithe unpaid, the
landk>rd may pay it and recover it from him. The UtheK)wnct
cannot recover damages from the tithe-payer for not cultivaiii^
the land. Special provision is made for the recovery of the itia
charge in railway lands.
The act of 1891, has, however, altered this method of recover-
ing tithes, and substituted another intended to shift the burden
of responsibility from the occupier to -the landowner, by making
the latter directly and solely responsible, but giving the remedy
against the land. The landowner is made liable to pay the rent
chaige in spite of any contract to the contrary between him and
the occupier; the rent charge if in arxcar for three months is
recoverable by an order of the coimty court, whatever its amount
may be: if the land isoccupi^ by the owner, the order is executed
by the sjime means as those prescribed in the Tithe Acts; but
if it is not, then by a receiver being appointed for the rents and
pro6ts of the land: neither landlord nor occufMer b personally
liable for payment; and appeal lies to the High Court on points
of law; and a remission of rent charge may be cbuned when
its amount exceeds two-thirdB of the annual value of the land.
The act does not apply to the particular kinds of rent charges
mentioned above.
The Tithe Acts do not apply to the city of London, which
has always had its own peculiar customary payment regulated
by episcopal constitutions of 13 Hen. III. and 13 Ric. II. and
statutes of Henry VIII., confirming a decree of the privy
council, under which the rate of tithes was fixed at i6id. for
every ics. rent, and at as. pd. for every aos. rent of houses,
shops and the lUce by the year. Provision was made by statute
after the fire of London for certain annual tithes to be paid in
parishes whose charcbeshad been destroyed, and there have been
local acts from time to time with regard to particnUr parishes
therein.
AvmoarriBS.— PhilUmore, Ecdena s Hca l Law (ittA ed., London.
i«9S); Cripps, Law of Church and Ckrry (6th ed.. London. i&86>i
Eagle. TUh€S (London, X836) ; Leach, TUkc Acts (6ch ed.. 1896).
^^ (G.G. P.-)
TTTHINO (for tithe, tenth; Lat* d^MM), formerly a uiut of
local adminbtration in Engbnd. In some districis the men who
were bound to be in frankpledge (f.v.) were grouped in associa-
tions of ten, twelve or more individual called tithings. >^lien
a person who was accused of any crime was not fortboomins,
inquiry was made whether he was in frankpledge; if he were
not, and had no right of exemption, the towikhip was amerced.
but if he were in a tithing, then it was upon the tithing thai the
amercement fell. South of the Thames the tithings wrere di&*
tricts normally identical with the township which discharged
the duties of the frankpledge. Some townships, however,
contained more than one tithing. There are also iiMlicationa
that in the ancient kingdom of Merda the tithing ^'^^
originally a district and not a mere association of persons;
but in Northumbria it is doubtful whether the system oi
frankpledge and tithing, either personal or territorial, was ever
established. If, as seems likely, the territorial tithing is older
than the personal, each territorial hundred (^ .t.) was probably
divided into ten tithings.
TITHONUS. in Greek legend, according to Homer son of
Laomedon, king of Troy and husband of Eos (the iiM>raixi|C>-
In the Homeric Hymn to ApkroiiU^ Eos is said to have carried
him off because of his great beauty. She entreated Zeus ilxat
he might live for ever; this was granted, but she forgot to
TITIAN
xoas
for immortal ytmtk for him. fk became a hideout old man;
Eoa then shut him up in a chamber; hit voice " flowed on unceat-
ingiy,*' but hit limbt were helplctt. A later devdopment it
the change of tlthonot into a grasshopper, after Eot had been
tfbfiged to wrap Urn like a child in swaddliiig*dothct and to
put him to sleep in a kind of cradle. He was probably atsodated
with the Tkojan royal house, since the inhabitants of the original
home of the legend (piobably central or notthem Greece) looked
upon the Bast, the land of the morning, at the home of Eos. In
^me versiont the i* taid to have carried him away still farther
East, to the land of Ethiopia near the ocean ttreamt; this is
cuhemeristicaliy referred by Diodonis Sicuhis to air eipedition
undertaken against Ethiopia by TithomiSi son of Laomedon.
It is probable that Tithonus was ori^nany a sun-god ; the schdiast
on ilwi, tu. s, who calls him Titan, identities him with Apollo, and
there are many pomts of lesemfalanee between Mm and the sun-god
HdkM. The story is meaemllyiegavded at an allegorical tepieseata*
tion of the fresh momuig sun dried up by the heat of the advancing
day. Possibly it is merely intendea as a warning to mortals not
to unite with immortab, lest they incur the jealousy and wrath of
thegodt.
Mytkvlogie, i. 313. n. 16, who attributes a Milesian origin to the
•tory : articles^' Eos *' by Rapp in Roseher's LexiUn itr Jiytkologie
and by Eocher in Pauly-Wisaowa's RealmcyehpSiie.
TITIAlf (e. tA77-tS76). Tisiano Vecellio, or Vecefll, one of
the greatest painters of the worid, and in especial the typical
representative of the Venetian school, was commonly called
during his lifetime " Da Cadore,*' from the place of his birth,
and has also been designated *'I1 Divino." The country of
Cadore, in the Friuli, barren and poor, is watered by the Piave
torrent poured forth from the Canric Alps, and is at no great
distance from Tirol. Titian, therefore, was not in any sense a
Venetian of the lagoons and Adriatic, but was native to a country,
and a range of association, perception and observation, of a
directly different kind. Venice conquered Friuli at a date not
very remote from the birth of Titian; and Cadoro, having to
choose between Venetian and imperial allegiance, declared for
the former. Approaching the castle of Cadore from the viltage
Sotto CasLello, one passes on the right a cottage of humble
pretensions, inscribed at Titian't birthplace; the precise k>cality
is named Arsenale. The near mountain-^l this range of hills
being of dolomite formatkm — is called Marmarolo. At the
neighbouring village of Vallc was fought in Titian's lifetime the
battle of Cadore, a Venetian victory which he recorded in a.
painting. In the lath century the count of Camino became
count also of Cadore. He was called CueceUo; and tfab name
descended in 1321 to the podcsti (or mayor) of Cadore, of the
tame stock to which the painter belonged. Titian, one of a
family of four, and son of Giegorio Vecelli, a distinguished
coundIk>r and soldier, and of his wife Lucia, was bom in 1477.
So it bat very generally been stated; but of late years a
sabaequent date, 14^1490, hat been tuggesled, so as to make
Titian, at the time of his death, not so singularly long-lived
a man. As to this interesting point one should remember that
Vasari in one passage (at variance with some others) says that
Titian was bora in 1480; while Titian himself, writii% to
Philip II. in 1571, professed to be ninety-five years oU.
It used to be said that Titian, when a chOd, painted upon the
wall of the Cast Sampieri, with flower-juice, a Madonna and
Infant with a boy-angel; but modem connoisseuts say that the
picture is a common work, of a date later than Titian's decease.
He was stUl a chnd when sent by bis parents (0 Venice, to an
uada't house. Thece he was placed under an art teacher, who
may perhaps have been Sebastiano Zuccato, a mosaicist and
painter now forgotten. He next became a pupil of Oenttle
Bellini, whom he left after a while, because the master considered
him too ofihand in work. Here he had the opportunity of study-
ing many fin* antiques. Hit Ust inttructor was Gk>vanni
Bellini; but Titian was not altogether satisfied with his tutoring.
The youth was a contemporary of Giorgione and Pahna Vecchio;
when hb period of pupilage expired, ^he is surmised to have.
entered into a sort of partneidiip with Gioigfone. A fresco of
*' Hcrcuks " on the Morosini Palace is said to have been one of
his earliest works; others were the " Virgin and Child," in the
Vienna Bdvedere, and the " Vitttation of Mary and Etiaabeth "
(from the convent of S. Andrea), now in the Venetian Academy.
In 1507-1508 Giorgione wat commistioned by the ttate to
execute frescoes on the re-erected Fondaco de' Tedeschi. Titian
and Morto da Feltre worked along with him, and some fragments
of Titian's paintings, which are reputed to have surpassed
GkMgione's, are stUl discernible. According to one account,
Gk>rgk>ne wat nettled at thit superiority, and denied Titian
acfcnittanoe to fait house thenceforth. Stories of jealousies
between painters a#e rife.in all regions, and in none vnoxfi than in
the Venetian—various statements of this kind applying to Titian
himself. One should neither accept nor reject them uninquir-
ingly; counter-evidence of tome we^t can be cited for VeceUi's
vindicatioR in relation to Moroni, Correggio, Lotto and Coello.
Towards 151 1, after the oesaatkm of the League of Cambrai—
which had endeavoured to shatter the power of the Venetian
repuMtc, and had at any mteaucoeeded in clipping the wings of
the Hon of St Mark^VecelU went to Padua, and painted in
the ScuoU di S. Abtonio a series of fnesooes, which continue to
be an object of high curiosity to the ttudentt of hit genius,
although they cannot be matched against his finest achievements
-in oil painting. Another fretoo, dated 1513, is " St Christopher
carrying the Infant Christ," at the foot of the doge's steps in
the ducal palace of Venire. From Padua Titian In 1 51 2 returned
to Venice; and in 1513 he obtained a broker's patent in the
Fondaco de' Tedeschi (^ate^warehouae f^r the German mer-
chants), termed '* La Sartseria " or " Senseria ** <a privilege
much coveted by rising or risen artists), and became super-
intendent of the government works, being especially charged to
complete the paintings left unfinished by Giovanni Bellini in
the hall of the great council in the ducal pahice. He set up an
atelier on the Grand Canal, at S. Samuele^the precise site
being how unknown. It was not until I5r6, upon the death
of Bdlihi, that he came into actual enjoyment of his patent,
at the same date an arrangement for painting was entered into
with Titian alone, to the exclusion of other artists who had
heretofore been associated with him. The patent yielded him
a good annuity — 120 crowns — and exempt«i him from certain
taxcs^he being bound in return to paint likenesses of the
successive doges of his time at the fixed price of eight crowns
each. The actual number which he eatecuted was five. Titian,
it may be well to note as a landmark In this all but centenarian
life of incessant artistic labour and productiveness, was now
(if we adopt 1477 as the birth-date) hi the fortieth year of his
age. The same year, r 51 6, witnessed his first journey to Fern ra.
Two years later was produced, for the high altar of the church
of the Frari, onp of his most world-renowned masterpieces, the
" Assumption of the Madonna," now in the Venetian Academy.
It excited a vast sensation, being indeed the most extraordinary
piece of colourist execution on a great scale which Italy had yet
seen. The signoria took note of the facts and did not fail to
observe that Titian was neglecting his work in the hall of the
great counc9.
Vecelli was now at the height of his fame; and towards 1521,
following the production of a figure of ** St Sebastian '* for the
papal legate In Brtsda (a work of whfeh there are numerous re-
plicas), purchasers became extremely urgent for his productions.
In 1525, after some Irregular living and a consequent fever, he
married a lady of whom only the Christian name, Cecilia, has
come down to us; he hereby legitimized theh^ 'first child, Pom-
ponio, and two (or perhaps three) others followed. Towards
1526 he became acquainted, and soon exceedingly intimate,
with Pielro Amino, the literarybravo.of influence and audacity
hitherto unexampled, who figures to strangely in the chronicles
of the lime. Titian sent a portrait of him to Conzaga, duke of
Mantua. A great affliction befcU him in August 1530 in the
death of his wife. He then, with his three children— one of
them being the infant Lavinia, whose birth had been fatal to the
mother— removed to a new home and got his sister Orsa to
I024
TITIAN
come from Cadore and take charge of the household. The
mansion, difficult now to find, is in the Bin Grande, then a
fashionable suburb, being in the extreme end of Venice, on the
sea, with beautiful gardens and a look-out towards Muiano.
In 1532 he painted in Bobgna a portrait of the emperor
CharlM v., and was created a count palatine and knight of the
Golden Spur, his children also being made nobles of the empire —
for a painter, honoun of an unexampled kind.
The Venetian government, dissatisfied at Titian's neglect of
the work for the ducal palace, ordered him in 1538 to refund
the money which he had received for time unemployed; and
Pordenone, his formidable rival of recent years, was installed in
his pla^. At the end of a year, however, Pordenone died; and
Titian, who bad meaxhrhile applied himself diligently to painting
in the hall the battle of Cadoie, was reinsuted. This great
picture, which was burned witb several others in 1577, repre-
sented in life-size the moment at which the Venetian captain,
D'Alviano, fronted the enemy, with horses and men crashing
down into the stream. Fontana's engraving, and a sketch by
Titian himself in the galleiy of the Ufiizi in Florence, record the
energetic composition. As a matter of professional and worldly
success, his position from about this time may be R;garded as
higher than that of any Other painter known to history, except
Raphael, Michelangelo, and at a later date Rubens. In 1540 be
received a pension from D'Avalos, marquis del Vasto, and i^n
annuity of 200 crowns (which was afterwards doubled) from
Charles V. on the treasury of Milan. Another source of profit—
for he was always sufficiently keen after money — ^was a contract,
obtained in 1 542, for supplying grain to Cadore, which be visited
with regularity almost every year, and where he was both
generous and influential. This reminds us of Shakespeare and
his relati<Mis to his birthplace, Stratford-on-Avon; and indeejd
the great Venetian and the still greater Englishman had some-
thing akin in the essentially natural tone of their inspiration
and performance, and in the personal tendency of each to look
after practical s\iccess and " the roain-chance " rather than to
work out aspirations and pursue ideals. Titian had a favourite
villa on the neighbouring Manza Hill, from whkh (it may be
inferred) he made his chief ob$ervati<ms of landscape form and
effect. The so-called " Titian's mill," c<mstantly discernible
in his studies, is at Collontola, near Belluno (see R..F, Heath's
Life of Titian, p. 5). A visit was paid to Rome in 1546, when he
obtained the freedom of the city, his immediate predecessor in
that honour having been Michelangelo iii 1537. He could at
the same time have succeeded the painter Fra Sebastiano in
his lucrative office of the pipmbo, and be made no scruple of
becoming a friar for the purpose; but this project lapsed through
his being summoned away from Venice in 1547 to paint
Charles V. and others, in Augsburg. He was there again in 1550,
and executed the portrait of Philip U., which was sent to England
and proved a potent auxiliary in the suit of the prince for the
hand of Quttn Mary. In the preceding year Vecelli had affianced
his daughter Lavinia, the beautiful girl whom he loved deeply
and painted various times, to Comelio Sarcinelli of Serravalle;
she bad succeeded her aunt Orsa, now deceased, as the manager
of the household, which, with the lordly income that Titian made
by this tlmev was placed on a corresponding footing. The
marriage took pUce in 1554. She died in childbirth in 1560.
The years 1551 and 1552 were among those in which Titian
worked least assiduously — a circumstance which need excite no
surprise in the case of a man aged about seventy-five. He was at
the Council of Trent towards x 555, of which his admirable picture
or finished sketch in the Louvre bears record. He was never in
Spain, notwithstanding the many statements which have been
made in the affirmative. Titian's friend Aretino died suddenly
in 1556, and another close intiimate, the sculptor and architect
Jacopo Sansovino, in 1570. With tiis European fame, and many
sources of wealth, Vecelli is the last man one would suppose to
have been under the necessity of writing querulous and dunning
JclUrs for payment, especially when the defaulter addressed
was lord of Spain and of the American Indies; yet he had con-
stantly to complain that bis pictures remained unpaid for and his
pensions in arrear, and in the irery year of his death (February)'
he recites the many piaures which he had sent within the pieced-
ing twenty years without receiving their price. In fact, there is
ground for thinkipg that all his pensions and privileges, large as
they were nominally, brought in but precarious returns. It has
been pointed out that in the summer of 1566 (when be was
elected into Ibe Florentine Academy) he made an official declara-
tion of his income, and put down the various items apparently
below their value, not naming at all his salary or pensioiis.
Possibly there was but too much reason for the omisaaoa.
In September 1565 Titian went to Cadore and designed the
decorations- for the church at Pieve, partly executed by his
pupils. One of these is a Tiansfignration, another an Adnuncia-
tion (now in S. Salvatore, Venice), inscribed "Titianus fecit,"
by way of protest (it is said) against the disparagement of
some persons who cavilled at the veteran's failing handicrafL
He continued to accept commissions to the last. He had
selected as the place for his burial the chapel of the Crucifix in
the church of the Frari; and, in return for a grave, he offered the
Franciscans a picture of the *' Pieti," representing himself and
his son Orazio before the Saviour, another figure in the com-
position being a sibyl. This work he nearly finished; bnt some
differences arose regarding it, and he then settled to be interred
in his native Pieve. Titian was ninety-nine yeais of age (more
or less) when the plague,' which was then raging in Venice,
seized him, and carried him off on the 27th of August 1576. He
was buried in the church of the Frari, as at first intended, and his
" Pieta " was finished by Palma Giovane. He lies near his own
famous painting, the " Madonna di Casa Pesaro." No memorial
marked his grave, until by Austrian command Canova executed
the monument so well known to sightseers. Immediately after
Titian's own death, his son and pictorial assistant Orazio died
of the same epidemic. His sumptuous mansion was plundered
during the plague by thieves, who prowled about, scarce
controlled.
Titian was a man of correct features and handsome person, with
an uncommon air of penctrnting observation and self>potsessed
composure-ra Venetian presenoa wofthy to pair with any of thote
" niost potent, 'grave and reverend signors whom his pencil has
transmitted to posterity. He was highly distinguished, courteous
and winning in society, personally unassuming, and a fine speaker,
enjoying (as is said by Vasari, who saw him in the spring of IS66)
health and prosperity unequalled. The numerous heads currently
named Tittan's Mistress might dispose us to regard the painter
as a man of more than usually relaxed morals; the fact is, however,
that these titles are mere fancy-names, and no inference one way or
the oth«r can be drawn from them. He gai« q>lendid entenaiB-
menta at times; and it is related that, what Henry III. of Fraace
passed through Venice on his way from Poland to take the French
throne, he called on Titian with a train of nobles, and the painter
presented him as a gift with alt the pictures of which he inquired
the price. He was not a man of univeradl genius or varied facuhy
and aoconpliahment, like Leonardo da Vinci and Michelai«ek»;
his one great and supreme endowment was that of painting.
Ever since Titian rose into celebrity the general verdict has
been that he is the greatest of painters, considered technically. In
the first place neither the method of fresco painting nor work of
the o^osaal scale to which fresco paintla^ niinist«sa is hm m
question. Titian's province is that of oil painting, and of painting
on a scale which, though often lar^e and grand, is not colossal cither
in dimension or In inspiration. Titian may properly be regarded
as the peatest manipulator of paint in relation to oolaur, cone,
luminosity, richness, texture, surface and harmony, and with a
view to the production of a pictorial whole conveywg to the r>e
a true, dlgmficd and beautiful impression of its general subjcct-
matter and of the obieets of sense which form its constituent pans.
In this sense Titian has never been deposed from his aovereqmty
in painting, nor can one forecast the time in which he will be deposed.
For the complex of Qualities which we sum up in the words colour,
handling and general force And harmony of effect, he stands un-
matched, although in particular items of forcible or impressive
executions-Hot to speak of creative invention-'tsoiBe painters, one
in oneresoect and another in another, may indisputably be preferred
to him. He carried to its acme that great colourist conception of
the Venetian school of which the flrst masterpieces are due to the
two Bellini, to Carpaccto. and, with more fully developed suavity
of manner, to Ciorgione. Pre-eminent inventive power or aablinuty
^ Out of a total population of 190.000 there perished at this time
50,000.
TITIAN
1035
«{ intellect Im never evieced. Evea In muty.<^ action aad^nwre
cspedally in sujeity or nfflueoce of oocnpoMtion the palm U not
his; it tt (ao far as concerns the Venetian school) assignable to
Tintoretto. Titian Is a painter who by wondrous masic of fenitia
and of art Mtisfiea the eye, and through the eye the f eeUnga—
MHnetiaies the mind* -^
Titian's oictures abound with memories of his home-country and
of the region which led from the hill-summits of Cadore to the
queen-city of the Adriatic. He was almokt the first painter to
exhibit aa apfwedation of moantains, mainlv thoae of a turreted
type, exempAbed in the Dolomites. Indeed ne ga>ge to landscape
generally a new and onsjinal vitality,, exoressin^ the quality of the
objects of nature and their control over the sentiments ^d imagina-
tion with a foree that had never before been approached. The
cvliest Italian picture caqxessty des^nated as " landscape " wax
one which Veoelu ant in 1552 to Philip II. Hb productive faculty
was immense, even when we allow for the abnormal length of his
pfofessional career. In Italy, England and elsewhere more than a
thousand ptcturea Bgart as Titian's; of these about 250 may be
nganled aa dubious or spurioua. There are, for jkistance, 6 picturea
in the National Gallery, London, 16 in the Louvre. 16 in the PitU,
18 in the UfExi, 7 in the Naples Museum. 8 in the Venetian Academy
CbMides the series in the pnvate meeting-hall) and 41 in the Madrid
Museum. In the National Gallery 3 other works used to be assigned
to Titian, bat are now regarded rather aa examples of hia sdiool.
Naturally a good deal of attention haa been given by artisU.
connoisseurs and experts to probins the secret of how Titian managed
to obtain such astonishing results in colour and surface. The
upshot of this research is but meaffre; the secret seems to be not so
much one of worionanship aa of faculty. Hia figures were put in
with the brush dipped in a brown eolution. and then^aluted and
worked up as his mtention developed. The later picture were
touched on rapidly, telling well from a distant view. He himself
avenvd that after his visit to Rome in 1546 he had greatly improved
HI art; and in hb very last days he said --c er tainly with.tbe modesty
of cemua, perhapa also with some of the tenacity of oU age — that
be waa then bqiinning to understand what painting meant. In
hb earlier pictures the gamut of colour rests mainly upon red and
green, In the later ones upon deep ydkrw and blue. Ine pigments
whidi he used were nothing nnusuaf; indeed they were both few and
oonmoo. Falna Giovane records that Vecelli would set pictures
•aide for iiK»th|L and afterwards, examining them with a stem
Gountenancet as if they were hb mortal enemies, would set to work
npon them like a man possessed; also that he kept many pictures
in u i o eres B at the atme time, turning fnun one to the other, and that
in ttia final opentions he worked far more with finger than with brush.
It haa bean said, and probably with truth, that he tried to emulate
t^ma Vecchio in softness as well aa Giorgione in richness. Michel-
anMlo's verdict after inspecting the picture of " Danae in the Rain
of GoM." executed in 1546, has often been ouoted. He said, " That
nan would have had no equal if art had done aa mudi for him aa
■atwe." He waa chinking pcincioally of aeverity and maiestv
of draughtsmanship, for he added, " Pity that in Venice they don t
feam how to draw well." As a draughtsman of the human figure
Titun was not only competent but good and fine, and he b reported
to have studied anatoonr deeply; but one can easily nndoataod
that he fell not a little short of the standard of Mkbdaapelo, and
even of other leading Florentines. He was wont to paint u a nude
figure with Venetian red, supplemented by a little lake in the contour
and towards the extremities. He observed that a cokMirist ought
en manipulate white. Mack and red, and that the caniationa cannot
be done in a fiiat painting, but by neplicating varioua tiau and
jiiwgKnj the colours. He distanod all predeceasors in the study
of colour as applied to draperies — working on the principle (la
which Giorpone may perhaps have forestalled him) that red comes
forward to the eye, yellow retains the lays of Uriit, and blue aasimi-
latea to shadow. la hb aubjec t- pstt u rea the figures are not venr
aumeffous, and the attitudes ara mostly reserved; even in harrhanafs
or battles the athletic dbplay has more of facility than tJ furor.
His architectural scenes were sometimes executed by other per so ns,
especially the Rosas of Brescia. The glow of late afternoon, or the
nastTTTMrriT ardovr ol cariy a undo w u , waa much affectad by Titbn
sa the flghtiag of hb pictures. Generally it may be said that be
took great pains in completing hb works, and pains also in concealing
the traces of labour. He appears to have had little liking for teach-
ing, partly from distaste of the troubles and partly (if we are to believe
biographers) from jealousy. He waa qoite willing, however, to
turn to some account the work of hb scholars: it b related that on
Titian's Camily rebtbns appear tpliave been happy, except aa
regards hb eldest aoo. Pomponio. Thb youth, at the age of six,
and wofthlese.
upon the
I. and Tit
errbiiaitirsl career; but he t
_ .1 Titian at last sot ao disgusted with him that
he obtained the tranafer jo a nephew of a benefice destined for
PJBwponio. The Ibrtane which he left was, after hb decease, squan-
dered by the tsnsured prodigal. The other son. Orasio, bam
towards isj8. who (as we have seen) assisted Titian pro f essio n a l ly,
became a portrait^munter of mark— some of hb likeneases. almost
comparable with Titbn'a own, being often confounded with hb
by owners and coonoissearsi. He executed an important picture
in the hall of the great council, dcatroyed by fire. He gave to
alchemy some of the tame which mieht have been bestowed upon
painting. Several 9ther artista of the Vecelli family billowed in
the wake of Titbn. Francesco Vecelli. hb ekler brother, waa
introduced to painting by Titian (it b said at the afe of twelve,
but chronology will hardly admit of thb), and painted m the church
of S. Vito in Cadore a picture of the titular aamt armed. Thb 1
a noteworthy perfonoance, of which Titian f the usual atory) became
; ao Franceaoo was diverted from painting to 1 "* '
afterwards to mi^rrantflf lifci Marco Vol ,
Titian's nephew, born in 154& waa coasuntlv with the master in
hb old age, and learned hb methods of wotk. He has left some able
production»>-in the ducal palace, the '* Meeting of Charles V. and
Clement VIL in 1529 "; in S. Giaoomo di Rialto, aa *' Annuncia*
tioo "; in S& Giovani c Paob* " CHriat Fubaioant." A aon of
Manco, aamed Tubno (or TuiancUo), pttnted early in the 17th
century. From a diitereot branch of the family came Fabruio di
ERore, a painter who died in 1580. Hb brother Cesare, who also
left some pictureo, b well known by hb book of engraved oostumea;
AbiH cnkM a m0d*rni. Tooimaso Vecelli, abo a painter, died
lA 163a Tnere was another relative, Girolaino Dante, who, being
a s^olar and assistant of Titian, waa called Gindamo di Tixbno.'
Varioua picturea of hb were touched up by the master, and are
difficult to distinguish from orig^nala. Apart from memKra of hb
family, the scbolan of lltiaa were not numerous; Pacb Bgtdone and
Bonifaxio were the two of superior excellence. £1 Greco (or Domeniop
Theotopopuli) was employed bx the master to engrave from hb
It b aaid that Titian himself engraved on copper and on
wood, but thb may weO be questioned. ^
We must now briefly advert to Titan's individual works, taking
them in approximate order of time, and merely dividing portraits
from other pkturea. Detaib already given indicate thatne did not
exhibit any extreme precocity: the earliest works which we proceed
to mention may date towards isojL In the chapel of S. Rocco,
Venioe, b hb " Christ Carrying the Cross," now greatly dilapidated ;
it waa an object of ao much popular devotion aa to produce offenngs
which formed the first funds for building the Scuola di S. Rocco:
in the scuolo itself b hb " Man of Sorrows." The nobly beautiful
picture in the Villa Borghcee in Rooae, commonly named " Divine
and Human Love " (by some, " Artlesa and Sated Love "), bears
aome obvioua ielatk>n to the style cl Palma Vecchio. The story
goes that Titian waa enamoured of Palma's daughter; but nothine
distinct on thb point b forthcoming. The '^Tribute Money
C* Christ and the Pharisee "), now in the Dresden Gallery. ' ' "
towards 1508; Titian b said to have painted thb highly finished
yet not ** niggling " picture in order to prove to some (jermans that
the effect of detau oouU be produced without those extreme minutbe
whkh mark the style of Albert DOrer. The St Mark in the church
of the Salute^the evangelist enthrooedi aloi« with SS. Sebastbn.
Rocb, (Tbamo and Damian— a picture much in the style of Giorgione,
bekMigs to I5». Towards 1518 was - ^ •
of style, the " Three Aces," now in
_„.-i i__ £ ^ ^ shepherd on a need-j
Towards 1518 was painted, abo in the same class
, — _ , iree Aces," now in Bridgewatc
guidmg the fiiMcn of a shepherd on a reed-pipe, t . .
a cupid, an old man with two skulls, and a second shepherd in the
e, two sleeiring chUdren,
dbtanoe— <ine of the moat poetically iropresaive among all Titbn 's
Another work of approKiinate date waa the " Worship of
worka.
VenuiL" in the Madrid Museum, showing a atatue of Venus, two
aympha, numerous cupida huntimr a hare, and other figures. Two
of the pktures in the National GaOery, London— the *' Holy Family
and St Catherine " and the " Noli me tangere " — were going on
at much the same time as the ^reat " Assumption of the Madonna."
In is»i Vecelli finished a painting which had long been due to Duke
Alphooso of Ferrara, probably the " Bacchanal." with Ariadne
doting over her wine-cup, which b now in Madrid. The famous
" Bacchua and Ariadne in the National Gallery was nroduced for
1523. The '* Flora " of the Uffizi, the " Venus "
Ul
the same patron in 1^
of Darmstadt, and the lovely *' Venaa Anadyomene ' of the Bridge-
water Gallery may date a year or so earlier. Another work of
1533 b the stupendous " Entombment of Christ " in the Louvre,
whoee depth of colour and of shadow stands as the pictorbl equivalent
of individual fadal carpression; the same composition, a less admir-
able work, appean in the Manfrini Gallery. The Louvre picture
comes from tneGonxaga collection and from the gallery of Charles 1.
in WhitehalL In 1510 Titian completed the " St Peter Martyr "
for the church of SS. Gk>vanra* e Paolo; for thb work he boee ofi^the
priae in oomnetitiott with Palma Vocchw and Pordenone. Of all
Bis picturea thb waa the most daring in deiiga of action, while it
yielded to none in general power of workmanship and of feeling.
It showed the infiuence of Michelangeio, who waa in Venice while
Vecelli was engaged upon it. A calaaaitous fire destroyed it in
1867: the copy of it which haa taken its pbee b the handiwork of
CardidaCWi. Toissobdongsabothe 'HMadonna ddJToniglio "
• ■' •Cionsaga: 1
(Louvre), painted fori
: to 1536 the " Venus of Florence '
to isaS'tlie pprtniu of the "TWclve Caesars," for Gonaaga; aad
" Pleaenutkm of the Virgin in the Temple '.' ' *
toiS39the'
oftfa^
1026
TITLE— TITLE GUARANTEE COMPANIES
t m eke VoctuB AcAdnm. vrt aoi «ri iW fat
Ahomt i5#o«eK doae ike JordfJe bet nrtrr
^ for S Scvit:3t. Vecjce. bdv ib tke AmA «i
-* Csa K££h .AbeL" tke ' Snifae «f AbnlOH ~
aod -- [Xmd Md Gobxk - : a isutke *- Ecce Hc«K> ' of tie \leett
Calrrr. «kene AR'iao fRTB as PQue. TW' Veaos cad Capid
»< ii|awj paaa
iaEiclMiaf
«f FlomKe. tie * \ e«x "<rf Madrid aMi tie-S^^ «f
ksd. Of If" ooBapieADd. v
I 1547- ■> XSS4 K «Ft to nz-p IL
' aad a * VcKs aad AdaoB." .KdcvC
^ he aeat to Ckaries V. a " TnsBty " ««r, as Tn-aa
ttiMul k. "Laat Judfaeat "i. vkick H4.*«-MLagMl tke
, -vitk his haailT aad atkcRk ^ ia ihinaili. praxis^ to the
Ccojhead: Maae> aad l ari a i ocher penoaages are ako'porcrajvd.
T:3s «as the otject ipoa vhick Chwhi mwiiii iT to ten hb e^«
ftied iMa the i&^crf dmh dbKd oa the& Laier prrvcs. fr^
1S5^ oavanli; are the * Hanrrdna «f Sc LawioKE,"
Cr:-v9ed «i:h Thoras " fLamm*. " Diaaa aad Adaeea."
a=» j CJfeto." ' Jvfaia' a^ Artkipe." the " Map^jae,"
is the GanSea.* aad * Earapa ~— ihe la« aix Cor f%34> IL: of the
t« > EHaaa wJffi.to there are d a|>fcatrt ia loartoa aad ia \leaaa.
PM jp, it vS be obaennBd, aas eqtaTr aa/ctf airih aaA '
sa-cthies. The * j«|aser aad Aaiia^e. wow mmdk
ctKsaualy caled * La V«r:=s dd Pankt." haviac at fast fa
tk? P^nfe P^iace^ The" Ua^dikae^ kereipokeaof I1561)
t9 be the ij B Lf e aoa ia the Vfta of Fl uteajue ; Trtiaa. m oae of kii
I mu 'O. Fr eilr. nod ei>r, fwa? Ut. £feA^ * a jMLUHJaM
. p een m i to a book or ocVt aii:!:^ ^taigmtaz ^ihe aaae t j
viach it is to be kaova, aad ia saaj cbo iaoacicBS she Sicape
of the book araoBBe ideaatf the ■anorai JB CBMOHB. Fschac.
the tcra B extended to the deacnptfrr heafiaf vtapene tr a
docsssest. sack as a deed or other iegi ii'. «r tc a bZ ac 2.c:
of pa i iiitai . Aaother fOKxal aauaiK ii that ci a agye »-
tiaa oi raak ^see Titus or Howm, aad theaiticiB Ejnc»*€.
Kdbg, PkDBcz:, lltTEsrr. HBJimy*^ . Dnz. At.L la bv
- liile * is t€!=tr*it=l to ngb «f <
ia %Tixa«c fanai^x the cndeacxs «i the xkje aa ivd avr i»
r CcyvcusKxaG; Iju» SfisaRsaaMK . Ia
ise, the «r«d * t±le " JiSaimM^ ml aaj d <g cgr:aa
c i-jch e * ia Root to ak5c& attika 'aese r:i>hr? . :rr
hBtory bciac oi iBportaaoe ia the cwiicina «■ the IL.ttt
oooditiaa f icrtkat to orcazraoa: ia the cnif BaMaa CV=r^
am apf w ■aiLm^ to of»-^.T^r ia a pczt5r::2Er c^ardk: :2as -« is
f m ai ifd frarrVniTy frac; the Saea of iociiirj ta thai at cxi:^r<e
of BcaaB «l ai^ipaft. Ia the Ckock ot Eo^aad the «
ktiers^sajd tkatitwastheBtsst popafarpctmhekadererfBaited.
- to Ph3:p lL^*LastS««vcrr ^tiith had
ia the EcDovial a> Mt
□ea£^ brraad tke fae
GiBerr ia iOam, a
'il> karaaoretkaa
tkaa ti&>; there ■
ler'f b . ts i ttPLtiies
Ike - B*tt3e of
«il the power of a
[ faf£ac uuou lae wdi
s biScVvlfs ckadk. V
la 1563 V<
beea ia haad for sz year*; ic aac cat d
a pardcdbr ffioce. aad tifcn aoa Kttle
rr:«piac. The * St Ji 1 lai " of the I
vjrkof aaadafal caeify. s^rrrt aad iovceu
ocTigf mrin feaari. azs pr.cobfy n^ker 4
a •TTfica of it ia the EacrriiL Ooe d the
• 157.^-1575' m m hiadnd. aad
Ltoaaso*": it i» a 1
TrJvx. Taooftbe
i= poa-^fcaV aad tke yori-tkratkiaf aanel oa tken{kt«f tke k^fh
mI'-h — ave aits' VeceST* desigrs: btt th^ are cocmry ta ihe tiac
spLTTt «f aoBaac vork. aad d:e ^lark ca c^^ i wul » a dec i ded cveaore.
• We aov tsia %» eke portrah ^ wi jik s st> pear ia sr>K. ao acatcfr,
ar>d ta ike bert aeaae m» sispie ia parr^'ityc aad ietiam tka^, af ler
alrvios ewnrcbxag arkkk caa be «2sJ as beka2f <■ aoBaeocker
■aastfn of the cxjft. each a« RipfaadL VdLuiTaei; Frfgai aad
Re^brzadt. oae is sdl uaa;i»Bwf ;r ay that T;*iaa «taadc oa the
abrJe M.p r tmL . Aaaccf the k:«V«« cusTies
d^xe of Fenva Olarkii . tke Base d..ke isd fas xooad «re Laan
IXx=d Xovrre\ caasrjch- caflrd " Tsriaa aad ki> i£t5Cre«~:
F^^xas L il/rcvre*. passted tovards is^k- bat aoc froa dmct
si'-t'*^ for Tctiaa aever nv tke F j e aJ h krag: nrioai Tumwk
dt ^sasetf. cae of about I5«3, aad matxher of 1562: 1^^ IIU al»
tke si^ae >ope vish kis praadMa» Car^sal .Uesaaadre aad dake
i i iJUJcd to tke \)u m .^ is May 15(3 aad cose two gold dacaa»;
rvfrr> Are^ ia o Pkt. : Tr:ii='» < iej | ^! : H Lrrrria wids a faa ia tke
Dresdea tjiljery. arrk a >r««Ljed xackfC ia Lord C::-*per'»
tKz : tke Conar? Fas^- .A^vicfc Ca<:-Jr : " L'Hoossk xx Gaai '
(L:-.'«-rT . aa cxkaoara penoaa^, yv^-.i^d aad kaadsooe. tke
we tims wAr% of portnirxre: Saasoviao Ehoaara dackev oc L'rbcao.
F-^amoo d^K of irrt*-^. Cacerina Coraefty <;3eca of C-tTrs
• •^<»e f72r we ia the Uexi : C&zHes V. oa ^ xv ti MWLk *yiMi^* ;
O-— -nl Beabo '^^fdes'. dJcrrvrred ic aa w-xas«d-far cooctv^a
R iSr*, wery as2£» the o:*trak is the Rarberis GaBe-r. Tae
i^ir^^je pLatKjfc> dooe br Trsaa are frw, zwi zre alaoA -^-. ariaS-r
r< iiiiafB «f oaked laak. Of Aziocto. «r:k a^oa T.^aa vas
tstr-.^ ia rums. thcK^ there xsay pEDba^lr haw beea aor% -g
apcrnacaiOP to a fOBaasK friesi^^^ u.tau.B tkeag. tke paiafer
ii isid to have doae tkree portraits.. Mack itr la^r. kc«>rrer.
tn^ris tka aatler. Ote of tke three a^^can as a a o a diai ia aa
r^.'rm of the (Mamd^ ./visas. A recood. forvertr at C "
HaF^ iMMiaawii a il k the awodeat QaBBea>. aad a* wtmA " T/aaras
F. '—a aaA of adairtble bee^tr; it i» aov ia tke SatioQa: Ga::erT
It i> iMi h. ktfi.m. to HI ii a tke featare^ kere
e otkcr purtiaaa of AmxtOL Tkete
fsactjos g far deacocs ouStn ac cast wk
to a caocj. aad for priest s ordezs either that
ta a riiag A kJbasLy ar cki^aaiacy at I
; Olfan! «r GndiridBK ii ate a SHfeocat - tade.
I TnU CVABAniB OOHMmia the na
■ passes atick appi j the pcvirTiir oi
' owaersorScriexs^ T^seraRof iheciiBaei
ia ahich fnha s fal ixil lad dperiesae ia Ian9^p£i^ ti rssAs
axe sued ^md to protect tbe |r..nr*fr feocz. aaa^ ^^vy ^^v
per-iiiar to cocaifir^ ahcK tae iauc io aal estate » a ^obc; af
pcbilc leoord. aad viKie tke < a a , d iii i 5 af the nnrd aac :ae
, Tanety cf possthie Ijess aad can Mwrfc haieMaJBit rfirejt
aad opcssve to detcxiae aaetbrr iht LilJe ^ j
oetj araoj vtete li^ ka%« locbed ht^
ac^ererf saoxas as iadepev
Csted Stites. 1= ArstnEa ao L-\ r sOgztJu a «f a t*le *s rtrl
j csLsic is BecesB>i]r,becA2sebe&cet^:izjd passed 3Bsaic:-r:c-^
I iiaaiiiliii 1^1 I BBiiiir ii^ ifii* ■ ijiTim rfrtnr 1
aad foaiaasce of titie, 9» that its ccstxacafte af I
aas xstTtTsa2y acce7ted. Ia <
. r,t^\t^ repstiaixs a t!*Je aorterrr^rgct iee&: tike tzJeo-r-a
ace fcacamiii aad passed txaa aaacr to laaii. aal ase ar.-rruad
I oa ibe aszbofitT of tbe lecankaBd opiaiHaaiiHiAj anai-" rt
j I2 ibe Utsied Staies. bo^erer. tboe h*w beta fmm tke beea-
•^•f ftcts pccT>ij=t tin al i^fds aad iajE » gJ4 e & be lerrs-ScdL
aad sbe seoardi* vbea ptopt^y waV . mar-'-^ ae j^pl a^cxe
t»aathe«acidoflbevajatea£saHid>MB. AAihesMBe^j^
I tbere aie «ber accrAi of «£sw saB^ ja^^HflKa. taaes aal
1 ^edui=cs' fV-^'-ai-'zh =ay esr=:*3cr •ie tile. 1= Ae prae
• cLiies these vajkos acac^ hnrtr»e a cocrse of t==iie a» > ;..a>
i • - tkst the prefn mtrmsgUMm «i tbeni. aad ;ke oe:<a>
, saasxcef theTalt:r!7af tbetftleia'SKvoftbeB.ia^BaMScha
' best «*-^ of «2 ei^J 'r -».&* ! It'WTTr aad agwJw. ' J ^ery liLj it
Oa a ce-^iue of tie i ^^valy the aca icj^r ijf ^c
, icK apoa ibe iavycr ako bad zr^ade tbe ciaaiBasJBa aoe ike
' seitr. bet ieit cLM apea to ia|liij aad pw- his «i« anrvvi^
I ako bad to fo vrer tie si=se a«fc ig?^ aad j a iJtL. fcr -a— h
' aad opeBK iavo^wd \
f 3r a hmjfT m aat hcU ta ^aorttoe the
C o L s^a -r of tke Otv of >iev Yoik wac
tke ssfe obrct'of oKnv the va&arr of tidaw baa ^
1 i*^ a pa^^^jec «^ ssDod byaa
Yoit b^.n'^g amatMS to Ae ^ mj^w i aiii Jaabo thai
^i^?^ '«UI^M Social tr the wisrka^S i 1^^
TITLES OF HONOUIt
1027
eompiiuMaf the Uated Sutcs; but the pwaplrfct tecmf to bave been
foTfotten. The first company actually to undertake the guarantee
oC real estate titles waa formed In Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in
iStS. It diAered from the Rruflsiaa Mort|:age Insurance Company
mkh gvaianteed titles Barely aa an iacsdoit ia its business as n
dealer la. and custodian and Euarantor of, mortgages) in that Um
main budnesa waa the issue oia policy of guarantee on a transfer
of title to land. The advantages of its mtthod vere immediately
reooffiiiied. Coraorations to cany on the bonnesa were orgnnteed
in Waahiiicton, Baltimore, Boston and New YoriE, in the. Order
named, ami aofosequently in neaily every considerable city in
the United Sutes.
In order to be independent of the inaccurate and dumsy methoda
of the puUic rcconf offices, title guarantee companies generally
oompfle in their own office a oopv or digest of all the real estate
recorda-of the kxality in which they are caUblished, maintaining
Cor this purpose a staff of skilled derka. To make the necessvy
examinatbn of a title prior to the issuing of a guarantee, they reouire
continually a body 01 experienced real estate bwyers. By these
means a title can be examined and goamnteed in a week, whereas
thirty or forty days was fonnerly reonired. This haa done moch
to make real estate available capital, lor iodividoal and corporate
lenders on mortgage accept the guarantee of the companies aa
the best evklence 01 title, and kaas can be had without the deUr
that once prevailed.
' The expense of maintaining the staff of clerics and kwytta la
Seat, amounting to half of i& gross charges oH titles guaranteed,
rictly speaking, the risks outstanding are also laree, running up
to $100,000,000 a year for a single company in New York City: but
in well-managed companies the losses are very smaO, not eneeeding
3 % of the gross charges 00 titles guaranteed, so that the outstanding
obligations should scarcely be called riska. In spite of the office
expenses, the charges for first bringing a {uece 01 land under the
guarantee are no more than ownen were in the habit of paying
each time for examination and opinion by counsd, amounting to
about one-half of 1 % on the iralue ' '
1 opinion by counsd, amoui
iue of the property or on the
» the guarantee has been ii
of the mortgage; and when once the guarantee lias been issued, it
is re-isnwd on a subsequent sale or mortgage on short notice and for
a small fee. (C. H. K.)
TITUB OP ROMOUR, " those varioos names of grcatsefs or
eminency, which are the most distinguishing titles of cxv3
dignity " Qokn Sdden, Titles of Honor, 3rd ed., 1672).'^ This de-
finition covers, if we understand " dvii " in its proper and widest
sense, all titles, whether official or honorary, dvil or military,
temporal or ecclesiastical. In general, however, we now under-
stand by titles of honour what Sclden calls " honorary titles,"
i.e. distinctive designations implying rank and dignity, not office
or vocation. The broader definition would cover all titles, includ-
ing those of military and ecdesiastical rank, of municipal office
and of university degrees. ; The narrower definition, which it is
proposed to adopt for the purposes of this artide, would cover
only ivhat in the United Kingdom are known as the ** titled
classes,** which embrace only those whose titles are meaningless
save as a mark of rank. In this category it is, however, necessary
to indude, somewhat illogically, the highest titles of all— those
of soverdgns; for, though they have not been divorced from the
functions of sovereignty, they are the fount and source of ail
the rest. In the present work a large number of titles are dealt
with under their several headings (Eupckor, King, Dvke, &c.);
in this article it is proposed therefore to discuss them only fai
their general aspect and to attempt some classification of them
according to their meanings and origins..
The philosophy of titles is as tempting a' subject u Carlyle
found the philosophy of clothes. The democrat and the superior
man affect to despise Ihcm. They point out that the world's
greatest men need no such hall-mark to prove they are not base
metal; in England they point to such examples as those of Pitt
and Gladstone, who, dispensers of titles themselves, lived and
died untitled; and they argue that to accept a title is not a sign
of " greatness or eminency," but at best of a quality which falls
short of this standard. This attitude has some justification in
the limitless abuse at all times in the bestowal of titles as a means
of bribing those whose ambition looks no higher than to be a
" figure among cyphers." But the desire to be Uken notice
of is an instinct too deeply rooted in human nature for all the
satirists that ever lived, or shall live, to eradicate; and of thi.«.
instinct titles arc the roost ancient expression, more ancient —
It may be hazarded— even than clothes.* The French Revolu-
* Many proper nanws are but primitive titles in disguise: r.f-
Henry (j-v.) -" ndcr of the home, ' or Walter"*" kwd of powcr.^'
tiofosts in their seal for primeval oqnality essayed to aboUah
them; at best they succeeded in maUng tbem universal, the
cUoyeut of the first genciation of republican France beconni^
the wtonsietm of the ■at— juat aa evtxy Englishman is aow a
" gentleman " or an " esqoiie," avety Caatilius a cabaUero, and
every German a Heir. Siaulariy, in tho democratic countries of
the Englisb^pcaking world the common style of Hr (master),
abo onca a pretogative of gentle biith. Is apt to become too
commonplace, and the official prefix ol " hononxahle " .&
on very slender ptetexts. For wheie^titles are not
planted, tbey tend to sow thtesdves?
|4 Titles are also elaborated under cultivation; for they are
apttodegenerateif too widdy scattered, knd need to be crossed
with otter vaisetjes to produce a more marketable type. Thus
James L of England produced the baronet (^jv.), and the titk%
of miaiiter plenipotentiary, and envoy cztmordiaary were
cmnbined in Uie erolutioii of (hat fine flower «f diplomacy the
** envoy eKtraordinaxy and minister plenipotentiary," so styled
honoris cansa, since technically he is ndther ** extraoidiaary "
nor, aa such, armed with plenary powers (see DtPUOHAcy).
These are but two familiar examples of a process whidi was at
one time carried on with a singular earnestness and in a spirit
of the keenest competition. Rival sovereigns^ by the mouths
of heralda and ambassadoia, redted the long toll of their styles
and titles at each other, ia the spirit of Homeric heroes endea>
vouxing to shout down the enemy before coming to blows. The
ambassador of Queen EHabeth to the tsar of Muscovy bogged
at the length and complexity of the barbaric emperor^' style,
and endeavoured to address him by six of his principal titles
only, but in the end was forced to xepeat the whole (Fletcher,
Rausian CommonweaUkf op. 6). ' As for the (Xtoman floUans»
the Oriental imagination of their secretaiies was cxfaaasted
in' adding "exorbitant and swelling ^ attributes '^, to their
styles, which were usually intended to^be insulting to those'
whom they addtcsted. \ Thus Ahmed I.," writing to Henry IV.'
of Fiaaoe, desoribci himself,' with" vciy much besidn, as'
"cmpem of victorious emperors, distributor. of crowns to
tha greatest princes of the earth, :\ • lord of lEoiope, Asia'
and Africa.'*
So far as medieval Europe was conoeraed, the co«t of Con«
staotinople, where East and West met, waa the fordng-bed of
the mom extravagant varieties of tiUes and attributes. Old
Rome had granted to iu deserving dtizens titles of honour, such
as fetis, pint^ foUr pakiae, besides those wMcfa, like patrieinSt
denoted hereditary rank. J^ The fint emperors were, in theory,
meiely dtiaens who alone and in a supreme degree were entitled
to be the rcdpienta of these honoois. But the majtsias reipnlh
Ueae Romonae waa soon identified with the person of theempeior.
Himself become the fountain of honour, he showered his titular
attributes upon those whom it was hb whim or his policy to
dlstingaish, while erer fresh styles were, invented to fttustrate
his own unique dignity. For this purpose all the abstract terms
In the vocabulary of flattery were pot under oontribvtioB, not
even excepting the lofty attributes of God {nosbn etemiias,
nostra ferennitas, ** most high,'* " most mighty," " most sacred
majesty")* This tendency ran riot wh^ the East Roman
Empire had become byssntinisfd, until by the middle ages there
w8S~Ho quote Sdden — *' sudi innovati(m of titles as made the
dlfpiitles of the empire almost ridiculous in those strange and
aflectcd compounds." * , <
From the Byantme' court that of the Fnnkish emperors of
the West largdy bonowed its forms, and this again set the
fashion for the courU of lesser potentates. To this source, then,
an due the honorary attributes, if not m all cases the titles, of
the sovereigns of modem Europe. Tfanrnghout the middle agea,
indeed, there was no rigid classification of the abstract attributca
(highness, eminence, exceHency, honour and the like) addressed
in the second and third persons to sovereigns or other digniuricsL
These depended very much on the fancy of secretaries eager to
display their Latinity— or even a smattering of Gredt— by
*£.f. Sebastoertttor, compoandcd of o^mrrki (auguelas) and
i^sfi«*r (to rule), or panhypersebttoi.
I028
TITLES OF HONOUR
devising new lbnBS.'f It was not until 'the tyth centuxy that
they became fixed, under the influence mainly of the newly
or^mized international diplomatic service (see Diplomacy)
But meanwhile they had developed from the simplicity of the
eaxly feudal age* into a Byzantine pomposity, the exuberance
of which bored even the ceremonious court of Spain into a free
use of the pruning knife.* . Honorary styles are, for the rest,
now mere stereotyped formulae; the words that compose them
have become— to use Emerson's phrase*— " polarized '^ and
deprived of meaning. Not otherwise could a German journalist,
late in the 19th century, have zeooided, without ezdting
surprise, that ** to-day their All-highest majesties went to church
to give thanks to the Highest."* The same is more or less true
of dl titles. ^They are traditional^ and are mainly valued for
this reason.it An imaginative person might devise a dozen
styles in themselves better fitted to express the peculiar eminency
of a successful money-lender or a wealthy brewer than the feudal
title of baron, or than that of knight to indicate the qualities
of a Radical apostle of the gospel of " peace at any price." But
the instinct in these matters is to put new wine into old bottles;
and, on the whole, the bottles bear the strain. '» The process is,
indeed, very old. William Harrison, in his inimitable style, has
left a description of it in the i6th century (see Gentleman), and
it was older far than his day. In all ages the new nobility has
been looked down upon by the old; but the andent titles have
always in the end adapted themselves to their new users. Long
before the hourgfiois age was dreamed of, dukes as such had
ceased to " lead " {ducere), marquesses to guard the " marches,"
Ritlers to " ride," and no one marked the incongruity of thdr
styles. The process is but continued if, for instance, in the apth
century the title of baron often suggests, not the feudal power
of the sword, but the intematiooal power of the purse. '
Titles have therefore in themselves a world of historical
significance. *• In some the significance is obvious, the history
comparatively recent. In othoa the significance is veiled under
obscure etymologies, which carry us bade to the very beginnings
of social life. We find in these words, too, most singular con-
trasts of fortune. Caesar, a nickname (caesories) given to some
long-haired Roman, grows into a surname which the founder
of the empire chanced to bear, and so remains to this day the
title of German kaiaeis and Slavonic tsars, of the king of England
as Kaisar-i-Hind and of the sultan of Turkey as Kaisar-i-Rum.
The first of the German Caesais bore the name of Karl,* which in
itself means no more than " man " and in English speech has
sunk (o the base meaning o£ " churl " (see Charles); Iqt the
barbarians beyond the eastern borders of his empire, the Slavs
and Magyars who felt the weight of his arm, his name became
identified with his office, and remains to this day in the sense of
"king" (Mag. Kirdly, SUy. Knil, Russ. Korol)*, On the
other hand, we have the contrary process.^ The proud title
of " ooOnt of the stable," once borne by the highest ofiidal of
(he Byzantine court, is now associated in the public mind
^ The papal chancery, hovever, Beems early to have estaUished
definite rules. Those sovereigns who had special titles. bcstoH'cd
or recognized by the pope, suCh as " Most Catholic King " (Spain)
or " Most Christian King " (France), were so addressed. .» The rest
were "Illustrious*' (iUustres).%
• * The only title of mere honour would, e.f.' in the 12th ^century,
seem to have been dominus (,Sir«^ Lard), which in the Anelo-Norman
poem of GtiiUaumt k Marischal 19 applied to any one olbirth. from
the king's Son of Prance down to the humblest noble (sec SiK).
• By the Pra^matico de los tituhs y corksias of the 8th of October
16^6 King Philip III. decreed that he was to be addressed in letters
only as StHor, while at the end was to appear no more than " God
guard the Catholic person of your Majesty." (Sctden p. 103.)
• Die AHerhdchsten Herrschaften sind heute in die Kirchc gegangen
dem Hflchsten ihren Dank ii.sw. The sentence is fixed in the writer's
memory, but the exact reference is forgotten. 1
• Known traditionally as Charlemagne (Carolus Mapius, Karl
the Great), the unique instance of a posthumous title of honour
being absoijbed into a name. Modem Enelish historians have
tended to dissolve this immemorial union in the interest of historic
accuracy. But " Charles " is only a degfee leas conventional than
Charlemagne^
^ • A parallel case, but more obscure, of a proper name developing
'-• ^ * ••*•" » that of the curious title of *' Dauphin," iiltimaiely
he heir-apparent to the French throne (seb Dauphin).
mainly 'with bumble police Aflkiab, in the United States
with the himiblest of all, the village constable only (see
Constable). Less impressive perhaps is the fate of the
title "valet,'' which, once that of a gentleman, has sunk
to be that of a ;' gentleman's gentleman" Cace Valxt).
The same word, too, develops differently in different languages.
The German Ktuchl remains a servant; in England the
ciiM/ has developed into the knight, just as the serBtens
(servant) survives in the Teiy vaziotis modem tises of the
title Serjeant (9 v.). .In one exalted case at least we even
have a title based on a mistaken etymological deduction. The
title " Augustus," t.e. sublime or sacred, used originally of
persons or places consecFsted by the auguries, is derived ulti-
mately, in a passive sense, from augere, to increase. This led
to the rendering of the Latin title " semper Augustus," borne
by the H<^ Roman emperors until z8o6, in Gertnan as " at all
times augmenter of the empire " (sw oOem Zaien Mdirer des
Reicks), a style as ill-grounded in etymofegy as it was lamentably
untrue In fact.',.
The fortunes of indlviduid titles are outlined in the separate
articles devoted to them. Here it only remains to discuss them
generaBy from the point of view of their classification according
to origin and general character. Of the .styles that are mere
attributes^like serene, honourable, reverend— enough has been
said; they are but stereotyped courtesies. Most titles proper,
on the other hand, have in their origins a deeper significance.
The title king, for instance, recalls a remote time when It
was borne by right of kinship, as head of a tribe (see King).
Other titles recall that forgotten stage of society in which it was
the rule for age to command and ycuth to obey: such as tiie
French seigneur^ sieuTf sire, monsieur, monseignettr; the Italian
signor, monsig^orc; the Spanish seftoTf and the English " sir," all
derived from senior, " older " (see Monsieur and SiA), itself a
Latin translation of a type of title which in the Teutonic lan-
guages appears to survive only in the English alderman {q.v.),
Seignevr, sire and the rest developed, of course, into the equiva-
lents, not of senior, but of dominus Gord). But the idea of the
title originally must have been the same as that of *' elder," like
the Arab sheikh (q.v.) or the slaroslas and starshinas of the Russiac
village communities; the seniores, in early feudal times, were the
full grown fighting men as opposed to the pueri (boys), the un-
fledged squires and valets. Other titles are derived from the idea
of command or rule: such are those of emperor {q.v.); the Latin
rtx (regere, to rule, guide) — whence the French m, Italian ri
and the English attributive style " royal " — and from the sanfie
common Indo-European root the Indian titles of raja and
maharaja; the title of duke (q.v.); the Latin dominus, domina
(originally, a master or mistress in the house, damns), whence
the modem dame, madame, mademoisdle, don and dom; the
German Hcrr (cf. herrscken, to rule); or, to take an Oriental
instance, that of sultan (Arabic saJat, to rule). Some titles again
ate derived from mere ideas of precedence, like that of "prince"
(q.v.), which may be described as the generic sovereign title;
the Spanish title of "grandee " (q.v.); or that of "master"
(q.v.), which as a title of honour survives in Scotland. Very rare
are the titles of honour that have their origin in the idcB. of
gentle birth, which indeed, in earh'cr times, was predicated of all
wearers of titles in Europe. The only modern equivalent of the
Anglo-Saxon athding (q.v.) in Europe would appear to be the
Austrian title of Edler, which means, strictly speaking, no more
than " noble," though it implies a rank higher than that of the
untitled Adeliger. The English title "earl" (q.v.) has a similar
origin, but passed through the stage of an official style as the
equivalent of " count." The word " gentleman " (q.v.) is not a
title, any more than the French geniilhamme; it is, iq so far as it
is used in any definite sense at all, an attribute, like the German
hockwolgehortn or the Russian barin — the ' equivalent of the
Latin generosus, " well-born." In the Mahommedan East its
equivalent, in the sense of well-born, is the Arabic title skerif,
' So Rigord, the monk of St Denis, says In his Cesta of Fhnip
Augustus, king of France, that he was so styled after the Caesars,
who bore the name of Augustus because they augmented the empire,
Unde isu mtrito dietus tH Augustns ab amia refnUka*
TITLES OF HONOUR
1029
WMT applied only to the desoeiuUnU of the Prophet. The most
duncteristic aad familiaf of English titles, again, .that of
'* lord/' carries us back to a very primitive state, when the lord
was par exsdknce the " loaf<warden " {klaf-ord, hhf-vfeard).
Here it may be noted that the title " lord " has no foreign
European equivalent: the German Herr (though Hefrenkaus is
strialy Hovse of Lords), the Italian signer i the Spanish seAar,
the Slavonic pan and the Greek xupcof are all equivocad, being
used most commonly in the sense of Mr (Master). Even the
French do not translate "lord" by monseignewr (though
seigneur is strictly speajcing it3 equivalent), and still Ics% by
monsieur, though the ancient custom has survived of u»ng the
latter colloquially in place of all titles,* but by milord. Lastly
there are two important European titles deri^ from personal
relations with the sovereign, though they have long ceased to
have any such connotation. Of these the oldest is that of
** count," which goes back to the comiief (companions) of the
early Roman emperors (see Count); the second is " baron,"
originally meaning no more thait " man "' and so, under the
feudal system, the king's " men " par, excdlencci the great
tenants-in-chief of the crown (see BAaoi(). . la England the
barons formed and form the body of the peerage, "peer" not
being a title of honour, but the description of a itatus and
function bestowed by their creation upon all barons, viscounts,
earls, marquesses and dukes (see Peesage). In France, on the
other hand, **peer" (pair) was under the old monarchy a
title of honour; for not even all dukes were peen of France,
and the style of such as were, therefore, ran due et pair.
From the above it will already have become apparent that
titles of honour, as they now survive in Europe, are picturesque
relics of the feudal system (see Feudalxsic). In theory they are
still territorial, and it is the shadowy suggestion of landed estate
that gives, in France and Germany, to the nobiliary particles
de and von their mystic virtue.* In Great Britain there has been
of late years a tendency in the case of some newly made peers
to drop the affectation of territorial power. In the case of some
titles, e.g. Earl Canington— this merely follows a very ancient
English tradition; even under the feudal system after the Norman
Conquest it was not unusual for the great nobles to use their
titles with their family names or those of their fiefs indi£ferently;
for instance, the Norman eails of Derby described themselves,
•s often as not, as Earls Ferrers (see Deuy, Eaxis or). Con-
vention, however, dictates that barons and viscounts should,
on creation, adopt a territorial style. In the case of such titles
as Lord Jantfs of Hereford and Lord Morley of Blackburn, this
style is adopted from the place of birth; for which a certain
precedent might perhaps be pleaded in the medieval custom
exemplified in such names for royal princes as " John of Gaunt '|
or " Henry of Woodstock." On the other hand, there has been
also a somewhat absurd tendency to ezag^erate the territorial
styles by pQmg one on the top of the other. It would be
invidious to mention actual instances; but the process may be
illustrated by the imaginary title of Baron Coneyhurst of Ockley.
From the fact that, as feudalism devek>ped, fiefs became
hereditary. It comes that most European titles of honour are
hereditary. Knighthood alone fornuid, in general, an exception
to thn rule. Yet, in their origin, no one of the titles familiar
to us were descendible from father to son, and the only hereditary
quality was that of abstract nobility. Yet, by a curious inver-
sion of the whole idea of titles of honour, an inherited title has
come to be far more valued than one bestowed;* it has the
*■ Z.i. Monsieur de la Rochefoucauld, for M. le due de la R. In
the United Kingdom the parallel custom stops short of dukes. All
other peen, from maraueiaes to barons, are commonly spoken of
and addresaed by the title of lord:
* In Germany a distinction is drawn between those titles derived
from estates stiH held by the head of the family and thow that
•fe landlcM. The latter ane simply " of " (foM), the fonner are ** of
and at " (wn und ta).
'Thus in the InstmeHons annexed to the commisaion for the
■election of the new onler of baronets. King James I. gives these
Ofvcedence over knights. " because this is a Uipiity, which shall
be ffertditary, wherain divers circomstancn are more considerable,
than such a Mark as is but Temporary." ^Selden, op. eit. p. 685*)
peculiarly aristocratic virtue ascribed by Lofd Palaentoti to
the most Noble Order of the Garter: *' There is no damned merit
about it;" it has the aowning quality that it must needs be
the monopoly of the few. Hereditary titles sink in value, indeed,
just in proportion as they become common. In the United
Kingdom their value has been kept up by the rule of primogeni-
ture: there can be only one bearer of such a title in a single
generation. In Francq ctistom distributes the various titles
of a family among all the sons, the eldest son, for instance, of a
duke inheriting his dukedomi the second son his marqulaate, the
third his countship, and so on. In Germany and Austria titles
pass to all the sons in each successive generation, thou^ in
Prussia the rule of primogeniture has been introduced in the case
of certain new creations ie.g. FUrst, prince). The result is that
equivalent titles vary enormously in social significance in
different countries* An attempt has been made to estimate
the extent of this variation in the case of individual titles in
articles devoted to them. Hen we need only illustrate the
argument by one striking example. The Russian title of
" prince " (ibiyos) implies undoubted descent from the great
reigning houses of Russia, Poland and Lithuania; but the titl^
descends to all male children, none of whom is entitled to re-
present it par ex coU e me. There may be three, or four hundred
princes bearing the same distinguished name; of these some
may be great nobles, but others are not seldom found in quite
humble capadtica^-waiters or droshky-drivets. The title in
itself has little social value.
In the countries east of the marches of the old Empire, i.«.
Hungary and the Slav lands, existing titles are partly developed
from the native tradition (feudal in Hungary, Bohemia and
Poland; autocratic and Oriental in Russia and the lands of the
Bqlkaa peninsula), partly borrowed from the West, like that of
grif (count) in Hungary and graf in Russia. Just as in autocratic
Russia ^ sole indigenous title of honour (ibtyos) is associated
with royal descent,^ so in the Mahommcdan East there are,
outside the reigning families, Qo hereditary titlet, except that
of skerif, ahready mentioned. In India the hereditary styles of
certain great Mafaommedan ooUesaie eiceptioni. Uiat prove
the rule; they represent reigning families whose r^' has been
absorbed in. the imperial government, and they are still reigning
princes in the sense in which the heads of Goman mediatized
houses are so described (see Meoiatization). For the rest, the
titles of Oriental princes follow much the same gradation as
those of the West As caliph (q.9.), or vicar of the Prophet, the
Ottoman sultan is in Islam the equivalent of the pope in Roman
Catholic Christendom; his imperial dignity is siffoified by the
Persian title of po/dishah (lord king), his function as leader of a
militant religioa by the style of " commander of the faithful "
(see Amix). Sluik is in Persia the equivalent of king; the style
of skah^n-skaht king of kings, recalls the days of the Persian
" great king " familiar in the Old Testament. Khan (prince)
and amir (commander, lord) are other Eastern sovereign titles.
Pasha and bey, originally exclusively military titjea, are now used
also as civilian titles of honour, but they are not hereditary.
When the pashaUk of Egypt was made hereditary the situation
was ultimately regularized by bestowing on the pasha the Peisian
title of khedive (9.V.). In the Far East, Japan has adopted
a system of titles, based on her ancient feudal hierarchy, which
closely corresponds to that of Europe (see Japan). China, on
the other hand, stands apart in the curious custom of bestowing
titles on the ancestors of persons to be honoured, and in making
them hereditary only for a Umited number of generations (see
Chiwa: Social Customs). In Europe such posthumous honours
are rendered only in the case of saints (see CAicoNXZAnoM).
Of ecclesiastical titles of honour it can only be said that they
tend to an even greater exaggeration than those bestowed on
secular dignities. The swelling styles of the Eastern patriarcha
are relics of the days when Rome, Constantinople, Antioch,
Alexandria and Jerusalem were vying with each other for
precedence (see CBuxca Histoby and Patuasch). The style
* The deBisnatkm harin (boyarin. boyar) b not, properiy ^)eaMnf ,
a title, bat the equivalent of '* gentlemaa.**
I030
TITMOUSE
of the bitbop o£ Rone, who alone in the WMtern Church retain*
the name of pope, includes the old Roman titles of potUiftx
maximut and paier p^truUf and always in his signatures the
proudly humble phrase " slave of the slaves of God " {servus
aenoruM Det) , based on Matt . xx. 2 7 <see Pope) . Of ecclesiasti-
cal titles those expressing orders and no more— priest, deacon,
sub-deacon and the rest>-are never honorary (Prester John,
9.0., is a shadowy medieval exception). Those expressing office,
whether in the Church at large (patriarch, archbishop, &c.),
or in the papal court {e.g. protonotary), are often merely
honorary. Tbst of bishop even became for a time, after the.
Reformation, a title borne by certain secular princes (see
Bishop). " Cardinal," which with the predicate Eminence
iq.v.) is now reserved for the princes of the Roman Church, was
at one time the honorary style of the chief clergy of great
cathedrals generally (see Cakmnal). " Abbot," the official title
of the head of the monastery, has also in several languages (e.g.
the French abU^ come to be used as a purely honorary title
(see Abbot). For the honorary styles of the clergy in the English-
speaking countries, see the articles Rjevcrend, Vicas, Rfctoa,
Canon, Dean. As fbr the airhdeacon, it is only in the Church
of England that he can be still defined as " one who performs
archidiaconal functions"; elsewhere, if he exists at all, he is
purely titular (see Abcbdeacon).
Among titles of honour, finally, may be reckoned honorary
degrees bestowed by universities, the pope, and in England by
the archbishop of Canterbury. Any degree may be bestowed
honoris eausa. The universities of Oxford and Cambridge
thus regularly bestow the degree of D.D. (doctor of divinity)
on those of their alumni who become bishops. It is also the
custom to bestow honorary degrees at the yearly " Commemora-
tion " (generally D.C.L., doctor of dvU law, at Oxford ; LL.D.,
doctor of laws, at Cambridge) on a sdeaed list of eminent
personages. The right of the archbishop of Canterbury to confer
degrees honoris causa^ known as '* Lambeth degrees," is sup-
posed to be derived from one of his powers as kgatns natys of
the pope, which survived the Reformation. An attempt was
made by some of the Swiss reformers of the i6th century to
abolish degrees. They were certainly ** popish " in their origin,
and others besides Herbert Spencer have objected to them as
misleading, since they are by no means necessarily a hall-mark
of learning. They tend, however, to multiply rather than to
decrease in number, and in England some criticism has been
aroused by the growing custom in certain quarters of assuming
degrees (notaUy that of D.D.) granted corruptly, or for wholly
insufficient reasons, by certain so-called "universities,"
notably in the United States. For a list of the degrees of the
principal universities and their hoods, see UNiVEmsiTiES,d<i jitt.
The history of man^r peerage and other titles is outlined in the
articles on historic families in this work. For British peerage titles
the standard work is G. E.^C. (okayne)'« Comply Peerage (ist ed.^,
8 vols., 1S87; new ed., vol. i., 1910;. For baronets and others see
the manuals of Burke and Debnctt. The standard authority for the
royal houses and " hieh nobility ** of Europe is the Ahnanoch d«
Gotka^ published yeany. See aJso the article NoaiLrrY, and for
further references the authorities attached to those on individual
titles, e.g. Count. (W. A. P.)
irniOUSE (O. Eng. most and iytmase, (kr. Mcisti Swed. nut,
Du. mees, Fr. mitange), the name' long in use for several
species of small English birds, which are further distinguished
from one another by. some characteristic appellation. These go
to make up the genus Pants of Linnaeus, and with a large
number of other genera form the Passerine family Paridae.
Titmice are usually non-migretory, and the genus Pana occupies
most of the g}obo except South America aad the Australian
region cbbI of Lombok and Flores.
* The prefix ** tit " by heedless writers often used alone, though
equally proper to the titlark (see l*iPfT). b perhaps cognate with
the Graek nr(s. which originally ineaat a small chirping bird (^ins.
Not. UistuMh series, vol. x. p. 227), and has a diminutive form in the
Jcelandie Titli»gur—t}M English or at least Scottish titling. It b
by false analogy that the plural of titmouse is made dtmice: it
«ioo1d be 9hmoi»m,_ A mckname w very often added, as with
it is " torn."
snooM be ntauNnes, a mcimame w very c
otany other familiar English faiidt, and ia tms
Among the more eommoa Boropeao and English forms the first
to be mentioned b that called, from its comparatively la^fe siae.
the great titmouse, P. major, but known also m many parts as the
oxeye,* conspicuous by its black head, white cheeks and yeUow
breast, down which runs a black line, while in spring the cock
makes himself heard by a loud bve-note that resembles the noise
made in sharpening a saw. It is widely distr3>uted thipughout
the British Islands and over nearly the mhoic of Europe and northern
Asia. The next b the blue titmouse, bluecap or nun. P. coermleus,
soiallcr than the last and more common. Its names are so character-
istic as to make any description needless. A third common species,
but not so numerous as either of the foresjoing. is the coal-titmouse.
P. aier^ dbtinguishcd by its black cap. white cheeks and white nape.
Some mterest attaches to this s^eaes because of the diff'ercnce
observable between the race inhabiting the scanty remnants of the
ancient Scottish forests and that which occurs throughout the rest of
Britain. The former b more brightly tinted than the latter, having a
clear bluish-grey mantle and the lower part of the back greenish,
hardly either of which colours are to be seen in the same parts fji
more southern examples, which last have been described as forming
a distinct species, P. brilanHtais, But it is to be observed thai the
denixens of the old Scotch fir-woods are nearly midway in coloration
between the dingy southern birds and those which prevail over the
greater part of the continent of Europe. It would therefore seem
unreasonable to speak of two species only: there should be eiihcr
three or one, aad the latter alternative b to be preferred, provided
the existence of the local races be daly recognited. Much the same
thing b to be noticed in the next species to be mentioned, the marsh-
titmouse. P, paluitris, which, sombre as b its plumage, b subject
to considerable local varbtion in its very extensive range, and ha:»
been called P, borialis in Scandinavb, P. alpestris in the Alps, and
P. lugubris in south-eastern Europe, to say nothing of forms like
P, baualeusis, P. camcliatkensis and others, whose names denote
its local v/iriations in northern Asb, while no great violence is exer-
cised if to these be tScked on P. atricapilla, with several geographical
races which inhabit North America. A fifth British species is the
rare crested titmouse, P. crisUUHS, only found in limited districts
in Scotbnd, though common enough, especblly in pine-woods, in
many parts of Europe.
In addition to species of Panii, North America possesses r»x>
peculbr genera of tita^Psaltripanu aad Anripa/us. Durina the
greater part of the year the various species of the genus Poms
assocute in familv parties and only bceak up into pain at the
beginning of the oreeding season. The nests are neady aUays
placed in a hollow stump, and consist of a mass of moss, feathers
and hair, the last being worked almost into a Idnd of felt. Thereon
the eggs, often to the number of eight or nine, are bid, and these
have a translucent white shell, freckled or spotted with rust colour.
The first plumage of the^young closely resembles that of the parents;
but, so far as is icnown. it has always a yellower tinge, very apparent
on the parts, if there be such, which in the adult ai« white. Few
birds are mom restless in dbposition. Most of the European species
and some of the North American become familiar, haunting the
neighbourhood of houses, especblly in winter, and readily availing
themselves of such scraps 01 food, about the nature of which they
are not particular, as they can get.* By |iaideners 0very tkmouae
is generally regarded as an enemy, for it is supposed to do Infinite
damage to the buds of fruit-trees and bushes; but the accusation
b wholly false, for the buds destroyed are always found to be those
to which a grub— the bird's real object—- has got access, so that there
can be little doubt that the titmouse b a great benefactor to the
horticulturist.
Akin to the genus Poms, but in many respects differing from it,
is AcreduU, containing that curious-looking oird the lo^g-tailed or
bottle titmouse, with fttany local races or species. The bird itself,
having Its tail longer than its body, is imlike any other found in the
northern heminthere. while its nest b a perfect marvel of construc-
tion, being in shape xxearljr oval, with a small hole in one side. The
exterior b studded with pieces of lichen, worked into a firm texture
of moss, wool and spiders' nests, and the inside is profusely lined
with soft feathers-^a^Tp having been, says Macgillviay, counted
in one example. Not uuerior in beauty or ingenuity b the nest built
by the penduline titmouse. Aegiihalus pendiUiuMS, of the south o(
Europe, which differs, however, not merely in composition, but in
being suspended to a bough, while the former Is nearly always placed
between two or mom branches.
The so<alled bearded titmouse, Panurus Ifiarmicus, has habits
wholly unlike those of any of the foregoing, and is now placed in
* The signification of thb name b obscure. It may perhaps be
correbted with a Swedish name for the bird — Talgoxe,
* Persons fond of watching the habiu of birds may with little
trouble provide a jpleasiM spectacle by adopting the plaa. practised
by the bte A. E. Knox, ofhanging a lump 01 suet or tallow by a short
string to the end of a flexible rod stuck asbnt into the ground cioae
to the windbw of a sitUng-rooin. It b seklom kwg before a titmouse
of some kind finds the dainty, and once found visits are made to it
until every morsel b picked off. The attitudes of the birds as they
ding to the swinging lure are very diverting, and none but a titmouae
can succeed in keeping a foothold upon it.
TITUS— TITUS^ THE EPISTLE TO
1031
m aeparmte RMMiioe faiiuly— Rinarid^^. It
ia many pvu of EogUa^ wpecialty in the eastern ooiniticc, wbeie
it hore the name of reod-phcaaant;* but throKgh the draining o(
meres, the destruction of rccd^beds, and the rapacitjr of coUccton
it now exists in few localities. It is a beautiful litde bird, of a bright
tawny colour, variegated with black and white, while the oock is
liirtMr distiiigotshed by a blatsh erey head and a black toft of
feathers oo each skle oi the diin. Its chief food seems to be racd*
seeds and the smaller kinds of fresh-water molluscs^ which it finds
among the reed-beds it seldom Quits.
The general affinities of the Paridae seem to fie rather with the
Sittidae (see Nutratcm) and the tree-creepers. (A. N.)
TITUS, one of the companions of St Paul, was of Greek origin
(Gal. iL 3) , and was perhaps a native of Asia Minor. He appears
to have been among the apostle's earliest converts, being first
mentioned (Gal. ii. i) as having accompanied Paul and Barnabas
to Jerusalem (cf. Acts xv. a) " to represent the success of the
Pauline gospel outside Judaism." Here the conservative section
demanded that he should be circumcised; but Paul successfully
opposed this (see Paul). Subsequently be came into ck>se
connexion with the Achaean churches and especially with
Corinth, bearing letters from Paul and being charged with
promoting the proposed Collection for poor Christians in Judaea.
In these matters he proved himself a trusty lieutenant, winning
the esteem of the Corinthians by his zeal and disinterestedness.
The liberality which a generation later was recognized by
Clement of Rome as a traditional virtue of the Corinthian Church
owed its inception to Tilus. In the epistle with which his name
is associated he is represented (Titus L 5) as having been left by
Paul in Crete to " set in order the things that are wanting, and
ordain elders in every dly." He is expected afterwards to join
Paul at Kioopolis (iiL 12). In 2 Tim. iv. 10 he is spoken of aa
having gone (perhaps on a mission) to Dalmatia. Tradition,
obviously resting on the Epistle to Titus, has it that he died in
Crete as bishop at an advanced age; another line connects him
with Venice. Attempts to make him the author of the '*We"
sections in Acts and to include him in the seventy disciples are
futile. There is more to be said for the suggestion that be was
the brother of St Luke.
See A. Souter and E. P. Boys-Smith an Tke Exp«nlory Times,
xviii. 385, 335, 38a
TITUS, THB EPI8TLB TO, in the New Testament, an epistle
which purports to have been written by Paul to Titus (t. 1-4),
who is in charge of the local churches at Crete '(i- s)* ' The
younger man is reminded of the qualifications which be is to
insist upon in officials (i. 5-16), in view of current errors,*
doctrinal and moraL The genuine teaching, or " sound doc-
trine," which he is to propound (ii. i, seq.)i is then outlined, with
regard to aged men and women, younger men and slaves
especially.* After a postKript (iii. S-i i ) , reiterating the counsels
of the letter, with particular reCerenoe to the outside pttblic,
some personal notices are briefly added (iii. t*-i3), and, with
some final exhortations, the epistle ends.
The origin of Christian missions in Crete is obscure. A strong
Jewish eJement existed among the population (cf. L 13 seq., iit 9),
which explains the particular hue of the local heresies as well as,
perhaps, the initial efforu of a Christian propaguda (cL Acts
iL 1 1 ). The geographical situatbn of the island alsD favoured an
early mtroduction of the new faith. "' Crete was a great winter-
ing place " for vessels (cf. Acts xxvii. xa aeq.) working their sbw
way 10 Rome ak>ag the southern coast of the Mediterranean,* so
that the possibility of Jewish Christian cvangdists having
leacbed it before king is to be granted freely.
> The common names given to this bird are n very inapplicable
that it is a pity that " sikivlla " (from d^, an osier) besto w e d upon
it by Sir T. Browne, its original discoverer, cannot be restofed.
* On the Bomeik'hat harsh estimate of the Cretans in i. 12 see
Dr J. Rendel Harris in Expositor (7th series, vol. ii. p. 305 seq.). The
other fcatufCs noted in the epistle, rfacir turbulenee. drunkenness
and need, all happen to be verified m the pages of ancient writers
like raybius.
* On the sub-Piuline tone of iK. S cf. Sokolewski's Gtiaf umi lehen
bet PcmIms (1003). p. 108 seq.
* Cf. W. M. Itamsay: Pauline nnd other Studies (k,.
Hoennfeke'sDaf yndmdkmlfii/Hfff (1908). p. I568eq..and
Uissivm end Expansion oj Christianity, ii 239-230 {2ad ed., 1908),
md Harnack's
It is more diflkak to deteiahie when Paol can hatve visited
the island and left Titus behind him. Attempts have been made
to find a setting for the epistle within the apostle's life previous
to his Roman imprisonment (as recorded in Acts), but by common
consent* it is now held that the epistle (if written by the apostle)
must fan bter, during the period of missionary enterprise which
is supposed to have foUowed his release from the first captivity,
like the epistles to Timothy, the Epistle to Titus thus belongs
to a phase of the apostle's life for which we possess no other
contemporary evidence. The second fanprisonment of Paul,
after a period of freedom following his acquittal, is an lustorical
hypothesis (cf. the sUtement in Steinmetx's DiemeiUtdm.Gejai^
geiuckaft des Pasdus, p. 46 acq.), which is absohitely essential
to the Pauline authorship of the pastorals. It is indeed supported
by several critics who reject the latter, just as it is occasionally
rejected by advocates of their authenticity. But, upon the whotc^
such evidence from early tradition as can be siiddnced from the
2nd century seems no more than an expansion of Paul's language
in Rom. zv. 24, s8. The pastorals thei iselves never mention
any mission in Spain. Spanish tradition is silent on the fact,
and the allusion to the ** west" (in Clera. Rom. v.) can be intep-
preted at least as fairiy of Rome as of Spain. The entire problem
is not without its difficulties still, after all the research lavished
upon it, but the probabilities seem to conveige upon the condu-
sk>n that Paul was never released from his imprisonment, and
consequently that he never iwisited the East.
The interna! criticism of the epistle starts from t. 7-9, ^
plainly an interpolation, perhaps from the margin, upon the quaKfica*
tions of episeopoi. On the other hand a passage like in. 12-13 >•
indubitably a Pauline fragment, and the oroblcm for the critic is
to determine whether in tne episde as a vmole we have a redacted
and interpolated edition of what was originally a note from the
hand of PanI, or whether the epistle drew upon some Pauline tradi<
tion (conncctins^ Titus with Crete) and materal, and was afterwards
interpolated at 1. T^. The latter hypothecs seems more probable,
upon the whole, ahhough there is Kttic to choose between the two.
The substantially Pauhnc character of the epistle, for all practical
purposes, is to be granted upon cither hypothesis, for the author
or the editor strove not unsuccessfully, upon the whole, to reproduce
the Pauline spirit and tradition.* The older notion that the personal
data in Htus, or In the rest of the pastorals, were invented to lend
verisimilitude to the writing must be given up. They are too
circumstantial and artless to be the work of a writer faieallxing or
creating a situation. Thus, in the present epistle, a passase like
iii. 12-13 ** palpably genuine. But it isanother question whether
note from Paul's own pen.
It seems improbable that Titus or any of the pastorals is directed
arainst any one phase of contemporary heresy.* The proBiUtion
of marriage (i Hm. iv. 3) was common to Mairrion and Apdies, while
the iniunctioo of fasting* is attributed to the Eocratites (Ircn. Adv.
Haer.i. 28, x) and to Satuminus of AntldCh in Syria (ibid. 1. 24. 3),
the latter being also credited with having been tne first to introduce
a dualism into humanity, whkrh made God send his Saviour to
destroy the evil and redeem the good, both classes having been
formed by the aneels (cf. Titus ii. 1 1 ; i Tim. iv. 10). The exhausrive
discussions on this point (cf. Bourquin, pp. 55. seq.) have led most
scholars to the conclusion that no one ^stem of 2ud<entury gnosti-
cism is before the writer's mind. He is maintaining PauM r6ie.
He makes the apostle prophesy, vai^ely of course,.the evil tendencies
which were to come upon the churcn; but the internal evidence,
* W. E. Boweo, Firofcssor Bartlet {Aposidic Ate, pp. 178 seq.:cf.
also article on Paul), Lisco {Vincula sanctommj 1900} and Laughlin
are the only recent exceptions.. and their conjectural schemes are
mutually destructive. The common style of the epistles forbkls
any dispersion of them over, a term of yean. They stand or fall
together, as critics of all schools are practcally agreed. The im-
posubility of placing them within the period of Acts is best known
by Hatch, Bourquin (pp. 10-23), Bertram! (23*47) and von Sodcn.
* The historical site for iiL i>-i3. as well as for the trsditioa which
forms the setting of the epistle, is probably to be sought in the neigh-
bourhood of Actt XX. 3 (so Krehkd). Ckemen dates iii. is-13 from
Macedonia afters Cor. X'*xiii.. L-ix., previous to Romans (in a.D. 59).-
' Esseoisnu blended with Ebionitism. is the plausible coiqecture
of Sehtdennacher. Neamler and MangoM. but the Esmiea do not
seem to have prahifaited marriage so dogmataraJly.
* Asceticism was bound up with the gnostic depreciation of the
body. By a natursl recoil it producecf licentkmsness of conduct
which the pastorals hotly denounce.
I038 TITUS (ROMAN EMPEROR)— TITUS TATIUS
tOKpCher with the impossibility of jAacing the epistles later than the
fint ten or twenty years of the 2nd century, render it impracticable
to detect anything except incipient phases of syncrctistic jrnosticism
behind the polemical allusions. It was a gnosticism fluctuating
not only in its relation to the Church but in its emphasis uix>n ceruin
ethical and theoeophical ideas. One definite trait is its Jewish
character (Titus i. lo; 2 Tim. iil 16; i Tim. L 7, &:.)• The crrorisU
developed speculations and practical theories on the basis of the
Old Testament law, which proved extremely seductive to many
Christians. But it is difficult to find any homogeneity in the repeated
descriptions of this semi-gnostic phase, although now and then
(e.g. in I Tim. i. 7 scq. ; Titus L 14, lii. 9).^c>^ ^^ suggestions of the
legalism which Cerinthus advocated. The Ophites are said to have
not only used myths but fori>idden maiTiaqg[e and held that the
resurrection was purely spiritual (Lightfoot); this, however, is
probably no more than an interesting coincidence, and all attempts
to identify the errorists definitely must be abandoned.^ The eariy
Fathers often iqdeed identify them with later types of gnosticism,
but thb cannot be taken as any sure clue to the authors meaning.
They naturally found in his prophetic words the anticipation of
heresies current in their own age.
Sometimes, as in the cases of the resurrection being alle^riied'
and marriage repudiated,* it is feasible to detect distortions or
exaggerations of raul's own teaching, against which the Paulinist
of the pastorals puts in a caveat and a corrective. But these some-
what indiscriminate denunciations are certainly, not what we
expect from a man like Paul, who uas an uncommonly clear-headed
dialectician " ^cGiffcrt). They partake of the nature of a pastoral
manifesto, which does not trouble to draw any fine distmctions
between the principles, or motives of its opponents. The method
resembles that of the First Epistie of John, lor although the errorists
attacloed in the latter manifesto are not those of the pastorals, and
although the one writer eschews entirely the inner authority of the
Spirit which the other posits, the same anti-gnostic em pbaas on
practical religion and stereotyped doctrine is felt in both.
Literature.— Special monographs on Titus have been written
by Jerome. Casper Cruciger {Exposilio brevis eifamiliariSt IJS42).
Mosheim {Erkl&rungdts Briefs an TiL, 1779), and Kuinoel {JE^piicatui
epist. Pauli ad Titum, 1812).' Commonly, however, the episdc
has been edited and criticized. along with the epistles of Hmothy.
The ablest recent editions are by B. Weiss (in Me\'er's Commentary
7th ed.. 1902: full and exact), Wohlenberg (in Zahn's Commentary
' " '^ ' ^ 1th
nd
lUl
lie.
)i.
Of
ol-
d.,
A),
cs
:k-
nd
:rg
{op. cit. p. 76).
For the view that a Paulinist was the author, sec Schlciermacher,
Oher den sogen. ersten Brief des Paulus an den Tim. (1807), which
really opened the modem phase of critk^ism on all three cpisUcs;
Baur, Vie sogenannten Pastoralhrieh des Apostels Paulus (183s):
H. J. Holtzmann, Die Pastoralbriefe kritisch u. exegetisck behandeU
(1880), an odiaustive treatment; Hilgenfeld, Zettschrifi far die
vnss. Theologie (1897), 49 scq., 61 scq., 79 seq. ; E. Y. Hincks, Journal
of BiH. Literature (1897), 9^-n7; and Renan, 5. Paul xxiii.-liii.,
V&glise chrilienne, ch. v. The conservative position is maintained
with varying confidence by C. W. Otto, Die geschichtlichen Verhdlt-
nisst der Pastoralbriefe (i860) ; Bcrtrand. Essai criliaue sur Vauthenti-
Cenuineness and Authorship of the Pastoral . EpisUes (1906). For
general studies, see Schenkel's Bibd-Lexicon^ iv. 393-402; Sabaticr's
article in Ency. des sciences religieuses, x. 250-^59; J. R. Boik,
' Qcmen (Paulus i. 148) distinguishes i>roadly between the
errorists of 2 Tim. and those controverted in the other two epistles.
The fonner, be argues, are in the last resort libertinistt and anti-
nomians; the latter must be recorded as ascetk Judaists.
* 2 Tim. ii. 18. Paul's teachmg about the believer bcin^ already
risen with Christ gave a welcome nandle to the later GnostKS. The
passage in John v. 28-20 seems a correction of the possible inferences
which might be drawn from such teaching in Piul and in the Fourth
Gospel itself.
*Cf. Von DobschOtz, Christian Life in the Primitive Church
(?P '
The Bpp. of Paul written after he became a Prisoner (New York, 1 887 ) ;
Plummer, Expositor's Btbte (1888); Bourquin, Etude critique sur
les past, ipttres (1890); Hamack, Die Chronologie, 480 seq., 710-71 f :
Moffatt, Ency. Bib., 5079-5096, and W. Lock (Hastings's Diet,
Bible, voL iv.). (J. Mt.)
TITUS» FLAVIUS SABIKU5 VESPASIAHUS, Roman emperor
from A.D. 79-81, son of the emperor Vespasian, was bom on the.
30th of December a.d. 40 (or 41). He was educated in the
imperial court, and thoroughly accomplished: he could speak
Greek fluently and compose verses; he was a proficient in music;
he could write shorthand, and imitate handwriting so skilfully
that he used to say that he mi^t have been a most successful
forger. He was handsome and commanding, and had a vigorous
frame, well trained in all the exercises of a soldier. As a young
man he served with credit in Germany and in Britain. Soon he
had the command of a legion, and joined his father in Syria,
where he took an active part in the Jewish War. In 68 he was
sent by his father to congratulate the newly proclaimed emperor,
Galba; but, hearing of Galba's death and of the general confusion
in the Roman world, he returned lo Palestine, having in the mean-
time consulted the or&dc of the Paphian Venus and received a
favourable answer. In the following year Vespasian, having
been proclaimed emperor, returned to Italy, and left Titus to
carry on the siege of Jerusalem, which was captured on the 8ih of
September 70. On his return to Rome, Titus and his father
celebrated a magnificent triumph, which has been immortalized
by the so-called Arch of Titus. He was now formally associated
with his father in the government, with the title of Caesar, and
during the nine remaining years of Vespasian's reign he was in
fact emperor. He was anything but p(^ular; he had the character
of being profligate and crueL His connexion ^ath Berenice,
the sister of the Agrippa of the Acts of the Apostles^ also created a
scandal; both brother and sister folbwed Titus to Rome, and
were allowed to reside in the imperial palace. Public opinion
was outraged, and Titus, though he had promised Berenice
marriage, felt obUged to send her back to the East. Vespasian
died in 79, leaving his son a safe throne and a well-filled treasury.
The forebodings of the people were agreeably disappointed, for
Titus put an end to prosecutions for high treason, and the
ddatores (informers) were scourged and expelled from the city.
He assumed the oflice of pontifex maximus, in order that be
might keep his hands free from blood. He forgave his brother
Domitian, who more than once plotted against his life, and having
let a day pass without bestowing a present, he exclaimed,
" I have lost a day."
Titus, like his father, spent money in addingto the magnifi-
cence of Rome. The Flavian amphitheatre (later called the
O>lo8seum) was completed and dedicated in his reign, with
combats of gladiators, shows of wild beasts, and representations
of some of the great Greek naval battles. He gave the city
splendid baths, which surpassed those of Agrippa and of Nero,
and supplied the mob with every kind of luxury.
During his reign, in 79, occurred the eruption of Ve^vius
which destroyed Herculoneum and Pompeii. The empeior
visited the scenes and contributed liberally to the relief of the
distressed inhabitants. During his absence a fire raged for three
days at Rome, in which the new temple of Jupiter Capitolinus,
the library of Aug^ustus, and other public buildings were burnt;
then foUowed a pestilence, and Titus again assisted freely with
his purse. Italy and the Roman world were peaceful durirtg
his idgn. Th6 only fighting was in Britain under Agricola, who
in the year 80 carried the Roman arms as far as the Tay. Titus
died on the 13th of September 8x. The verdict of history is
favourable to Mm, but the general feeling throughout the Roman
world was that he had been fortunate in the brieihess of his
reign.
See Suetonius, Titus i Dio Cassius Ixvl 18-26: C. Beuld. Titus
et sa dynastie (1870); L. Double. L'Empereur Titns (1877): Merivulc.
Hist, of the Romans under the Empire (ch. 60); H. Schiller. Cesthickta
der rOmischen Kaisentil, i. pt. a.
TITUS TATIUS, in Roman legend, the Sabine king of Cures,
who waged war upon the Romans to avenge the rape of the
Sabine woinen (see Rouulus). After various indecisive conflicU
TTTUSVILLE— TIVOLI
>03S
rho hid Imomw Roinui nttMBi, inteifaiad and
prevailed upon the combatants to cease fighting. A fopnal
treaty was then arranged between the Romans and Sa b in c S ,
whereby Romukis and Tatiua were to be joint and equal rulen
of the Roman people. Rome was to retain its name and each
dtisen was to be called a Roman, but as a conuntmity they were
te be called Qulrites (f.v.); the Sabines were to be incorporated
in the state and admitted into the tribes and curies. After this
arrangement had lasted for five yean it came to an cod by the
death of Tatius, who was killed out of revenge by the inhabitants
of Lavinlum. According to Mommsen, the story of his death,
(for which see Plutarch) looks like an historical version of the
abolition of blood-revenge. Tkttius, who in some respects
resembles Remus, is not an historical personage, but the epony*
mous hero of the religious college called Sodales Titii As to this
body Tadtos expresses two different opinions, representing two
different tr«ditk»ns: that it was inuoduced either by Tatha
himself to preserve the Sabine cult in Rome; or by Romulus in
honour of Tatius, at whose grave its members were bound to offer
a yearly sacrifice. The Mdaln fell into abeyance at the end of
the republic, but were revived by Augostus and existed to the
end of the and century a.d. Augustus himself and the emperor
Claudius belonged to the college, and all its members were of
senatorial rank. Varro derives the name from the TiHa« cMt
which were used by the priests In certain augories.
See Uvy i. 10-14; Tacitua, AnmaU, I 5^ Bisk ii. 95;- Dion.
Halic iL 36-^; Pluuich. Kamulust 19-24; Marquardt, Komuckt
SlsatsmwaUuMi (1885) in. 446} Schwcglcr, Rimiscke CtukkkU,
bk. ix. 3, 14; z. 5.
TITUSVIIU. a city*of Crawford county, Penn^lvania,
U.S.A., on Oil Creek, about 4a m. S. by £. of Erie. Pop. (xgoo),
8344, of whom X57J were foreign-bom; (1910 census) 8533.
Htusville is served by the Dunkirk, AUegbcny Valley &
Pittsburg, and the Pennsylvania railway*. It has the Benson
Memorial library (1904), and in Woodlawn Cemetery there is
a monument (erected by Henry H. Rogers in 190a) to Colonel
Edwin L. Drake (rSro-iSSo), who here sank the first oil well
(69I ft. deep) in America in August 1859 fend who is buried here.
Titus^e was the principal centre in Pennsylvania of the opposi-
tion to the Standard Oil Company; but alter 1875, when John
D. Archbold (b. 1848), a leader of the mdependcnts, became a
director of the Standard, few of the Tttusville operators remained
independent. It was in the Tttusville district that the natural
gas industry o£ Pennsylvania was first established about
1871.
' There are various manufactures, and In 1905 the value of the
f actor>- products was $3,349,890. The first settlement was made
here in 1796 by Samuel Kcrx and Jonathan Titus (in whose
honour the place was named). Titusville was incorporated as
a boriiugh In 1847 and was chartered as a dty In r866. On
the 5th of June 2892 Oil Creek rose suddenly, overflowed its
banks and wrecked many oil tanks along the bottom-lands.
A large part of the water was oovcred with oil, which soon caught
fire. A^out 60 persons were drowned or burned to death, and
about a quarter pf 4he dty was destroyed.
> TIVBRTOll, a market town and munidpal borough in the
Tivcrteo parlianeBtary diviskm of Devonshire, England,
situated amid beautiful scenery at the confluence of the Loman
and Exe, 187! mu W. by S. of London by the Great Western
railway. Pop. (1901), 10,381. The upper town is built on high
ground along the kft bank of the E», and a bridge leads to
the lower town, named West Eze. St Peter's church, originally
consecrated as a chapel by Leofiic, bishop of Exeter, in
1073, is a beautiful Perpendicular buOding. Its high tower
has four stages, each adorned with grotesques; and Oreenway's
chapel, built in Z5r7 by John Greerrway, a wool merdiant of
Tiverton, is ornamented with figures minutdy carved b stone.
Of the original Norman fabric only a doorway remains. Within
are soBB fine carvmgs, brasses and mommente. Of the castle,
founded about 1105 by Richard de Redvefs,the banqueting-
hall, a tower, the daapel and a r4th-€entury gateway remain.
After serving as the home of the Redvcrs and Courtenay families.
earis oi Devon, oatil the ifith centvy, Checasde waa dismantled
by Fauiaa. Partly reboat, it is used as a dwelling-house;
while m its gsrdens an annual cace-meeting is held in August.
Blundell's grammar school, founded under the will of Peter
Bfandell, a rich doth meidiant, in ite4, has modem build^
in^i outside tha town in Tudor style; and, among others,
scfaolatships at Balliol CoUege, Oxford, and Sidney Sussex
College, Cambridge^ Hie number of boys is about S3a The
Chikott free School was cstabliBhed in i6ri, and the Blueeoat
Charity School, dating from 1714, was reorganized in 1876 to
give secondary education to boys and gfarls. After the deidine
of iu woollen trade Tiverton became noted for the laoe manu-
facture introduced by John Heathooat (1783--1861), mventor
of the bobbin net frame. There are also breweries, flour-mills,
and a large trade in farm produce and livestock. Amida,
countess of Devon, brooght a stream of water from Norwood,
5 m. distant. This system was improved in the r9th century.
Hannah Cowley, the dramatist (r 743-1809), Richard Owway,
the miniature pshster (b. 1742) and John Cross, an artist
of some celebrity (b. 1819), were natives of Tiverton. The
t^iwn is go v erned by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 coundflors.
Area, 17,680 acrest
Tlvtrton {Tuyvertan, Toprelona) exhibits traces of very eariy
settlement, and b mentioned under the name of Tuyford in
the will of King Alfred. In the Domesday survey It appears
as a royal manor containing two mills, but it was bestowed by
Henry L on Richard de Redvers, and In 1245 appears as a mesne
borough under Baldwhi de Redvers, who in that year obtained a
grant of a Monday market and a three days' fair at the feast of
St James. • In 1275 Amicia, countess of Devon, daimed to hold
fairs at Tiverton at the feasts of St Andrew and St GDes, and at
the translation of St Thomss the Martj-r. In 1618. the bcvough
tecdvcd its first charter of incorporation from James I.,
iosUtuting a governing body of a mayor, 12 chief burgesses, and
19 assistant burgesses, with a recorder, deputy-recorder, town-
derk and two serjeants-at-mace; a court of record every fort-,
i^t on Tuesday; and fairs at Michaelmas and on the second
Tuesday after Trinity Sunday, which were kept up until witUn
the last fifty yean. The borough also sent two representatives
to parliament until disfranchised by the Reform Act of 1885.
Cromwdl in 1655 changed the market day from Monday to
Tuesday. Fresh charters of incorporation' from James II. in
1689 and from George I. in 1734 left the style and constitution
of the governing bod^ unchaiiged. Tiverton was an important
centre of the wooDen trade in the x6th century, and Risdon,
writing in rfioS, describes it as thronged with rich clothiers,
and the Monday market famous for its kersies, known as
*'TIverton kenies," while as late as the reign of George II. the
town had 56 fulling-mills; but about this time the industry
began to decay, and is now extinct.
See Victoria County ffistory: Deoondiin; M. Dnnsfokf. Bistorkal
Memoirs of the Town and Parish of Tiverton (Exeter. 1790); W.
Haidiag, Bistory 0$ TimfUm (1845-1847)-
TfTOU (anc. rtftur, 9.V.), a town and episcopal see of the pro-
vince of Rome, Italy, x8 m. E.N.E. of Rome by road and tram-
way, 34! m. by rail, 760 ft. above sea-levd. Pop. (1901), r 1,6x0
(town), I3,88r (qommune). Tivoli h'cs on the west of the Sabine
Mountains, where the river Anio isues from them, upon a lime-
stone rock shove the river. The town on one ^de overiooks
the Campagna di Roma and Rome itseU, on the other the deep
gorge of the Anio, with its lofty falls, and the environs are very
beautifuL The Roman remains are described under the
heading of Ttaum. The ^Ba d'Este. begun In 1549 ^ P!n«
Ugorio for Cardinal Ippolito d'Este the younger (the cardinal
of Ferrsra), has the finest example of a Renaissance garden in
Italy; it was erected on a steep dope, with many terraces, and
embellished with numerous fountains, fantastically decorated
in stucco, which once formed the background fo the splendid
collection of andent Statuary formed by the cardinal, but now
dispersed (see F. S. Seni, Ia Vilia i'EsU in Tivoli, Rome, 1902;
T. Ashby, in Anhaoohgia^ vol. bd.). The villa contains damaged
frescoes by the brothers Zuccari. The register of the see. of
i034
Ttvtoli Ima dncnmcats dJatias from tbe lolh ccatary rdadog to
the landed propcity of tlie see (L. Bnma, A«esto iclia dUesa
4t JcM/i, Rome, 1885), and the municipal aiddwa dale
fiom x4SOw "ne castJe was erected in 1460 hy Km II. tm tht
ate of the amptutheatte; it fa now a primn. In N o i unbu
1836 a flood of tlie Anio led to a duuice in its ooone,
and threatened to cany away the town. A new fhannrl,
cmrasiing of two paxaUd tnaneb (the l^afeco GRfonaao)
ago and 330 yds. Umg, was therefoee amde to the north-east
in 1836-1855 by Foh^ and on rmffting from these the ma
has a faU of 3S4 ft. Fazthct nocth-west are smaller fdb
(the cascaidU) of that poctioa of the river which fa caiiied
throvigh the town and aerres for industrial pmpoacs. Five
miles west axe the sulphor baths of Acqne Albole^ which were
known to the ancknts, and are now frcqaeated by over 40^000
persons annaally. The temperature of the water fa 75*9* F.
The faOs in the river afford cfectric power for lighting Rome and
driving its trams, as well as for driving several factories In
TEvi^itselL TivoU fa aho the centre of an agricultuial district*
and its olive trees are especially fine.
11AXCALi» an uiland state of Meiko, bounded N.E. and
S. by Puebla, and W. by the state of Mexico. Area 1505
si|.m. Fop. (i9oo).J7Jji5. Tiazcak lies on the great centxal
pUtcan of Mexioo and has a mean altitude of about 7000 ft.
Several mountains rise in the west and aoutht culminating In
the vokanic peak of MaKwhf, or MaKnrrin (14.636 ft,).
The state has three railway fines aoasiag its terrilory.
The capital fa Tfaxcala ud the principal toma am
Cbiautempan (about 500^. Calpula^pan, San Antonio, Tlaxco,
Uoamaatla and Banon-Fwandon (Apiaco). Tike state
nca4y cninddes with the andcnt Indfan republic founded
in the 13th centmy by a branch of the Nahnatlan face^ who
migrated from the western shorm of Lake Tcscooa. Though
sunottiHied on all sides by the great Axtec Empirei, the tiny
republic maintained its inde p e n d rn ce until the arrival of the
Spaniaids. The TUxcaltecs» or Tlaacalans, after a 6ace resist-
ance to Conis in 1519, became efficient allies of the Spanianb
and contribated largely to their final iiifrfw The pmacnt
ialabitaats are duedy of thfa original stock, and retain their
haguoge and many ancient customs.
TULZCALA* a town of hIexico» capital at a state of the same
name, on the Atojrac river, 58 m. E. of hfexioo city by nit
I>op. UQoo), 2fi^ It fa of historic interest in crm n riinn with
the oor^qacst <^ Mexico by Coct^ The state^ouse fa Us only
fins cdi^ c€ a pcJitical character, and the old bishop's palace
iu daest buHiing of a xeligioos duxnctcr. Of most kfatotic
inieresL. prrKiyirti, fa the church of San Francfwo, the first crtded
on the Aaezkan oooiinent, which still roofains the vestments,
pulpit, icsu. and cedar ceiling brou^it from Spain ini 5^1. The
hxnifosK saactuary ova the hoty well of Ocoilan, on a hill
ocLsitie the town, fa one of the hndnurks of the
country,
TLEHCail, a town of Alpoaa, the capital of an
mc£l in the depaitment of Oran, near the fiuuti e s of Morooco,
OS a> by road axad X02 by nfl S.W. of Oran. It stands 2500 ft.
above the sea. on the north siope of the LeDa SctU hills, which
rise to a height of over 4000 ft. It fa the dueC toww of a wide
&trki exporting o^vie otl, esparto, oon azki dour, vook and
Aigcciaa onyx; and has a population of (1906) ri,n6n From
TWskcen the radway fa coctinaed uestward to the hloroccan
fnTiarirr at laBa Mag%twa. a dhrinrr of 44 ra.
Among the cities frxxxxB in the aaaals of Arab-Bobec. or
Moorish, ait and cxriKxaiion, Tlemcen takes Lig^ rank. In
architectaal merits its monuments, thongh not so cxtcnsiTe,
are worthy of fmn|i a riyi with tlbose of Granads. The older
winS iwf towers— the re n e re threg aacieslSnes of Sor rfS i -iyTnQST -
aze in great part destro^vd, b* a wal bu2t fay tltt French
' (tkt
.the)loori<h to tSswcSLtmst, t^At
I %o ihr wj i th <j JL « t . «Wr tV new tewm yrr± cbe
MtThom, Of
Ictf
TLAXCALA— TLEM9BN
Thegiw^nMmine(Iamm ii rrfihli
r ra ft. hifh, adorned with naruecofannnt, and «
of the most varied dengm; a foontain of alabaster— of the kzad
kflown as Algciuo onyx— —wtands u the alabaster-paved i
and 73 colomas support the aichea of the iatenoE. T
was bnflt A.B. ri36 to replace a much older bmUmg. '
fa finely oraamented with aiabeaonca. The uwi« of SA 1
bd Hassan, usoaOy called Abul Ha wan, boiit a^n. laot. now izaB»'
lutuMu into a wwMfmn of aiitiQuitafs, has t^ro f^rtry of afcnes* which
rert 00 ahbaater piMsrtk The oourta are m iismi nuiJ hy senlpfea
of great beauty and 1 w hnf t dw dfficateiy'Carved oedv ocSng.
bears tnces at polychraaMtic paimiag .The ederior has been
altered in Frena taste. Amoog the * M tw | ifi^ ? tt p r cam i w l in r^ ^
moseam are the epitaph of Boabda. the fast king of Granada, who
died at TIeuicen in r^94* and the Mandmd cabit neasane-wi ansbfe
—used in the JTuaerta, bearing dole A.a. 798 (rjaS). Ike saoiqwe
of B-Halawi (the .Iwrftmret Maker), dating firam i « v fa
outside the waDs of the town. It has c^^htnngnifioeaft "^
off A||^ma ouyx. with rxnly sculptured capitjfi ine oeSng oi
oedar fa richly carved, and there » a fine oolonande on ench aide
ofthecowt. The laiaiti t fa deoonted with mnsairs Theaficaey
Mcahnar or dtadel. fanit in 114$, which s
of jtah—mr niag aifi r naec. Thei
under the old waOs, now dry (730 ft. in Iraglh, 49- -
in jl^tfa), was anporendy made Car^ naval cdila
JUrsarir. the pfaoe of rfiirhirr of Emopean merch
Genoa. C, alaVwhifc and Ftuwune. the faarmcscs have been i
away and a covered oBrkct made ia the upper part of Ae JCuanrw.
The aiKiut cuHegt (medressa) where aiaay learned Arafaa Cna|ftt~~
of whom Ibu K ha Man. arthor of a HtsSwy sfilr Bwftws. any be
f iitMiwed has entwely msappiJMcrL JIne chuiih <
French fa a fine hwiidnig hi the ByaantHe stylb ne
trade carried on there are native naafafacmries of 4 _
and leathern articles . A special aaaaaiactare fa tha t oT red As^a.
used throughout the department of tkan 1^ Jcuiwi women when 13
\ erected ^r use
noerwarthy. houe««r.aR thermnsof Stf B« MeAaaniOf Ma
Sidi Bu Mafia (reore pimKriy B Eabfand) fa a tale osv a
soath-east of TlmccB. K was founded aj>L 13^ fay AK V
Lj)t U^kyAKV^ tie
who rmed Tse^sQea.
a^
fast of the Bcm-Maihi (^iarinide)
~ ' rhe Black Saltan. The
se of Saltan Afi.wl
rSSr. TlwAnUaorton^ofShSBul
near the palace ,fahchi faty eat »ji nii at a M b^ the Aaha>_ The Tnci
and waBs are covered win arabfsput^ and the fawend B^ifM^
Xii3ak,'*dfckii^demfaGod'ic*faii|iiamiiia^inMa^M. The
saint him ■ If uns born at Seville aj>. rraiw and ^ed ■
in hfa TSth jear: hfa dfaciple Sidi Ahd^sSdfare ctf Tn
fcfaa. ^ the adjac tn t mosgoe fan b n iutJ i d fpecassen of 1
a nometriL
Gliibeiti at the 1
cohmresfatofi^aadhs.
of rhe arches to the roof. Therifea
from MorocxoL The aaetkessa fa a I
which faahoot t|m.weK^1
of the Bc»Mmm r^esa «
The Aak Abu Yakah Y ^ he>
k Ae early juns of the 14^ oeoevy
The afage tasoed cfaht vear^ aai Ycscf tmned fcfa caaan Mfia
awaladcily. TWsiB[eheiicmfa ^P ; ' i ■ ■■ ^thew uaO a M -.as
{t3^^A&?. j^swl dK^e. v1nch>]^ 1 '
that
the
ta'A of hevn
cpperpactof the
tke eatsaace anch fa be■Bri^=^r carved. Am
that t^ taucr w» b~:z by cmxx of Aba Yaksb V
rest of the M o aq ae obS- the crrrcr «a2s iiwifa li '
In^ br aoa^ncieand'vw drrkSed br w^r^rw
■saa dKwn vdet. F.wuTari^K Bwle br dhe Fi«
I«ht SD^ of c)»re caharen^ v^ck ase sow aa I
ijeaigea. and AJ0Kr&.
HuStry, — A K^Mwan town, Fomaria,
Of x^
TOAD— TOBACCO
»o3S
.InMiUmee oC the Apple, pear tad other fmft trees inthe neSfh-
botsrbood. The Roman towa was ruined in the period foUpwing
the Vandal invasion, and at the time of the Arab conquest
appears to have been deserted. Many imafptions oC the
Christian era have been found, some as Ute even as the 7th
century. The site was purchased from the Zenata Berbers, in
the 8th century, by Idris-bin-Abdailah, who began the building
of a new dty named Agadir (Berber, the fortress). Uris,
founder of the Idriaite dynasty of Fes, left his brother Sokimaa
in possession of Agadir, and' the dty was ruled by the
Beni-Suleiman until 951, when it fell into the hands of the
Fatimitcs. From the Fatimites it passed into the possession
of the Beni-Yala, of the Beni-Ifren branch of the ZenaU
Berbers, who held it as vassals of theOraayyad rulers of Spain.
In 1080 the Almoravide sovereign Yusef ibn Tashfin, after
besieging and saddng Agadir, built « new town on the site of
his camp* The new town, called Tagrart, became the com>
merdal quarter, whilst Agadir remained the royal residence.
The two towns when united recdved the name of Tlem^en.
The Almoravides rdgned sixty-five years, when, after holding
Agadir four years against the enemy, they were overcome by
the Almohades, who massacred the inhabitants, rebuilt, 'en-
Urged and repeopUd the ruined town, and built a wall (xz6i)
surrounding the double town. In 1348 Tlemcen was captured
rtm by Abu Yahia Yarmorasen (Gbamarasan) who was
Si««M«»«r chief of the Zenata tribe of Berbers and claimed
**■*" descent from the Caliph All. Yarmorasen, who died
in 1282, founded the dynasty of the Abd-el- Wahid, who ruled
the greater part of what now constitutes Algeria. Under their
sway Tlemgen flourished nwrrdingly. The presence of Jews
and Christians was eaoouragcd and the Christians possessed a
churdk. The bazaar of the Franks ikissaria) was a large
walled cndosure, the gates of which were dosed at sunset.
As many as 5000 Christians lived peaceably in Tlemcen, and
the Sultan included in his army a Christian bodyguard. In 1337
the power of the Abd-d-WaUd was temporarily extinguished
by the Marinide sultans of Morocco. They left some fine monu-
mukts of the period of thdr ascendancy, whieh lasted twenty*
two years. Once more, under the Abd>«l-Wahid, now known
as the Beni-Zdyan, from 1359 to 1553, Tlemgen enjoyed pros-
perity. It had a population reputed to number x35«ooo, an
extensive trade, a brilliant court and a powerful army. The
Spanish occupation of Oran (1509) struck a fatal blow at the
European commerce of the town. The Beni-Zeiyan, after the
capture of Algiers in 1516 by the corsair Barbarossa {q.v.)
gradually lost their territory to the Turks, while Tlemcen
itself for forty years became tributary to the Spanish governor
of Oran. In 1518 the townwaa hdd for a short time by Arouj
Bacbarossa,bttt Arouj was killed in a fight with the Spaniards.
It is said that, while master of the town, Arouj caused twenty-
two of the Zayan princes to be drowned In the tckrif. In r5S3
the Turks under Salah Rais, pasha of Algiers, captured Tlemcen
and the Sultanate of Tagxart, as it was stiU frequently called,
came to an end. Under the Turka the town ceased to be
of any importance. When the FVench entered Algeria the
sultans of Morocco were disputing the possession of Tlemcen
with the Ruluglis, who fought first for thcmsdves and after-
wards for France. In 1835 Abd-d-Kader, on whose appear-
ance the Moon retired, sought to re-establish the andent
empire of Tlemcen, but he retreated before General Clause!
In 1836. The treaty of the Tafna (1837) gave Tlemcen
to Abd«d-Kafder, but, war being renewed in 1842, Tlemcen
was definitdy occupied by the French, under whom it bat
prospered.
The commune of Tlemcen, which Indudes a number of
villages near the dty, had a population (1906) of 39,757« twl
the arroadiasemcDt, which indadca nine communes, tAPA^I-
See let Uonuments arales ig TTrmfCfi, by l^ntliam Marcais and
Georges Marous (Paris. 1903). This accurate and finely-iHustrated
wnric. one of the publications of the Service des monumentj historiquex
lU t'Alihie, dtes the prindpd works dealiog with Tlemoen, and
gi\ n a critkal estunate of thdr value. (P. R. C.)
TMtfIt a- name commonly appGed, in eontiadlstiacdon to
" frog," to taSlesa batrachians of stout buihf, with more or less
warty skin. Thus, of the two dosely rdated dlscoglossid genera
Boniuutor and Disco^assus, the former is called a toad and
the latter a frog. But the true toads are the Bufbnidae, ard-
ferotts batradiians with dilated processes to the sacral vertebra
and without any teeth in the jaws. The type of the family is
our common toad, Buf0 ttUgaris, and rotmd it duster a large
numbor of Bpedes of the same gteus, and the smaller genera
Bu p e mp k ix , PseudopkrynB^ NecUtpkryne, Nectes, Noladen, Myo-
batrackuSfXhinopkrynmuLd Copk9pkryne, That the shape of
the body is not a safe goide bi jud|^ of the batrachians b
sho;im by certain spedes, such as Bufo jerboa, which in its slender
form and extremely long limbs surpasses the typical frogs,
whflst on the other hand, some true frogs {Rana), adapted to
burrowing habits, are absolutely toad-like. The Bufonidae
indode terrestrial, burrowing, thoroughly aquatic and arboreal
types; Hkinopkrynut, of Mexico, may be described as an ant-
eater.
The genus Btf/o embraces about 100 species, and b repre-
sented in nearly every part of the world except the Australian
region and Madagascar. Two spedes are found in the British
Ides: the common toad, Bufo vulgaris, and the natterjack,
Birfo ealamita. The former Is foimd almost everywhere; the
seomd, which differs In its shorter limbs with nearly free toes
(which are so short that the toad never hops but proceeds in
a running gait) and in usually possesdng a pale yellow line
along the middle of the back, is local in England, the south-west
of Scotland, and the west of Iidand; it is further remarkable
for the very loud croak of the males, produced by a large
vocal bladder on the throat which, when inflated, is larger than
the head. Toads lay their eggs hi long strings, forming double
files in straight, jelly-like tubes.
A small toad, Pseudopkryne ^Mpara, recently discovered
in German East Africa, has proved to be viviparous, this
bdng Uieon ly audi insunce known among tailless bactrachians.
TOAD8T0OL, the popuhur name for fungi which more or less
resemble mushrooms, but are dthcr poisonous or worthless as
food.
TOAST, a slice of bread scorched brown on the two surfaces
by the heat of a fire. The word was borrowed from the O. Fr.
toste, Lat. Ufrrere, Icsium, to scorch, bum. It was formerly the
ciBtom to have pieces of toast floating in many kinds of liquor,
especially when drunk hot. It Is said to be from this custom
that the word is used of the calling upon a company to drink
the health of some person, institution or cause (see Health).
TOBACCO, the name (see bdow) for the leaves of several
spedes of l^icetiana (nat. ord. Solaaaoeae), variously prepared
for use as a narcotic While it is prindpdly manufactured for
smoking, a large amount is also prepared for chewing, and, to
a more limited extent, it is taken in the form of snuff. Under
one or other of these forms the use of tobacco is more widely
spread than is that of any other narcotic or stimulant.
History, — Although the fact has been controverted, there
cannot be a doubt that the knowledge of tobacco and ita uses
came to the rest of the world from America. In November
1492 a party sent out by Columbus from the vessels of his first
expedition to explore the island of Cuba brought back informa-
tion that they had seen people who carried a lighted firebrand
to kindle fire, and perfumed themselves with certain herbs which
they carried along with them. The habit of snufT-taking was
observed and described by Ramon Fane, a Franciscan who
accompanied Columbus on his second voyage (1494-1496), and
the practice of tobacoo^ewing was first seen by the Spaniards
on the coast of South America in 1502. As the continent of
Ameiica was opened up and explored, it became evident that
the consumption of tobacco, espedally by smoking, was a
universal and immemorial usage, in many cases bound up with
the most significant and solcnm tribal ceremoniea.
The term tobacco appcara not to have been a commonly used
original name for the phnt, and it has come to us from a peculiar
instrument used for Inhaling its smoke by the inhabitants of
1036
T05ACC0
Hispaniola (San Domingo). The instrument, described by
Oviedo {Hisioria ie las Judias Oui4etUaleSt Salajnaoea, 15^5),
consisted of a small hollow wooden tube, shaped like a Yi the
two points of which being inserted in the nose of the smoker,
the other end was held into the smoke of burning tobacco, and
thus the fumes were inhaled. This apparatus the natives
called " tabaco "; but it must be said that the smoking pipe
of the continental tribes was entirely different from the imper-
fect Ubaco of the Caribces. Benzoni, on the other hand, whose
Tracds in America (1542-1556) were published in 1565, says that
the Mexican name of the herb was " tabacco."
The tobacco plant itself was first brought to Europe in
1 558 by Francisco Femandes, a physician who had been sent by
Philip XL of Spain to investigate the products of Mexico. By
the French ambassador to Portugal, Jean Nicot, seeds were sent
from the Peninsula to the queen, Catherine de' Media. The
services rendered by Nicot in spreading a knowledge of the plant
have been commemorated in the scientific name of the geniis
Nicotiana. At first the plant was supposed to possess almost,
miraculous healing powers, and was designated " herba panacea,"
" herba sanU," " sana sancta Indorum "; " divine tobacco "
it is called by Spenser, and *' our holy herb nicotian " by William
Lilly. While the plant came to Europe through Spain, the habit
of smoking was. initiated and spread through English example.
Ralph Lane, the first governor of Virginia, and Sir Francis
Drake brought with them in X586, from that first American
possession of the English crown, the implements and materials
of tobacco smoking, which they handed over to Sir Walter
Raleigh. Lane is credited with having been the first English
smoker, and through the influence and example of the illustrious
Raleigh, who " tooke a pipe of tobacco a little before he went
to the scafiTdde," the hahil became rooted among Elizabethan
courtiers. During the 17th century the indulgence in tobacco
spread with marvellous rapidity throughout all nations, and
that in the face of the most resolute opx>osition of statesmen
and priests, the " coimterblaste " of a great monarch, penal
enactments of the most severe description, the knout, ex-
communication and capital punishment.
Bolany. — ^There are about fifty species of Nicotiana, nearly all
of which are natives of America. Few. however, are of economic
importance. The great bulk of the tobacco supply is derived from
I tAe ttpper are •Mni<«mplaiGaiil and of vagfabfe
are brown in colour, with a rough surface, of
in length, whil
outline. The seeds are 1
minute Sixe, and ezoeedingly numerous; as many as i.ooo/joo may
be produced by a single plant. The whole of the green parts oif
the plant are covcxed with long soft hairs which cxade a viscid
iuicej giving the surface a moist glutinous feeling* The hairs are
muIticelluU^i and of two kinds, one branching and ending in a fixie
point, while the other, unbranchcd. terminates in a dump of small
cells. Stomata occur on both surfaces of the leaves, and, with the
peculiar hair structure render the miccDsoopic appearaaoe of the
plant hi^y charscteristic.
\
Fic. x.^FloT»*cring Top of N. Tahacum,
N. tcbaeum, the Virginian tobacco, a native of some part of Centra!
or South America and now cultivated in almost all temperate and
warmer countries. It is a coarse rank-growing annual, with a Mrople.
unbranched. cylindrical stem which attains a height of 6 ft. and
upwards, terminatinr in a panicle of pink or ro«e-colouired flowers
and no elongated oorolla tube (fig. i). The plant has alternate.
4piRk« oblong-lanceolate leaves, those at the lower part of the
3BanS^^ 3iri»ily stalked, and of large sue. reaching to 2 ft-
Fic. 3.— Microscopic Structure of Tobacco Leaf.
From this species the tobaccos of Cuba, thr United Sutes, the
Philippine Islands and^the Latakia of Turkey are derived, and it U
also tai^ely cultivated m India; the variety macrpphylla is the source
of the Maryland tobaccos. N. ^sica, Fvrstan toracco. the source
of the famous Shiraa tobacco, u regarded as only a variety of N.
tabacum, and an introduction from America. East Indian, or
Green, tobacco is the product of another species, N. rtutica, a smaller
plant with a much-branched stem and CTecnish-yellow flo-»en
with a short, broad tube. It is a native of Mexico, and now widel}'
cultivated in southern Germany, Hungary and the East Indies;.
Culixtaium, — ^Tobacco b cultivated in localities scattered over
almost the whole world, raneing as far north as Quebec. Stockholm
and the southern sho^ of Lake Baikal in one hemisphere, and as
far south as Chile, the Cape of Good Hope and Victoria in the other.
Whilst, however, the plant adapts itself to a ^reat variety of cKmatic
conditions and will grow on almost all kinds of soil, the flavour
and quality of the produce are profoundly affected by variations
in these two factors. Very slight differences in climate appear to
cause very great differences in the quality of the tobacco, and ordinary
meteorological records are of little use in determining the suitabiUty
or not of a region for a particular kind of leaf; this rs^rtit lal poiat
must be determined by experiment. In general, tropkal and semi-
tropical conditions as to temperature, with a compararivcly dry
climate, give the best results.
of moisture produce heavy-croppng tobaccos whidi cure to a dark
brown or red colour. Sandy soils produce tobaccos with a thin leaf,
curing to a ydlow or bright red colour. In the tame locality, te.
under the same climatic conditions, quite diffeient kinds of tobacro
may be produced in direct relation to the character of the s^ii.
Thus the bright yellow tobacco used for cigarettes, &c., is larsclv
produced in Virginia and N. Carolina on a loose porous sand, wnirb
must be at least a foot deep, and contains usually about 8% of
day; thb sand is underlaid by a day subsoiL and. as Mr Milton
Whitney poinU out in T<^cco Soils (U.S.A. Dept. of Agriculture.
Farmers' Bulletin, No. 83). this day is the same as that on whidi the
heavy manufacturing and export tobacco is grown. Wliere the
cby IS eaposed on the surface tiie heavy type of tobacco is pnodocrd.
and bright tobacco wheKs the day b covered by from la to 20 m.
of sand. Tobacco aoik should be well drained and ooatain a brge
percentage of humus.
ToA»acco bdi% cultivated over such a laige area of the worid.
under very varying ctimatlc conditions, and by many different
nsces of mankind, the methods employed in its produotson natoraUy
differ very, considerably. As the united States of America pcoduoe
more tobacco than any other country it will be best to deal general Fv
with conditions there and to refer to marked differences in dealing
with productkm in other countries.
The seed is sofwn in nursery beds, and the plantrset oat ta the
field later. Tobacco seeds are very small, and it is estimated that
about ^,000 to 40Q.000 seeds go to the ounce. Allowing for tbtx^
which laul to germinate (perhaps 2S%), loss in transplantiii
,, . transplantittg. weak
and backward plants, &c., one ounce of seed should yidd about
aOjOpo plants.
The greatest posnble care k bestowed on the prepaiatioo of die
TOBACCXI
1037
wi4 bed— H mart bav« flttod, wfy licit taS i* ftM «atlK be pralKlMl
from vinds, and yet well expcMd to ranlight: tbe KMithera or
■outh<«asteni ^apt of an open place in a (oreat is often •cicc|ed«
Hot beds are made when neoessaiy. A bed with an area of about
SO sq. ydf. is adequate for i bs. of aced. To dcatioy the seeda* &c,
of weeds, and the larvae of insect pests, a fire la of un lifted* kept
from the stound itself by intervcntng wood logs, or the eeea-t)ed is
thoroughly steamod. Alter this ueatment the upper a ^>r s ip of
soil are well pulverized, ai)d fertiiizera added* usuallyr to ptcvent
rcintroduction of seeds of weeds, in the form of guano or cbearical
manures. The seed is now set : usually it is thoroughly mixed with
a relatively large quantity of noe ashes, snnd or meal, to fadlittte
thin and even sowing, and the surface of the bed la afterwards
I 11.600 planu nnd ^ ft. 6 io» by 15 in., 10,000
>e transplanting, preferably done on cloudy days
ins, th^ plants must be handled very carefully;
tvailable which can set out aad water pbats over
is necessary in attending to the waieciog of the young and delicate
scedlinfs, which are ready for tfansplanting in from fiftv to sixty
days after sowing. They must be well hardened 08 before being
set out in the open.
The land for thetr meption mtlst be thoroughly well tilled and
manured. If moist, ridges are formed about 3 to 4 ft. apart ; the dis*
tance apart in the rows varies greatly with various types of tobacco:
3 ft. is the normal fqr ordinary manuiactuijag and amoking tobaccos,
I to i( ft. for Cnb^ and Sumatra types. Cigar tobaccos become
coarse if pUnted too widely. An acfe of tobacco planted 3. ft by
i« in. will contain 11,600 ••*'••
punts. During the
or during light lains,^ _ .
nuchioes are now available
from two to six acres in a wtxidng day.
After transplantiog the crop tzka about another mxty daya
to mature, i^ aJbonK lao days in all from the date the seed was sown.
During this period, until the plants begin to ripen.. the tilth a
maintained and weeds checked first by horse cultivators or horse-
hoes, and, as the plants incroase in sue, by hand labour. When
tbe plants show signs of Cowerinc the/ are " topped " to prevent
cced formation, the terminal buds beinf ecmoved, and 01^ a certain
number of leaves Idt on each plant to npen. Thisoperataoartqoirea
experienced judgment to decide when it should be done; the number
of leaves to be left varies with the variety and vigobr of the plant,
the aaiure of the soil, climate, aeaeons ami particular use for which
the crop is intended. The product from plaiKs which have not been
topped IS of little value. In tbe VSJl., in the dJBartobaooo district,
fifteen to twenty leaves aae often left on each piaot, aad of manu-
facturing tobaccoe cmly ten to twelve leaves. As one irsuh of the
topping, suckers are usually formed; these also must be removed,
although, «.(. in Florida, vigorous auckera are aometiaws allowed
to remain when the plant la cut. and produce a " sucker crop "
inferior in character to tbe fimt or principal crop, but stilt serviceable.
Tbe leaves now ripen, indicated by a change from a dark to lighter
green, and by the appearance of ydlow spots. Ripening a com-
plete in about 35 days after topping or about 15s days after sowing.
A ripe leaf easily cracks or shows a crease whenfolded b etw e en the
finoera. Tbe leaves on a plant decrease in age frooi beknr upwards,
and all are not ripe at exactly tbe same time. In high quality
tobaccos the leaves are '* primed " or picked singly as they ripen,
but to the great bulk of Americaa tebaocos the whole plant la cut
close to the ground when thn middle leavea ate About ripe. In
either case leaves ahouM not be gathcued when wet with dew or
rain, or in very hot sunshine; the afternoon is usually the best rime.
The next step la to remove the harvested crop to the dnring-shed ;
primed leaves am placed at onoe in shallow baskets or boaaes, and
when under oover are strung on string or on wim aad hung up on
laths in the bam. Cut plants are allowed to wilt, or become Bacdd,
before reawval from the field, to prevent iniory to the turgid leaves.
These cut planta may be laid in rows on the ground to wilt, or
spitted on long rods or toths su;>ported on trestles; or plaoed on
gfufwiag somevaluabledgartobacDoaui
produced the best cigar '
O'f^''^ eSona to culrivate Sumatra
_, ,__ When sufficiently wilted they are hauled
to the bam and hung up there on the same laths on wlttch they were
pbced in the field.
A very interesting development of ouita recent years is that of
* laMedgartobacDoaunder artificial saade. Sumatra
of the world, and
_ ^ DO in Florida under
apparently suitable coaditiona of climate aad aoil were
not successful It was noticed, however, that if the
laooo was nown under the riMde of trees the character of the leaf
_iimprovea. Artificial shading, fiit by latha,nnd later by cheese
doth, both iopponed on posts, waa then resorted to with eminently
satiiUctory results. The U.SlA. De p a rtm ent of Aaricuknre, hi
uxperatlon with kical growera, devoted a great deafuf attention
• thn crop much more than repays the
very eonsadenMe expense involved In artificially shading whole
fielda. So suoocssf ttl have the results been that American'fRvwn
tobacooof theSumatn type is now exported even to Cuba.
Impoctant rhany take place in the tobaoea kef fma the tine
XXVI 17*
It is cut until the finished produet is ready f
may be all placed under curing, but '
three stages: (1) curing proper;
luas m tbe ham, and, afterit has
', slow fires, producing a gradual
ttt 150* F., are lighted on t& floor
^^^ «ree stages
mentation; and (3) ageii
Sun curing, now but Uule practised in the United States, is the
simplest method. The wilted tobnooo is suspended on racks in
the sun. Great cars is ncoesaary to protect it f romrain. and it mUst
if neoegsary be plaoBd in a bam in which firea may beceqnircd durimf
wet weather. This method is employed in a portion of Virginm
and resulta in a very eweet chewing tobacco.
' Air curing is essentially dmilar to sun curing. The tobacco is
bung in a barn in which there is a free circulation of air during dry
wc^bcr. Artificial heat may be reaorted to in bad weathart in
the Sutea, dftf tobaocoa and ** White Butley ** are usually cured
in this way. I'he process takes about six weeks.
la fire cufin| tne tohnoco b buns in the bam, and, after-It has
become of a rich yellow colour, a '
increase in temperature up to about 1^ . ^
and maintained for four or five days. The firii^ must be repealed
at intervals asthe leavea become soft aeain. A oonsiderahle portion
of the tobacco exported to England and Africa is fire<ured.
la flue curing, also known aa the Virgintancure. firm are set autsMe
thebetn, and the heat led in iron putea or floes, into the buiMinf
arc under the suspended tobacco, which is placed there quite fresh
from the fiekl. The temperature is raised, during three to five days,
froih about 90* F. to lao* F. for ptimed leavea; or 160* to 175* F.
for tobacco on the ttallc The proceaa, which requires Meat judg*
ment and care, Msulu in the bngfat ycllonr knf ao IntgJy used for
pipe tobacco, dgarettea ^od chewing tobaccow In a modiflcatSosi
of thia mtthod, known as the Keatucto cure, large bama are used,
the temperature is not raised above too* F., and the proceas oocupiee
from four to six weeks. By whichever way treated, the tobacco-
leaf after carina ia brittle and eaapot be handled without cnimbling
to powder. The contenta of the bam are therefore left till oiofst
weather occinik and thea by the admlssicm pf atmospheric air f h«
leaf blades absorb moisture and become soft aad pliant, la this
oondidon the leavea are stripped from the stems aad sorted into
qualities, such as '* 1u^ " or lower leaves. ** firsts " aad ** seconds. "
These are made up into " hands, '* or small bundles of from star
to twelve leavea. Each bunfle ia tied round with a separate
leaf, and in this condirioo the tobacco is ready for bulking for
fermentation.
The tobacco, whether in bundlea, bands or separate leavce, is
p3ed up or bulked on the floor ia a bam into a solid stack to the
height of 5 or 6 ft. Within this suck a process of gu„^aiM-
fermentation is quickly set up^ and the temperature y^^ ^^
of the mass rises steadily tUi it reaches about 130* P. ^^
Great care is now taken to prevent overheating aoA to secure the
uniform fermentation of all the tobacco. The pile is from time to
time taken down and rebuilt, the tobacco from tbe top Ming to the
bottom and that expoaed at the edges being turned in to the
centre. In from three to five weeks the fermentation should be
sufficiently carried out, aad the leaves then have a nice uaiforo
bioam ookMir. Dark-colourod leavea are produced when the
te m pe ratu re ia allowed to mount higher than when light leave*
are required. Fetmentatkin ia essentially a chemical laucess
due apparently to the p r esence of enzymes, devdoped in the-
leaf durin the eorKer curing stages. The view has been put
forward tfiat fermentation ia doe to the activity of bacteria,
distinct typea occurring in various tobaccos, but the balanee of
—^ against it. On the bacterial theory it was thought
to inoculate a poor tobacco with, say, the special
present in Cuban tobacco, and ao give the product
the aroana and other good qualities <^of the more valuable tobacco.
When fermentation is completed the tobacco is graded, an tqieration
carried out very carefully in the case of the better cigar tobaccosi.
and pacfccd for export^ cigar tobaccos in bales, and other kinds in
hogsheads. It ia then kept at a moderate and fairly uniform
temperature in a warehouse, when, although there is no marked
outwani change, the tobacco becomes more mellow. Two years
are usually required for ageing, but some tobaccos are kept for four
or five years before being manufactured.
An artificial aroma is sometimes given to tobaccos, especially
for the " fillcn *' of dgara, by saucing or treating the leaves with a
solution containing an infusion of fine quality tobacco stems, rum,
sour wine and various flavouring matenab such as oil of aniseed,
tinctuia of valerian, p u w d ers d clovea, cinnamon and liquorice.
Pats amd IMssaMr.«-Tobaooo, like ether cultivated plants, is
subject to<atcack byvarioua pesu aad diseases but fortunately
these are less dcatractbre than with many crops. On the other hand,
comparativeiy trivial inddenU do more narm to a relatively delicate
plant Nloe the tobacco thaa to more robust planta
The ** utomODO fle a b ee t le ** (Epitrix p«va/a, Fabr.) isa amallactive
beetle, the larvae of which attack the roots, while the adult beetles
eat holes in the leaves. The latter H, the more seriotTs. as in addition
to the actual damage done by the beetle the hdles afford entrance
to f uagoa spores, Ac. Under the name " horn worms " are included
the larvae or caterpiUare of species of Fntop^ree, These comp ai a-
tfwdy large and voracious aniaiats, when abundant, do great duinnge
byealingtheleavea. OthcrcnterpUlan. *'budwonos"(Wiiihir, spp\
DoariUe
I038
TOBACCO
•tuck tlw buda or bomw into the Med-podi. SMdling plants of
tobacco, like many other crop*, are liable to attack by " cut trorma,**
the caterpiUais of cpecics at Peridromia and Agrdis. " Plant \hi^**
which suck the juke of the leaves, havq been recorded as senous
enemies in some parts of the world. Recently, shadt^grown tobacco
in some localitica has suffered considerably from the attaclcs of small
sucking insects known as thrips^ whkh' produce ** white veins " in
the leau. While vein may also be induced by other causts besides
the attacks of thrios.
Scored tobacco is liable to be attacked and ruined by the ** ci^«
rette beetle," a coamopolitan insect of very varied tastes, feeding
not only on dried tobacco of all kinds, includii^ snuff, but also on
rhubarb, cayenne pepper, tumeric, giqger, 6g^ and herbarium
specimens^ Otha- beetles, such as the rice weevil (Caiat$dra0rym),
also attack dried tobacco.
The funcoid diseases of tobacco are comparatively unimporttnt;
there are, however, some diseases of obscure ori^^in which at times
cause conaiderabie damage. *' Mosaic disease " u the naihe given'
to a condition in which the leaves are more or less sharply differenti-
ated into light and dark green patches. The •matter has beeii fully
investigated by Mr A. F. Woods (Bulletin No. i8, Bureau of Plant
Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture), who attributes it not to
anjr specific parasite but u> a disturbance of the normal |>hysiologkal
activity of toe cells.
" Frog's eye," or " leaf spot," denotes the occurrence of small
white s|»cks on the leaf. This disease is probably bacterial in origin.
Wind and hail may break plants or damage, leaves, especially if.
required for wrapper purposes. The provision of wkid breaka.u the
onW effective remedy.
Diseases which occur in curing are important. Exceaslve
Various names
The
huroklity causes small dark spots to appear; these become conlfaient
and the whole leaf niay become dark and decav. Various
a(« given, such as " pde burn," " pde sweat," " noinc bum.'
disease is checked by raisine the temperature above no* F., and
reducing the humidity of the barn. Stem rot, due to a mould
{B^ylts sp.), occurs in wet weather. Too rapid drying of the outer
! of the leaf leads to the formation of ** white veins," whkh
injure leaves required for wrapper purposes, btherwise it is not
important. Another defect arising during curing and fermentatioh
is the efiloreacencc of salts oa the suriaoc, a phenomenon
" saltpetre " ; light brushing and spraying with a weak solution of
acetk acid are effective remedies.
Impntimeui hy Sdectum.-'^Cardul examination of a large number
of individuals of one variety growing under similar conditions reveals
differences in such characters as number of leaves per plant, the sise
and shape of the kavcs, tendency to form suckers, time of maturing
and resistance to disease^ Other testa show variability in burning
quality, elastkity of leaf, texture, taste, &c. The United Sutes
Department of Agriculture has closely investigated this important
question and the results attained are brought together by Messrs
H. D. Shamel and W. W. Cobey in Tobacco Breeding (Bulfetin
96, Bureau of Plant Industry, 1907). No crop, it. is pointed out,
responds so readily to breeding as tobacco, or deteriorates more
rapidly, aa regards both yield and quality, if negleeted. The
variatloM are classified as: (i) Variation in type due to crossing,
change of soil wad climate, especially, for example, when seed from
the tropics is introduced to temperate regions, (a) Variations
within the type, due to natural tendency to vary, local conditions
and maturity of seed. When Cuban tobaocoa were first introduced
into Fk)rida, the tvpe broke up. but by carefully selecting the beat
plants and uain^ them only as sources of seed for later craps, a i;ood
type was obtained. The tobacro flower is fortunately perfectly
seu-ferttle, and by enclosing the flowers of selected plants in ptqpcr
bags, so as to exclude all posBibility of hybridisation, progeny true
to the type of the mother plant can oe obtained.
No attempt should ever be made to raise large crops of tobacco
from imported seed, but onJv a small crop, and the seed of the
selected plants should be uaea for future propagation. In selection
work the grower must keep definitely in view the special market
requirements for the kinds of tobacco be is producing.
tobaccos, amongst other points a oroail, rounded leaf,
Thus for
Tapper tobaccos, amongst other points a broad, rbunded leaf,
hkh will yield perhaps eight Wrappers, is much more valuable
than a narrow pointed lea/ iriiich yidda perhaps only four. Plants
may be found growing side by skle, the one with broad leaves, the
other with narrow, but by sckctioo the. broad type can be perpetu-
ated and gradually improved.
Hybridization can also be readily controlled iirthecase of fobnnroa,
and u this connexion it is useful to note that, if ptdlea ir derired of
some variety srowii^ at a distance, it will retain its vitality for
several veeka If kept perfectly dry, and so can readily be sent by
post from one place to another. Another favomable Mature is the
fact that a single capsule contains from 4000 to teoo seeds, and one
tobaoQO plant may easily produce from 500,000 to t«000|Q00 aeed&
Produciitm.
Umkd 5talM.— Tobacco cultivation dates in the States from
the vcnr sariy years of the 17th century, when it was taken up
in Viqpaia. A ^oeml description has already been giveii. of the
' culbvatlon and prepoAtioo. In 1906 the total asea
"•five Mates was 796,099 acres, and the
production 68i,4s8,sy> ft, valtted at about £i3,«{oo.ooo. The
principal tobaoco-producing states, with the approximate value of
their crops, were: Kentucky, £3.885.400; Ohio, £1,706,600; North
Carolina, £1.396,153: Wisconsin, £1,143,600: Virginia, £1,306.309.
Pennsylvania, £979tSSO; Connecticut. £883. 184: Tennessee, £51 1,035:
Pk>rida, £330,750; New York, £244>053. ami Maryland, X>4i<046.
The average yield per acre in the Sutes as a whole ia 1906 was
857*2 lb. New Hampshire had the highest average, 1785 lb per acre,
and Mississippi the lowest. 440 lb.
The successful production of cigar tobaccos from Oiban and
Siimatran seed was a development of the late 19th century.
P^ue tobseco is worthy of special notice. This famous tobacro
is produced Only at Grand Points in Louiaana. Great care Im given
to the cultivation, and. damp atmospheric conditions are desirable
during the ripening stages. The leaves, when stripped from the
stalks, are made into rolls and subjected to great pressure, which b
released dail^ to allow the leaves. to absorb their expressed juk».
To the chemical changes, mainly oxidation, whkh go on in this juice
while it is exposed to the air, the chaiacteristk aroma and flavour
of Perique tobacco are mainly due.
CWkk-~Tobacco blhe second industry of the country, the vahie
of the crop being surpassed only by that of sugar. The cultivation
was formeriy a monopoly of the Spanish crown, but from 1817
payment of a tax, usuaUy heavy, has been the only restrktion.
i M superiori^ of Cuban tobaccos in flavour and aroma, especi-
ally for cigar hllers, has long been recognised, but exactly to what
conditions diese qualities are due is not fully known. The
leaf kitown aa *'Vuelta Abajo." produced in the province of
Pinar del Rio, is perhaps the best cigar leaf of the work!. The
other tobacco-produdng provinces in order of importance are
Havana, Santa Clara and Santiago de Cuba. The crop b mostly
grown m the open, air-cured and carefully (ermented. Cuban
tobacco is grown as • ** winter " crop, the summer months being
those of high rainfall. Cultivation under shade was recently tried
wkh satisfactory results; ** 166*65 acres cultivated under cheesecloth
produced in 1903 10 bales of w rap per s and 1*5 bales of fillers of
tobacco per acre, the output under the old system having been 4*5
balea of tobacco per acre of whkh only 10% represented wrappers
of good colour" (Oipbmatk and Consular Report on Cuba, 1904.
No. 35aa)*
J/cartco is an important tobacco-producing dountry, and Mexican
leaf is largely used in Europe for dgar wrappers and other purnoaea.
Mexkan tobacco approximatos more or lea closely to that of Cuba,
and is cultivated and prepared In very similar ways.
'A'ancr.—Tobaoco cultivation ia an important industry, and the
home production ia carried out under government supervision.
In 1905. 53*750 planters cultivated 39*439 acres, and the total crap
amounted to 61,614,900 lb, of the approximate value of £3.000,000.
The variety grown is usually of the Virginia type, and the leaf is
coarse^ dark and heavy, and suited to the manufacture of plug and
snuff.
GcnmiMv.— -The chief tobacco-produdng diviskma are Baden and
The leaf b of medium aiae, heavy, and is mainly used in the
manufacture of cigars.
fiamfory produces tobacco of a rkh, daric brown colour, useful for
cigars, and also a small, bright yellow leaf, of vailoe as a cigarette and
pipe tobacco.
Russia. — In northern Russia the produce is mainly a large, coarse,
heavy, dark leaf, of use only for the manufacture of plug and snuff.
In southern and Asiatk Russia good tobacco of the Turkish type is
produced.
Italy produces two principal ^ypos, a dark, heavy Virginian
tobacco- on the heavy soils of northern Italy, and a Turlush type
tobacco on the sandy soib of the sootfaem part of the country.
Syria,-^Tho dbtmctive Latakia tobacco b produced in the
province of Saida in northern Syria. The leaf b subjected to the
smoke produced by burnine in the green condition leafy branches of
species of evergreen oaks (Qtienus sfM».). The psocest of fumigation
bsts from seven to nilu^ months, and during it the tobacco acqudlres
its Mack cokmr and pecaliar flavour.
Greece. — Grecian tobacco b grown from Turkish seed and cloady
resembles Turldsh tobacco in character and usee. Egmlan
cigarettes are to a great c^ctent made from Grecbn tobaooo. ftper
b a monopoly in Greece^ and Grecian cigarette maoufacturets,
to escape the monopoly, have transferred their buainesa to ^^pt.
where they make agarettes from Grecian tobtocos by the ai«d of
Greek woriunen.
r«^Ar>L;— Tobaooo b an important crop m Turkey, where its
cultivation ami manufacture are monopoliea. The oidinarv
tobacco and cigarette trade b controlled by the Regb Compafnie
intiresste des tafaacs de Templre Ottoman, and Narquileh tobacco
(called " tumbeU " and used in " hubble-bubbles ") b in the I
of a simib' oiganiaation. The small Turkish leaf b famousthrottgh-
out theworkL " * ..^ i- . - ... .
in the regions 1
in Asm Minor.
up ia various parts of thrworid, e.g. South Africa, and to naintaaa
the ataadard of_the produee fresh, lopplies of seed were obtained
annually from Tiirkey. To guard against thb competltioo. the
exoort of tobacco seed from Turkey was prahitrited ia 1907. ~"
The
TOBACCO
1039
I <M cidlivAtMMi in TofflKy is wMpw* md the pIttitB mv sot
out dow together. For the beet quafitks toe lt«vM«fepH0ed,aJfb
aired, tod then tnl^jected to • lengthy tienunent conippnding
moo. iMO pocee ewfc opD uneo wr ino oetK lurnen
I in 1006 tromCafmlla and XantU ii,oootaaeivcn
That in 1^ irooi Cafmlla and XantU 11,000
exported of a valne of aboot jCi,ioi,ooo, the rnnge of the Toriooe
qoalitiee per kOo (af lb) being:—
Ghicnbek los. sd. to i6«. od.
Kir 4s. lod. ., 6e. od.
Punucdsn sb. iid. „ 3»- 9^
Dnuna ....... as. od. ., 2«. lod.
loferior brands .... os. 7d. „ as. od.
The exports cp mainly to Austria-HuajEary. Rumankt Italy, Egypt,
the United Kingdom and the United States.
Japam. — ^Tobacco cultivation is a government monopoly, and In
190& the crop amounted to about io64|7a,ooo lb, yielding a profit
to tne government of some ^500,000. The |»oduoe is usually leaf
of consideiable siae, of mnduim colour and sinted only for digarette
andpipe smoking.
CauNk^-The cultivation is widespread thsougboot Southern
which result in an increase of strength.
5aiiM/ra.— The tobaccos of Sumatra ai^ espedally valued for
ootsida w Tappers of cigars, beinjg vay uniform, of fine texture,
Gght brown cotoiir, thin and elastic. They do not, however, possess
the aroma essential to dgar*fiUcrs. The indastrv Is of quite recent
growth, dating only from 186a. The famous tobacco rc^Km. aboot
■5,000 sq. m. in area, is on the east coast of the island, almost oiiectly
on die eqoator, and has a very unifonn and high teflspaature
and a very high rainfall The soil b mainly of volcuuc orinn.
Deli is the principal district and produces the best tobaocos. The
estates are uauaOy very large, and are divided up into fields which
are cultivated in raution. each field being given sevenl years'
rest after producing one cropi The tofaaooo h «ir<caRd, fires
being only employed during continuous wet weather, and the
inuttss 01 corini^ occupies four or five weeks* The fermentation
la very carefully controlled, and to obtain the desired light coknir
the temperature is kept comparatively low. The leaves are graded
with the most scrupulous care and finally packed in bales of aboot
176 lb each. The high quality of Sumatra tobacco b due in part
to the local conditions o( soil and climate, and perhaps to an even
greater degree to the care taken at every stage in its cultivation
and preparatkm. The work is done by Chinese coolies under Euro-
pean— chiefly Dutch— supervirion. The oommerdal success of
aome of the companies haa been very striking, dividend^ as high aa
Java andBomeo tobacco is very similar to that of Sumatra.
Tk€ PMippines.—TiAjACco u extensively cultivated in thcpialna
and on the nch alluvial deposits akmg the skies of rivers. Ehiring
recent years the average value of theproduct has fallen, due ap-
parently to deterioration in quafity. Tne exports of manufactured
tobacco, such as Manila cheroots, find thetr principal market in
China, British India, Australana and the United Kingdom, whilst
of the leaf tobacco fully three-quarters goes to Spain.
Britisk. Bmpire.—Tooajcco Is |rown for local use In many parts of
India, but the principal centres of its cultivatkm on a commercial
scale are Bombay, Madras and the Punjab. American experts
are freouently empbyed to superintend the estates and factories.
In Ceylon twacco Is grown in the northern portion of the island;
the produce is bat little sidted to the European market and is
■minly exported to sottthani India and Cochin ChinB.
British North Borneo oompetea with Sumatm as the source of
the best cigar wrappers The cultivatkm was begun in the island
in 18A3 by planters seeking new lands free from the heavy taxation
to wmch they were subjected in Sumatra. The indostry is now
hi the hands of thrsa huf c ao ip a n iss, the siirvivoeaof sooia tw enty
or norv winch have started at varies* times. The greater portion
of the most suitable land appears to be already under cultivation
and there is little immediate prospect for much expansion of the
industiy. The annual value of tobacco exported is over jTjoo.ooo.
In Australia tobaeco Is produced 00 a small scale in Queensland,
New South Wales and Victoria. Efforts are being made to develop
the industry. New Zealand haa attempted to produce tobacco
as a commetrial crop, but the effort was abandoned several yeai^ ago.
In the West Indies tobacco is growi^'on a cmaH scale in many
of the British colonies, bat only in Jaaaka is then a definUe ift-
dnrtry. An eapctt, Mr F.V.ChaaBben.icosatlyveaofftcdon Jamaica
tobaoooas of good quality and flavour but often of aheavy nature.
The shade-grown tobacco was, however, hardly likdy for making
wrappers to be excelled by any tobacco in the woHd.
In the British African posse is i o n s the ootkwk for tdbaoeo odllva*
tloa in in several inaianoes favourable. Rbodesian*gn»wn Toridsh
tobaooo js already on the English market, aaalso various brands of
tobacco from the Transvaal. Natal and Cape Cobny have also
industries of considerable local importance. Tobacco cultivation
has made considerable progress in Nyasafand (British Central
Africa). la 1900 ttere ware 69 aacawider this cnp, the yiaUbeiag
44tolhoftbairalaftof|iiA, fa t^tgrtteaenagal
aam, the yirid to 413^116 few and the value to £fi8oy. »ia»«iuea
Might tobacco as principally peoduoed, but sun-cund is also
cipHtBd; and in 1906^-1907 operimaata with Tuildsh tobaooo gav*
encouraaing results.
Canada prodooea in Ontario and Quebec coarse Viigiaiaii type
Chemistry,
The coostitucou of tobacco, as of all other vegetable natter,
can be grouped under three heads: water, mineral ackia ami basM
(whkh pass into the ash on combustkin) and organic subatanocai
The following analyses of upper leaves made at the Cbooecticot
alate sution, and recorded in Rapoct Na 63, Office of Eueriment
Sutwns, U.S. Department of Agrkultuio, indicate tne mora
important constituento and also the changes which uke place
durinc fcrmentatkm.
Uniennentcd.
Fermented.
Water
Ash
Nwotine ....
Nitric acklCNjOi) . .
Ammonia (NH«) . . .
Other aitrogenoasmatters
Fibre . 7 . , . .
Starch
Nitrogen free estiact
Ethor extract. . . .
%
U-«9
re
067
xa'i9
7-90
320
%
2^40
1527
1-79
197
0.71
VA
a7-99
3-4a
Niootioe (i^.t.) (CnH|«N«} b a volatik alkah)id which appears to be
prasent only w plaatt of th« genus JVtcaftaao (see Nicotimb).
Jllonii/Behif».
In the manufacture of tobacco for smoking, we have to do with
the numerous forms of tobacco used for smoking in pipes, enbradng
cut smoking mixtures, cake or plug, and roll or spun tobacca Udder
thb heading come also the cigar and cjpuette manufacture.
The raw material in the warehouses is of various qujdities: sofl^
w strong, rough and harsh, and so b unfit for ordinary smoking;
other samples are mild and fine, whh aromatic and pleannt flavour
but devoid of strength. By a proper mixing sind blending the
manufacturer b enabled to prepare the smoking mixture wUch b
desirabb for hb purpose; but certain of the rough, bitter qualities
cannot be manufactured without a preliminary treatment by whkh
their intense disaareeabfe taste b mOdifird. The storing of such
tobacco for a lengtnencd period matures and deprives it of harshness^
and the same result may be artifidally hastened by macerating
the Icavy^ in water addubted with hydrochkvic aci<^ and washina
them out with pure water. The most efficient means, however, oi
improving strong, iU-tasting tobacco b by renewed ierventatio*
artificially induced bv moisture and heat.
The manufacturer Having prepared hb mixture of kavesLproceeda
to damp thean, pure water alone being used in the United Kingdom,
whereas on the Continent and in Amrrira certain »^^^
" saiio» " are employed, which cooast of mixturea of y^^ *
aromatic aubstantts, su^, liquorice, common salt and
saltpetre, &c. dissolved in water. The primary object b to render
the leaves soft and pUant; the use of the sauces b to improve the
.flavour and burning qualities of the leaves used. When uniformly
damped, the leaves are separately opened out and smoothed,, the
midnb, if not already removed, b torn out, except when " budV
eye ** cut b ro be made, in which mixture the midrib gives the
peculiar " btrd's^ye " appearance. The prepared tobacco, while
still moist and oUant, b pressed between cylinders into a Ught cake,
and cut into nne unifbrm ahicds by a machine AoaiofpuM to the
chaff-cutter. The cut tobacco b now roasted, partly with the view
of driving off mobture and bringing tile materbt mto a condition
for keeping, but also partly to improve its smoking quality. The
roasting b most simply effected by spreacfing it on heated nabs, on
which It b constantly turned, or a roasting machine b used, fajwimuiK
of a revolving drum in which tne tobacco b rotated, gradually
pasBog from one end to the other, and all the time under the ufluence
of a current of heated air. The increase m favour of packet tobaccos
has brous^t about the invention of daborate packina marhinfa.
For ran. twist or piatail tobacco the raw material b damped or
sauced as in the case of cut tobaooo. The interior of the roQ coosista
of small and broken leaf of various kinds, caUed ^^
"fillers'*; and thb b cnckised within an C9cternal fSn^
coverina of bree whole leaf of br^t quality, such
leaves being calbd "covers." The material u supplied to the
twisting machinery by an attendant, and formed into a coid of
unifbrm thickness, twisted and wound on a drum by mechanism
anak)^Eous to that used in rope^spinnmg. From the drum of the
twistingmachine the spun tobacco b rolled into cylinders of various
sixes. These are enclosed in canvas, and around the surface of
each stout hempen cord b tightly and closely coiled. In this form a
brgs number, after iieing cooked or stowed in OMut heat for aboot
1 040
TOBAGO
«w«nty-f<
•od sab]
hoQTi* w pdM DCtwiBBJi ptttw III Sit hydmutc pntBt
ibjected to great pressure for a roooth or six iweeks. ditriiig
which tune a. slow fermentation takes place, and a
exudation of juice resulu from the severe pressure. The juice is
collected for use as a sheep-dip.
Cake or plug tobacco is made by enveloping the desired amount
of fillers within covering leaves of a fine bright cc^ur. The packages
are placed, in moulds, and submitted to powerful pressure
in an hydraulic press, by which they are moulded into
solid cakes. Both cake and roll tobacco are equally
used for smoking and dtewing; for the latter ourpose the cake is
frequently sweetened with liquorice, and soki as honey-dew or sweet
cavendish*
For dgar-maUng the finest and most delicatdy flavoured qualities
of tobacco are generally selected. A cigar consists of a core or
1 mass of fillers envdoped in an inner and an outer
cover, the former the binder and the latter the wrapper.
The liners or inner contents of the cigar must be of uniform quality,
and so packed and distributed in a longitudinal direction that the
tobacco may bum uniformly and the smoke can be freely drawn
from end to end. For the binder whole leaf of the same quality
as the fillers is used, but for the wrapper only selected leaves of the
finest quality and colour, free from all injury, are employed. The
coven are carefully cut to the proper size and shape with a sharp
knife, and, after bemg damped and smoothed out are placed together
in a pile, f n makiag cigars by the hand, the operator rolls together
a sumdent quantity of material to form the filling of one dgkr, and
exfxrience enables him or her to select very uniform <iuantities.
This quantity is wfappod in the inner cover, an oblong i^ece of leaf
the length 01 the dgar to be made, and of width sufiident to eadose
the whole material. The cigar is then rolled in the hand to consoli-
date the tobacco and bring it into proper shape, after which it is
wrapped in the outer cover, a shaped piece made to endose the
whole in a spiral manner, beginning at the thick end of the dgar and
working down to the pointed end, where it is dexterouslv finished
by twisting to a fine point between the fin^iers. The finished dgars
are dther spread out in the sunlight to be dncd, or exposed to a gentle
heat. They are then sorted into qualities according to their colour,
packed in boxes, In which they are stored for telle. Machinery is
now emploved for forming and moulding the fillings of the cheaper
grades 01 dgars* »^ . .
Havana dgars are, as regards form, classfication, method 01
putting up and nomenclature, the models followed by manufacturers
of all classes of the goods. Genuine (*' legitimas ") Havana cigars
are such only as are made in the island; and the cigars made in
Europe and elsewhere from genuine Cuban tobacco are classed as
." Havanas." Other brands of home manufacture contain some
proportion of Cuban tobacco; and very good dgan may be made
in which the name only of that highly-prized leaf b employed.
When we come to the inferior classes of cigars, it can only be said
that they may be made from any kiild of leaf, the more amUtious
imitations being treated with various sauces designed to give them a
Havana flavour. The highest dass of Cuban-made dgars. called
"vegueras," are preparecT from the very finest Vuelta Abajo leaf,
rolled when it is just half dry, and consequently never damped with
water at alt. Next come the " regalias," sirailariy made of the best
Vuaka Abalo tobacco; and it is only the lower qualities, " ordinary
ragaJias^" wnich are commonly found in commerce, the finer, and the
" vq[uera%*''bdng exceedingly high-priced. The c^^ars, when dry,
are carefully sorted according to strength, which is estimated by
their colour, and classed in a scale of increasing strength as e/aro,
tdorado daro, maduro and osturo. They are pressed into the dgar
boxes for sale, and branded with the name or trade mark of their
makers. Cheroots differ from ordinary dgars only in shape, bdng
dther in the form of a truncated cone, or of uniform thickness
throughout, but always having both ends open and sharply cut
across. Cheroots come prindpally from Manila, but there are now
tarse qtantities imported into tte United Kingdom from the Eart
Indies and Burma.
Cigarettes consist of small rolls of fine cut tobacco wrao^ !n t
covering of thin tough paper specially made for Rich use. Ori^nally
rtimmittt cigarettes were entirely p iep m ed by the smoker htmseli ;
**■ ' but now they are very laigely made by automatic
machinery. The machines cut the paper, gum its edge, measure out
the proper quantity of tobacco, wnp it up, make the gummed edge
adhere, and cut the ends. In other machines a roll of narrow paper,
in width equal to the drcumference of the dgarette, is converted
into A long tube, filled imth tobacco, and automatically cut oflF into
proper lengths. Sach machines can make several hundred dgarettes
per hour. The best dgarettes. however, are made by hand; the
toboGOo leaves are selected and hand-cut, ftnd the paper tubes are
filled by hand.
The manufacture of snufT is the most eomplex, tedious and difficult
undertaking of the tobacco manufacture, but it is now of but little
« „ importance. The tobacco best suited for snuff^fluiking
^""^ is thick fleshy leaf of a dark colour, but scraps and waste
pieces resulting from the preparation of smoking mixtures and
dgar? —* *•- '-•-'H of leaves are largdy used. The material
is mr ^n of common salt and placed in very larve
Im e weeks. Various flavourioff materials,
SMch as Kaoavioe. tonka beiM^I>^^ifr9» sdbrofa^ acKl otbcr iogifedieate
are added, the natures of whick are often traife secrets.
The mass is dried, jmund, and allowed to ferment again, the pco-
oess being repeated u necessary. The peculiar propertiai of aoufi
are dqiende n t on llie preaenoe df free nicotine, free ammonia and the
aromatic principles devtfeped during fermentation.
. Fiscal ReslricUotu,
In nearly all dvilized countries the cultivatkm of tobacco and its
manufacture are conducted under state supervision and form an
important source of public revenue. In some, for instance, France.
Austria-Hungaiy and Italy, the cultivation is a state monopoly, and
in other countries the crop is subject to heavy exdse duties. Since
the time of Charles II. the growth of tobacco in Great Britain has
been practically prohibited, the original enactment to that effect
having been, passed to encourage trade with the young ookyny of
Viiginia. In 1886 experiments were conducted, under rertarc
restrictions, and the plant was grown tn Norfolk. Kent and other
counties with sufficient success to prove the entire practicabiBty of
raising tobacco as a commercial crop in England. In more recent
years tobacco has been grown in Ireland, but up to 1910 it bud
been found impracticable to obtain from the government sufllicient
relaxation from fiscal restrictions to encourage the hocaecuhivation.
though in 1907 the prospect of licences being issued was held out.
SbiHsHcs,
The foDowingtaUe. taken from the Year Book oSiho U^. Depart,
menl pf Agricwure, 2906, indicates the crops of tobacco in 1905
in the regions mentiooiKl, so far as figures are available.
1905.
North America 72i49a/ioo ft.
South America io6,575jooo „
Europe 63P,i33/>oo «•
Asia 690.161,0)0 „
Africa . 23.346/KK> „
Australu and Fiji ir4S6,ooo ,.
Total 3,i75>>93<ooo lb.
The estimated value of the world*s annual crop is approximately
£40.ooo,ooa
Consumption of robaeco.—Thtcompantivt coiisumption of tobacco
in various countries is best appreciated by expressing it in pounds
per head, and the following figures are taken from fiartholoniew's
Alias qf the WorU^s Comnuru: Belgium 6'2X lb, United States
S-40.Ib, Germany 3-44 lb, Austria 3*02 lb, Australasia 3-ao Ib»
Canada 2-54 lb, Hungary 2*42 lb, France 2*16 lb. United Kingdom
1-95 lb, Russia i-iolb.
The literature of tobacco is Very extensive. William Brane of
Birmingham published in 1880 a revised bibliography of the subject,
BibliOlHeca nteotiana, extending to 248 quarto ptfes. From scdi
a mass of authorities it would be vain here to make selections,
but mention may be made of Fairholt's capital gossiping woric.
Tobacco, its History and Associations (2nd ed., 1870). As modern
standard works there may also be quoted Tiedemann's Cesckickte da
Tabaks (1856) and Wagner's TahakcuUur» Tabak- und Ctgarrrw
Fabrication (1884). In the foregoing account various pasasiges from
the article by J. Paton and W> uittmar, in the 9th ed. of the
Ency^Bril., have been utUiwd.
(W. C. F.)
TOBAGO, on Island in the British West Indies, 20 m. K.E. d
Trinidad, in n* 15* N. and 60* 40' W. Pop. 18,751. It is
26 m. long and 7I m. broad, and has an area d 114 sq. m. or
73,3x3 acres, of whkh about xo,ooo are under culttvation. It
consists of a single tnountain mass (vokanic in origin), z8 n.
in kngth, and rising in the centre to a height of 1800 ft. A
great part of the island it clothed with dense forest, in whick
many valuable hardwood tieca are found. The higher lands
form part of what Is known as the " Rain Pmerve," where,
in order to attract and preserve the rainfoU, the trees are never
allowed to be felled. The average temperature is 8x" F. and the
yeariy rainfall it 66 in; The rainy season lasU from Juae
to December, with a short interval in September. ' The vaiUeys
are particularly adapted to horse- and sheep^farming, which
are growing industries. The soil is fertile and produces ruU>er,
cotton, sugar, coffee, cocoa, tobacco and nutmegs, all of which are
exported; ptmetOo (allspice) grows wild in the greatest profusioa.
The schools arc conducted by various denominations, assisted by
government gnmts. The island is divided into seven parishes.
Scarborough (pop. 769), the capital, is on the south coast, 8 m.
from its south-western point. It stands at the foot of a hiB
425 ft. high, on which is situated Fort King George, now without
a garrison. There is a lighthouse at Baedlet Point. Tobago^
properly Tobaco^ was di s covere d in 1498 bj Columbus, who
TOBII*~TOBIT, THE BOOK OF
1041
luioed ft Aasmnption, and tht Brif^ fkg was fiist phoited in
xsSa It afterwards passed into the baods of the Dutch and
then of the French, and was finally ceded 16 the British in 1814.
Until 1889 it fonned part of the colony of the Windward blaads,
bat in that year it was joined to Trinidad, its legal and fiscal
arrangements, however, being kept distinct. Ten years. later
it became one of the wards of Trinidad, under a warden and
magistrate; its revenue, expenditure and debt were merged
into those of the united colony, and Trinidadian law, with very
few exceptions, was made binding hi Tobago.
T0BI1I» JOHM (1770-1804), English dramatist, was bom at
Salisbury on the aSth of January ryye^ the son of a merchant.
He was educated at Bristol Grammar School, and practised
in London as a solicitor. From 1789 he devoted all his
spare time to writing fbr the stage. He submitted no fewer
than thirteen plays bdore, hi r8o3, he got an unimportant farce
staged. In 1804, having Just submitted hh fourteenth play,
a romantic blank verse drama entitled The Honey MooMf to the
Dniry Lane management, he came to the condusion that it was
useless to continue phywriting and left London to recruit his
health. The news that his play had been accepted came too
late. He had long had a tendency to consumption, and was
ordered to winter in the West Indies. He left Englsjid on the
7th of December r8a4, but died on the fint*day of the voyage.
In the foOowing year Tke Honey Moon was produced at Drury
Lane, and proved a great success. Several of Tobin's earlier
ptays were subsequently produced, of which Tke School for
Aulkors, a comedy, was probably the best.
See also The Memoirs of John Tobin, with a telectton from his
onpublishcd writii^i, by Mias Benger (London, 1820).
TOBIT. THB BOOK OF. one of the books of the Old Testa;
ment Apocrypha. It is a good specimen of the religious novd, a
form of literature invented by the Jews. The romance may be
read in & beautiful dress in the Revised Version of the English'
Apociypha« It wss never admitted into the Jewish canon,
but it was admitted into the Christian Canon at the Council of
Carthage (a.o. 397). In the Roman Church it stiB forms a part
of the Bible, but by the Church of England it is relegated to the
position of those other books which " the Church doth read for
example of life and instruction of mamwis, but yet doth it not
apply them to establish any doctrine " (art. vi). Some verses
(Tob. iv. 7-9), however, are read in the oflertoiy; and Tobias and
Sarah once occupied the position now hckl by Abimham and
Sanh in the marriage service.
Tht Book of Tobit has reached us In Greek, latin, Syiiac,
Armmak and Hebrew versions; of these the Hebrew are the
latest, and need not be considered. Of the Greek there are
three loems. Qae is in the Vatican and Alexandrian MSS.;
another is in the Sinaitic Both these texU are to be found in
Swcte's Septuagint, the farmer denoted by B, and the latter by
tu B is the common text, which is followed in the En^ish
Apocrypha. Neverthdess m h fuller, except hi ch. iy., and
norc intelligfltie; it is also more Semitic than B. The two
must have behind them a oommon original, for they throw light
upon one another, and the full meaning of a passage is sometimes
only to be got from a combination of both. The fullness of m
often runs into superfluities, which are retrenched iii B. The
third Greek text is -only a partial one (vL 9-xiii. 8). It may
be derived from a study of Codices 44, 106, 107 in Holmes and
Parsonsv which diverge from the Vatican test throughout the
part indicated. Of the Latin there are two chief forms, the old
translation, sometimes called the //s/a, and that of Jerome In
the Vulgate. The Ilala was published by Pierre Sabatier at
Paris in X75r, and is reproduoeid in the Book of Tobit by Neu-
bauer (Garendon Press, 1878). It agrees veiy fairly with «,
except in the matter of proper names. Jerome's version is
from the Aramaic, or, as it used to be called, the Cfaaldee. It
cost the saint one day's work. He describes in his preface the
method of iu production. He procured the services of a man
who was familiar with Chaldee and Hebrew. This man trans-
lated to him out of Chaldee into Hebrew, whOe Jerome dictated
to a shorthand writer bis own translatkm into Latin. The work
was done at the request of two Christian bishops, Chtomatius
and Hdlodorns. Jerome does not mentioii the Itata, but it b
phin that he was indebted to ft. The Syriac text b said to be
based on a Gre^ version. It was only in 1878 that the Aramaic
version was brought to Ifght, befaig published by Adolph Neu-
bauer from a unique MS. in the Bodleian Library. It agrees
with M and the Ilaia, but resembles the Vulgate In havmg
nothing hi the first person. Aocortling to Neubauer, it b the
Very text which was used by Jerome, after allowance has been
made for the aibftrary methods of the Rabbb and of Jerome
himself. But the Ammaic version has Greek birthmarks (sec
especially p. 7, line x8), which other scholars than its editor
have thou^t decisive against its originality. It was held by
Robertson Smith (after Nifldeke) to be '* in the highest degree
probable that the Greek text b original" But the Greek text
appears to be itself a translation firom some Semitic source.
Was thb source Hebrew or Aramaic? The forms 'A94pand
'hBcuptlar in tiv. 4, rs of a show that, at least, that chapter b
drawn from Aramaic, not from Hebrew. But that chapter does
not appear in all the verswns, ^d so may be later than the
rest
With rcgMd Uf the date of composition there b the widest
difference of opinioB. Ewah) refers it to the end of the Persian
period, about 350 B.C. (an opinion which Westcott declared to
be ** almost certainly correct "); Kohut thfaiks that the book was
composed in Persia under the Sassanid Dynasty, about A.D. i$o.
But Tobit b already quoted as ** scripture " by Clement of
Alexandria (Strom, IL 139, p. 503 Pott). The words of Tobit
(xn. 8, 9) seem almost to have been present to the writer of
U. Qement (xvi 4). The date of thb document b uncertam; but
in Irenaeus (L 28, § 5) in hb refuUtion of the Kabbalbtic
heresy of the Ophites, we find Tobiaa figuring as a prophet, on
the same levd as Haggai. Earlier stUI the Book of To<>it b
quoted, thou|^ not by name, in the Epbtle of Polycarp to the
Philippians (x. 2; Tob. iv. xow Cf. Prov. xit 2; Ecdus. xxi^c. is).
Now the martyidom of Polycarp b assigned by C. H. Turner
to the year aj>. rs6. We seem to have even a quotation by St
Paul from the Book of Tobit (i Tim. VL 19; Tob. iv. 9), in
which the identity amid difference seems lo show that the
Apostle b drawing, not from the Greek, but from the Semitic
originaL Josephus displays no knowledge of the work, but he
may have been animated by the same prejudice as the Pharisees
of St Jerome's day, whose. dbpleasure, thst father tdls us, he
had to face in giviitg to Latin readers a book which was sgaiast
their canon. (Preface to Tobit.) Internal evidence shows that
the writer of the 14th chapter lived after the building of the
Second Temple, which was " not aa the first." In st . s and 6
of that chapter Tobit b made to predict a glorious building of
Jerusalem and the Temple, which was to be foUowed by the
conversion of all the GentQes. Such a passage might well
have been penned when the idea of Herod's Tem^e was already
in the air. U so, thb chapter may be supposed to have been
written a little before r9 bx., while the bulk of the work may
have been indefinite^ earlier.
As to the place of oompositkw Persia, E!gypt and Palestine
have each had advocates. One thing only appears fairly certaii^
namdy, that the Creek versions were composed in Egypt Thb
conclusion could, we think, be established by an examination
of the language, especially of some technical terms of adminis*
tration. But the tale itself carries us back to Persia. It has
what Moulton called an "Iranian background." The evil
demon Asmodeus (q.t.) b the Persian ACshma Da€va. Raphael,
" one of the seven holy angels, which present the prayers of the
saints, and go in before the glory of the Ho^ One," resembles
the protecting spirit Sraosha. And the dog, the compankm of
Sraosha, b there too. For Tobit differs from all other books of
the Bible in containing the only polite reference to the dog.
Tobias's dog indeed does iMthing but accompany hb young
master on hb journey to Ecbatana and back. But he b there
as the companion and friend of man, which b Aryan and not
Semitic. So alien faideed b thb from the Semitic mind that In
the Aramaic and Hebrew versions the dog does not appear.
1042
TOBOGGANING— TOBOLSK
Evea in *, the more Semitic of the two Greek venions, the
dog has evidently been found an offence. Mention of him is
supprened in v. x;, while in zi. 4i ^ Kdptos is. made to go
behind Tobias, instead of 6 Kbuiri
The motive of the story has been variously regarded as a
desire to insist upon the duty of tithe-paying, upon thatof alms-
givii)g, and upon that of burying the dead. Thie Midiash given
by Neubauer has no doubts on this point, as the story is immedi-
ately followed by the remark—" Behold we learn how great is
the power of alms and tithes I " But the third motive is equally
apparent. Accordingly tome have insisted that the story must
have been composed at some period when Jewish dead were left
unburicd, either in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes (a Mace.
V. lo), or in that of Hadrian, after the revolt of Bar-Cochebas.
If our choice were limited to these two peiiods» we should
certainly prefer the former. For the book carries within itself
signs of early date. It contains no Messianic expectation nor
any ref^nce to a future life. The last fact is obscured by
the Vulgate. Even in the Itala the word aetema is added in
zii. Qjdter satwaburUur vila.
A new interest has been added recently to the study of Tobit
by the publication of the Wisdom of AJfi^ {.Ahiqar). In the
Book of Tobit A)^]^ is represent^ as the prime minister of
Sennacherib and hb son Esar-Haddbn, and is claimed by Tobit
as his nephew. There is a desire manifested to bring in AbiVar
wherever possible (L ai, aa; ii. lo; xL 18; ziv. «xo). The
intention evidently is to bestow authority upon the fiction by
connecting it with a story already known.
See K. D. Ilgen. Die CesckickU Tobias, nack drei verxhiedenen
Oneinalen " " ' "^ * ' " " ' ^ Apocryphen
(I-«pag, iJ '"CK' ;?57):
Scharcr. Gt tok ofToM
(OxTord. 18 i-l.^iUon.
CofUemhony r, by Cony-
bcarc. Har del Hams,
"ThcDoul rology{}\i\y
1899), pp. ; I of Tobit,'*
Expository iVestcott in
Smith'* Die ite;W.Erbt
in Ency. 1 ics Mttllcr,
Beitrige tu and in the
•ame voluf s nnd sein
VerhdUniss .. . St G. S.)
TOBOQOANING (Micmac Indian, tobaakan, sledge), the sport
of sliding -down snow-covered hills and artificial ice-shutes on
the toboggan, a sled from 3 ft. to 8 ft. long and a ft. to 3 ft. wide,
formed of strips of wood from i in. to | in. m width, fitted together
and curved up at the front. The toboggan is not so well fitted for
Qse on roads that are not steep or very smooth as is the sled pro-
vided with runners, but b generally used on open hills, or upon
artificial courses (chutes), which are very popular in Canada.
For " Tobogganing,'* as known in the Engadine winter resorts,
see Coasting.
TOBOLBK, a government of western Siberia, having the Arctic
Ocean on the N., the governments of Archangel, Vologda, Perm
and Orenburg on the W., the provinces of Akmolinsk and Semi-
palatinsk on the S., and the governments of Tomsk and Yeni-
seisk on the E. It is one of the 4argest provmces of the Russian
Empire, occupying 530,830 sq. m. The northern coast is
formed by the Valmal or Yanmal peninsula, separating the
Bay of Kara (on the west) from the double bajrs of the Ob
and Tax (on the east). The Pai-ho coast-ridge touches
Tobolsk only at its south-eastern extremity. The Urals
proper, which run south-west from the Kara. Sea as far as
the T6ll-pos (5445 ft.), and thence take a southeriy direction,
form the boundary between Tobolsk and Vdlogda as far as
62* N., but further south their eastern slopes are included
b the government of Penn, and only their towest spurs,
aoo m. from the main chain, bdong to Tobolsk.
The reniainder of the government is lowland, but varies ereatly
In its different parts. In the south it assumes the character otgrassy
tteppea or prairies, in the north of immense marshes sparsely over-
pown with forest, and of treeless tundras as the shores of the Arctic
A nproached. The south steppes, in their turn, may be
"0 distinct portions, the Tobol and Ishim steppe
In the west and the Barsba in the east. The Comer, neaify 4A^mo
sq. m. in area, is one of the roost fertile parts of the empire. C>nc-
third is under fOrest, and the remainder has a soil of very productive
black earth, which enjoys the further advantage of being safiidentfy
drained. Tihe cHnute is ve^ severe, the mean annual temperatoxc
(30* to 34* F.) being that of the north of Sweden and of Archaagri ; but
the warm summer (65^ to 68* in July) and the amount of lishc
received from a brig^ sky combine to make vegetation de\-^op
with a rapidity unknown to west Europe. The Baraba steppe
extends to about 55.000 sq. m. and is covered with recent deposits ;
but. as there is no defimte slope,' the surface waters accumulate
in a large number of lakes and marshes. The climate is nioistcr
and the summer shorter and less hot than in the Tobol and Ishim
steppe. Forests, consisting chiefly of birch, occur sporadicany
over its surface. The scnl of this region also is very productive,
but the fertile patches are s^iarated by marshy ground, and the
dense clouds of mosquitoes in summer are a plaffue to both man and
beast. To the north of the regions just indicated lie the administratK-e
districts of Tura, Tobolsk and Tara, with an area of about 1 10,000
sq. m.; this may be described as the iaiia region. It coaams
throughout of impenetrable forests and quaking quagmires — the
dreadful urmans, which are alto^her impenetrable 50 m. from
the scattered settlements. GtgantK cedar-trees, larches, firs, pines,
birches and maples grow very dose together, and the underwood
is so dense that a passage can be fbrteaonly with the hatchet, the
difficulties being further increased by the abundance of decayed
wood and by the marshy foothold. To cross these urmans, which are
treacherously concealed under a swaying carpet of grassy vegeta-
tion, a kind of snow-shoe has to be used even m summer, and many
can be crossed Ofdy in winter. Indeed vast areas have never been
visited bv man. The south-western ptfuts of this region are travensed
by the Siberian highway, and to this circumstance alone is it indebted
for its popularion of nearly half a million.
The government is drained by the Ob, which traverses it for more
than 1^00 m., and is navigable throughout. It receives many
tributanes, some of which are aoo to 350 m. long, but flow through
quite uninhabited regions. The Irtysh, a left-hand tributary-,
spreads a network of affluents all over the south of the government
and is navigable for the whole of its. length of 760 m.; it reoetx-es
the Tobol, about 420 m. kMig, also navioable. the Ishim, and a
number of less important streams; while the Turn, a tributary ci
the Tobol, is also navigable. Navigation lasU for neariy six noooths
in the south. The first steamer on the Ob system -was laonched is
1845 and the second in i860; since the latter date steam navigatioo
has steadily devek>ped,
The estimated population in 1906 was 1,656,700, and* is prac-
tically all Russian, except for tome 42^000 Tatars in the sooth,
x8,ooo Ostyaks, 4500 Samo/edes, and 4800 Vogub. There are.
moreover, abbut 5000 Germans and Finns, somejews m the towns,
and about 1500 gipsies. The government is divided into ten
districts, the chief towns of which are Tobolsk, Berexov, Ishim,
Kurgan, Sugut, Tara, Turinsk, Tyukalinsk, Tyumen and
Valutorovsk. The standard of education is very low. The
Ostyaks are in a very miserable condition, having come under
heavy obligatk>ns to the Russian merchants and being com-
pelled to hand over to them neady all the produce of then-
hunting and fishing. The Tatar settlements are prosperous in
the south, but not in the Tobolsk district, where tbeir lands
have been appropriated for the Russian tettlers. Many of the
Samoyedcs, Ostyaks and Voguls are nominally Christians. The
Russians and the Tatars live mostly by agriculture. Of the total
area of land regarded as suitable for cultivation (28,400,000
acres), 15,600^000 or 55% are owned by the peasant com-
munities.
Agriculture is generally the chief occupation, and Tobolsk is fast
becoming a granary from which com b exported to the northern
governments of European Russia. The total area under cereal
crops in 1900 was 3.334,606 acres, and the principal crops are
rye, wheat, oats, bariey and potatoes. Flax, hemp and tobairo
are cultivated in the south. Ltvesfock breeding is carried on on a
large scale. Dairy-f arming has made remarkable piogie sa since
the trans-Siberian railway was built.
The industries are insignificant (chiefly tanning distiinng and
tsllow-melting) ; ironworks and cloth mills are still in their inlWncy.
The export of cattle, ludes, tallow, com, flour, .fish and furs to
Russia, both from Tobolsk and from the Kirghia stef]^^ is of some
importance. Spirits are sent farther east to Tomsk : whiTe all kinds
of manufactured wares are imported from Russia. The fairs of Irbtt
and Ishim are the chief centres for, trade. (P. A. K. ; J. T. Bb.)
TOBOLSK, a town of Asiatic Russia, capital of the government
of the same name, on the right bank of the Irtysh. near its con-
fluence with the Tobol. Pop. (1900), 21,401. It is 305 nx.
E.N.E. from Ekaterinburg, and is no longer the capital of West
TOBRUK— .TOD
1043
Slberift DOT wtn an adminittcative centre for cxOes. Thekicmi
or dudd, built in tbe xeign of Peter the Great, by Swedish
prtsoneis, in imitation of the kicml of Moscow, contains the
cathedral, erected towards tlie end of the 17th century. Some
la m. ^outb^ast are the ruins of the ''fort of Kuchum/* the
site of the capital of Siberia, Isker, before the Russian conquest.
Tobolsk was founded in 1587 by Cossacks, and forms the see of
the bishop of Tobolsk and Siberia.
TOBRUK <anc Aniipyrios), a settlement with small T^kish
garrison on a fine natural harbour situated on the N. coast of
Africa at the intersection of 33** N. Lat., %ith 24** B.JLon8»
The harbour, which is small but deep, and sheltered by high
ground, opens to the east. It is about af m. k»ng by | m. wide;
ifae depth in the centre is over 40 ft. and soundisga of over 30 ft.
extend Co within a very short distance of the shores. It is the
only safe port easily accessible to large vessels for over xooo m.,
between Sfax in Tunisia and Alexandria, for, although there is
safe and deep anchorage in the recess of the Gulf of Bomba, the
entrance is rocky and difficult. Tobruk has long been the out-
let for the trade of the oases which extend from Jarabub to
Siwah, and are a stronghold of the Senussi order (see Cyssmaica);
and it is also the headquarters of the Libyan sponge fbhcry,
prosecuted by Greeks. In the spring it is vi^ted by a great
number of boats, to protect which a small Hellenic warship
has sottetimca been despatched. But it is aa a future man-of-
war harbour that Tobruk is likely to be important. It has been
visited both by British and Italian squadrons and has become
an object of considerable solicitude to the government of
Italy. By running mto Tobruk and the neighbouring Gulf of
Bomba the French fleet eluded British vigUanoe on its way to
Egypt in 1798. (D. G. H.)
TOCHI VALLEY* or Pawax, one of the chief routes into
AfghantstaA m tha North-Wcat Frontier Provmce of India. It
leads from the Banntt ihroui^ tribal country, and is faihabited
by the Dawari (q.v.). The valley is divided mto two parts,
known as Upper and Lower Dawar, by anacrow patt called the
Taghiai Tangi, aome three m. h»ng. Between Dawar and British
terriloiy is the low range of unmhabited hilb, which skirt the
Banmi district. It waa by thia natc that Mahmod of Ghasnl
effected several of his raids into India and the ranains of a road
flanking the valley and of defensive positaons are still to be
traced. After the WazSristan Eapcdhion of 1894 tha TocU waa
garrisoned by British troops; hot when Lord Ouam leozgaaized
the fiontier m i^r, the Britiih troops were withdrawn, and their
place supplied by- tribal militia. The chief po^U are Saidgi, Idak,
Minitthah, Datta Khd and ShesannL The valley waa the
scene of action for the Tochi or Dawari Expedition under
Brigadier-Geneml Keyes in 1872, and the Tochi Es^pedition
under Geneial Corrie Bird in 1897.
TOOQOKVILLB* ALEXIS HEHBl CHABLBS HAUHIGB
CLBSBU CoKTE OB (1805-1859), was bom at Vemeuil on the
a9th of July 1805. His family on the father's side were of good
descent* and distinguished both hi the hw and m arms, whSe
his mother was the granddaughter of Malesherbea. Alexis de
Tocque^riUe was brooiht up lor the bar, or rather for the bench,
and became an assistant magistrate in r8so. A year later he
obtained from the government of July a mission to examine
prisons and penitentiaries in America, and proceeded thither
with his life-k>ng friend Gustsve de Beaumont. He returned in
less than two years, and published a report, but the real result
of his tour was the famous De la Dimocratie en Amirique, which
appeared in 1835, and very soon made his repuUtion (3rd ed.
1868). It was at once caught up by influential members of
the Liberal party in England, which country Tocqueville soon
after visited, and where be married an Englishwoman. Return-
ing to France, he was elected a member of the Acaiimie des
sciences morales et peliUques (Jan. 6,m838), and beginning life
as a country gentleman at TocqueviUe, he thought to carry out
the English ideal completely by standing for the chamber of
deputies. But, with a scruple which ilhistrated his character,
he refused government nominatnn from Mol^, and was defeated.
Later he was succcssfu], and sat for several years both before
and after the revohition of February, beeomlng hi r849 vice-
president of the assembly, and for a few months minister of
foreign affairs. Re was a warm supporter of the Roman expedi-
tion, but an equally warm opponent of Louis Napoleon, and after
being one of the deputies who were arrested at the eemp d^iM
he retired from pubUc life. Twenty years after hb first, he
produced another book, De PAnden ripme, which almost, if not
quite, equalled its success. His health was never veiy strong,
and in r858 he broke a Uood-vesseL He was ordered to the
south, and, takfa^^ up his residence at Cannes, died there on the
t6th of April 1859. He had published some mhior pieces
during his Kfettme, and his complete woriia, hicluding much
unpublished correspondence, were produced after his death in
uniform shape by H. G. de Beaumont {CEmns eomftHes de
Tecqneeille, 9 vols., 1860-1865).
During the last twenty years of his Hfe, and for perhaps half
that time after his death, TocqueviOe had an increa^g European
fame. His manner, which is partly imitated from Montesquieu,
has considerable charm; and he was the first and has remained
the chief writer to put the orthodox b'beral Ideas which governed
European politics during the first half or two-thirds of the r9th
century into an orderiy and attractive shape. He was, moreover,
as has been said, much taken up by influential persons in Eng-
land—N. W. Senior, John Stuart Mill and others-Hmd he had
the great advantage of writing absolutely the first book
of reasoned politics on democratic government in America.
Besides, he was, if not an entirely impartial writer, neither
a devotee nor an opponent of democracy. All this gave him a
very great advantage which he has not yet wholly lost. At the
same time he had defecU which were certain to make themselves
fdt as time went on, even without the alteration of the centre
of liberal opinion which has taken place of late years. The
chief of these was a certain weakness which can hardly bo
described by any word more dignified than " priggishness."
His correspondence with Mo1£, above alluded to, is an instance
of this, and it was also reflected on in various epigrams by
coimtrymen and contemporaries; one of these accuses him of
having " begun to think before he had begun to learn,** while
another dedares that he avail Voir de savair de UmU tUrniU ce qu*U
vcnait d'apprendre. He appears both in reading history and
in conducting actual political buriness to have been constantly
surprised and disgusted that men and naUons did not behave
as he expected them to behave. This excess of the deductive
spirit explains at once both the merits and the defects of his two
great works, which will probably remain political dassica, though
^ey are leas and less likely to be used as practical guides.
See Hetnrich Jacques, Alexis de ToegneeiBe; eiu LAens- «nd
GeistesMd (Vienna, 1876); James Biyce. fA^ PredicUens ef Toeque-
ville (Baltimore, 1887); Count de Puymaigre, Les Soiaenirs
d*AUxts de TecqttemlU (1893): Aad Correipondance entre Alexis de
TocqnniUe el Artknr de Gebineau (1906).
TOCSIN, a signal of alarm given by the ringfaig of a bell, hence
any warning or danger signsi. The ^rliest form in English is
toekscine, which was borrowed from the O. Fr. tcqkesin (.tequer,
to strike, cf. toucher and sin, mod. signe, a signalt Lat. signttm).
The use of " touch " and its cognate forms with the idea of
giving a sound is seen in " tucket," ItaL toccata, which probably
originally meant a signal given by Up of drum, but is slways
applied to a flourish or fanfare on a trumpet.
TOD. JAMES (1782-1835), British officer and Oriental scholar,
was bom on the soth of March 1782, and went to India as a
cadet in the Bengal army hi 1799. He commanded the escort
attached to the resident with Sindia from 1813 to 1817. In the
latter year he was in charge of the Intelligence Department
which largely contributed to break up the confederacy of Maratha
chiefs in the Pindari War, and waa of great assistance in the
campaign in Rajputana. In 1818 he was appointed political
agent for the sUtes of western Rajputana, where he conciliated
the chieftains, settled their mutual feuds and collected materials
iQx\xi% Annals and Antiquities ej Rajasthan {2 vols., 1829-1832).
Another book of value, Travds in WesUrn India (1839)1 «•>
published posthumously. He returned from India in 1823,
lo+U-
TODAS— TODLBBEN
wu promoted lieuten«nt-coloDel in i8a6, and died in London
on the X 7th of November 1835.
TODAS, a small pastoral tribe of Southern India, found only
on the Nilgiri hills. They are distinguished by their tall, well-
proportioned figures, aquiline noses, long, black, wavy hair and
full beards. Their colour is a hght brown. Their dress con-
sists of a single cloth, which they wear like the plaid of a Scotch
highlander. The women cover the whole body with this mantle.
Their sole occupation is cattle-herding and dairy-work. They
practise polyandry, a woman marrying all the brothers of a
family. 1 he proportion of females to males is about three to five.
Their language is a mixture of Tamil and Kanarese, and is
classified by Bishop Caldwell as a separate language of the
Dra vidian family. The Todas worship their dairy-buffaloes, but
they have a whole pantheon of other gods, llie only purely
religious, ceremony they have is Kona Shastra, the annual
sacrifice of a male buffalo calf. Toda villages, called tHands^
usually consist of five buildings or huts, three of which are used
as dwellings, one as a dairy and the other for sheltering the calves
at m'ght. Thesie huts are of an oval, pent-shaped construction
usually 10 ft. high, 18 ft. long and 9 ft. broad. They are built
of bamboo fastened with rattan and thatched. Each hut is
enclosed within a wall of loose stones. The inhabitants of a
mand are generally related and consider themselves one family.
The Todas numbered 807 in xooz.
See W. H. R. Rivers. The Todas (1906).
TODHUNTER, ISAAC (1820-1884), English mathematician,
son of George Todhunter, a Nonconformist minister, was bom
at Rye on the ajrd of November i8ao. He was educated at
Hastings, at which town his mother had opened a school after
the death of his father In 1826. He became an assistant master
at a school at Peckhara, attending at the same time evening
classes at the University College, London. In 1842 he obtained
a mathematical scholarship and graduated as B.A. at London
University, and was awarded the gold medal on the M.A.
examination. About this time he became mathematical master
at a school at Wimbledon. In 1844 he entered St John's Col-
lege, Cambridge, where he was senior wrangler in 1848, and
gained the first Smith's prize and the Bumey prize; and in 1849
he was elected to a fellowship, and began jiis life of college lecturer
and private tutor. In 1862 he was made a fellow of the Royal
Society, and in 1865 a member of the Mathematical Society of
London. In 1871 he gained the Adams prize and was elected
to the council of the Royal Society. He was elected honorary
fellow of St John's in 1874, having resigned his fellowship on
his marriage in 1864. In 1880 his eyesight began to fail,, and
shortly afterwards he was attacked with paralysis. He died
at Cambridge on the ist of March 1884.
Works.— Tmiliy« on the Differential Caicuim and On Biemenis of
ike Intetral CaUulus (1852, 6th ed.. 1873), Treatise on Analytical
Statics (1853, 4th ed., 1874) r Treatise on the Integral Calculus U8571
4th ed., 1874): Treatise on Algebra (1858. 6th ed., 1871); TreatiUs
on Plane CoordinaU Geometry (1858, yd ed., i86i): Plane Trigo-
nometry (1859, 4th ed., 1869) ; Spheritaf Trigonometry (1859) : History
of the Calculus of Variations (1861): Theory of Equations (1861, 2nd
ed. 1875); Examples of Analytical Geometry of Three Dimensions
(1858, 3rd ed.. iB-1%); Mechanics (1867). History of the Mathematical
Theory of Probabtltty from the Time 0/ Pascal to that of Lagrange
(1865): Researches in the Calculus of Variations (1871); History of
the Mathematical Theories of Attraction and Figure of (he Earth from
Newton to Laplace (1873); Elewuniary Treatise on Laplace's, Lama's
and BesseTr Functions (1875); Natural Philosophy for Beginners
(1877). An unfinished work. The History of the Theory of Elasticity,
w.is edited and published posthumously in 1886 by Karl. PearsOn.
Todhunter also published keys to the problems in his textbooks on
algebra and trigonometry; and a biographkai work, William
Whewell, acceunt of his writings and correspondenu (1876), in addition
to many original papers in scientific jouroals.
See obituary notices in the Proc. Lond, Math, Soe, (1884), and
Proc. Roy. Soc. (1884).
TODI (anc. Tuda), a town and episcopal see of the province
of Peragia, Italy, a8 m. S. of Perugia by road,' on a steep hill
above the east bank of the Tiber, 1348 ft. above sea-level, and
866 ft. above the river. Pop. (1901), 3599 (town), i6,sa8
(commune). Some portions of the ancient town walls— of two
enceintes, an inner and an outer, the former attributed to the
'^ 'nhabitants, the latter to the Romans— are
pfcserved, and also reouins of baths, ainpbithftrB, theaire,
and a substruction wall of massive masonry, with four niches^
Here was found the bronze statue of Mars, now in the Vatican,
so that the building is sometimes erroneously called the temple
of Mars. Beneath the cathedral square, at the highest point
of the town, is a large reservoir. The Romanesque nuhedral
has a simple facade (partly of the xith, partly of the X4th
and 15th centuries), with a fine portal and rose window. In
the same square is the massive Romanesque Gothic PaUzzo
Comunale of 1267, the Palazzo dei Priori anid the PaUziso della
Podesta. The Gothic church of S. Fortunato, with iu nave
and aisles of the same height, has a splendid portal; the upper
part of the facide is unfinished. Both this church and the
cathedral have good choir-stalls.
Just outside the town on the west is the pilgrimage church of
S. Maria della Consolazio&e, one of the finest buOdings of the
Renaissance, and often wrongly attributed to Bimmante. Con-
temporary documents prove that the interior was begun in
1508 by CoU Matteuccio da Caprarola, and the exterior com-
pleted in 1516-1524 by Ambrogio da Milana and Francesco di
Vito Lombardo; the slender dome was not added till 1606;
its plan is a Greek cross. S. Fillippo in the town, & church of
the eariy i6th century, betrays the influence of theConsolaziooe
During the period <
the [egcnd Tutere. I
and a colon v was loui
of the 41 St legion I wh
the name Colonia Iu
between America nnx
Narses won a victorj
lost his life. In the
town fltracm Coins with
history antil it receive
sus took it in 83 b.c. ;
including some scJdier>
ime, after which it borp
a station on the read
e is hardly mentiooecL
Todi in 552, and TotiLi
.^'o" *v •••»' .requent struggles witt
Peragia, and its obedience to the church until the i6fh century *!>
somewhat fitful. The vilbge of Vicus Marris Tuderti«bi lay 9 a.
to the east on the Via Flamiaia. Several inscriptions mention it
{Corpus inscripL lot, xL 694).
TODLBBEN (or Totleben), FRAMZ EDUARD IVAMOVICH.
CotTNT (1818-X884), Russian engineer general, was botn at Mittaa
in Cburland, on the aoth of May 18x8. His panents were of
German descent, and of the mercantile daaa, and he hinisdf
wM intended for commerce, but a strong instinct led him to
seek the career of a miUtaxy engineer. He entered the school
of engineers at St Petersburg, and pasMd into the army in 1856.
In 1848 and the two following years he was empk>yed, as cap-
tain of engineers, in the campaigns- against Schrayl in the
Caucasus. On the outbreak M war between Russia and Turkey
in i8$3, he served in the siege of SUifltria, and «fter the skfc
was raised was transferred to the Crimea (see Cumxan Was).
Sevastopol, while strongly fortified toward the sea, was almost
unprotected on the land side. Todleben, though still a junior
field officer, became the animating genius of the defence. By
his advice the fleet was sunk, in order to blockade the mooth of
the harboar, and the defidency of fortifications 00 the laxid skk
was made good before the allies could take sdvsiitAc^ of it.
The ooBstruction of earthwodcs and redoubts was carried oa
with exueme rapidity, and to these was transferred, ia great
part, the artillety that had betonged to the fleet. It was in
the ceaseless improvisation of defensive works and offensrvY
counterworks to meet every changing phase of the enemy's
attack that Todleben's {leculiar power and originality showed
itself. He never commanded a largis army in the open field, nor
was he the creator of a great permanent system of defence hke
Vauban. But he may justly be called the originator of the
idea that a fortress is to be considered, not as a walled town
but as an entrenched position,, intimately connected with the
offensive and defensive capacities of an army and as susceptible
of alteration as the formation of troops in battle or msnoeuvR.
Until the aoth of June 1855 he conducted the operations ol
defence at Sevastopol in person; he was then wounded in the
foot, and at the operations which immediately preceded Ihs
fall of the fortress he was not present. In the course of the siege
he had risen from the rank of lieutenant-colonel to th%t d
Ueutenant-geaerali and had also been made aide-dt-camp to the
TODMORDEN— TOGGENBURG
1045
tsar. When lie recovered be was employed fat strengthening
the forti6cations at the mouth of the Dnieper, and abo those
of Cronatadt. In 1856 be visited England!, where his merits
were well undemood. In i860 he was appointed assistant
to tbe grand^uke Nicholas, and he became subsequently chief
of the department of engineers with the full rank of general
He was given no ooounand when war with Turk^ began in
1877. It was not until after the early reverses before Pkvna
iq.v.) that the soldier of Sevastopol was called to the front.
Todleben saw that it would be necessary to draw works round
Osman Pasha, and cut him off from communication with the
other Turkish commanders. In due time Plevna fell Todleben
then undertook the siege of the Bulgarian fortresses. After
the conclusion of preliminaries of peace, he was placed in com*
mand of the whole Russian army. When the war was over
he became governor of Odessa and hereditary count. But his
health was broken, though for some time after 1880 he held
the post of governor of Vilna, and after much suffering he died
at Bad Soden near Frankfort-on-Main, on the ist of July 1884.
His great work on the defence of Sevastopol appeared in Russian,
French and German (5 vols. 1861-1872). Besides this, he wrote a
letter to GcoenU Briaioiont on the operations around Plevna; this
was ixinted to the Russian engineer journal, and in German in the
ArchiofAr preuisisch* ArtUleric-pJisUre (1878).
See Brialmont, Le GhUral comte Todleben (Brussels, 1884) ; RIeger,
" Todleben u. seines Wirkens Bedeutung fUr die Kriegskunst der
Zukonft " (in MiUheaunt^ iUr Getenstdnde des ArtUUrie- und
Ctnitwesmut Vienna, 1885); Witaleben, in Intematumale Revite Hber
die tesamwUen Arwuen uttd Flatten (1879): Schr5der, in Archiv fir
ArtUlerie- und Jngenieur-Offisiere (BerUn, 1888); Life by Schildcr
(in Russian, St Petersburj;. 1885-1887); Krahmer, General-AdjiUani
Graf Todleben (Berlin. 1888).
TODMORDEV, a market town and municipal borou^ in the
Sowerby parliamentary divisioa of the West Riding of York-
shire, En^jland, extendhig into the Middleton parliamentary
division of Lancashire; 19 m. N.N.E. of Manchester, on tbe
Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901), 25,418. It
lies on both sides of the river (lalder, and the scenciy of the
valley is beautiful in spile of the numerous factoriesL Tod-
morden Hall, a picturesque old mansion of various dates, was
the scat of the RaddifTes, but they sold the manorial rights
alx>ut the close of the 17th century. The town hall is a hand-
some daitsical building erected in 1875; it bridges the county
boundary, the Calder, enabling the magistrates to exerdse
jurisdiction in both counties. There is a bronse sutue to
John Fidden (i 784-1849), to whose energy in devdoping the
cotton manufactare the town owes much of its prosperity.
The staple industry is tbe spinning and weaving of cotton, and
there are also foxmdries and machine-works. The municipal
borough, incorporated in 1896, is under a mayor, 6 aldermen
aiidi8counciUors. Area, 12,7 73 acres.
TODT, T. Pennant's rendering (Gen. Bwds, pp. 15. 61)
through the French Todier of M. J. Brisson {Omithologie, iv.
538) of the somewhat obscure Latin word Todus^^ not un-
happily applied in 1756 by Patrick Browne (Ctv. and Nat.
Misi, Jamaica, p. 476) to a Httle bird remarkable for its slender
legs and small feet, the " green sparrow " or " green humming-
bird '* of Sir H. Sloane ( Voyagf, ii. 306). The name, having
been taken up by Brisson (foe. cil.) in 1760, was adopted by Lin-
mens, and has since been recognized by ornithologists as that
1 1n Forccnint*s Lexicon (ed. De Vit, 187O we find " Todusscnus
parvissimae avis tibias habeas perexiguas. Ducange in his OMua-
riuin quotes from Festus, an ancient grammarian, Toda est avis
nuae non habet ossa in tibiis; quare semper est in motu. unde Todiu
(al. Todinus) didtur ilk qui velodtcr todet et movetur ad modum
todae. et todcie, rooveri et tremere ad modum todae." The evidence
that such a substantive as Todus or Toda existed seems to rest on the
adjectival derivative found in a fragment of a lost play (Syrus) by
Plautus, cited by this same Festus. It stands "cum extritis
[exlortis] talis, cum todillis Uodinis] cruaculis ": but the passage is
held by scholars to be cpmipt. Among naturalists Gesner in 1555
gave currency {Hist. animaltuM, iii. 719) to the word af a substan-
tive, and it b found in Levins's Mampnlus vocabtdonun of 1^70 (ed.
Wheallty. 1867. col. 325) as tbe equivalent of the English " tit-
mouse.'* Ducange allows the existence of the adjective todinus,
Stephanus suggests tlut iodi comes from r^r&ol, but his view is not
aoo^ccd. The verb todcr« may perhaps be Englished to " toddle " 1
of a vaUd genvs, though maoy species have been referred lo H
which are now known to have no affiaity to the type, the Todtis
widis of Jamaica, and accordingly have since been removed
from it. The genus Tadus was at one time placed anwog the
Mmsdcapidaa <ci Flvcaotcrbk); but J. Murie'a investigations
(/Vnc. ZacL Socuijf, X87S, ppc 664^6^ pL Iv.) have condu^
sively proved that it is not passerine, and is neatly allied to the
liomatidaa (cf. Motmot) and Atctdmidaa (cf. KntcnsiiKaX
it being regarded as forming a distinct sub^iaaaily Todinae
of the Momotidae peculiar to the Greater Antilles, each of
wliich isknds has its own species, all of small size, the brgest
not eirrfiding four indies and a half in length.
Of tite sneeies already named. T. viridis, P. H. Gosm (B. Janmiea,
pp. 7a-8o) , gives an interesting account. " Always conspicuous
from its bright grass-green coat andt crimsoo-vdvct gorget, it is
Ik
(AltcfCouc.)
Tody (Todus viridis).
still a very tiime bird; yet this seems rxMher the tameness of indlfler'
ence than of confidence ) it will allow a person to approach very near,
and, if disturbed, aKgbt on another twig a few yards distant . . .
commonly it is seen sitting patiently on a twig, with the head drawn
in. the beak pointing upwards, the loose plumage puffed out, when
it appears miich larger than it is. It certainly has an air of stupidity
when thas seen. But this abstmctioo is more apparent than real :
if we watch it^ we shall see that tbe odd-kx>king grey eyes are glancing
hither and thtther, and that ever and anon the bird sallies out upon
a short feeble flicht, snaps at something In the air, and returns to his
twig to swaltow it." Tbe birds of the family also show their affinity
to the kingfishers, noCnK>tB and bee-eaters by burrowing holes in \be
ground in which to make thdr nest, and therein laying eggs with
a white translucent shdl. The sexes differ little in plumage.
All the four spedes of Todus, as now restricted, present a general
milarity of appearaooe, and possess very similar habits; and even
these, by some ornithologists, might be regarded as ^ngn||>liical
races. The CUiban form is T. mtdtieolor; that of Haiti is f. sub-
ulalus or dominicensit: and that of Porto Rico, originally named
in error T. mexicanust has since been called kypockondriacus.
(A. N.)
TOOOBNBUBO, THI, a special name given to the upper valley
of the rfver Thtir, in the Swiss Canton of St Gall. It descends
in a N.W. direction from the watershed between the Rhine and
the Thur, and ia enclosed N.E. by the chain of the Sftntis (8216
ft.) and S.W. by that of the KurfUrsten (7576 ft.) and of the
Speer (6411 ft.). It fa a fertile valley of about 30 m. in length
from the source of the river to Wil on the railway line between
Winterthur and St GalL The npper lialf is traversed by an
eaceilent carriage road, while from Kappei there is a railway to
Wil (rs} m.). Its industrious popiilatJon numbered 34.S94
in 1900, nearly equally divided between Romanists and I^
testants, mostly German-speaking. Those of the upper half are
devoted to pastoral purraits while those of the lower half aie
engaged in the manufacture of musUn and cotton. This valley
is as yet frequented only by Swiss visitors, and retains msny
duraclcristks of sub-alpine Switsexland before the arrival
1046
TOGO— TOGOLAND
of tbe horde of tourists. At WUdhtTis, the highest village
^363 2 it.), the house wherein Huldreich ZwingU, the Swiss
Reformer, was bom in X484> is still shown. The chief village
is Lichteasteig (1387 inhab.), but those of Kirchberg (5025
tnhab.) and of WaUwil (4971 inhab.) are the most popukMis.
On the extinction of the main line of the local counts (1436),
this portion of their dominions passed to the lord of Raron (in the
Valais), who sold it in 1468 to the abbot of St GaU. (WJLB.C.)
TOGO, HSIHAGHIRO, Count (1847*- ), Jspanese admiral,
was born in Kagoshima. He studied naval science and navi-
gation in England from 187 1 to 1878, and first became a pro-
minent figure when, in 1894, as captain of the cruiser " Naniwa,"
he sunk the Chinese troopship " Kowshing " en route for Korea,
thus precipitating war with China. When the Russo-Japanese
conflict broke out in 1904, he was appointed to the command-
in-chief of the Japanese fleet, and under his direction various
brilliant operations took place, culminating in the battle of the
Sea of Japan when the Russian fleet was annihilated. For
these services he received (1907) the title of count. In 1906
he was made a member of the British Order of Merit.
TOGOLAND, a German colony on the Gulf of Guinea, West
Africa. It forms part of the territory formerly distinguished
as the Slave Coast and uras annexed by Germany in x884.> It
is bounded S. by the Atlantic, W. by the British possessions
on the Gold Coast, N. by the French colony of Upper Senegal
and Niger, E. by Dahomey, also a French colony. (For map
see Frcncb West ArsiCA and Gold Coast). The coastline
is only 3a m. in length (i* 14' E. to i" 38' E.) but inland Togo-
land widens to three or four times that breadth. It contracts
again at its northern boundary to about 30 m. From the
coast northward the extreme length is 350 m. The area of the
cok>ny is some 33,700 sq. m. Pop. about x, 000,000. The white
inhabiUnts numbered (1909) 330 of whom 300 were German.
The boundary between Togo and Dahomey, by Franco-German
agreement of 1897, follows the coast lagoon from Little Popo to
the Mono river, ascends the middle of that river as far as 7* N.,
thence goes in a direct line to 9* N. and from that point in a
north-westeriy direction to xx* N. The western boundary
was settled by Anglo-German agreements of 1890 and 1899;
it leaves the coast west of the town of Lome and proceeds in a
zigzag line to where the Deine river joins the Volta; thence
follows the Volta to its jimction with the Daka and then the
Daka up to the point where 9^ N. cuts the river. From this
point the frontier follows a north-easterly course to 11* 8' N.,
leaving the town of Yendi and the Chakosi territory on the (Ger-
man side of the boundary line. The agreement of 1899 defined
the western boundary from 8° N. northward, and partitioned
between the two powers a large block of territory, which by an
agreement of 1888 had been declared a ncntral zone. The
northern frontier is a line drawn between the northernmost
points of the eastern and western frontiers.
Physieal FetJmres.-^Tht coast b low and tandy and is formed by
the detritus depomted by the sea current called Calema. It ts
perfectly straight, without harbours, and approaqhed only through
a dangerous bar. This coast strip is nowhere more than t m. broad.
It masks a series of laraons, of which the tarvest. occupying a central
position, is called the Togo. Avon or Haho lagoon. It is connected
by a channd running east ward parallel with the sea, with the Wo and
Little Popo lagoons, and with the Mono river. Behind the lagoons
an undulating plain stretches some 50 m. The Sio and Haho, the
two laiigest rivers of the coast region, both flow into the Togo lagoon.
These rivers rise on the eastern versant of a chain of mountains
which traverve the country in a south-westeriy to north-easterly
directbn. Beginning in the south«east comer of the Gokl Coast
colony this range, composed of quartzites and schists, extends beyond
the borders oiTogoland into upper Dahomey. It has no general
name, but in the south is called Agome. On the eastern side
it presents a fmrhr continuous esc a rpment. It is most elevated in
its southern portion, Mt Dabo having a height of 3133 ft. and
Mt Atilakuse On 7* so' N. o** 43' E.) 3248 ft. Its general eleva-
tion is between aooo and 2500 ft.; on the north-west side of the
range the country is table-land some 600 to tooo ft. high. Baumann
Spitxe (331 5 ft.) IS an isolated peak in 6* 50' N., o" 46' £., east of the
iM^ ranges South and east of the range the country, apart from
chat waXtr^ *"' **** ""•"♦ «♦ reams, drains to the Mono rivef. The
greater r ^ west and north of the chain and
Mongn Ita. The chief river traversing it is
the Oti. which rises in about is* N., enters Togoland «t its north-
east corner, and runs with a very sinuous course south-south-west
to its junction with the Volta m 7* 37' N. For a considerable
distance the left bank of the Volu itself is in German territory, bat
its lower course b wholly m the Gold Coast colony.
CftnMUe.— The climate on the ooaat is hot, humid and unhealthy.
There are two wet seasons, the fim lasting from March till June, the
second from September to November. Apart from the coast region,
seasons of drought are not uncommon. The dry wind from the
Sahara called harmattan, which carries great quantities of hne red
sand, causes a fall of temperetuie in the (European) aununer.
Flora and Fauna. — Coco-nut palms, introduced about the begin-
ning of tbe 19th century by the Portuguese, grow along the ccost
and for 80 m. or so inbnd. The lagoons are surrounded by dense
belts of reeds, and the coast-land b covered with low, impenet rattle
bush. There are considerable forests of ml palms, rubber trcr<> and
vines, and timber and dyewood trees. Many of the river val]c>!i
are densely wooded. On the hills the baobab and hypfaaene palm
are characteristic; on the plateau are stretches of open savanna, and
park-like country with clumps of silk cotton and shea-butter trees
The fauna resembles that 01 other parts of West Africa; it is potw
on the coast. Elqphants and Bona are found in the interior.
Inhabitants. — ^The inhabitants are negroes and negroids.
In the north the people are mostly Hausa, in the west they bcloni;
to the Tshi-speaking clans, while on the ooast they sre members
of the Etjire (Dahomey) tribes. Among tbe coast people there
Is a distinct infusion of Ft>rtuguese blood, and in all the ports
are descendants of Brazilian negroes who returned to Africa
during the 19th century. Pidgin English is the common language
along the coast. The Adeli and Akposso hill tribes have a
dialect of their own. In the north the tribes form small, weH-
organizcd states. In tbe coast hinds tire inhabitants are trader*
and agriculturists, in the interior they are largely pastorah&u.
The Hausa are often traders, traversing the country in laxise
caravans. The inhabitants are partly Mahommeduis, partiv
believers in fetish; comparatively few profess Christianity. As
a rule the tribes are peaceful Slave taiding has ceased, but
domestic slavery in a mild form continues.
TovoHs. — ^The capital and chief port b L.ome l^ep. about 5ooo\
near the western frontier, tt is a creation of the o^nnans, the sit<-.
in i88d, being occupied by a small fishing village. It b provided
with a jetty, b the sea tcrmimis of the tmihray aystemst^he lesadcnre
of the governor, and has churches. Khooleb hospitals and Iwrfe
business houses. The chief African traders are Hausa tmmignr.:«.
Togo, which has given its name to the country, b a town on the
south-eastern shores of the Togo lagoon. On the narrow spit c(
land between the lagoons and the eea are Baffida and Porto Seguro—
the last named one of tbe oldest towns on the Slave Coast and the
port of Togo town^-and, close to the eastern frontier. Little Pu;r..
called by the Germans Anecho. Anejo or Anccho means the hoi -^s
or <)uarter of the Anes. The Anes are reported to have come fmn
the Gold Coast by sea and to have been wrecked at tbb plxr.
Little Popo dates from the 17th oeatufy or earlier. At the tunc ^
the German annexation Anecho was one of three distinct quarters
into which the town was divided. In the hill country are t!i<
government stations of MisahOhe and Bismarckburg. On the Volta.
a short distance above the Oti oonfluenoe^ are the adiaoent towns of
Kete-Krachi ; on an affluent of tbe Mono in 7* N. bSagada. In the
north arc the large native towns of Yendi and Sansane Mansa* both
on caravan routes between Ashanti and the Niger countrks.
Agriculture and Trade. — ^The country b rich in natural prDduct*.
and its resources have been laigely devdoped by the Gcrmatt*.
It was the first German colony to dispense (19QA-1904) «cth
an imperial subsidy towards its upkeep. Several firms ha%e
acquired f>lantations in which cofToc. cocoa, cotton, kola an J
other tropical products are cuhivatcd. Coco-nut palms thrfvT:
maise, yams, bananas, taptoca and ginger are cuhivatod by the
natives. The chief trade is in, and tl»e princi|»| exports err.
palm oil and kernels, rubber, cotton, maize, groundnuts iAratki\),
shea-butter from thie Bassia parkH (Sapotaceac). fibre* of the
Raphia vinifera^ and the Sansevieria ptinemsis^ (ndigo, attd kola
nuts, ebony and other valuable wood. In the interior cjittle
and sheep arc plentiful, on the gateau horaes and donkr>-v
The natives have several industries, including pottery, straw
plaiting, smithwork and woodcarving. Some of their carving
IS very fine. They collect and spin the indigenous cotton, which
is of good quality, and dye it with indigo or other p^pments; tkcy
also manufacture very handsome shawls. Cotton growing under
European direction began about 1900, with the resnh that in 1901-
1901 over 100,000 1h of cotton grown from native, American ard
Egyptian seed were Shipped to Bremen. In subsequent yrars ilie
industry attained considerable proportions.
The imports ere chiefly textiles, metals and hardware, and gin.
Imports are mainly from Germany, exports to Germany and to
other West African colonies. In 1908 the value of the imports »bs
£425.000, of the exports £389'000.
TOILET— TOKYO
fo+7
Cummamimtimij~-CeoA wm6% fiave been Imilt OMiMetia^ tlie
coast toivDS wkb the fxiadpal ptaoet in the mterior. A railway
•bont 30 m. long ooaaccts Lome with Little Popo. From Lome
another railway 76 m. bng runs north-west to Agome^Palnne near
Misahfihe. There are telesrapband^ telephone lines between Lome
and Little Popot, and both places are inteleBraphlcoonunuaKatioa
with the Cold Coast and Dahomey.aad thus with the international
cable system. There is direct ataamship communication b etw ee n
Togoland and HambwHE* *nd the steamers of three French and two
English lines call at Togobnd ports.
Coventmemi, Cfc^The oalooy is administered by a sovemor who
is advired by a nomimttcd oouincU oi wnaificial membos. Revenue
is derived ptindpally from customs duties, direct taxation being
light. In 1907-1908 reretiue and expenditure balanced at £i03,ooa
A judicial system has been instituted to which natives as well as
£aropeaaa are amenable. The government maiataina scboob at
all the ooaat towaa. Various missionary societies have also estab*
In 1909 some loyooo native childrea were receiving
History. — Bcfdre lU annexation by GCTmany tbe lagoons
were a favourite resort of slavers, And stations were established
there by Portugueie, British, French and German traders.
The coast natives were dependent on the rulers of Dahotney or
Porto Novo. Little Popo and Togo were capitab of small inde-
pendent kingdoms. Little Popo is said to have been founded
in the 17U1 century by refugees from Accra, who were driven
out by the Akwamu. At the time that " the scramble for Africa "
began, the narrow strip ai coast over which the king of Togo ruled
was the sole district between the Gambia and the Niger to which
Great Britain, France or some other civiliaed power had not a
claim. At TofO firemen merchants had trading stations, and
taking advantage of this fact Dr Gustav Nachtigal, German
imperial commissioner, induced the king of Togo (July 5,
1884) to place his country under German suaerainly. The
claims made by Germany to laige areas of the hinterland gave
rise to coosiderabk negotiation with France and Great Britain,
and it was not until 1899 that the frontiers were 6aed on all
sides (see Aratca, 1 5). Meantime the development of the coast
region had been taken in hand. On the whole the histoiy of
ihe arfooy baa been one of peaceful progress, intemipted now
and again, as in 1903, by severe droughu. At sUtcd intervals
the native chiefs are summoned to Lome to discuss adminia-
tiative mailers with the government.
See H. Kloae. Ttfftf wiCrr deutuker Ftaage (BerKn, 1899). a com-
nrehcnsive survey, with bihliorraphy; N. 3eiael. Dit KusU mnd du
Vorland dtr Toiocolonit (Berlin, 1897}, and Di< Ewhesprache in
Togo (Heidelberg. 1906): SchflnhArt. Velkstiimii<hes aus Tofo
Anschauuneen un^ Menachenopfcr in Togo in CMms 1903; P.
Sprinde. Aorlf son Tot; scale 1 :300.ooo, la sheets, also in a sheets
on the scale I :S»jaoo Ificriin, 1902-1907).
TOItSTi the proceas or operation of dressmg, also dress and
its appurtenances, also applied, especially in the French form
** toilette," to a particular costume worn by a Udy. The word
is adapted from French loiletu, a dimhiutive of toUe, cloth, Latin
ieia, web, woven doth, from root off Irivre, to weave; this word
survives in the English ** toils," net, snare.^ The earliest use of
" toflet " and MUtte Is for a doth, usually of linen or other fine
material spread over a table when used to bold the looking*
glass and all the ether articles used in dressing, or for a small
sheet or cloth thrown over the shoulders of a person while
being shaved or having his or her hair dressed. It was thus
applied especially to the various articles collectively which
form the apparatus of a toilet-table or dressing-table.
Dtessing-tabies or l&OeUes were articles of domestic furniture
on which the 18th century cabinet makers and ibenistes of
France lavished their decorative art. The escritoire and
toilette combined whkh belonged to Marie Antoinette Is in
the Victoria and Albeit Museum, South Kensington (see
FuamTtrtB, Plate IV., fig. 4).
*■ " Toil. ** labour, fatteue, weariness, must of coune be distin-
guished. The M. £ng. taOen appears to mean to pall, struggle, and b
probably related to Scots toil^U, broil, and to Fr. touiller, to entangie,
ihuffle together, smear. It is. however, usually referred to " till."
10 cultivate, O. Eng. tiaUan, from tU, proSuble. d. Ger. Zid, goal.
tOKAJ (or TokatX a town of Hon^afy, hi the oouaty of
Zempl6n, 148 m. E.N.E. of Budapest by tail. Pop. (1900), 5104.
It is situated at tbe confluence of the Bodrog with the Theiss, and
gives iu name to the famous Tokay wine. Tokaj lies at the
foot of the Hegyaija MounUins, which stretch to the north and
north-west of the town, between the riven Hemad and Bodrog,
for a distance of about 60 m. as far north as Epcrjes. The
n orthern part of the range is also called S6var Mountains. These
mountains, which have in the northern part ao altitude of
2700 ft., slope down towards the south-east near Tekaj in a hilly
plateau of about 1500 ft. altitude, where the vineyard regioii
ia situated. Thb vineyard region covers an area of about
135 sq. m., and belongs to a t adjoining communities. The soil b
of volcanic origin (trachyte). The principal places where the wine
b produced are Tarcxal, Tfilya, Mid, LIsaka, Tokaj, Tolcsva,
Sar6spatak, Keresitur, and Zsadan^. The yeariy production
averages 5,000,000 gallons. It is believed that the vine was
introduced into this re|^ by colonists from Italy and Moiea
in 1141.
TOKAT (Armenian Ealogkia^ anc. Dadmon) the chief town of
a saojak of the same name in the Sivas vilayet of Asia Minor.
It is situated in the Sivas-Samsnn ckausH^ altitude atSo ft.,
at the mouth of a rocky glen which opens out to the broad
valley of the Toaanii Su, a tributaiy of the Veshil Irmak. It
rose to importance under the Seljuks. Pop. about 30,000, two'
thirds Mussulman. The industries are the manufacture of
copper utensils and yellow leather, and the stamping of colours
on while Manchester cotton. Near Tokat copper pyrites, with
iion and manganese, kaolin and coal are found; but most of
the copper worked here comes from the mines of Kcban Maden
and Ari^uma Maden, on the upper Euphrates and Tigris.
(D. G. H.)
TOKBLAU (or Union Islands), a group of three atolls in the
Pacific Ocean, about 350 m. N.E. of Samoa, belonging to Britain.
Atafu consisU of 63 islets, Nukunau of 93 and Fakaafo of 62.
They produce little but copra. The natives are all Christians,
and in type and speech are akin to the Samoans. They number
about soa
TOKW MONET, tbe term employed originally to describe
the counters or " tokens " issued by traders to meet the lack
of small change. It has now been ^ipropriated by .economists
and oflkials to denote the smaDer curroicy that circulates at a
nominal value higher than its cost. It is contrasted with
''standard" money, and is limited in its amount by stale
authority. Its power of discharging debts is also limited:
in England, e.f., stiver is legal tender only up to 40s., copper to
I a pence. Various substances have been utilized for the manu-
facture of token coinage— silver at a lower degree of fineness,
copper in different alloys, and nickd. The French term irmi-
naie dioisumnain has much the same meaning; so has the
German ScheOemUnu. A currency, restricted in amount, but
with full legal tender power— such as the Indian rupees and the
French s-franc piec es - is midway between token and standard
naoney. Represenutive money also bears some analogy to
token coinage. (See Money and SEiCNioaACB.) (C. F. B.)
lOKUBAW^ the name of a Japanese family which provided
the ruling dynasty of shfiguns from 1603 until the revolution
which rcstoicd the power of the mikado in 1867. The foonder
of this dynasty was lyfiyasu Tokugawa (1543-1616), a great
general and consummate politician, who was connecUd by
descent with the Minamoto clan. The most famous of the
subsequent shSguns was bis grandson lycmitsu (from 16^3 to
1650. (See Japan: History.)
t5KY0 (or Tteid, fermeily called Yedo), the capiul of
the empire of Japan, situated in 35° 41' N. and 139* 45' £.. at
the head of the bay of the same name on the south-east coast
of the main island. The dty stands 00 the banks of the river
Sumida, which, although pretty wide, is unnavigable by vessels
of large tonnage owing to its shallowness. Yokohama, with
which T6ky0 is connected by 18 m. of railway, is practically
the port of Ihe capital. T6ky6 is the centre from which several
railways radiate. The trains of the Tokai-do line, starting from
i04^
TOLAND
the Shimbashi sUtion, nm westwards to Kobe, thence ID Shiin-
OQoaeki, at the western end of the main island, a distance of
700 m. The Uyeno station is the starting-point for trains to
Aomori, a town 460 m. away, at the northern extremity of the
island. In igoy a central station was designed to be built south
of the impedal i>alace.
The climate is mild and healthy, and for the greater .part
of the year very pleasant, the seasons of spring and autumn
being more especially delightful
The area of TdkyO is about 30 sq. m. Topographically it
may be divided into two parts, upUnd and lowland (Yamanote
and Shitamachi). There are hills varying in height from 50 to
I JO ft. in the upland district; that is to say, the outskirts of the
city from north to west. Lowland TOkyO, that part of the
city covering the flats on both sides of the river Sumida, is
intersected by a system of canals. The bridges over the Sumida,
and those which span the canals, have always been distinctive
features of T6ky0. The Nihon-bashi (Bridge of Japan), in the
district of the same name, is by far the most famous. It is
the point from which all distances in Japan are measured* The
largest bridges are those named Azuma, Umaya, Ryogoku,
Shin-o and £itai over the Sumida.
The streets were formerly narrow and irregular, but the
principal thoroughfares have been widened under the Street
Improvement Act of x888. Electric tramcais run throughout
the city carrying passengers at a uniform rate of 4 sen, which
means that it is possible to travel som« 10 m. for one penny.
The jinrikisha, drawn by one man or sometimes two men, which
were formerly the chief means of passenger conveyance, have
notably decreased in number since the introduction of the trams.
TOkyd has often experienced earthquakes, and more than once
has suffered from severe shocks, which have hitherto prevented
the erection of very large buildings. The numerous residences
of the daimyos were the chid characteristics of the old town,
especially in the Kojimachi-ku. Many of these have been de-
molished and government offices erected on their sites; others
have given place to new streets and houses. Neariy in the
centre of Kojimachi-ku, on an eminence, surrounded by moats,
stood the castle of Yedo, .formerly the residence of the shSguns,
which was burnt down in 1875. The imperial palace was subse*
quently ereaed on this site. The pala^ is half European and
half Japanese in it& style of architecture. The Nija-Whi is the
main entrance. To the east and south of the palace the ndg^^
bourhood has undergone great changes in modern tima. It was
here, at the Sakurada Gate, that li Kamon-no-Kami, prime
minister of the shfigun's government, was assassinated by the
anti-foreign party in x86o. On the site of his residence a little
higher up to the right of the gate now stand the war office and
the offices of the general staff. In another street, leading from
the gate, are the foreign office, the supreme court, the local court
and the departments of justice and the navy. The temporary
buildings of the Imperial Diet, which first met in 1890, are also
in this part of the capital. Adjoining the above-named buildings
ia the Hibiya Park, modelled on the European style, while
retaining the special features of the Japanese gardeners' art.
The parks have always afforded to the people their chief means
of recreation. The largest and most beautiful are those in
Shiba and Uyeno, formerly the mausolea of the shdguns. . In
Uyeno, too, are the Imperial Museum, the Imperial Library
and the Zoological Gardens. The famous temple of Kwannon,
the goddess of mercy, is in the Asakusa Park, in which a per-
manent fair is held; it is a great holiday resort of the citixens.
In Kudanzaka Park is the Yasukuni Temple, populariy known
by the name of Shokonsha, and consecrated to the spirits of
departed heroes who fell in war. In the same ground is a
museum of anas, oonUining trophies of the wars with Chiaa
and Russia.
Administralion.-^FoT administrattva purposes Tdky^ is divided
into fifteen districts or Ku, of which Kojimachi. Kongo. Koishikawa.
Ushigomc, Yoisuya. Akasaka, Aiabu and Shiba are situated In
the upland portion, while Kanda. Kidbashi, Nihonbashi. Shitaya.
As?*"—* "'— s- and Fukagawa are in jhe lowland. Suburban
"^ - eight districts or Gun, which, with the dty
-ra the Tokyo Ku (prefecture), under the
illed Fa-ChijL Qoertioas affecting
i before the Fu-kwai, or pccfecturai
ivei from both Ku and Cmm, and a
genenl coatrelof one governor called I
tlie interests of the whole Fu come befo
aaaembly, made up of represenuiivea f
prefectiual council, of which the governor is president; while
mattere oonceminff the city alane are discussed by a Shi-kmai, or
municipal aiaerabTy, ' • • • ■
^^ erablv, and administered by a municipal oottndU
of which the Shicno or mayor is president. There is a reruUr
water supply worked by the municipality. The reservoir at Yodo-
bashi is capable of supplying water (from the river Tama) to all
parts at a pressure varying from 80 to too ft. HydianU are find
m all the streeu for the use of the fire brigade, which has a well
disciplined and efficient personnel, and does not lack opportum.
ties for the exhibitkm of its skill in a town built largely of wood.
The police force is another well-trained and successful
Both police and fire brigade are under the command of a single
Keisktsokam {inspector«nefal). The postal ammgements are very
satisfactory, frequent deliveries being made wkh the utmost dc>
^Mttch. The telephone system is extensive, including long-distance
wires to Yokofaanm, Osaka and other lam townsT A oomplete
and successful system of education exists. Thare are many schocOs
for advanced students devoted to the various branches 01 sctcme.
mechanics and art. The imperial university of T^Jkyfi, which
consbts of the colleges of law, medicine, literature, science, cncpnecr-
ing and agriculture, is the principal institution of learning in the
empire. There are several daily newspapers as well as weekly aod
monthly publicarions of all kinds. In the lowland part of the city
and in the suburbs there are many factories, their number ha^-inr
so much increased in recent years that TdkyO may now be described
as an industrial town.
Poftdaiion.—Thxxt are no reliable data as to the population
of Yedo during the shdgunate. Owing to the influx caused by
the periodical visiu of the daimyOs (feudal lords) with their nu-
merous attendanu, it probably exceeded i^ million during the
early part of the 19th century. The population was 857,780 in
1880; 1,207,341 in X890; i,339.7a6 in 1895; i,497>5<i5 in iV»,
and 1,969,833 in 1905.
History.— No mentfon is made of TOkyO in Japanese faistoiy
before the eikd of the X2th century. It appears to have assumed
no importance till about 1457, when Ota Dokwan, a general in
the stfvice of Uyesugi Sadamasa, governor of Kamakura, buih
a castle here. About thirty years later the town fell into the
hands of HOjO of Odawam, and on his overthrow by Hideyoshi
and lyeyasu, the castle was granted to the latter, who wa^thc
founder of the shflgun house of Tokugawa. In 1590 lyeyasu
made his formal entry into the castle of Yedo, the extent of
which he greatly enlarged. From this date the real importaocc
of Yedo began. The family of the Tokugawas furnished the
sh5guns (or tycoons) of Japan for nearly three hundred years,
and these resided during that period at Yedo. At the restora-
tion in x868 the shOgunate was abolished, and the populatioB
of Yedo speedily decreased. A fresh vitality was imparted by
the transfer of the court from Kioto, and the town then received
its present name T<JkyO (eastern capital). (^G. U.)
TOLAND, JOHN [christened Janus Junius) (t67o-x72r),
English deist, was born on the 30th of November 1670, near
Londonderry, Ireland. Brought up a Roman Catholic, in bis
sixteenth year he became a sealous Protestant. In 1687 he
enured Glasgow University, and in X690 was created M.A
by the university of Edinburgh. He then spent a short time ia
some Protestant families in England, and with their assistance
went to Leiden University, to qualify for the dissenting ministry.
He spent about two years studying eccliesiastical history, chiefly
under the famous scholar Friedridi Spanhcim. He then went
to Oxford (1694), where he acquired a reputation for great
learning and " little religion," although at the tiipe he professed
to be a decided Christian. While at Oxford he began the book
which made him famous^his CkristianUy nol Mysterious (X696,
anonymotis; and ed. in the same year, with hb name; srd cd.,
X703, including an Apuiofy for Ur, TUani^, It 9sve great
offence, and several replies were immediately published. The
author was prosecuted by the grand jury of Middlesex; and.
when he attempted to settle in Dublin at the begixming of 1697.
he was denounced from the pulpit and elsewhere. His book having
been condemned by the Irish parliament (Sept. 9, 1697) and an
order issued for his arrest, Toland fled to Eog^d. The resem-
blance, both in title and in principles, of his book to Locke's j^eojow*
ablenas of Christianity, led to a prompt disavowal on Locked
part of the supposed identity of opinions, and subsequently
to the famous oontraveny bctwcfca StiUingfleel snd tht phiio>
aopher. Tolaad's next woik of importance was his Life of MUton
(1698), in wliich a lefemice to " the numerous supposititious
pieces under the name of Chxist and His apostles and other great
peiaoas/* provoked the charfe that he had called in qnestion
the genuineaeaa of the New Testament writings. Toland re-
plied in Us Amynior^ or a Defence of Milton's Life (1699), to
which he added a remarkable list of what are now caUed
apocryphal New Testament writtngs. In his remarks be really
opened up the great questimi of the hbtory of the canon. The
next y«ir his Amynhr and Christianity not Afysieriousvfctt under
discussion in both houses of .Convocation, and the Upper House
declined to proceed against the author. In 1701 Toland spent a
few weeks at Hanover as secretary to the embassy of the earl
of Ilaccles6eld, and was received with favour by the electress
S<^ha in acknowledgment of his book Anglia Libera, a defence
of the Hanoverian succession. On his return from the Conti>
Bcnt he publbhed Vindieius Uberius (rToa), a defence of him- >
self and of the bishops for not prosecuting him. In this he
apologized for Christianity not Mysterious, as a youthiul indis-
cretion, and declared his conformity to the doctrines oi the
established Church. The next year he visited Hanover and
Berlin, and was again graciously received by the electress and
her daughter Sophia Charlotte, queen of Prussia, the " Serena "
of the Letters published on his letum to England (1704). In
two of these iA Ldter to a CenUemon in Holland, and Motion
essential to Matter), ostensibly an attack on Spinoza, he antici-
pated some of the specubtions of modem materialism. The
Account of the Courts of Prussia and Hanooer (i 705) was used by
Carlyie in his Idfe of Frederich the Great, From 1707 to 1710
Toland tived in varying circumstances on the Continent. In
r709 he published (at the Hague) Adcisidaemon and OrigUies
Judaicae, in which, amongst other things, he maintained that
the Jews were originally Egyptians, and that the true Mosaic
Institutions perished with Moses. After his return to England,
be lived chieBy in London and latterly in Putney, sub^ting
precariously upon the earnings of his pen and the benevo-
lence of bis patrons. His literary projects were numerous
(see Mofiheim's Vila); his warm Izisb nature appears in
bis projected history of the ancient Celtic religion and his
chivalrous advocacy of the naturalization of the Jews. The
last of his theological works were Nazarenus, or Jewish, Gentile
and Mahometan Christianity (1718), and Tetradymus (1720),
a collection of essays on various subjects, in the first of which
{Hod(gus) he set the example, subsequently followed by
Reimarus and the rationalistic school in Germany, of inten>retT
iog the Old Testament miracles by the naturalistic method,
maintaining, for instance, that the pillar of cloud and the fire of
Exodus was a transported signal-fire. His last and most offen-
sive book was his Pantheisticon (1720). He died on the nth of
March, 1721*1722, as he had lived, in great poverty, in the midst
of his books, with his pen in his hand. Just before his death he
composed an epitaph on himself, in which he claimed to have
been " Veritatis propugnator, libertatis asserlor." The words
*' Ipse vero actemum est resurrecturus, at idem futurusTolandus
nunquam" seem to indicate his adherence to the pantheistic
creed expounded in the Pantheisticon.
ToUnd !■ getiemUy classed with the deists, but at the time when he
wrote ChristUMiiy not Mysterious be was deadediy opp(Mcd to deism.
The design of the work was to show, by an appeal mainly to the
tribunal of Scripture, that there are no facts or doctrines of the
•* Gospel," or the " Scriptures," or " Christian revelation," which,
srhen revealed, un not peifectly plain, intelligible and reasonable,
beio^ neither contraty to reason nor inoomptehensible to it. It
was intended to be the firu of three discourses^ in the second of
which be was to attempt a particular and rational explanation of
the reputed mysteries ol the gospel, and in the third a deraonstra-
tioa of the verify of Divine relation against atheists and all enemies
of revealed religioa. After his Christ$aMity not Mysterious and his
Amyntor, Toland's Namrtnus was of chief imporunce, as calling
attentbn to the risht of the Ebionites to a place in the early chureh,
though it altogether failed to establish his main argument or to
put the question in the true light. His Pantkcislicnn, stve formula
eoUhrandae sodolitalis socnUicae, of which he printed a few copies
for private circubtioo only, gtave great offence as a sort of Utuigic
TOLEDO 1049
servfee made ap of'passsfea from heathen authors, in imitation of
the Church of England bcuigy. The title also was in those days
alarming, and still more so the roystenr which the author threw
round the question how far such societies of pantheists actually
existed.
See Mosheim'a Vmdiciaa amU^uae ^istianorum diseitlinae
(1722), containing the most edlaustivc account of Tolaads life
and writimn: a Life of Toland (1722), by^ " one of his most intimate
friends "; Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Mr John Toland,"
by Diss Maiaeaux. prefixed to The Miscellaneous Works of Mr John
Toland (London, 1747) ; John Lebind's View of the Principal Deistical
Writers (last ed* 1837); G. V. Lochler's Ceschtchie des eng^ischcn
Deismus (1841): Isaac Disraeli's Calamities of Authors (new ed..
1881); article on " The English Freethinkers " in Theological Review,
Na 5 (November, 1864) : J. Hunt, in Contem^ory Renew, No. 6.
.uw .»vo, »iu >.M» ^^iigiotts Thought in England (1870-1873):
Leslie Stephen's History ofEngfish Pfought. in the Ei^hUenth Century^
June 1868, and
vol. i. (1881). and article in Dictionary of National Biography;
J. Cahns's unbelief in the Eighteenth Century (1881). On Toland's
relation to the subsequent TObingen school, as presented in his
Naxarenns. see D. Patrick in Theological Review^ No. 59 (October.
1877): and on his relation to materialism, F. A. Lance's Ueuhkhte
des Mttterialismus (Eng. trans, by E. C. Thomas. 1877), and alto
G. Bcrthold, John Toland und der Monismus der Cegetewart (1876).
TOLEDO, a province of central Spain, formed in 1833 from
part of New Castile; bounded on the N. by Avila and Madrid,
E. by Cuenca, S. by Ciudad Real and W. by Ciceres. Pop. ( 1 900) .
376,814; area 5919 sq. m. The surface is throughout lofty,
and in a great part of its extent mounUinous. Towards the
centre there are extensive plains or tablelands, but the whole of
the south and east is occupied by the Montes de Toledo, and the
hills which separate the waters of the Tagus on the north from
those of the Guadiana on the south. These mountains are
of no great height; until late in the 19th century they were
densely covered with forests. Toledo is well watered by the
Tagus iq.t) and its numerous affluents, including the Guadarrama
and Albcrche on the north and the Algodor, Toroon, Pusa
and Sangrera on the south. The Giguela waters the eastern
districts. Gold, silver, lead, iron, quicksilver, copper, tin and
other minerals have been discovered, but the mining industry does
not prosper and there is little export trade in agricultural
products. The number of sheep, goats, asses and mules is
large; dairy-farming and the breeding of draught oxen and
fighting bulls are also practised. Bees and silkworms are
kept in considerable number. Manufactures once flourished,
but now silk and woollen cloth, earthenware, soap, oil,
chocolates, wine, rough spirit {aguardiente), guitar strings
and arms are almost the only articles made. "Iliere is also a
small trade in charcoal and timber. The province is traversed
by three lines of railway— that of Madrid-SeviOe-Cadii
in the east, Madrid-Toledo-Ciudad Real through the centre,
snd Madrid-C&ccres-Lisbon in the north.
TOLEDO, the capital of the Spanish province of Toledo and
formeriy of the whole kingdom, 47 m. by rail S.S.W of Madrid,
on the river Tagus, 2400 ft above sea-level. Pop ( rgoo) , 33,3 1 7.
Toledo occupies a rugged promontory of granite, washed
on all sides except the north by the Tagus, which here fk>ws
swiftly through a deep and precipitous goige. Towards
the north the dty overlooks the desolate Castilian plateau;
beyond the river it is confronted by an ampilheatre of bare
mountains, the Montes de Toledo. From a distance it has the
aspect of a vast fortress, built of granite, defended by the river
and by a double wall on the north, and dominated by the towers
of its cathedral and alc£zar. The absence of traffic in its maze
of dark and winding alleys creates a silence uncommon in so
large a city. There are few plasas^ the principal open tpacn
being the arcaded Zocodover, described by Cervantes in the
Novelas ejtmplares; and some of the finest monuments of
antiquity arc hemmed in by meaner structures. The houses,
tall, massive and sombre, ate entered by huge iron<stttdded
doors, and, owing to the extremes of heat and cold characteristic
of the Castilian plateau, most of their uindows open on a
sheltered inner court {patio), the walls facing the street being
often blank, though their monotony is sometimes relieved by
carved Gothic or Moorish stonework. Nowhere, even in Spain,
have the appearance and atmosphere of a Gothic city been
1050
TOLEDO
preserved with fo little cfaaa^e. Though the Modems have
left their impriol upon its architecture, and though many ancient
buildings were destroyed after the Christian reconquest to make
room for churches, convents and lemlnaries, Toledo as a whole
remains as distinctively Gothic and medieval as Granada is
Moorish, Madrid Castilian or Barcelona modem. It has also
been from the earliest times the centre of Spanish Christianity,
and its archbishop is styled ex officio " primate ol all the
Spains."
Principal BmUings. — ^The Tagus is spanned by two fortified
Mooriah bridges, the Puente dc Alcantara, on the north-east, which
was rebuilt in the 13th and 17th centuries, and the Puente de San
Martin, on the north>west, founded in 121a and rebuilt in 1390. The
inner wall of the city b said to have been founded in the 7th century
by the Visigothic Ring Wamba; much of its masonry is Moorish.
Alphonao Vl. of Castile added the outer wall in 1 109. To the same
period belongs the Mud6jar Puerta del Sol, the finest of several
ancient gateways, among which the Puerta Visagra (lS50i restored
1575). and the Puerta del Cambron (1102, restored 1576) are also
interesting. The Puerta Visagra Antigua, a Moorish gateway
of the 9th century, has been walled up, but its originaTfonn is
preserved. The Alc&zar, a huge square building with a tower at .
each comer and a fine areadcd Palio, stands on the highest ground
in Tokdo. orieinally the site 01 a Roman fort. Built as a citadel
by King Wamba and used as such by the Moors, it was converted
into a palace by St Ferdinand (1200-1352) and was enbirgod in the
iSth and 16th centuries by Ferdinand and Isabella, Charles V.
and Phittp II. During the war of the Spanish Succession it was
burned down (1710), but Cardinal Loienzana restored it in 177^.
After the French had burned it a second time in 1810, it was again
rebuilt and in 1883 became a military academy. In 1887 a third
fire was followed by a third restoration. Despite these successive
disasters, part of the 1 5th and I6th century palace has been prcser\'ed,
including a fine facade dcagned by Juan de Herrera, a gateway by
Alonso oe Covarrubias and a staircase by Herrera and r rancisco de
Villalpando. The Ayuntamiento, or City Hall, is a isth-ceotury
building with t7th<entury alterations by Dominico Tncotoc6puu
^ Greco). Some fine Moorish work Is preserved in the Sal6n de
Mesa (r. 1450) ; in the Taller del Moro, which dates in part from the
14th century and was long the workshop (talUr) of masons employed
in repairing the cathedtal; and in the |»lace of the counts of Fuen-
laltda.
More important architecturally than any of these secular buildings
are the churches of Toledo, and especially its magnificent Gothic
cathedral (for illustration see Aeckitecturb). The cathedral
occupies the site of a Visigothic church, which an inscription pie*
served in the cloister shows to have been dedicated to the Virgin
by King Reccared. on the lath of April 589.^ If the event thus
commemorated were a reconsecration — and it was in 589 that
Reccared was converted from Arianism to orthodoxy^he chureh
may well have been the cathedral of Eugenius, Eladius, lldefooao
and Julian, the four Toledan bishops who were canonised, and the
first of whom is said to have been a disciple of St Paul. From 712
until 1227 the Visigothic church was used by the Moots as their
principal mosque. It was then razed by St Ferdinand, who founded
the present cathedral in August 1227. The completion of the
main fabric was delayed until I493> while many of the chapels and
other subordinate buildings were added even later; thus Renaissance
and baroque features have been introduced into a design which was
originally Gothic of the i«h century. Though sacked by the
Comuneros in 1521 and by the French in 1808. the cathedral is still
one of the richest and most splendid foundations in the Peninsula.
The exterior is masked by adjacent buildings, its most impressive
part being the western facade, flanked by two tower?, of which one
IS unfinished )^iie the other rises to a height of 295 ft. The interior
> five
fside
chapels. Most of the chapels date from the 15th and t6th centuries,
and are very magnificent in detail. The superb stained-glass
windows, chiefly 01 Flemish work, belong to the same period and
number 750. The choir-staUs, placed in alabaster recesses divided
by colutnns of red jasper and white marble, arc among the finest
extant examples of late medieval and Renaissance wood-carving,
though rivalled by the rdablo, which rises behind the high altar to
the roof. The treasury, reliquaries and library, notwithstanding
their repeated despoilings, contain many priceless MSS. and works
of art. including the custodia executed by Enrique de Arfe in 152^.
which is nearly 10 ft. high and is adorned with 260 silver-gift
statuettes. In it is a monstrance, said to have been wrought from
the firtt gold brought home by Columbus, There are primings by
many- masters, including Goya. El Greco, Titian and Rubens. In
the Mozarabic chapel mass and other oflices are still performed daily
according to the Mozarabic liturgy, which was also used in six of
the parish churches until the middle of the 19th century. {See
*^""-'- ^ "'Jthin the precinctH of the cathedral are interred the
^ardinafs Tcnorio. Fonseca. Mondosa. Ximencs.
IS unnnisnoa wiiie tne ocner nscs co a neigni 01 295 ic. 1 ne inicrio
is somewhat dwarfed in appearance by its immense width. It i
395 ft. long by 178 ft. broad, and is divided by 8a pillars into fiv
naves, with central lantern and choir, and a complete series of sId
the great f natahlf AKksio de Luna and a long array of kings ami
heroes. In the principal tower w hung the fampama gor^o. a bell
weighing nearly two tons and said to be audible as far as Madrid.
A huge wooden rattle (malraca) is used to summon worshippers
between Maundy Thursday and the Saturday before Easter.
Apart from the oathcdral, many of the other chinches are of great
interest and beauty. The Fmndscaa convent and chnich oTSaa
Juan de los Reyes (florid Gothic) were founded in 1476 by Ferdinand
and Isabella, who intended the church to be their own burial-pUce:
but after the erection of a royal mausoleum in Granada the fabric
remained iacomplece until the 17th centory. El Cristo de la Luz
was originally a mosque, built m 922 and iooorpotatinf aome pillars
from an older Visigothic church. Santo Tom^ also a rooeque. »as
reconstructed in the Gothic style during the 14th century. El
Cristo de b V^a, formerly known as the Basilica de Santa Leocadia.
occupies the site of a Visigothic church bollt in the 4th century to
mark the burial-place of the saint, whose reputed remaina. like tho!^
of St Eugenius, are enshrined in the catheara^he're several church
councils were held, but the ordinal church was destroyed by the
Moors and the present building dates principally from 1816. The
Mud6jar Santa Maria la Blama became successively a synagogue, in
the lith and 14th centuries, a church (1405), aa asylum for wo
(1550). barracks (17QI-1798) and again a church. El Trinsito, .
Mudijar synagogue {c 1365) was occupied by the knights of Ca'
trava in 1492, and was afterwards dedicated to the Passing {Trdn .
of the Virgin. Its inner walls are adorned with Moorish arabe?.-
It was restored after the ceiling, of cedar inlaid with ivory, had
in 1903. Santiago del Arrabal dates from the 1 ith century ar
Moorish tower. Some admirable Renaissance sculpture is p
in the court and staircase of the former hospital of Sa
(I494-I5ta), which was restored in 1906, to be used as a
library and museum. 1 he HoqMtal de San Jian Bauti
the walls, was founded in 154 1.
Toledo was the scat of a university from 1498 to 1845.
an important educational centre, having numerous eliii%.i
schools, a military academy and a provincial institute: it also co.i
tains the provincul court of justice and several modem hospiiak.
Its characteristic industry is the manufacture of swords, earned oa
by private firms and es(>ecially in the royal factory (1788), which.
like the railway station, is about I m. from the city. T<Aedan blades
have been famous for 2000 yean, the culter toietanus beine men-
tioned in the Cyneg^iea of Grattius (Faliscus), during the ist
century B.C. The indust^ throve under the Moon and especially
during the i6th century; it is now practised on a smaller scale, but
the blades produced are still remarkable for flexibility and strength.
/Tiitory.— Toledo is of immemorial antiquity; Spanish legend
variously ascribes its foundation to Hercules, to Tubal, the grand-
son of Noah, to " Iberia, daughter of Hispanus," and to Jews who,
having been exiled by Nebuchadrezzar, settled here, naming thcl:
city Tolcdolk^ the " city of generation." It v as a stronghold of the
Carpetani and may have been a Carthaginian trading-station.
Livy (xxv. 7) mentions Toletum as urhs pana, sed lo€0 mnr,i:c,
which was captured by the Romans in 193 B.C. Under Roman
rule it became a cotonia and the capital of Carpctania. Various
fragmentary remains have been preserved, including parts of an
aqueduct, of a circus, which seems never to have been complete J.
and of a temple (the so-called Cave of Hercules). Toletum was
never captured by the Vandals. Its ecclesiastical importance
Is coeval with the introduction of Christianity into Spain;
numerous church councils (sec below) were held here, notably
in 396, 400 and 589, and here was the chief battle-ground in the
long political and religious struggle which ended (589) in the
triumph of Spanish Catholicism over Arianism. From the
reign of AtbanagiM (534-S47) until the Moorish conquest in
712, Tbietum was generally regarded as the capital of \'isigothic
Spain. The Moorish chroniclers grow eloquent over the treasures
captured by Musa and his army in 712; these are said to have
included the *' Table of Sohunon," carved from a single flawkss
emerald, and a copy of the Psalms, written upon gold with ink
made from melted rubies. Tdaitota, as the city was now called,
prospered under the Moors, first as a provincial capital in the
caliphate of Cordova, governed by an emir (7t»-T035), after-
wards as an independent state (1035-1085). Its rulers protected
the large Jewish colony, founded extensive silk and «t>oQen
industries, and made their dty an important centre of Arab sod
Hebrew culture, one of the great names associated with it being
that of Rabbi ben Ezra (1(19-1174). The Spanish and Jewi^
inhsbftants adopted the language and many customs of their
conquerors, becoming " Mozarabs," but retaining their own
creeds. In 1085 Alphonso VI. of Leon and Castile captured
Toledo, aided by the Cid, and in 1087 made it his capital. For
TOLL—TOLSTOY, L.
1053
« Ubm the r4Mi>aiam aniibiled the tOote^ '^ ^ couirtcdi
the Jewi weie etpdfed in 1492 tnJ^tiT ">• * •»» ^
lorbsddea (except u church service*) in ^' ' <w •dvan-
•irbbitfaopt of Toledo had bccone alnMiilL fonoeriy
Mcular power; they possessed enoreKMu weavi ''**' ^
them, Mich as the Caxdiiua JimeocB de Cintet. '^ '^
polky ud even kd the «imicto£ all Spain. In 1 "*1
the centre ol the revolt of the C6initi)OY» (see S. '
its conmerdal tad political dedioe dates fn
Philip U. chose Madiid as h» capital The city .
Lope de Vega (i56>-k635) and forms the scene i
draaaas. It sufifeicd severely during the Penin^•
several times occupied by the French in 1808-18 1
. ^ J-^'W*^ ^rf«' ^««»*»* d€ ToUdo (M .
Lynch. Toledo (London. 1898) ; A. F. Calvert, ToUdo
TOLKDO, a dty and port of entry, the count ^
county, Ohio. U.&A., on both banks of the A
about 4 m. from Maumee Bay, Lake Erie, and ab
Cleveland. Ppp. (rgoo), r3i,822, of whom 17K
and 37,8 J3 were foreign-bom. Including 12,373 '
English Canadians, and 1636 English; (1910 c^
Area, a8-57 sq. m. Toledo is served by the A
Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, the Clevel.i
Chicago & St Louis, the Detroit, Toledo & :.
Detroit & Toledo Shore Line, the Hocking Valley,
fc Michigan Southern, the Michi^pui Central, iL .
the Pire Marquette, the Toledo, St Louis & \\i:,urn •
Wabash, and the Wheeling & Lake Erie railways, by a " belt
line " (30 m. long), the Toledo RaUway & Terminal Company,
by ten interurban electric railways (about 585 m.), and by the
Wabash & Erie and the Miami & Erie canals. A channel 400 ft.
wide and ji ft. deep admits the largest vessels from Lake Erie
to the city. Six passenger and freight steamship lines communi-
cate with Cleveland. Buffalo, Sandusky, Detroit. Port Huron,
Alpena, Mackinac, Georgian Bay and other points on the Great
Lakes, and the city has 2$ m. of docks. The city park system
includes Ottawa Park (280 acres), Bay View Park (202 acres),
Riveaide Park (118 acres). Central Giove Park (100 acres).
Collins Park (90 acres), Walbridge Park (67 acres), with a aoo-
logical collection. Navarre Park (53 acres), several smaller parks
and triangles, and a boulevard, 18 m. long (incomplete in igio),
connecting the parks. Noteworthy pubh'c bmldings are the
County Court-house, the Public Library (about 85,000 volumes
in 1910), the Soldiers' Memorial Building, the Toledo Club and
the Toledo Museum of Art (1901). The city is the seal of Toledo
University, including Toledo Medical CoUcge (1880), which is
affiliated, for dinical purposes, with the Toledo Hospital (1876).
Jbere are numerous hospitals and charities.
Toledo is the port of entry for the Miami customs district and is
f " "»»»«*««•*»»«»»? point for the iron and copper ores and lumber
from the Lake Superior and Michiaan regions, for petroleum, coal,
fruit, and grain and clover-sccd. In 1909 the imports of the port
wore valued at I642.286 and the exports at 8600.794. The caoital
invested in manufacturing under the factory syatcm in I905 was
•3».<H3.390 (te-4 % more than that of 1900)/ The valu?6f The
tactoay pioducu to 1905 m *44323/)04 (402 % more than in 1900).
Foundry and machine-shop produrts (84.087.497) were the mo^
valuable manufactures m 190S In flour and grist mill products
(value i«loo5. I3.676.a90) Toledp is the most important cijy of the
state. OthnrM^anM mani^acturcs in 190s were oe^lew.
products
and
plamng
were peirolenm
mill products
ttnictumi iron work (ti .102.035) j agricultursl impfementa. wi^lli^
automobiles (a recent and gmwing industry), plate and cut-glass
(made Urgely from a fine quality of sand found near the city),
tobacco, spices and malted liquors. The building of boats, and of
large vessels is also an important indastiy. At Rossford (pop. about
40Q). a suburb, is the larve plant of the Fofd plate^glaaa worfa. The
water supply is derived from the Maumee river and is filtered bv a
munictpal filtration plant. '
The administrattoo ol the city became famous after 1897 when
SamudMilton Jonn (»«4t IW). a manufaetuier of oU machinery,
was ektted mavor by the Repubhcan party ; he was nselecied on a
■oo-partinntieketin 1899. 1901 and 1003. and introduced bu&incM
metbodi wto the aty government. Hb honesty and sincerity tn
Ueutcnant-oolonel of a regiment of fusiliers, but almost at once
he gave up his commisaioo because be disliked the proceedings
of James II.. and becane cokmel of an Anglo-Dutch irgiment.
usually stationed fai Holland. At the head of his men he landed
in England with William of Orange in 1688 and was made
tovemat of Portsmouth and oolond of the Coldstneam Guanls^
while in 1M9 he was chosen an English member of parliament.
With the CoMstiawna he served William IlL at the battte of
Wakottrt, and then as a maior-ieneral in IreUnd, where in
^9t be gained fame at the battk of Aughrim and at the sieges
> thiooe, Galwtay and Limerick. He then went4o.the Nether^
and added to his high repntation by his conduct at the
of Sccenkirk and Neerwindcn. In 1694 Talmash, as
neraily called, proposed an expedition against Brest,
'ip of which was given to him. The fortifications,
too ationg, and although be led on the English
t giUbMfy they were beaten off with heavy loss.
vaa woiioded, and letaming to Plymouth he
'h of June 1^. He was buried in Helming-
long inscription aummarisea his life.
s-r9i^, Russian novelist and social
^th of September (August s8) 1828, in
naya Fotyana, near Toula— a large
u one) built in a aevcxdy formal
hitravet, standing soliurily in
- Tolstoy family, to whom it
waa originaUy of Geman
^^^^ ^ . n the days of Peter the
boundao- in accordance v..a, ^^^^LH!
asinpofland.aboutsnuwid*! on«kir fwi
wide at its eastern Lj, Trich l"* " ^i. w^
across portions of what ie ^•V" - - T'c^
counties, and including all of w^t I^**' * ■ u.2^
counties, and portioti^"^*^*^- >-. '^'^
Ohio. Within the belt layXSMs^S"'* '-^ ^
importance as a bke port was even tST,?"^'-^^ ^ I
Harru hne " (surveyed in ,817 in^cc^J^"^* -</
of the Slate constitution) as ^nonh^!^T^ ^ •'
Acting on the i«omm'endario„ i'^'^vt):^ '- •'
(I78I-.853), on the 23rd of FebruSy ^ITZ^'V '- '
passed an Act extending the northcii bouni^ **!? ^^' - -
then Wood. Henry and WiHiams^nUeste^**-^ ' '
the disputed strip) north to the Harris li;re!a%JS?2^^ T' ' ^
organisation of new townships within this addS^i?* ^^ '-
for the appointment of three commissioners to«.i^u?L^'."'^
Upon the appointment (March 9. 1835) bv C^^ ***^ ^'^^
of the three commissioners to re-mT'rk tU' m^rri^E^LTo v'"'**
S^t^!*" T .^I^" *>' Michigan ordered out ^.^^^i St ""*'
nuhtia. which near the end of March entered i^dt^j'J^?;"
of Tdedo. A division of Ohio miliUa marcheS Tp^^X^'
on the Maumee river, about 10 m. souih of Toledo S^Ti^.^
miliUas disbanded when Richard Rush, of PhH^ScioWa ^nA
Benjamin C Howard, of Baltimore, appean^d at Tokdo a*' ^^^^
emissaries, appointed by President Jackson. In April kem^
members of the party accompanying the Ohio commission's
were arrested by Michigan mUilia. In June the Ohio lc^la?ure
created Lucas county, mostly from the disputed territory, and
made Toledo its county-scat. President Jackson now weed
Michigan to discontinue interfering with the re-marking of the
Hanis hoe. and requested Ohio to postpone putting into effect
the Act of Febrtiary 183s; but as petty outbreaks continued
throughout the summer and an Ohio judge and court officers at
Toledo were arrested in September, he peremptorily removed
Govcnjor Mason from office. In June 1836 Congress decided
the dispute in favour of Ohio, and in 1837 Michigan was admitted
to the Union as a state upon condition of relinquishing all claim
to the disputed territory, but received what is now known as the
Upper Peninsula (the land between Lakes Superior, Huron and
Michigan).
TOLEDO, COUNCILS OF— TOLL, J. K.
1052
TOLEDO, OOUllCIId OF {Concilia Mdana). From the 5th to
Ihc x6th century about thirty synods, variously counted, were
held at Toledo in Spain. The earliest, directed against Priscil-
lianism, assembled in 400. The " third " synod of 589 marked
the epodi-maldng conversbn of King Reccared from Arianism
to Roman Catholicism. The '* fourth/' in 633, probably vnder
the presidency of the noted Isidore of Seville, regulated many
matters of discipline, decreed uniformity of liturgy throughout
the kingdom and took stringent measures against baptized Jews
who had relapsed into their former faith. The *' twdf th "
council in 681 assured to the archbishop of Toledo the primacy of
Spain. As nearly one hundred early canons of Toledo found a
place in the Decrelum Gratianit they exerted an imporunt
influence on the development of ecclesiastical law. The sjmod
of 1 565 and 1 566 concerned itself with the execution of the decrees
ol Trent; and the last council of Toledo, that of 1582 and 1583,
was so guided in detail by Philip II. that the pope ordered the
name of the royal cornmissioner to b« expunged from the
acts.
See Cantmes apostalorum tt eoncHiorum saeciJoruM, tv., v., vt., vif.,
rec. H. T. Bruns, pars prior (Berlin. 1839). critical text of seventeen
councils of Toledo (a.d. 400-694) ; P. B. Gams. Die Kirchemasckachie
von Spanien (Rcgemburg. 1 862-1 879); £. H. Landon, A Manual of
the Councils of the Holy Catholic Church, revised ed. (London, 1893),
151-169. Tneac two summarize the chief canons. Nehcr, in
Wetxer and Welte's Kirrhenlexicon (1855-1857), vol. xi. (»nd ed.
Frdburg. 1899), gives a 1st of 29 syaoda. (W. W. R.*)
TOLEHTmO (anc. Tdentinum Picenumj, a town of the
Marches, Italy, in the province of Macerata, ix m. by rail W. by
S. ot that town. Pop. (1901), 5111 (town), 13,197 (commune). It
is situated on the Chienti, 735 ft. above sea-level, and was once
a fortified town of great strength. The cathedral has a fine
portal by the Florentine Giovanni Rosso (1435), and contains
the remains of S Nicholas of Tolenlino (d. 1309), whose
Renaissance tomb and frescoes iDustrating the life of the saint
by Lorenzo and Jacopo da San Severing are preserved in a room
adjoining the chapel iiorth of the high altar. The church of San
Catervo contains the early Christian sarcophagus of that saint,
which is embellished with curious reliefs. The Museo CIvico
contains antiquities discovered during excavations near the
town (in 1880-1884) in the Picenc necropolis, dating from the
8th-4th centuries B.C. The town fa the birthplace of the
condotticre Niccolo Mauruzzi, and of the learned Francis
Philelplnn, one of the first disseminators of classical literature,
who was bom in 1398. At Tolenlino the treaty Was made
between Bonaparte and the pope in 1797, by which the pope
ceded Avignon; and here in 1815 a battle was fought in
which the French under Murat were defeated by the Austrians.
TOLERATION (from Lat. tcierare^ to endure), the allowance
of freedom of action or Judgment to other people, the patient
and unprejudiced endurance of dissent from one's own or the
generally received course or view.
TOLFA, a town of the province of Rome, Italy, to m. B.N.E.
of Civitavecchia by road, 1558 ft. above sea^levd. Pop. (1901),
3956. It is the chief place in the Tolfa Mountains, an extinct
volcanic group between Civitavecchia and the Lake of Bracdano.
Vapours are emitted which deposit sulphur and alum, and
some mining is carried on. The output of alum averages 4000
to sooo tons a vear, and is mostly exported from CivitavMdda.
TOLL. JOHAN KRfSTOFFER, Coum (i 743-1817), S^pedish
statesman and soldier, was bom at MdllerOd in Scania. Toll
>came of a very andent family, of Dutch origin, which can be
traced back to the r3th, but migrated to the Baltic prafvinces
in the i6th century. ToU's father was one of Charies Xn.*s
warriors, his mother a descendant of the aristocratic Gyel-
lenstjemas. In his youth Johan Rristoffer served in the Seven
Years' War, and then, exchanging the military for the dvil
service, became head ranger of the county of Kristianstad.
During the riksdagof 177 1-1773 the dominant '*Caps" deprived
h!n of Us post, and ToD, shiewdly guessng that the king was
"" _j,a tevolulion, almost forced his services on the con-
^ Coran Magnus Sprengtporten (f.v.) declaring that a
r so much of thdr most secret plans must either
" be kiHed or aqoaftd.'* To "EbU iras MsSgned by f ar the most
difficult part of the enterprise. It was his bndncss to secure
the important southern fortress of Kristianstad. Two days
after the coronation, on the 31st of May 1771, he set forth from
Stockholm wHh twenty^two pounds wherewith to oonmpt a
garrison and revolt a province. He had no sort of credentials,
and the little that was known about him locally from the official
point of view ivas not to hfa credit. Finally, in the fortress
itself there was but one man known to be a aafe royalist, namdy,
Captain Abraham Hellichius. On the aist of June ToU readied
Kristianstad. By sheer bluff ToU first won over BdlichHis, and,
six weeks later (August xi), the whole garrison of Kristian-
stad, arresting the few officers who proved tecakitraot; taking
possession of the records and military chest, and closing the
gates in the face of the ** Cap " hi^ commissioner who hid
been warned by the English minisfer, John Gooderich, that some-
thing was afoot in the south. Seven days later Gustavus Ill.'s
coup d^Hat at Stockhoim completed the revolutfon. Toll was
liberally rewarded and more and more frequently emplo}^
as his genius as an administrator and fus blamdcss integrity
came to light. His reforms in the commissariat department
were epoch-nuking, and the superior mobility of the Swedish
forces under Gustavus III. was due entirely to his Initiative.
But it was upon Toll's boundless audacity that Gustavus chiefiy
relied. Thus as Gustavus, imder the pressure of drciunstances,
inclined more and more towards absolotbm, it was npon TcH
that he prindpally leant. In 1783 ToQ was placed at the head
of the secret " Commission of National Defence " which nikd
Sweden during the king's absence abroad without the privity
of the senate. It was he who persuaded the king to stunmoB
the riksdag of 1786, which, however, he failed to control, and ia
all Gustavus's plans for fordng on a war with Russia Toll t^as
initiated from the first. In 1786 he had already risen to the
rank of major-general and was Gustavus's prindpa] adjutant.
It was against Toffs advice, however, that Gustavus, in 17??,
began the war with Russia. Toll had always insisted tlwt,
in such a contmgency, Sweden should be militarily as wdl :^
diplomatically prepared, but this was far from being the case.
Nevertheless, when the inevitable first disasters happened,
ToU was, most unjustly, made a scapegoat, but the later suc-
cesses of the war were largely due to his care and diligence as
commissary-general. After the death of Gostavus III. TcB
was for a short time war minbter and commander-in-diief in
Scania and, subsequently, was sent as ambassador to Waisaw.
Unjustly involved in the so^aBed "Armfelt conspiracy," he
was condemned to two years* imprisonment; but was fuUy
reinstated when in 1796 Gostavus IV. attained his majority.
At the riksdag of NorrkSping, 1800, he was elected marshal of
the Diet, and led the royalist party with consumnate abilhy.
On thb occasion he forced the mutinous riddarkus to accept
the detested *Act of Union and Security** by thre&tenins
to reveal the names of all tfic persons suspected of complicity
in the murder pf the late king. Subsequently he displayed
great diplomatic adroitness fat his negotiations with the powers
concerning Sweden's partid^tion in the war against Napole<»L
In the Pomeranian campaign of 1807 Toll assisted in the defence
of Stralsund. The fortress was compelled to surrender on the
10th of August by Marshal Brune, whereupon the Swedish
army of 13,000 men, which had retired to RQ^en, aeeraed Irre-
trievably lost. It was saved by Toll, who cajoled the French
marshal into a convention whereby the Swedish amy, with
all its mnnitionfe of war, was permitted to retura immolestcd
to Sweden (September 7). For thb expMt T^ received his
marshal's bflton. It was hi the camp of ToD, then actirg
commander>in-chief in Scania, that Gustavus IV. was about to
take refuge when the western army rebdlod against him, but be
was arrested in the capital before he-could do so. Toll retained
his high position under Bcmadotle, who. in 1814, created him a
count. He died unmarried.
See R. Nishct Bain. Custaxms lit. and his Conltrnporaria fLocidon.
1895) : K. N. Lili^fcrona. Fdltmarskalkfn Crtfsr J. K. rWI{Stockbo«ni,
t849-i89>)- (1^ N. tt.)
f
TOLL—TOLSTOY, L.
1053
TOiL (fiym^XotMly, that which ii nttmbered or coiffltcd;
from a common Teutonic form, cf. *' Ule/' ** tell "), a sum of
money paid for the use and enjoyment of a privilege or advan*
tage. In England it ia now uaudly a sum of money ; but formerly
tolls in kind were frequent. Among the sins o£ the Miller in
Chaucer's Prologue is that be could " toUen thryet," 'm that ht
was clever enough and rogue enough to subtract thnoe the legal
allowance from the com he ground. In a note to the Heart
of MidloUriant Scott asserts that the name of Lockman given in
Old Scots to the hangman was because he was entitled to take a
lock or fixed toll out of every boU of meal exposed in the markoi
for sale. An act of 1796 for the rcgdaUoa of mUb, substituting
a money payment for toUa of com ia kind taken by maUera,
makes an exceptton for tolls taken by custom in soke mills.
The Weights and Measures Act 1878 enacts that ali lolls are
to be chargeii and collected, according to imperial weights
and measures.
The word "ton" in early times had various mcaninj^s, thus
tc i» defined by Glanville as the liberty of buying and selling in one's
own land: " Im, fnod nos toeaifnii thdcntum, uUtui UbtrUUem emnidi
et vendendi in terra sua. It also ai^^mfied the right to be free of toll,
but this implies a more general signification 01 the term, the right
to take and the thing so taken, it formed the most obvious mured
of revenue m the early English boroughs; goods coming to market
or passiag thtcwgh the borough, paid toll, to this extent the practice
still exists in various European countries under the name of octroi
(q.v.). IMvate lords also levied tolls, but these in no case were
levied theoreticnUy at pleasure, all ultimately depending upon some
real or feigned grant from the Crown. Imposts by the Crown an
more properly taxes, though the name was fmiuently used, a* in
mo^foie.anarbitnuyaod vexatious impost kivicd till Edward lll.'s
time, usoafty on wooL Such payments might bring freodom from
other exactions. We team ftom Domesi^y Book that the men of
Dover who pakt thfc lung's does there were quit of toll throughout
all England. Many cubtcquent charters granted the like, or even
greater immunities from toll to favoured loUc In modem English
law toll is either an incident of a franchise, as of a market or lair,
or is independent of franchise. In the tatter case it is claimed by
prescriptkm. *s toll tr a ve n e or toll thorough, or b created by act
of parfaamcnt, as in the case of turapikcs. railways, harbourSk navig*
able rivers and canals. Toll traverse is paid for passing over a
private way, bridge or ferry. No consideration need be proved.
Toll thorough is paid for the use of a highway. In this case, if
chac^ by a private person, some consideration, such aa repair of
the highway, must be shown, as soch a toll ia against common rif bt.
At common law a toll must be reaaonable. The same principle
appears in various acts of pariiament. The Statute of Westminster
tne First inflicts a penalty for taking excessive tolL The Railway
Clauses Act 1845 provklc* for the equality of tolls, that is, that an
persona and daates of goods shall in like drcumataaces be treated
alike aa to cbargea. A right of distress is incident to the right to
toll, but the distress cannot be sold unless an act of parliament
exiMressly authorises the sale. Tolls are not rateable, unless they
are appurtenant to land. Exemption from tolls may be claimed by
the prerogative, by grant or prescription, or by act of parliament.
The king and queen oooaort pay no toll, and tne Crown may gnnt
to another exemption from toll. Turnpike tolls, 'bridge money and
causeway ma3 were abolished in Scotland by the Roads and Bridges
Act 1878 as from the ist of June 1883. In England tolb on
loads and bridges are now oely payable in a few places.
la the United Sutes tolls are a subject for sUte legislation, unless
they affect the whole commonwealth, when they are dealt with by
acts of congress. A city may k;vy reasonable tolls in a market
esublahed by itadf. A skunpike, or rtnd constructed to facilitate
evasion of toils on a tantpike road, may be ck>sed by injunction.
The oucstion of tolls was at one time an important one in inter-
national law. Tolls were exacted on certain straits and tidal rivers
by virtue of the sovereignty of a particular state. Notable instances
weiv the Scheldt tolls and the Sound dues levied by Denmark.
These faMt were |ostified as a return for the lights maintained on
the coast and the terror to pirates inspired by the castle of EUoore.
In 1659, owing to the united efforts 01 England, France and Holland,
an. unvarying rate was arranged.
See Pollock and Maitland, Bistary of Bm^isk lam (189O: IVaae
and Chitty, MiarkoU and fairs (1899); Cunningham. Grvmlk of
Enffisk Indtuiry and Commarco (1903).
TOLLEMACHB (or Taucasb), TROIIAS («. i«5i-i694>,
British soldim*. was the second ton of Sir Lionel ToUcmache,
Bart. (d. 1668), of Helmingham, Suffolk, although an idle report
of the time made his mother, Elizabeth Murray (d. 1698), after-
wards countess of Dysart gnd duchess of Lauderdale, the mistress
of Oliver Cromwell. In 1678 he became captain in the Guards,
with whadi he served in Tangier, and in 1685 be was made
lieutcoaat-ooionel of a tegiroent of fusiliers, but almost at once
he gave up his commission because be disliked the proceedings
of James II., and became cok>nel of an Anglo-Dutch regiment,
usually stationed in Holland. At the head of his men he landed
in England with William of Orange in 1688 and was made
govemoc of Portsmouth and ootond of the Coldstream Guards,
while in 1689 he was choeen an English member of parliament.
With the Coldsticams he served William IIL at the battle of
Waloourt, and then as a major-general in Ireland, where in
1691 be gained fame at the battle of Aughrim and at the sieges
of Athhme, Galway and Limerick. He then went4o.the Nether*
lands and added to his high rep«tatk>n by his conduct at the
battles of Sicenkirk and Neerwinden. In 1694 Talmash, as
he was generally calkd, proposed an cxpeditk>n against Brest,
the leadership of which was given to him. The fortifications,
however, were too stronc, and although he led on the English
troops with great gaUaatiy they were beaten off with heavy loss.
Talmash himself was wounded, and returning to Plymouth he
died then on the 1 2th of June 1^. He was buried in Helming^
ham church, where a long inscription summariaea his life.
TOUTOY, LBO (i8a8-;f9io), Russian novelist and social
reformee, was born on the 9th of September (August s8) 1828, in
the home of his fathersr^ Yasnaya Polyana, near Toula— a large
country beuao (not the present one) built in a severely formal
ityte, with Doric pillars and architraves, standing solitarily in
a typical Rusttaa landscape. The Tolstoy family, to whom it
had beloti9ed lor several generations, was originally of Gennan
eatiaction, and had settled in Russia in the days of Peter the
Great. The first ancestor of distinction was Petr Andreevich
Tolstoy (9.*.). Hisdescendant Nicholas (the father of the great
author) waa bom in 1797. After serving for a short time ia
the army he retired in 1824, and led the life of a Russian boyar.
By his marrisgB with the princesa Maria Voikonsky, Count
Nicholas in a great measure rebuilt the family fortuoee, which
had fallen into decay during the two previous decades^ Count
Leo Tobtoy was the youngest but one of the five children of
this marriage, and hM his mother when he was barely thiec
years oU. Six years later his iather died alio, at the age of
fonr<»e. As a child, Tolstoy, though observant and thougfatfol,
showed no marked talent. He was plain and very sensitive oo
the point, suffering keenly for want of notice and aliection. Thia
sensitiveness led him u he grew oUer to hide himself away from
his playmates and spend hours in lonely brooding. He describee
in CkiUkood how, one day, it dawned suddenly upon hia mind
that Death waa ever lying in wait, and that to be ^^m^^^^^
happy one must enjoy the present, unconoecned with *""***'
the future. Whereupon the youthful Epicurean flung aside bla
books and pencils, and, stretched on his bed, fell to tnunching
s we etm eats and reading fomanecs. But Tolstoy's cbiklhood
was not without its share of wholesome pleasure. Hunting
and shooting, theddight of the Russian noble, occupied much
of his father's Icbuie, and from his earliest ycais the boy was
wont to accompany his paxenL At other times he was quite
happy sitting beside his lather's coachman on an expedition
to one of the neighbouring towns, or with his brothers running
in and out of the stables and coach-houses. The tedium of the
schoolroom and the reproofs of his tutor made a reverw side to
the pktorc, but did not prevent this fund of early memories
from being, as he writes, " ever to be treasured, and fondled
again and again* serving as a well-apring from which to draw
my choicest treasures." After his father's death at Moscow,
in r837, Tolstoy and his brothers wen placed under the guardian^
ship of his aunt, the countess Osten-Sacken, and in the care
of Mme Ergolskaya, a disunt relative. The former died,
however, in 1840, and the charge devolved on another aunt,
Mme Jushkov, who lived in Kaxan. Mine Jushkov was
a typical Russian lady of her class. Keeping open hbase,
food of gaiety and sodety, her kleas on moral qucstwns wen
liberal in the extreme. Tolstoy was eleven years oU when
he became subject to her influence— an bifiuence which he
subsequently regarded as having been the reverse of beneficial.
A French tutor was engaged for him and his brothen, prior
I054.
TOLSTOY, L.
to their entrance into the university of Kazan. Outside the
hours of study Tolstoy spent his days either in solitary rambles,
during which he reflected on the problems of life, or in violent
exercise at the gymnasium (the only form of athletics enjoyed
by boys of his position u Russia). Thus the physical and
philosophical impulses of bis nature were developed in equal
measure, and these two conflicting forces began their lifelong
duel. Only m later years has the philosopher sometimes seemed
to outwei^ the man of action in Tolstoy's vigorous personality.
In r843, at the age of fifteen, he entered the university of
Ka2an« and. gained with his college cap and uniform what he
AiCaOtmt P"**** most, his independence. The lax rule of the
^'^** uni«crsily-*whlch was of no high scholastic repute,
giving ready admittance to the sons of the rich and noble'—
enabled him at the same time to enter the world of society and
SI udy its complex problems at leisure. Kazan was in those days a
real paradise for such as sought happiness In^sodal excitement,
dining and dancing. No city in Russia was so given up to the
pursuit of pleasure. Among these scenes of luxury and licence
the students play&d a promment part. Amid such influences the
boy soon ripened into the man. The constant soceession of balls,
picnics and parties wearied and disgusted him. The pages of
Youth are eloquent of deadly ennui. He is for ever seeking
' ■ Her," engaged in an undefined ** pursuit of the Well-beloved,"
with a half spiritual, half physical longing. At intervals in this
quest of the unknown he devoured the novelists of his day,
chiefly Dumas and Eugdne Sue. He already thought deeply on
the object of existence; forming new ideals, aspiring to noble
deeds, seeing himself in imagination now a passionate lover,
BOW a leader of men. He was always trying to be original,
and to tread unbeaten tracks. Partly In consequence of this
feeling, he determined to enter the school of Eastern laoguages.
His first attempt was unsuccessful, but finally passing in through
the medium of a supplemental examination, he took up Arabic
and Turkish. These studies, however, proved uncongenial
to his versatile nature, and failing to distinguish himself in
them, he turned his attention in 1845 to the- school of bw. Here
he met with equal discouragement. The professors— -all Ger*
mans, and many of them not knowit^ enough Russian to make
themselves understood— were favourite butts for the students'
wit. There was practically no serious teaching, nor any per*
sonal intersst shown in the pupils. Tolstoy's evil genius had
once more cast blm in stony places and left him to work out his
own salvation. History, religion and law now claimed his
attention in his final efforts to gain the university diploma.
In religion his opinions had undergone a great change. From
the child's umhinking acquiescence in a hereditary faith had
sprung absolute unbelief. History he held a useless form of
knowledge. " Of what avail," he said, '* to know what happened
a thousand years ago ? " Hence he neglected the lectures on
these subjects, absented himself from the examinations, was
confined in the university gaol for irreguhur attendance, and
ended by coming out but moderately well in the yeady ex-
amination. The conviction that he was wasting his time forced
itself upon hbn. An idle, dissipated life had told upon his
health, and early in 1847 Tolstoy asked permission to go down,
" on account of ill health and private reasons." Thus ended his
college life, which from an educational point of view he had
treated as a jest. Somewhat of an enigma as he was to his
companions, with his alternate fits of feverish, gaiety and melan-
choly abstcadfon, aristocratic hauteur and liberal views, there
was yet found a little band of student! to accompany him
on the first stage of his journey homewards. While probably
admiring the original bent of his mind, they little dreamed their
late comrade would one day be acclaimed as Russia's greatest
thfaiker and novelist.
Tolstoy weot back to his estates with fresh hope and energy,
determined to aaieborate the condition of his peasantry and fulfil
n» the duties of a landlord. RumoucB had reached
reirtMrf hiss at Kaaan from time to time of the recurring
iftormv, ftunines, revolts and miseries of the serfs. In 1847.
a» r'* — ^-' '^-^ crops faited to suffice for the needs of the
starving people, and whole districts set forth to pecitaon the
tsar for food. Here was a vital problem requiring pftMipc
solution. In the course of desultory reading at the university
he had studied the writings of Jean Jacques Roasscau, and the
Frenchman's plea for Nature, honest work and simplicity of
life, had impressed him greatly. Fired with enthusiasm, be
now entered heart and soul 00 the task of realizing this ideaL
Unfortunately, he was as yet without mffident moral stamina
to withstand recurring disap^ntments and to combat the
suspicions of the serfs. The youthful reformer lacked the
patience necessary to deal with the deep-rooted m^rust
engendered by years of oppression and ncgtect. After six months
of struggle with this discouraging state of things be temporarily
gave dp the attempt, and we fixid him in St Petersburg taldog
up for a time the broken llireads of his education. But with
the restlessness of transition strong upon^him he soon retained
to country life, and in company with his brother Scrgios
gave himself up to hunting, gambling,, carouung with Zigani
dancers, and throwing all serious thouishts to the winds. 7A<
Landlord's Morning may be taken as a picture of this stage
of Tolstoy's life. The inevitable reaction soon came. Op-
pressed by debts and difficulties, in the spring of 1851 he
betook himself to the Caucasus, where his eldest brother
Nicholas was stationed with his regiment. At Pyatigorsk, at
the foot of the mountains, be rented a cottage for about
twelve shillings a month, and lived there with the utmost
frugality.
Finally his brother's persuasions, aided by the influence
of relations in high places, led him to enter the army. He
passed the necessary examination at TifUs, and
joined the artillery in the autumn of the year. ^JaJiT
At that time Russia was much disturbed by the
lawlessness of the Caucasian races. Bands of Circassians
Were constantly on the move, plundering and looting. The
punitive expeditions in which Tolstoy took part were his fiist
taste of warfare. Neither his military duties nor bis love ol
sport entirely absorbed hiift, however. The great power which
had hitherto lain dormant now awoke. He began to write, and
within the next few .years produced some of his finest works.
Nekrassov, the editor of the Russian CwUemfonry, accepted
Childhood, the young author's maiden effort. In accordance
with the commoa practice, he received nothing for the I^SS.
Publication of a first attempt was considered ample payment in
those days. Tolstoy was now twenty-four years of age. Chiid-
hood was followed by The Landlord's Morning, Bcykood and
Youlh, in quick succession. His early aspirations were revived
in these pages, which reflect the doctrines of Rousseau. " \'<m
neither know what happiness is nor what life Is," he writes to
expostulating friends. " Once taste life in all its natural beauty,
happiness will consist in being with Nature, seeing her, commun-
ing with her." His philosophy notwithstanding, Tolstoy felt s
pardonable desire for promotion, which was slow in coming to
him. Some verses ascribed to him (an authorship never denied)
making fun of the general during the siege of Sebastopol, which
appeared in print, may possibly have had something to answer
for. Be that as it may, the spirit of unrest and dissatisfac-
tion was moving Tolstoy to return home, when nunoors of
hostilities arose, and the Crimean War burst into flame. He
promptly volunteered for active service, and asked to be allowed
to join the army on the Danube, under the Gomnuukd of Prince
Gortchakov.
In the early part of 1854 we find him encamped before the
walls of SiUstria, a town of Bulgaria, which Gortchakov had
invested. At the very height of the bombardment,
however, Austrian intervention prevailed, and the
siege 'was raised. The din of battle was hushed and
revelry took its place. At the ball which promptly celebrated
the event Toktoy felt ill at ease. The joyous music and babd
of tongues jarred on his sensitive ear, fresh from the moans of
the wounded and dying. He went up to the prince and asked
leave to start for Sebastopol. Permia^on being granted, he
hastened frosn the ballroom, and left SiUstria witbout dday.
TOLSTOY. U
toss
He sour achanged tin oieuitv for tho dofmrivB. Shot ud
shell fdl like haibtooei on the baaUons of Scbastopbl. Counge,
fortitude, presence of mind were at every noment demanded,
while assault followed assault, until at last the overwhelouBg
strength of tlie allies compelled the Russians Co eetroat. Through*
out that tiying time Tolstoy cheered hb companions, whiling
away many a ' weary hoar with jest and story. Amid this
" wrackful siege of battering days *' he wrote those Tales from
Scbasicpd which earned him instant literary celebrity, and
caused the emperor Nicholas to issue special orders that he should
be removed from a post of danger. An official despatch recount-
ing the events of tiie siege was next written by Tolstoy at the
command of his superior officer, and with the charge of this
document he was shortly afterwards sent to St Petersburg.
He was never again on the field of battle.
Tolstoy returned home with new impressions. Sad at heart
and sick of the horrors of war, he came back with a feeling of
brotherly love for the common soldiers, whom he
^ had seen day by day doing quiet deeds of courage
and devotioft, fighting for their country without
hope of reward, without fear of death. He contrasted
them with the more self-seeking not)les, and felt their supe>
riority. The stirring scenes through which he had passed, the
simple faith of his men, all had helped to renew his belief in
God. . Preceded by the fame of his descriptions of Sebastopol
and the Caucasus, he arrived in St Petersburg to find himself
the object of a general ovation. The Sovremennik {C&Httm-
porary), in which Tolstoy*s first work, CkiUikood,hiid appeared,
numbered among its contributors the foremost writers of the
day. To be admitted to their ranks was considered by them an
honour equivalent to the award of a fauUuil in the French
Academy. They welcomed Tobtoy with open arms, the veteran
novelist, Turgeniev, in particular hastening to greet him on his
arrival, and begging him to make his house his home. Society
was equally eager to open its doors to the young soldier-author.
His vivid and dramatic pictures of the war had been widely
read and had created a profound sensation. The great official
world of St Petersburg proceeded to offer him a brilliant series
of entertainments in which he found himself the central figure.
It is not surprising that this combined adulation from literary
men and society overcame for a time the growing asceticism
of his character. Yet it also in a measure hastened its develop-
ment. Even while borne swiftly on the current of pleasure,
his stnenuovs nature gradually reasserted itself. In the pages
of Uy Cpmfatia* Tolstoy describes the phases of this mental
unrest. The narrowness of a literary clique soon became irk-
some to his dominant character. His passionate desire for
truth brought him into frequent conflict with those who paid
more regard to convention. With Turgcniev especially he
found himself constantly at variance. A ifriendship between
natures so diametrically opposite, between two men who might
be described as leaders respective^ of the old and the new school
of thought, could not long subsist. Mutual admiration does
not imply sympathy. Turgeniev presently wrote to a friend,'
'* I regret I cannot draw nearer to Tolstoy, our views are so
opposed, the one to the other." And these differences of opinion
gradually led to a complete estrangement. On the other hand,
in Fet. the poet, he found a lifelong friend. Otheis of his inti-
mites were Nekrassov, the editor oi the ConUmporary, already
mentioned; Katkov, the celebrated journalist; Droushinine,
Grigocovitch, Fet, and Ostrovski, the dramatist.
While Tolstoy was thus waking to a sense of distaste for his
env iro nm e nt, a great event was pending. With the accession
i^atim oi Alexander U. in 1855 a wave of progressive policy
f^yi ir —set in motion by the tsar himself—stirred the
M0rtm«aL |>uiiea)tcratic circles of Russia, and while fiercely
icatsted by some of the nobility, met generally with cordial
encouragement. The emancipation of the serfs became the
homing question. " The People I " and " Progress I " were
the cries quickly caught up by the press of Russia and of
Germany also. It was in Germaay, indeed, that the novel of
humlik IKe ipiiBg into being, Gotthelf leading the way with has
\tak»,UUtk$Sa(fuiAUUlk€T€iianL Auerbach foOoncd with
hU village stories, which opened a new world of thought; Stiftec
and a host of others brought up the rear. This new impulse in
literature soon spread to Russia. Turgeniev in his $Porlsman*s
r«/er, Grigorovitch in The Village and AnUm Coremka, showed
their sympathy with the moujik. But above all others, Tolstoy
was. most deeply and lastingly affiled. Awakened by this
echo from without of hb own inmost yearnings, he realized at
last the true bent of hb mind. " The People " became hb
watchword. One increasing purpose henceforth ruled hb life,
and gradually brought into harmony the inequalities and con-
tradictions of hb character. Roused from the inertia which had
been caused by nerves and hypochondria, he wrote Folikoushka,
a pninful story dealing with the ilb of serfdom. Hb active
brain then turned to considering the meaning and scope of the
catchword " Progress," and fully to do thb be determined to go
abroad and study the educational and municipal systems of
other cottotiies. He finally started for Germany in January 1857.
Tobtoy only three times crossed the Russian frontier, and
these journeys were all between 1^57 and 1861. On hb first
tripv Germany and Italy were huinedly visited. He
also made n short stay in Parb, which had attrac-
tions for him in the society of several Russian friends,
among whom were NekrasMv and Turgeniev. With the latter
he had not yet come to open rupture. From Parb he went to
Lnoieme. An incident which occurred there, and is reproduced
in hb sessi-aulobiogrsphical lauernSt shows the workings of hb
spirit. He ieUs how a wandering musician stood one day in the
hotel courtyard, and after hb performance asked in vain for
alms front iho comiMal crowd aasemhled- Tobtoy, in the person
of the hero, thet indignantJiy came to the rescue, brought the
poor minttid into the hotd, and, moved to wrath with the
churiish wmiters who were unwilling to serve him, ordered n
private room where he himself supplied hb guest's wants^ and
sent him away happy with a double lining to >hb pockets. Of
hb avcocaaive joioneys westwards, tke third alone was of long
duration and of cocreBponding importance in iu results. Prior
to thb last visit to fofci^i parts, fab time was spot between
Yasnays Pol]wm and Moscow, often in the company of his
frfend FeL On n bear-hunt together, Tobtoy narrowly escaped
death, an incident wUcb he graphically describes in hb Fmfth
Reading-book for CkiUrtn (soth ed., 1900, &c). Fet also
mentions it m hb BmnmsceMes, Hb departure was finally
hastened by the serious iUneas of hb brother NicboUs, who had
gone to France to recruit hb failing hcakh. Tobtoy, after halt-
ing in Berlfai and Dresden, joined him, but only to eadure the
grief of witnessing hb end. Nicholas died on the soth of Sep-
tember 1860, and Tolstoy's letters of that period show how deeply
he was affected by the death of fab brother. It gave a yet more
serious turn to hb thoughts. In a letter to Fet he reverts to his
old trouble, the enigma of life. " In truth." he writes, *' the
position in which we stand b tertible>" Thb mental gloom
probably still hong over him during hb wanderings through
Italy. There b no lecord of fab iropresoions of Rome, Naples.
Floienoe. Taming hb footsteps northwards, however, he began
to take renewed interest in social conditions, elementary and
monastic education, and Che general subject of his quest. From
Phris (where Iris friend spoke of him as "singular indeed,
but subdued and kindly ") he went to London in t86i, no
noteworthy Incident marking hb brief visit.
The spring of 1861 found him onoe more at Yasoajra Polyana,
wfiere some little time before he had foiesuUed the Emancipa-
tion Act by freeing all the serfs on that esUte. Hec^Miihui
now . began digesting the mass of information he &»#««-
had acquittd abroad, eager to put hb ideas into**'^
practkre. The feelings with which he reviewed his expe-
riences were largely those of disappointment. Of the edu-
cational systems of Italy, FVanoe and Germany, that of the
last-named country alone earned his partial approval. WTiile
there he visited the univccsitiea, prisons and working-men's
clubs. He made the acquaintance of Auerbach, and was greatly
influenced by his ideas on village schoob. He was also mttrk
1056
TOLSTOY, L.
impressed by the novel institutkm of the kindergarten, to which
Frdbel, th« great educationist, was devoting all his energies.
Determined to follow these lines, he sought and obtained per^
mission to open a school In his zeal he also started an edu-
cational journal called Yasnaya Polyana. This journal now only
exists as a literary curiosi^, but the essays published in it have
all been reprinted in his coilccted works. The time for opening
the school was well chosen. The liberal spirits of Russia had
gained the day and won a great victory. Just two months
previously the decree of emancipation (February x86i) had been
sent forth. The air was rife with schemes for the betterment of
the peasantry. A new era seemed to have begun. Tolstoy's
school was essentiaUy " free." "Everything that savours of
compulsion is harmful," he said, "and proves either that
the method is Indifferent or the teaching bad." So that not.
only wcrelio fees paid, but the children came and went as they
pleased, learned what they pleased, and were subjected to no
sort of punishment. It was the duty of the teacher to fix the
pupils' attention, and his the blame if they failed to learn.
" The student," said Tolstoy " must have the right to refuse
those forms of education which do not satisfy his instincts.
Freedom is the only criterion. We of the older generation do not
and cannot know what is necessary for the younger." . On these
principles the Yasnaya Polyana school was started in a house
near that of Tolstoy. He himself taught drawing, singing and
Bible history. The Old Testament was his handbook; he held
it as indispensable in any course of instruction, a modid for all
books. Doubts and fears sometimes assailed him, still for a 3rear
all went well. Other schools were opened on the same lines in
the district, and success seemed assured. But the eyes of the
government mspectors had long been suspiciously fixed on them,
and a correspondence on the subject presently ensued between
the ministry of education and the home department. The
verdict passed by. the former was free from overt animus.
" The activity of Count Tolstoy deserves respect and should
win co-operation from the educational department, although it
cannot agree with all his ideas; ideas which he will in all proba-
bility abandon on due consideration " (October 1863). Yet there
was a subtle threat conveyed in thcK last words which was
probably not without effect. Signs of discouragement grew
visible. We find the enthusiast complaining that his masters
desert him, his pupils fall away. The plague of inquisitive
visitors annoys hinu At the end of the second year the schools
were closed, the journal discontinued, and Tobtoy, disheanened
and sick, " more," as he writes, " in mind than body/' betook
himself to the healthful quiet of the steppes, to breathe fresh air^
to drink koumiss and to -vegetate. This was the end of his
educational experiment, the aim of n^ch was rather to develop
the character than to educate in the ordhiary sense of the term.
When later be juked leave from the aathorities to reopen the
schools, it was peremptorily refused.
» His socialistic theories were now fully unfolded. In his view
the people were everything, the higher classes nothing. The
Utter had mismterpreted the meaning of " progress," imagining
it to be synonymous with education; and hence compulsory
teaching had been resorted to, with harmful results. Reading
and writing played but a small part in forming a man's mind and
fitting- him for life. They merely rendered him more articulate.
These questions shouM be left to tbe people themselves;
Their demands were -very clearly expressed. They knew what
they wanted, and were thorou^y convinced that " in the great
question of their spiritual development they would neither take
a wrong step nor accept that which was false." Such was in
substance Tobtoy's doctrine. " The people," he affirms, " axe
stronger, more independent, more just, more human, and, above
all, more necessary than the upper class. It is not they who
should come to our schools; we should learn of them." This
desire to Mbvert society is akin to the phlkMophy of Rousseau,
as expressed In £,mUc (livre iv.): —
" Cest le peuple qui compose le eenre homasn; oe qui a'est pas
peucifo ert ai neu de choae, que ce n est pas la peine de le compter.
* -Nnc dans tous les ^ts; ai cda est. les «tats les
Htnt le plus de respect. ^Devantcdui qui
pense. toutes les disdnctmns eivikt dinamlisent: 9 voit les mfimes
paaaions* les mimes semimenU dans le goujat et dans I'lionuiK
niustre; il n'ydisceme que leur langage. qu'un colons plus ou ooin*
appr€t6 £tudiez les gens de cet ordre. vous venes que, nous un
autre langage. ils ont auunt d'esprit et plus de Um seas que voi&
Respectez done votteeaptee; aoagesqu'dle est oompoafeencntieiie-
nient de la collection dcs peuples; que quand lOMie^ rob et tow
les philosophes en aeraicnt 6t^ il n y paiaitiait guftie, et que k*
choaes n'en iraient pas plus mal.**
While Tobtoy's theories were thus In course ol practical
solution, his literary powers suffered, edipse. Turgeniev. who
lived near him in the cotmtry, writes in disgust that be *' has
grown a long beard, leaves hb hair to fall in curb over his ean,
holds newspapers in detestation, and has no soul for anything
but his property." Indeed, *hb time was fully faken up, for
while still occupied in supporting the school, he had allowed
himself to be nominated to the position of " Arbitrator/' which
he held for a year and some months (1861-1862).
Thb was an arduous post. The arbitrators were »«
appointed under the Law of Emancipation to ^
supervise the dbtribution of land, to adjust the taxes, define
the conditions of purchase, and dedde all matters in this con-
nexion. These duties were after his own heart, and he went to
work with a will Every day he had difficult points to deal with,
depuutions of peasants coming to see him, the new law and the
rights it bestowed on them having to be explained. The hardest
of all Tolstoy's tasks was to remove the suspicion and mistrust
felt by the serf towards the landlord. On the other hand, be
had to contend with the nobility of the dbtrict, who were well
aware of the side on which his sympathies placed him. For a
year and a half he tried energetically to do hb duty, but ths
experience led him eventually to regard the Emancipation law
as a not unmixed blessing. It had come too soon, and bceo
granted unasked. Xhe condition of the peasantry was worx
than before. A noble impulse, inspired by love of tbe peof^,
impelled Tobtoy to become their champion and interpreter.
A tragic incident occurring about thb period (x866) focdbly
illustrates Tobtqy's character as a defender of the helpless. A
regiment had recently been stationed near Yasnaya Polyanx.
in consequence of some five hundred convicts being at work
upon the railway. In this regiment was ascertain Captain N.,
a strict disciplinarian, who led a soliury life and was mud
disliked by his brother officers and hb men. For trifling favlcs
he would condemn hb soldiers to unheard-of punishmenis.
One of hb orderlies in particular, a young man of some education
— ^who had voluntarily taken the place of a comrade to free bin
from military service — was constantly getting into trouble, uniil,
for some sUght clerical error in a report, Captain N. ordered him
to be degraded and flogged. Thb was too much for tbe poor
volunteer. He followed the officer as he was leaving the orderly-
room, and struck him a blow on the face. He was immediatdy
placed under arrest, and the detaib of the occurrence quickK
spread through the neighbouring villages. Two officers of tl>e
regiment brought the story to Tobtoy and begged him to uiKkr-
take the soldier's defence. He consented readily, and no opposi-
tion being made by the military authorities, at once prepared for
the oourt-martiaL A few days afterwards the court asaemblcd.
Warned by the president of the severity of militaTy law, Tobtoy
made answer that he was come to defend not a criminaj but a
man compelled to crime by force of drcumstaiices outside bis
will. The plea he set up was that the prisoner was not in full
possession of hb sensies; but thb defence was not allowed to
stand. The soldier was condemned to be shot, in spite of the
utmost intercesskm Tobtoy could make. The emotion ol tbe
crowded assembly stirred by hb appeal, tbe mute quiescence
of the soldier (persuaded that death was better than tbe living
agony of exile), the closing tragedy— all this, added to tbe raaay
scenes of war and bloodshed which he had previously witnessed,
made a. lasting impression and caused him to raise his voice yet
louder in the cause of universal love and peace. During tbe
preceding period of ethical experiment he published only t«>
books, but these stand high among hb works. They woe
Thru Deaiks (1859) and The Cossacks (1863)— the latter written
tea years before, its leatfing idea being that cuUqr is tbe amy
TOLSTOY, L.
losr
othappmes.' At the eonchaton of hit arbitntofihip, led^ liSi
tflforts putially nullified, and feeUng hioiMll oventrained and
ovenrorked, he detenmned toeidle hiinwlf for a time to Stmaia,
a south^eai^ern ptovinoe. He halted on his way in Moaoow,
and here one night's high play cost him the MSS. of The Cossacks,
which he 9Dld to the editor of the SMSsian MuuHger for £100 to
pay his debts of honour. A pleasan'ter feature of this visit
to Moscow lay in the renewal of his intimacy with the Behit
family, Sophia, the younger daughter of the house, being his
special attraction. He finally reached Samara in the spring of
r862, and went through » " koumiss cure," revelling in what be*
called" the ife of a beast of the field." ^ ,.^
? By the month of July he felt completely restored to health,
and ictumed to Yasnaya Polyana, where his sister Maiia and
his aunt, Mme Eigolskaya, were looking after the property.
The house in which he now lived was comparatively new.
The one in which he waft bom was sold to pay some earlier
gambling debu, and had been removed bodily to the Dolgoe
estate some 30 m. distant. He now fdt a sense of something
wanting in his ho m e a feeling of incompleteness took po s s es.
sioa of hSm. He wanted to see Sophia Behn, and accordingly
left almost immediatdy for Moscow. Sophia's father was
a fashionable Russian doctor, bom and bred in Moscow, and
a graduate of that univenity. ^ He had three daughteis, of
whom Sophia was the second. % Hie friendship between the
Behis and the Tolitoy families was of old standing, Countess
Maria Tolstoy having been a school companion of Mxs Behrs.
It was now the height of summer, and every one of consequence
was leaving the dty for their country seats. The Behrs family
were going on a visit to their grandfather, whose esUtc lay not
more than 40 m. bom Yasnaya Polyana. Hero they accord-
ingly broke their journey, and during the {feasant days that
followed Tolstoy's attachment deepened. Not k>ng after their
departure his impulse took shape, and inountlng his hone,
he set out for Twicy, wheTO they were staying. His errand
was a definite one; and be k>st no time in fulfilling it. At first
fM.„fg.^ Dr Behn demurred, unwilling to allow his second
■" daughter to many before her ckler sister,' but his
oblectioos were presently overruled. On the ssrd of September
186a the marriage took place, and Tolstoy installed his bride
at I Yasnaya Polyana with the conviction that calm and con-
tentment were his at last. . Two weeks later he wrote to Us
friend Fet, sAying that he' was now happy and fdt quite 'a new
man. In his Confestum:sovnt yean later he writes: ''The
new conditions of a happy fismily circle led me away from my
researches into the meaning of Ufe. My whole mind became
concentnted on the family^-^n the mother, the children, and
the anxiety to provide due means of subsi s t e nce. The effort
after perfection resohred .itself mto the effort to ensure the
happiness of my offspring."^ Tolstoy . thereupon settled down
to oountiy life, and though 'to the young countess. this exile
from her town friends and relations must have been somewhat
of a trial, they remained on their csUtea for the* following
eighteen yean, with very short intervals of absence. They had
thirteen children, of whom the eldest was bom in June 1863.
In the bringing up and instruction of his family Tolstoy con-
formed in essentials 10 the requirements of his position. No
experiments were attempted. . English and German governesses
were engaged, and their educational methods followed the usual
routine. .Both father and mother devoted a' oonsidenUe
amount of time'to their chiklren. Punishment was rare. It
consisted in a strict " boycott " of the offender, which was
not relaxed until a frank confession of fault was made— no light
penalty to a sensitive child. The theory of free optfen in
study was dropped by Tolstoy fai the case of his dnkbtn, but
he was for ever joining in their games, taking them on his
shooting expeditions and sharing tn their gymnastic exerdses.
Manual labour was always congenial to the great writer, and
formed a natural concomitant to his pastoral existence. It
was a common thing for him to mow the lawns, hoe and rake
the garden beds, or when out walking to take the scythe from
a labourer and widd it lustily*
War attd P«MV and Anna Kamtina, Tobto/s ^wo most
widdy known and finest novels, date their commencement
from this period. These two novds were recdved
with scant favour by both the Liberals and Con- wSu^
servatives in Russhu Katkov, the editor who was
puUlshlhg Anna Karenina in his periodical, introduced so many
changes into the MSS. that the publication was not continued.
It was doe, to N. StradMV, the Utetary critic, that public
opinion was ''brought to recognize the moits of these novds.'
Every day Tolstoy retired to his room for a certain number
of hows, and whether in the humour or not, sat at his table
and wrote.' '^Inspintion comes with writing," he used to
say.> Authonhip he avowedly despised, yet confessed the
tempution of public applause and heavy gsins was too great
toRsisL The leading world has reason to be glad of this toudi
of inconsistency. Despite his genius for characterization, the
task of novd-writing cost him a severe and determined effort.
The technique of literary composition irked him czccedinglyJ
" You cannot conceive," he writes in 1864 to his friend FetJ
" how hard is this preliminary Ubour of plot^iing the fiield hi'
whidr I am oompeOed to sow. To consider and reconsider all
that may happen to all the characten beforehand, and to
think over the million of possible combinations, and to choose'
one out of a hundred thousand, is very difiicult."
In the course of this correspondence interesting ddeU^ts
are thrown on Tolstoy as landowner and farmer. Not long
after his marriage he wrote, " I have made an imporunt dis-
covery, of which I hasten to tdl you. Agents, stewards and
overseen are only so many hindrances to fanningi Dismiss
them, an and lie abed till zo o'dock, and you wOl see things
will certaiidy go none the worse. I have made the experiment,
and am quite satisfied. Now to business. When you are id
Ord buy me 30 poods of various kinds of string, ftc, and send
them to me if it does not cost more than two -loublcs thirty
kopecks a pood with the carriage "; and in this vein he enten
into manifold rural matters, the progress of crops, the illness
of a favourite hone or the cdving of a valuable cow. Again
the philosopher rises to the surface, and he questions Fet as
to the workings of his mind. ^
" I don't mean in the Zemstve'nor in agriculture; these are
occupatiou for active men. with which we employ oursdvea in a
perfunctoiy fashion, much like aots eng a ged in hollowing out a
dod of earth— work of which the result is ndther good nor bad.
But what are you doing with your thoughts; how is the inner
mechanism working? Is the secret spring trying to show itself,
its pfwenoB fdt? Has it focgotten how to work? that is
At another time he pays a weU-camed tribute to his w!fe*s
he^ul sympathy. " She Is by no means a trifler," he writes,
" but is an earnest hdpmeet to me." In literary matten he
valued above everything the opinions of Fet and of Turgeniev
(notwithstanding his sayhig of the latter, " the oldef I grow
the less I love him")* Fet, bdeed, was an intimate and
devoted friend, constantly faiterchanging visits with the Tolstoy
family. ' To him the scenes of War and Peaea were fint un-
folded sa Tdstoy read them aloud in the quiet evenings
It was at Fet's house (in 1864) that the violent quarrd ttfok
pboe between l^irgeniev and Tolstoy which neariy cuhninated
in a dud. . Many inaccunte accounu of it havegwnvf
been given, but the history of the rupture as re- wM
corded by-. Fet may be looked on as trustworthy. Piv^
It seems that Tuigeniev in rather a boasting spirit was
praismg his daughter's English g o v erne ss h ow she had
desired him to name the predse sum his dau^ter mig^t spend
in charity, and how, at her instigation, the young lady made
a pnctice of mending the clothes of some of the poorert
peasants. Tolstoy, who was always against the SLitifidal
'* philanthropy " of the wealthy, said brusqudy that he thought
it was theatrical and poseus$ for a daintfly-dressed giri to
Mt sewing at filthy, evil-smdling garments in the name of
charity. ». Tuigeniev thereupon rose, furious, from the Ubie.
*' Stop saying such things I " he cried, '* or I will force you to
silence, with omilts if need be." Pence wu with difficulty
I058
TOLSTOY, L.
restored by M aad Mme Fet. Th« leCtns wMch mliM-
qaently passed between tbem only served to fan the fltant,
so that even the amiable Fet was involved in^ the dispute* and
for a short time estranged from Tolstoy. Finally, after a lengthy
and acrimonious correspondence, the threatened resort to amis-
was averted through the interposition of friends; but fourteen
years were allowed to pass before a reconciliation took places
In 1878 Tolstoy, believing himself to be in a dying state, at'
length made overtures of peace to his brothnr author; ovcrtuies
which Tuigeniev met cordially in the following tcrms^^ y
"Dear Lbo NixoLABViTCRi^I received your letter today
which you^sent to roe paste reUanU, I was iMigbted and much
moved D:|r it. With the greatest pleasure I am ready to renew our
fonner frienddUp and to press your proffered hand. You are quite
right in thinking I harbour no feelings of enmity towaids you. If
they ever did (aoat they have long since disappeared, and no reaefl»-
brance of you now remains save tmitof a roan to whom I am sincerely
devoted, and of a writer whose first step it was my great privilege
to be one of the eariiest to welcome; whose every new work has
always aroused in me the greatest interest. I reioke from my heart
that our misunderstanding has come to an end. I hope to be in
the province of Orel this summer, and then we shall meet* I send
you my best wishes, and once more grasp your hand in friendship."
. Meanwhile Tolstoy had pursued literary labours with relent-
less ardour and with ever-increasing fame* '*■ Prince- AndH (the
hero of War and Peace) and Anna Karmina in turn occupied
all his thoughts. Several years were given tQ the perfecting
of these remarkable character^)aintings. When the publica*
tion (1864-1869) of War and Peau had been succeeded by that
of Anna Kareninaf he set himself to write yet another grtiat
novel, -dealing with the times of Peter the Great, but after
working at it for Some months he suddenfy abandoned the
scheme. One of the few excursions made during these year^
of^ tranquillity was undertaken.,i4^ 1866 to ^the battlefield of
Borodino, the scene' of the famoiis fight in x8z3. For two days
Tolstoy wandered over .the' plain, investigating and taking
notes, and there he drew a pUn of the battle, which was after-
wards published as a frontispiece to War and Peaee» But the
continued pressure of severe nervous and mental strain was
bound to affect a man of his calibre; health and spirits gradu-
ally sank, so that in 1870 G>untess Tolstoy induced him once
more to seek the healthful air of Samara, and subject himself
Atsmmm^ to tho " koumiss cure " in practice there. .A strange
AismmMrm £^^^^,,,6 of this " treatment " lay in the avoidance
of meal 'find vegetables, the diet being strictly confined to
meat. Tolstoy pitched his tent ia the village of Kaxalieck,
where the primitive life among the Bashkir nomads exactly
suited his habits and disposition. He had a faculty lor
making himself at home with peasant folk, and was a great
favouriu among them. « In this district there was a, hige
community of Molochans, a sect whose teneU differ consider-
ably from those of the Orthodox tel^n of Russia. . They
acknowledge noi;uide save the Bible, and reject all the rites
and ceremonies of the Greek Church. . Their honesty, industry
and temperance made them aa example to all the country
round, and caused Tolstoy to study them fdth special interesL
So delighted was the coont with this visit to Samara, that he
shortly afterwards purchased an estate of over sooo acres in
the district. But his pleasure was short-lived, . for not long
afterwards (Z872-1875) the crops failed and a serious famine
broke out. He thereupon opened a subscription fund for the
starving population, and went from village to village taking
a quantity of grain with himi and making what provisimi was
possible in the circumstances.
I Tolstoy was now making up for k)6t time, learning what he
bad failed to learn at the university. Greek was his great
^^ attraction. " Without Greek," he exclaims, " there
pUSmo^kr, ^ °^ culture." He also became enamoured of the
* writing of Scfaopeohaner, and for the greater part
of a year (1869) devoted himself to the study of that
plulosr-*— *' *^ — - " be says, " have I experienced such
spir* siastic in everything he takes up,
he Schopenhauer is the greatest genius
I ets himself to translate his worics,
aad tfki to envoi fit as t co-tnmrfitor. Phflosophy at tbSa
stage ef his life went hand in band with sport and agricultural
intereatsT He rontcmi^ted buying an estate in the paroviitce
of Pena, but on the sxst of October 1869 be wxilea>— .
" The purchase of the estate ia Pena has not cone to anything.
I have now finished the sixth volume {Wqr oHd Peace), and I hope
it will be published on the 1st of November. There are a lot of
snipe. I have shot four biace, and to-day found two brace and
kflHedoaebiid."
« After a period of comparative rest jmd ease, the shadows of
war and death once more encompassed Tolstoy. Two of has
children died in 1873, and their loss was followed by that of
his much-loved atut, Mme Ergolskaya.- A mental restlessness
and uneasiness came over Tobtoy, and also a desire for the
exercise of a wider philanthropy. The Ruaao-Turkish War pmt
the crowning touch to these feelings. God and death, war
and the intricacies of life were now the constant subjects of
his letters. ^" You will not < believe what joy your last letter
has given me," he writes in 1877 to his dear friend Fet. " When
you speak of the existence of the Deity, I agree with eveiy^
thing yon say,<and I would wish to write much, but tinae fails
me and it is difficult in a letter. For the first time yon
write to me on the Divinity of God. I have been .thinking about
it for a long time. Don't say that we must not think about
it. Not only we must, but we oughL In all ages the best
people, the true people, have thought about it." Tobt^
now resumed the study of the BibL^ and took special ddi^t
in the bodu of Ecdesiaates and Proverbs. He treats them^as
a new discovery, and recommends them to his friends as faavii^
much in common with the teaching of Schopenhauer I This
revived interest in religious questions was acoompaoicd and
perhaps deepened by a sute of extreme depression. It was
then he reconciled himself with Turgeniev, and in Deoembcr
1878 we find the latter sUying with him on a visit of three
days' duration. Turgeniev writes that he finds him " \.-ciy
silent, but much developed." The oount on his skle feds the
same want of mutual sympathy as of old, and confesses that
no real friendship seems possible between than«
Tolstoy now entered on the third phase of his life. He
himself thus describes the stages of his mental growth. In
the first phase he lived only for his own lusU and ff,mft„,
pleasures. This came to an end at the age of Hwte^
thirty-four. Then came the interest in the wel- '*■<*
fare of humanity, which married life cooled and obscured
for a while. The striving for the welfare of mankind was
mingled with the striving for personal weD-being. But the
third and highest phase was itached when the service of Cod
became the motive power of his existence. All other aims
grew subservient to this, and interest in the merely personal
life had begun to disappear. He had passed throu|^ eveiy
imaghiable grade of religious thought. As a child he had gone
to diurch and confession unquestioningliy. As a sttMlent and
young man he had scorned and ridiculed rcligi<». Later in life
he became a pk)us and devoutly orthodox Greek Gmrchman,
until one day during the Russo-Turkish War he was filled with a
spirit of revolt at hearing the priests pn^^ for the destruction
of the .enemy, beseediing the Almighty to help theos to kill
their hundreds and thousands. His whole being recoiled from
the un-Chriatianity of these prayers, and he then and there
renounced the orthodox faith. For three yc&rs he had exceeded
the priests themselves in the regularity of his attendance. Now
he felt there was something vitally amiss, and he flung it all 10
the winda. The novelist was rapidly bemg hidden in the philo-
sopher's cloak, to the dismay of literary Europe. So eariy as
1859 Turgeniev had exclaimed, "If only Tolstoy would not
philosophize, all might yet be well." His brilliant contem-
poraries, Gogol, Dostoievdd and othen, had all in different ways
been seised in turn by what may be cajled the fever of religion.
Tolstoy was to suffer from it too. Like the flickering of a dying
lamp, his imagination again shone out in The Death of /un
Ilyiich and The Pffwer of Darkness, Subsequently, with rare
exceptions, his writings wereoverioaded with ethical reasonings.
He was now fifty. While leading a life outwardly calm and
TOLSTOY, L.
'059
peaceful, he liad passed tluooj^ fathamerable mental struggles
and vicissitudes. 01 these he speaks with simple candour in
Uy On^essumt an autobiogxaphical sketch which appeared in
print at intervals between the years 1879 and 1882. In the
orthodoxy of the Greek Church, with fastings, prayers and rigid
observances of her rites, he vainly sought an answer to his
doubts; finally he broke away from a ceremonial which had
become empty and lifeless to him, and built up a religion of his
own. Impressed with the conviction that the peasant's mental
ease was the result of his life of physical toil, Tolstoy tried to
adopt the same habits, and for some ten years (dating from about
1880) he renounced the life of his own dass as completely as it
was poBsS>le for him to do. He rose early and went to work in
the fields, ploughkg, cutting the Com, working for the widow
and orphan, and helping them to gather in the crops. He also
learnt boot and shoe makhig, and enjoyed bemg praised for his
skill. Thus he laboured late and early, and in these simple
physical acts found the best cure for his attacks of despondency.
** Simplicity I Simplicity I Simplidty 1 " His food and drink,
his pleasures and pendnai indulgences, were curtailed. Meat
was given up and replaced by a vegetarian diet. Fidd sports
— equivalents for cruelty and lust of blood-^wcre abandoned,
and his gun hidden away to rot and rust. Even tobacco was
renounced as luxurious and unhealthy.
But irith aH his sttahiing towards simplidty, it was in the
nature of things impossible for Tolstoy absolutely to lead the
life of a peasant Labour though he might throughout the day,
there was his well-appointed house to return to. He could not
cut himsdf off from his wife and children. Friends and acquain-
tances could not be wholly ignored by the would-be Diogenes.
Circumstances in this respect were too strong for his views and
wishcsL The renunciation was still only a partial one. But as
the strain of a great surrender b greatest while it Is still incom-
plete, so Tolstoy felt more and more impelled to emancipate
himself from worldly concerns. The break in the long spell
of country life which presently occurred only served to deepen
this desire In i88x his ddest son went to the university, and
the two next in seniority soon followed him. It became neces-
sary for the family to be in Moscow a great deal, for the sake of
the children's education. The ddest daughter had come out
into society, and friends were continually calling, obliging
Tolstoy to sit and talk with them. All the dements of town
a^iif toi ^^ ^^^ distastdul to him. Money was an evil
db««f thing in his sight, and he gave up carrying it about
A^Mwtr- with him, or even making use of it. ** What makes a
man good is having but few wants," he said, and he accordingly
set himseU to limit his wishes rigidly, and to detach his heart
from all treasured objects. The year 1880 was the census year
in Russia. The government, as usual, called for volunteers to
help to cany it out. Tolstoy became one of the enumerators,
whose duties afforded an excellent opportunity for seeing the
conditions under whkh the poor lived. The misery of it made
htm often wish to surrender all his property and have nothing
more to do with lands and money, but the government and
family circumstances prevented him. In the pamphlet, What
art we to do f ht graphically nairates his census experiences.
Again and agab he attempted to carry his theories into effect.
At last, calling his wife into his room, he explained to her that
property and many possessions had become irksome to him.
Wealth he now rtffuded as a sin. He wished to be rid of all
personal ownership. In 1888 Tolstoy renounced all daim to
hii csutes; everything was made over to his wife and chUdren,
the countess acting as trustee. True, this renundatioo made
h'ttle difference in his manner of life. He lived under the same
roof as bdore, ate at the same table, wrote and read in the same
study. The change was mental rather than material. He
cared no longer for the growth or improvement of his estates,
but gave himsdf up to ethical <|uc8tions, and endeavoured day
by day to bind himsdf more dosdy to the people. He now
began to write specially for tbdr benefit a number of simple
tales which have been widely read, tales directed mostly against
crying evils— the peasant's love of .vodka, and like themes. He
found willing fdlow workers in the firm of Russian publishers
known under the name of Posrednik (V. Tchertkoff, and a group
of friends). Jokn the Fool, which was published in x886 in the
** Posrednik Series," is generally considered the best of these
■Stories. The Pcv/tr of Darkness (1885) also appeared m this
series, and was written with the same object in view. Un-
(brtiuatdy, the popularity of these stories aroused the
attention of the government, and led to many of them being
forbidden on account of their Socialistic te&dendcs.
The terrible famine of X89X-X892 added fresh lustreto Tolstoy's
name. He and his family worked unceasmgly in soup-kitchens
and bams, distributing food and dothes. No true leader kcks
a following. Every oppressed sect or hidividual turned instinc*
tivdy to Tolstoy for sympathy and support, the most important
case ia point bdng that of the sect of the Doukhobors. Eariy
io X89X tumours began to readi faeadquarteis of sodal and
religious exdtement fermenthiig among the mhabltants of the
Caucasus, and especially among the Doukhobors {q,v.). Tlus
people, numbering from fifteen to sixteen thousand^ , .
shared their goods and property in common, and made ^
laws of conduct for themsdves, based on a simple
form of religion unobscured by ceremonies or rittial In these
matters, and espedaUyixv refusing to serve as soldiers, they d^ed
the govemomof the Caucasian provinces, so that, as their numbexs
and strength of oppositioa to authority grew formidable, severe
measures were put in practice for their suppression. Several of
their leaders were exiled, and in X805 some hundred of them
were condemned to be enrolled for three years in the so-called
** disdplinary regiment." It was in that year that Tolstoy came
in contact with them personally, and became deeply interested
in them. He promptly identified himseU with the agitation m
their favour, and by his endeavours aroused sympathy for them
in other countries, espedally in England. After many rebuffs
from the government, and many unavailing efforts to reach the
kindly ear of the Tsai, the persecution of the Doukhobors at
length ceased, and th^ were allowitd to emigrate. It was
in aid of these people that Tolstoy wiote and published
ResurrcctioH. The attack on the Orthodox Church in this novel
was probably the chid cause which led to his formal excom-
munication by decree dated the sand of February x^ox. In
later years Tolstoy maintained an his interests, but old age
gradually told on his strength. He died on the
20th of November 19x0 at Astapovo, where he
was stricken with pneumonia when carrying out a sudden
decision to leave Yasnaya Polyana and end his days la
retirement.
No account of Tdstoy can pretend to any measure of completencfis
which does not refer to his views on xdigion. Tdstoy *"' "
attributes so much importance to them that he has
.written several books wjth the sde object of telling the
world what be considers truth. In My Confesium he
describes the various stages of religious experience through which he
has passed. He begins with a graphic picture of the reugious state
oi the society in which he was brought up. There, although people
were nominally orthodox, actually they believed in nothing, indeed
so inconsistent w«ie the ideals of that society with any real belief
in the Orthodox Church that at sixteen Tolstoy practically renounced
Christianity and became a sceptic. Duong the whole of this period
he fdt unhappy and dissatisfied, for he had no theory which enabled
him to solve the riddle of life. He found no sdution to the question
he often put to himself^Wfay do I live? nor to the other which
depended on the first — How ought I to live?
It seemed to him that the men he met dealt with these
questions in four ways.. Some ignored them and treated life as if It
were a meaningless jumble of vanity and eviL Others, recognizing
the difikulty of stisfactorily sdving these questions, simpler shut
thdr eyes and made the best of life as they understood it without
thlnkif^ of the future. A third group ansm-cred these questions by
regarding life as an evil and foolish thing and by putting an end to it.
Fourthly, there were those who considered it a stupid and ridiculous
faice and yet continued to live on. making the best of it. ^
Tdstoy himself took up the last position, although it failed to
meet his spiritual needs. He felt that the millions who accepted
the fdigious theory of Kfe had somehow a better answer to the
problem, notwithsunding that thetr sdution was based on an absurd
hypothesis. Although faith was unreasonable it alone gave meaning
to life, faith being understood as the theory which linked man's finite
life with the infinite. Having arrived at this conclusion Tolstoy
io6o
TOLSTOY, L.
was ready to acc^ any faith wliScli did not require a direct denial
of reason, and for this purpose studied Buddhism, Mahommedanism
and Christianity. The only persons he felt who were happy and
found a meamng in life were the poor, and the only life that could
be lived in accordance with reason was life under simple conditions
such as animals lived. Only man must labour^ not as the animals,
each for itself, but for all. The search after God was not an act
of reason but of feeling. To live after God's word we must renounce
all the material pleasures of life and be bumble and charitable
to all men. This belief he found in the churches, but mixed
up with other things which he could not undersund and
which repelled hira, viz. sacraments, fasts, bowing before relics
and images. The church festivals, as conunemorating miracles
or alleged facts of Christ's life, were repugnant to mm. Com-
munion he explained to himsdf as an action done in reme m b ra nce
of Christ and as signifying a cleansing from sin and an accep-
tance of Christ's teaching. When asked by the priest to repeat
before receiving the elements that he believed that what he was about
to receive were the real Body and Blood, he rcfieated the formula
but found that no wish to believe could make him believe it The
attitude of the various Christian churches towards one another also
alienated his sympathy; it had no resemblance to a um'on of love.
He thought that there should be mutual concessions where beliefs
had so much in common, but was told that any compromise involved
an admission that the clergy had altered the primitive faith and that
it was their duty to hand on the faith inviolate. He was also very
much repelled by the attitude of the Church towards war and capital
punishment Tracing the happiness of the peasantry to their faith,
he became convinced that there were certain dements of truth in
Christianity. The Christian churches and the Greek Orthodox
Church in particular had in his view combined to obscure the basis
of truth in Christ's teaching.
Tolstoy therefore set himself to endeavour to dinunate what
he thought the false doctrines and superstitious dements
which h^ grown up round Christianity, and to discover the
verities contained in it Tolstoy started with the premise
that Christ's teaching was conununicated to unlettered persons
and only put down in writing long after his death. " It
may be assumed," he says, "that the Church in accepting
the three synoptic gospds had accepted much that was inaccu-
rate." Tolstoy argues that it should be remembered that the
gospds must nave gone through many changes and that he is
therefore at liberty to deal with them critically. He sees in Chris-
tianity not an exclu«vely divine revelation, nor a mere historical
phenomenon, but a teaching which gives meaning to life. The
churches, he considered, were substitutmg a teaching which was not
Christ's, but was a strained and contorted version of what Jesus
Uught The sectarianism of Christianity had its root in the idea
that the gospds are to be understood not by taking them by them-
•elves, but by interpreting them in such a manner as to make them
Mree not onnr with the other sacred writings but with the traditions
of the Churcb, which were thcmsdves obscure. Tolstoy maintained
that it was the forden elements foisted upon Christ's teaching which
have alienated the best minds from Christianity. Anyone taking
Christ's teaching alone will see that it has no admbtture of elements
that contradict common aens& It has no sympathy with supersti-
tions, contains no " dregs," has no " darknesses," but is the strictest
and fullest system of ethks. ,
The substance of Christianity seems to Tolstoy the inculcation
of love, humility, self-denial and the duty of returning cood for
evil, and. these essential principles attracted him throughout his
life, even when he was a sceptic The Greek Orthodox Church
treated these prindples rather as accessory to the teaching of Jesus
than of its essence, and the ChureK considered dogma of more
importance. The rule of the Orthodox Church concerning dogmas,
sacraments, fasts, prayers, seemed not only unnecessary but were
not based on anything in Christ's teaching. The Sermon on the
Mount as reported in Saint Matthew contains, according to Tolstoy,
the essence of Christ's teaching which Christiaiu should carry out
entirely The key to the sermon is contained in the words "Resist
not evil," this injunction moaning that not only should Christians
never repay evil with evil but also that they shouki not oppose
it with physkal force. Any physkal resistance of evil is contrary
to the law of love. This command he regards as the central point
of the doctrine of Jesus and as really easy to obey, for whfch view
be quotes Christ's statement, " My yoke is easy." The whole teach-
ing of the churches was contrary to Christ's teaching when they gave
their sanction and approval to armies and the enforcement of the
criminal law by the executive powers of a government^ Christian
society not only ignored Christ's injunction not to resist evil but
was actually based on a denial of its truth. The words ** Judge
not that ye be not judged " Tolstoy treats as an expansion or rather
as a logical result of the command " Resist not evil." Jesus denied
the possibility of hnman justice, demonstrating in the case of the
woman taken in adultery that man could not judge his fellow man.
since he himself was afso guilty. Jesus' declaration amounted to
saying, '* You bdievc that your laws reform criminals; as a matter
of fact they only make more criminals. There is only one way to
supr-~~* "•'*' * '^ to return good for evil without respect of
'pf "dal fabric of modem totalled " Chnftian "
tockty was foundad upon principles diiapprowd d by Omst.
Its prison cdls, factories and houses of infamy, its state church,
its culture, science, art and civilization were aU based on cocrckia
and violence. People pretended that Christ did not abofiah the
Mosaic law, but that the law of Christ and the law of Moacahaimoo-
iaed. But Christians acted on the priocii>le of "an ^re for aa
eye," discarding the law c( Christ and following that of Moses.
Tolstoy goes through the gospd for the purpose of finding out
what Christ's teachlnff really is. In doing so, he puts aside the
miraculous events of Christ's birth and all other miracles as irrdevant
to his inquiry, and alao impossible of belief. The result is that he
finds that Christ laid down five " entirdy new " commandircr.ts,
the first commandment being " Live in peace with all men/' « hich
was the i nter pretation put upon the wonls " Ye have beard it evrr
sakl by the men of oM time that thou ahalt not kill and that who*
soever shall kill shall be in danger of the judgmeatj but 1 aay unto
you whosoever u angry with his brother shall be in danger of rhe
judgment." The words " without cause," Tolstoy rejects, as c ••■i
also the Revised Versioiu He considers these words open the do&r
to the evasion of the commandment. Tolstoy interprets the next
words, " aiKl whoever shall say to his brother ' raca ' shall be ia
danser of the council, but whosoever shall say ' thou fed ' shall be
in danger of hell fire " to mean that one must never look upon a
human being as worthless and as a fool. Not only must Chrktians
refrain from annr. but it is the duty of a follower ol Jcnts to live
in peace with all men. They shouki not regard anger as iusttfi^Ue
in any drcumstancea. The second commandment of Jesus Tolstoy
declares to be, " Thou shalt not be united ph>'sically to any worua
except the one whom thou hast originally known sexually. Yaa
commit a sin if you ever abandon that woman. Maxriaee is maniaf^.
whether there have or have not been any legal or ecclesiastical
formalitks, once there has been phyncal union." The third com-
mandment as Tolstoy understands it is " Swear not at all." TTiis
commandment applies not merely to profane swearing but to all kinds
of oaths, whether taken by witnesses in courts of nw, by soldiers
when being sworn in. by magistrates in pursuance of their o6c«.
oaths of fidelity and the like. All the oaths are imposed foraa
evil purpose and are entirely wrong. The fourth commandmesi
is " Resist not evil." Christ's followers were never meant to act as
judges, citizens, policemen or in any other capacity in whidi it
would be their duty to re«st evil. Christians should do good in the
sense of living virtuously. To abolish evil they should awid
the commission of evil, and never under any circum^ances mist
wrongs by force. They should never return vioIeiKC by violence.
Christ taught " If any one strike you, suffer it; if any one would
deprive you of anything, yield it up to him ; if any one would force
you to work for him, go and work for him . if aiw one would take away
E)ur property, abandon it to him." The fifth commandment is
id down in Matt. v. 4V-48. After calling the attention of his
readers to the fact that the words which introduce the injunctioa
to " Love your enemies," &c., read, " Ye have heard ix said o( dd
that thou shalt love thy neighbour, and hate thine enemy," Tolstoy
points out that these words must be understood as meaning '* Thcs
shalt love thy fellow countryman and hate the foreigner." Bat
when Christ taught in opposition to this maxim " Love your enemies
bless them th^t curse you," He meant " You have heard it laid dova
of old that you must love those of your own race and hate foreigners.
but I say to you, love every one without distinction of nationality."
It is difficult to love your personal enemy, but it b perfectly
possible to love citiaens of a foreign nation equally with your om-ii.
Tolstoy admits that it is difficult to conceive that everythmg that
is coiuidered essential and natural — i^hat is thought iK>ble and
grand — ^love of country, defence of one's own country, its glon-,
tightinz against one's country's enemies— is not only an bfraccioa
ofthc Taw of Christ but directly denounced by Him. People migfaT
here retort " If it is true that Jesus really meant this He would hate
said so plainly," To this objection he replies " Wc must rwt forcet
that Jesus did not foresee that men having faith in His doctnr^
of humility, love and fratcniity could ever wHh calmness and
premeditation organise themsdves for the murder of their bnrthrm.
Christ not foreseeing this did not in so many words forbid Christians
to participate in war." To make good thi5.point Tolstoy show's b)
quotations from the Fathers that none of the early Christians rver
contemplated fighting with any thing but spiritual weapons.
The doctrines of original sin, of the .^toneme n t, of the Trinitv.
of the Resurrectkm, are, accordini; to Tolstoy, aH without founda-
tion and contrary to Chris's teachii^. Man is conscious, be wnu^
of a spiritual essence which exists m an imperfect form not or.!\
within himself but also in all other living creatures. The periiYt
spiritual essence is what we call God. It is the indwelluig of this
spiritual essence in man which creates the desire for communt-jn
with God and with those who possess the spirit imperfectly. 7 he
true nfe of man consists in fuffilling the needs of the spirit ; and
everything that helps to free it from the influence of the body whkh
is antagonistk, tends to encourage the growth of that immortal
part. When death comes the spirit is emaitcipeted from the body
and returns to God, where possibly, says Tolstoy, it ceases to ha\t>
an individual existence. The spirit in man is not subject to the
limitations of time and space. The life of Ihe individual, however,
is essentially bounded by time and space. With the dcstructiua
TOLSTOY, ?. A-
lo6i
of tbe body thit life oeaaes to exist, but tke dhrbe spiritual life
ntnains. Death b therefore not annihUation but merely the enaa-
cipation of the aptrit, its introduction to a new and unfaiown state
ol cxiiccnoe, to another form of nanifestation of tlae divine spiritual
emeaee. The nose • naa endcnvours to live the life of tbe «pmt
tbe ocarer bis npropcb to the eHecnal axkd tiie ieai the rig nifir a n o e
of death. But it is impossible for the human ii\teUcct to conceive
any form of eristenne outwle space and time. So far therefore
as immortality inqiBes a l e smrotUou of the bodv Tolstoy denies it;
■o far as it tmpliss aa individual cooseionineM ot the soul he states
we can pmdkate aothinf «f iu There am two doctrines of lifob
One of these doctrines, thesouroe of all error, consists in bdieving
that the penolial life of man is one of his essential attributes. The
other doctrine, that taught bv Jesus, is that the whole purpose of
our personak lifb lies in tlie fulfilment of the will of God. « , -"
Before attempting to define the powers and positioa of an author,
it ia best to pass in review the works which have led to his present
^ . . reputation. Tolstoy tbe writer is a guide of unusual
mSu faithfulness to Tolstoy the man. .The gradual evoki-
^"^ tioo of the firfomer and preacher out of the brilliant
novdist Is dtscribsd ia ao oages so dessiv as in his own. CkiUkood
( 1 853). Boyhood (x8S4) »nd Vsnlh (iSs^iSsT^-^Tolstoy's first litenuy
efforts — may be regarded as semi-autobiographical' studies; if
„iograi _
that all hu books oontam
fforts— may be regarded
not in detail, at least in the wider
pictures, more or less accuiate, of himself and his own estperiences.
No plot runs through them; maty simply analyse and describe with
extraordioary minuteness the fcelincs of a nervous and nunbid
boy, a male Marie Bashkirtseff. They are talcs rather of the
development of the thoushts than ol the life of a child, with a pale
background of men and events. The distinct ehaim Iks in the
sincerity with which this development .is r epre se nted. We are
introduced by the child, ^^cholas Irtenyev, to a number of charscters
one after the other—father, mother, grandmother, tutor, servants
and serfs; and are led by him from the uther's study to the morning-
room, and so on to the Idtchen and the housekeeper's closet ; and we
catch, as in a macic ctystal. the lifelike scenes on his waking — in tbe
schoolroom— at his mother's ode. But the apparently unconscious
change of the child's mind into that of the yQuth--hi8 budding
thoughts, hopes, fears— form the true drama of the story. The Cossaclu
a panoramic array of kings, princes and nobln as they lived and
moved during the times of the great Napoleonic wars. There are
BO many figures in the picture, so mudi kaleidoscope colour and
movement, that the spectator often finds it (fiflkailt to follow the
thread of the narrative. The leading chancten principally bekmg
^^ to the highest Rusuan sodety, whose circle — with its
!w^>» inflexible code of laws and customs, and a vitiated
'^**'* moral atmoei^iere affecting each member of it in a
greater or less d tgwjt - l inlcs them together. The interest centres
not BO much in any rinele person as m the groups formed by four
leading families of the' 'grand monde " — the Rostovs, Bexouchovs,
Volkonskys and the Kouraginee— all bound together by common
aims and interests. The men are tam to make a name and enjoy
life; the women sedc pleasure in gossip and romance. Peter Bcaou-
chov and Prince Andr6, mth natures essentially different but
united by a love of truth, are the exceptions to Uiis rule. Peter
Bexouchov is one of Tolstoy's finest characterizations, drawn with
a masteriy hand. He is the embodiment of all that is good and
bad in the Rusrian te mp en un e nt . On the one ride there is the striving
after an ideal and a capacity for self -cacrificei on the other an absence
of firmness and hakinrp. Like Tolstoy himself, he is always in
doubt as to what is ridit and what is wtonp, as to the meaning (A
life and doith, and, like Tolstoy at that time, can as yet find no
answer to these riddles. WhDe Peter Qexouchov is a typical Russian,
a very Tolstoy. I^noe Andr6 if a less striking, is a more lovable
personality. Upright and noble>minded, he yet is unable to cast
off the chains of custom whkh have held him from jchildhood. He
too is constancy seeking mental rest and finding none. The love-
stoty of Andr6 and Natasha Rostov, which runs through the novel,
is a poem in itself. Natasha is almost the only heroine Tolstoy
has given as who wins our affections; but even she, after many
transitions, nnks to the level of the Hausfram, with no aim beyond
the propagation and nurtxire of the race. It most be borne in mind
that in WaramdFoacoTalUtboiy winged his shafts not at mengeaerally<
but at that particular section of sodety to which he himseUby birth
and as so riati on betonyd.
A long period of nlence followed the publication of this novel,
during wbicfa the worid heard little of him. At length in 1871 be
issued the first partt of Auma Kanmna, It is without
chnibt his gi e ate s i litecary production. ^ The area of
time and space in it, as in the preceding book, b large,
but h has more continuity of action, and the principal characters
sre Icept well in the foreground. It is a study of modem Russian
life, in which tbe normal passivity of unsympathetic conjugal
relations is sharply oontrasted with the transtent omnipotence of
passion and dee^ love. Tbe hero and heroine are Count Wroosky,
a young soldier in a crack regiment, and Anna Karenina, the wile
of an important omoal in the pcriitical world of St Petersburg. The
paits of aBOowtary heibine and hero are filled by Kkty Cberbataky
and her lover and ultimate husband, Levioe. Tbe central fijKure
is of course Anna heneff, an elegant and fascinating " mondaine."
She is honest, frank and well endowed by nature, and has an innate
striving after truth and beauty m art and in life, but her early
' — i with Karenina (who is double her age, resisrved and taci*
■ duUed
turn), while socially advantageous, has dulled and stunted her
ideals. Ignorant of the meaning of love, she despises it, and it is
not till she meets Wronsky that she realizes to the full the empti-
ness of her eristenrr Wronsky, young, handsome, impasdoned,
recogniring no prinafde but his own dcsucs, offers her the rich
wine of Uie at a draught. She tastes it, after scant hesitation; and
then, flinpng away her woridly position, deserting her husband
and child, she drains it to the dregs, only to find that poison lies in
the cup. Aima and Wronsky have no true ideal to cnng to. He,
as their passion oools, finds the tie irksome and a hindrance to hb
^e griei
grieves for her lost and dearly-loved son, and frets as
she sees that Wronsky's devotion is wamng, recogniring too late
that he loved her chiray for vanity's sake, that they are slipping
daily asunder, and growing displeasing to each other. Her past
life IS dosed to her, the future opens like an abyss. The crisis has
come, and swiftly obeying the impulse of her despair she setsesloa
death as her only weapon for wounding Wronsky and cutting the
hopeless knot of her life. This pitiful end u led up to step by step
with microscopic truth and insiidit into the springs oiF human
action. In the married life of Kitty and l.evine, on the other .
hand, Tolstoy describes a state of happiness of a material nature-^
disagreements easily bridged over, and mutual interest in their
children and the pleasures of the country. Levine b the Tolstoy of
fiction. The improvement and development of hi« estates, the life
of a country squire, fail to satisfy him. Tbe death of hb brother,
the birth of hif duld, awaken his mind to the problems of eidst^
ence, and he b plunged in mebncholy. Finally, relief comes to
him with the words of a peasant who bids him ^ live for his soul
and for hb God»" Thereupon Levine ncrlaim% " I have discovered
nothii^. I have simply opened my eyes to what 1 knew already:
I have come to the recogmtum of that power which formcriy gave
me life and which renews life in me to-oay. I am freed from error;
I recognize my master." And the novd ends with the effacing of
the inttllect in a cloud of happy mystidsm.
The Kmour Soncta, publisbed m 1890, created a profound im-
pressioo. Many who were previously unacquainted with Tolstoy'*
work read thb story of love, jealousy and revei^, and MjbtalMr
were dumbfounded by its I
: is a startfing
published thirty
1 Russian society in paiticubr,'
advance upon TamUy Happiness^
years eartier. Society generally, and 1
IS ruthlessly oondenuiea (or its views on marriage and its attitude
towards the vexed question of the relations between man and woman.
Marriage, Tolstoy says, can only be condoned if spiritual sympathy
exists, and then only as the means to the continuance of the race;
otherwise it b a breach of true morality. The ^ motive " of the
Sonata b that the ideal wc should strive after b a life where the
spiritual penetrates and pervades everything, and where all that b
carnal b eliaunated. But in the " Sequd '^ to the Sonata Tototoy
adds that mat ideab are always unattainable, and aArms that no
man can know, whilst yet striving, how neariy he approB(;hes
them. He b onqr oonsdous of hb deviatwns.
The views of culture forming the basb of Tie Cossa ck s are yet
further elaborated la What is Art f (1898), a sweeping criticism of
tbe philosophy of aesthetics, to which he had devoted .j«^ ^ ^
fifteen yean of thoo|
looght.
dc&e
He dismisses as inadequate
art as the punub of beauty.
Artf
whether bnuity be regarded with Shelley and Hegd as an approxi-
mation to archetypal perfection, and thus allied to God ana good-
ness, or with Kant as that which gives disinterested pleasure.
Totaoy sets forth hb own view that art b a human activity which
aioM at the transmiwion of enmtkm. He procee ds to demand that
the emotkm shall be actually feb and shall belong to tbe highest
feelings to which men can rise. True art must appeal to the
rdigious perception of the brotherhood of man, and it must find
unlvenal response. ' He asserts that excluuve art b bad art. and
that such anbiects as sexual kwe, patriotism aad rciife;ioos dcvotwa
sfaouM be avosded. (C. H. W.)
TOLSTOT, PETR ANDRBBVICH, Coukt (1645-1739), Russian
statesman, was the son of the okolmnieky Andrei VasQevich Tol-
stoy. He served In 1682 as chamberlain at the court of Theo-
dore m. Miscalculating the strength of the tsarevna Sophia ig.t.)
he becaine one of her most energetic supporters, but contrived to
jom the other, and winning, side just before the final catastrophe.
For a long time Peter kept hb latest recruit at arm's length; but
when, In 1697, Tolstoy vohmteercd to go to Venice to learn
Italian and ship-buikling, Peter could not resist the subtle flatteiy
impHed in such a proposal from a middle-aged Muscovite noble.
In November 1701 Tolstoy was appointed the first regularly
accredited Russian ambassador to the Porte, and more than Jtistl*
ficd tbe ooDfidcnce of the most exacting of mastexs; thou^ Ui
io62
TOLTECS— TOLUENE
peculiar C9q>edieats {eg. the procuring of the atnuigulatioii of 4
gnnd vizier snd the remov^ by poison of an inconvenient private
secreury) savoured more of the Italian than of the Russian
Renaissance. Even before Poltava, Tobtoy had the greatest
difficulty in preventing the Torhs from aiding the Swedes, and
when Charies XII. took refuge on Turkish soil he instantly
demanded his extradition. This was a diplomatic blunder, as it
only irritated the already alarmed Turlu; and on the xolh of
October 1710 Tolstoy was thrown into the Seven Towen, a
proceeding tantamount to a declaration of war against Russia.
On his release from " this Turkish hcU," in 1714, he returned to
Russia, was created a senator, and dosdy associated himself
with the omnipotent favourite, Menahikov. In 17x7 his position
during Peter's reign was secured once for all by his successful
mission to Naples to bring back the unfortunate tsarevich
Alexius, whom he may be said to have literally hunted to death.
For this he earned the imdying hatred of the majority of the
Russian people; but Peter naturally regarded it as an inestimable
service and loaded Tolstoy with honours and riches, appomting
him, moreover, the head of the secret chancellery, orofhdid
, torture chamber, a poet for which Tolstoy was by nature emi-
nently 6tted. He materially assisted Menshikov to raise the
empress consort to the throne on the decease of Peter (1725), and
the new sovereign nxade him a count and one of the six members
of the newly instituted supreme privy council. Tobtoy was well
aware that the elevation of the grand duke Peter, son of the
tsarevich Alexius, would put an end to hb own career and en-
danger hb whole family, so that when Menshikov, during the last
days of Catherine I., declared in favour of Peter II., Tobtoy
endeavoured to form a party of his own whose object it was
to promote the accession of Catherine's second daughter, the
tsarevna Elizabeth. But l^Iensbikov was too strong and too
quick for hb andent colleague. On the very day of the empress's
death (May ix, 1737), Tobtoy, now in hb dghty-second year,
was bsobhed to the Solovetsk monastery in the White Sea,
where he died two years later. He b tbe author of a sketch of
the impressions made upon him by western Europe during hb
tour in the years 1697^1698 and also of a detailed description of
the Bhck Sea.
See N. A. Popov. "Count P. A. Tobtoy" (Ross.) mOtdoitdNew
Russia (PetecBbui]K> 1 875): ^d "From the Life of P. A. Tobtoy"
(Rus«.) in Russian Reporter (Petefaburg. i86o>; R. N. Bain, PupOs
if Peler the Grtai (London, 1897); and Tie Pirs$ Rmmun (London,
1905). (R.N.B.)
TOLTBCS (Mezicaa TcUeca),'ot dwelkn In ToQan (the place
of reeds), the name of a people that if partly mythical is also
partly historical. Traces of thb people can unquestionably be
detected in hbtoric times; and many dries, particularly those
which carried on traffic wi^h the coast, claimed to be of T<dtec
origin. The ooncepUon of Toltecs, like that of Qiiddmecs,
ajcquired in rime so general and vague a significance that in
vocabularies such a word as " toltecatl " b interpreted as mean-
ing merely an expert artbL So that in some caaca the name
^ Toltecs " denotes no more than some race of Nahua affinities
possessed of a certain degree of culture. In others, however,
there b a substantial reason for beUeving ia the exbtence of
» specific tribe or people called Toltecs, though the genuine
historical background has been obscured by the legends which
the priests embroidered upon it to glorify thdr hero and god
QuetxakoatL
Our ignorance as to the dbtribution and movements of the
native peoples bdore the time of the Spanish invasion forbids
any posiUve statement as to the original home of the Toltecs.
It b certain, however, that they, as well aa their god and their
andent dty of ToUan, wpre known to those who lived in the Maya
countries far beyond the confines of Mexico proper. Their
migrarion-mytbs point to the eastern dbtricts known aa the
." rierras calientes," famous for such valuable producta aa feathers
and cacao, with which the Mexicans from the earliest times carried
on a vigorous commerce. It b possible that the legezKlazy
wandr- ' '^'^taalcoatl (Feathered Serpent), who was said
to ^ 'If to the flames in TUllan-TlapaUan (the
land of the bladk and red, i.€, the land of picture-writing),
the region of Tabasco and Campeche, are mainly a mythological
descripUon of the moon's periodic course. But even in that case
there can be no doubt that the natufe-msrth has been eibbelliahed
with detaik derived from an actual race movement which took
place in prehbtoric times*
The Eistoria iU Coikuaean y de Mexico b almost valuable
manuscript written by an anonymous author in the Mexican
language. In thb work it b stated that Qnctzalcoatl died in
A.D. 895, and was followed by four kings in succession, after
whom the wise Huemac ascended the throne in aj>. 994 under
the name of AtecpanecatL In the idgn of thb sovereign there
broke out a great famine, whidi occasioned the institution of
the custom of human sacrifice. From the same source we learn
that it was in a.d. X064 (a date which b assigned to the beginning
of a half-mythical hiatoiy by various other documents and MSS.)
that the Toltecs left their homesand migrated eastward to Tabasco
and Soconusco. At the same time Huemac killed himself in the
cave of Cincalco. Tradition ascribes to him the authorship of
an encydopaedic picture-writing called " teoanwxtii " deahcg
with the hbtory of hb people, with astronomy, the calendar
system, &c. According to the Hidoria ie CcUmacan y de
Mexico^ which b confirmed in ftpite of some sl^t variations
of detail by IxUilxochitl, the duration of the '/ Toltec Eoaptre "
was not more than 318 years.
Archaeologbts are jusdfied in cbJmxng as indubitable
monuments of the Toltecs the serpent-piUaia which have been
found in situ at Tula, close to the City of Mexico. .The historian
Sahagun states that Tula was an old centre of the Toltecs and
explidtly mentions these pillars as their work. It b interesting
therefore to note that the only other place where such pillars occur
is Chichcnitxa in Yucatan (see Cemtkax. America: Arch»eoloty\
a site which exhibits most strikingly Mexican features, so that
archaeology fuDy confirms the assertion of the historians that
Chichenitza, though in Mayan territory, was subject to the
domination of some Nahua people. Chichcnitxa and Mayapan
ue the only sites m Mayan territory at which are found
those round temples, which are attributable cxchiaively to
Quetzalcoatlf the prindpal god and narional hero of the
Toltecs. (W. L.*)
TOLOCA* or To&OCCam, a dty of Mexico and capitai oi the
state of Mexico, on the S.W. bonier of the Anahuac plateau,
at the foot of the Cerro San Migud de Tutucuitlalpillo, about
8650 ft. above sea-leveL Pop. (1900), 25,940. Toluca is on the
Mexican National railway, 36 m. W,S.W. of the national capatal.
Its situation near the high corditlera gives it a cold, changeable
climate. The government has a meteorological station here and
a national coU^. Industries include the manufacture of cotton
fabric, flour and wax candles. Swine-breeding b a profitabie
occupation in the vidnity. The Nevado de Toluca, an extinct
volcano, rises to a hdght of 14,950 ft. on the sou^>west side
of the town. Its summit b frequently draped with sxx>w, and
its broken-down crater contains & bke. - Taditionally Tohiai
was one of the earliest Toltec sfcttlements on the Anahuac
tableland, but no remains^ of thb occupation have been
preserved. * \
TOLUENBtor M£tHYUiSNZEMB,CTH»or CJI«-CHa, an aromatic
hydrocarbon; the first homologue of benxene. Discoveicd by
Pelletier {Ann. ckim, phys.^ 1838, 67, p. 269) in the oil obtained
in the manufacture of gas from the resin of Pinus marUima, and
named r^ tinnaphte, it was pr^paredixom the same gas by Coucrbe
(ibid., 69, p. "X84) and named heptacaibuie quadxOiydrique,
C7H1 (C*-6); Sainte-Claire Deville (ibid. i84r I3I 3, p. 168)
obtained it by distilling Tolu balsam, naming it beiuo&ie, and
GUnard and Bouldault obtained a substance by the dry distiUa-
Uon of dragon's blood which they called dracyL The ooxnpletc
idenUty of these substances was established by A. W. Hofmann
an(i Muspratt, and they adopted the name toluol (anglicized to
toluene), which was proposed by Benelius. Its (brivativrs
and its relation to benzene had been previously studied by the
above and other experimenters, its relation to benzene being
first proved experimentally by Canniazaro and its coostxtution
TOMAHAWK—TOMPKINSVILLE
1063
ietded hy FIttSg tnd ToUens's syntbesb from todiiim tnd a
miztare oif methyl'kxiide and brembenze&e.
The hydrocartxjn occurs in wood-tar and in petrolettni. and b
prepared co m merei a lly by fractional dhtOlation off the light oil
traction off the ooal-tar distillate (see Goal Taa). It nay be
obuined synrhttifally by Fittig and ToUeos^s method (above^ ; by
Friedel ana Craft's process. deviAod in 1B77, of acting with aluminium
chloride on a mixture of benzene and methyl chlonde; thb reaction
leads to the production of higher homcrfogues which may, howevar,
break down under the ontinuad actioii off the alumiaiam chloride;
or by heating Che toluene cacboayUc acsds obtained by oxidiziiag
the higher homolqgucs of benaene. -It fonns a colouness mobile
liquid, DoUing at no*!* C. and having a specific gravity of 08708
(13- 1/4*). It is insoluble in water, but dissolves readily in alcohol
and ether. On reduction it yields hexahydrotoluene; oaidation
with dilate mtric add or chrooiic add givca benanic add; whilst
chronyl chloride and water give benzaldehyde. On nitration
it gives ortho- and paia-mtrotoluenes — which on reduction yield
the valuable tolnidinesj C«H4(CHi)(NHi)^4nd on sulphonation
the paiasulphonic add is fdrmcd whh a little off the ortho add.
Chlorination in the ooU gives ortho> and para-chloitohienes, but at
the boiling point the «de cham is substituted (sec Bbnzaldbuyde).
TtlHAB4WK (a native Americta wofd, probably from the
Algonquian vob olomakukj to'ki)ock doom), the war-hatchet of
the North American Indians. The earliest tomahawks were
of chipped stone, usually sharpened to a point at each end some-
thing like a pickaxe, and passed through a hole bored in a stout
wooden cudgel. In the more primitive types the stone head
was simply tied to the handle by animal sinews, or a withe was
doubled over the head and fastened below to form a handgrip.
Sometimes deer antlers were used fautead of stones. After the
arrival of the white man the heads were usually of iron. Where
the stone head was sharpened only at one end the blunt end was
sometimes cut out into a pipe-bowl, the handle, hollowed, aerviiig
as the stem. The weapon was at once symbolical of war aiwi
peace, and was ceremoniously buried at the termination of
hostilities, to be as formally erhumedi wben the feuds revived.
Hence the colloquialism " to bury the hatchet."
TOIIASZAW, or ToifASz6w Fabryczny, an faidustrial town
of Russhm Poland, In the government of Piotrk6w, 41 m. K.E.
of the town of Fiotrk6w. Pop. (1897), n,o4i. It has woollen
miOs, steam flourwmills and ironworks.
TOMATO, Lycopenkum tsenUnhm (Nat. Ord. Solanoceae),
a tender annual, native of South America, probably Peru.
The fndt is much esteemed in salads and as a vegetable. Efforts
have been made to popularise it for dessert, with varying success.
Plants intended to fruit out of doors during the summer should
be railed from seed sown at the end of February or early in March,
under glass, in a temperstuie of about 60*. Pots, pans or shallow
boxes are suitable for the purpose. The compost should be light and
fresh, preferably of loam, sand and leaf mould in equal proportions.
As soon as the young plants appear they should be fully exposed
to sunlight, as near the glass as practicable. When the second pair
of leaves appear they should be potted singlv in pots of about 3 in.
diameter, using slightly richer compost and less sand. This opera-
tion should on no account be deferred. The next shift should be
into pots 7-8 in. diameter, the compost mostly loam, enriched with
the ashes of plants, Ac., from the refuse heap. The first flowers
will appear towards the end of April or cariy in May. The pollen
should be gathered and applied to the stigm ' '•
! stigmas of the flowers by
hand. The pbnts should oe fit for planting out early in June, and
should bear at least two clusters of rapidly growing fruits. They
should be planted in the sunniest and warmest position available.
It is customary to confine the plants to one &hoot, pinching off all
lateral shoots as they appear. Owing to the fickleness of the English
climate it is of the utmost importance that the setting of iruit
should be secured early. Manure should be applied sparingly to
tomatoes unril the crops become heavy.
Under glass, without artificial heat, tomatoes succeed well. In
cold, sunless seasons, however, the crops are seldom remunerative.
The culture is substantially as advised for out of doors. In heated
structures tomatoes may be produced all the year round. They
are always a small and precarious crop during winter, however.
During summer the crops are usually heavier and of better flavour,
even in favourable seasons, than from out of doors. It is necessary
to provide a succession of pbnts to replace those that are being 1
out by heavy cropping. Periodical sowings arc therefore necessary.
Some prefer to raise the plants intended for winter fruiting by
cuttings inserted in August. Planting out is usually effected on
shallow benches in smallquantities of moderately rich soil, and the
•hoots trained on wires near the glass. As more nourishment is
required, new soil is added. In this imy eacassiva laxuriajicc, to
wUch the tomaAo is so a^dicied. b avoided. The plaato should
never be allowed to become dry— they are larne consumers of water.
The following varieties comprise some of the best in cultivation :
Large Smooth Red Fruited.— The Hastings, Conference, Ham
Green Favoarite Perfection.
Yellov^ FrmtaL-'Ctdswkk Pm^» Golden Jubilee. Carter's Greoi-
""^rly Varieties for Outdoor Culture.— Cbetola, Fragmore Selected.
T01IB> (Gr. ri^nfia^ rbiifiott probably allied to Let. Immidmi,
literally aswelling, tmnurt, to swell), ageacFsl term for « place of
burial for the dead, induding the excavation or cavity in which
the body is laid and the aapersUucture which marks the place.
(See BmtiSL and Fombbal RniA.)
The various forms which the tomb has taken throm^ioot the ages
are treated udder such heads as Eaaaowj Caun; Tumui-us:
CsKOTApB ; SaacorBAGUs; &c
101IPA, MIHiLT (MiCHAEi.] (i3x7-i368), Hungarian lyric
poet, was bom in 1817 at RimarSwombat, in the county of G<toftr,
his father being village bootmaker. He studied law and theology
in S&ro»-Patak, and subsequently at Budapest; and, after many
vicissitudes, at the age of thirty he accepted the post of
Protestant minister in Bejoj a small village in his native county,
whence, in two yean, he removed to Kelemir, and four years
later to Hanva, in the county of BorMdt vhei^ he remained
tiU his death in x868.
At the age of four«nd-twenty Tompa published his first poems
in the Athaaeum, which soon procured for him a high reputation.
His first volume, Nipregik h Nipmonddk (" Folk-Legends and
Folk-Tales "), in 1846. met frith peat sacoess,-and the same may
be said of the lii^t volume of h& " Poems " in 1847. In 1848 he
took pact in tbe War of Independence, acting as field chaplain to
the volunteers of his county and seeing several battles; but the
unfortunate close of that heroic struggle silenced his poetic vein
for a considcrsible rime, and when in 1852 and 1853 he gave vent
to his patriotic grief ia some masteHy allegaries on .the sutc of
iijumsaii Hungary.he was twice aitestad by the Austrian authori-
ties. After being released he published his Virdtre§lk (" Legends
of Flowers "), a collection of poems showing great imagination
and love of nature. Soon after this he became oppressed with
He.publi
melancholy and abandoned this branch of poetry,
three volumes of termons, " which," says his biographer, Charles
SzAss, Protestant bishop of Budapest, "ate among the best in
Hungarian literature, and will favoarably compare with those of
Robertson, Monod or Parker." His collected poetical works were
published at Budapest in 1870, aad again in 1885.
TOM^KIIIS, DANIEL D. (1774-1825), American politidan,
was bom at Scandale, Westchester county. New York, on the
axst of June 1774. He graduated at Columbia College in 1795,
and was admitted to the bar ia 1797. In x8ox he was elected
to the state constitutional conventioo, in i8oj was a member
of ^he state anembly, and in 1804 Iras elected to the national
Hotise of Representatives, but became a judge of the state
supreme court, and served as such untH 1807. He was governor
of New York in 1807-1817; and in X817-1835, during both terms
of President James Monroe, was vice-president of the United
States. In March x8ja, under the authority of art. zviii. of
the New York constitution of X777, he prorogued the legislature
— ^the only instance of the exercise of this power. During the
War of x8i 2 he was active in equipping and arming the New York
militia. For this purpose he borrowed much money on his
personal security, and sometimes neglected to secure proper
vouchers. Later the state comptroller announced a shortage
of Si 20,000 in the military accounts, but Tompkins claimed that
the state owed him $130,000. Later investigations disclosed
that the sUte actually owed him more than $90,000. In x8at
be was president of the sUte constitutional convention. He
died on Staten Island, N.Y., on the xtth of June 1825.
The Military Papers ot Daniel D. Tompkins^ x8of-i8i7 (3 vols..
1 898-1902) were published by the state. See D. S. .\lexander,
Political History of New York, vol. L (New York, 1906).
TOHPftlMVIUJ; a fomer viDafle of Richmond county,
New York, U.S.A., since 1898 • Pftrt of the borough of Richmond,
New York Gty. It b on tbe N.E. shore of Suten Island in
New York Bay, about si m. S. by W. of the southern extremity
of Manhattan Island, and is a residential district of New York
City. TompkiasviHe was laid out in 18x4-1815 upon a tract
oi about 700 acres, most of which was owned by Daniel D.
1064
TOMSK— TOM-TOM
Tompkins. It was chartefed m a viUage in iSaj, but because
of legal flaws the charter was revoked soon after Tompkins's
death (in 1825), and thereafter the village was gradually absorbed
by New Brighton and Edgewater (both incorporated in 1866),
though the locality continued to be called TompkinsviUe.
TOMSK, a government of western Siberia, extending from
the Chinese frontier northwards to 6* N., and bounded by the
government of Tobolsk on the N.W., by Yeniseisk on the N.E.
and E., by north-western Mongolia on the S.E. and by the pro-
yinceo(SemipaUuinskontheS.andW. luarea, 327.284sq.m.,
IS more than one and a half times that of France. The surface
includes in the south-east the high alpine tracU of the Altai
Mountains, and in the north-west and west the lowlands of the
Irtysh and the marshy tracts of the Ob. The Altai Mountains
or Sailughem system, which at their northern extremity join
with the Sayan Mountains, run from north-east to south-
west along the Russo-Chinese frontier, and are deft by a deep
gorge through which flows the Yenisei (see Altai). A zone,
some 200 m. in width, of alpine tracts fringes the outer margin
of these mountains, which have a very steep slope towards the
north-west, although their south-eastern foot-hills rest on the
plateau of Kobdo (4500 to 5000 ft.). A chain having a north-
western direction^the Salair Mountains — shoots off from the
main range of the Altai, between the Tom and the Chumysh; it is
about 1 70 m. in length, with a width of nearly 60 m., and contains
the most productive silver-mines of the region, as also several
gold-washings. Its upheaval belongs to a more recent epoch
than that of the Sailughem range, and Oike the mountains of
TurkesUn, having a north-west direction) it is composed of
dioritic rocks. In the Kuznetsk depression it is overlain by
deposits of the Lower and Upper Carboniferous, containing
beds of coaL The Kucnetskiy Aia-tau, one of A. von Humboldt's
meridional upheavals, consists of a aeries of ridges running
south-west to north-east.
Tomsk is drained principally by the Ob and its tribuuries. but
the south-east comer drains mto the Abakan, a tributary of the
Yenisei. The Ob, fonnwd by the union of the Biya ana Katun,
has within the government a courw of more than 800 m., and is
navigated as far as Barnaul and Biysk. Its tributaries, the Tom
U$o m.), Vasyufnn (mo m.). Ket (230 m.) and Tym (200 m.), are
all navinble. The Qbulym and the Chumysh are also large nvers.
The Bukhtarma, Om, Uba and Tare, tributaries of the Irtysh, are
worthy of notice.
The climate is severe, and is, moreover, very wet in the north- west.
The averse yearly temperatures at Tomsk. Kainsk and Barnaul
are yo-2\ 31* and 32.7* (Jan., 4*. 6-2* and 3-7*: July, 6s-5*, 68-5*
and 62«a*) respectively. The Altai steppes enjoy a much drier
climate than the lowlands, and are clothed with beautiful vegetation ;
in the sheltered valleys com is grown up to altitudes of 3400 and
4350 ft.
The popiiUtkKi was estimated tn xqo6 as 9,413,700. The
bulk (90%) is Russian, the reminder being Ostyaks, Moid*
vintans, Tatars (mostly in the Altai), Teleuu and Tdcnguts
(Mongol tribes, chiefly in the Altai), and nomad SanooyedeSk
representing a mixture between the Samoyedes and the Ostyaks,
and dwellmg along the Ob river and iu tributaries. The pre-
vailing religion is Greek-Orthodox, but there are also some Non-
conformbts, Roman Catholics, Jews, Mahommedans and pagans.
Agriculture is the predominant occupation, and excellent
crops are obtained in the southern portion of the govemawnt,
especially in the Altai. Livestock breeding is very important,
and butter-making in model dairies, partly co-operative, has
developed greatly, butter being exported from Tomsk to western
Europe. Trade is actively carried on at Tomsk and Barnaul,
the chief centres for the t rade of Siberia wit h Russia. The Biysk
merchants carry on a barter trade with Mongolia and China.
The government is divided tnto six districts, the chief towns of
which are Tomsk. Barnaul, Biysk. Kainsk. Kuznetsk and Mariinsk.
(P. A. K..J.T. Bk.)
TOMSK, a town of Western Siberia, capital jf the goveniment
of the same name, on the Tom, 37 m. above iu confluence with
the Ob. Pop. (1900), 63,533. Tomsk is an episcopal see and
the laigest city of Siberia, exceeding even Irkutsk in population
and commercial importance. The great Siberian highway from
Tyumen to Irkutsk passes within 54 m. (by branch railway to
Taiga) of Tomsk, which is the terminus of the navigation by
steamer from the Urals to Siberia. 1 1 has, moreover, communica-
tion by steanter with Barnaul and Biysk in the Altai. The town
is not an administrative centre, like so many Russian cities, but
an entrep6t of wares. Before 1824 it was a mere village; but
after the discovery of gold in the district it grew rapidly. It is
built on two terraces on the right bank of the Tom, and is divided
into two parts by the Ushaika. The best building is the univer-
sity. The industries are almost entirely confined to tanning
and the manufacture of carriages. Tomsk has a university
(founded in 1888, with 600 students), and archacok^cal,
ethnological, zoological, botanical and mineralogical mtisetuns,
a technological institute, a cathedral (finished in 1900), public
libraries and scientific societies (naturalist, geographical, medical,
musical, &c.). The city was founded in x6^
TOM-TOH, or Tam-Tam, a native Indian and Asiatic word,
reduplicated and onomatopoeic in form, for a drum, hence
often loosely api^ed to the various t>'pes of primitive drum
used for purposes of religious excitement, war, signalling, &c.,
by savage tribes throughout ihe world. The term is applied
strictly to the metal gongs of the Far East, which are flat disks
with a shaUow rim.
■ND or TWBKTY-SIXTH VOLUMB
81 53 3 ^>b~V
»»oisT oo^ A ^^ 6008
vnmwo ««•.«. WRnmuv * aom coKrAsrr. aacMo, (
PAPU" KAMurAcnraa dv t. d. WA&ftni * cnurAMY, sa
j.r. TAvunr ooMTAit*, mkw wax, and m. a. dohmbusy «
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